ForThe Blind inc. rS - U American Foundation \ Troceedings of the Rational Education ^Association 1934 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES PROCEEDINGS OF THE SEVENTY-SECOND ANNUAL MEETING HELD IN WASHINGTON, DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, JUNE THIRTIETH TO JULY SIXTH, 19 3 4 VOLUME 7 2 WASHINGTON, D. C. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION L Is . * IV’ V< />/ ■■, <• I! OS A: t>. f] V, 2/ .Kli r-j j > iv4 vfiAficu /o,' . % SyS K% / ' -••'A. ^ ( ' » ,,'!ii!i.!'r ,y (y -4 (WS HIM mitvl" FOREWORD One day a man came upon a group of workmen busy at their tasks. He asked of the first , “What are you doing?” And the workman replied , “I am earning five dollars a day.” The inquiring one passed on until he came to another laborer, who was studying a blue print and to him he put the same question. This man answered, “I am trying to make this wall like the plan. Not yet satisfied, the stranger asked of still another, “What are you, doing?” And the reply came, “I am helping to build this great cathedral. This story, oft-repeated, was brought to mind by the growing mass of marble and steel which is taking form as the Supreme Court Building a magnificent unit of the imposing new government buildings in the nation s capital. The observer was left with the thought that working on this great structure there must be men who have caught the vision of what it will stand for in our national life, men who put more enthusiasm and zeal into their work because of that vision; and that when it is completed, the build¬ ing itself will be more wonderful because of such men. These volumes of Proceedings which year after year take their places in the libraries of educational leaders and institutions are invaluable ref¬ erence books. Does it occur to you that they are much more than that? They are records of the united effort of earnest and devoted men and women who are not just “earning five dollars a day,” not merely “follow¬ ing a plan,” but who are building a greater and more beautiful structure which is the educational heritage of the childhood of America. In the preparation of this seventy-second volume it has been necessary to shorten most of the papers because of the abundance of material. Every effort, however, has been made to preserve the most essential parts of each address. « C out cuts of previous volumes of Proceedings of the N ational Education Association may be found by consulting the Education Index. CONTENTS GENERAL SESSIONS Introduction . . * • * The Teacher, The School, and The National Life . —Hutchins • • 1 Greetings to Admiral Byrd . Gray .... 22 Message from Little America . — Byrd .... 24 Message . —Grosvenor . 25 Pathfinding . Pepper ... 26 Address of Welcome . . • Ballou ... 29 Work of the Joint Commission on the Emergency in Education for 193 5 . —Norton ... 30 Federal Aid to Education . Zook .... 37 Report of the Federal Advisory Committee on Emergency Aid in Education . Rule .... 43 America’s Real Brain Trust— With a Code for Peacemakers —Poling ... 47 The World for Which We Must Educate . —Frank ... 54 Organizing Within the State for Better Schools . Filer .... 65 Meeting the Emergency in 1935 . — Richmond . . 69 Economic Self-Help in the Educational Crisis . Lucas .... Academic Freedom — From the Viewpoint of the Superintend¬ ent . —Gosling ... 79 Academic Freedom — From the Viewpoint of the Classroom Teacher . Preble ... 84 Academic Freedom — From the Viewpoint of the College President . Beury ... 87 Visions and Voyages . Gray .... 91 Radio As a Means of Public Enlightenment . — Aylesworth . 99 Youth Challenges the Nation . Baker .... 102 What Education and Economic Heritage Shall We Hand to Our Children? . Sweet .... 108 National Congress of Parents and Teachers . Langworthy . Ill American Legion . Cook .... 113 Daughters of the American Revolution . — Magna ... 116 General Federation of Women’s Clubs . Poole .... 121 Safeguarding Education — State Organizations . — McCarthy . 122 National Organizations . Ross .... 126 The Principal’s Responsibility for Leadership and Interpre¬ tation . —Joynes ... 130 The Child Labor Movement and the New Deal ....... — Parsons . . . 133 The Classroom Teacher’s Responsibility for Leadership and Interpretation . * * * * Read .... 137 Balancing and Unifying Education— Rural Interpretation . . —daggers ... 141 Report for Board of Directors . JV hittenberg . 145 Libraries for Civilized Living . Milam . . . 147 Defending Education . . * * * Hayes .... 150 Announcement — Regarding Three Hundredth Anniversary Celebration of American High Schools . Van Slyck . 156 Announcement — Celebration of Mother’s Day . Jarvis ... 157 Democracy in Education . Benner . . . 158 Culture for Democracy . — Gerson . . . 162 Life Membership Dinner . 167 [5] 6 National Education Association REPORTS OF COMMITTEES Introduction . Report of American Library Association Committee on Cooper¬ ation with the National Education Association . — Liveright . . 171 Report of Committee on Civil Service for Teachers . — DuShane . . 172 Report of Committee on International Relations . — Woodward . 178 Report of Committee on Resolutions . . Dahl 181 Report of Committee on Retirement Allowances . . Force 189 Report of Committee on Rural Education . . Sutton 197 Report of Committee on Social-Economic Goals for America . — Kelly .... 198 Report of Committee To Cooperate with the National Associa¬ tion of Teachers in Colored Schools . — Newbold . . 200 Report of Dynamic Activity Committee . . Bentz .... 203 Report of Joint Commission on the Emergency in Education . . — Norton . . . 206 Report of Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education . — Wood . . . 209 Report of Joint Committee of the National Education Associa¬ tion and the National Congress of Parents and Teachers — Langworthy . 212 Report of Legislative Commission . — Hall .... 215 Report of National Commission on Enrichment of Adult Life . — Moyer . . . 219 Report of Special Committee on the Increase of Revenue . . . — Pearse . . . 226 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION Historical Note . The Place of the Junior College in American Education . . . _ Peik Sincerity in the Present Situation . —Morrison Report of Special Committee of the National Council To Spon¬ sor a Conference with Representatives of Publishers of Instructional Materials . —Edmonson The Present Status of the Science of Education . . Rugg Some Memories of the 1884 Meeting of the National Education Association in Madison, Wis . . Bradford Some Reminiscences of the Association Meeting of 1884 . . . — Pearse Outstanding Problems Involved in the Trend Toward Uni¬ versal Secondary Education in the United States .... — Wilson The Development of Democratic Character as Related to the New Deal. . —Yocum . Secretary’s Minutes . 230 231 232 234 235 237 241 250 252 255 DEPARTMENT OF ADMINISTRATIVE WOMEN IN EDUCATION Historical Note . 266 The Work of a Local Branch . . Clemency . 267 What Should the Administrative Women in Education Do for American Citizenship? . —Magna ... 269 Secretary’s Minutes . «71 DEPARTMENT OF ADULT EDUCATION Historical Note . Education for Adults in Civilian Conservation Corps . . Marsh Adult Education and the Social Scene . . Kotinsky Trends and Accomplishments in the Field of Immigration and Naturalization . —Hazard . . . Educational Opportunities for Applicants for American Citi¬ zenship . — Schibsby . . 274 275 275 276 280 Contents 7 Preparation for Leisure . — Cooper . . . The Task of Adult Education Today . Morgan . . . A Typical State Emergency Relief Program in Adult Edu¬ cation . — Deming . . . The Tennessee Valley Development . — Gillingham . Crime and a Revised National Policy in Education . —Copeland . . Problems of Federal Emergency Relief Administration . . . . — Alderman . . What New York City Has Done and Is Doing in Education for Leisure . Hornstein . . Education in the Civilian Conservation Corps . — Rogers . . . Secretary’s Minutes . DEPARTMENT OF ART EDUCATION Historical Note . Secretary’s Minutes DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION Historical Note . . The Place of Business Education in Improving Community Life — As Seen by a University Dean . The Place of Business Education in Improving Community Life — As Seen by a Director of Business Education . . . The Place of Business Education in Improving Community Life — As Seen by a College Teacher of Business .... The Place of Business Education in the Community — As Seen by a High-School Administrator . The Place of Business Education in Improving Community Life — As Seen by the Classroom Teacher . The Contribution of Shorthand and Typewriting to Com¬ munity Needs . The Contribution of Bookkeeping to Community Needs . . • . The Contribution of the Social-Business Subjects to Community Needs . Secretary’s Minutes . — Rogers . . — Edgeworth — Studebaker — Jason . . , — Ho tilt . . — Skene . . . — Eyster — Odell . . DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS Historical Note . . . . Teacher Welfare and Educational Reconstruction . Teacher Tenure . Teacher Rating . How Shall Teachers Foster a Wholesome Public Attitude toward Tenure? . Continuous Employment for Teachers . Educational Reconstruction and Organized Study . Teacher Tenure in Indiana . Around the Year with the President . Report of the Committee on Academic Freedom . Secretary’s Minutes . -Law . . -Mallory . -Smith . . -Frank -Smith . . -Guenther -Blanchard -Read . . -Guenther DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN Historical Note . . * How Can We Aid Girls at the College Level in Solving Emotional Problems? . The Challenge in Education . —Elliott . . . — Allen . . . . 283 285 286 286 288 290 291 293 294 298 299 302 303 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 311 314 315 318 320 321 323 325 327 329 337 339 346 347 352 National Education Association DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Historical Note . Audience Discrimination as a Means of Controlling the In¬ fluence of Motion Pictures . . Dale The Motion Picture as a Source of General Information . . . — Holaday Experimentation in the Teaching of Physics . — Hurd Some Concepts that Result from High-School Science Teach¬ ing and Implications from the Standpoint of Psychology . — Heiss The Relationship between the Ability To Recall and the Ability To Infer in Specific Learning Situations .... — Bedell Differential Functions of Examinations . . Johnson The Construction and Interpretation of Differential Ability Patterns . . —Segel . . . A Generalized Attitude Scaling Technic . . Remmers The Significance of Measurements of Control in Measuring Abilify . # . —Courtis . . A New Technic of Appraisal Covering the Content of Courses of Study . —Osburn . . Evaluation of the Integrated Curriculum . . Kemmerer The Educational Problem Presented by the Spanish-Speaking Child of the Southwest . . Manuel The Centile Status of Gifted Children at Maturity . — Hollingsworth Educational Needs of the Unemployed Adults . . Trabue The Pennsylvania Study of the Relations of Secondary and Higher Education . —McConn . Factors Which Contribute to Difficulty of Reading Material . — Gray Effects of Handedness on Reversals in Reading . — Woody Testing the Ability To Use the Index and Dictionary .... — Barthelmess The Influence of Motion Pictures on Children . — Charters The Use of the Radio in the Schools . . Tyler The Use and Abuse of Standardized Tests in the Classroom . — Morrison . Secretary’s Minutes . 362 363 363 364 365 366 366 367 369 370 373 375 376 377 377 378 378 379 380 382 384 385 386 DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Historical Note . Constructive and Preventive Aspects of Teacher Health . . . The Service Which Elementary Principals Should Render at This Time . What a Modern School Should Do for a Modern Child . . . Secretary’s Minutes DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN-PRIMARY Historical Note . Mental Hygiene Opportunities of Kindergarten-Primary 388 — Morgan . . . 389 — Chandler . . 390 — Thomas . . 391 — Bayne . . . 392 — Green . . . 392 — Reynolds . . 393 — Hansen . . . 394 — Stratton . . . 395 — Clement . . 396 — Heacock . . 396 — McCormick . 397 — Dickinson . . 397 402 EDUCATION 410 — Woodruff . . 411 — Richards . . 412 Contents 9 Trends in Kindergarten-Primary Education Today . — Hahn .... 415 Interpreting Kindergarten-Primary Education to the Public — Morgan . . . 416 Secretary’s Minutes . 418 Bylaws . 419 DEPARTMENT OF LIP READING Historical Note . 424 Greetings . — Hill .... 425 Greetings . — Norris . . . 425 The Volta Bureau, A Clearing-House . — Timberlake . 426 The Education of the Deaf and Hard of Hearing in the San Francisco Public Schools . — Gvoinn . . . 427 Training Teachers of Lip Reading . — Samuelson . 428 Speech and the Hard-of-Hearing Child . — Atherton . . 430 Secretary’s Minutes . 432 DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION Historical Note . 436 A State Festival of High-School Music . — Bailey . . . 437 A Statewide Program of Music . — 'W oods . . . 438 DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION Historical Note . 442 Awareness of the Problem of Rural Education on the Part of Urban Education . — Oberholtzer . 443 Awareness of the Problem of Rural Education on the Part of Rural Education . — Brim .... 444 Awareness of the Problem of Rural Education on the Part of the Public . — Plenzke . . . 445 The Smaller Secondary School in the National Survey of Secondary Education . — Koos .... 445 Major Purposes To Be Served by the Rural High School . . — Towns . . . 447 Spokesmen Needed for Smaller Schools . — Hunkins . . 448 Presentation of 1934 Yearbook, Economical Enrichment of the Small Secondary-School Curriculum . — Cyr . 449 Leadership of County Superintendent in Improving Instruc¬ tion . — Cram .... 450 Some Needs and Problems of the Rural Schools . — Ihlenfeldt . . 450 The Rural School Problem . — Whitmer . . 452 Rural Education on the Road to Recovery — Advances Made thru Reorganizing and Redirecting County and Local School Programs . — Samuelson . . 453 Rural Education on the Road to Recovery — Advances Made thru Interpreting the Schools to the People . — Cyr . 454 Art for Rural Children in the Newer School . — Haver . . . 456 Providing a More Adequate Social and Recreational Life for the Rural Child . — Thomas . . . 457 An Attainable Library Program for Rural Areas . — Tolman . . . 457 The Radio as an Agency for Enriching Rural Life . — Hale .... 458 Secretary’s Minutes . 459 DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION Historical Note . 462 Meeting Community Needs thru Health and Physical Educa¬ tion in the High School . — Moorhead . . 463 10 National Education Association Administrative Problems in the Integration of Physical Edu¬ cation with the General School Program . — Stoddard . . 464 Public School Opportunities in the Field of Mental Hygiene . — Rennie . . . 465 The Elementary-School Program of Health and Physical Edu¬ cation . — Stoneroad . . 466 The New Leisure Challenges the Schools . — Lies .... 467 DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION Historical Note . 470 Science and Opinion . — Gosling ... 471 The High School and the Community . — Caldwell . . 472 An Analysis of the Types of Scientific Method Used by the Layman in Typical Out-of-School Situations . — IV at kins .. . 473 Science as the Student Sees It . — Brechbill . . 474 Nature Club Activities in East Mauch Chunk . — Blanch . . . 474 Trained Teachers for Nature Gardens . — Meier . . . 475 The Excellent Teacher . — Pearson . . . 476 The United States Coast and Geodetic Survey — Its Work and Problems . — » Strong ... 476 Nature Study in Everyday Life . — Young . . . 478 Secretary’s Minutes . 478 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Historical Note . 482 Carrying Education to the Community . — Hale .... 483 The High School and the Cultural Life of the Community . . — Lewis .... 484 Meeting Community Needs thru the Teaching of English in Secondary Schools . — Law .... 485 Meeting Community Needs thru the Study of Latin in the High Schools . —Carr .... 485 Meeting Community Needs thru the Teaching of Mathematics in High Schools . — Schlauch . . 487 Curriculum Changes Demanded by the Industrial Crisis . . . — Seyhold . . . 488 Why the Public Should Support Its High Schools . — Morgan . . . 489 How We May Support Our High Schools . — Lawler . . . 490 Secretary’s Minutes . 491 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Historical Note . 494 The Place of the Technical High School in Modern Education — Morgan . . . 495 What Constitutes a Good Secondary School and by What Standards Should It Be Evaluated? . — Judd .... 497 What Constitutes a Good Secondary School and by What Standards Should It Be Evaluated? . — Briggs . . . 500 What Constitutes a Good Secondary School and by What Standards Should It Be Evaluated? . — Bacon . . . 502 What Constitutes a Good Secondary School and by What Standards Should It Be Evaluated? . — Bissell . . . 504 What Constitutes a Good Secondary School and by What Standards Should It Be Evaluated? . — Law .... 505 What Constitutes a Good Secondary School and by What Standards Should It Be Evaluated? . — Carrothers . 506 What Constitutes a Good Secondary School and by What Standards Should It Be Evaluated? . — Hill .... 507 Contents 11 Textbooks and Lesson Outlines in Technical High Schools . . - Discussion Groups and Research Section . The Functions of Secondary Schools in the Peace of the World - Proposed National Study of Secondary-School Standards by Regional Standardizing Agencies . How the Guidance Program in Secondary Schools May Func¬ tion in the New Democracy . “ DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL STUDIES -Comfort ■fV at kins -Roemer -Granger Historical Note . * Implications of the Report of the Commission on the Social Studies of the American Historical Association ..... Implications of the Report of the Commission .on the Social Studies of the American Historical Association . Learning Exercises for Pupils in the Social Studies . Using Maps in the Teaching of the Social Studies . Stimulating and Guiding Classroom Discussion . Historical Entertainments and Museums for Schools and Com¬ munities . —Hughes . . — Gell . . • — Hodgkins . — Marchant . — Kidger . . — Mosher . . DEPARTMENT OF SPECIAL EDUCATION Historical Note . The Emotional Life of the Child . • •_ . The Physical Care of the Handicapped Child in the Public School . . . ■ What Should Be the Aims, Functions, and Range of a Satis¬ factory Program of Special Education for Atypical Children? . Treatment of Speech Disorders . Psychological Research in a School for the Deaf ....•• The Status of the Hard-of-Hearing Child in Special Education The Place of the Blind and the Partially-Seeing Child in the Public School System . Educating the Crippled Child . Education of Gifted Children A Challenge . The Education of the Mentally Retarded . DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE Historical Note . Welcome to Cleveland . Democracy and Religion . The New Leisure Challenges the Schools . The Contribution of the Public Schools . Public Education and National Welfare . The 1934 Yearbook on Critical Problems in School Adminis¬ tration . . . Greetings to the Convention . Educating Children for the New Deal . Planned Teacher Production • • . . Interpreting the Schools to the Public . Education at the Crossroads . Federal Aid— Boon or Bane? . Education in this New Age . . Education and the Prevention of Crime . 508 509 509 511 512 514 515 515 516 517 518 518 522 — Blanton . . . 523 —Smith .... •523 — Young . . . 524 — Diethelm . . 525 — Heider . . . 526 — Scally .... 529 — Little .... — Latshavu . . 531, 532 — Danielson . . 533 — Anderson . . 534 ICE 536 — Lake .... 537 — Bryan . . . 538 — Finley . . . 542 — Campbell . . 546 — Zook .... 551 — Graham . . 555 — Merriam . . 557 — Silver .... 558 — Moehlman 563 — Sidener . . . 569 — Smith . . . . 573 — Russell . . . 577 — Filene . . . 586 — Copeland . . 595 12 National Education Association Reports of General Subject Committees: !• The Administration of Teacher Training . . . . II. A Comprehensive Program of Public Education . VI. — Hartwell . . 603 — Pick ell . . . 607 — Cheney . . . 612 — Edmonson . . 616 — Roberts . . . 621 — Kadesch . . 626 — Ballou . . . 635 — Givens . . . 647 — Butler . . . 655 — Norton . . . 661 — Jensen . . . 667 DEPARTMENT OF SUPERVISORS AND DIRECTORS OF INSTRUCTION Historical Note . 674 The Scientific Method and Creative Supervision . — Goodykoontz 675 The Use of Objective Measures in Evaluating Instruction . . — Brownell . . 677 Presentation of the Seventh Yearbook: Scientific Method in Supervision . — Rankin ... 678 Evaluation and Appraisal of the Yearbook . —Woody . . . 679 Prospectus of Eighth Yearbook — Materials of Instruction . . — Dunn .... 682 The Type of Instruction Demanded by the Present Educa¬ tional and Social Crisis . — Butterfield . 683 Self-Supervision by Teachers, a Practical Way Out . — Melchior . . 684 Wise and Unwise Economies in a Program of Supervision . . — Oberholtzer . 686 Supervision and the Democratic Way of Living . — McClure . . 687 Evaluating Classroom Work . — Helseth . . . 689 Secretary’s Minutes . 690 DEPARTMENT OF SUPERVISORS AND TEACHERS OF HOME ECONOMICS Historical Note . 694 The Consumer in the New Citizenship . — IV are .... 695 Occupational Adjustment in the New Citizenship . — Hoppock . . 696 Education for the New Citizenship . — Withers . . . 697 Women in the Citizenships of Yesterday, Today, and To¬ morrow . — Beard .... 697 Secretary’s Minutes . 703 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHERS COLLEGES Historical Note . 706 Realism, Purposing, and Integration . — Prescott . . . 707 Training Teachers To Use Mental Hygiene . — W ashhurn . . 713 What Contributions Has Mental Hygiene To Make to the Training of a Teacher? . — Watson . . . 718 Some Forgotten Qualities of Teachers . — Dearborn . . 723 Personality Adjustment of the School Teacher . — Zachry . . . 730 Training in Desirable Personal and Social Traits in Prospec¬ tive Teachers . — Selke .... 736 Discussion . . — Baldwin . . 742 Education for a Changing Social Order . — Dewey . . . 744 The Education of Teachers for a Changing Social Order . . — Zook .... 752 The Education of Teachers in Teachers Colleges and in Uni¬ versities and Liberal Arts Colleges: A Comparative Study . — Peik .... 758 List of Accredited Institutions, 1934-35 . 771 Contents 13 DEPARTMENT OF VISUAL INSTRUCTION Historical Note . 778 Class Demonstration — Fifth-Year Geography . — Courtney . . 779 Demonstration of Technics for Making Lantern Slides in Color . — Price .... 779 Standards and Technics for Making Posters and Booklets . . — Emmert . . . 780 The Relation of Motion Pictures to Standards of Morality . . — Wray .... 784 The Old Order Changeth . — Hollinger . . 784 The Relation of Films and the Radio to Classroom Instruction — Koon .... 785 School Films, Their Sources and Evaluation . — Hochheimer . 786 A Comparative Study of Sound Motion Pictures and Oral Classroom Instruction . — Diller .... 787 DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Historical Note . . . 790 Modern Trends in Vocational Education . — Briggs . . . 791 A Program of Industrial Education To Meet the Needs of the Different Groups of Pupils . — Bauder . . . 791 Problems of the American Vocational Association in Meeting the Present Emergency in Vocational Education .... — Fife .... 793 The Emergency in Education and the Future of Vocational and Practical Arts Education . — Lee . 794 Vocational Education for Leisure . — Keller . . . 797 WORLD FEDERATION OF EDUCATION ASSOCIATIONS Historical Note . 800 ASSOCIATION AL RECORDS AND INFORMATION Act of Incorporation . 803 Bylaws . 808 Calendar of Meetings . 819 Officers— 1933-34 821 Headquarters Staff . 823 Officers — 1934-35 827 Committees of the National Education Association — 1 9 3 3 - _ -i- . 834 Minutes of the Fourteenth Representative Assembly . 849 Minutes of the Meetings of the Board of Directors . 881 Minutes of the Meetings of the Executive Committee . . 909 Minutes of the Meetings of the Board of Trustees . 919 Report of the Board of Trustees . 932 Report of Auditors . 934 Report of Treasurer . 947 Report of Budget Committee . 950 Annual Report of the Secretary . 959 Report of the Committee on Necrology . 964 The Fourteenth Representative Assembly . 972 Index . 998 The Division of Publications of the National Educa¬ tion Association aims to set the highest standards in all its work and is proud of the fine spirit of the men and women who are responsible for its varied projects. The editing, proofreading, and makeup of this volume have been done in the printing unit by F. Erie Prior, Hazel Arrington Brown, Mildred Bunch, Louise Murray, and Rebye Arnold. Joy Elmer Morgan, Director Division of Publications General Sessions INTRODUCTION The seventy-second annual convention of the National Education Association, held in the nation's capital June 30-July 6, came at a critical time in the history of the nation and of education. “ Educating for Tomorrow" was the theme of the forward looking pro¬ gram arranged by President Jessie Gray. Topics of paramount importance to the profession were discussed. These included federal emergency aid, academic freedom, safeguarding education thru lay and professional or¬ ganizations, and the promotion of the economic welfare of teachers. This meeting gave opportunity for many teachers to renew their ac¬ quaintance with their capital city and their professional home. To others it was a wholly new experience — their first visit to the headquarters of the National Education Association and the many interesting sights of Washington. The creation of the Department of Music Education, authorized by the Representative Assembly, brings the total number of departments to twenty-four. These departments assemble at either the winter meeting of the Department of Superintendence or the summer meeting of the Association or both. A number of allied groups also hold their meetings in connection with the convention of the National Education Association. [16] THE TEACHER, THE SCHOOL, AND THE NATIONAL LIFE ROBERT M. HUTCHINS, PRESIDENT, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL. Iwish to look beyond the current phase of the depression to the eco¬ nomic, political, and social situation in which education will be carried on when the crisis is past or when we have grown accustomed to it. That situation will affect the organization and course of study of the schools and the preparation of those who are to teach in them. It will alter the relationship of the teacher, the school, and the national life. No man was ever more insistent on the value of public education than Thomas Jefferson. No president ever did as much for it. No statesman ever set forth more clearly the indispensable connection between education and democracy. Yet he expressly limited free education for all to three years of schooling. He said, “at the discharging of the pupils from the elementary schools (at the age of nine or ten) the two classes separate — those destined for labor will engage in the business of agriculture or enter into apprentice¬ ship to such handicraft art as may be their choice ; their companions, destined to the pursuits of science, will proceed to the college. . . .” Why did Jefferson send those destined to labor into it after three years in school? I suppose it was because there was labor to be done. Since Jeffer¬ son’s time we have entered upon an economy of plenty in which the diminish¬ ing amount of labor in proportion to the population has not only permitted but required us to raise the legal age for going into industry. The advance of technology and the filling up of the country even without the depression would have brought us to our present position sooner or later. The depression has simply hastened the process and made us realize more quickly what we are in for. One of the things we are in for is the removal of the adolescent population from the labor market. By codes, by the atti¬ tude of employers and employees, and eventually I hope by the Child Labor Amendment, that population will be prevented from getting work. This palliative of our economic ills is so obvious that it is certain to be applied. Now the adolescent population cannot be transported to penal colonies, however gratifying that might be from many points of view. Therefore it will have to be placed in educational institutions until its members can become self-sustaining. It will be one of the duties of those institutions to make them self-sustain¬ ing. Insofar as industry still requires training of its employees, it has thrown the obligation to train them upon the schools. Pupils will have to remain in public schools until the age of eighteen or even twenty. When they go out they must be able to earn a living. They will have to be taught to do so in school. The organization and content of education must be altered to take account of this fact. [17] 18 National Education Association The removal of the adolescent population from the labor market will also force us to abandon the last traces of the principle of selection. In the past if pupils did not do well they could sooner or later be dispensed with. They were absorbed by industry. Now they cannot be dispensed with. However unwilling or unable to learn they are, the school must continue to wrestle with them. There is nowhere else for them to go. We shall not be able to discriminate among them at entrance. We shall not be able to rid ourselves of them until industry is willing to take them. For the principle of selection which we have invoked — insofar as politics would permit in the past — we must substitute the principle of differentia¬ tion. Admitting that we shall have to deal with the great bulk of the popu¬ lation up to eighteen or twenty, we shall have to have alternative institutions and alternative programs to which different students may resort in accord¬ ance with their different abilities. Instead of demanding that pupils adjust themselves to us, we shall have to adjust our institutions to them. In the past when a pupil has failed we have commonly indulged in slurs on his intelligence and character. In the future this pleasure will be denied us. We shall have to find the course of study in which the pupil can succeed. Even if it is not true that no one is ineducable we shall have to act as tho it were. Here again we are led irresistibly to a change in the organization and content of education. The principal weakness of the high-school curriculum is the vestiges of collegiate domination which it still contains. The principal weakness of the junior college is that it gives little attention to the countless thousands who will not profit by collegiate work. Until we have in the junior college and the last years of high school something corresponding to the technical institutes found in every European country we cannot claim to have got very far in adjusting our institutions to the needs and capacities of our pupils. I do not expect to see the principle of selection entirely disappear from the educational scene. It will, I believe, be applied in all its Jeffersonian rigor at the beginning of the university, which I should place at the opening of the junior year. No student is entitled to proceed at public expense beyond this point unless he can demonstrate that he has the interest and ability which scholarly and professional work requires. He is not entitled as a matter of right to residence in the academic shades merely because he does not wish to labor in more sordid surroundings or because his parents wish to avoid the responsibility or the monotony of having him at home. The state must foster the state university because of the necessity of fostering scholarships, of elevating the professions, and of cultivating the minds of those who have minds to cultivate. It has no obligation to maintain a university as a picnic ground for the children of citizens who, merely because of this ancestry, now claim the right to disport themselves on the campuses of the nation and to receive the bachelor’s degree for doing so. Since we shall have a stationary population by 1960, since it is inevitable that the superannuated as well as the adolescent will be withdrawn from General Sessions 19 the labor market, and since it is clear that the working day and the working week will get shorter and shorter, I have few qualms about insisting that entrance to the university, by which I mean the junior year, should be limited to those who have scholarly, professional, or intellectual interests. 1 expect to see the vast majority of our youth complete the sophomore year at home in a junior college or technical institute. I hope we may be able at that point to send into gainful occupations all but those who have the interests I have mentioned and the ability to develop them. The removal of the adolescent population from the labor market should lead us to the organization of a system of education which I have earlier elaborated before this Association. We should have a six-year primary school, a three- or four-year secondary school, and a three- or four-year college and technical institute. The college and technical institute may in some places be combined. In other places it may be convenient to operate them separately. In any event most of the youth of the country will go thru one or the other of them. And I hope that they may receive the bachelor’s degree for doing so. I do not go so far as President Jessup of the Carnegie Foundation, who has advocated conferring that degree on every American citizen at birth. I do believe that it should represent the completion of general or sub-pro¬ fessional technical education. A three-year curriculum to the master’s degree might then be offered by the universities and the institutions which we now call colleges to those who wish to engage in non-professional specialization in arts, literature, and science. These changes in the organization and content of education, then, will result from the current economic and social situation as it affects the youth of the country. They flow largely from the incapacity of industry to absorb young people. Changes just as significant will follow from the inability of industry to absorb anything like the full time of adults. People may for a time spend their new and perhaps unwelcome leisure in sleep, at the movies, or in driving back and forth on the crowded highways, catching glimpses of the countryside between the billboards. It is inconceivable, however, that these forms of entertainment will long satisfy our population. They will demand and are demanding some kind of occupation which will assist them to a more varied, stimulating, and important brand of activity. They will demand education. And they will demand it of us. The exclusive preoccupation of the American educational system with the juvenile population is a little ridiculous, and has been beneficial neither to the system nor the country. The mayor of a great city said the other day that all anybody needed was a grade-school education— that was all he had had. Without debating the merits of an abbreviated education as revealed in the life and works of this politician, I beg to point out that his consistent opposition to education may perhaps be explained by the fact that he thinks of it as something he endured in childhood, like the mumps, measles, chicken pox, or whooping cough. Having had it once, he need not and indeed cannot have it again. Our exclusive preoccupation with the juvenile population has divorced us from the sustained interest and support of adults. 20 National Education Association Adults have not profited by this arrangement any more than we have. The indifference of professional educators to adult education has robbed it of the experience and knowledge which they might have contributed. The institutions devoted to it are wholly inadequate. The numerous local colleges and technical institutes which I hope may arise should go far toward remedying this defect. They should be centers of adult education. These institutions will find, I think, that there has been a change in the kind of education which interests adults. If current experience gives us any inkling of the future, we can be reasonably confident that what they will insist on is not vocational instruction — how to be a better bookkeeper, for example — but what we call general cultural education, education which fills in the gaps left by formal schooling, or develops artistic and literary leanings which were submerged by formal schooling and the necessity of earning a living. Indeed there are dangers as well as advantages in arousing professional educators about adult education. We are used to thinking about institutions and curriculums. But adult education is in an experi¬ mental stage. It offers us many new devices, like the radio and the motion picture, with which we are relatively unfamiliar. It is an area, too, in which informal, spontaneous activities, activities which we may think of as extracurriculum and may frown upon as such may be more rewarding than highly organized, “school-ized” instruction. In dealing with adult educa¬ tion we must regard the school not as a place where classes are taught but as the center of community life, reflecting the community’s interests in music, art, the drama, and current affairs as well as in what we have been ac¬ customed to think of as education. Any program which attempts to deal adequately with the educational problems of the adult and adolescent population will be enormously ex¬ pansive. A declining birth rate may for a time relieve the elementary schools. Rigorous selection at the beginning of the junior year may temporarily reduce the number of university students. When we have come at last to see that in the junior college, for example, instruction can be easily trans¬ mitted to and digested by classes of 500 or even more, we shall be able to assist the harassed taxpayer a little. But his educational burdens are bound to increase because of the absolute necessity of expanding and diversifying educational opportunity to meet the needs of the present day. The condition of our most important municipalities gives us little hope that they will be able to advance any such program. A citizen of Chicago may say positively and with feeling that the municipalities have failed to maintain the school system we have, to say nothing of looking ahead to the kind we ought to have. In this situation we can only follow the example of banks, railroads, insurance companies, farmers, the oil business, and industry generally and look to the federal government for aid. I have no doubt that like these financiers, business men, and industrialists after receiving federal aid we shall complain bitterly about it, say we did not need it, and assail the administration for taking the most rudimentary precautions to see that its money is well spent. We shall want federal funds distributed on a per capita basis, so that no power to improve education can possibly be given General Sessions 21 to the federal authorities. And we shall do our best to raise the spectre of federal control and keep it walking. Of course it is nothing but a spectre, and a rather pale and anemic one at that. What we want for our country is the best possible educational system. We must have federal assistance to secure it. We know that a per capita distribution of that assistance without regard to need and without regard to merit will not give us the system we desire. On the contrary, it will bring down upon our heads the wrath of the taxpayer, who will see his money go, not to improve our educational institutions, but to perpetuate their defects. It is by another route that we must defend ourselves against bureaucracy. When we observe a reaction like that we experienced in Chi¬ cago last summer, in which in defiance or ignorance of professional opinion a small group of office-holders undertook to throw the school system back twenty years, we must feel that only thru organizing professional opinion can similar destructive operations be prevented in the future. When states pass laws forbidding certain types of teaching they should bear the weight of organized, expert judgment. The qualifications and practises of teachers, the organization, presentation, and content of courses of study are not the proper subjects of decision by the generality of mankind. Until it can be made clear that education is a profession, that the profession has standards, ideals, and traditions which it is prepared to enforce, education will at intervals be at the mercy of politicians, large taxpayers, and cranks. The only protection against government, visible or invisible, is in the professional tradition. It is fallacious to assume that government cannot at any time dictate the policies and personnel of education. It can. It has the power. A tremendous outcry from the citizens did not prevent the colossal damage that was done to the schools of Chicago. The history of educational institutions from the monasteries to the German universities shows that it is not the issue of private or public funds, private or public control that determines their independence. It is the strength of the professional tradition. Where that tradition is strongest, namely in England, the parliamentary grants that the private universities have received do not lead anyone to expect that because of them the government will attempt to regulate the policies of Oxford and Cambridge. The professional tradition must be strong. That depends on us. It must be effective. That depends on our success in convincing the community of its existence and its importance. That in turn depends on our understanding and explaining what we are trying to do. I take it that as far as the public schools thru the junior college are concerned they are trying to help their pupils to be self-sustaining and to be good citizens. The pupil must be taught to earn a living in the society that exists, not in one that ought to exist sometime. He must be made a good citizen of this commonwealth, not of another, no matter how much better that other may be. In this sense and at these levels the political and economic situation determines the content of education ; education does not determine the political and economic situa¬ tion. In this sense the society we get will not depend on the schools we have; the schools we get will depend on the society we have. 22 National Education Association Does this mean that the teacher and the school can do nothing to improve the national life? The answer is unequivocally “no.” The good citizen is not necessarily the one who always votes for the party in power. The good citizen has some understanding of the society in which he lives and, as Jeffer¬ son put it, carries his knowledge with him to the polls. The first duty of the school, therefore, is to see to it that the pupil understands the society in which he lives. We all know that we are doing a miserable job in this con¬ nection at the present time. We have not even the materials thru which a comprehension of the development and current state of our society may be communicated to the young. In the second place, the object of adult educa¬ tion will not be primarily to enable the student to earn a living or to adjust him to the political environment. Free from these obligations, the teacher and the school may devote themselves at the adult level to developing the intellectual powers of the student. We must remember that it is thru the intellectual virtues that the statesman orders means to ends and achieves the common good. The free and independent exercise of the intelligence is the means by which society may be improved. Training in that exercise is the peculiar province of the senior college, the university, and of adult education. This free and independent exercise of the intelligence is of the essence of the professional tradition, and it is now in dreadful danger thruout the world. In our country we are committed to the principle that the gains of civilization shall be mass gains, diffused thruout the population. It is incon¬ ceivable that the United States will ever depart from this ideal. The methods of achieving it must be determined by trained intelligence and submitted to an informed and understanding people. Without propaganda, without ad¬ herence to one ism or another, the teacher may develop thru the school that universal comprehension and that individual leadership which the national life requires. GREETINGS TO ADMIRAL BYRD JESSIE GRAY, PRESIDENT, NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION; AND TEACHER, PHILADELPHIA NORMAL SCHOOL, PHILADELPHIA, PA. Greetings, Admiral Byrd. The president of the National Education Association speaks with the voice of 30,000,000 students and their million teachers, who have held the frontiers of education with quite as fine devotion as you and your men have held in Little America. To cut one’s self adrift, as you have done, to renounce all comforts, to forego necessities that we humans have learned to depend on for creature welfare, to return to sheer elemental battling to subdue environment, to span in your individual life the whole gamut of man’s rise from the most primitive living conditions is a test of endurance wholly incomprehensible without a supreme motive. Education and training have developed in you and your men, and even your blessed dogs, a willingness to face all hazards that the spirit of conquest may bring forth results worthy of your heroic endeavor. To seek and to General Sessions 23 win that which never would have existed but for your daring is indeed a challenge. It is the far flung human ladder down which many a blessing to humanity has descended. To come back and readjust, and to put your discoveries to their destined use* will be a part of this great victory that has resulted from generations of disciplined training which is education. I am glad you said, in answer to the question as to why you went to the South Pole, that every great achieve¬ ment and invention, however sudden its realization has seemed, has required generations of plodding, abstract inquiry into the unknown, and that you personally could not ignore that challenge. To that challenge, we know you will give us a worthy answer. Education and generations of plodding faithfulness have produced for our nation the man who has flown across both poles and men who have been able to record the venture in various ways. We shall soon look at the pictures made by Willard Van de Veer who is here with us. Our genial mutual friend, Gilbert Grosvenor, is here too. Education seeks to develop men, who, like you and your splendid staff, will respond ably to the challenge of the unknown, and wrest from it the answers to questions that are baffling scientists, philosophers, educators, financiers, and economists. To discover the cure for cancer will be such an answer from the unknown in the physical realm. To seek the prevention of crime will be another such answer to bless us in the body politic. The development of spiritual quali¬ ties to mold character will be another answer to bless us and keep a world safe and mutually helpful as we face, undaunted, the dawn of a new era. Each generation pioneers, gains its quota of discovery, and holds it as an eternal spiritual blessing. Two weeks ago at Valley Forge, where we were celebrating Flag Day, we recalled dramatic moments in the life of our starry flag. Your own intrepid flights over the North Pole in 1926 and the South Pole in 1929 added two brilliant episodes to that thrilling drama. Between those two victories lay a world of challenge, of opportunity; or of danger and defeat! Your victory testified to physical stamina, unerring judgment, as well as spiritual momentum and control. These virtues always set their own chal¬ lenge, and develop the dynamics necessary for complete victory. The world must be busier than ever to make men keen for the prowess of the coming generation. We must have intrepid defenders of education to help it to carry on, so that thru future generations of patient endeavor other families in this nation may develop the skills, the vision, the devotion that compel us to wrestle with the unknown, and never let it go, till it blesses us. Jacob, wrestling with his angels, is still a chapter of life in the making for each of us. Admiral Byrd, could you have succeeded without an educated staff? Can we succeed without an educated crew to man the Greater America of the new era? It was to answer this question, I feel sure, that, on your out¬ bound voyage to Little America, you radioed back this message, “Save our 24 National Education Association school system at all cost. No sacrifice is too great to prevent the collapse of the public school system.” You also said, “Honor and respect to those patriotic school teachers who are serving without pay.” We thank you for that encouragement. We are still holding the frontier of education in the defense of Greater America. A word of honor and respect to you and your fine staff in return, from us teachers. Because of your trust, we will continue to hold our world of education true to its responsibility and also seek a victory to bless this nation. The devotion of our teachers has reminded me of the training, dedication, and cooperation of your group. Our difficulties have been somewhat similar. There has been a Polar Plateau of icy indifference that has been difficult to overcome. There has been much rough sledding along our course as you no doubt have heard. Amidst howling winds of criticism and frozen assets, the teachers have held the course of education true to its goal. From our seventy-second annual convention of the National Education Association, we teachers with our honored guests, Robert M. Hutchins, Gilbert Grosvenor, our past presidents, and the Executive Board of the Na¬ tional Geographic Society, as well as the Board of Directors of the National Education Association, send you a greeting warm enough to melt the great barrier and to bring to Little America the delight of one of June s rarest days. We can’t say as Lowell Thomas does, “So long until tomorrow,” for that would be six months hence, but we do say to you, Best wishes for a safe return with all that you went to get.” MESSAGE FROM LITTLE AMERICA ADMIRAL RICHARD E. BYRD It gives me pleasure to greet the teachers of America. My best wishes and confident hopes are yours in the difficulties which you face. The read¬ justments which our nation is making are largely in those fields in which schools and education play a most significant part. Neither our nation nor the world lacks material resources. It is knowledge of how to use these resources wisely which is our greatest need. No plan for permanent recovery can omit provision for adequate schools. I congratulate the National Educa¬ tion Association upon the contribution to recovery which it is making in its efforts to maintain the schools thruout the crisis. It is a matter of gratification to me that the federal government has recognized the fundamental importance of our schools by extending financial help to them in the present emergency. As drought besets our people in wide areas of the West, the need for federal financial aid to schools becomes more apparent. No sacrifice is too great in order to keep our schools open. I am glad to include in my greetings also the millions of children whom the nation’s teachers have so patiently served during the crisis which we hope is now passing. I recall with appreciation the thousands of letters and other tokens of affection presented to me at the meeting of the Department of Superinten- General Sessions 25 dence of the National Education Association immediately following my return to the states after my previous trip to Little America. My heartiest best wishes to you also and may your dreams of adventure in service to humanity come true. MESSAGE GILBERT GROSVENOR, PRESIDENT, NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, WASHINGTON, D. C. Admiral Byrd, Dr. Poulter, and members of the Byrd Antarctic Ex¬ pedition : President Gray has most eloquently expressed to you our admiration for what you have already achieved, and our best wishes for the continued health and success of each one of your party during the long months ahead of sacrifice and toil for science. You will be interested to know that this dis¬ tinguished teacher is well acquainted with the thrill that comes from ex¬ ploration. By climbing five of the highest snow peaks of the Rockies, she has won membership in the Rocky Mountain Alpine Club. She has visited many interesting places in foreign lands. To meet promptly the many prob¬ lems constantly confronting her as head of the National Education Asso¬ ciation in all parts of the United States, she is accustomed to travel by air; Philadelphia to Los Angeles, San Francisco to New York, Chicago to St. Paul, St. Paul to Washington were air journeys on her schedule during the past two months. Since Plymouth and Jamestown and St. Mary’s, every American settle¬ ment has given earnest thought to the education of its children. Amid all changes and many problems, the nation’s educators, now gathered in Wash¬ ington, insist that its schools must be maintained ; that all its children must be taught. It is fitting that the schools of America should pay tribute to you, Admiral Byrd, our greatest living American explorer. It was the explorers — Columbus, Raleigh, and the Cabots — who found our new land. It was the company of overland explorers — Clarke, LaSalle, and many others — who blazed the way for the pioneers. These men opened new territory and new wealth; moreover, they symbolized those qualities of initiative, courage, sacrifice, and heroism which are immortal examples for youth. You, Admiral Byrd, today are adding a new continent to world knowl¬ edge, and you also are writing another inspiring chapter to this record of courage, fidelity, and triumph over vast obstacles. The National Geographic Society’s million members are proud that in your earliest Arctic flying, in your crossing of the Atlantic, in your aerial conquest of both Poles, and in your present project their funds and their support have aided you. The National Education Association has previously honored you for your achievements as an explorer and a scientist ; tonight it pays tribute to you because your work and your character inevitably make you a great teacher of American youth. 26 National Education Association PATHFINDING HONORABLE GEORGE WHARTON PEPPER, PHILADELPHIA, PA. “That thou mayest walk in the way of good men, and keep the paths of the righteous.” Proverbs II :20 In the chapter read a few minutes ago from the Book of Proverbs there are several references to the importance of paths in life. For this reason I have chosen “Pathfinding” as my theme. The word has pleasant connotations, especially as the vacation season approaches. I hope that all of you, at some time in life, have heard the call of the wild and that in some degree you have had, or will have, the oppor¬ tunity to answer it. If you go into the woods or among the mountains, finding and keeping the path becomes an object of intense practical interest. Find it and keep it and you will avoid swamps in the woods and impassable precipices among the mountains. Keep the path and you will find a camp¬ site, with wood to burn and water to drink. Miss the path and you may have one of the most terrifying experiences of life. It is indeed impossible to make one who has never been lost in the wilderness understand how the mists of bewilderment and helplessness and the clouds of apprehension and fear envelop and chill the lonely soul. If one were to apply the Proverbs to American history and were to think of the pathfinders of the past, great guides would at once rise up in memory. Among others there was Washington, who could avoid the swamps of permanent alliance and find the firm ground of national self-consciousness as a permanent camp for his fellow countrymen. There was Lincoln, who knew the dangers of encouraging self-pity and of emphasizing section and class. There was a guide who struck out for national unity with all the confidence and authority of the experienced backwoodsman. I suppose that teachers, as much as any people in the world, are concerned with paths and pathfinding. There may indeed be differences of opinion whether it is the function of the teacher to suggest or insist upon specified paths for the young. But whether the boy or girl is to be left to do his own pathfinding or whether the teacher is to serve as a guide, sooner or later the youth must make or take some path or else waste life in aimless wandering. In this connection I cannot help remarking that if wilderness analogies hold good in the intellectual and spiritual life it is a highly dangerous thing to encourage experimental pathfinding by youthful, tender feet. I confess the conviction that competent guidance in pathmaking and pathfinding is as essential in the intellectual and religious life as it is upon the mountain side or within the glen. But what I want to speak of more particularly is the teachers’ own path¬ finding. Altho for twenty-one years I was a teacher, I am not competent to give to trained educators so much as a hint on the education of youth. General Sessions 27 Possibly, however, I may help someone in solving the problem of pathfind¬ ing in his own life. We all must face this problem; and those who believe they have found the path are under an obligation to give to others a chance to try the way which they find happiness in treading. I limit what I shall say to the sphere of religion because no doubt in the secular sphere you are each traveling a well-trodden way. I first address myself to the teacher who has no fixed religious beliefs of his own. He is either happy or unhappy in this agnostic state. If really happy, I cannot impute moral fault to him when, by precept and example, he gives his students to understand that the way to happiness is thru unbelief. Some¬ times a man who cheerfully proclaims his skepticism mistakes conceit for happiness. He gets his satisfaction by classing himself as intellectually superior to the man of faith. He smiles superciliously at the honest believer and patronizingly calls him naive. Satisfaction of this sort is neither genuine nor durable. If he could but realize this he would shrink from attempting to disturb the man who is experiencing the peace of God. If a teacher is less than wholeheartedlv happy in unbelief, I suggest to him that his attitude toward the happy belief of others ought more closely to resemble reverence than mere respect. Those of us who have been lost in the woods know what it is to develop something like hero-worship for the man who finds the path. This is far more normal than the habit common with some teachers who are restless in their unbelief. They develop a morbid tendencv to reduce others to their own unhappv condition. Good sportsman¬ ship, if nothing else, condemns such conduct. It is a terrible responsibility to destrov what is, without a clear vision of what should be. If you and your fellow explorers are lost in the wilderness you should try hard to dominate those who develop panic. There are always some in the party who would use up precious strength in a desperate but aimless struggle with what Livy calls “the pathless around and untrodden before.” It is a good plan to call a halt and make a calm survey of the situation. When in his religious life a man is trying to keep or find the path he is apt to be beset on all sides by the insistence of book-makers and bv the clamor of magazine writers who proclaim that there is no way out and that onlv the self-deceived imagine that there is. There are always multitudes of such people — and never more than now. By mere weight of numbers and with the help of a literary style which conveys the impression of depth, they terrorize many timid souls and make materialism a matter of fashion. Among them I recognize a few whose sincerity entitles them to respect. For the most part, however, they remind me of Lord Bacon’s reference to shallow and discoursing wits who think it a bondage to fix a belief. When I hear confident announcements that the world of sense is all and that there is no Power not ourselves that makes for righteousness I recall the rebuke administered a generation ago by Matthew Arnold to Professor Clifford, the mathematician. “Only when one is young and headstrong,” wrote Arnold, “can one thus prefer bravado to experience, can one stand 28 National Education Association by the Sea of Time and instead of listening to the solemn and rhythmical beat of its waves, choose to fill the air with one’s own whoopings to start the echo.” If the vital matter of religion is to be settled by mere assertion, I claim the right to make assertions as positively as anybody. I affirm the existence of a personal God whose jurisdiction transcends the world of sense, and I affirm the existence of a moral law which in its great essentials is as immuta¬ ble as the everlasting hills. We who are building this cathedral are supremely confident that we have found the path of life, however falteringly as individuals we may be following it. We hold that the experience of the ages justifies us in our belief, not merely that God is, but that He has given us a revelation of Himself in the Life Divine. We hold that in the drama of human history He has appeared in three characters — in three dramatis personae : in the character of Creator, in the character of Redeemer, and in the character of Sanctifier. We express this belief when we personify and acknowledge the glory of the Eternal Trinity. We affirm that it was for us men and for our salvation that God appeared in human life, and in so proclaiming the great teachings of the Trinity, of the Incarnation, and of the Atonement we are proclaim¬ ing that which distinguishes Christianity from all the religions. If you were to study the significance of the architecture of this cathedral, both in general design and in smallest detail, you would find it a veritable sermon in stone, proclaiming the way of life to men and silently inviting them to walk in it. When the great structure is finished, the bosses set like stars in its firmament will each symbolize one of the affirmations of the Creed which expresses our belief. Above the western doorway the cathedral will proclaim to you “I believe in one God.” Progressively toward the east it will announce thru the silent eloquence of sculpture the great truths which seem to us to mark the path of life. If even now, tho the building is only a fragment of what it shall be, you turn your eyes upward from the High Altar, you will be tempted to join with people of every kindred and nation and tongue in that supreme declaration of hope — “I look for the Resurrec¬ tion of the Dead and the Life of the World to come.” This we believe to be the path of life. In finding it we believe that peace is found ; in treading it we conceive that we are walking in the way of good men and are keeping the paths of the righteous. We aim at sympathetic understanding with those who differ from us; we welcome all who with us would be fellow seekers. We smile when we are told that we are unin¬ telligent; we are defiant only when one seeks to turn us from our way. We insist that what we stand for is worthy of respect, if not of reverence. Not with pride of intellect but with the conviction that results from ages of experience we say to you and to all who listen — “This is the way: walk ye in it. General Sessions 29 ADDRESS OF WELCOME FRANK W. BALLOU, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, WASHINGTON, D. C. Ten >ears ago the National Education Association held its meeting in Washington. Profound and significant changes have taken place in the social, economic, and educational world during this period of ten years. In 1924 the program centered around the great professional problems of education that had to do with the extension and further development of an adequate program of education designed to serve worthy social purposes. The program thruout was characterized by a recognition on the part of the teaching profession of its responsibility to provide a broad, comprehensive program of public education devoted to the improvement of social conditions as a service to the state and to the nation. Today the National Education Association again meets in the nation’s capital, but under quite different circumstances. For a period of five or more years, education, like all other services of government, has felt the impact of the economic depression. Today, as during the past five years, education is to some extent on the defensive. It has taken the combined and heroic efforts of the National Edu¬ cation Association, and lay organizations interested in education, to keep the devastating effects of the economic depression from doing irreparable damage to the public schools of the nation. Notwithstanding such efforts many schools have been closed and many worthy educational programs have been seriously curtailed. The National Education Association, representing largely, as it does, the teaching profession of America, has played a conspicuous part in the national crisis thru wTich we are passing. It has undertaken to prevent undue salary reductions, not for the purpose of saving the salaries for the teachers, but to save an adequate system of public education for the children. The Association has stood steadfastly against the elimination of the so-called special subjects from our educational program not to save positions for special teachers, but to preserve that instruction for the pupils now in our schools. The Association has called attention to those greedy citizens of today who will not pay their taxes so that schools can be kept open, not primarily for the purpose of expressing righteous indignation over such unworthy citizenship, but rather for the purpose of seeing to it that the program of citizenship training now in our schools will produce a citizen¬ ship for tomorrow which shall be more socially minded and be guided bv higher ideals of social justice. A century ago it was the primary purpose of education to teach everybody to read and write with a reasonable degree of proficiency. To a very large extent that very desirable purpose has been realized. If education todav were limited to the three R’s, it would be as inadequate for the needs of American life at the present time as wrould be the covered wagon, the horse car, the stage coach, the spinning wheel and loom, the sail boat, the 30 National Education Association fireplace, candles, bows and arrows, wells and pumps, the flail, and the log cabin. Today we have advanced far beyond that limited purpose of education, and are confronted with the fundamental necessity of developing a higher level of character among the young people of our country. Indispensable as they are, mastery of the three R’s is no longer the fundamental purpose of American education. The fundamental purpose of American education is efficient citizenship which requires not only that people be able to read and write, but that they also be well informed thru information acquired at school and be trained in ideals of social justice, which should be observed and practised in democratic society. The establishment of higher ideals of social justice depends on inculcating in the hearts and minds of young people the compelling ideals of conduct which shall control their thoughts and actions. This is the combined task of the home, the church, and the school as well as all other instrumentalities and conditions which affect the attitudes and actions of developing youth. The educational profession in Washington has taken much pleasure and satisfaction in making the detailed arrangements for this meeting of the National Education Association in Washington. Your colleagues here want your visit to Washington to be pleasant and profitable. There are many reasons why the National Education Association should choose Washing¬ ton as a meeting place. In the first place it is the home of the headquarters of our Association. In addition, Washington is the nation’s capital and as such is of peculiar interest to every citizen of the country. It should be the second home of every member of the educational profession. We of the profession, who work in the nation’s capital, feel a dual responsibility, one to the local community and one to the great educational profession at large. Since this is your second home we do not offer you the keys of the city, but assure you that the doors of the city are open to you as they would be to the friends of a family. With each recurring visit to this, your second home, may your experiences be so pleasant and profitable that your visits may become more frequent. WORK OF THE JOINT COMMISSION ON THE EMERGENCY IN EDUCATION FOR 1935 JOHN K. NORTON, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. J AND CHAIRMAN, JOINT COMMISSION ON THE EMERGENCY IN EDUCATION We are just completing three of the most disastrous years in educational history. For the first time, a depression has brought serious harm to the schools and has resulted in restriction and even denial of educational oppor¬ tunity to millions of children. School terms have been cut, in some instances almost to the vanishing point. All phases of the educational program have suffered. Those which represent the response of the schools to twentieth century conditions have General Sessions 31 suffered most. Today, thousands of American communities are attempting to train for citizenship in the twentieth century in schools which in scope and procedure belong to the nineteenth century. A quarter of a million teachers are serving under conditions which are inferior to those provided the unemployed under the relief program. For over a year the Joint Commission on the Emergency in Education has struggled to alleviate the conditions which have just been described. We have vigorously supported a series of immediate emergency measures. Comprehensive and current figures concerning closed schools, shortened terms, unpaid teachers and wrecked school programs have been collected and widely disseminated by radio, newspapers, periodicals and other ave¬ nues of publicity. The American people now recognize the gravity of the educational crisis. * A working group of consultants from every state in the Union has been organized. They have come together in a series of regional conferences in which plans for aggressive action have been made and put into operation. An extensive survey has been made to determine which agencies and organi¬ zations are friendly and which are hostile to education and to discover the means whereby their attitudes toward education are expressed. This study has suggested bases for both defensive and offensive action. The Joint Commission has actively supported the Legislative Commission and the National Committee for Federal Emergency Aid for Education in securing financial assistance for the schools from the national government. Such aid has been secured in various form to amounts totaling tens of millions of dollars. This money has meant financial salvation to thousands of hard-pressed school districts and to tens of thousands of unfortunate teachers. Responsible officials of the administration have been brought to the place where they recognize that there is an educational emergency and are willing to do something about it. These and other measures developed by the Joint Commission to deal with the immediate emergency will be continued and supported with vigor during the coming year. It is too early to say that the crisis has passed. We must continue to be alert to the demands of the current emergency. There are also clear signs that educational recovery has begun. Selfish interests find less response to their demands for ill-considered retrenchment. School terms, portions of the educational program which have been elimi¬ nated, budgets, and salary schedules are being restored by a rapidly mount¬ ing number of communities. The attitude of the public is better than it has been for four years. The officers of the National Education Association and the Department of Superintendence recently instructed the Joint Commission on the Emer¬ gency in Education to broaden the scope of its work to include an appraisal of the present educational situation, and the development of a long-term program designed not only to facilitate educational recovery, but to effect improvements in educational procedures demanded by changed conditions. 32 National Education Association The Joint Commission has started work on this additional assignment. As we have struggled with the problems of the immediate emergency, it has become increasingly clear that genuine educational recovery will involve more than a mere replacement of the 1929 situation. Many of the current difficulties of the schools have their roots in conditions which existed long before the onset of the depression. The added weight of the depression has caused certain weak supports in the educational structure to crash. We can¬ not achieve a satisfactory recovery until these weak timbers have been replaced by stronger ones. We have long known that the means by which education is financed in this country constituted one of the weak places in our educational struc¬ ture. The property tax, overburdened and poorly administered by the local community, stood in the road of educational advance thruout the decade of the twenties. When the depression came it failed almost completely in hundreds of communities. It will not do merely to return to the 1929 plan for the financing of education. During the next decade we must funda¬ mentally redesign and reconstruct the plan for the financing of education in this country. The Joint Commission has already sketched the blueprints for this new plan. It summoned a national conference of thirty school executives, tax experts and economists to draft the outlines of a modern program for the financing of education. The report of this conference provides a sound basis for the reformation of our system for the financing of the schools. During the coming year the Joint Commission will seek to enlist the whole pro¬ fession in a united attack on this key problem. The time has come to forget our nineteenth century provincialisms con¬ cerning the financing of education. The twentieth century has created con¬ ditions and released forces that can no longer be dealt with solely on a local basis. This has been recognized by other areas of government. It must be recognized by education. In every state we should resolutely set to work to develop a program for the financing of educational facilities appropriate to the needs of the twentieth century. Universal education suited to the needs of all should be provided at public expense from early childhood and until such time as proper employment is advisable and obtainable. Suitable educational facili¬ ties should be made readily available for all adults. The federal government should assist the states in providing an acceptable minimum or foundation of educational support in every community. We can no longer permit the chance circumstance of the wealth that happens to be located in the individual community, or in the individual state, to determine whether a child shall be provided excellent or mediocre school facilities, or no educational opportunity at all. The time has come to proclaim the principle of a national minimum or foundation program of financial support for the education of every child who lives under the American flag, whether he happens to live in Middle- town, Maine, Arkansas, or California. General Sessions 33 This proposal represents no fundamentally new doctrine. For a century we have accepted the principle that the wealth which a child’s father hap¬ pens to possess should not be the factor which determines whether he is to go to school or to be illiterate. We have long pooled our resources on a local basis to provide that indispensable service of a democratic nation — free and universal education. It has long been accepted in theory, and is increasingly being recognized in practise, that the same principle applies to the state as a whole. We agree that the chance that a child has to obtain an education should not depend upon whether he happens to live in the northwest or southeast corner of a state. All citizens within a state should assist, according to their ability, in paying for the education of every child. Conditions have now developed which require that this principle should also be applied in the nation as a whole. No new principle is involved. Rather we are preserving under the changed conditions, the equality of opportunity which both in its origin and development is perhaps the most distinctive American principle in existence. The achievement of genuine educational recovery calls for thought and action in another direction. What is to be the role of education in making America a better place in which to live? The troubles of the last four years have served to sharpen understanding of the problems which lie at the root of these difficulties. How are we going to convert an economy of potential abundance into one of actual abundance? How are we going to achieve that modicum of material well-being and security which is essential to cultural and spiritual health? How are we to accomplish sufficient regula¬ tion of our common affairs that we can avoid chaos and achieve stability, and at the same time protect individual initiative and liberty in certain vital areas? These are the great unsolved questions which confront us who have the privilege of living in this potent twentieth century. There is no easy answer to them. There is no final and permanent answer to such problems except that which can be given by a more universal and vital program of education. Nothing now stands between the American people and the realization of the noblest civilization which has yet marked man’s upward struggle, but lack of intelligence. There has recently been issued by a responsible eco¬ nomic source — the Brookings Institution of Washington, D. C. — the results of an extensive investigation into the economic capacity of America to pro¬ duce. This study should offer encouragement to every right-thinking Ameri¬ can citizen. It was conducted for the specific purpose of determining whether America, in its most prosperous years, was utilizing its full pro¬ ductive capacity. This investigation sought to discover whether there is justification for the contention that we lived beyond our means in the gay twenties, both in our private and public expenditures. We have been told that the depression of the last four years is “the morning after” the gay joyride of the twenties, during which we spent money, and wickedly burned up capital, like drunken 34 National Education Association sailors. Our profligacy in the field of public expenditure has been held up as a horrible example of economic sin. The expenditures for education have been cited as a particular instance of extravagant spending. What light does the investigation of the Brookings Institution shed upon these contentions? The conclusion can be stated in a few words: Instead of living beyond our means in 1929, the peak year of prosperity, “our economic society lacked almost 20 percent of living up to its means” in that year. In 1929 our income was fifteen billion dollars less than it could have been if we had used the labor force and the capital goods already in our possession in a manner which would have involved no violation of practical operating conditions. If we had used this wasted economic power, we could have brought up to $2000 the incomes of the 16,400,000 families in the United States, who in 1929 received less than this amount. This is the con¬ clusion of the Institute of Economics of the Brookings Institution. I would like to add that, if this wasted economic productivity had actually been used, that it would have paid the total bill for public education — kindergarten, elementary, high school, college and university — more than five times. What can education do to develop the requisite intelligence so that possi¬ bilities may become realities? The coming decades will present the greatest opportunity which has yet challenged any generation of teachers. We must seek the support of all men of intelligence and goodwill to the end that we may cooperatively develop schools appropriate to the requirements of the remarkable age in which we are living. If I had some power to claim the thought of large numbers of citizens at this time, I would not begin by deluging them with statistics of the breakdown of the schools, nor by taking them thru a short course in the financing of education. Rather, I would ask them to look at life as it is and to decide what it suggests concerning the development of education in the future. The crucial problems which confront the schools today grow out of the fact that there are too many persons who have not faced the impli¬ cations for education of the unsolved problems which afflict our society. The Joint Commission on the Emergency in Education recently issued a publication entitled Evaluating the Public Schools. We urge that you give this pamphlet serious attention, and think thru the philosophy which lies back of it. It calls for a closer alliance between educators and the public in general. It urges something more than educational interpretation, important tho that may be. It offers definite suggestions whereby school people may sit down with public-spirited citizens to discover thru honest and cooperative thinking the answer to the most crucial educational questions. In a democracy the people must ultimately decide important questions of social and economic policy. This is particularly true with respect to the public school, partly because this institution touches the everyday lives of the people so closely, and partly because the current rapid changes in social organization require corresponding developments and adjustments in the General Sessions 35 work of education. Since the people must decide, let us see that they decide wisely, and on the basis of a full presentation of the evidence. I warn you that there are interests in this nation who because of selfish¬ ness or limited vision want no democratic decision as to the role of education in our civilization. For four years they have been proclaiming a gospel of negation and despair. They urge the acceptance of a peasant standard of living and a peasant standard of educating as the easiest way out of our present difficulties. Let no teacher accept this coward’s solution for the difficulties of the depression. Teachers have no higher duty than to join with all men of social purpose in opposing this defeatist doctrine. There is a third area which will deserve especial attention in the years just ahead if complete educational recovery is to be achieved. I refer to the whole matter of the professional organization of teachers. If there ever was any question about the necessity of strong professional organizations — local, state, and national — the experience of these depression years must have dispelled it. Education has suffered in these trying times. But I assure you it would have suffered far more severely if it had not been for these agencies of educational defense and advance. Many local and state associations enrol less than 100 percent of eligible members. The national association enrols less than 20 percent of its potential membership. Here is a situation which all of us should strive to correct as rapidly as possible. We can urge 100 percent enrolment on the basis of the record of these organizations in a time of crisis. But I prefer not to dwell on the past accomplishments of professional associations, but rather to emphasize what it is possible for them to accom¬ plish in the future. Educational associations should become agencies of uni¬ fied and long-term educational planning. Within the next decade, American education is destined to undergo a reconstruction and expansion more fundamental than it has experienced in any other period of its history. The orderly social and economic revolution thru which the country is passing places upon the schools greater demands and new responsibilities. Unem¬ ployed youth whose services cannot be absorbed by industry must be pro¬ vided with proper educational opportunities. The work of the schools in preparing for social and economic citizenship must be increased in effective¬ ness. The preparation of teachers for the new age requires far-reaching changes. The relation of education to other governmental functions, the organization of educational opportunity for the leisure time of adults, the coordination of the schools with libraries and playgrounds — these and a score of other problems press for careful consideration and constructive action in shaping a new program of education for a new age. This situation places a heavy responsibility upon the educators of the nation. Logically, it is they who should offer the leadership needed in order that schools appropriate to the demands of our times may be developed. Already, thousands of teachers, working thru a variety of educational organizations, are coming to grips with the problems which must be met in the years which lie just ahead, if education is fully to accomplish its purposes. 36 National Education Association An investigation just completed for the Joint Commission on the Emer¬ gency in Education reveals that no less than four hundred educational com¬ mittees and commissions have recently prepared reports, or are now con¬ ducting investigations, which are pertinent in planning educational recovery and reconstruction. The results of this study are now available in printed form under the title, A Directory of National Deliberative Committees in Education. One cannot study this directory without realizing that there are already within our profession untapped resources for educational progress. It is the duty of professional associations to capitalize and to coordinate the vast amount of work which is already in progress in the profession, looking toward the improvement of educational procedures - and results. We should no longer be satisfied with educational associations which look ahead one or two years. Every organization — local, state, and national — should have at least a ten-year program made up of long-term as well as immediate objectives. In the development of such a program each associa¬ tion should draw upon the best thought of its membership of all ranks. It should seek the advice of experts both within and without the profession, in order that its platform may be as defensible as careful research and mature experience will permit. To a far greater extent than in the past, professional organizations should seek the active cooperation of larger num¬ bers of laymen. Education as we have it today came from the people. Educa¬ tion as it should be tomorrow should come from the people. The Joint Commission urges the creation in every state of an effective council for general educational planning which will capitalize the thought and influence of the groups just described in the development and support of a comprehensive, long-term educational program. The time has passed when we can hope to win great educational victories solely thru our own efforts in promoting a series of opportunistic projects. The Joint Commis¬ sion, acting under its new instructions, will provide materials which will be valuable to state educational associations in developing long-term pro¬ grams. It is the intention of the Commission to seek the resources requisite to the effective discharge of this important responsibility. I have briefly indicated a few of the major objectives of the Joint Commission for 1935. We expect to continue certain activities designed to meet the immediate difficulties of education. We also expect to carry out the recent instructions to outline the elements of a long-term program for educational recovery and reconstruction. This will involve work in at least three directions. First there will be a series of activities designed to facilitate the movement already under way, looking toward the revision of methods for financing the schools. Second, there is need to encourage more effective means whereby the teaching profession and public-spirited citizens in general may arrive at considered decisions as to the role which education should play in solving the economic and social problems which have been clarified by the events of recent years. Third, there is need for materials out of which professional organizations i General Sessions 37 may develop long-term programs for the continuous improvement of educa¬ tional procedures and results. In offering this preliminary view of plans for the coming year, the Joint Commission has no illusions as to the difficulty of the work which it has been instructed to do. It will need the advice and support of its consultants and of the whole profession even more than during the past year. We offer no philosophy of self-satisfaction with education as it is today, or as it has been in the past. Rather, we are urging that teachers dream great dreams, and see great visions as to what education may mean to every state, and to the nation as a whole. The road which lies ahead is no easy one. Every step of educational advance in the twentieth century will be contested as it was in the nine¬ teenth century, by the forces of ignorance, prejudice, greed, and narrow vision. But these forces can be defeated. They break and run in the face of intelligence, open-mindedness, courage, and social vision. Intelligent and courageous teachers and parents can supply these indispensable ingredients of educational and social advance. The twentieth century offers the American people the greatest oppor¬ tunity of the ages to achieve a civilization which is full and fine — that will fulfil the American dream of equal opportunity for all. It also offers a situation full of great dangers. We can follow a course that will lead to stagnation, deterioration, and decay. America must choose the road it will take! We who work in the schools and colleges of the nation have it within our hands to influence the decision. Let us catch the vision, and summon the courage to march on. FEDERAL AID TO EDUCATION GEORGE F. ZOOK, FORMER UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION ; DIRECTOR, AMERICAN COUNCIL ON EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. During the last two decades two important developments affecting the sup¬ port of all state and local functions including education have been taking place simultaneously, namely, the breakdown of the property tax on the one hand, and the gradual assumption by the federal government of a number of sources of modern and effective taxes which, had they been left to the states, would at least have enabled the states and the local communities to pull them¬ selves out of their financial troubles more quickly and easily. In view of these circumstances it has always seemed to me to be somewhat unbecoming on the part of members of Congress, as has happened so frequently in the session just closed, to advise somewhat testily representatives of state and local governments including the schools, that if only they would “set their houses in order back home” it would be unnecessary to be asking for fed¬ eral aid. However, few people would now advocate that the federal government surrender the income tax and other modern taxes to the states. Our expe¬ rience shows clearly that the federal government is far more effective in the 38 National Education Association collection of such taxes than the several states can possibly be. Moreover, thru the services conducted by the federal government with the income de¬ rived- from these sources, all the people benefit, whereas a return of these sev¬ eral forms of taxation to the states would only emphasize the present injus¬ tices and inequalities between and among our citizens resulting from the con¬ centration of the title to wealth in a small number of metropolitan areas. It is evident that this is not the solution of the financial problems facing the states and localities, including the schools. I am convinced that if the federal government continues to levy these more modern forms of taxation, as it alone can do most effectively, it follows as clearly as can be that some proportion of the proceeds of these taxes should be returned to the states for the support of state and local governmental functions, including schools. It is perhaps unnecessary for me to call your attention to the fact that while I am here taking a stand in favor of federal aid to education I believe that we educators should be broadminded enough to recognize that- what¬ ever financial problems face the schools also face all other aspects of our state and especially our local governments. Many people have objected vio¬ lently that certain forms of education, namely, extension education in agriculture and home economics, vocational education, and education in agriculture and mechanic arts, to the neglect of others have been selected by the federal government for special subsidy. Whatever validity there is to these objections holds equally well for the whole of education as against all other state and local needs. To the extent, therefore, that we succeed in se¬ curing federal aid for education only, there will always be a corresponding tendency for the states and localities to reduce their appropriations for this service. We cannot, therefore, and we ought not to want to escape the neces¬ sary close relationships which exist between the financial problems facing the schools and all other forms of local and state efforts. Would it not be wiser public policy, therefore, for us to join cordially in all efforts which may be made in Washington in the future to secure a comprehensive pro¬ gram of federal aid to the states and localities for all aspects of government including the schools rather than to pursue our own special needs too far? It would, among other things, avoid many of the problems of federal con¬ trol of education. Such a view may be too utopian for the present time. In other words, the schools are in such a difficult position that we must, of course, seize every opportunity to plead their cause. The federal government can and should do two things — it can build the schoolhouses of the country and it can help to maintain the schools. Until about a year ago I cannot recall in the literature of federal aid to education any suggestion that the federal government should build or help to build schoolhouses, altho aid for school building purposes from the central government has long been the usual thing in Great Britain and France. Yet for years the federal government has been supplying generous sums of money to the states for the construction of roads. The National Industrial Re- General Sessions 39 covery Act alone set aside $400,000,000 for this purpose out of a total of $3,300,000,000 for public works. Another act just passed by Congress au¬ thorizes the further appropriation of the appalling sum of $3,000,000,000 for the construction of roads during the next few years. Battleships get another huge sum and now another sum equal to that which may be spent on roads is being made available for the construction and repair of homes. In 1931-32 there were 245,941 one-room schools scattered from one end of the country to the other. While it is true that approximately $75,000,000 of the funds set aside in the National Industrial Recovery Act has been lent and granted to states and to local communities for school and college build¬ ings, the surface of the school building problem in this country has not even been scratched. Most of the money has gone to the larger communities where code wages and regulations can be observed. The rural areas as yet are both unwilling and unable to initiate public works enterprises including schools until there is some modification of the present situation which will enable them to take advantage of federal funds for construction purposes. In the meantime the school building situation languishes. Normal school construction, both additions and replacements, has all but ceased. The Civil Works Administration helped tremendously on school repairs but it was, of course, only a temporary relief. The consolidation of small schools into modern, effective plants has all but stopped. Many of the communities which were progressive enough to take this step prior to the depression are sulkily paying interest and sinking funds on school buildings built at top prices. What are we going to do about those 245,941 one-room rural schools, a large proportion of which are a disgrace to the level of civilization which we claim to have attained ? Yet past these archaic structures suited to the civilization of a generation or two ago in which most of them were constructed, there have been built with the generous help of the federal government thousands of miles of hard surfaced roads. Is a road more important than a school? Does it not raise the pertinent question as to whether we who are interested in schools should not learn the lesson learned years ago by those interested in roads? In other words, schools as well as roads should be constructed thru the use of federal funds. A very small part of the sum now authorized for any of the three great construction purposes authorized by the last Congress for roads, homes, or battleships would replace every one-room country schoolhouse which should be replaced with modern consolidated school plants. I for one believe that it would be entirely worthwhile to do so. I do not believe, however, that this very desirable end can be attained thru the 70 percent loan and 30 percent grant provisions of the present Public Works Act. If schools are the foundation on which popular government is built the federal government should give school buildings at least the pref¬ erential treatment relative to grants of money which the roads have long enjoyed. Should this prove possible I am convinced that no other step which could be taken by Congress with respect to education would approach in significance a national school building program. 40 National Education Association On February 2 of this year Administrator Harry L. Hopkins at the rec¬ ommendation of the Office of Education issued a Release stating that it was his purpose to make available federal relief funds to employ teachers from February 1 to June 30, 1934, “in elementary and secondary schools, in communities up to 5000 population . . . where the districts have made the maximum financial effort and are still obliged to close short of a normal length of school term.” The pay of the teachers was not to “be higher than that stipulated for the same positions during the current year.” As soon as this order was issued the Office of Education lent several mem¬ bers of its slender staff and called on several of the leading men in school finance in state departments of education to help the Federal Emergency Relief Administration to determine the amounts of money to which the several states, under Mr. Hopkins’ order, were entitled. It was a difficult problem which had to be met promptly but I am happy to say that it was done successfully. As a result of this action, $16,924,765 has been distributed to 33 states. Seven states each received $1,000,000 or more as follows: Alabama, $2,266,909; Georgia, $1,675,000; Oklahoma, $1,377,695; Mis¬ sissippi, $1,321,876; Florida, Louisiana, and Tennessee, $1,000,000 each. The smallest sums were received by Washington, $29,928; Idaho, $19,921 ; and Iowa, $9,514. Some of you will be interested to know that no state east of the Alleghanies and north of the Potomac River qualified for fed¬ eral relief to their school teachers. I am sure that you join me in an expression of deepest gratification that thru the generosity of the federal government it was thus possible to keep open the schools of the country upon something like the normal basis reached during the depression in the several states. Somehow or other the federal government seems a bit closer to you and me as a result of this action. When to this sum is added approximately $8,000,000 for the emergency educational program in adult education and in nursery schools together with approxi¬ mately $7,000,000 for the part-time employment program of college stu¬ dents, and $2,500,000 for the educational program in the Civilian Conserva¬ tion Corps camps, the grand total for the emergency educational program reaches the rather large sum of approximately $35,000,000. Even this figure does not include the large but unestimated sum of federal money which was made available thru CWA for school repairs and construction. I wish, however, to call your attention to the fact that the $16,924,765 set aside by the federal government to keep the schools open was frankly intended not as federal aid to education but as relief to school districts in the states on the basis of normal school term and existing salaries. There was no attempt at equalization of any kind. If the normal school term of a negro school was four months as against seven months for the whites, it was assumed that the states should be helped to maintain their own chosen situation. Or if the average salary of teachers in one state was $40 as against $60 in another state, the respective salary bases of the two states were used. Early in the session of Congress just closed there arose an insistent demand that Congress make available thru the Office of Education a direct appro- General Sessions 41 priation of at least $100,000,000 to keep the schools open. The Committee on Education in the House of Representatives held hearings for nearly a week, at which a great deal of evidence showing the probable needs of the schools during the year 1934-35 was presented. There was no opposition. The House Committee on Education finally reported out a bill for $75,000,- 000 based on the philosophy that the schools should receive temporary relief but carefully avoiding any commitment to the policy of permanent federal aid to education. Altho strenuous and magnificent service was rendered by the emergency committee headed by Superintendent James H. Richmond of Kentucky, the bill never came to a vote in either house. In effect the Admin¬ istration compromised thru a statement made by the chairman of the Appro¬ priations Committee in the House when he introduced the Omnibus Relief Bill which afterwards became a law. At that time the chairman of the House Appropriations Committee itemized the “Proposed application from July 1, 1934, to March 1, 1935 (8 months).” Among these items were included “Schools (subject to authorization by the President) — $48,000,000.” From this statement it is clear that no federal funds are earmarked for the schools this year. The amount which is used for the relief of school teach¬ ers will depend this year as it did last year on the action of the Administra¬ tion. Thus the principle of federal relief to teachers as against a possible permanent policy of federal aid to education has been maintained in the face of tremendous pressure on the part of a large proportion of the teaching profession. Anyone who believes that social and economic conditions have so changed as to make necessary or desirable regular federal aid to education cannot, of course, be satisfied with work relief wages to school teachers on the basis of status quo. There is no element of equalization either for teachers or pupils in the whole business. As a matter of fact the inequalities of the depression as they affect the schools are far greater now than they were prior to the depression. Since the depression the wealthier states have reduced ex¬ penditures moderately but Alabama has lost one-half of the meager amount it had. The gap between the educational opportunities of the children in the poorer states and those in the wealthier states widens. Some form of permanent federal aid to education must replace the present temporary expe¬ dient of federal relief to needy teachers. Such a bill authorizing an appropriation of $300,000,000 during the year 1934-35 was introduced into the last Congress by Representative Deen of Georgia. The bill contained a carefully worked out objective basis of dis¬ tributing the appropriation to the states on the basis of average daily at¬ tendance of less than college grade in the public schools. The amount to be received by each state varied from $1 1 to $26.25 per child five to twenty years of age according to the density of farm population of the states. The states with the greatest density of farm population were to receive the small¬ est amount per child ; those with the sparsest farm population the largest sums per capita. 42 National Education Association Here is raised squarely the familiar question as to whether the federal agency, presumably the Office of Education, should have any kind of dis¬ cretionary power under a regular system of federal aid to education. While this particular bill actually leaves some discretionary power with a small portion of the intended total appropriation of $300,000,000, it is plain that the primary intention was to arrive at an objective basis on which the fed¬ eral money should be distributed to the several states and that this objective basis should be written into the law. The federal agency then automatically goes thru the process of making the proper distribution. I have no doubt that there is much to be said for this point of view. It seems to have worked well in several states, including New York, relative to the distribution of state funds to localities. Fundamentally, however, I believe that such a policy is a mistake. It goes on the assumption that Con¬ gress is more capable of determining a technical matter of this kind than a central educational agency acting with the advice of educational experts and that such a method of distribution once adopted is good indefinitely. Our experience with the supplementary Morrill acts and the agricultural experi¬ ment station acts should teach us that the objective bases selected by Congress are likely to be a matter of log-rolling in which each state receives the same amount of money irrespective of need. Moreover, these laws as well as the Smith-Hughes and the Smith-Lever laws show clearly that once such a method of distribution is written into the law it is practically impossible to change it by subsequent legislation. I cannot believe that it is wise practise to write details of this kind into the law which experience demonstrates can be changed only with the greatest difficulty, if at all. I venture further the statement that if a careful examination is made of the total situation there has been far more criticism of the federal agencies for carrying out the letter of the laws than for exercising arbitrary powers where discretion was permitted. I believe, therefore, that we ought to consider this matter care¬ fully and earnestly before we write any more meticulous regulations and objective bases of distribution into our federal laws dealing with education. In the long run I am convinced that we shall have much more federal con¬ trol of education thru regulations inserted in the law than from a federal Office of Education which is clothed with discretionary power in the dis¬ tribution of federal funds. In the session just closed, Congress adopted one measure of direct aid to education. I refer to the amendment to the Small Industries Bill which au¬ thorized the Reconstruction Finance Corporation to make loans up to a total of $75,000,000 to public school districts for the purpose of paying teachers’ salaries due prior to June 1, 1934. From the amount of time which I have devoted to the problem of federal aid to education you would perhaps be justified in assuming that I think that federal aid is the most important problem of finances which is facing us. I do not hold this opinion. According to the fundamental law of the land, education is a responsibility of the several states. Now that the support of General Sessions 43 the schools thru local taxation is breaking down, the first line of defense does not lie with the federal government but with the state legislatures. The real challenge to the development of education, therefore, lies back home in our several states. It is in the state legislatures where the greatest battles must be fought. They will be battles requiring the vision to effect a thoro reorganization of small school districts into larger, more effective, and more economical units. They will be battles to compel the state legisla¬ ture to find new forms of modern taxes which can be collected by the state and distributed to the communities on some equitable basis, thus relieving the local property tax. They will be battles requiring the active interest of laymen and professional educators alike. It is indeed a task for all of us. The situation is imminent ; we must be up and at our work. REPORT OF THE FEDERAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON EMERGENCY AID IN EDUCATION JAMES N. RULE, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, HARRISBURG, PA. The Federal Advisory Committee on Emergency Aid in Education was called together by Commissioner Zook in November 1933 to formulate a program of emergency aid to keep the schools of the nation open during the economic crisis on as nearly a normal basis as seemed practicable. All na¬ tional organizations and agencies interested in the maintenance of educa¬ tional opportunity for the girls and boys of the nation were invited to par¬ ticipate in the discussions and decisions of the committee. After extended study and consideration of the needs of the public schools, a six-point program was adopted with few dissenting votes. Having adopted this program the Federal Advisory Committee turned its program over to a new committee, detached from the Office of Edu¬ cation, to secure such legislative action by the federal Congress as would be necessary to make the program effective. The chairman of this legislative committee on emergency aid in education was Superintendent James H. Richmond of Kentucky, ably assisted by James W. Cammack, Jr. Superin¬ tendent Richmond and Mr. Cammack established headquarters in the Hotel Powhatan, Washington, and thruout the sessions of the late Seventy-third Congress devoted themselves effectively to informing members of Congress regarding the needs of the public schools, and the necessity of meeting these needs if the schools of the nation were to be a part and play a part in the New Deal. The National Education Association cooperated with the committee in every possible way. In fact, without the financial and professional support of the National Education Association, the work of the committee would have been well-nigh impossible. I am sure I speak for everyone interested in the preservation of our system of public education when I say that Superin¬ tendent Richmond and Mr. Cammack are deserving of the highest praise and commendation for the persistence, patience and fine professional spirit 44 National Education Association that characterized their efforts to secure specific emergency federal aid for public education during the recent session of Congress. The opposition and the handicaps which these representatives of ours had to overcome in Con¬ gress in order to secure even a modest measure of federal interest in the school crisis can only be appreciated by those who worked intimately with them. The question that confronted them at every turn was: Is this the entering wedge for permanent federal aid and the beginning of federal control of the social purposes of the public schools? Our committee made it plain at every point of contact with Congress that our proposals were for temporary federal emergency aid only. The position of the opponents of even emergency federal aid seems inconsistent when we recall that since the very beginning of the republic, the federal government has made extensive appropriations to many types of educational projects. The question that our program raised with respect to federal emergency aid for education was not one of principle but merely of emphasis. The maintenance of at least a foundation program thruout the nation — thru a plan of federal emergency aid — would seem to be but the expression of the logical interest of the whole nation in maintaining the whole educa¬ tional level at a point that would help to make our democracy politically safe, economically sound, and socially sane with respect to its entire citizen¬ ship. In presenting the report of the original Federal Advisory Committee on Emergency Aid in Education and also of Superintendent Richmond’s legisla¬ tive action committee, I shall state results in terms of the original six-point program : POINT ONE The emergency problem of keeping elementary and secondary schools open on as nearly normal a basis as possible during the school year 1933-34 should be met by a federal appropriation of $50,000,000 to be allocated according to emergency needs in the several states. This sum may be provided in one of two ways: (a) by a special provision in the relief act or, less preferably, (b) by a separate federal appropriation. In either case such appropriation shall be administered preferably by a board of which the United States Commissioner of Education shall be chairman and executive officer. Results — A sum of approximately $16,500,000 was made available by Harry L. Hopkins for keeping rural schools in communities of 5000 people and less, open for normal terms. In addition to this sum, approximately $8,000,000 was allotted for the support of adult education and nursery schools. In all fairness there should be included a statement of what the teachers of the nation thru reduced salaries have contributed to keep schools open during the past year. Thruout the depression years, teachers have made every effort to reserve and maintain at a high level of efficiency the school oppor¬ tunities that were in existence when adversity came upon us. Month after month hundreds of them have remained in their classrooms without salaries, General Sessions 45 or with salaries paid in tax anticipation warrants, scrip, or other certificates of indebtedness that could be cashed— if at all — only at large discounts. Teachers’ salaries in arrears amount to nearly $58,000,000 and outstanding salary warrants of the type just mentioned approximate another $73,000,000. Thus teachers’ salaries unpaid or covered only by negotiable paper of uncer¬ tain value amount in round numbers to $131,000,000, a sum more than five times the amount spent by the federal government to keep schools open during the school year just ended. POINT TWO In view of the fact that the inability of many communities adequately to main¬ tain schools is certain to continue during the fiscal year 1934-35 a federal emergency appropriation or allocation of not less than $100,000,000 should be made available beginning July 1, 1934; this appropriation or allocation to be distributed in an objective manner, determined by a board of which the United States Commissionei of Education shall be chairman and executive officer, and based upon reasonable evidence of needs and resources. Results — Hearings were held before the House Education Committee on the problem of emergency school relief for 1934-35. The committee reported unanimously a bill providing for the earmarking of $75,000,000 of federal relief funds for schools. This bill did not pass. During the hearings, however, on the appropriation bill for federal emergency relief, Mr. Hopkins and Congressman Buchanan stated that between $48,000,000 and $50,000,- 000 would be made available for emergency educational relief work during 1934-35. This will make it possible to continue the emergency education program developed this past year but on a somewhat augmented basis. POINT THREE The stability of educational support even in the abler states and communities, due to the shrinkage of local ability to support schools during the depression, con¬ stitutes an aspect of the present emergency of such proportion as to endanger the effectiveness of the schools thruout the nation. The fundamental relief which is neces¬ sary in order that public education institutions may be adequately supported can be secured only thru the adoption of additional measures for federal emergency aid to education during 1934-35. The situation is so critical in education that the people are justified in using federal funds to insure the normal operation of schools. Accordingly, it is recommended that a substantial sum be distributed from the federal treasury to the various states to assist them in meeting this phase of the emergency. It is the sense of this conference that the method of distribution should provide, first, that a fiat sum objectively determined be distributed to all states; second, that a supplemental sum objectively determined but weighted to meet the needs of the poorer states be included in the distribution ; and third, that the method of distribu¬ tion be stated in the statutes, provided that a contingent fund not to exceed 10 per¬ cent of the amount so provided for 1934-35 be reserved for distribution to states and local units to meet exceptional and unforeseen needs under the direction of a board of which the United States Commissioner of Education shall be chairman. Results — This item in our program proved to be a serious stumbling block. Providing as it did for a mechanical objective distribution of a large amount 46 National Education Association of money — $300,000,000 to $400,000,000 to all of the states — the members of the federal Congress saw, or thought they saw, indications of the be¬ ginnings at least of a permanent system of federal aid for education. Not only did thia item receive little or no support, but it handicapped the efforts of the committee in no small measure in securing favorable consideration for Point Two above. POINT FOUR Local funds should be released for school maintenance by: (a) refinancing school district indebtedness or such municipal or county indebtedness as may have been incurred in behalf of the schools; (b) providing federal loans to school districts or to municipal or county corporations, where (in the case of the latter) the loan is to be used for educational purposes — provided that in both instances the loan shall rest on the security of delinquent taxes, frozen assets in closed banks, or other acceptable securities. Results — Hearings were held on this proposal before the Reconstruction Finance Corporation Subcommittee of the House Banking and Currency Committee. Numerous conferences were held with officials of the RFC and other governmental officials. The Chicago Teachers Association did some particularly effective work on this item of our program. As a result of all these efforts, Congress authorized the RFC to lend up to $75,000,000 on adequate security to school districts to pay teachers’ salaries due prior to June 1, 1934. POINT FIVE Out of any new appropriations made for public works not less than 10 percent should be allocated for buildings for schools, colleges, and other educational enter¬ prises. Such grants shall be available provided that an approved survey has been made, and that the survey shows the need for the buildings. In cases where such surveys have not already been made these surveys shall be made under the direction of the Office of Education thru a decentralized regional organization. The cost of these surveys shall be charged to the public works appropriation for school plants. We recommend that the grants for such projects be made on a 100 percent basis. In administering this fund major attention should be given to the needs of the rural schools. ► * • Results — A bill was introduced in the House covering this item but no hearings were held. The proposal seemed to be a popular one in many quar¬ ters, but the Public Works Administration was definitely opposed to chang¬ ing the 30 percent grant provision of the original Public Works Act. Never¬ theless, it is quite probable that school housing plans will benefit this next year by grants from the PWA since Congress provided for the continuance of this agency. It should be said to the great credit of the PWA that while complete data are not at the present time available, approximately $100,- 000,000 was allocated this past year out of PWA funds to assist school districts in providing school housing facilities. Secretary Ickes’ interest in the emergency education program was at all times inspiring and helpful. General Sessions 47 POINT SIX A federal appropriation or allocation of $30,000,000 should be provided to assist students to attend institutions of higher education for the period ending July 1, 1935, by (a) special provision in existing acts, or (b) by a separate federal appro¬ priation. This fund should be administered by the United States Office of Education. Results — Allotments made during the school year 1933-34 to assist needy college students approximated $6,000,000. Mr. Hopkins has assured us of his continuing interest in maintaining this program during the school year 1934-35, with a possibility of the total allotment being somewhat larger. It should also be added that the schools of the nation also benefited greatly from allotments from the Civil Works Administration. Data regarding the total sum spent on school projects under the CWA are not available, but the aggregate amount must have been large. The enthusiasm and coopera¬ tion of Mr. Hopkins, Administrator of the Federal Emergency Relief Ad¬ ministration, were a joy to all of us at all times. Commissioner Zook’s advice and help were available at all times and were invaluable to the committee. May I say in closing that we must not relax our efforts, thruout the year that lies ahead, to have the federal government bring the nation’s schools, as well as corn, wheat, hogs, outhouses, slums, mortgaged farms and homes, and closed banks, within the beneficent sphere of the New Deal. Surely the schools are entitled to as favored a place in the New Deal as are those objects of the government’s bounty that have been selected to date. The schools of tomorrow will cost money; more money than the schools of today. And they will be worth it. We cannot as a nation afford not to have better schools tomorrow than we have today. AMERICA’S REAL BRAIN TRUST— WITH A CODE FOR PEACEMAKERS DANIEL A. POLING, PRESIDENT, WORLD’S CHRISTIAN ENDEAVOR UNION, NEW YORK, N. Y. You are the brain trust of America. And I am for brain trusts. In gov¬ ernment? Yes. I have no enthusiasm for a certain hue and cry against the trained mind in Washington. We acknowledge our debt to the educator everywhere else. Then why not the scientist at the seat of the science of government? But the American teachers constitute the brain trust of America because in their hands are placed the sons and daughters of all the people ; because to them are entrusted for instruction and training, for guidance and inspira¬ tion, those who must, in every area of life, carry on the activities which at our best we shall leave unfinished. But I am not here to praise the American teacher or to enlighten the American teacher. I have been invited to give my impressions of certain na¬ tional problems confronting the young people who are entrusted to the 48 National Education Association teacher. With a reference merely to the matter of temperance education, I shall confine myself to one problem — the war problem. First, then, I refer to temperance education. United States Senator Capper of Kansas has well said, “You can repeal the Eighteenth Amendment, but you cannot repeal the liquor problem.” And I may add, “Nor can you solve it ever without a sound educational program and procedure.” The National Education Association will do well to give serious thought to this grave matter. It will do well to provide for a continuing service of research and experimentation in the field of alcohol education. Results since the re¬ peal of the Eighteenth Amendment — and one need only read the front pages of our newspapers — show clearly the character and proportions of our problem and its direct bearing upon the well-being of young people and justify no less than a national interest on the part of every educator in the basic problem of alcohol itself. That the young people themselves are alive to the situation is evidenced by the fact that some 400,000 of them, with a national headquarters here in Washington, are moving into the heart of the problem in typical youth fashion and with none of the characteristics of sorrowful reform. Their platform, which is a single sentence, suggests their spirit and method: “We stand for the elimination, thru education, of the handicaps of beverage al¬ cohol.” The name of the organization is Allied Youth. These young people, I believe, are in a position to cooperate with you in a nationwide campaign of education. And now to the problem of war, the problem of war as it confronts youth. We shall agree, I believe, that youth’s future is either hopelessly or hopefully involved in those activities associated with the effort to preserve and perfect the peace. Perhaps as much, or nearly as much, could be said for several other problems. But there are certain basic principles that, faced here, will apply in every other vital relationship into which you as teachers may come. What, then, of this war problem? Certainly few men want war and certainly an overwhelming number of “first-rate” nations are honestly committed to the Pact of Paris, which out¬ laws war. The verdict is practically unanimous, both as to the horror and the futility of armed conflict. The past proves conclusively that battles, of themselves, settle no problem, but unsettle the whole social order. It is pretty generally agreed that another war of world proportions would destroy this civilization — the good and the bad, without discrimination. It is an interest¬ ing commentary upon contemporary student thought that during the past semester New York University seniors voted that, in their opinion, the next world war would begin in or before 1936. And yet minor wars — major to those engaged in them — trouble three continents and with their associated problems threaten us all with a more general disaster. Under such circumstances the programs and activities of the peacemakers in public office and in private life are matters of immediate interest and timeliness. General Sessions 49 I submit to you that the imperative need of the peace movement is unity — unity, not uniformity. Such unity alone can meet the challenge of the present crisis. Now the psychology of such unity is the psychology of common agreement, and its grand strategy lies in going the length of common agreement without prejudice to our several particular convictions and ultimate decisions. We shall discover, I believe, that if and when we go this length, we shall have destroyed war. Men in uniform and a multitude who believe in what the uniform repre¬ sents or may come to represent, those who know from bitter experience the folly and disaster of war but who with moral integrity differ with others who take the academic position of absolute pacifism, are ready to join this unity, are eager to stand upon its platform of common agreement. These believe that some things must not be surrendered while they themselves re¬ main alive to defend them. To these, ultimate pacifism, absolute non-re¬ sistance, may become un-Christian as well as unpatriotic, a violation of the will and the spirit of Jesus Himself. But these also believe that they may and must go the length of common agreement, and a great length, with all others who would win the peace. It is here that peace advocates, of whatever creed and degree, should concentrate their efforts. Here division may become a major disaster, and certainly debate should not divide us. Final proof that there is room here for an honest and Christian difference of conviction is the fact that honest and Christian men differ. That leaders of thought, that educators and clergymen particularly, carry a grave responsibility for their public expressions and deportment in this irrepressible conflict between war and peace was vividly illustrated during a recent “no war” parade in New York City. This same parade further illus¬ trates what would be a fatal blunder, were the mistake to be continued — the mistake of misleading, disregarding, or lightly regarding the convictions of those peacemakers who are not pacifists. In this parade, distinguished clergymen of two faiths marched at the head of the young people who came from many youth societies — religious, educa¬ tional, and patriotic — of Greater New York. There were bands and there were banners. There were striking sentences and challenging slogans. Here was a parade to inspire, in nearly all of its particulars, every friend of peace. But there appeared also certain radical political groups with their typical slogans denouncing the government and declaring that they would not follow the government into any war. These political groups are not pacifist in the sense of being non-resisters to all armed conflict. They openly advocate sabo¬ tage and extreme violence to accomplish their purpose to overthrow and destroy all democratic government. In the parade to which I refer, certain groups deliberately compromised its purpose and exploited a great cause. Already there has been a reaction that has resulted in bitter disillusionment to many young people. One of these, a university student, has presented his indictment as follows ; and tho he was mistaken in his reference to the speaker, let his indictment stand, for it is fundamental! 50 National Education Association You preachers were responsible for leading us into a lie. We accepted an invita¬ tion to march for peace, to register against the munition makers who gamble in lives, to declare our faith in a better way. And we awoke to find that we had been counted against our government and against all government. You know that the Boy Scouts, the Y. M. C. A., and many others — a great majority of those marchers — do not stand for that. Some of us are ready to die for our convictions too. You will not fool me again ! Without prejudice to our particular convictions, without denying a single personal principle, and while retaining complete freedom of choice and action in the ultimate decision, we may unite in practical measures and go the full length of the common agreement. What would happen in this world if Christians generally would assume in good faith and deadly earnest this attitude toward one another and toward their times: “God helping me, in my whole life, everywhere, I will be Chris¬ tian”? What would happen if Christians generally would recognize as final authority the will and the way of Jesus, if they would determine then, at whatever cost, to be Christian? Attitude or action — which is first? What this generation needs, needs imperatively, needs immediately, is a new and universal presentation of the Great Evangel. Out of the heart at last, up from the profound emotional centers of the human being and of the social order come the issues of life and the hope for peace. But while attitude is first, a Christian attitude toward war makes action inevitable and some action immediate. Surely we have already seen that less than united action is, as Edith Cavell said of patriotism, “not enough.” What, then, may we do together? With proper humility I submit a five-point pro¬ gram for peace. First of all, we may think peace. We may organize and distribute the literature of peace. We may acquaint ourselves with the causes of war. We may familiarize ourselves with the aspirations of those nations along whose boundaries the peace is stalked by hates and fears. Here is the beginning of knowledge, knowledge that will be power for international goodwill. In this connection it is interesting to note that a monthly publication has just brought out what is called The Two-Foot Shelf of Books Promoting Peace , a shelf that contains fifteen volumes covering every phase of the war problem and representing every great division of contemporary literature. Second, we may unite to stop international competition in building fleets and equipping armies. A Secretary of War is quoted as saying at an institute on international relations at Riverside, California, December 1931, when he was a private citizen: “We won some things from the War that were not on the program. For example, we had a complete demonstration of the fallacy that preparedness prevents war. That is worth something.” Certainly this statement does not refer to that adequate defensive equip¬ ment, to that efficient national police force which few of us would see the United States without. It does refer to the preparedness that preceded the “Marne,” that superpreparedness resulting from the mad race in which every nation of Europe joined. General Sessions 51 With the above quoted statement I agree. With it, too, I believe that the vast majority of the American people agree. In its spirit and to accomplish its purpose the makers of peace may unite. Let us actively promote, let us organize to support aggressively disarmament by agreement. But let us not rest our case for peace upon disarmament. John Bassett Moore has well written: “Peace depends not so much upon the size of military establish¬ ments as upon the cultivation of the spirit and habit of justice, of self-control, of reciprocal recognition of rights, and of forbearance.” Beyond this, general disarmament, real disarmament, will not occur until nations recognize the fundamental truth that “the price of peace is the surrender of some ‘national rights’ and the subordination of some ‘national interests.’ ” In other words, world peace will not be an accident ; it must be won, won as wars are sup¬ posed to have been won — by courage, by self-surrender, by sacrifice. Here is the very heart of the whole matter. Third, we may unite to press the investigation of the private manufacture of war munitions. Another has said, “A few years ago when the ineffable William B. Shearer sounded off about his exploits at the Geneva Naval Con¬ ference, the people of America got a look at something horrible — the spectacle of armament makers thwarting efforts at world peace for the sake of divi¬ dends.” Fourth, we may unite to urge our government to complete the so-called arms embargo recently approved by the United States Senate under the terms of which the President is given power to prevent the shipment of arms to nations bent upon making war. We may further unite to extend this principle to the granting of loans, public and private, to nations embarking upon a program of military aggression. And, finally, we may unite to support President Roosevelt’s proposal that the nations enter into an international pact of non-aggression. Pacts are not powerless, their critics to the contrary. The peace movement is in its infancy. Every pact signed strengthens the people’s will to peace. Let the process go on. Let it continue until the will to peace is more powerful than the will to war. But let us give particular attention to the President’s proposal. Another has said that it is a sort of Eleventh Commandment embodying the simple principle, “No hostile crossing of international boundary lines” — no crossing of a boundary line as an enemy to carry death to another people. It may be, it will be argued, that after the recent utter disregard of pacts and treaties — that after the apparent futility of the Kellogg-Briand agreement, the Locarno, and other agreements — every treaty is scarcely more than a scrap of paper. But, on the other hand, suppose, as Albert W. Palmer of Chicago has sug¬ gested, that the people themselves, millions of them, were to register their conviction, their good faith and determination, by popular vote? Suppose that such a realistic, popular movement — participated in by youth societies, by colleges and universities, by peace societies, and by the churches of all faiths — were to be launched now ? I am of the growing conviction that the result of such a movement would cause even the most cynical of world politicians to stand at attention. 52 National Education Association I call your attention to the fact that the proposal of the President, amplified and applied in some such fashion as I have suggested here, does not raise the question of pacifism. Indeed it destroys that issue. Certainly pacifists would sign the declaration and just as certainly many others who in good faith disagree with the position of extreme pacifism and who in conscience decline to accept it, would sign the declaration too. Men and women who would be bound to spring to the defense of the homeland were it invaded would gladly engage “not to invade anybody else’s homeland!” In such a program all citizens of goodwill, whatever their present peace activities and without interference with any other program, could engage. Such a world movement would strengthen every movement for peace and would undergird all those sacrificial endeavors that have as their final objec¬ tive the destruction of armed conflict. H ere, then, is a five-point program upon which, whatever our personal final convictions and ultimate choice, we may all unite. Here is a five-point program that, followed thru, would lead to the fulfilment of the vow we made to the dead and living dead in the stupendous conflict of twenty years ago — that holy covenant into which we entered — to end war forever. That this five-point program may not be untimely is suggested by the fact that within the month the presidents of more than one hundred colleges and universities signed a letter to President Roosevelt urging immediate passage of radical war legislation. The following acts were among those recommended : A complete embargo upon trade between the United States and any belligerent nation in the event of hostilities in any part of the world. An act forbidding the flotation in this country of bonds of billigerent countries or their citizens. An act empowering and requiring the President of the United States in case of war to take over immediate control and operation of all business establishments in this country engaged in the manufacture, transportation, or sale of materials of every description used in the prosecution of war. An act prohibiting the use of armed forces of the United States for the collection of debts owed to Americans by foreign nations. The letter contains the following paragraphs: We recognize the fact that the taking of such steps would involve serious costs and sacrifices, but we submit that no costs or sacrifices incurred thru them in the interest of peace are likely to approach those which would be caused by war. . . . We desire to express our belief that unless our government has made complete use of every available agency for peace and taken every possible step to prevent the coming of war, it has no moral right to ask of the youth of America the sacrifice in war of themselves, their opportunities for the future, and the companionship of men and women of their generation whom they hold dear; or to subject them and their children to a renewal of the post-war conditions which have so impoverished and degraded the only life they have known. It is our judgment that support and aid in the conduct of a war cannot rightly be asked unless every effort possible to human ingenuity has been made to prevent such war. Here are the reasoned conclusions of a great company of those who have been entrusted with the training of the nation’s youth and thus with the General Sessions 53 molding of public opinion thru generations to come. T. he letter of these col¬ lege presidents is significant of an aroused conscience against war and for a constructive answer to its threat. Members of the National Education Association, I call your attention to the fact that even more basic than any particular program, more funda¬ mental, is the united effort for brotherhood itself. On April 29, 1934, for the first time in American history, we celebrated Brotherhood Day. We were challenged, the whole nation was invited, by the following solemn declaration : First: I intend to do unto others, of whatever race or creed, as I would for them to do to me. Second: It is my purpose to respect the rights of human beings and to judge every fellowman on his individual merits alone. Third: I will oppose every organized effort to evoke fear or hatred of any religious or social group. To that solemn declaration I subscribed. So help me God! I submit to you that here is a philosophy for life that in its essence is the Golden Rule. Here is a philosophy for life that comprehends all human rights, that sweeps across all lines of race and color and creed to assert freedom of thought and action ; the integrity of every man’s conscience when his own soul speaks, and to affirm the inviolable dignity aye, the divinity of human personality. Intolerance is the greatest social sin. Even in America, great and free America, tolerance — man to man, race to race, faith to faith is yet to be won. And remember, teachers of America, that, however great the personal toll of intolerance to oppressed and oppressor alike, the social consequence is infinitely greater. Twentieth century civilization in her human relationships within nations as well as in her international affairs goes forward as tho hopping on one leg because of those she still regards as lesser breeds without the law, those with whom she refuses to share her better part even when she does not actually deny them the chance to win it for themselves. We have yet to learn that we cannot keep another down without staying with him and that we cannot hate without being hateful. This road of intolerance leads only to disaster. Those who take it may cry, “Peace! Peace!” but for them and for their system of public affairs there is and there can be no peace. We shall not finally disarm the world until we rise above intolerance. We shall not find the cure for war until this creed of brotherhood becomes the law by which we earn our bread, administer our government, and each, according to his own conscience, wor¬ ships God. Here is a creed that may become, first, America’s challenge to her own supreme political and social menace, and then her gift to the whole world-— the gift of a brotherhood example, of a demonstration in faith and goodw ill that may turn the stream of history from ancient channels of fear and hate 54 National Education Association into new courses of peace and unity. Ours is a world broken and disillusioned, weary to the point of blindness, rocking upon the precipice of ruin ; ours is a world listening to the seductive promises of tyrants and of exploiters who would destroy both religion and democracy. But it is a world hungry and waiting. In God’s name and in the spirit of the Prince of Peace, let us get on with the peace! THE WORLD FOR WHICH WE MUST EDUCATE 1 GLENN FRANK, PRESIDENT, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN, MADISON, WIS. In one of the most vivid episodes of the Old Testament, the prophet Elijah is surrounded by a people divided in loyalty between the worship of Baal, one of the numerous gods of the idolatrous Israelites, and the worship of the Lord who was, to Elijah, the true God. To Elijah, Baal was Illusion, while the Lord was Reality. Impatient at the indecision of the Israelites between the worship of Baal and the worship of the Lord, Elijah staged a demonstration in which he challenged the followers of Baal to join him in a prayer to their respective gods to send fire to consume a water-soaked sacrifice. As the record goes, Baal failed his followers, while the Lord of Elijah descended in consuming fire. At the outset, Elijah had said to the wavering Israelites, “How long halt ye between two opinions? If the Lord be God, follow him; but if Baal, then follow him.” But, as the record has it, the people answered him not a word. Later, however, after Baal, despite the importunity of his prophets, had left the sacrifice untouched on the altar, when the flame of Elijah’s Lord licked up the sacrifice, the halting Israelites cried aloud, “The Lord, he is the God; the Lord, he is the God.” As long as the issue was mired in the abstractions of debate, they wavered. But events finally educated them to a decision. Whether this story is to us folklore or fact is quite beside the point I am concerned to discuss here. It is, in either case, a vivid recital of how a prophet faced a people halting between two opinions and insisted that they must make up their minds about the god to whom they would give allegiance, that they must really decide what they believed and act decisively upon their belief. No other story in ancient scripture quite so accurately describes the dilemma the time puts to us. We, like the folk around Elijah, are faced with the necessity of making some major decisions, decisions that will determine our national destiny in which your personal destinies are intimately involved. Like the followers of Baal, before Elijah forced the issue, we, before the depression sobered us, were content to drift. We were so busy clipping coupons we refused to consider basic issues of national policy. Why bother about the conflicting claims of the Lord and Baal as long as the market was bullish? Maybe a few million Americans were left in the outer darkness 1 For other addresses by Glenn Frank see Proceedings 63:73-74; 71:40-53, 573-81. General Sessions 55 that ringed the charmed circle of the prosperous. What of it? The poor we would always have with us! Things, by and large, were going good. Judged by the indexes of the economists, we had entered a New Era from which the traditional ebbs and flows of enterprise had been outlawed. Down with the Cassandras! Up with the Pollyannas! We tolerated but did not take seriously these Socratic skeptics who insisted upon asking where the nation was headed. It is a different story now. The house of cards fell about our ears in 1929. Overnight the enterprise of this age of plenty suffered a stroke of paralysis. And the paralysis stubbornly resists the hundred and one medicines an empirical statesmanship has prescribed. A new mood begins to fall over the American mind. The myriad millions begin to lose faith in facile pana¬ ceas that put plasters on this and that effect while basic causes of the disease are left untouched. Here and there erstwhile blind leaders begin to realize that decisions more basic than any yet faced must be made. There are, of course, Americans who still see in the situation no more than a chance to rehabilitate outworn economic dogmas and restore to power obsolete political leaderships. But, despite the instances of retarded intelligence still manifest in some business and political circles, events are rapidly educating us to the necessity of a bold clarity of decision on a few basic policies. The sooner a sense of this necessity sweeps the national mind the better, for we are face to face with a few fundamental decisions which, as a people, we must make and make soon if we are to avoid social and economic chaos. Despite the rapidity with which events are educating us, we have still to prove that we are equal to the challenge of these decisions. We are still halting between two opinions. We have yet to give either the Lord or Baal a clear vote. We are still suffering from that disintegration of will Guglielmo Ferrero so brilliantly diagnosed in his JVords to the Deaf about a decade ago. “There have been epochs more uncouth, poorer, and more ignorant than our own,” he wrote, “but they knew what they wanted. What do we w^nt?” he asked, and then went on to say, “That is the essential question. Every man and every epoch should keep this question constantly before them, just as a lamp is kept burning day and night in dark places. Ferrero is right. This is the essential question. To know what we want is the beginning of statesmanship. Do we know what we want? Here in America? Now? Do we know what we want the government to be and do in relation to the whole mechanism of American life and enterprise over which, at its moment of highest potential power, the chill and shadow of a vast futility fell? Do we know what we want from statesmanship? Is it sheltered security or a chance to adventure in a fair field? Do we know what kind of political order we want? Do we know what kind of social order we want? Do we know what kind of economic order we want? Ferrero thinks not. He says: On the contrary, our will is in a state of complete confusion. Sometimes it is split in twain, at once desirous of benefits that are mutually exclusive. Some¬ times it entirely strays away from reason and reality, lured on by a mirage. This disorder of the will is the disease from which our age is dying. 56 National Education Association Again, Ferrero is right. We cannot make the decisions demanded of us at this historic juncture in American affairs unless we conquer this paralyz¬ ing indecision of will. What are these decisions events are demanding of us? Without wasting words in introduction, I want, in the manner of the ancient Elijah and the modern Ferrero, to put to you four major alternatives which, to me, are alternatives between Reality and Illusion, alternatives in which the survival and the significance of American life and enterprise are alike involved ! 1. Are we to strengthen democracy or surrender to dictatorship? 2. Are we to pursue our enterprise in freedom or under regimentation? 3. Are we to establish control of this age of plenty or execute a return to an age of scarcity ? 4. Are we to; walk the ways of a realistic internationalism or go in for the eco¬ nomic monasticism of the nationalists? The drift of events has brought us to a rendezvous with destiny at these four points. What life is to be like for us in the next quarter century, whether life is to smile upon us or smite us, will be largely determined by the answers we now give to these four fundamental questions which the affairs of the time have framed. The nation’s schools owe their students and the adult public something more than a neutral listing of these dilemmas of your time. Schools must set lamps burning in those dark places where social decisions falter for want of light. The nation has the right to expect from its educators candor of judgment upon even the most controversial issues. As spokesmen of the nation’s major universities, therefore, I should feel derelict in duty if I did not express at least my own deepest beliefs respecting these four crisis points in national policy. In the brief moments at my disposal, I cannot subject these issues to elaborate analysis or buttress my beliefs with a vast array of data. I can but state and commend to you the point of view that, in each instance, seems soundest to me. I. I turn, first, to the issue of democracy versus dictatorship. Dramatic secessions from democracy have everywhere marked the post-war politics of the world. Even those democracies that have not gone bankrupt and made formal assignment of their political liberties to some de jure or de facto dictatorship have had to reckon with a growing skepticism of the democratic dogma. The issue is joined. We must decide whether we are to strengthen democracy or surrender to dictatorship. It is a mistake, I think, to assume that this epidemic resort to the supposed strength of dictatorship is but a byproduct of the chaos into which affairs fell while the nations stupidly engaged in the cooperative suicide of war. Even before Avar had bled the race white of its old self-reliance, and quite aside from the impetus that post-war chaos gave to the seizure and centralization of power, there was a growing conviction in the minds of many that democracy was not up to the job of administering an age of science, technology, and power production. Democracy may have been General Sessions admirably adapted to the administration of an age in which the scale of enterprise was small, the relationships of life simple, and the tempo of development slow, but, in the modern industrialized world, the scale of enterprise is vast, the relationships of life complex, and the tempo of development swift. Such a world, so the contention ran, demands a stronger leadership than the elections of democracy will commonly call to power or the legislatures of democracy normally tolerate. The peculiar stresses and instabilities of the war and post-war periods brought this anti-democratic conviction out of the library of the political philosopher into the arena of political action. Here, there, and yonder it has found varied expression. Here it expresses itself in a proletarian dictatorship that is frankly a class government. There it expresses itself in a more personal dictatorship that disputes the necessity of any class struggle for power, asserts as indefensible any class monopoly of privilege, and purports to merge the separate interests of all classes in the single interest of the state. Yonder it grows, subtly but lushly, under the cover of emergency leaderships. that may themselves still adhere to the democratic dogma. The destiny of democracy on this continent will depend entirely upon our success or failure in solving the economic problem. If we can now move with reasonable rapidity towards a soundly based and widely distributed economic well-being, essential democracy is not likely to be seriously chal¬ lenged during this generation. But whether we are to succeed or fail in solving the economic problem is still on the lap of the gods. For all our brave whistling in the dark, we are still far from out of the woods. Anything less than a complete thawing out of the fountains of enterprise, more or less frozen for the last five years, will put the American tradition of democratic self-government in definite jeopardy. If, when the roaring mountain stream of federal spending and federal subsidy begins to dry up at its source, the basic enterprise of the nation remains sluggish or stalled, the American millions will lend a ready ear to drastic alternatives. If recovery comes too slowly, a growing impatience with the traditional forms and functions of government will manifest itself. If we achieve a fair measure of recovery, but, in the achieving, perpetuate the old inequities and inefficiencies of the pre-depression order, recovery will be transient and insecure, popular satisfaction will be short-lived, and democracy s judgment day will be but postponed. Democracy is not invested with any inevitable immortality. Towards the end of his life, the late Lord Bryce ventured the judgment that there were few countries in which freedom seemed safe for the century ahead. When the spiritual oxygen which has kept alive the attachment to liberty and^ self- government in the minds of the people becomes exhausted, he wrote, will not the flame burn low and flicker out?” This is a question we may well ask ourselves as we attempt to assess the American outlook. The muddling mismanagement of our economic affairs, which ended in the disaster of 1929, seriously depleted the spiritual oxygen which, for a century and a half, had kept alive in the minds of the American masses an 58 National Education Association attachment to liberty and self-government. If now we fail to deal decisively and dependably with the problem of a soundly based and widely distributed economic well-being, this already depleted supply of spiritual oxygen will be utterly exhausted, and democratic self-government may well disappear from the face of this continent as the masses, in despair and under demagogic leaderships arising to batten on their despair, surrender to the delusion of dictatorship. Democracy has died before in history. And peoples that had known it and prized it seemed not sorry to see it go. When popular government flickered out in ancient Greece and Rome, nobody thought of reviving it. All this may happen again on this continent in your generation. I beg you to believe that no price we may have to pay to prevent this will be too high. I shall not conceal my conviction that, despite its manifest weaknesses, democracy is, in the long run, both safer than and superior to dictatorship, despite the swift efficiencies some dictators may seem to bring to a phase of emergency. The cardinal strength of democracy is that it broadens the base of judg¬ ment upon which policy is built. All of us, with varying degrees of effect, can chip in on the discussion that determines policy. Ehe cardinal weakness of dictatorship is that it narrows the base of judgment upon which policy is built. Policy is determined solely by the dictator and his particular brand of expert adviser. The greater the complexities of an age the broader we should make the base of judgment upon which its policies are built. The complexities of our age are limitless. The capacities of its leaders are limited. Less than at any time in human history can we afford to put all our eggs in one basket. Less than at any time in human history can we afford to bully into silence the voice of corrective criticism, intimidate minority opinion, and give un¬ questioned right-of-way to the green dogmatisms of politics and economics that sprout so lavishly from the improvisings of crisis-driven statesmen. And yet this is today happening the world around wherever the minds of men have been seduced by the dramatic promises of dictatorship. It is one of the major delusions of this disintegrate time that the need of the hour is strong government. It is not strong government we need so much as wise government, government invested with the virtues of insight, dignity, moderation, justice, tolerance, and an acute sense of social values. Such governments draw men into authentic loyalty to their purposes. Strong governments drive men into artificial lip-service to their slogans. Wise gov¬ ernment must have wide soils in which to sink its roots. Strong government can build a brief interlude of power upon the clever strategies of a clique. Dictatorship offers us the quickest path to strong government. Democracy offers us the largest possibility of wise government. Dictatorship is founded upon fear and faith. Democracy rests upon leader¬ ship and popular understanding. Democracy is singularly impotent in an hour of crisis if leadership is derelict and popular understanding darkened, but its basic concept is sounder than the concept of dictatorship. General Sessions 59 If this be true, as I think it is, the problem of this generation is not the renunciation but the revision of democracy that it may function more effectively in these dishevelled hours of transition from old to new cir¬ cumstances of life and enterprise. I content myself with two suggestions respecting this necessary revision of democracy. In the first place, we should recognize the necessity and establish a fixed procedure for what Lindsay Rogers terms “crisis government” for emer¬ gencies. The normal processes of democracy are not designed to deal with crises of the magnitude the worldwide depression assumed. When this sweeping collapse came to the enterprise of the world, weak governments saw in the situation a choice between disintegration and dicta¬ torship. Nation after nation chose dictatorship. Disintegration faced us as it faced these lesser nations of Europe. Our government was not weak, but its ways were ill-adapted to the task of dealing with a crisis so grave. A less stable people might have gone the way of dictatorship. We made no revolutionary change in the basic structure of our government. We chose instead temporarily to adjourn some of the more deliberate procedures of legislation and to lodge extraordinary powers in the national leadership for the period of the emergency. Since then varied forces of opposition have discreetly but determinedly criticized this move as a subtle assault upon democratic self-government. I find myself at variance with much that the national leadership has done with its emergency powers, but the wisdom and necessity of granting to the national leadership extraordinary powers in the midst of emergency cannot, in my judgment, be justly disputed. . In no other way can democracy deal effectively with crises of major magnitude. If democracy can know when to adjourn and when to leassemble its normal procedures, democracy thereby proves its superiority to dictator¬ ship, for democracy in so doing takes advantage of all the short-time ad¬ vantages of dictatorship without incurring its long-time liabilities. But this technic of “crisis government” should not be left to the improvisations and intrigues of an hour of incredible worry when the national mind is at wit’s end. It should be a matured technic held ready for the moment of emergency. In the second place, for even the normal business of government in this complicated age we should effect a reallocation of functions between the legislature and the executive. In the United States, as in Europe, parlia¬ mentary democracy is not adapted to the effective administiation of a vast, complex, and swiftly moving national life. If we want to lay the ghost of dictatorship, we must revamp the technics of democracy in terms of the scale, complexity, and tempo of the affairs they must now serve. This revamping need not be revolutionary in its nature. It requires little more, I think, than an intelligent readjustment of the roles of legislature and executive. We must stop the inexpert intrusion of legislators into the detailed aspects of legislation and the intricate processes of administration. We must restrict legislative bodies to the charting of broad paths of policy, the setting up of 60 National Education Association the goals the needs of the inarticulate millions require that we reach, and a critical checking up on the results of administration. And we must lodge greater detailed power and wider discretion in the executive. The executive power is always in the spotlight. When it runs amuck we can get at it, as we cannot get at the hydra-headed power of the legislature when it falls victim to caprice or corruption. These and like adjustments of the democratic technic are the price we must pay for the avoidance of dictatorship. II. I turn, second, to the issue of freedom versus regimentation. Thruout the western world, individualism is on the run, as governments of varied sorts announce their determination to plan the life and enterprise of their peoples. The issue is joined. Are we to pursue our enterprise in freedom or under regimentation? On no other issue is there so much confusion of judg¬ ment. I want, if I can, to bring some measure of clarification to its mazes. 1 he one thing common to all the experimental governments of the time, our own included, is a shifting of the balance of power between politics and economics. Alike under the variant leaderships of Stalin, Mussolini, and Roosevelt, the statesman is grasping at the reins of power long held by the business man, banker, and financier. In each instance, so far, it has been a case of political leadership’s stepping in to save a situation that economic leadership had failed to master in any socially satisfactory way. But this is the way the face of history is changed. Emergencies arise. They are met. File situation dictates the action. And then, later, a new philosophy is matured around the action thru which the emergency was met. This has happened before our eyes in the last decade. Post-war capitalism ran amuck. Some force had to hold the social order together. The state was the obvious force to act in the common interest. And everywhere the state has come more and more into the field before dominated by private interests. In some countries, with radical change in the structure and function of the state; in others, with milder alterations. But everywhere the state takes on new significance. And now a new philoso¬ phy, common to all the experimental governments, is taking shape, a philosophy of statism. A steady enlargement of the role of the state has, with us, been under way for some time. The impetus to statism cannot be wholly charged to the brain storm of a brain trust. Statism has grown in America not so much by the initiative of political theorists as from the pragmatic handling of pressing problems by practical administrators and upon the actual invitation of industry to government to step into the picture as a partner in the plan¬ ning of publicly significant economic policies and the control of privately unmanageable economic relations in such industrial fields as oil production. Even under Mr. Hoover the government was intervening in the private enterprise of the people. It rushed to the rescue of banks. It administered restoratives to railroads on the brink of receivership. It became a speculati¬ on the grain exchanges. It propped up tottering manufacturers. It played banker to the farmer. It may have acted more as a brother bringing help than a boss giving orders, but it was swimming in the historic stream leading to statism nevertheless. General Sessions 61 We may set it down as inescapable that, in the generation ahead, govern¬ ment will play a larger and larger role in the realm of economics whether the White House is occupied by a Roosevelt or a Hoover. The day of a virtually anarchic individualism is dead. And no amount of political rhetoric can revive it. The peculiar circumstances of the power age have made im¬ possible any wholesale reversion of government to the simpler role of a simpler day. The road back is not the way out ! It does not follow, however, that the only choice open to us is between anarchic individualism and an all-embracing state. The problem upon which the genius and judgment of your generation should come to focus is the problem of determining wisely the direction and the degree of governmental activity in economic affairs which the new circumstances of an age of science, technology, and power production make necessary. And I give it to you as my considered judgment that at no point in the imperative readjust¬ ment of our old policies to our new problems is there greater danger of committing national suicide than in our attempt to determine what is valid and what is vicious in the current trend towards statism. Oswald Spengler, in his Hour of Decision, insists that this whole crushing depression is a direct result of the decline of state power. When economics dethroned politics, so Spengler thinks, the seeds of the present depression were sown. Communism agrees. Fascism agrees. There are inklings to indi¬ cate that some Americans agree. We should think twice before we follow the lead of Italy, Russia, and Germany with their varied versions of the philosophy of the state above all. Our system of laissez faire economics has manifestly run amuck. Order must obviously be substituted for the anarchy that has too often prevailed in our enterprise. But the easiest, the simplest, and the laziest thing to do is to run to the government for salvation. That may work well for a time if the luck of events shoves a strong man to the center of the political stage, as it has in Italy and Russia. And, in the United States, the fates have certainly captained the state with a man of sincere and socially-minded impulses. But, frankly, I am not sure that we are ready to make even Roosevelt receiver for economic America. The situation cannot be met, however, with apoplectic appeals to the Constitution and tub-thumping harangues about an individualism that has landed so many individuals in the bread line. The rank and file of Ameri¬ cans believe in rugged individualism, as profoundly as did the pioneers, but they have had their fill of ruthless individualism. They will drive from power and destroy any political leadership that seeks to impose unnecessary and unworkable limitations upon the free exercise of rugged individualism, but they will submit to drastic limitations upon their freedom of enterprise before they will hand themselves back into the power of a ruthless indi¬ vidualism of business, industry, and finance. Some measure of social control of private enterprise has become imperative. We have reached a point in our economic evolution at which some force above the battle of private interests, whether it be the force of organized 62 National Education Association industry itself or the power of the state, must insure the adoption, thruout our business and industrial system, of minimum policies respecting wages, hours, prices, and profits that will bring our capacity to purchase into such relation to our capacity to produce as will keep our industrial system a going concern ministering effectively to the maximum needs of the millions. I am as reluctant as any living American to see the ebullient spirit of private enterprise put in chains to the quality of intelligence that American politics seems able normally to recruit. There is a priceless value at the heart of private initiative that we must preserve at all cost. I do not believe that the complex economic life of the United States can ever be run effectively from Washington. I doubt the wisdom of having political persons dictate in detail the risks and routines of American business and industry. And this doubt survives even the gross mismanagement so many leaders of business, industry, and finance brought to the nation’s enterprise before 1929. But it must be plain by now that, in the decade before the depression, private initiative on this continent was doing its blind best to commit suicide. Some factor of integration had and has to come into the picture to save private initiative for itself and for its service to the nation. For myself, I should prefer to see this factor of integration provided by private enterprise itself. If the leadership of business, industry, and finance will come to bat with a willingness to face the new problems of this new age of science, technology, and power production with a socially responsible program that will prevent the ruthlessness and protect the ruggedness of individualism, no political leadership on earth can win the suffrage of the American people for a program that smacks either of fascism or of com¬ munism. Meanwhile the line of soundest policy respecting the relation of the state to private enterprise seems to me clearly indicated. Governmental interven¬ tion in business processes is often inept. Governmental inspiration of broad economic policy, and, if necessary, its imposition, may now and then be imperative. It is so now. And if government will but keep clear the distinc¬ tion between the broad guidance of economic policy and the detailed regi¬ mentation of business administration, the United States has, I think, the chance to evolve a sounder relation between politics and economics than either the communisms or fascisms of the hour can possibly achieve. III. I turn, third, to the issue of an economics of plenty versus an eco¬ nomics of scarcity. For the better part of a generation, we have been work¬ ing in terms of an age of plenty, but thinking in terms of an age of scarcity. Our enterprise has been new. Our economics has been old. A transient prosperity threw, for a time, the mantle of a bright delusion over this dangerous maladjustment between our enterprise and our economics. But events are rapidly joining the issue. We must decide whether we are to establish control of this age of plenty or execute a return to an age of scarcity. • We cannot go on indefinitely with our enterprise in one age and our economics in another. We must either shove our enterprise back to our General Sessions 63 economics or bring our economics abreast of our enterprise. If the toiling millions can be convinced that greater happiness can be found, by declaring a moratorium on scientific progress, throwing the brakes on technological advance, and deliberately reducing the enterprise of the nation to simpler and more easily manageable dimensions, well and good. If that is what they want! But that is not what they want. They hunger to have full human advantage of the utmost this age of science, technology, and power production is equipped to bring them in comfort, convenience, and liberation of spirit. In an age of scarcity the poor will endure their lot without undue whim¬ pering, but want will not forever stay docile in the presence of potential plenty kept just beyond its reach by failures in social management. This is why the issue of an economics of plenty versus an economics of scarcity is more than an academic question. The social stability of the American future is at stake in the choice we make between these alternatives. To me the most disturbing fact of the time is the number of Americans, in high position and low, who are falling victim to a defeatist mood, ap¬ parently assuming that progress has come to a dead end, that science and technology have been too efficient in producing a limitless output at low prices, and that the thing to do is to plan a lesser output at higher prices. To restrict production and to raise prices, as a general policy, is, to me, not liberalism but reaction, not statesmanship but surrender, not creative advance but cowardly retreat. That way lies the subsidizing of inefficiency. That way lies the sabotage of superior management that knows how to bring both the cost of production and the price of products down. That way lies a permanent and perilous lowering of living standards for the swarming millions. It was not for this that the pioneers builded their blood and sacri¬ fice into the foundations of this republic. More goods at lower prices, not fewer goods at higher prices, is the logical goal of an age of science and technology! To me it is incredible that, in a world of tragically unfilled human need, we should now set out upon the quixotic attempt to increase welfare by destroying wealth or declining to create it. Our ancestors fought valiantly over the centuries to conquer famine. Are we now to say that their conquest has been too decisive? After the sweat and science of generations have brought us out of an economy of scarcity into an economy of plenty, are we to confess that we are incapable of managing plenty, and deliberately legis¬ late a modified famine in just those sections of our economic enterprise where production has proved most efficient? I think history will pass a bitter judg¬ ment upon us if we take this road in dealing with the difficulties now con¬ fronting our farms and our factories. Scientific and technical leadership has abolished the physical necessity of poverty on this continent. It remains for political and economic leader¬ ship to abolish the social fact of poverty and its milder manifestation, under¬ consumption. Science and the machine have brought us to the threshold of a social millennium, but we have lacked the wit to unlock the door. Instead of planning to adjust ourselves to the half-hearted and insecure 64 National Education Association existence of a reinduced age of scarcity, we should not rest until we have found the key that will unlock the door into this social millennium of pros¬ perity, leisure, and security which science and the machine have made possible. All the necessary tools are in our hands for emancipating the race from poverty, drudgery, and insecurity. If we now fail to effect this emanci¬ pation, we shall go down in history as traitors to the tools of our own creation. We must be careful lest a program of stabilization turn out to have been a process of sterilization. To play down our productive powers may well result in a stabilization of want rather than a stabilization of welfare. For this reason, it is imperative that we judge every leadership that bids for our suffrage, whether it comes with the lugubrious warnings of conserv¬ atism or the lilting promises of liberalism, by this: Is it proposing bravely to bend to human use the full powers of this economy of science, technology, and power production, or does it ask us to take a coward’s refuge in a policy of repressing, restricting, and reducing its maximum productive capacities? IV. I turn, fourth, to the issue of internationalism versus nationalism. At the moment the economic relations of the world are paralyzed by a baffling paradox. While the processes of the world’s life grow daily more international, the policies of the world’s governments grow daily more national. If this be more than a transient byproduct of the economic flux and emotional fanaticism of the moment, it will bring us before long to the point at which we shall have to decide whether we are to walk the ways of a realistic internationalism, insofar as the policies of other nations will permit, or go in for the economic monasticism of the nationalists. It is difficult to speak with a sure judgment on this issue. American foreign policy does not operate in a vacuum. Its nature cannot but be pro¬ foundly influenced by policy elsewhere in the world. I can do no more than give you my own conviction respecting the current resurgence of nationalism thruout the world. Despite a rising tide of opinion to the contrary, I am convinced that the modern world cannot be run effectively in terms of isolated economic nationalisms. The modern world is bound together by the lithe arms of rapid transportation, instantaneous communication, and the frontier-cross¬ ing agencies of credit, contract, capital, and corporate organization. We cannot reverse this basic fact by transient ventures in swashbuckling nationalism. Ultimately some sort of world policy must dominate world trade relations. Such policy seems impossible of achievement at the moment, but it will be one of the major obligations of your generation to surmount rather than surrender to the difficulties that today tie statesmanship to the parish pump the world around. I am profoundly aware of the timidity and ineffectiveness of the League of Nations in the areas of major conflict. I am aware that American states¬ manship must, in this singularly disorganized phase of the world’s life, stand stubborn guard over American interests. I have no desire to see America set irresponsibly out as a gullible Sir Galahad in a world of Robin General Sessions 65 Hoods willing to fleece our pockets. I am aware that the nature and volume of world trade have changed radically in the post-war period as nation after nation has enlarged its production of goods and commodities that formerly bulked large in our exports. But, for all this, I am convinced that the current swing towards self- contained nationalism is a venture in madness. If unchecked it will mean the retreat of the civilized modern to primitive tribalism. It will enforce a drastic and delimiting readjustment in the organization, capitalization, and operation of American business and industry, spell the doom of com¬ mercial agriculture on this continent, and drive the American farmer to the status of the peasant, with a standard of living higher, perhaps, than the hard lot of the peasant of Europe, ' but with the subsistence income that marks the peasant nevertheless. It will mean that a baffled statesmanship thruout the world is setting out to liquidate the age of plenty and lead humanity back to an age of scarcity. For this reason it is important that we beware of wasting our energies on a romantic internationalism that ignores the raw facts that today line the path of responsible statesmanship, but that we cherish every chance to ad vance the interests of that realistic internationalism which the work of the world indicates, whatever the political perversions of the hour may dictate. Here, then, are four major alternatives in which, if I read the times aright, the destiny of our nation and of ourselves is involved. It is the supreme obligation of the nation’s schools to help the nation’s citizens bring disciplined minds, and a living sense of social responsibility to their con¬ sideration. ORGANIZING WITHIN THE STATE FOR BETTER SCHOOLS HENRY FILER, PRESIDENT, FLORIDA EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, MIAMI, FLA. I am going to tell you what we have done in Florida, but before doing so I want to tell you something about the school laws in the state of Florida. We operate under a county unit system. We have a county superintendent and a county schoolboard composed of three members. They have supervision over all the city and county schools. Therefore, when I refer to a county you know I have reference also to our city schools. Our legislature met in April and May 1933. I spent some four weeks of my time at that session of the legislature. I discussed the school situation with the various members. I told them that it would be necessary for the state to provide at least six hundred dollars a year for teachers if it was going to pay the teachers of Florida a living wage, and operate the schools for eight months. In almost every instance this would be the reply, “We are in favor of schools but where are we going to get the money ? Besides, you know that the people of Florida expect to have their taxes reduced.” I heard that story so many times until I almost believed it myself. But after that legislature adjourned, I checked up on them and found that this is what they did — they did not reduce one single tax except the automobile license tag, the receipts of which 66 National Education Association go directly to the public free school system. That tax they cut 40 percent. That was the only tax. Then I went back to Miami, and I prepared a budget for the schools of Dade County. I was told by the chairman of the budget commission that it would be necessary to reduce the operating expenses of the schools this year because the people were unable to pay to operate them as they should be. At their request I reduced the school budget 10 percent. About two weeks after that, the chairman of the budget commission invited me to the court house. He was in session with the board of county commissioners. I walked in the office and this is what he said to me: “We find that it is going to be necessary this year to increase the county commissioners’ budget $250,000 to repair roads and we want to know if you will not reduce the school budget so that there will be no general increase in taxes.” I, of course, refused but the tax¬ payers paid $250,000 more last year for roads. After that happened I decided it was time for the school people to fight. So I waited until September when school opened. I called a meeting of all the teachers in Dade County and I told them at the meeting what had hap¬ pened and told them that I was ready to lead the fight not only in Dade County but in the state of Florida, if they would support it. They voted unanimously to do so. We then elected a committee of fifteen to draw a con¬ stitution. Ten of them were teachers and five principals. We named it the Florida League for Better Schools, each county being a unit. In Miami it was the Dade County Union of the Florida League for Better Schools, the object of that organization being to elect senators and representatives and other state officials who would support a radical program for the public free school system in the state of Florida. We stated in the constitution that we could not enter into local politics, concerning schoolboard members, county superintendents, and county officers. Our fight was with the legislature and state officials. To become a member of that organization all you had to do was to sign a pledge card agreeing to register, pay your poll tax, and to vote for the candidates who would support the public school system. To this meeting I invited a representative from both of our newspapers and the next morning, of course, out over the Associated Press there went an article stating that the teachers in Miami had gone into politics, and that Mr. Filer was going to carry the fight to every county in this state. And day after day from that time until June of this year, or almost every day, there appeared articles in the local press or in the press somewhere over the state about the school teachers entering into politics. I do not think it was more than three or four days after our first meeting when I received telegrams inviting me to speak in the various counties of the state. So upon those invitations I did visit certain counties but I want to state now that in only one county in the state did we have a school teacher as a head of the organization and that was in Dade County. In every other county in the state we had American Legion members, Rotary Club members, Kiwanis Club members, P. T. A. members, citizens who were not school General Sessions 67 teachers; these were the presidents of the organizations in every county in the state. Shortly after we started the fight I was fighting the governor of the state, the press of the state, the state road department, and all of the politicians of the state. They first accused me of running for the legislature of Florida. I denied that. Then they accused me of running for state superintendent, and I denied that. Then they came out and said I was running for the governorship of the state of Florida; I denied that. At about that time Miss Gray wrote me a letter inviting me to speak here this morning. So I carried that letter with me and I would have it read by some teacher. When they were thru reading it, I would say “Now they are all wrong about this. I am running for President of the United States. And so 1 would answer them and fight backwards and forwards. The governor would come out and say he was going to remove me from office, and I would reply that that was his privilege. Then he would wonder why I was traveling over the state, and I would answer him that that was my privilege. One day some other state official would say something about me and I would answer that ; the next day it would be the governor, the next day it would be some member of the senate, and away we went, and away they talked about a school teacher entering into politics. I had cooperation ; the publicity I desired. When the school teachers went to pay their poll tax, we would go in a body, five hundred teachers. We would go down at one time to the court house and take their pictures and put it on the front page of the newspapers, and there would be a heading — “School Teachers Enter into Politics— a Political Organization.” My reply to that was always that I was willing to admit that in the broad sense of the word, that the Florida League for Better Schools was a political organization, but as the word was commonly used it was not true, because we were fighting for the greatest of all American institutions — the public free school system ; we were not interested in any individual. It made no difference to us who was elected to serve us as senator or representative or governor ; all we wanted to know was that they were 100 percent in favor of the public free school system, and that they were as honest as you could expect politicians to be. After fighting for three months, one morning I woke up and found that I was president of the Florida Education Association. Fhen I started, and this is the point, and really I think possibly this is the reason why we won our battle — as soon as I was elected president I called a meeting of the directors of the Florida Education Association, the Ways and Means Com¬ mittee, the state schoolboard members of the association, the state officers of the parent-teacher association, representatives from the American Legion, and several other citizens, and I said, “We must have a program. We cannot go back to Tallahassee, our capital, next time the legislature meets without having something definite, some source of revenue where we can get this money.” We worked on that idea steadily, almost daily, and we asked for a fourth of the gasoline tax, enough to raise our revenue to seven 68 National Education Association and one-half million dollars, which would guarantee every teacher in Florida six hundred dollars a year from the state, and of course the counties can add to that any amount they wish. Then we prepared a letter to send to the candidates running for office and this is about what the letter stated : 1. Are you in favor of a seven and one-half million dollar appropriation? 2. If after you have been in the legislature for thirty days and if you are unable to work out some program, and if no one else in the legislature is able to work out some program that will produce our seven and one-half million dollars, will you agree to take the program of the school people? Well, the candidate was on “the spot,” as you might say. If he was for the schools he had to admit that our proposition was fair because we did not tell him he had to take our program except in case he failed. The results were that every man running for the legislature in Florida agreed to that program except two. Only two that I know refused and both of them were most gloriously defeated in their county. Only two! We elected some five school teachers to go to the legislature, and three days before the election, on June 2, the governor of the state of Florida came out over the Associated Press, after we had all candidates pledged for the Senate and house and said he was in favor of the school program also. So we won our battle. We were very particular not to select any candi¬ dates. We tried to get every man who ran for office not to tell us he was in favor of the program but to write us a letter. We wanted it in black and white. “We are going to file it in the office of the state education association in Tallahassee, so that in case you forget at the next session, we will just remind you of what you signed.” And we had it written down. Now there is lots and lots of work. I traveled some fifteen thousand miles. I drove miles a day, five hundred miles to make a speech one night perhaps, get up the next morning at five o’clock and start again. Our school teachers in Tampa and Miami published a newspaper and you should have seen the advertising those candidates paid for in those newspapers. The teachers in both those cities made a good profit publishing a newspaper. If you put on a fight like that in your state, you will be criticized, but never object to criticism. The only way in the world that^you can defeat a lady in argument is to stop talking. As long as you talk she will win. The very minute the politicians stop criticizing, you are in trouble. The school teachers, and especially the ladies, stop talking, and then we lose. So if I could not get publicity any other way I would do something radical, say something and start them up again. We must have the opposition. Do not be discouraged. I want to tell county superintendents of schools and schoolboard members my experience in a very few words. I served as a member of the Dade County School Board from 1920 to 1930. As a matter of fact I have been in the office continuously since 1920, but for ten years I worked as hard as any man could work. In spite of all I would do, almost every week I would hear a story of some school teacher criticizing the situation in the schools General Sessions 69 and I could not understand as hard as I was working why the teachers would criticize. One day I decided possibly I was wrong. I called all the teachers to a meeting. I said to them, “I have worked hard for ten years to improve the schools, but for some reason or another you do not appreciate it, and I have decided that I am the reason for that because I have not told you all of the story about all of Florida and our school situation. I want you to appoint a committee and come down to the schoolboard office and let us go into details. I want to educate you as to the conditions of our schools.” From that day until this I have had the support of all the teachers in our county. They know the school situation. So if there are any county superintendents, or city superintendents here, or schoolboard members, the first thing you will have to do is to go home and get right with your teachers. That is your first job. And if you will do that then you will not have any more trouble. I do hope that we will carry this fight on. I am ready for Florida to lead a fight to elect United States senators and representatives to come to Washington who will support the schools, and I know from experience that after you elect your senators and representatives and governors, that there is no use sending telegrams to them after they are in office. There is no use signing petitions and sending to them. There is no use passing resolu¬ tions. It does no good. I have tried it. What you have got to do is to elect the right man before he leaves home. When you do that you will win the battle. Do not get a man who is in favor of a beer bill, and a road bill, or something like that, and expect him to put over some school program, because he just will not do it and you cannot make him do it. It is not a disgrace for a school teacher to vote. It is wrong for any school teacher to criticize any public official unless the teacher votes. He has no right to criticize otherwise. I will go further than that and say that in my opinion it is a mighty poor school teacher that will teach citizenship all day and then fail to vote himself. We have started in Florida. Let us send the proper men to Congress, to the House and to the Senate. MEETING THE EMERGENCY IN 1935 JAMES H. RICHMOND, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, FRANKFORT, KY.J AND CHAIRMAN, NATIONAL COMMITTEE FOR FEDERAL EMERGENCY AID FOR EDUCATION An educational emergency still confronts us. I base this statement pri¬ marily upon the facts brought together during our efforts to secure emer¬ gency aid to the schools last year. I will not bore you with the figures involved but it is very important for us to realize that some thirty-five to forty states are likely to spend less state and local money for schools this year than they spent the previous year. Our estimates show that some $200,- 000,000 less money will be spent on public education in the nation this year 70 National Education Association than was spent for the year just closed. The following excerpt from my letter of April 13 to the President of the United States summarizes these facts. Incidentally, this letter was delivered in person to the President’s secretary after I endeavored repeatedly for three months to see him for the purpose of impressing upon him the importance of extending some means of emergency aid to education. May I say, in passing, that some days subse¬ quent to the delivery of this letter, I had the honor of a conference with the President and was treated most courteously and heard most sympa¬ thetically. This is the excerpt: The chairman of the Committee on Education of the House of Representatives has announced that a subcommittee will present for your consideration a pro¬ posed measure drafted to meet the emergency needs of the schools for the year 1934-35. It has been reported that the subcommittee feels that $75,000,000 will be adequate for this purpose. This amount is not exorbitant when it is considered that school expenditures were reduced from $2,316,614,000 in 1930-31 to $1,921,900,000 in 1932-33, and that it has been estimated by reliable authorities that total school expenditures will probably not exceed $1,753,300,000 for this year. It is a fallacy to assume that these reductions have resulted from the withdrawal of funds from school support. The shrinkage of property valuations and the virtual disappearance of the tax base in some cases have accounted for the reductions in the main. Curtail¬ ments and retrenchments are to be found all along the line. Further reductions will continue the detrimental influences already operating. These facts were presented to the Committee on Education during the hearings held by the Committee. I endeavored repeatedly during the month of January to present them to you in person but was unable to do so. Without some measure of federal emergency aid for schools next year similar to that now extended to various agencies and industries we may expect to see the schools in a worse plight next year than they have been this year or last, for the reason that conservative estimates of informed officials indicate that for the nation as a whole approximately $200,000,000 less money will be spent in 1934-35 for schools than was spent this year. Of course, there will be instances where more money will be spent next year, but the general upturn in collections from property taxes will not be experienced before 1935, if I have been advised correctly. Approxi¬ mately 80 percent of the public funds spent on schools come from property taxes. An interesting story could be told of the facts leading up to and the hear-, ings referred to in the quotation above. Numerous articles dealing with these hearings and the work of the National Committee for Federal Emer¬ gency Aid for Education, of which I have the honor to be chairman, have appeared in the Journal of the National Education Association and in other publications. The report of the hearing itself contains some very interest¬ ing statements. Those who believe that the federal government should bear a part of the burden of school support and who have not read this report should do so by all means. There are some very illuminating passages in it. It is enough to say here, however, that the hearings were held for the purpose of determining what, if anything, the federal government should do to aid in meeting the emergency in education. Attention was focused on items two and three of the following six-point program which had been General Sessions 71 formulated by Commissioner Zook’s Federal Advisory Committee on Emer¬ gency Aid in Education : 1. An appropriation of $50,000,000 to keep schools open during the school year 1933-34. 2. An appropriation of $100,000,000 to help maintain schools during 1934-35, the fund to be distributed upon the basis of reasonable evidence of needs and resources. 3. An additional substantial appropriation to be distributed to all the states for the year 1934-35 in order that educational institutions may be adequately supported. The instability of educational support even in more fortunate states and communi¬ ties endangers the effectiveness of the schools and the safety of the nation. The situation is so critical that the people are justified in using federal funds to insure normal operation of the schools. 4. Local funds to be released for school maintenance by refinancing school district debts and providing federal loans to school districts on the security of delinquent taxes, frozen assets in closed banks, or other acceptable securities. 5. Out of any new appropriations made for public works, not less than 10 percent to be allocated for buildings for schools, colleges, and other educational enterprises. These grants should cover the entire cost. Major attention should be given to the needs of rural schools. 6. An appropriation of $30,000,000 to be administered by the United States Office of Education to assist students to attend institutions of higher education. To say the least, the Education Committee of the House of Representa¬ tives is very conservative. This is indicated by the following statement of Chairman Douglass in Volume 78, No. 91, page 7705 of the Congressional Record, as well as by the statements of some members in the published report of the hearings referred to above: Mr. Douglass: Mr. Chairman, I take pride in saying that the Committee on Edu¬ cation is a very conservative committee. We understand the difficulty with regard to federal control thru federal aid. We have conscientiously, and I may say jealously, religiously tried to avoid this issue to keep it from coming upon the floor of the House. The following statement of Mr. Douglass in Volume 78, No. 114, page 9666 of the Congressional Record furnished a very good picture of the changed attitude of the Education Committee after careful consideration of the needs of the schools on the merits of the case : % Mr. Douglass: We have been discussing in that committee for 3 or 4 or 5 months the need of federal emergency aid to education, and we have tried honestly to deter¬ mine that issue according to our ability and according to the evidence presented to us. Your Committee on Education has reported H.R. 9544, a bill to provide for cooperation by the federal government with the several states and territories, and the District of Columbia in meeting the crisis in education. The essential provision of the bill is that $75,000,000 shall be appropriated for carrying out the purposes of the act from the federal emergency relief funds that are to be provided this year, to be disbursed on the basis of need by the federal Relief Administrator, with the advice and cooperation of the Commissioner of Education. There is an overwhelming demand thruout the country from all state superintendents of education, or practi¬ cally all, for relief for education in order that the common schools of less than col¬ lege grade shall be kept open in this nation next year. I have no objection to the paying of back salaries already due, but I tell you the great need, beginning in September, with the scheduled opening of the schools, will be that the children shall 72 National Education Association go back into the schools, and unless the government appropriates the $75,000,000 which the Committee on Education has asked for in some form, in some manner, before adjournment of this Congress, then there are thousands of schools that will not be opened in this country next September. If that sad event happens, if that catastrophe befall, it will be most unfortunate, because when you close the door of the school, you open the door of the jail. If this measure under discussion is intended to take the place of the bill which your Committee on Education has reported, I would be against it, but I hesitate at this moment to take that position. Mr. Boland : Mr. Chairman, will the gentleman yield? Mr. Douglass: Yes. Mr. Boland: Is the gentleman aware of the fact that schools in Pennsylvania will not be able to keep open during this next year unless some provision is made? Mr. Douglass: I am perfectly aware of that fact. We have evidence and documents submitted to us from all the state superintendents of the nation calling upon the federal government to expend not $75,000,000, but $150,000,000. Your committee feels that the pressing need is not to pay for obligations past due, but to open the schools next September, and you will be doing a great injustice to the youth of this nation, you will be buying and selling their future morality, you will be opening the doors of the jails to them if you do not do something by way of emergency aid and do it in this session. I hate to believe that this measure was brought in to hamper or defeat our Education Committee bill, because the Committee on Rules will not give us a rule on it, but I am going to insist that this House, later, when I have better opportunity to make a speech on the subject, shall hear from us in the form of an amendment to the emergency relief bill, and I appeal to you to think what you are doing here today. Pay the teachers what is owing them from the past, if you will, but give us something to open the schools with next fall and pay the teachers in the near future. Protect the youth of America. Think what you are doing here today, and if in your hearts and souls you believe that the passage of this amendment will thwart needed relief to education in the immediate future, then vote against it. (Applause.) The amendment referred to by Mr. Douglass was the Sabath Amend¬ ment which provides that the Reconstruction Finance Corporation may lend up to $75,000,000 to school districts on full security to pay teachers’ salaries due prior to June 1, 1934. This provision should take care of the Chicago situation, and others. Whether tax anticipation warrants will be accepted by the RFC as full security is yet to be determined. In any event the enact¬ ment of this provision was a real victory for the schools. It goes even fur¬ ther than guaranteeing educational opportunities for children in that it is a direct aid to teachers in making available salaries in arrears. Ft. R. 9544 referred to by Mr. Douglass did not become law. The House Rules Committee would not give a rule to advance the measure on the calendar to a position where it could be considered before the adjournment of Congress. The deficiency appropriation measure to which Mr. Douglass hoped to offer it as an amendment was brought out under a gag rule so no amendments could be offered. One would be in error, however, to conclude that we failed entirely in our efforts. First among our gains, we know that whereas the President was non¬ committal, to say the least, in January relative to school needs, he told me and others in April and May that he realized that an emergency faced the schools and that something should be done to aid them. Mr. Hopkins an¬ nounced at the time the Appropriations Committee was considering the General Sessions 73 deficiency appropriation measure, during which time a vigorous effort was being made to earmark $75,000,000 for schools, that $50,000,000 of the relief funds would be used this year for rural schools was an indication of this changed attitude upon the part of the Administration. Similarly, Congressional action of the same sort was headed off last Febru¬ ary when an effort was being made to earmark $50,000,000 of the relief appropriation for schools for 1933-34. Under the February announcement some $18,000,000 was spent in keeping schools open in communities under 5000 population. Of course, none of us believes that relief and schools should be hooked together and those of you who are administrators know the diffi¬ culties faced last year, but both of these announcements are indicative that the federal government recognizes its obligation for an educated citizenry. Second, there is no doubt that Congress has changed its views decidedly on emergency aid for education. A school relief bill would have passed both houses overwhelmingly last May if it had been permitted to come to a vote. The basis for this unfavorable action yet remains a mystery to me. What is more essential to national recovery than proper education of the people? Third, many of us realize the importance of informing the people, even governmental officials and congressmen,, of the conditions and needs of the schools during this emergency. We know, too, that it takes work, patience, time, and a sense of humor, to make an impression upon official Washington. And many of us have found that a few definite questions and statements to our representatives in Washington at the proper time, usually in certain sum¬ mer months, will produce more than “I will give the matter sympathetic consideration when it arises.” When we are in a campaign we must govern ourselves accordingly. We must not let up too soon or be too easily satisfied. I am sure that all of you are aware of the various forms of emergency edu¬ cational aid, other than keeping schools open, made available last year thru the Federal Emergency Relief Administration. Permanent good will come from the manifold phases of this program even tho direct relief to individ¬ uals and not education was the prime consideration. This year the program, aside from rural school aid, will be carried on as follows: Beginning September first, a five-point emergency education program has been authorized. This embraces vocational education, nursery schools, voca¬ tional rehabilitation, adult illiterate education, and general adult, or work¬ ers’, education. In preparation for the program for workers’ education, each state has been allocated a definite number of teachers who will attend centers for training students to carry on the program. Funds for maintenance of these students and their traveling expenses, while attending these centers, will be met from emergency funds. For promoting efficient work in nursery schools, permission has been given which will permit teachers of these schools to attend a four weeks’ training center in nursery school activities. During these four weeks, the teachers will receive regular salaries and will assume their duties as nursery school teach¬ ers at the end of the training period, 74 National Education Association In order that the emergency education program may be more adequately supervised, 6 to 10 percent of the funds used in emergency education will be available for employing competent supervisors. These supervisors will be called together in convenient centers in the United States for eight days instruction relative to their duties in supervising the emergency education program. Funds will not be allocated and earmarked for the emergency education program, but emergency employment for 100,000 “white collar” men will be provided. These will be allocated to the different states according to an index figure. Out of this group, unemployed teachers for emergency educa¬ tion will be selected and paid from the general emergency fund. No official statement has been made authorizing emergency funds for needy students who are attending colleges. There is a probability that these funds will be made available during the next scholastic year for these stu¬ dents, but a definite statement cannot be made relative to this until official notice is given. Funds for extension of school terms have not been considered as a part of the five-point emergency education program. It is understood that this type of educational relief will be provided by a different allocation of funds, definitely authorized by federal relief authorities at Washington. My work as chairman of the National Committee for Federal Emergency Aid for Education has taught me some valuable lessons. I am convinced that while a great deal of good came from the cooperative efforts of the agencies represented on Commissioner Zook’s Advisory Committee, we in the field of education have much to learn in the furtherance of cooperative enter¬ prises. Unity of effort, persistent and positive, is essential. Pious resolutions, academic mutterings, and self-pity, too much in evidence in the past, will be of little avail. If education is democracy s cornerstone, if it is essential to the full fruition of the New Deal, then let us fight for the cause with a united and courageous front. There is no substitute for honest labor in behalf of a worthy cause. If the case for public education will not stand on its own merits, ballyhoo will amount to little. During this emergency many lay groups have rendered valuable services for the schools ; but if the cause of education is to come into its own, much more remains to be done. Furthermore, if there now exists no agency which can, and will, function adequately as a general educational clearing-house, then one must be set up. The right group must be in front. Practical leader¬ ship is demanded. Frankly, I have serious doubts if technicians are suited to this type of leadership. > . In closing, permit me to pay tribute to the National Education Associa¬ tion for its tireless efforts in coming to the aid of the schools in this depres¬ sion. It has measured up splendidly. In the past, I confess that I have been somewhat indifferent to the virtues of the N. E. A. It was, in my mind, just another organization; but my experience in the past few months wTith the various members of its staff have not only convinced me of the excellent work that it is doing, but of the tremendous possibilities that now challenge General Sessions 75 this great organization. There is no doubt, in my mind, that the state edu cational organizations and this national organization should be strengthened in every possible way and a closer working relationship between the two be effected. The National Education Association should have, at least, a half million more teachers on its roster. The added strength of numbeis and money would make possible a great program for the children of America. If we do not take the lead in promoting educational thought and leader¬ ship, rest assured that some of ,the social service agencies now knocking at the door will do so. We welcome the sympathetic aid of any group ; but the job of promoting and defending a sound system of populai education i» primarily ours. Let us work at it and in due time we shall leap, if we faint not.” ECONOMIC SELF-HELP IN THE EDUCATIONAL CRISIS M. GRANT LUCAS, PRESIDENT, COLUMBIAN EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. The Columbian Association represents both officers and teachers in Divisions 10-13 of the Public Schools of the District of Columbia. The complete personnel of Divisions 10-13 consists of two first-assistant supeiin tendents, one of whom is president of the Miner Teachers College; two assistant superintendents, three supervising-principals, three senior high- school principals, six junior high-school principals, two assistant senioi high- school principals, two vocational school principals, six heads of departments, nine special subject directors, twenty-four administrative principals, eleven teaching principals, nine hundred and fifty classroom teachers, twenty-eight clerks, nine school attendance officers, one general community-center secre¬ tary, two community-center secretaries, and four librarians. Added to these we have eighty-five evening school teachers and ninety-one vacation school teachers. The maximum enrolment for 1933 was 39,719. According to the records, gaged by modern standards, these teachers have proved the value of self-help, self-direction, industry, and efficiency in education among our people. Our fondest hopes lie in the preservation of the autonomy of these schools. Each year our association presents a scholarship to a graduate or the senior high schools. We feel that these scholarships, altho small, present worthwhile encouragement to young people to go on with their studies. Our schools have problems which are distinctly ours. We always have felt and always shall feel that these problems can be handled best by teachers of our own flesh and blood. W e know the children, their parents, and their homes. Among the duties we have is to teach them economy in their health, their food, their clothes, their sleep, their play, their work, and their energy. We must teach them the avoidance of waste in money, waste in food, waste in clothes, waste in time, and waste in home and school supplies. Our problem is to teach them the value of economic self-help to the end that they may make of themselves self-respecting, self-supporting, 76 National Education Association upright, intelligent, respectable, and loyal American citizens. We some¬ times think we are placing too high a value on college degrees and too little value on the fundamental, practical, everyday elements of education. There is a vast difference between equality of educational opportunity and equality of industrial opportunity. Our greatest need is the opportunity for our boys and girls who receive education to be admitted to the various occupations and industries of the present day. Too often we charge them with wilful idleness when the doors of employment are shut against them. Can they be expected to demonstrate economic self-help under these unfair proscriptions? The educational crisis calls for a New Deal. We must ally the school more closely with life, and make it a life situation. When this is done, parents will realize that their children are becoming equipped for life’s needs. A young graduate will have a definite training and a definite goal. He will fit more properly into his life-work and give service with satisfaction. Our hope is to open the closed doors of service and employment to these boys and girls. We want to make the New Deal a fair deal and a square deal. That colored children should be afforded facilities for education is so obvious as to make it seem unnecessary to assert; it ought to be axiomatic. The purpose of the school is to train children for good citizenship. Each state should be interested in this training regardless of race or color. It would be the height of folly for the state to assume that any part of its population can be neglected without affecting seriously the welfare of the other part. The economic status of the Negro is probably the lowest of any group in the population of the United States. After the Civil War he was trans¬ formed suddenly from chattel to citizen. He brought into his new sphere a strong physique and an infinite faith in Providence. Of the material things of the world, he had none. In the power that comes from the educated mind, he was entirely lacking. For seventy years he has struggled against his own poverty, against his own ignorance, against restrictions, and against prejudices. He is still at the bottom of the economic ladder. Yet, he has made remarkable gains. Altho he is allotted the hardest tasks at the lowest wages ; altho he is the last to be hired and the first to be fired, yet, he is an Ameri¬ can citizen, and is proud to be one. He has been trained so long in economic self-help that he is equipped, spiritually, to meet the present crisis. Depres¬ sion is his normal state. He was born in it. We have the deepest gratitude toward friends of education who have contributed to our cause. What would we have done but for the Rosenwald Foundation, the Peabody Foundation, the Slater-Stokes Fund, the Jeanes Fund, and the countless other generous aids which have come to the cause of education? We hope and pray, humbly and earnestly, that God will con¬ tinue to raise up friends to the rescue of our children. But this does not lessen whatever the duty encumbent on us to do what we can to help ourselves. Colored people have demonstrated abundantly their capacity for eco¬ nomic self-help. They have built schoolhouses, paid teachers, and furnished General Sessions 77 transportation in many places thru many years. According to the latest United States census we have accumulated wealth to the amount of about $2,000,000,000. We own about 200,000 farms, 700,000 homes, and 50,000 churches. We have contributed about $500,000 toward missionary purposes. Our church properties are valued at about $205,782,628. We have written and published approximately 1200 books and newspapers. We have now 1230 lawyers, 3805 doctors, and 54,242 school teachers. We are operating successfully a number of banks, commercial enterprises, mills, and factories. We are becoming trained in merchandising thru the employment of colored people by chain stores, merchants, and public utili¬ ties for services in those neighborhoods where the Negro population pre¬ dominates. This practise has been reported in forty-seven cities, and it is not confined to any particular section of the country. We constitute one- tenth of the population of this nation. We are an integral part of America. We furnished 368,000 recruits in the World War and sent about 200,000 of our men to France in the Expeditionary Force. We submit this record of seventy years’ struggle for culture and advancement as a justification for an equitable distribution of funds for the education of our children, to the end that we may be adequately equipped for meeting the duties and responsi¬ bilities of citizenship in a democracy. The economic salvation of the Negro depends upon the degree with which he keeps up this record of self-help in the years to come. We must become participants in labor and industry, efficiency and character. We must consider modern trends, sex and family, leisure and recreation, law and public opinion, art and ethics, regardless of race, color, or creed. The Frederick Douglass Memorial Home is now a permanent historical shrine in Washington. Our schools have planted young cedar trees to take the places of old, stately cedars which time and weather have removed. In February the Board of Education voted to suspend its rules to permit the collection of one penny each from the children in Divisions 10-13 in this city for the purpose of improving the grounds. This project, initiated by the Columbian Educational Association, endorsed and sponsored by the National Association of Teachers in Colored Schools, was inspired by the example of the entire school population of the nation when they contributed one penny each toward Wakefield, the birthplace of George Washington; Monticello, the home of Thomas Jefferson, and the restoration of the Battle¬ ship “Constitution.” What we have done for the Douglass Home is but a drop in the bucket toward putting the grounds in the condition in which they should be. Yet we are proud to state that a penny each has been contributed voluntarily by 34,948 school children in the District of Columbia and several of the states. We feel sure that future help lies in store for the completion of this project. We feel that the life of Douglass from slavery to an undisputed place in American history furnishes an incentive for economic self-help in the educational crisis. Self-help calls for self-study. Self-study calls for the study of the history of the race with which we are identified. The children in our schools should 78 National Education Association be taught the history of our race. Without race knowledge there is no race soul. Without knowing the past the light of the future flickers and obscures when thrown upon current events. This record must be presented with care and historic exactness. There should be no glittering generalities, no indis¬ criminate praise, no fiery denunciations; but everything that is worthwhile should be held up as an object lesson of inspiration. We claim that the history of this country is incomplete; and it never will be completed until it is made to include the contributions of the Negro race. Woodson’s history of the Negro should be in every school in the country. Courses of study should contain some information on the history of Negroes, to the end that the Negro child may understand his place in the economic, social, and intellectual world, and that the white child may have some understanding of the contribution the Negro has made to civilization. This will increase mutual respect. The majority of the thinking people can be depended upon to heed the teachings of truth. If people would cease telling their children that they are better than others; if teachers would refrain from telling their pupils that only certain selected races have made worthwhile contributions to the progress of the world the truth would have a chance to free the public mind from error. It has been pointed out that our schools thruout the country are inferior in point of buildings and grounds, physical equipment, length of term, preparation of teachers, certification of teachers, and salaries paid. We believe that the National Education Association is the most powerful in¬ fluence in education in America. We appeal to the National Education Association to assume the initiative in the efforts to cure these inequalities. We desire to let it be known that we appreciate the recent awakening of interest in our education on the part of the white people in the South. We desire to let it be known that we appreciate the comparatively recent establishment of the office of a specialist in the education of Negroes — a competent specialist from our own ranks in the Office of Education in the Interior Department. We desire to let it be known that we appreciate the interest manifested in the recent National Conference on Fundamental Problems in the Education of Negroes. We appreciate the Secretary of the Interior, the Honorable Harold L. Ickes, who called that conference and gave guidance and direction to its proceedings. We desire to let it be known that we appreciate the far-sighted, broadminded federal government of this country for developing and maintaining the great institution — Howard University. Some facts brought out at that conference are: 1. There are 4,090,566 Negro children under 17 years of age. 2. 1,000,000 Negro children of school age were not in school during this year. 3. Three-fifths of the schools for Negroes in rural areas were built with the aid of the Rosenwald Fund. General Sessions 79 4. Nine-tenths of all accredited high schools for Negroes have been accredited since 1920. 5. There is a serious lack of selectivity in Negro colleges as shown by the intel¬ lectual heterogeneity of their student bodies; and they lack definite educational and vocational guidance programs. These facts challenge universal attention. They challenge us to a due appreciation of the progress we have made and of a due sense of responsi¬ bility for helping in this work. We must remember that side by side with these facts is the realization that there exists a crisis in education thruout the country. Schools every¬ where are closing. A program for federal aid to education is now being pressed by the educational leaders of the nation. All we ask is that when this emergency aid is secured an equitable proportion of it be allotted to the colored schools. We take new hope from the encouraging words of President Roosevelt: “As yet all too small a percentage of the Negro children of our country, especially in the rural sections, enjoy adequate or equitable facilities for the education which is America’s goal for every child. We have neither schools enough properly to accommodate the children who should be in attendance, nor educational offerings of the quality and variety adapted to their needs.” ACADEMIC FREEDOM— FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF THE SUPERINTENDENT THOMAS W. GOSLING, DIRECTOR, AMERICAN JUNIOR RED CROSS, WASHING¬ TON, D. C.J AND FORMER SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, AKRON, OHIO At one time academic freedom referred primarily to teaching. It meant the right of the teacher, without let or hindrance, to teach whatever he pleased. It assumed that the teacher would choose to teach only within the field in which he had special qualifications. It assumed also that students were under no compulsion to attend the teacher’s lectures or to pay him any fees for his labors. Thus from the beginning the freedom of the learner was involved in the freedom of the teacher. The social situations which made this kind of academic freedom possible are no longer the conventional patterns. A free society in which instruction is offered only to those who want it and who are qualified to profit by it and in which anyone may teach if he can gather an audience is scarcely to be found anywhere in America. Even where instruction is offered under the auspices of private organizations or societies, the teacher is expected to con¬ form to regulations and the students in their attendance respond to certain social compulsions. TL hus academic freedom has taken on new meanings as society has become more highly organized. It is now interpreted in a manner which includes many kinds of freedom under many different circumstances. Whereas academic freedom was once understood to involve the right freely to express opinions on matters of abstract principle of a purely impersonal nature, now after gradations and 80 National Education Association increments of meaning it is thought by many to confer the additional privi¬ lege of making personal attacks for purely personal ends. As one takes a long look backward and views the slow, intermittent, but persistent upward struggle of mankind he is deeply impressed by the part which freedom of thinking and freedom of expression have played in the human drama. It never has been altogether safe to think outside of the patterns of convention and to speak without restraint. Socrates propounded his doctrines for the enlightenment of the young men of Athens; he was charged with making “the worse appear the better reason”; and he paid for his hardihood by being forced to drink the poison hemlock. But his death did not end all. Thru his disciple, Plato, and a host of followers he gave to Athens a position of distinction and of leadership which for centuries has supplied positive direction to human affairs. Galileo, imprisoned for pro¬ claiming that the earth is round, lives on while even the names of his perse¬ cutors have scarcely a place in the memory of men; and the earth still revolves daily on its axis, and relentlessly follows its orbit around the sun. Countless men have dared to speak the truth and have been willing to pay the price. “The blood of the martyrs is the seed of the Church.” The fact is that without free utterance even at a price the moral and spiritual progress of the world would be seriously impeded if not altogether restrained. On this occasion we wish to deal specifically with the freedom of the teachers in the public schools. Are there any principles which may be ac¬ cepted as policies and as guides of conduct? Are there standards of action which apply to teachers and not to other members of the community? Are teachers to be encouraged to think of their rights without giving due con¬ sideration to their duties also? There is a realm of at least tentatively exact knowledge in which no one is privileged to express opinions contrary to accepted facts. For example, no one should be permitted to teach arithmetic to elementary-school children unless he is willing to teach that two and two make four; nor should any one be permitted to teach plane geometry to high-school pupils unless he accepts the doctrine of the three dimensions of space. It is possible, of course, that the higher mathematics will refute our present conceptions and make it necessary for us to impart new doctrines wholly opposed to those which are now conventional. In the meantime, while the scholar continues to make his researches and to discover new truths, he teaches the known facts of the present to those who on account of their immaturity have need of safe guid¬ ance in a world which does not yet know all. Thus we have no difficulty and no argument in disposing of the question of freedom in areas where little or no controversy exists. When we come, however, to other fields over which float the clouds of uncertainty, we find a wholly different set of problems. These become especially acute in the teaching of biology and of the social sciences. It would be helpful in resolving the difficulty if both teachers and the general public would recall the memorable words which Isocrates used in his defense of the sophists: “Remember it is not my case alone which is at issue but the General Sessions 81 education of our youth — upon which the future of others must depend.” Thus it is not the whim, or the predilection, or the prejudice of either the teacher or the general public that counts at all in this matter. It is only the truth that counts and the welfare of the young who are to be taught. If the truth is known, it must be taught without fear or favor; if it is not known, as so often is the case in the challenging subjects of the current curriculum, then nothing remains for the teacher but to examine with his pupils all facets of the problem including the teacher’s own personal opinion, and to stimulate them to honest, penetrating, and courageous investigation on their own initiative. To go beyond this is to violate the intellectual and the spiritual integrity of the learner ; it is to erect the barrier of predetermined judgment between the mind of the pupil and the truth which he is seeking; it is exalt¬ ing the right of the individual teacher above the welfare of the social group. The rights of the learner are as sacred as the rights of the teacher. A careful observance of this distinction between indoctrination and free discussion will make it easier for the American teacher to include in his courses of study much vital material which hitherto has been excluded from the classroom. It is highly important that our young people should be aware of a multitude of problems which have a direct bearing upon the social, economic, and political welfare of the nation and that thev should be pre¬ pared in the schools to deal with these problems intelligently and fearlessly after the days of formal schooling are over. In this phase of the teacher’s work academic freedom means the right to discuss all questions freely, dispassionately, honestly, and to enjoy immunity from attack. The attainment of this kind of academic freedom rests largely in the hands of the teachers themselves. There are likely to be some martyrs before the end is achieved ; but if the teaching profession in the interest of the public welfare will take and hold a consistent and determined position, much individual suffering and hardship may be avoided. There is another kind of academic freedom which teachers now most earnestly desire. They are not content to live segregated lives, shut out from participation in the affairs of the world. Their former isolation from the stream of normal activities has brought upon them a certain condescending sympathy which at times has proved highly offensive. They are asking for the full recognition of their rights as citizens and they are asserting a claim to just appraisal of their services to society. The public should applaud this virile attitude, because it means that the youth of the land will be taught bv men and women who have strength and courage. Only such are fit to teach the children of America. This new kind of academic freedom will make available to the nation vast resources of energy, intelligence, and idealism at a time when they are sorely needed. The financial depression has revealed the teachers to them¬ selves. It has brought to them a sense of their social utility; it has found them ready and eager to make sacrifices for the children and their families ; and it has made them acceptable to communities which did not fully realize 82 National Education Association their worth before. It is unthinkable that having once achieved this social status, teachers will fail to move on into other areas of service. The whole theory of academic freedom is predicated not solely or primarily upon a just conception of individual rights, but chiefly upon a broad view of social welfare. It is highly important in all fields of human activity that the truth shall be known. The truth is not ascertained by the counting of noses or by the casting of ballots. Least of all can it be determined by the use of force or compulsion. Truth is a special gift to open minds operating in an atmosphere of honest inquiry and of untrammeled freedom. The state, which is society in an organized form, has a peculiar interest in fostering and maintaining the conditions under which truth may be revealed. The progressive discovery and application of new truths constitute the indis¬ pensable requisites of national safety and of national progress. The particular service which our American teachers are prepared to render today is to keep open the avenues of discussion and of discriminating inquiry concerning the state of the nation. Unfortunate occurrences beyond our borders have shown how easy it is to conscript public opinion and to make it subservient to the requirements of centralized authority. Even in normal times in America it is difficult to have clear thinking and honest expression. All of us find ourselves hedged in by the compulsions of the various groups with which we are affiliated. Our coterie of friends, our clubs, our political and professional organizations, our business associates, all tend to impose upon us certain formulas of thinking; they almost seem to be in a conspiracy of silence and of repression from which we can free ourselves only by vigorous self-assertion — not the bombastic self-assertion of the egotist but rather the quiet and determined insistence of the individual upon his intellectual and spiritual independence. This condition character¬ istic of common experience is accentuated in periods of crisis, for these tend to marshal all forces to a common end. It is in those very times, however, that there is the greatest need of constructively critical judgments which may safely find public utterance. “Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty.” It is equally true that the silence of the people is a sign that tyranny is near. With some conspicuous exceptions, our American teachers as a body are strong supporters of the American doctrine of democracy. They are pre¬ pared under a guarantee of freedom of speech to defend this doctrine not at all as a fixed and unchanging creed, but as a definition of a living and growing organism with inherent power of adaptation to the developing genius of the American people. Within the field of school administration, academic freedom is likely to show rapid development. There is evidence of an increasing conviction that there has been too much authoritarianism in American education. The ideal school administration exhibits a maximum of cooperation and a minimum of authority. The school systems which have attained the highest distinction and which are recognized as leaders in public education have been successful in enlisting large numbers of their staffs in cooperative endeavors for the benefit of the children. The executives have been leaders who have inter- General Sessions 83 preted their functions generously and unselfishly. They have not arrogated to themselves unusual dignities and powers. They have sensed a high re¬ sponsibility to provide suitable and adequate teaching materials; to make the conditions of teaching as pleasant and inspiring as possible ; and to dis¬ cover and to develop merit everywhere. The financial situation of the past few years has made these commendable efforts unusually difficult ; at the same time it has drawn teachers and administrators more closely together in sympathetic understanding and has tended to unify the profession to the great advantage of all. The next step in the development of this new and wholesome lelationship will follow when teachers are released from the fear which is the normal consequence of autocratic administration. There should be no fear in a school system except that which accompanies incompetence and dishonesty. The machinery for the attainment of the new goals lies in the development of strong professional organizations which will conduct continuous studies of all kinds of school problems and which thru intrinsic worth will make themselves indispensable helpers in the heavy tasks of administration. The teachers themselves are likely to be given as much freedom of expression as they will take. In their own interest, they will develop codes of ethics with accompanying agencies for enforcing their purposes. They will not be able to tolerate inefficiency, dishonesty, or self-seeking. Their own freedom will depend upon their fitness for self-government. In the new era, the best administrator will be the person who has the highest capacity for. in¬ spiring cooperative effort and for organizing and leading willing and efficient helpers. What Charles William Eliot said of the best type of college president may be said of the best type of school administrator: He will manifest no desire whatever for arbitrary power over masses of human beings, or for what is ordinarily called fame or glory. The chief obstacle in the way of attaining academic freedom is likely to be found in the inertia, or the fear, or the self-interest of those who have not been accustomed to accord this freedom to others. It will be found also in that strange multifarious public opinion which is curiously averse to the acceptance of new ideas. Doubtless in coming into this new freedom teachers will commit many excesses. Some, for example, will forget that if they have rights, they have also correlative duties. The right to freedom of speech involves the accompanying duty to deal justly with all. men and to observe the principles of decency and honor. These are essential limita¬ tions upon academic freedom. Wffien these limitations are not observed, teachers will subject themselves to merited criticism. It may seem at times that their charter of freedom should be revoked. But the struggle for freedom cannot be stopped. It is the assertion of the universal in man , as such it may suffer reverses, but never permanent defeat. The opponents of academic freedom may properly be reminded that in the long run less of harm will be done by the abuse of freedom than by efforts to suppress it. Wi e are attempting in America to develop a cooperative society founded on goodwill, fair dealing, and mutual helpfulness. Faith 84 National Education Association in the common man and faith in the ultimate triumph of truth over false¬ hood are fundamental to the success of our program. If we have faith, we shall tolerate error because we shall know that it cannot survive. It is better for us all that error should be brought out into the light rather than that it should be permitted to hide in dark places and do its mischievous work in secret. Light, freedom, and life are both the means and the end of our struggle. Thus academic freedom in its various forms is seen to be only one phase of that spiritual freedom to which we all aspire. It is essential not only for the happiness of the individual, but also for the strength and the well¬ being of the state. A denial of freedom is a denial of a universal human imperative. Any attempt at denial can end only in tragedy. ACADEMIC FREEDOM— FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF THE CLASSROOM TEACHER MRS. F. BLANCHE PREBLE, PAST PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF CLASS¬ ROOM TEACHERS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION; AND TEACHER, VAN VLISSINGEN SCHOOL, CHICAGO, ILL. In discussing the question of academic freedom I shall consider it in its broader aspects with the hope of giving some suggestions with regard to the possibility of classroom teachers being able to make a real contribution or any contribution at all toward solving the problems that at present are defeating the whole purpose of American education. Academic freedom has been defined in the following propositions : 1. There should be no legislative interference whatever with the school curriculum. The preparation of the curriculum should be left entirely in the hands of professional educators. 2. Teachers should be permitted the same freedom of expression inside the class¬ room as is demanded by citizens outside the classroom. The free exercise of this right should not be interfered with by the authorities of the institutions which employ them. 3. Teachers should not be dismissed on charges involving academic freedom within the institution without trial before members of the profession, with right of counsel and appeal. Academic tenure should depend solely upon professional merit. 4. Outside the classrooms teachers should have the common rights of citizens, without interference by the school authorities with their political or economic activities or utterances. These statements were adapted from the report of the special committee on academic freedom, appointed by the American Civil Liberties Union in 1924. Most of you are familiar with the work of the committee on academic freedom and tenure of the American Association of University Professors. Many of their conclusions concerning the freedom of college teachers are equally applicable to the freedom of teachers in elementary and secondary schools. A recent report of the committee discusses at length the conditions General Sessions 85 necessary for academic freedom and then urges that restraints be observed in dealing with immature minds so as not to influence them unduly because of their immaturity or to shock them too rudely and inconsiderately concerning their traditional beliefs. In regard to extra-mural activities of teachers the same report says: Teachers are under a peculiar obligation to avoid hasty, unverified, or exagger¬ ated statements, and to refrain from intemperate or sensational modes of expres¬ sion. But, subject to these restraints, it is not, in this committee’s opinion, desirable that scholars should be debarred from giving expression to their judgments upon controversial questions, or that their freedom of speech, outside the university, should be limited to questions falling within their own specialties. It is clearly not proper that they should be prohibited from lending their active support to organized movements which they believe to be in public interest. In 1932 the Department of Classroom Teachers authorized the appoint¬ ment of a committee on academic freedom. That committee brought out its first report at the business meeting of the Department in the Chicago con¬ vention, and will make a second report at this convention. It is the hope of the Department that we can make this committee function in such a way as to greatly improve the status of the classroom teachers of the country. In fact, it may be that this committee will be able to aid directly in making teaching a real profession. This cannot be done until the teachers themselves become the judges as to who shall enter the work of teaching and also as to who shall be excluded from that work after having once entered upon it. To state it in another way: Teaching cannot become a profession in the real sense of the word unless the teachers can close the door at the entrance and open it at the exit. A committee empowered to collect facts concerning viola¬ tions of academic freedom and to offer assistance to teachers in elementary and secondary schools suffering from such violations has in it great possibilities. I am indebted to Mrs. Myrtle Hooper Dahl, vicepresident of the Depart¬ ment of Classroom Teachers, for the picture I am about to present. She visions the old system of American education thus: The superintendent at the top, the assistant superintendent immediately under him, the various supervisors under the assistants, then under them the principals, under the principals and next to the bottom the teachers, and under all these people and at the bottom the children. She points out that in such a system there is the same relation between the principal and the teacher as between the teacher and the child. Then she describes the ideal of our day as being a horizontal array of all the individuals and departments that go to make up the modern system. She has the various administrators, supervisors, principals, teachers, and children all joining hands and advancing together in an invincible attack on the ignorance and selfishness that has, from the beginning of history, made for the unhappiness of millions of people. To achieve this ideal of cooperation we must have academic freedom thruout. From this point I shall confine myself to a consideration of the 86 National Education Association classroom teachers in that plan of cooperation. In the first place a teacher must be adequately trained for the work he is to do. That means that he must spend years studying along lines of general information and culture and particular information of the kind required for his particular classes. Also he must know something of pedagogy. It is my belief, however, that teacher-training schools would be much improved if a little less time were spent on methods and more time given to subjectmatter. All thinking Americans agree that the great question before us today is how can happiness for our citizens be substituted for the misery now suf¬ fered. We all recognize this to be, to a great extent, a question of sociology and economics; a question that cannot be solved without the contribution of teachers well grounded in social and economic principles, equipped with up-to-date information concerning the forces at work in the world today and free to think and express their thoughts as individuals in the classroom and in the community — certainly free to work in organizations of their own associates where the ideas of individual leaders may be tested by free discus¬ sion and where campaigns for political action may be planned and carried out. The right to organize for political action we can readily see comes under the proposition that, outside the classroom, teachers should have the common rights of citizens, without interference by the school authorities with their political or economic activities or utterances. Many teachers still regard political action by their group as very unwise and as being too far beneath the dignity of their occupation, but as citizens in a democracy we must take the democratic way of influencing govern¬ ment, which is thru political action. By this I do not mean entering partisan politics but seeking to have legislative bodies consider our proposals for the betterment and support of schools on the merits of the issues themselves and not use them as footballs in partisan politics. Teachers are coming to see more and more the necessity for entering politics in this way and already have some very high-class and effective legislative agents at work. Undoubtedly the great body of American classroom teachers, if guaranteed freedom of assembly within their own group and within community groups that they feel to be worthy of support, can be a very powerful influence in improving American government. When I speak of classroom teachers organizing within their own group most of you understand that I am referring to local, state, and national groups to which classroom teachers only are eligible. In spite of all the work that has been done by the Department of Classroom Teachers since its organization in 1912 it is still true that there are many whole states in which this movement has hardly been started even in a local way. A. number of cases of threatened dismissal because of attempts to organize and work thru such groups have been brought to the attention of the Depart¬ ment’s Committee on Academic Freedom during the past year. Sometimes the opposition has come from a schoolboard angered because the teachers refused to teach a certain length of time, varying all the way from a week to a month, without pay; sometimes from a board displeased because the teacher General Sessions 87 group has advocated the study of such forward looking levenue measures as a state income tax. And greatly do I regret to say that sometimes it has come from a superintendent who considers that any organization that excludes administrators from meetings and membership has unfriendly intentions toward all administration. But despite some set-backs and discouragements the classroom movement is steadily forging ahead, and most people in education now realize that a strong organization of classroom teachers is the best help they can have in the battle for the rights of the child. Academic freedom for teachers is not something to be feared. It is a neces¬ sary accompaniment to progress and to realization of ideals of our democracy. Had we had a general recognition of this fact we would not have had these propositions of oaths of allegiance for teachers we have all heard so much about. Undoubtedly those propositions were inspired by fear — fear that teachers might acquire something approaching real academic freedom. Many people were fooled. They were led to think of the oaths as being in the nature of desirable assurance that teachers would not suddenly run amuck and start a revolution. As a matter of fact academic freedom for teachers is not dangerous to public interest. Requirement of oaths of loyalty from teachers is dangerous to public interest. Oaths caused much trouble in the past. At one time theie were oaths for everybody from a sovereign to a scavenger. In our country just following the Civil War there was considerable putting of thumb screws on people thru test oaths which rent the nation temporarily. Since then, until very recently, we have heard little about oaths. A revival of them could come only after a sufficient number of years had elapsed to allow most of the people participating in that part of our history to die. Let us learn from the past and avoid a repetition of our experience with oaths. Instead of going backward let us go forward. Some day the value of academic freedom for teachers will be recognized and teachers will be free to live and work as citizens of our great democracy to the great benefit of the democracy. ACADEMIC FREEDOM— FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF THE COLLEGE PRESIDENT CHARLES E. BEURY, PRESIDENT, TEMPLE UNIVERSITY, PHILADELPHIA, PA. Changes, fundamental in nature, have taken place in the American uni¬ versities and colleges. Wisely directed, these can lead to incalculable good. If, however, they are allowed to be diverted into unwise channels, they mav well lead to consequences disastrous to higher learning in the United States. I refer to changes in organization. Changes that have, in increasing instances, led to administrative interference, that is, interference by non- academic men, with the academic freedom of the faculty. Academic freedom is necessary if the university is to be maintained as an institution of learning. 88 National Education Association The recent interference is understandable, even tho not defensible. But an academic statement of an ideal is not enough. Perhaps a statement of the changes that have taken place, and their significance in the work-a-dav life of the university, would be more helpful. Two of these changes, while seem¬ ingly in different directions, taken together, cause some of the most difficult problems. The large grants of money by state legislatures, munificent gifts by men of wealth, and the great sums paid as tuition, have caused the capital investment and yearly budget of the modern universities to reach substantial propor¬ tions. Movements, reaching significant proportions, have been made placing the administration of this money in the hands of those accustomed to think in terms of such sums. As a result of this, we now have, in many instances, the economic life and well-being, the employment, promotions in rank and pay, and dismissal of the members of the instructional force, controlled by non-academic men. This is a significant change from the times when the faculty, thru its own officers, controlled the institution. To be workable, there must be an understanding of the limits of the functions of each. No university can function properly if the faculty members are regarded merelv as paid employees, subject to the arbitrary will of the administration. At the time when these changes in organization were taking place, there was a shift of emphasis in the curriculums from the classical training to the natural and social sciences. When the curriculums of the colleges were based largely on the study of the classics, mathematics, etc., the college professor could be left alone with the assurance that what he thought or said would not seriously disturb the life or affairs of the patrons of learning. The remarks of a professor on public questions could be ignored or turned aside, and with much truth, as the opinion of one unfamiliar with practical everyday life. However, with the rise of the study of the natural and social sciences as major disciplines, the isolated detachment of the university passed. The whole realm of social organization was subjected to study, analysis, and criticism. Many doctrines, held fundamental to religion, were questioned. Social taboos, such as the problems surrounding sex life, were openly discussed, frequently by instructors without the skill of scientific detachment. In some cases there was ignorance of, or contempt for, the human equation and social repercussion involved. Economic theories held by many to be the basis of our national greatness, proved by our industrial achievements, were, in parts, repudiated. Political organizations, thought by many to be, on the whole, the best so far worked out by human ingenuity were examined with the detach¬ ment applied to a laboratory specimen. All this came at the time of the great influx of students, both male and female. With them came popular demand that the university assume the increased duties of moral supervision of the private life of the students. It is understandable, as I have said, why there was an increased demand for the limitation of academic freedom. Men of wealth and secure positions who stood as the patrons of learning, and leaders in legislation, largely made General Sessions \ 89 up of the same class, are apt to regard the social, economic, and political struc¬ ture in which they have achieved success with a great deal of favor. The open discussion of subjects by instructors and students, tabooed in their college days, the questioning of the economic and political institutions by a class of men whom they knew as detached from the affairs of the world, created an impression that the world, regarded as fixed and secure, was crumbling about them. It is not surprising that they were ready to use the powers of the purse to control the situation. All of the interference with academic freedom, however, cannot be attributed to this cause. Many persons in authority, feeling that the univer¬ sity was not keeping abreast of the times, placed men with reputations as liberals, tho from the non-academic fields, in charge of the administration. These men, in some cases, started to build the university in their own image. And it must be remembered that many men with reputations as liberals, once in power, are the most dogmatic and arbitrary. Some of the worst abuses of power have been made by these men. In all this, it is necessary for the wise administrator to keep his perspec¬ tive. A university, dedicated to the preservation of ignorance, cannot justify its existence. Nor is education the mere learning to con the thoughts of men of another age and civilization, detached from, and unrelated to, the life in which we live. The vital part, the life, the essence of the university is the faculty that teaches therein. The gathering of scholars from wherever obtain¬ able, providing them with the equipment and an environment that will bring out their best talents, is the function of the administration. Unless faculty members are free from fear of interference by political, economic, or relig¬ ious groups, they cannot possibly render honest and conscientious service either as teachers or as research men. This is not a right of academic freedom. It is the university. Anything short of this is merely a training school. Stu¬ dents coming out of it may be well trained, but certainly not educated. In few cases will you find interferences with the faculty done with a delib¬ erate attempt to hinder the scientific advancement of human knowledge. It is the way of the savage to attribute all unknown phenomena to the super¬ natural and obstruct human enlightenment. In the active job of everyday administration, the problem takes on different color. Nor in most cases, has the interference been merely for the sake of maintaining the status quo. Where, then, does the working out of this problem come into practical difficulty? It seems to me that difficulty is encountered both in the method of social research and in the evaluation of the findings. In regard to the method of research, the problem is particularly difficult. No layman can or should attempt to pass upon the validity of technical methodology. That is peculiarily the function of men trained in that field. On the other hand, society is more than a scientific laboratory. In the scien¬ tific detachment that must accompany the pursuit of valid social data, the human equations and social repercussions are apt to be lost sight of, or ignored. As a consequence, the whole purpose of the investigation, or the 90 National Education Association environment in which it could be validly carried on, may be destroyed. Here is the work for the administration, the amateur. By definition the admin¬ istrator is in closer touch with social feeling than the trained expert. Inter¬ vention, however, should not be made with any idea of preventing research or the securing of social data; or, more difficult, of even creating the impres¬ sion of so doing. This is the difficult task and no dogmatic rule can be laid down. The success in carrying it out will depend more upon the existing feeling between the administration and the instructor at a given time than upon the specific act done. The next place where repercussions are apt to occur in the carrying out of the principle of academic freedom is in the giving of value to the social data scientifically established. Social data, validly established, cannot be ques¬ tioned. The interpretation and evaluation of this data is based upon human estimation and personal equations. Great advance in industrial organization came under a system of private capital and individual initiative. This does not prove that one was the cause of the other. All that is proved is that they came at the same time. In like manner we have a great concentration of wealth and widespread poverty in the midst of plenty. This does not neces¬ sarily prove that communism is the only real solution of these recognized social ills. Nor has it been proved that disarmament will bring peace. Yet we have dogmatic assertions to this effect by men trained in the social sciences. A personal estimation of values comes also in evaluating the desirability of forms of social organization. Each form of social organization has its char¬ acteristics. These characteristics can be scientifically analyzed and worked out. A claim of superiority for either the social discipline and intended security of a fascist or communist state or the freedom and heterogeneous disorganization of an individualist and democratic state is the expression of a personal value. His own temperamental reaction need not be universal truth. If an instructor sticks to the cold analysis of the data, his classes are apt to become dry and his students left floundering. It is a difficult task to give a clear analysis of democracy, socialism, communism, and fascism and keep out all personal estimations. Yet, when an instructor injects his own personality and opinions, without making it clear he has done so, he has left the realm of the scientist and has become a propagandist. It is true that these opinions are based on study, but they are opinions and personal evaluations just the same. It is here that the problem arises. It is apt to be the instructor least trained as a scientist, least in awe of the limits of human understanding, and with the least humility before the vast store of knowledge yet unknown, that will go the furthest, and be the most dogmatic, in his opinions. It is not with the faculty alone that the problem of academic freedom arises. Student groups, and groups outside the university constantly attempt to make use of the university facilities for the spread of their particular social doctrine. Attempts are made to organize groups within the student body for carrying on their work. We find such organizations as young Republican clubs, Democratic clubs, socialist, and communist clubs of various names. General Sessions 91 Nothing is more desirable than an active and interested discussion of social affairs by the student body. This certainly cannot be stimulated by telling the students what to say and when to say it. In meeting the situation, the university probably should go no further than to lay down broad principles of general purpose. It should be borne in mind that a university should be an educational, not a propaganda, institution. The direction of education must be maintained within its own hands. Any group of students should be permitted to organize and discuss any matters they choose. They should be permitted to bring in speakers of their own choosing. 1 he only restraint should be that outside speakers should be brought in by established rules, and that they should be approved as persons recognized as able to speak authorita¬ tively on their subject. This analysis is not intended either in blame or in praise. It is merely intended to show where the trouble rises in attempting to carry out an ideal. I doubt that any dogmatic formula can be made applicable in all cases. Some broad outlines may be laid down concerning the activities of the instructor. Outside the university, he should have the same privileges and responsibilities as any other member of the community. Within the university probably too much emphasis has been given to his personal interpretation of social forces. The students cannot be regarded as sponges absorbing all ideas placed before them without question. No body of people is quicker to sort opinion from facts or weigh the merits of an instructor than the student body. If students get one set of ideas in one class you can rest assured that, where discussion is free, across the hall another instructor, with the same facts, is arriving at a different set of conclusions. The solution probably will be found in building up a mutually sympa¬ thetic understanding between the administration and the faculty of the problems confronting each. If the administration can instil in the faculty a feeling and confidence that there is no desire or intention to limit, in any way, the building up and dissemination of the field of human knowledge ; and the faculty develops an appreciation of the problems confronting the admin¬ istration, the first and most difficult step in the solution of the problems will have been made. VISIONS AND VOYAGES JESSIE GRAY, PRESIDENT, NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION; PHILADEL¬ PHIA NORMAL SCHOOL, PHILADELPHIA, PA. I have thought of this great Association as a treasure chest. The amount of the treasure is not to be measured by what we can take out for ourselves, but how much we can put into the chest, as riches to spend for others. The teachers of this nation have put into it their loyalty, cooperation, zeal, and industry. They have worked that children shall not be deprived of their rightful heritage. The Association pays tribute to the dauntless courage of the teachers of America and I dedicated myself to a year of service in assisting them with their problems. \ 92 National Education Association Everything that has happened this year, in the cycle of happy service, has emphasized the truth of the foregoing statement. In the greater knowledge of that experience, let us review our plans, our accomplishments thru organ¬ ization, realizing how pitifully weak the individual is and how magnificently strong is the service and devotion of two hundred thousand members, guided by a marvelously trained, dedicated staff, under the leadership of an executive secretary whose courage and rectitude have won laurels and distinction. Our unfinished work, our plans in the making, will be our vision and challenge for the next year’s voyage. Our treasuie chest has bulged with increased understanding, loyalty, cooperative endeavor, and all that adds to the fullness of life. The teachers have woven into the fabric of the nation devotion, dedication, sacrifice, and the ineradicable pattern that children must be well taught in order to dream dreams and catch the vision without which the people perish. The National Education Association again pays tribute to the spiritual motherhood and dauntless courage of those teachers who collectively have done moie than their share in carrying on despite every discouragement. They know full well that it is only “in the fertile soil of education and preparation, that democratic principles can grow into cooperation, under¬ standing, and the fulfilment of our best hopes.” Their professional contribu¬ tion not only has held education true to its mission of interpreting life thru sympathy, benevolence, and interdependence, but it has expressed concretely, in every way, the ardent hope for the success of this Association— our co¬ operative endeavor — thru our collective wisdom, voice, and influence. ^ During this year your faithful, ever vigilant executive secretary, Mr. Crabtiee, took up the cudgels to defend, primarily, the sacred trust of educa¬ tion from chiselers who would have cut our tree of life down to its roots. In season and out of season he calls the land grant banks to a halt and the tax economists to an accounting, because they know neither how to raise taxes yet nor how best to apportion them so that the relative importance of gov¬ ernmental functions shall be held in the righteous balance of finer judgment. Eo those in our midst whose remarks were unsound and unwise, he also utteied a challenge for the ethics of leadership to look to its wisdom and constructiveness. For those editors of newspapers and magazines whose in¬ fluence was deplorably weak for education, if not actually antagonistic, the tide has turned to a greater helpfulness because of his powerful influence. Not only has he defended American education in its hour of greatest need, but he has given an inspirational leadership in the improvement of the schools so that they may be more worthy of defense. The growth in membership, 7865 in 1912 to well-nigh a quarter of a million in 1934, is another testimonial to the vision, devotion, and dynamic influence of Mr. Crabtree. His vision saw the possibility of enlarged head¬ quarters and a way to its fulfilment. His acumen evolved the plan to finance it thru life memberships. They have leaped ahead from 73 in 1917, when he came to headquarters, to 4954 in 1934. We owe a debt to Mr. Crabtree that General Sessions 93 can never be paid except thru clearer vision, consecrated devotion, and a life free from greed, guile, and malfeasance. During this year, your president has visited 87 cities in 27 states. It has been her privilege to speak to 300,000 people, to address state conventions, national groups, local associations, parent-teacher associations, citv and national clubs, chambers of commerce, Rotary, Kiwanis, and Lions Clubs, forums, as well as members of boards of education. She has traveled 40,000 miles by train and plane. Everywhere teachers were busy developing visions of stewardship, and making voyages to discover how to make the school more appreciative of the community and the community more appreciative of the school. Whenever there was a call for faith and courage, there was a sure answer in holding education true to its mission. Memberships have increased, thru sacrifice in many cases. The Division of Records and Membership reports $9407 extra revenue. Seventeen state as¬ sociations reported increased members, and 8 states report an increase in their National Education Association memberships. We find ourselves on the upward march. This is glorious news indeed ! It was due, no doubt, to the Dynamic Membership Committee appointed early in the year. They worked valiantly to interpret the activities and advantages of our national organization. The privilege of membership is the privilege of service and constructive suggestion. It is a matter of pride to participate in group action that states social and economic goals for a nation, cares for legislation, secures retirement for teachers, guides and develops international relations, takes care of rural and adult education, promotes library service and kindergartens. It is a matter for condemnation to accept gains from an organization and not sup¬ port it by membership. How can teachers say to their government, “I do my part,” if they refrain from doing their part thru organization toward the general welfare and common defense of their own group? Our management, always wonderful, this year has been a miracle. Thru strictest economies we find ourselves at the end of a very expensive year, $7500 within our income, altho we were obliged to call for funds to finance the extra work of the National Committee for Federal Emergency Aid for Education, for which nothing had been budgeted. Publicity was tremen¬ dously increased, and that demanded extra finance also. We express our appreciation for the spontaneous response when the National Education Association was left with the greater part of the burden of financing the National Committee for Federal Emergency Aid for Education. Eleven state organizations sent a total of $630 ; one hundred and sixty-three local asso¬ ciations, $2574; and two departments, $275; added to this was $500 from Phi Delta Kappa; $1500 from the American Council on Education; $37 from individuals, and $378 from the Unemployment Fund, making a total of $5894. Another expression of appreciation is due the National Broadcasting Company, whose half-hour broadcast each week represents a contribution of $2500, or $100,000 for forty weeks of free service. This program has helped 94 National Education Association to sensitize our nation, helped to keep the public informed of the schools, their services, and cost. The value of education, the attack on it, and the result of those attacks, has aroused us all to the plight of education. We also thank former President Florence Hale for her varied and challenging programs which have reached and convinced millions of people. This service she, too, gave freely and gladly. This year our immediate plans were made for a greater information of lay organizations to defend education as the cornerstone of democracy. In this plan, the Division of Research gave the scientific facts, the publicity office of the Division of Publications sent them forth to be used in defense of education thru all affiliated lay organizations. To each American Legion post a special citation was sent for its work in the defense of education during this emergency. Our Journal has never functioned better in interpreting the crisis, its cause, its extent, and how to end it. A series of special features included “The Interpretation of Education,” October 1933; “Working Together,” No¬ vember 1933; “Emergency Federal Aid Imperative,” February 1934; and “Secondary Education for the New Day,” May 1934. Teachers who clamor for news of what is being done should read, mark, and inwardly digest, since membership can only be turned into service when informed as to fields of service and how to function therein. The Journal this year has presented a perfect course in cooperative endeavor. The new era in education will result when, we, too, spread eagle wings to fly from inertia, and call, “I do my part. Why don’t you do yours?” Thruout the year, the Journal makes the report of work well done, as well as the announcement of new plans for the next bit of progress. It has kept the members and the profession generally in close touch with the work of the Joint Commission on the Emergency in Education, as well as with the progress of the National Committtee for Federal Emergency Aid for Education, and the statements of the Committee on Social and Economic Goals. In this great effort to interpret education in a national field, teachers who have not read the Journal are greatly at fault. Faculties that have not used the Journal as the basis of discussion are prolonging the crisis, which cannot pass away until everyone cooperates thru understanding, and partici¬ pates in the well-planned program to end it. Teachers can make their con¬ tribution in meeting citizens and revealing to them the program for the welfare of the schools. This service offers an opportunity for them to show that they are neither indifferent nor mercenary in their profession. You and your Journal are invincible ! Carry its message of the schools to the people. Beyond the profession itself, it maintains thirty-three hundred contacts with press associations, religious, business, labor, lay magazines, writers, cartoon¬ ists, speakers, radio stations, and others who have influence in forming public opinion. The Journal each year sponsors American Education Week in cooperation with the Office of Education and the American Legion. Last year it gave suggestions and materials to three thousand communities. Think of that stu- General Sessions 95 pendous contribution! It distributed a million pieces of literature which produced untold good, not to mention an income of $6671. Already it has planned the coming year’s program for American Education Week. It is a part of your membership value in a vision of greater future usefulness. Thru this same Division of Publications, we have heard the report of the Joint Commission on the Emergency in Education. This Commission, early in the summer of 1933, published its findings on the financing of education. The plan has been discussed in every section of the nation in nine regional conferences, held in Kansas City, Chicago, Atlanta, Cincinnati, Detroit, Hartford, Birmingham, Washington, and Cleveland. Eight hundred extra consultants were appointed from lay organizations and officers of teachers organizations and school systems. They drafted a charter of educational finance which has been studied by all lay organizations to help in the solu¬ tion of the vexing problem of financing the schools. The work of this great interpretative group was helped by a study outline prepared by the field sec¬ retary of the N. E. A. for lay study of the report. The Commission was augmented this year by the addition of two members appointed by youi president. As a result of a decision by the Executive Committee in Cleveland, February 1934, it will continue its work on educational recovery and re¬ construction. The Division of Research also prepared monthly reports for these eight hundred consultants, compiled a directory of four hundred com¬ mittee reports relating to educational recovery, and tabulated reports on rural school conditions in two thousand counties. It supplemented the report and work of the Joint Commission by publishing four pertinent pamphlets: (1) Essentials of Taxation ; (2) Evaluating the Public Schools; (3) Cur¬ rent Status of the Kindergarten ; (4) Emergency Federal Aid for Education. The Research Division has planned, in response to the Legislative Com¬ mission, a state school legislative reference service. It will be financed by the Association and will serve to help states plan for far-reaching improvements in school systems. No doubt it will suggest new tax bases, a larger admin¬ istrative unit, a better way of selecting members of boards of education, as well as limiting their numbers. Our planning this year for a more complete interpretation of the schools to the public has brought forth the Eighth Yearbook of the Department of Classroom Teachers, Teacher and Public. It was written by teachers and is full of actual experiences that have won public understanding and defense for schools. “Helping Citizens To Know Their Schools,” the ninth chapter of the 1934 Yearbook of the Department of Superintendence, also gives addi¬ tional help for the interpretation of the school. One of the outstanding con¬ tributions of the year for interpreting the schools to the people has been the publication by the National Congress of Parents and Teachers of a two- hundred-page book called Our Public Schools. This gives simple, concrete information about schools, so that parents may be helped to protect education against unwise economies and unjust slashes of the school budget. It wTas prepared by our field secretary, Chari Williams. Nineteen leading educators 96 National Education Association and experts have written chapters in simple, interesting, non-technical lan¬ guage, telling the story of the development, organization, and maintenance of our public schools and their purpose in the new social order. This book should be discussed in faculty meetings so that teachers and public may “speak the same language” in defending education in coming legislative sessions. I he Journal has sponsored vitalized commencement programs to register that finer interpretation of schools in students’ minds, so that they will con¬ tinue their interest and support, when they, in turn, shall be taxpayers. It was my privilege this June to attend six commencements which bore marvelous testimony to a superfine kind of program and teaching. Too much praise cannot be given our publicity office. Side by side with it goes the work of the Research Division. When you hear teachers say, “What does the N. E. A. do for me?” take out this one year’s list of accomplishments and its plans for the future and let it answer the question. Under all the activity of the Association is the sure foundation of scien¬ tific data produced by the Research Division. It carried on this year the following studies concerning teacher welfare and school efficiency: 1. For the Committee on the Economic Status of the Teacher, it collected, checked, and tabulated 30,000 monthly reports; thus securing the first reasonably accurate status of the American teacher. 2. For the Department of Classroom Teachers, it reviewed 42 investigations in school publicity and prepared 39 statistical charts and tables, and provided editorial assistance in the publication of the Yearbook, T eacher and Public. 3. For the Retirement Committee, it collected information on the effects of the depression on 22 state retirement systems. 4. For the Legislative Commission, it collected the data concerning the need for federal emergency aid. It helped draft the six-point program; conducted 6 nation¬ wide telegraphic surveys of educational conditions, and prepared 200 pages of report to support the survey. 5. For the Department of Elementary School Principals, it contributed several chapters to the Thirteenth Yearbook. 6. For the Committee on Social and Economic Goals, it conducted a survey of social-civic education. 7. For the Department of Superintendence, it collected data, drafted the final chapter of the Twelfth Y earbook, and helped in the development and management of 77 topic groups at the Cleveland convention. It also issued five Research Bulletins. It has answered two thousand let¬ ters and issued special circulars dealing with the NRA school building con¬ struction ; unpaid salaries of teachers; the schedule of high-school classes; expenditures for school books; and school legislation of 1933. For next year there are already visions for increased service which you may read in the director’s report. The year s work would be very incomplete without mention of the work of our Legislative Commission with Sidney B. Hall as chairman. Late in the summer, to give teachers a voice to state the relative value of their serv¬ ices, we formulated a code to state fair minimum credentials and salaries of teachers. It was hoped that we could prevent the scaling down of salaries 97 General Sessions below codes offered by the various industries. It was offered to the admin¬ istrative officers of the NRA in a special conference and rejected because no government employees were permitted to make codes. Early in October 1933, thirty-two national groups met under the leadership of James N. Rule, state superintendent of public instruction in Pennsylvania, to discuss the crisis in education. As a result, a six-point program for legislation enactment was drafted. James H. Richmond, state superintendent of public instruction in Kentucky, was made chairman of the National Committee for Federal Emergency Aid for Education, and James W. Cammack, Jr., was made his first assistant. You know the program. It was perfectly reported in the Journal. You know how generously you responded to financing it. 1 he grilling -work of watching and waiting and moving the bills was in large measure carried on by Mr. Cammack. Thirty-three states received sums to keep rural schools open in commu¬ nities of 5000 population or less. Approximately $17,000,000 was spent by the state superintendents and the state emergency relief commissions with¬ out any federal control. In addition approximately $9,000,000 was released for employing teachers who did not have positions; nursery, adult education, continuation, rehabilitation, and special classes for handicapped pupils and vocational courses were given. Thru PWA about $70,000,000 was spent for erection of school buildings on a 70-30 basis by local district and federal government respectively. To pay teachers’ salaries due before June 1934, the Sabath Amendment to the Home Industries Act has been signed for loans to school districts to pay salaries in arrears. 1 have given you a vision of organization activities with which you have entrusted us this year — to increase understanding among us, to interpret education to our fellow citizens, to thwart and nullify inimical forces that would negate the finest influence of school services and deny them support. The vision is not complete without a danger signal. There are two hundred thousand members in the National Education Association. 4 he indifference of the eight hundred thousand inert members of the profession is the first menace. Inertia in four-fifths of the physical body would be paralysis. More¬ over, the greatest criticism comes from those whose psychology is to criti¬ cize, to call off attention from their own inactivity. Making a contribution of service cures much fault finding. If there has been no participation in the program of understanding, planning, achievement, in all honor there should be no adverse criticism. Drones may shirk, but workers work! There is also a tendency on the part of some educators to take the cream of the profession and arrogate to themselves the credit of the success which belongs to the profession as a whole. To skim off the successes and deny the defeats is unsportsmanlike, and entirely unprofessional. Teachers who do much experimentation should guard against exploitation of their best work by those who had no part in it. To ask any other organization to make the teachers’ cause, in itself, .synonymous with theirs, is to deny the ability of the profession to organize 98 National Education Association for its own defense, or else to admit the weakness of professional organiza¬ tion to insure its own defense and secure its own aims. All lay organizations are basically and essentially interested in education and must become defend¬ ers of education. All political parties must be interested in the support of education. Every profession must also be interested in and defend education per se, not the teacher separated from her work. The profession itself is its own paramount defender. Therefore, teachers who have passed on to other organizations their memberships and affiliation, in the hope of protection, have separated themselves from their work and are no longer under the defense of education. Of these teachers we ask, “Have you given your pro¬ fession 100 percent of your support? If not, why not?” We urge a united profession with faith in ability to plan and work cooperatively for all .progress and prestige of the group as a whole. We urge the ideal that our profession best defends itself thru fine service, fine ethics, and loyalty within the group. Organizations, like clocks, go from the motion their elements give them. As organizations are made and moved by us, so by us they may be ruined. Therefore our organization depends rather on us than we on our organi¬ zation. Let us strengthen ourselves in service, spirit, and dedication that it may be well with all of us because of each of us. Our vision for next year must include greater cooperation with our won¬ derful lay organizations, more scientific information, definite work for tax reforms and restoration of school budgets, social contacts with homes and clubs, articles for magazines, and larger administrative units. In some places there are more than four thousand teachers to one member of a board of education. On an average, there is one board member for two teachers in the United States, and in thirteen states there are more board members than teachers! From this statement, we can see visions of interesting work in the voyage ahead. Teachers, we must put America first, not merely in the assertion of rights, but in the glad assumption of duties; not in splendid icy isolation, but in warm-hearted cooperation. In Flanders Fields, John McCrae says, the sol¬ diers had “felt dawn.” We, too, must feel dawn — the stir of vitality that wakes us to a new endeavor, the thankfulness for work to do. “Listen to the exhortation of the dawn. Look to this day, for it is life. In its brief course lie all the varieties and realities of your existence; the bliss of growth, the glory of action, the splendor of beauty. For yesterday is but a dream, and tomorrow is only a vision, but today, well lived, makes every yesterday a dream of happiness, and every tomorrow a vision of hope. Look well, there¬ fore, to this day, such is the salutation of the dawn” as you begin your voyage into a happy new year of service. General Sessions 99 RADIO AS A MEANS OF PUBLIC ENLIGHTENMENT MERLIN H. AYLESWORTH, PRESIDENT, NATIONAL BROADCASTING COMPANY, NEW YORK, N. Y. Someone has told about a town in America which is so small that when the train stops, the engine is out in the country. I have lived in that kind of town and in the country where no train stopped and in the great cities, too, where nothing seems to ever stop but trains. People live in these towns and these country places and in these cities — American citizens. Some are born here, some are naturalized and great masses of people are still unnaturalized. They speak many tongues, they support thousands of newspapers printed in other languages, containing news of the United States, the old country, and that of the whole world. They are guests of Uncle Sam as long as they wish to live here — their children go to our public schools — they become citizens. People live in remote places — the coast guard off rocky Maine, the forest patrol on top of mountains, the prairie ranger in Texas, the mountaineer in Kentucky and Tennessee, the park service on our national reservations, the settlers off the Florida Keys. People do not have the same advantages. Vast sections of our country do not have the same school advantages as the more populous places. News¬ papers and magazines do not completely penetrate all the recesses of this great country. The opportunities to make a livelihood are not so great in some places as in others. The opportunity to read good books, to learn healthful recreation, to combat disease, to keep the human body properly nourished (even tho food is readily available) has not been the same over this country. Then along came radio — the first universal form of communication to reach all the people. Here then is our responsibility as broadcasters, to pro¬ vide programs that possess a universal appeal, capable of arousing and holding the interest of all the people. In this way we can provide our greatest service to the listener. First put to work as an agency of relief for ships at sea, the wireless sput¬ tered its famous SOS into the ether as a sign of distress bringing succor and help to foundering vessels, then saving human lives and precious cargoes. Radio is still saving human lives and precious cargoes. As a means of public enlightenment, it has joined the forces of the church, the school, the home, industry, labor, the various philanthropic agencies, and the government to make this world more livable, people more understandable to one another, the acts of our duly appointed and elected officers of the government under which we live, more clearly realized. Herein lies the greatest objective of radio — here is the widest application of its educational potentiality — as a means of public enlightenment. If this public trust be kept in good faith, for the benefit of all, it matters not what the details of its administration may be. Special interest groups, many with most laudable purposes and desires, are a menace to its freedom. To create that fine balance of pointed opinion, to have a place and oppor- 100 National Education Association tunity ready for criticism and discussion of public issues, to provide a service for the transmission of news of extraordinary national import to the whole country, to entertain, to educate — that is the function of radio. Lincoln himself said he liked men around him who could see the point of a good story. Lincoln liked to tell good stories that brought the quirk of a smile to solemn faces or a loud hearty laugh to heartsick weary bodies, bowed down in the midst of great national conflict. Lincoln was a good listener, too. You must cultivate that — being a good listener. Radio is fast making us ear-minded, a nation of listeners. No country in the world has such a variety of programs. I have an oppor¬ tunity to review the programs of every nation in the world and feel their contact almost daily. We put hundreds of them on the air for public enlight¬ enment every year on an exchange basis with Europe, with our neighbor Canada, and for Mexico and the South American Republics. In no boastful spirit, I must tell you that American programs are unsurpassed in all the world for American purposes. The temper of peoples changes. Their tastes vary, and every broadcasting system over the world is consciously striving to do the best by its own people, as it sees it. We have over 20 percent education on our networks — that is, programs that definitely have educational purpose. We have 30 percent more of pro¬ grams that have educational value, which makes 50 percent. That leaves 50 percent for entertainment. Education gets a fifty-fifty break, therefore, over our networks. I have long believed that we have not been utilizing the force of educa¬ tion by radio to its greatest advantage. There is something to be said for the newness of the medium. For over two hundred years there has been going on a development of the technic of teaching in the classroom. Compared to this our experience with radio has spanned only a few short years. It takes time even to train an individual to use this new medium ; how much longer it must take to train a whole group of teachers to make effective use of it. As broadcasters we invite you to join with us in bringing about the most fruitful use of this new medium. As teachers you are asked to share this responsibility with us. The public lecturer, the circus owner, the college president, the salesman, if you will, all must learn to understand human nature. Methods of appeal vary, but essentially the object is the same — to make other people want something we have to give. There is no royal road to success in broadcasting. We have got to experiment. In order to learn to swim, we must swim. So in order to learn to broadcast, we must broadcast. We have put every kind of subject on the air to interest listeners. Politics, government, economics, psychology, philosophy, art, literature, music, voca¬ tional training, law, home economics, and many others. Efforts have been made to publicize these programs — extensive lists of organizations have co¬ operated by bringing them to the attention of their membership. Printed bulletins, bibliographies, and reprints of lectures have been made available. Thousands have written us their appreciation of these efforts. We consci- General Sessions 101 ously tried to do a good educational job with the child and the grown-up — with your help we will do a better job. Thousands of school systems receive our daily programs while more than 50,000 schools, representing over six million children, listen each week to Walter Damrosch and the NBC Music Appreciation Hour. Indi¬ vidual school systems have sought and are using the local facilities of our associated stations in many states and cities. We know the limitations of the radio lesson. We know it does not successfully accomplish applied work. We know, however, that it supplements and vitalizes any subject which a teacher is struggling to make interesting to a group of young people. It can supply the intellectual urge to make us go on and study for ourselves, which I suppose is the highest accomplishment of any teacher. Yet all this does not carry out the greatest purpose of radio. There is testimony to show that thousands of people have been brought back to their churches thru radio — that millions have gotten a new lease on life thru a radio talk, personal and direct, sincere and honest. People wTho give such talks and answer their mail personally, get a glow of satis¬ faction that makes them radio revivalists. They are so caught by the spirit of this powerful force that they could not, if they would, let go. Yet all this does not carry out the greatest purpose of radio. During the past year, changes have come about in our economic life, government has had an increasingly important part to play in the life of every citizen. Questions of public policy, such as agriculture and industry, not only national but international in character, have all been defined and debated on the air. The Administration policies have been presented by representatives of the federal government. They have also been criticized by members of the opposition, as freely as the opposition has wished so to do. The American principle of freedom of speech is in operation. The only qualification a man needs to speak on an NBC network is that he be a responsible citizen, representing a responsible group of citizens, with something important to say. There is, of course, the limitation of time. But if time be available, be he senator, congressman, official or layman, regardless of his party affiliation, he is entitled to his place on the air. And yet even this does not carry out the greatest purpose of radio. Man’s greatest enemies have been, since time immemorial — war, fire, flood, famine, and pestilence. Radio’s greatest function is to act as a preven¬ tive of those enemies, set out for man’s destruction. It can do this thru public enlightenment. Radio can avert the causes of war by bringing about an international understanding. You cannot seek to destroy the man you know. As international programs grow, bringing the customs, the music, the art, the points of view of all peoples to one another, we are well on the road to peaceful relations. Travel with radio if you cannot travel abroad, and watch your viewpoint change as the scenery flashes by. Radio can avert fire — forest fires, by constantly advising vigilance; home and industrial fires by advocating care and caution — thru public enlighten- 102 National Education Association ment. Radio can avert the ravages of flood by its warnings from the gov¬ ernment Flood Control Offices, the Department of Agriculture at Wash¬ ington, the various state agencies and the advice of well-informed men — thru public enlightenment. Radio can avert famine — by pointing out the best methods of harnessing the seasons to one’s crops, by expert advice on rotation and planting, by constantly serving the farmer with up-to-the- minute information from authoritative sources — thru public enlightenment. Radio can avert pestilence by preaching cleanliness and the use of anti¬ septics, by the spread of medical information to the layman who must be informed in order to cooperate with scientific advance — all this thru public enlightenment. Radio, by its ability to reach the people of this nation, can effectively com¬ bat those twin enemies of mankind, ignorance and disease, and it will. We have yet only touched upon the significance of this means of mass communi ¬ cation as a boon to mankind. In America, we are making it a means of public enlightenment. We are proud to join forces with this Association to make that purpose more certain and secure. YOUTH CHALLENGES THE NATION HONORABLE NEWTON D. BAKER, CLEVELAND, OHIO I have come here both to preach and to pray. In the period of these days of bewildering depression every institution which has depended upon public support has necessarily had diminished revenue. The very large amount of money annually spent by us for education made that one of the places where the pinch was sharpest, and I want to pay, as a citizen of the United States, my mede of tribute and praise to the heroic fidelity and loyalty with which the teachers of the United States have stood by their task, no matter what the deficiencies in their pay envelopes have been. I want to pray that in the troubled and uncertain times which are necessarily ahead of us and all other peoples in a bewildered world, that you teachers will be given the strength and the determination and the courage to bear the part of that task which is inescapably yours. Once before I addressed the National Education Association, and when I did my mind went back to one of the greatest teachers I had known in the course of my life. She is a woman now retired from active service, lives here in Washington, and I suspect is listening to the sound of my voice as it is carried to her over the radio. I said of her that in my high-school days she set an example of intelligent and disciplined educational value which had been an inspiration to me thruout my entire life, and that every boy and girl who came in contact with her radiant personality had been enriched by that contact. After that meeting was over, and because the entirely spontaneous remarks of mine were printed, they were brought to the atten¬ tion of this fine woman, whom I delighted then and now to honor. She wrote me a letter in which she said, “My dear Newton: It of course gives General Sessions 103 me great pleasure to have you remark me as a good teacher, but I want to confess in all honesty that I had taught some years before I really learned the secret of teaching, and that secret is that the boy is much more importanr than the book.” Now I am here tonight to talk about youth challenging the nation. I heard some things in the report of your president about the financial diffi¬ culties which the schools have had, and something of the effort which has been made to organize an expression of teacher and parent opinion in favor of adequate support of the schools. I remember having read a great many years ago, that the poet, Cowper, went to one peculiarly futile and fatuous, George, King of England, and asked him to do something for literature. The King responded in a very casual spirit that perhaps some day he would. The poet looked at him gravely and said, “Your Majesty will be well advised if you do, for if you do not, literature may do something for you.” So I have the feeling about the state, that if the state forgets its respon¬ sibility to education in America, the consequences will be disastrous to the state itself, for no man can be a student of the history of the birth, growth, and development of our free institutions without realizing that the corner¬ stone of American liberty and development has been education from the beginning. The Pilgrims, after having built a barricade against the Indians, then inadequate shelter for themselves against the weather, and the house in which they might worship their God, proposed to themselves as the next responsibility the building of schools in which the minds of the young might be trained both to the opportunity and the obligation of the race in this new land. In every colonial experiment we made, the school was next to the church in the ideals and in the affection and service of the people. Indeed, I think it may not be unwise to remind you that in the early days the teaching was done by the clergy. It was a part of the sacred ministry of religion, and it has been fortified and handed over to you, no less sacred a task than it was in those ministerial hands. After we had established a democracy in this country — and that de¬ mocracy was established by educated men — the first thought was not only for the development of primary and secondary education, but of collegiate education. The establishment of Harvard College, and the great universi¬ ties and colleges which early followed it, including the venerable College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, were all a testimonial to the belief of the founders of this republic that the only safety for a democracy was an educated electorate. Thomas Jefferson, who more than any other person is responsible for our having embarked upon the democratic experiment, devoted the last years of his life not merely to advocating higher education, but to establish¬ ing the University of Virginia, for which he actually wrote textbooks — one in Anglo-Saxon, for instance, because he could not find that anybody else had ever done it. And when he wrote the epitaph which he preferred to have upon his own tomb when he died, he included along with his emanci- 104 National Education Association pation of his own slaves and his authorship of the Declaration of Inde¬ pendence, the fact that he had founded the University of Virginia. Now the government has always been entrusted to the educated class. In aristocratic forms of government, where there are oligarchies and privi¬ leged classes, their privilege always implies that they have had education as against their fellow citizens. Every now and then men dissolve into a herd, education comes into disrepute, the educated class is cast aside or assailed, as in some recent instances over seas, and after a very little while herd government demonstrates its incapacity and there then starts either a fresh process of educating leading minds, or the importation of educated people to take over the leadership. But in all times historic that I know anything about, except in these moments of irrational herd movement, gov¬ ernment is the business of educated people. In this country we have decided that we are going to have a popular government in which men and women, merely because of the dignity of human personality, are to have an equal share in the political power. It necessarily follows from that determination that the men and women of America shall be sufficiently educated to understand what their government is about and to make wise decisions concerning it. Therefore, for a democracy to live on both the quality and quantity of elementary and primary educa¬ tion is fixed by the political laws of our being. In the yard back of my house there is an old plum orchard which was there before the house was built. On one of those trees there hangs a little house for wrens. Each year a pair builds there. This year I happened to observe those wrens thruout the period of the young in the nest. They were a noisy lot, clumsy, awkward, dependent. The older wrens fed them and scolded them and finally they looked to me as tho they were too big to stay in the house any longer. I made that decision on Saturday and mother wren made it on Sunday. I watched her. She invited them out of the house, emboldened them to fly onto the ground, took them off on a little thicket of underbrush that is nearby, and for two days she taught and scolded them as roundly as I have ever seen children disciplined. She taught them how to fly ; she scolded them when they flew wrong ; she set them an example of good flying, with evident pride in her own achievement, and at the end of two days she had given them an education for life. They knew the only two things they had to know. They knew how to forage and how to fly. As I sat watching that, I thought how exquisitely simple is the educa¬ tional task of the wren, but how supremely well done. They had been educated for the life they are to live. They have, so far as I know the wren mind, but three accomplishments: they can find food; they can transport themselves from place to place; and, alas, they have a quality which it is rather hard for us later developments in the animal kingdom to throw off — they know how to run away from everything they do not understand. If the task of education is to build citizens who can finish and develop the greatest free government the world has ever seen, then I want to lay this down as a postulate, and I am going to try to put it in a very crisp General Sessions 105 sentence. I want to warn you teachers against the public danger of mere literacy, for my belief is that there is no greater peril than the idea that merely teaching people how to read educates them. I read in this month’s Atlantic an article by Albert Jay Nock, a very excellent article from my point of view. My friend Nock is a bit acid occasionally. He evidently has had some unpleasant experience about read¬ ing, and he makes the broad generalization that only a few people can read, and the article says that he does not mean by that that they cannot spell words, but grasping the content of the printed page he thinks is an accom¬ plishment which few of his fellow citizens have. And he tells by way of proving it that a very important business man in a village which they evi¬ dently both knew had applied for admission to his church and had had very great difficulty with the Nicene Creed because there is a sentence in the Nicene Creed, speaking of our Savior, “He was crucified for us under Pontius Pilate,” and this gentleman who desired to join the church had grave religious difficulties with that because he did not believe it to be historically true that Pontius Pilate was ever crucified at all. Nock tells the story to show that the difference between mere reading of words and the reading of content is a vastly different thing. Now my own belief is that the task of education, the task of the educa¬ tor, has been increasingly great. Every now and then we hear something about teachers complaining that too much is expected of them ; that they are expected to do too much for the children which ought to be done in the home. The difficulty about that is that the things which the child has to learn are not known in the home. The people in the home have stopped their edu¬ cational progress and they are, therefore, behind in the knowledge which it is necessary for an educated man to have, and to a very much greater extent than was ever true before in the history of the world, children have to get up- to-date knowledge, which is the most useful knowledge, in the schools, or thev cannot get it anywhere. Therefore the teacher’s task from that point of view is admittedly increased. In addition to that, of course, it is a plain thing to see that never before in the history of the human mind has the advance of knowledge been so overwhelming in its onward rush and development as it has in the last twenty-five, thirty, forty, or fifty years. In 1851 and 1852 the Prince Consort, Queen Victoria’s husband, very much interested in the education of the English people, went to Oxford and Cambridge to see whether he thought the curriculum in those two great universities sound. One of the deans of one of those great colleges — I think it was at Cambridge — said to him that they had a fixed principle that nothing ought to be taught there that was less than one hundred years old, and that on the basis of that there was no instruction given in that uni¬ versity in chemistry, or physics, or psychology, and the half dozen other sciences that now are in the elements of a college curriculum with us, to say nothing of that great field of human learning known as the social sciences, which have been developed in more modern times. 106 National Education Association The fact is that in education for life, if we are to educate excellently for our jobs as the little wrens were for the jobs that faced them, we have got to have the kind of an education which will make us aware of and make us understand the problems of the civilization of which we are a part. In order to understand those problems, we must be in touch with all the developments of the social sciences; we must understand the psychology of human relationships; we must get a broader, more liberal, and more tolerant view of the surrender of individual rights in the interest of the common good, and a sounder and more wholesome distribution of economic values of life. We must also get a deeper appreciation of those higher features which expand the personality and ennoble and enrich the individual life, that come from the constant pursuit of culture, the thinking of high thoughts and believing high things. Therefore, it seems to me that the task of the educator has become in¬ creasingly difficult. Education is not book learning any more. It is book learning plus. As my dear old teacher said, the plus is more important than the book. The plus is the making of the boy or girl entrusted to a teacher not merely a sound and inquiring mind, but a disciplined and brave spirit, for in the last analysis, the processes of a democratic government, like every other government, are going to be entrusted to the educated men. The great decisions and the fundamental determinations will be made by popular vote but the infinite details of governmental operation cannot be submitted to popular determination. The common education which we must have is an education that will enable us to respond correctly to emotional things; to analyze patiently and understand clearly the main outlines and tendencies of governmental policies. T hen the children entrusted to you must come from your hands with humility enough to realize that they do not know everything, and that when an expert task is to be done, their job is to help select an honest expert and a capable expert and then leave his expert task to him. That is a large order. Out of the raw material that comes to your hands some will undoubtedly come with humility of spirit ; some will not. Some will say to you, or to me, if there is an argument and a book or condition is quoted, rather contemptuously and assertively, “I can read with the best of them.” But the answer lies in the question, “Yes, but do you? Have you read on that subject? Have you qualified yourself to express an opinion? Are you keeping your judgment in suspension until you know the facts and have equipped yourself really to assert an opinion upon an expert subject?” Now the importance of this — and I want to be just as simple about it as I can possibly be and I want you to believe that I think very deeply what I am now saying — lies in the fact that to me the democratic form of govern¬ ment is immeasurably the best that man has yet devised, but it is at the same time, immeasurably the most difficult to operate. The more I see of dictatorships, wherever they are, the less I like them. I am sometimes sad but I am always patient and I am always hopeful at the blunders of autocracy. Democracy is now, so far as this world is concerned, the sole General Sessions 107 possession of the English-speaking people, and certain Scandinavian peoples of like institutional and legal heritage. If you take Great Britain and her scattered possessions or parts, like Australia, New Zealand, or Canada, the United States, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, you have exhausted the places in which democracy remains a successful form of government. One or the other of two things is going to happen, either the despair which has scrapped democracy into the discard in Europe is going to grow and that form of government will collapse and disappear, or if we are but stout-hearted enough and loyal enough to our own beliefs in it, our example will again fire the world as it once did. We will save what we have established and the future race will bless us for having not been afraid in an hour of peril and an hour of doubt. You cannot do that; I cannot do it; no Red speaker; no newspaper can do it. The answer to that thing lies in the hands of the teachers of the United States. And the place where should be planted the seed that is to grow into this great tree that is to shelter and preserve our liberties is in the kindergarten. Discipline, humility of spirit, an inquiring mind, and an unselfish willing¬ ness to suffer if necessary that the future may be safe is the thing that only children can learn, but which, when they have learned, places haloes on the heads of men and women. I do not know whether any of you have ever disturbed an ant hill. I have. You find it in a field, a pile of sand it seems to be ; you take a walking stick and stir it, and instantly there comes out of it at a dozen or a hundred places an army of ants, scattering away, and every one of them is bearing and carrying to safety a young ant. The instinct of saving the youth of the race begins with the very lowest form of animal life. It is the strength of the mountain lion just as it is the first thought of the ant in the presence of' danger. So far as human beings are concerned, the protection of the next generation is largely a question of the extent and character of the education we can give them to make them fairly safe in this dangerous world. We cannot do less by our young than the ants do. We should not do less by our young than the wrens do. You and I, whether as parents or teachers, must combine to see that youth, which is now looking to this older generation with rather grave misgivings, and some of them very decidedly justified misgivings, is endowed with the spirit which only trained and disciplined minds can give them, to make of this world in which we have done some brilliant things and some quite dull and deadly things a finer place for our spirits to dwell in than our generation found it at the hands of our fathers. 108 National Education Association WHAT EDUCATION AND ECONOMIC HERITAGE SHALL WE HAND TO OUR CHILDREN? WILLIAM E. SWEET, CHIEF, EDUCATIONAL SECTION, PUBLIC RELATIONS, NRA, WASHINGTON, D. C. J AND FORMER GOVERNOR OF COLORADO It is a truism to say that one of the necessary qualifications of a teacher is to cause his pupils to like the subject being taught. This is difficult to do at times but your success as a teacher of economics will be in proportion as you succeed in arousing an interest in and creating enthusiasm for this subject in the mind of your pupil. Now is a very propitious time in which to do this, for everyone has felt the pinch of the depression. If John’s father has lost his job after many years of faithful service, John will want to know why. Under these circumstances, it is much easier to focus his mind on economics than would otherwise be the case. Economics interests every¬ one these days, young and old, rich and poor. The successful teacher should lose no opportunity to secure outside speakers who will enliven and maintain the interest of the pupil in the subject. This is important because economics is apt to be, at best, a rather dry and abstruse subject. In this connection a word should be said about propaganda. The inter¬ pretation of the law of the land, free from partisanship, can by no stretch of the imagination be construed as propaganda. I refer to this because you may find that certain groups of citizens, whose business might become the object of criticism, or newspapers might object to bringing in outstanding economists to address high-school students. The time has gone by in our public schools when such an objection can be raised against the intellectual stimulus which able men can bring to youth. Again we should not hesitate to bring any subject into our class in eco¬ nomics because it lies in the zone of disagreement. When we are careful to have both sides of a question presented we should let debate and discussion have full sway no matter where it leads. Before the class session closes, the teacher may wish to gather up the loose ends of what may have been perhaps loose and not constructive thinking. But in doing this the teacher will not attempt to impose limits to the freedom of a student to express what he thinks, whether this be ultra-conservative or ultra-radical. If, as Glenn Frank told us Monday night, “Democracy in America depends on our ability to solve our economic problem,” then the subject of what economic heritage we hand to our children becomes of vital and paramount importance. We are now dealing with fundamentals in educa¬ tion, and education is the bulwark of our democracy. We are now having in the world today visible proof of this truth. Italy is governed by a dictator. Germany by a still more ruthless dictator. Russia is committed to com¬ munism. We remain a democracy. Why? Because our people know that they can express their political and economic opinions at the ballot box and, what is more, have their opinions heeded. General Sessions 109 In 1932 we elected a new political leader from the opposition party. In 1933 we inaugurated him President at a time when we knew not what a day might bring forth. We gave this President greater power over life and property than had ever been given before to a President in peace times and we did this without the erection of a barricade anywhere in the land, without the spilling of a drop of blood. We did not change the color of our shirts, and we kept our shirts on. Our President today sails the fair seas in search of rest and recreation. He went away confident that democracy in America would still abide when he comes home. But why this unperturbed spirit in the midst of turmoil and upheavals which are shaking governments to their foundations? It is because of the confidence we feel in the stability and perpetuity of our government, and this confidence will continue as long as we educate for democracy. I am less concerned about the form of de¬ mocracy than I am about its spirit. Its form may change; its spirit must endure. Flag drills in public schools are well, but I crave a self-imposed respect for the flag as against any imposed drill or discipline. I know this is an ideal. I trust we may soon reach it. In the midst of a world of bewildering change we cannot expect that either democracy or economics will remain static. When democracy becomes static it ceases to be democracy. It is inevitable that economics will change in a world dominated by science and the mechanization of industry. Certain principles of economics are fixed and determined but the methods by which these principles are made operative will change from time to time. For instance, President Hoover attempted to corner the wheat market of America in order to regulate the price. He could not do it — there was too much wffieat grown. Today we are endeavoring to affect price by limiting production until demand balances supply. Now this method greatly perturbs Dr. Frank and others who tenaciously hold, I think as a matter of sentiment, to unlimited production. They say, “We will never solve the paradox of want by doing away with the plenty.” This argument is totally outside the realm of reality. We are not told what to do with the surplus production. A panegyric to production does not solve the problem of over-production when there is not sufficient purchasing power among the people with which to buy it. It is a waste of time, money, and energy, as well as terribly depressing to the spirit of the producer, to make more things than can be sold or to grow more foodstuffs than can be marketed. I have raised this question not entirely in a controversial spirit but because it offers a good illustration of the change of method in trying to solve an intricate economic problem. If ours is a government of and for and by the people, then the economic heritage we hand down to our children will be characteristic of our govern¬ ment. It is a fact that heretofore much of our economic practise has borne no semblance whatever to the spirit of democracy. I quote from the speech of 110 National Education Association President Roosevelt at the opening assembly of the Code Authorities at Constitution Hall, Washington, March 5, 1934: We undertook by lawful constitutional processes to reorganize a disintegrated system of production and exchange. The methods and details of that reorganization may and will change from year to year, but it is very certain that the American people understand that the purpose of the reorganization is not only to bring back prosperity — it was far deeper than that. The reorganization must be permanent for all the rest of our lives in that never again will we permit social conditions which permitted vast sections of our population to exist in an un-American way, which permitted a mal-distribution of wealth and power. If we succeed in securing a wider distribution of the national income and cure the “mal-distribution of wealth and power” we shall then have an economic order in this country more in keeping with the ideals of democracy, for we will not then permit the concentration of wealth in the hands of the people while the many suffer for the necessities of life. Far better for the economic life of a community that thirty men should have an income of $3000 each per year than that one man should have an income of $90,000 per year. The economic heritage which we hand to our children must be character¬ ized by an effort to bring economic security to all. I know this is a diffi¬ cult thing to do, but it can be done if we have the will to do it. Greed, selfishness, and a society characterized by cupidity and acquisitiveness have kept us from it. Many corporations, by a fair division of the profits, are today employing as many people as they ever did and at the same wages. When business was prosperous, cash and stock dividends did not absorb all the surplus earnings to the great advantage of the stockholders and to the disadvantage of the worker. I refer to such concerns as the Endicott- Johnson Shoe Company whose labor policy is a model of cooperation between employer and employee in the distribution of the profits which accrue to the business. The Wrigley Company, Chicago, has a million-dollar fund voluntarily set aside to insure the worker against unemployment. The General Electric Company also has such a fund. In the future such policies will not be left to the goodwill of the employer, but in times of prosperity companies will be compelled by law to share their profits with the worker. Since all this is new in economics it is under attack by the strict consti¬ tutionalists who say property cannot be taken away from its owner without due process of law. Of course not. Nobody wants to do this in any way except by legal processes. The modern economists say “change the law” and then let the Supreme Court determine whether or not it is constitutional. I have no fear of a court which makes a decision as sweeping as was the decision in the recent New York milk case. The Court said: “Neither property nor contract rights are absolute ; for government cannot exist if the citizen may, at will, use his property to the detriment of his fellows, or exercise his freedom of contract to work them harm. Equally fundamental with the private right is that of the public to regulate it in the common interest.” General Sessions 111 The economic heritage which we must hand to our children will be totally unlike the heritage which we have received from our fathers. We received a heritage of laissez faire which produced unfair competition, sweat shop labor, and child labor. T his is gone. On the other hand a new era has come, in which an attempt will be made to infuse industry with such measure of control as will guarantee the worker a good life while at the same time conserving individual initiative and enterprise. The heritage which we will hand to our children must iron out the hills and valleys of prosperity and depression, made possible by scientific experimentation in economics. A noted publicist of England once said, “We cannot in the end rejoice in anything less than the whole scheme of things.” Whatever there is in our economic life which does not bring rejoicing must be cast out and abolished to the end that the years of this complicated economic machine shall mesh and thus bring happiness, contentment, and the abundant life for all. You represent an indispensable agency in bringing about the New World for as it has been said of old, “No man putteth new wine into old wine-skins else the wine will burst the skins, and the wine perisheth, and the skins; but they put new wine into fresh wine-skins.” NATIONAL CONGRESS OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS MRS. B. F. LANGWORTHY, PRESIDENT, NATIONAL CONGRESS OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS, WINNETKA, ILL. This organization was formed in 1897 as an outgrowth of the movement for parent education engendered by the continuous teaching of Felix Adler of New York, Elizabeth Harrison of Chicago, and G. Stanley Hall of Massachusetts. Like the other groups formed approximately at the same period, the motive for this one was the education of the mother for her job as the first teacher of her child. For ten years it was called the Congress of Mothers ; parents were added in the form of parent-teacher associations in an effort to bring the home and school into a closer understanding and cooperation. In the thirty-six years of its existence it has gained over a million and a half of members from every walk of life representing “all of the children of all of the parents” as William Hawley Smith used to say. Every state except one is organized as a branch of the National Congress including the Territory of Hawaii, while Alaska and Nevada have many individual members. For about ten years thruout the association there was a propensity for making money to purchase equipment for the school and playground, a habit so strongly fixed that it has been hard to break, because it was, perhaps, the easiest way to ingratiate the school staff and, on the other hand, it was the easiest way for the school staff to keep the mothers busy and willing to let the staff run the school without their interference. 112 National Education Association 1 here is still a good deal of money-raising in parent-teacher associations but it is mostly for buying shoes and food for little ones who could not otherwise go to school at all. We have learned at last that the function of a parent-teacher association is not to buy equipment for schools but to study facts and to create public opinion in favor of adequate schools and adequate education for every child. Study classes are taking the place of money-raising ventures for we know that we cannot intelligently help save our schools unless we know what out- schools mean to our children; and we cannot save our homes unless we know what a good home means to them in health, in security, in happiness. I he National Congress has its official monthly magazine, Child Welfare; it publishes many leaflets, pamphlets, and a few books, the latest of which are: the Fourth Yearbook on Parent Education by Ada Hart Arlitt, and Our Public Schools compiled and edited by our chairman of the Committee on School Education and your field secretary, Chari Williams. Last year we had sixty-two hundred study groups enrolled ; many more are being formed around this book on the history and functions of public schools, which should be studied not by parents alone but with the helpful discussion of the teachers within the groups. The schools of America will be saved but it will not be by the parents, or the teachers; it will be by the combined efforts of all of them, working hand in hand. Supplementing the three most important policies of the Congress, that we shall forever be non-partisan, non-sectarian, and non-commercial, are the following principles, stated informally: We believe in universal free education, and in equal opportunities for all children regardless of their station in life, race, creed, or the ability of parents to pay taxes. We believe in adequate state distribution of funds, and, if an emergency exists, in federal aid for schools. We believe education is one of the chief functions of government, and urge our state legislatures as well as Congress to adhere to the con\ iction of the founders of our country that education must forever be encouraged. We believe that education should be designed to develop the intellect, the body, and the spirit of the child today as well as for his future position in adult society. We believe that the social and creative studies which prepare a child for the in¬ creasing leisure provided by changes in our business and industrial life are of the greatest value and instead of being curtailed, should be more fully developed. W e believe that boards of education should be composed of intelligent, honest, and interested laymen who will administer the business of raising and spending school revenues wisely, and employ a competent superintendent, leaving him to administer the school system. We believe in simple, attractive school buildings, with each school presided over by a trained educator as principal. We believe that the teachers should be well trained for their profession, well paid for their services, and well fitted for leader¬ ship in the life of the community. General Sessions 113 AMERICAN LEGION RUSSELL COOK, NATIONAL DIRECTOR, AMERICANISM COMMISSION, AMERICAN LEGION, INDIANAPOLIS, IND. The interest of the American Legion in education is based upon one cardinal principle, and one only. It is my thought and wish to impress upon you the sincerity of our organization in that principle. The Legion is eager to cooperate in promoting the welfare of our schools and education in general. It has a very definite reason. The time is not far distant in the past when the educator, especially in our rural communities which comprised a great part of our population in the ’80’s and ’90’s, was the purveyor of news to a large degree. The teacher was looked upon, and rightly, as the leading figure in the community who could interpret the big issues of the day. The duty of the teacher now is to provide the groundwork, the education, to enable the child to do his own thinking and to form his own views on vital subjects. That is the heart of the principle of education in which the Legion is most interested. It is the heart of the principle that was recognized and put into practise by George Washington when he founded one of our first free public schools across the Potomac River in Alexandria, Virginia. The father of our country had in mind the objective of fitting and pre¬ paring the bovs and girls for their duties as future American citizens. He reasoned that if the American people in the years to come, who were just freed of British rule, were to govern themselves successfully, they must fit themselves for that duty. The American Legion feels that same way about our people and our republic today. In furtherance of that thought, we feel if our republic is to be truly a government of the people, by the people, foi the people,” then our children must have the proper education which will enable them to do their own thinking later in life. In accordance with that principle, we believe the teaching of strange tenets in government has no place in the schoolroom. We are positive that the teacher steps out of his proper sphere when he becomes a propagandist. In the last few years there has grown up a movement in which too many of our teachers are creating ideas in the schoolroom for what is called a new social order. The American Legion is opposed to that movement. We say that it is not the mission of the teacher to lead the child into believing we should have a new social order, but that it is his mission to educate the child so that it can take its proper place in whatever social order exists when it comes to maturity- We believe the teacher’s mission is to educate the child in the fundamentals in order that when manhood or womanhood is reached he or she may assume citizenship responsibilities, can judge between right and wrong, and can weigh the consequences of an act and be capable of dis¬ charging his or her duty and raise a voice in self-government in the right way to protect the principles on which our republic is founded. 114 National Education Association I he members of the American Legion were rudely awakened to the neces¬ sity of more general education while serving the flag of our country on the battlefields of the World War. At no other period in our national history has the importance of education been more pronounced than during the war when members of the Legion experienced a handicap which a lack of school¬ ing placed upon comrades. In almost every outfit we found American boys serving in a far-off country, unable to read the letters they received from home, unable to write, and unable to read orders issued to them. A most pitiful incident of our service was to see some young fellow holding a news¬ paper from home, hesitant, with longing eyes, to ask some buddy to give him the news. Or, to see those same boys hanging around the bulletin boards in their camps, drinking in the comment of comrades regarding the orders posted there. More than one tragedy resulted from the inability of a soldier to understand properly the orders of their superior officers. That is one reason why the American Legion today is eager to give every American boy a chance to receive an education. It is the human interest touch that gives sincerity of purpose to our understanding and desire to promote every¬ thing for the welfare of our schools. With such incidents of the war fresh in mind the returned soldiers who comprise the American Legion today took initial steps in proposing a plan for stimulating interest in the work of the schools. In creating the Americanism Commission, the Legion provided in its charter to emphasize and to pay particular attention to the education of the foreign-born with the view of eliminating illiteracy in this nation of ours. The Americanism Commission sought the assistance of the National Education Association in establishing an annual program in which the American people might dedicate themselves each year to the ideal of self-government based upon an enlightened citizenry. Out of that thought was born American Education W^eek. In this program, the American Legion and the National Education Association invited the cooperation of the United States Office of Education, which is now one of the sponsors of that annual activity. Next, plans were developed for the Americanization of the foreign-born. Our Commission realized that aliens in this country must have help in fitting themselves to accept the responsibilities of American citizenship and in understanding and solving the problems of everyday life in America. Schools for these aliens were established by American Legion posts in cities where the foreign-born population was sufficiently large, and steps were taken to help them. Last year 1415 of our posts were conducting such schools, giving proper leadership to aliens, teaching them the English language, and finally leading them into our federal courts to obtain naturalisation papers. Thruout the years since 1923, another national activity has been success¬ fully promoted by our organization. It is the American Legion school award plan. It embraces the recognition and promotion of five qualities which every good citizen should possess. These are honor, courage, scholarship, leadership, and service. The medal is awarded in contests in which these five General Sessions 115 qualities are judged in each pupil. Approximately 5000 of these medals are awarded by Legion posts each year, only one to any grade school a year. Time will not permit a detailed review of all our Legion efforts in pro¬ moting education. We have a flag educational program thru which we propose to inform the boys and girls of the proper respect for and use of the national colors. We have a National Interscholastic Oratorical Contest planned to be inaugurated this fall and to be carried into every high school of the nation. Over a period of years, members of the American Legion and teachers of our educational institutions have had many things in common. The American Legion and the National Education Association have worked hand in hand in the interest of our schools. Our relationship has been most friendly and constructive. I am sure that our continued efforts, as they become cumulative in time, will have a beneficial effect on our national life. Just recently our bond of friendship has been most firmly cemented, altho occasioned by the greatest crisis thru which our country has ever passed in peace times. A year ago, under the disguise of economy, an avalanche of gifted orators swept this nation, attacking the American Legion and the public schools of the country. The big time, all-convincing argument of this organization, and I refer to the National Economy League, was to reduce taxes. What they failed to explain was that a group of big income people sought to shift the burden onto the backs of the already over-burdened average American taxpayer. During times of economic emergencies we always have a group of self-styled economists who point their finger first at the school teacher, the schools, and the veterans. In the language of these people, school budgets and veteran compensation must immediately be reduced, or curtailed. They group the veterans, or war-time defenders, and the teachers, or peace-time defenders of this nation, in their attack. The American Legion has experienced such tactics before and was quick to rally to the cause of education and come to the assistance of the educa¬ tional authorities last year. Having experienced in past years the motive behind their attack, and the way these people think, the Legion anticipated this last move and quickly placed itself officially on record in support of education. We declared that the security and perpetuity of this nation depend upon the patriotic education of youth. Standing squarely upon that principle, the national convention of the American Legion in Chicago last fall adopted the following resolution: WHEREAS, Education is a prime requisite to good citizenship and a thoro program of education is even more essential in troubled times like the present than usual, and WHEREAS, There seems to be a tendency in some quarters to make educational appropriations carry more than their share of reductions for the sake of economy; therefore be it Resolved, By the American Legion, in its Fifteenth Annual Convention assembled, that it is the sense of this organization that education should be given its proper consideration by legislative bodies and should not be made to bear a major part of the sacrifices for economy. 116 National Education Association This was followed on November 19, 1933, by the National Americanism Commission meeting at the national headquarters in Indianapolis, asking the full support of 11,003 American Legion posts thruout the nation in relieving the critical situation with which our schools were confronted. Lhe Commission recommended that every state or department, and every post, immediately appoint a standing committee on education to cooperate with school authorities. It was officially requested that particular attention be paid to the budgetary conditions of our schools within the areas served by the department or posts, and that full cooperation be given to the end that education would not be hampered by reason of the financial crisis. It is with the greatest feeling of pride that I carry to you the good news that in the departments of the American Legion in the United States, all but five appointed a state committee on education which has worked dili¬ gently and efficiently with the state educational authorities. They have aided in devising ways and means to insure the continuation of our educational program in our respective states. Approximately 1000 American Legion posts virtually saved the school terms in their respective communities. The results of this American Legion effort in behalf of education during the last year have been extremely gratifying. Thru the consideration and generosity of the National Education Association, citations have been awarded to those posts having an active committee on this subject. In ad¬ dition, the departments of the Legion which have been active in this cause, will likewise receive a citation of the National Education Association ex¬ pressing appreciation for their efforts. In virtually every state of the Union the president of the state teachers association has been invited to appear on the convention program of the American Legion, at which time the citations will be presented. This public evidence of cooperation will have a very wholesome effect and I am sure that the same extension of courtesy on the part of the state teachers associa¬ tions to our department commanders will bring about favorable results. In closing, I wish to leave with you the thought that it is not the purpose of the American Legion to tell you how to run the schools, or what educa¬ tional policies you should follow. The American Legion wishes to be only a cooperating agency. We are willing at all times to help the school authori¬ ties with the end in view of making it possible for every boy and every girl in the United States to receive an education that will prepare him or her as a true American citizen. DAUGHTERS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION MRS. RUSSELL WILLIAM MAGNA, PRESIDENT GENERAL, NATIONAL SOCIETY DAUGHTERS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION, WASHINGTON, D. C. Many do not realize that the D. A. R. received its charter from the United States Congress in 1896 as an educational institution. As such we are a potential power for good thru our many committees which concern themselves with teaching and thru student loans and scholarships which General Sessions 117 provide the means of both acquiring and diffusing knowledge. We have seventeen schools which have our concentrated interest as a national group. In addition to these are many in which our state societies are locally interested. The Daughters of the American Revolution stand for all educational measures, for character building, good citizenship, and the assuming of the responsibilities pertinent thereto. We have adopted a good citizenship medal for: Honor, Service, Courage, Leadership, and Scholarship. At our 1934 Congress, the Society adopted as a national enterprise an annual good citizenship pilgrimage of students from each state. Girls in senior high schools are chosen on the basis of dependability, service, leadership, and patriotism. The children of today are the citizens of tomorrow, and we believe proper guidance must be given in their formative years before voting age. Oui student loan funds are in line with our educational program. Loans to stu¬ dents who have shown their worthiness, in order that they may complete their higher education, have proved to be as sound as commercial loans made in business circles. Great care is exercised in making these loans only to those who are of good character and who have shown ability in scholarship that wanants the completion of their education. 1 he fact that these funds are limited and are rotary in their operation is the impelling urge to a student, who has been so aided, to make any sacrifice necessary to meet the terms and the conditions of repayment in order that others just as worthy may enjoy the same opportunity to complete their college courses. These loans are not made to finance the entire cost, as opportunities for self-help are so many that students can, without detriment to their student work, earn a portion of the cost and demonstrate their ability and willingness to do whatever their hands find to do. To supplement these efforts is the purpose of the student loans. Spontaneously this movement has grown from year to year, and chapteis and states have increasingly established funds, so that in 1933 it was reported that more than 1600 students had been assisted in continuing their quest for higher learning and that $280,000 had been lent by various D. A. R. chapters for this purpose. Our goal is the establishment of a student loan fund in every chapter to the end that the number of worthy students aided may be increased manyfold. The opportunity for service in the work of the student loan funds has impressed itself so strongly and favorably upon our Society that a few years ago it created a national committee to further the movement and pro¬ mote the work to the fullest extent. In administering these funds, no attempt has been made to standardize qualifications, and each state and each chapter has been encouraged in adopting its own form to meet the varied conditions existing in its particular locality. The personal contact is so very important that any attempt to administer thru a national organization would rob it of the very grent pleasure and 118 National Education Association pride that it gives to the individual members of a chapter in making so valuable a contribution to the cause of higher education, to the building of character and citizenship, and to the strengthening of the bulwarks on which our nation must depend for support and growth and service to its people. The achievements of the boys and girls who have been so assisted and who have taken their places in the communities where their lots have been cast, are reflecting credit and glory to the sacrifices made for them and are a compensation not measured in dollars and cents, but in a more intelli¬ gent leadership and a higher type of 'citizenship than would have otherwise been possible. Of late it has become the fashion of many older public speakers to decry youth. Have they so soon forgotten? The eternal bridge between the older and younger generations can be spanned by patience, tolerance, and under¬ standing on both sides. Adult education is doing much to close this gap. What type of older generation will develop from today’s youth is a constant challenge to us all. Our pledge to be true to the past and preserve it, can only be kept if we do our individual best to safeguard the future by proper immediate training. To decry youth is to admit our own intolerance. Young people look to us for understanding. May we never fail them. We should accept the attitude of our forefathers and foremothers to build, to educate, and understand the youth of today. Today’s frontiers consist of proper training, and are spiritual rather than geographical. Today’s problems for everyone are different. Transportation, science, digest forms of reading, ideas in capsules, are bewildering forces. Our individual ideas and concepts encompass the globe. The radio precludes the possibility of being just local, whether at the Poles or in the Sahara Desert. The movies have taught Mr. and Mrs. Universe how the other half lives. These self-evident facts can no more be changed than can time be turned backward. Our young people are living in a different age than was ours, and I am confident that they will meet this challenge of selection of ideas with intelli¬ gence and courage, even as did Washington at twenty-one, and Lincoln at twenty-six. I believe implicitly in affirmative thought. The characters of the heroes and heroines of yesterday were great because they were courageous, positive, honest, and held to visions with a sense of purpose. Determination in the right brooks no argument. The character of a people and the character of a country demonstrate their positive sides. Our Society, each year, gives a trophy to Annapolis and one to West Point at their respective commence¬ ments, and it is noticeable that the recipient is distinguished for “positive character.” Positive means declarative and affirmative. How healthy it would be if people would adopt affirmative thought and positive ideas ! As an educational society, we the members of the N. S. D. A. R. must con¬ cern ourselves deeply and seriously, as a patriotic duty and as women, with the question of the drastic economy in public school education. General Sessions 119 The education of our youth is America s main industry. 4 o imperil our educational system is courting disaster. To curtail education is to do so at national peril. Education of the youth, and of the adult also, must go forward. Those who would decry this educational program forget that death alone stops education. At the present time you and I are going thru a serious period of adult education of inestimable value and stimulation. To allow even one day to pass without some form of self-enlightenment on presentday problems is to lessen the scope of individual development. The classroom is the cornerstone of our future building. Whether building a people or a nation, proper laws, fundamental and stabilized, and education for character building are the only correct pro¬ cedures and preclude argument. The character of a nation depends on the character of her people, and character is developed first in the home, then in the school, and later thru experience. Hence, education must be made avail¬ able to all. Only thru education can democracy survive. The founders of the republic advocated education for all, as a means of perpetuating the democratic form of government conceived by our foie- fathers. Madison, who was largely responsible for the adoption of the Consti¬ tution by the thirteen colonies, said : “A popular government, without popular information, or means of acquiring it, is but a Prolog to a farce, or a tragedy, or perhaps both. People who mean to be their own governors must arm themselves with the power that knowledge gives us.” Not educa¬ tion for a selected few did these leaders advocate, but education for all, if this government for a free and independent people is to prevail. If the coming generation has more leisure time, the schools must expand to meet the need. It will be an ever-increasing duty of the public school to train all the youth of this land to utilize this leisure, not only for their own advantage, for the benefit of the individual, but foi society as well. Certainly at no time in the history of our republic has a sound educational program been more necessary than in the present precarious period. Thru our educational advantages we believe ourselves prepared to govern oui selves. We must see to it that those who come after us have even better educational facilities. Men and women should give thoughtful study to this seiious situa¬ tion by being willing to serve on boards of education and assume their indi¬ vidual responsibilities. Men and women of all classes are athirst for knowledge, especially curient knowledge of the world at large. I have urged more active interest in local libraries. Recent events have sent more people to libraries than ever before. Support of library w7ork is true patriotic education. It has been one of oui main endeavors to see to it that the libraries in the schools with which we work are commensurate with the requirements of the respective boards of education. We can refer with just pride to our own historical and genea¬ logical library, containing some 24,000 volumes, which is maintained as an open library. Our library has a remarkable family index filing system, now7 numbering over 300,000 cards. 120 National Education Association The opportunity is immediate. The answers to the puzzling questions of the day lie in your own hearts. As a personal pledge, one could well say: I will not confound with criticism. I will inform myself to the best of my ability. I will be a constructive, intelligent citizen, friend, neighbor, and teacher. I will not complain, I will be loyal. It is a time for action, not argument; and that action must be united. Put aside selfish aims and self-interests. Never stand still, but grow. Vision with clear sight and sane mind. If you do the day’s task, you do your part ; ever mindful that righteousness exalteth a nation! I he National Society Daughters of the American Revolution participated in American Education Week, last November, since education is a funda¬ mental principle of our Society in all its work. Education is the guaranty of a civilized people. More active interest in boards of education, in the curriculums, in the schools themselves would be helpful to scholars, teachers, and parents alike. I believe in more study of practical applied economics, government, and domestic science. I use the words practical and applied because the student should be taught how , when } and why to use his knowl¬ edge rather than theories about specific subjects. Reverence for the nation’s founders and interest in schools fit in with our conservation of the values of the past, and the constructive growth of the future. The D. A. R. in many communities cooperates with the public schools. The exigencies of each age and time call its leaders and its youth. History is the echo of their deeds and words. T. he D. A. R. preserves and keeps alight the lessons of history. 1 emphasize light because we must have it to live. I he founders of our Society possessed it; that inner glow which warmed the desire to create, to build, to vision clear for the tomorrows. Dedicated monu¬ ments are the torches of a prideful past for us to see, to hold fast to funda¬ mentals, to cherish ideals, and respect the past; but we must let the light of progress lead us, not blind us. I believe in the faith of our forefathers, the hope of improvement, and the charity of human kindness. These form a daily religion necessary to a betterment of conditions. I cannot preach or tolerate a doctrine of hate or jealousy or discouragement. Rather, as a leader, I give you the promise that is the teaching of Christ, of hills for uplift, of eternal verities, of great and abiding faith, if only you truly believe. As I stand on platforms and look into alert, intelligent faces, I am up¬ lifted with the splendid promise which lies in our young people. They are our citizens of tomorrow, and as we deal with them, so do we deal with our country. We must ally ourselves with our American youth. America s common defense is properly trained youth, thru patriotic edu¬ cation. Right, truth, honesty will rise triumphant in the end. But we must want them with the truth of life itself. I have hi ought it to the attention of our Society that we must concern ourselves deeply and seriously with the question of too drastic economy General Sessions 121 in public school education. We need better equipment in character building from the little red schoolhouse to the halls of Congress. Character building is taught and developed in the home and in the church as well as in the school. The financial crisis is swinging thought back to the home ami fire¬ side of the nation. 1 believe it is our duty to keep public schools open and in all justice, pay teachers their well-earned and deserved salaries. T his is an essential factor for both mental and physical equipment. By installing the best ideas and patriotic education principles in the schools and colleges we keep American ideals ever before the youth of our nation. By holding up to them the mirror of history, we reflect the founda¬ tions our forefathers found firm enough upon which to build one of the greatest nations on earth. To be true to our forefathers, we must be practical educators. Each in their time met progress and the changes in their respective eras with de¬ termination, courage, and understanding. We need more of these qualities. Above all we need more of the faith which they had in our own countiy. By virtue of the authority vested in our Society thru its charter received from the United States government as an educational organization, it is preeminently fitted to stand four-square for an educational program essen¬ tially patriotic. It is concerned with the proper training of young and old alike in the principles of good citizenship. If such societies as ours aie to endure, this program is absolute. Ships that are bound for uncharted seas weigh anchors, but never drag them. I o drag them is to impede progiess, and progress we must have in every phase of life or else die of stagnation and lack of vision. Without vision the people perish. GENERAL FEDERATION OF WOMEN’S CLUBS MRS. GRACE MORRISON POOLE, PRESIDENT, GENERAL FEDERATION OF WOMEN’S CLUBS, WASHINGTON, D. C. Probably no lay organization works more sympathetically or intimately in educational matters than the General Federation of Women s Clubs. Of its one hundred and twenty-seven activities it is no exaggeration to say that the Department of Education is outstanding. Its chairman is a former member of the Boston School Board. In the past we have had as an adviser your own Florence Hale, and at the present time Bess Goodykoontz is serving in that capacity. We have been leaders in educational work. Some time ago we appealed to Congress to make a survey and attack actively the problem of illiteracy in this country, and under the leadership of the United States government, you know as well as I that real progress has been made in stamping out this blot upon our land. No organization is more keenly aware of the necessity of financial help to our young people, and our records show that over a million dollars is contributed annually to scholarship work in this country. 122 National Education Association We know the fight you are making to save that greatest of all demo¬ cratic institutions — the public school, and we wish it were possible for the whole of this country to realize that we may artificially cure every ill in these United States, but if we have not an educated citizenry ready to keep our country healthy once we have obtained our objectives, all curative work goes for naught. W e differ radically, of course, upon the question of cultural versus prac¬ tical education in this machine age. Some time ago I spent a week-end at Tallulah Falls Industrial School, high up in the Georgia mountains where over three hundred of the best stock of this country get their secondary edu¬ cation. Their objectives are three — training the heart, the hands, and the head so that a well-equipped young person may go out into the world. Perhaps we have over-emphasized in the public schools the training of the head, perhaps we are now tending to over-emphasize the training of the hand, but no one can accuse us of over-training the heart, and I believe that no educational program can successfully live in this country that does not put on a par with the head and the hand, the heart. There are two times in a child’s life when he goes up to the mountain peaks. The first is indirect — when he goes to school, perhaps we should say his parents occupy the peaks then. They expect, and have a right to expect during those formative years that the school system will fit the child for life. The second time is when he steps out of the educational world to face life. He expects, and he has a right to expect, that we have prepared a world in which he can carry out his ideals. We have, I believe, failed in both instances to measure up to the requirements of this child. May we work more cooperatively and insistently in the future, for upon the success or failure of the citizens of this country to measure up to this challenge we build our tomorrow. SAFEGUARDING EDUCATION— STATE ORGANIZATIONS BLANCHE MC CARTHY, HIGH SCHOOL, APPLETON, WIS. If I were to choose a text for my brief talk this morning, I should base it on the parable of the mustard seed “which, when it is sown in the earth, is less than all the seeds that be in the earth ; but when it is sown, it groweth up and becometh greater than all herbs, and shooteth out great branches; so that the fowls of the air may lodge under the shadow of it.” Back in 1853, four years before this National Association was born, a grain of mustard seed was sown in Wisconsin when a handful of men felt the need for pro¬ fessional organization. A paragraph from a report of the state convention held the following year will show how tiny that grain of seed really was. This is the way it runs : So little was felt, by either the teachers of the state or the citizens of Madison, that those who came to attend the Association could find no one expecting them, nor that any provision had been made even for a place in which to hold their General Sessions 123 meeting. They “happened together” at one of the inns of the place, and after much time spent in fruitless search for someone sufficiently interested in the cause to procure them a suitable room, they sallied forth to look for themselves. At length in an obscure room in the old court house, of which one of them had obtained the key, and by the light of a few tallow candles purchased by one of their number, and which for want of candlesticks were held by the hands of as many teachers, with one citizen as a witness of their proceedings, the Association entered upon its busi¬ ness. The records do not tell us how many were present, but, from the recollection of all who can be found, we learn that there were but six or seven teachers and eight or ten book agents at the opening of the session. And indeed this is not to be wondered at for a teachers association could not expect to be popular in a state in which our profession was so lightly esteemed. That was a small beginning, but the will to live was there as well as the vision of work to be done; and the seed flourished. Nor did these teachers confine their concern to problems within the state. This group was one of ten associations which issued the call for the first meeting of a national associa¬ tion in 1857. It is not my purpose, in the time allotted me, to go into the history of the work of the past eighty-one years. Its struggle for a system of normal schools, for grade schools, for coeducation, for better physical condi¬ tions in the school, for higher qualifications for teachers, and for adequate provision for their welfare are all past history of which we are the bene¬ ficiaries. The important thing has been the spirit of those concerned with questions beyond the four walls of their classrooms. T hru them, this tiny grain of seed has brought forth branches of fruit in many directions. 1 he tree is still somewhat lopsided, however, because its growth has come in spurts and has not been uniform all over. The enduring success of any movement depends upon the active and per¬ sistent interest of all who are a part of it. The real work of our professional organizations in the past has been the result of the efforts of a few who have been fired with the crusader’s zeal to struggle for certain ideals. The rank and file of the profession have been content to be carried along in the onward march like so much baggage — the impedimenta of Caesar’s army, so to speak. We have been willing to let a few more ambitious ones do our thinking as well as fight our battles for us. Too many of us have developed a one-room outlook in our work. We have been hemmed in by four walls of subjectmatter with our floor carpeted with papers and our ceiling covered with marks. This is the atmosphere in which we have lived until we have become like so many pigeon holes in the school system. Our pupils run from one to the other getting a little informa¬ tion here and a little understanding there. We expect them to put the pieces of this jig-saw puzzle together into a living life and become intelligent citizens. We have discovered to our sorrow that the results of our efforts have been dull pictures with ill-fitting parts rather than colorful lives, and we have at last come to realize that perhaps the whole of an individual is more than just the sum of the parts. Merely assembling a collection of pigeon holes does not seem to turn the trick. It requires some life-giving element to make a real personality. We who are supposed to be helping develop these 124 National Education Association personalities have a great deal to learn from this picture, for the source of much of the weakness lies within ourselves. Our own lives have been narrow and limited ; yet we set ourselves up as judges of our students. We vote a certain select few into an honor society or appraise them for some high award according to their leadership, their service, and their ability to get into the group and play the game. We con¬ stantly rate them in class on the basis of their all-round citizenship in school. Aie we expecting more of our pupils in their lives than we are willing to give in ours? Are we guilty of a timidity in our professional and community life which we would not tolerate for an instant in our classes? We stand in the same relationship to our profession that our pupils do to their classes. Just as woman has learned to come out of the kitchen into the larger life of the home and the neighborhood, so our teachers must be prepared to come out of the classroom into the larger atmosphere of the school and the community. We need to avoid the provincialism of our own grade and subjectmatter and come out into the larger field of general school affairs. We are in no position to lead others into a larger experience in life unless we ourselves are having a share in it. This problem of enlarging the interests and the activities of our teachers has been a major concern of our state association for the past few years. Its solution seems to lie in a closer relationship between our local and our state associations. Most of our local groups in the past have been very loose organi¬ zations representing one of two types. Either they have been active in the fall just long enough to select delegates to the state convention, or they have devoted their efforts to problems affecting their own personal welfare and to social affairs. Many of our localities have not organized at all. Realizing what a power these groups could be if they could be encouraged to develop year-round programs, and realizing, likewise, its own failure in the past to provide definite leadership for these groups, our association assigned this problem to a special committee to see what could be done. Its first move was to call together in two regional conferences all the heads of local organizations in the state. So important did-the association regard these conferences that it agreed to pay the expenses of the presidents who came. They have become annual affairs and have proved to be a wise investment. Local leaders change so frequently that these meetings are an important part of their education. A major part of the day is devoted to a discussion of definite program suggestions for the year, current educational conditions in the state, and to an open forum on the problems of locals. Thru the chair¬ manship of the committee, a clearing-house of ideas is maintained thruout the year. A monthly service bulletin is sent to each president as well as to local administrators. These not only give definite guidance for local study and discussion, but they also give news of what the various locals are doing. W e have attempted to get the minds of our teachers beyond the four walls of their classrooms into the larger problems of the school so that they may have a better conception of how their work fits into the whole picture. In a day which is calling for a more unified society, we are trying to persuade the General Sessions 125 members of our profession to see the wisdom of enlarging their horizon by studying important questions which are of more than casual concern to the intelligent citizen. Social and economic trends, the tax problem, local budgets, school finance, knowing our own school system and interpreting it to the layman are just a few of the questions on which specific help has been given. Attention is called to current publications which should be read. Important national and state news is relayed to the local groups thru this channel. Each president is on the mailing list for all publicity releases and legislative bul¬ letins sent out from the state office. Speakers are supplied for meetings, and other services are made possible. Reports of_work being done are constantly coming in from local leaders and given publicity, and a comprehensive review of the year’s activity in each local is published in the first fall bulletin. They have helped with the speaker bureau and the radio program of the state organization, and their work during the legislative sessions has been of inestimable value. Recently Wisconsin proposed a 13-point reconstructive program for education. It is thru the medium of these groups which have been studying it that we hope to keep it alive until the citizens of the state see fit to adopt it and put its principles into practise. There has been a quickening of interest all along the line, and the result¬ ing support given our state and national associations during these distressing years has been magnificent. Our teachers are beginning to feel they have a larger part in the great educational program of the day, and they sense to a greater degree than ever the importance of the work their professional organizations are doing. So great has been the appreciation of the work that is being done for them and so insistent has been the demand for an expansion of the service that the Wisconsin Teachers Association has employed a full¬ time field secretary to devote her entire time to working with these groups. We have traveled far since that early meeting by candlelight eighty years ago. Slowly the masses of our profession are waking up to a real participa¬ tion in the work of education in its larger sense. A lack of opportunity has been responsible in large measure for what has appeared to be indifference on their part. The greatest investment our state associations can make is in encouraging and cementing together these local groups. There must be no dictation and no interference in their affairs but rather a readiness to assist at every possible point. Only as we enlarge the base of those who are helping to shape the policies of our profession can we hope for enduring strength. We should not be discouraged by any slowness in the growth toward pro- fessional-mindedness for where there is faith there is no need for haste. I he time is ripe, and the field is waiting for that tiny grain of mustard seed “which, when it is sown in the earth, is less than all the seeds in the earth ; but when it is sown, it groweth up and becometh greater than all herbs, and shooteth out great branches; so that the fowls of the air may lodge under the shadow of it.” 126 National Education Association NATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS CARMON ROSS, PRESIDENT, PENNSYLVANIA STATE EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, DOYLESTOWN, PA. Someone has well said that the genius of America has been its power for or¬ ganization. Strangely enough, those groups who would be expected to be the most perfectly organized because of the intelligence of their members, are probably the poorest organized altho much organized. I have reference to teachers organizations. I realize, too, that this is not the common acceptation of the power of the professional organization of teachers, for during the past few years our organizations have been accused of being anything from lobby¬ ists to racketeers. Paradoxically enough, however, the charges are not com¬ mensurate with the results. Any discussion of the national organization of teachers naturally raises the most elemental question as to the advantages of a strong national organiza¬ tion. The strength of such an organization must depend upon three main factors — its membership, its stall officers, and its objectives. While mere numbers do not necessarily mean strength, nevertheless no efficient organiza¬ tion can exist without financial sinews and missionaries out in the field. Our national organization with its splendid history and record of professional sei vices since its birth in 185/ has a body of fine objectives as enunciated in its platform of 1932. Its headquarters are officered by a group of men and women well trained for Association duties and responsibilities. Its member¬ ship, however, is not indicative of the strength that should be ours. There are in America about one million teachers. Of this number barely one-fifth are members in good standing, altho the state associations fare better, for about 60 percent of our teachers are members of the state associations. If the professional interests of teachers can be measured by the degree of their membership in our national organization, then we suffer badly by comparison with other professional groups. Approximately 20 percent of our lawyers belong to their national association altho they probably fill 50 percent of our important offices ; 35 percent of our trained nurses are members of their professional organization; 63 percent of the nation’s physicians belong to their national medical society, in addition to their county and state organiza¬ tions; 66 percent of the musicians and teachers of music make up their national association ; and about 75 percent of the country’s bankers are mem¬ bers of their organization. But the teachers of America see fit to contribute only one out of every five of their number to a national association ! These unfavorable comparisons are the more significant when we realize that the dues of all these organizations are much higher than our own and the need for organization is probably less imperative. The American Federation of Labor claims 4,000,000 members — twenty times as many as the teachers have, altho their rank and file from whom they may secure members is not twenty times our own number. The advantages of a strong national organization of teachers are so self- evident that a mere enumeration of these will be sufficient. A strong national General Sessions 127 association develops professional ideals; makes a professional code of ethics possible; compels its members to be professionally minded; creates strong public sentiment for education ; becomes the spokesman for teachers and their welfare ; is a powerful and effective means of interpreting education to the public thru its organ and its members ; can and does combat insidious propa¬ ganda against the interest of public education and the childhood it serves; promotes an understanding of the problems facing schools, not only among its own members but in the public; and finally, it is a symbol of the power of the one million teachers of America, which should be the greatest of all the organized groups. The one ideal of power not yet realized either by the national association, or by any state association, is that of presenting a united front against the attacks leveled at education. This we will never do until all of us are members of one fighting organization. In merely enumerating these advantages, I know that they have not been entirely effected. The teachers of America are not an integrated group. Education needs a spokesman, which because of our system of government, education does not have. We have as many leaders as there are factions and philosophies. We have seen this much to our regret and undoing ; for instance, rival armed groups, as it were, appearing before our legislatures and before Congress whenever any important educational issue is to the front. Can we blame our lawmakers for not doing more for education when we have so many spokesmen expressing so many different points of view? Is there any surprise when we asked for bread at the recent session of Congress and we received a stone? We squabbled over the bogey of control when our children were starving educationally. All this could not happen were we united on common essential needs. I know of no plan which will so integrate our inter¬ ests as a strong national association that has the confidence and respect of all our teachers. Candidly, I see no reason why this is not possible. We need one and not several national associations of teachers. Let us not fool ourselves that several rival national associations can serve the interests of education better than one. The National Education Association is that one organization. We may not all agree on its policies, its platform, or its man¬ agement. But the organization is here. It has its magnificent headquarters; it has its prestige of a past record of real achievement ; it is known and respected. In spite of its small membership from its very birth, it has had giants as leaders who have significantly affected the history of education in this country. The main opposition to this Association is represented by two well-known groups — those who have not been able to control it, and those who think they represent and practise the only modern philosophy of educa¬ tion. The latter group may or may not be the exponents of the only correct philosophy of modern education, but if they are they should first attempt to work an educational reform within the N. E. A. and not apart and against it. Let us take a leaf out of the history of party politics in America. The history of minor political parties is eloquent testimony of the futility of creating new parties. Reform has always been from within, even tho it may be slow. At any rate, when one political party is defeated and loses control of the gov- 128 National Education Association ernment, it does not set up a new government, or stir up revolution. That is not the American way. Our political method is evolution, rather than revo lation. A third party has never put itself into power ; it has, however, always defeated its parent organization. The creation of one or more national organi¬ zations of teachers will only mean two or more weak national associations. Can we afford to permit a vociferous minority, openly boasting that it is a “disruptive force,” claiming a monopoly of all progressive tendencies, to thwart the majority when the minority and majority are divided by Vague border lines which strangely now divide us Have grown so many that they shut us in. We fear to walk with those who dwell beside us Lest something of our own they’d seek to win. — Guest This division will mean the weakening of all the educational forces and expose us to the enemy attacks on all fronts, even tho in this process of division it is possible in the language of the minority group, to “make life uncomfortable for the larger body.” A very important function of a national organization should be its service as a clearing-house for all cooperating and affiliated organizations. There should be a council representing such organizations apart from the present council of state directors. I am thinking specifically of affiliated non-profes¬ sional groups. Such a plan would at once broaden and strengthen our contacts and create thru systematic planning a solidarity of interest in education. Such a form of organization should also be developed within every state education association. Again, we need a closer tie-up with the 48 state associations. I realize that there is a quasi-link-up now thru the state directors, but it is not a function¬ ing type of organization. The N. E. A. must do the same thing for the state associations that our own Pennsylvania State Education Association is devel¬ oping for our 280 local branches, a specific program of activities for the self-education of its 60,000 members. We hope in this way to make a student of professional problems out of every one of our teachers. We need to do this on a larger national scale. The best publicity agent the school can possibly have is the teacher himself when he is well informed. We are trying to make every classroom teacher an interpreter of the schools to the great critical public he is serving. Our N. E. A. needs to do this on a national scale by giving impetus and direction to this type of self-study thruout the nation’s schools. After all, the strength of any organization, no matter how extensive its membership, will be its leadership. The teachers of America want leadership. We need it. The leadership of this great organization necessarilv changes each year. This leadership can receive effective support if we have more representative membership from our colleges and universities. Our move¬ ment and incentives for professional-mindedness must start with the institu¬ tions where our teachers are being trained. It will be a new day for a strong General Sessions 129 national organization when teachers from these institutions will ally them¬ selves with the N. E. A. The discussion thus far has centered around the general usefulness and mechanics of a national organization. But there is a phase of organizing on an effective national basis which transcends anything I have said. We need effective state and national organization thoroly knit together with coopera¬ tive interlocking action so that the very warp and woof of the entire teaching profession may be strengthened. The depression has played havoc with the morale of all professional groups, but teaching in particular. Never too strong in militant attitudes, we are threatened to have our spirit completely crushed unless there is an inspiriting of fight and stamina wThich can come only thru leadership and organization. This reawakening and determination to see things thru is merely a pipe dream unless the rank and file and our leaders resolve to sink their differences and unite and stay united. It is pure folly to foster quarrels between schools of liberalism and conservatism, between one theory and another only to be split asunder, so that feeble effort and resist¬ ance are the inevitable result. We must present a united front against such destructive forces as the United States Chamber of Commerce; against sinister tax-economy groups, for the most part smoke screens for special interests; against well-known foundations, which, in spite of their many worthwhile educational enter¬ prises, thru their leadership have recently proposed all sort of ruinous emas¬ culating proposals; against certain well-known individuals who have no interest whatever in an enlightened public opinion that must come from good schools; against widely known periodicals which have debased their pages with prejudiced and one-sided attacks on our schools; against any commer¬ cially subsidized press whose pages are hardly open to educational publicity either because it is not sensational enough, or because teachers have no cigarets to advertise, no bottled goods to sell, no quack and germicide con¬ coctions to exploit, or fake securities to unload on the public; and finally, be on guard against many weak-kneed representatives in state legislative halls and in Congress. May I pause here sufficiently to express deep appreciation for the magnifi¬ cent and gallant fight of that grand old man of the N. E. A. As he prepares to enjoy a well-earned rest after years of faithful service, we, the teachers of America, owe James William Crabtree a debt immense of endless gratitude. Then, too, our own gracious Jessie Gray, the retiring leader of the past year, exemplifies in a remarkable way a flaming enthusiasm for the well-being of the “house of the people.” They have the spirit, the courage, the enthusiasm, the beliefs, and attitudes that must actuate and embolden a national organization ! I shall conclude my discussion by exercising the right to quote from an address of mine on “Deflating Education”: In discussing my theme I have not been unaware of the fact that the wholesale slashing of school funds and the attempt to wreck our schools have been consider¬ ably thwarted by the vigorous efforts of our educational leaders in state and nation. 130 National Education Association This virile leadership must continue. We have begun to get out of the characteristic attitude that our profession is a purely welfare agency and that we are almost subjects of charity. The time has come to express this essential public service of our profession in terms stronger than mere platitudes about the nobility and self-sacrifice of our work. This vocabulary has been purposely misunderstood by statesman and pseudo-statesman, alike, and even the public, as a mere acquiescence to the in¬ evitable. In the terms of the athletic coach, let us snap out of this lethargy. Teachers must show more vertebrae and less genuflections. How are we going to accept the mouthings and frothings of such self-appointed wiseacres as Mencken when he derides and insults the profession by characterizing our professional literature as “uncriticized pollutions”? Let us cease to be, as a recent number of the Forum points out, the “meekest of citizens,” or as the New Republic a few years ago said, “The most tight-lipped individuals.” Yes, worse than these characterizations is that by one of our own members, President Robinson of the College of the City of New York, who charges that those who choose the profession of teaching suffer from an “inferiority complex!” If all this is only remotely true, then it is high time to fight and to fight hard, not only for ourselves, but for the millions we are supposed to train and to prepare for aggressive, intelligent, militant citizens! Let us highly resolve that the New Deal in government, in industry, in economics, shall also be a New Deal for education, not only in a restatement of its aims, objectives, and methods, for the preparation of youth for the new social order, but to the end that greater respect, more adequate support, and the proper evaluation of the teacher’s work shall result. I am convinced in the light of what our national and state organizations have done in the past few years that the hope of preserving what is best in education and of building our profession must come thru an effective national integrating organization working with and guiding the state associations. The real plea of one who has tried to find some virtue in all the divergent forces that make for division is that in the interest of professional solidarity we sink our petty differences for the welfare not only of teachers but of the childhood of America! We can show a genuine constructive educational statesmanship today by uniting in bonds of common aims and purposes, and mutual interest and sympathetic understandings. We must join forces or fall and fail separately ! May we realize this thru wise leadership, calm thinking, cooperative effort, and wholehearted support! THE PRINCIPAL’S RESPONSIBILITY FOR LEADERSHIP AND INTERPRETATION MRS. EDITH B. JOYNES, PRINCIPAL, GEORGE WASHINGTON AND ROBERT GATEWOOD SCHOOLS, BERKLEY, NORFOLK, VA. The proverb “as is the principal, so is the school” has become a truism. The elementary principal has a key position in education. He has charge of a school that reaches the largest number of patrons and pupils. Public atti¬ tudes regarding education are molded in a large measure while the children of each family are attending the elementary school. H. G. Wells, in addressing an assemblage in London, declared: “I want to teach shamelessness to school teachers. I want to teach them arrogance and General Sessions 131 aggression. Arrogance and the disposition to take hold of the world is not a characteristic of all school masters. A lot of them seem to be unconscious of the amount and range of their functions. They don’t seem to realize that the world is not a going concern, but a finished affair in which they have a subordinate and supplementary part. They are a shy and specialized people who keep together on holidays.” Then turning his thoughts to “the new and better world” and the “reconstructed life,” he said “when the reconstructed life exists for school teachers, will it be possible to conceive of any escape from the distressful life that mankind lives today?” The teachers, pupils, and patrons look to the principal for leadership. Regardless of supervisors in the system, all eyes are focused on the principal. They look to him for counsel and guidance in all educational affairs. So to do the work, I suggest that he be compelled to abandon his “shyness,” his love of all cloister habits, and herding almost exclusively with his own group. When a new course of study is adopted for use the principal must assume the responsibility for adapting it to fit the conditions in his own local school. He may not have had any part in the planning of this course, but he is responsible for its use. Thus the educational policies and theories which have been adopted for the entire school system must finally find their expression in the classroom. This requires vision, keen insight, broad knowledge, and a willingness to cooperate in a determined effort to make it a success. In practise, the elementary principal is only responsible for leadership in ele¬ mentary education, but to be a success, he must have a vision and knowledge of the entire program of education in order to have the proper perspective regarding the relations of the elementary unit to all other units in the school system, as the high schools build upon the foundation that has been laid in the elementary. Consequently he has a continuous challenge to organize and administer his school in a fashion which will permit the adopted theories and principles to receive expression in classroom instruction. The kind of education which children receive is dependent upon how the school is organized and admin¬ istered. Regardless of the kind of school, the tools of learning must be mastered. We say again and again to the child, “You must learn.” “You must think for yourself.” “You must learn the difference between a lie and the truth, between guesses and facts, between misinformation and reliable information.” In learning these fundamentals of education, the child should be taught in a human and social way so as to get real joy from learning. This love of learning as a way of life is deeper and broader than the schools. During this year many of us have had to look after the physical wants of the children, for in many homes there was little food and fuel as both parents had been out of employment for months and months. We cannot expect undernourished children to be alert and succeed in their work. Neither can we expect them to be happy when they are in need. The principal and his staff have made every effort to see that these children have not been denied their rightful heritage. They have needed spiritual food. Their 132 National Education Association lives have been saddened. Brightness has gone out of their world. Again the principal and the staff must be ready to guide their footsteps and meet them with a smile and encourage them. The schools have been carrying an ever-increasing load, and with the distress due to unemployment, the homes have added to the obligation of the school in the care of its pupils. T. o see that such relief work reaches those who need it and to maintain the proper cooperation with social wel¬ fare agencies are responsibilities which are usually delegated to the principal, and which give an important opportunity to improve the welfare of childhood. Thru the children, direct contact may be made between school and parents. If the children are interested in the school, the parents will be. The intelligent and sympathetic principal is constantly on the alert to seize every opportunity to direct the activities of the adult group in his community so that their work will be constructive. In order to bring about a closer relationship it is necessary that these groups know about the scientific development in modern education. Perhaps one of the most difficult tasks is to get the parents to believe that the new way in teaching today is better than the old. In business ideas change rapidly, new ideas soon replace the old, but in education changes are much slower. Many times it becomes necessary for a principal to arouse a community to the needs of the school, and under those circumstances he should always be tactful, honest, and fair. With these principles as ground rules, he is almost certain to win in any contest, if he is a good citizen. Now what constitutes a good citizen? For the average person, giving an honest day’s work, or an honest article for an honest price, providing well for one’s family, being a good neighbor, voting at the primaries in regular elections, supporting church, charity, and social work, constitute the bulk of good citizenship. Not so for the school principal, tho many of us fail to live up to the outline of the average person. The principal’s big job is in his own community, where he is known and can hit the hardest blow for the right. He must have a comprehensive grasp of current problems; direct the public relations program if it succeeds; be active in politics, but not an intense partisan ; be active in religious work. It is necessary for him to know the leading citizens of his community, and be a member of the leading business, political, charitable, social, and religious organizations. He must be strong enough to insure accurate information and wise counsel should it be needed. It is only in this way that he can secure the consideration due his community and his school. Because we have failed to do this in the past, the general public is woefully bewildered today at the mounting cost and adverse criticism of our schools. The teachers look to the principal as their leader. This year they have needed encouragement in order to meet the additional burdens, larger classes, and less income. But, regardless of their feeling of insecurity, the principal has been responsible for maintaining the splendid morale of the teachers General Sessions 133 which has been so noticeable among the educational people of the nation. In many communities the teachers have worked without pay, but their pro¬ fessional devotion has never been higher. An important task of the principal is to lead his teachers to see the value of organization, which is so helpful in maintaining the professional attitude towards teaching. In order to do this he must first believe in it himself. He must live, talk, and practise organization, not only in his local asso¬ ciation, but in state and national associations. He should encourage study groups, also encourage teachers to participate in these study programs, which lead to a better understanding of the results to be gained thru organi¬ zation work. Teacher and principal must be interested in civic clubs, keep abreast of the times, and be able to express themselves wisely concerning all of the community affairs. On every side there is a demand for economy. Regardless of economy the effectiveness of the learning must not be lessened. Again the principal is responsible for a thrifty and careful administration of education for less money than was spent in most prosperous times. He has made it his busi¬ ness to see that the essential school services have been maintained. The principal and his staff must assume the responsibility to refine and to improve the use of technic and by this method improve and refine the life and character of the future citizens of tomorrow. Each of us must have a goal because without a goal we are lost. If the goal is to be useful, it must require some effort to reach it, for the value of the goal is not so much in the attainment as in the pursuit. The poet was right when he said that “not failure, but low aim was crime.” So let us see that we set a worthy goal, and that goal be the very best education that we are capable of planning for the children of the nation. They will be the citizens of tomorrow who will carry on a democracy established by our forefathers. Let us educate them in our public school, which belongs to us all. It is democracy’s greatest gift to civilization, therefore let us cherish and improve our schools. THE CHILD LABOR MOVEMENT AND THE NEW DEAL MRS. GEORGIA B. PARSONS, TEACHER, VINE STREET SCHOOL, HOLLYWOOD, CALIF. The struggle to secure and maintain the rights of children to an educa¬ tion and to immunity from labor as a necessary corollary thereof, has been long and at times bitter. It is almost amazing how tenaciously the human mind has clung to the fiction of parent ownership of children which has come down from the hoary past, and to another fancied right, namely, the privilege of parents to profit by the labor of children ; or, to put the case in more legal phraseology, since the father was held to be entitled to the custody and control of the child’s person, he had the right also to appropri¬ ate the child’s earnings. Wealth, even, was once measured in terms of the sons and daughters who could serve the father. 134 National Education Association In our own country the battle to emancipate childhood has been sternly contested by the theory that interference with the rights of parents to control the destinies of their children was un-American. Brave old Massachusetts was the first state to make attempts at com¬ pulsory education. In 1647 it was decreed in that commonwealth that every township of fifty families should appoint someone to teach the chil¬ dren to read and write, “It being one chief project of that old deluder, Satan, to keep men from a knowledge of the Scriptures.” Quite some progress was made in teaching the children when the factory system of the modern era brought a perplexing problem of non-attendance, since much of the work in factories was of a kind that could be done by child labor. In some states the opposition was bitter, the objections being based upon the contention that such laws interfered with personal liberty. It was no interference with the liberty of either parent or child to hail the child to court or jail; but to lead the children to school was un-American interference with personal liberty. Let us now look at child labor legislation and to federal statutes passed in recent years in the hope of regulating and controlling the employment of children in industry. In 1906 the first proposal for federal law to prevent the industrial exploitation of children was made. Almost ten years later, the first federal law was really enacted to become operative on September 1, 1917. This statute was based on the theory that Congress had the power to regulate child labor by closing the channels of interstate and foreign com¬ merce to the products of child labor. It was a keen disappointment to all friends of childhood the country over when the Supreme Court of the United States, on June 3, 1918, in a five to four vote, decided that the law was not a legitimate exercise of Congress’ power to regulate interstate commerce, and was, therefore, unconstitutional. Congress again enacted, on February 24, 1919, a provision for a tax of 10 percent on the net profits of certain enumerated establishments which employed children in violation of the age and hour standards laid down in the Act. Still the case against child labor has been made, no matter what shall be the fate of the present proposed amendment to the Constitution of the United States, which reads as follows: Section I. The Congress shall have power to limit, regulate, and prohibit the labor of persons under eighteen years of age. Section II. The power of the several states is unimpaired by this article except that the operation of state laws shall be suspended to the extent necessary to give effect to legislation enacted by Congress. Thus, we see the passage of this Amendment in Congress in 1924 repre¬ sented the triumph of long years of struggle to remove American children from mines, mills, and sweatshops and give them a civilized deal. Rejoicing over the proposed Amendment also proved shortlived, because of delay in ratification. One state, Arkansas, stepped forward and ratified the Amend¬ ment in 1924. The legislatures of three states — Arizona, California, Wis¬ consin — followed in 1925, with Montana in 1927 and Colorado in 1931. General Sessions 135 With these six states ratification rested on its oars. Hard-boiledism had scored another temporary reaction. We quote from the editorial of the Forum for April: In 1933, with the official abandonment of the New Era in favor of the New Deal, the rights of children again became an actual, instead of an academic, matter. Under the NRA child labor was ostracized for two years. The code of the cotton- textile industry, excluding from employment persons under sixteen years of age, established a precedent for two hundred other codes. By and large thruout the South the factories have been evacuated of infant labor. Children, released from mills and mines, are now in school where they belong. The nation approves of the square deal children are receiving under the New Deal, and the movement to make this condition permanent by constitutional amend¬ ment has taken on new vigor. In 1933 fourteen state legislatures ratified the federal Child Labor Amendment, including eleven which had previously denounced it. The 1933 roll of honor in the order of ratification consists of Oregon, Washington, North Dakota, Ohio, Michigan, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Illinois, Oklahoma, Iowa, West Virginia, Minnesota, Maine, and Pennsylvania. The Amendment has now been ratified by twenty states. Sixteen more states are needed to complete the three-fourths necessary for adoption. State regulation of child labor has proved impractical for a century. Uneven state laws, uneven economic conditions have forced children in one state into industrial competition with adults in another. Industries fly by night across state borders into states where child labor laws are lax. The textile industry closes factories in New Hampshire and builds new ones in South Carolina. Uniformity is essential, and by no way can this be effected except by federal law. Perhaps you would like to know who favor the Amendment and who oppose it. Briefly: President Coolidge recommended it in a message to Congress, and signed the resolution after Congress had voted favorably upon it. All of the three national political conventions inserted in their platforms planks endorsing the Amendment. The following national bodies have declared in favor of the Amendment: American Association of University Women; American Federation of Labor; American Fed¬ eration of Teachers; American Home Economics Association; Commission on the Church and Social Service of the Federal Council of Churches of Christ in America; Democratic National Committee; General Federation of Women’s Clubs; Girls’ Friendly Society in America; National Child Labor Committee; National Con¬ sumers’ League; National Council of Catholic Women; National Council of Jewish Women; National Congress of Parents and Teachers; National Council of Women; National Education Association; National Federation of Business and Professional Women’s Clubs; National League of Women Voters; National Woman’s Christian Temperance Union; National Women’s Trade Union League; Republican National Committee; Service Star Legion; Young Women’s Christian Association; Patriotic Order Sons of America; National Fraternal Congress; National Association of State and Government Labor Officials, and many other local and state organizations. The following bodies are opposing the Amendment: National Association of Manufacturers; Pennsylvania Manufacturers’ Associa¬ tion; Southern Textile Bulletin; Moderation League of Pennsylvania; Women’s Constitutional League of Maryland (an organization with 50 active members formed to oppose the Maternity and Infancy Act) ; the Woman Patriot Publishing Company (first established as the organ of the Anti-Suffrage Association) ; and doubtless other national and local organizations. 136 National Education Association In our decade a new and irresistible argument demands the nationwide removal of children from American mines, factories, and sweatshops. Technological unemployment is a fact, not a fancy. Even the most opti¬ mistic planners of the New Deal foresee an irreducible minimum of live million permanently thrown out of work. Let us begin at the bottom of the age scale and remove forever the millions of our youth from competition in industry, releasing jobs for adults and giving to children additional years of education and preparation for a richer and fuller life. The future of America lies with the children of today. Here is a real challenge! The educational leadership of the twenty rati¬ fying states is indicative of consecrated devotion of the teachers of those states to the cause of childhood. You who live in those twenty-eight states not yet ratifying this Amendment, go home determined to assert your citi¬ zenship privileges and rights to work for the passage of this Amendment. To sum up, this Amendment is needed because the Supreme Court of the United States has said that Congress has no power, under the Constitution as it now stands, to pass a child labor law. You ask, “Why is a federal child labor law needed?” Because so many states do not protect children from exploitation in employment. With all the state child labor laws now in force, not one of them affords the slightest protection to the thousands of children transported from state to state to be exploited in industrialized agriculture. No protection from sweltering under the summer’s sun and freezing in the raw November days in the beet fields of the several states. They suffer the loss of school privileges for the sake of our Thanksgiving cranberries and our luscious summer fruits, victims of the inability of state laws to reach over state boundaries. Such children are aliens in the state of their employment and can claim no protection either from the state of their residence or the state of their employment. They permit little children at very early ages to be employed long hours at unsuitable employment, under unfit conditions, the children thus grow¬ ing up without education and with impaired physical and mental develop¬ ment. You ask, “Why should the country at large be concerned with what any state does to its children?” We answer, “Because children are citi¬ zens. A citizen of any state is a citizen of the United States. Ignorance, physical unfitness, weakness of body and character, wherever present, affect the nation at large. People move from state to state. Neglect by one state increases the burden of other states.” You may get information from the Research Division of the National Education Association. You may work thru your state educational association; you may write your governor, assemblymen, and congressmen in favor of the federal Child Labor Amendment. But this is only a preliminary step. Now definitely, to you who live in those twenty-eight states which have not yet ratified the Amendment, go back home resolved that you will organize the teachers in your state to do this piece of work. Ally yourselves with those organizations such as the General Sessions 137 National League of Women Voters and others whose business is legislative, acting individually only on the advice of experts. When we elect represen¬ tatives to our legislative halls just the first and simplest step has been taken. Every individual citizen should ally himself with citizens’ organizations employing expert staffs to see that citizens’ rights are looked after both in administration and legislation, for united we stand. This unity of purpose is the principle upon which the National Education Association is built — the individual teacher alone does not seem to be able to accomplish much, but when she joins forces with others of her group — organizes them — joins with other organizations — then the effectiveness soon becomes apparent. The urgent need is immediate action to register in statutory form the standards now approved by an enlightened public sentiment. Child labor must go. It should be ruthlessly rooted out of our country’s economic and social system. Let us put and keep America in the front ranks of the nations of the world in its protection and education of her junior citizens — the boys and girls of America! THE CLASSROOM TEACHER’S RESPONSIBILITY FOR LEADERSHIP AND INTERPRETATION FAYE READ, PRESIDENT, N.E.A. DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS; AND TEACHER, PUEBLO, COLO. The topic assigned to me, “The Classroom Teacher’s Responsibility for Leadership and Interpretation,” fits nicely into a discussion of national planning for education. It suggests the question — Why are classroom teach¬ ers responsible for leadership and interpretation? It also calls attention to two of the fine results which teachers organizations make possible, i.e., leadership and interpretation. I believe you will agree that their develop¬ ment will have a real influence upon educational progress. In the chapter, “Childhood and Youth,” in Recent Social Trends, Lawrence K. Frank calls the schools the most important agency in child rearing, after the home, and he comments on the teacher’s understanding as a vital factor in the development of a child’s personality. I am confident that most of you here today feel as I do that no other group of persons in the nation has quite the opportunity which is given to us, classroom teachers. I sometimes like to say to myself as I look back over the day, “Today each of my pupils has taken home with him a part of me ; a part of my ideals, my attitudes, my knowledge. A part of me has gone into his home, has influenced his mother and his father, his brothers and his sisters. Perhaps my influence may go on into his adult life, guiding and strengthening him.” The founders of our great Department of Classroom Teachers believed so thoroly in the significance of the teacher’s influence that they put first in our objects and purposes this objective: “To encourage higher qualifica¬ tions for entrance into the teaching profession.” Thruout the twenty years 138 National Education Association which have passed since our first meeting in July 1914, officers and members of the Department have led in advocating better training for teachers. Surely only the finest personality and the highest training should be accepted as qualifications for those who are entrusted with the precious task of educating our nation’s future citizens. The success of national planning for education must depend upon its acceptance in every community. New ideas can come into the schools of the community only thru the intelligent interest and activity of the teachers. The worth of newly conceived ideas and their effect on children must be tested out by classroom teachers and children working together in their schoolrooms. All too often we have found that the thing that looked well on paper proved really harmful to the children in actual practise! How well we know that too often what we have done in our classrooms has contributed to the development of those very qualities which we decry in the business world ; selfishness, dishonesty, unwholesome competition, lack of cooperation, indifference to the happiness of others. Many of these conditions are the outgrowth of certain administrative practises over which teachers have no control. Their effect on the person¬ ality of teachers and pupils, however, has attracted the attention of specialists in the field of mental hygiene and I feel confident that the reconstructed program will take serious account of the effect of modern methods upon the welfare of teachers and children. It will be a great day for children and teachers and society when Garry Cleveland Myers’ point of view is accepted in the United States. “In the future,” he says, “the makers of school programs and curriculums are going to keep in mind not only what is good for the child to learn but what he can learn with reasonable ease and comfort ; not only what teachers should teach but what they can teach in such a way as to maintain their poise and mental health and cultivate good classroom morale and good personalities in their pupils.” Much of this our early leaders had in mind when they wrote the second objective of the Department: “To promote teacher participation in school management.” Happy the school, blessed the children and teachers, where a wise administrator opens this avenue of service to the teachers ! There are other places, too, where teachers can participate in school management. During the past difficult years many problems affecting the support of the schools, the distribution of funds, and the adjustment of facilities to the reduced school income have concerned boards of education, superintendents, and teachers. The economic crisis has provided a mag¬ nificent opportunity for the cooperation of these groups in forming policies which would bring the best results for the schools and the teachers. I know that many superintendents have been grateful for the intelligent advice which committees of classroom teachers have given. When teachers share in the making of policies a good morale can be maintained under difficult and trying conditions. I feel sure that teachers General Sessions 139 have taken their decreased salaries with better grace where they have worked in cooperation with their boards of education and superintendents in planning a fair use of the available funds. Among teachers so closely asso¬ ciated with growing human beings nothing is more important. In all this talk of national planning and education for tomorrow has it ever occurred to you teachers, administrators, and educational advisers, that we have a man-sized job to do in cleaning our own house of some of the ugly methods which we have adopted from business and industry; speed, standardization, red-tape, records, charts, graphs, medians? Can’t we some¬ how get away from the idea that we are working with steel or cotton or coal and remember that we are handling delicate, sensitive human beings? I predict that our schools will regain much of their lost prestige when indi¬ viduality and human worth are placed above mass production in the school¬ rooms of America! Over and over in the tragic months which have passed we have cried aloud for leadership. How well we know the need for courage, for wisdom, for vision to meet the pressing problems of education! How grateful we are for the inspired, enthusiastic leadership of our president, Jessie Gray, a classroom teacher ! Look around you in this assembly ; on this platform ; come to our Classroom Department meetings; visit cities large and small and you will find classroom teacher leaders. Intelligent? Yes! Enthusiastic? Yes! Trained? Emphatically y^es ! And therein lies the secret! A local classroom teachers association trained Jessie Gray and these other strong leaders. Certainly teachers can be leaders but they must have a place to develop leadership. That place is in their own classroom teachers asso¬ ciations. In their own organizations they assumed responsibility; they developed initiative ; they practised cooperation. Working always for the welfare of the whole group they learned the principles of unselfish service. Studying the problems of the teaching profession they set up standards which pro¬ moted professional attitudes among their members. Alert and informed they were ready to rally the members of their organizations to the defense of the schools in their own communities. The achievements of some, of these local classroom teachers associations have been truly remarkable. We point with pride to their magnificent serv¬ ice to schools and communities during the past five years. I do not fear contradiction when I say that no other type of teachers organization has such possibilities as the local association ; organized, officered, and adminis¬ tered by classroom teachers for the benefit of children, teachers, and community. One of the major aims of the Department of Classroom Teachers is the organization of local teachers associations. They are of the greatest im¬ portance in a time like this when our National Education Association and our state associations are planning for the reconstruction of educational programs thruout the nation. Of what use are the plans of these organiza¬ tions if there is no way for teachers to work them out in their own com- 140 National Education Association munities? It is entirely possible to carry out the program adopted by the executive secretaries of the state associations last February when the teachers thruout the country understand it and make it their own thru evaluation, study, and activity in their own associations. One of the outstanding services which teachers can render to the cause of education consists in a program of interpretation which will give the public a proper understanding of the schools, their function, and their needs. Classroom teachers are well prepared to do this because they know so much about the school program from firsthand experience. Opportunities for interpretation present themselves daily in the pupil- teacher relationships of the schoolroom and playground. There is no better publicity agent in the world than the child going home at the end of the day, feeling that he has been understood, that his efforts have been appreciated, that he has been treated fairly^, that he has achieved something worthwhile ; in short, that school has been a success. Thoughtful parents, observing the child’s happiness, his growth in knowledge, and his development in character, become the champions of the school. They judge the school by its success with their child. But there are other phases of interpretation with which classroom teachers must be familiar. The place of public schools in a democracy, the financial support of educational institutions, the federal government in education, and all manner of local problems concern the teacher and the public. The discussion of these subjects with other citizens necessitates a thoro knowledge of facts on the part of the teacher and the ability to present them in an interesting way. Modern life offers so many possibilities for publicity that a rich and varied program can be carried out in every community. Teacher and Public, the Eighth Yearbook of the Department of Classroom Teachers, presents a comprehensive treatment of the whole subject of interpretation. It was written by a committee of classroom teachers, leaders in their own com¬ munities, and is dedicated to the use of all teachers. Classroom teachers have developed many interesting methods of inform¬ ing themselves of the problems which face society and the teaching profes¬ sion. Every year immediately after the summer meeting of the N. E. A. some friendly university invites the National League of Teachers Associa¬ tions to bring the League College to the campus. To this college come the eager young leaders, the inexperienced, the bewildered, in order that they may profit by the wisdom and experiences of the presidents and leaders of teachers organizations from all parts of the country. To this college come the wise and experienced presidents that they may receive fresh wisdom and understanding and that they may share with others the fruits of their experience. Can you estimate the importance of that kind of intelligent leadership ? I want to speak especially of one of the most delightful aspects of our Department’s program, that of cooperation with lay organizations. I wonder if you realize how sincerely and intelligently that great organization, the General Sessions 141 National Congress of Parents and Teachers, is rebuilding public confidence in the schools? 1 can think of no other force more powerful in these serious days than this united group, the parents and teachers. Certainly during the coming year all of you will join hands with the parent-teacher associations of your own school to advance the cause of child welfare in school and community. Perhaps you will encourage the officers to study the new book, Our Public Schools , published by the National Congress last spring. Maybe you will review a chapter of that book at one of the meetings as your contri¬ bution in a program of educational interpretation. We have great responsibilities, we classroom teachers; responsibility to make things right for children in the classroom so that they may develop wholesome personalities; responsibility to develop leadership among our co-workers so that we may better serve the cause of education ; responsibility to create friendly attitudes thru a program of interpretation so that public understanding may strengthen the schools. Years ago those stalwart pioneers, the founders of the Department of Classroom Teachers, accepted these responsibilities for their own. Slowly but surely thru the years they inspired others with their vision. Now in a period of bitter peril for education, their ideals are finding expression in the work of classroom teacher associations from coast to coast. Their spirit living in us, their followers, gives us courage to carry their work forward until responsibility of teachers for leadership and interpretation becomes a reality in the life of every classroom teacher in America. BALANCING AND UNIFYING EDUCATION— RURAL INTERPRETATION RICHARD E. JAGGERS, PRESIDENT, N.E.A. DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCA¬ TION ; AND DIRECTOR OF TEACHER TRAINING, STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, FRANKFORT, KY. I am firmly convinced that rural education is on the road to recognition and recovery, not only from the collapse which started in 1929, but from more than a century of neglect. I do not come as a missionary to enlist you in an army of crusaders engaged in a desperate battle to rescue a group of unfortunate people from peculiar dangers, but I do come to talk about the American rural school. This school starts with the kindergarten and continues thru the secondary grades. It may be located in a village or open country, may be housed in a one-room building or in a building with many rooms, and may offer a curriculum which attempts to meet the needs of all normal and all handicapped children. The American scheme of life is built upon the idea that freedom of opportunity belongs to every citizen, and that any condition growing up in this country which interferes with individual or group welfare is a direct violation of the American ideal, which is a unified American life. Unifica¬ tion as used here means that the conduct of the affairs which touch the 142 National Education Association welfare of the people shall be such that equal consideration will be given to the needs of individuals and groups, regardless of mental and social status, or place of residence. The dark days thru which our country has passed during these five years have convinced every thinking person that American social organization is out of balance instead of being unified, and that equal consideration has not been given to everybody. People are homeless in the midst of abandoned homes, naked where clothing is molding for want of purchasers, hungry in the midst of destroyed crops. So difficult has life become that the govern¬ ment must take a hand in establishing a proper balance. It is the judgment of many that the unbalancing of life is due not so much to the inherent selfishness and greed of individuals, as to a lack of the diffusion of educa¬ tion among all the people. While our philosophy stands for equality of educational opportunity for all people, practise has permitted millions of children to be penalized by place of birth. Today, as well as in the past, many children residing in rural areas are denied a minimum educational opportunity. As in the case of our economic life our educational program is out of balance. The immedi¬ ate result is felt daily by rural children, but the ultimate result will affect our entire social structure. If our society is to function, the intimate relations of agriculture, industry, labor, finance, and trade must be kept in balance. The same point of view is taken by those interested in rural education; namely, that if the educa¬ tional program is to serve society, elementary, secondary, and college edu¬ cation, rural, city, and village education must be kept in balance. Rural education is a part of the total educational program, and serves about half of our school population. Leaders in rural education will not assume for one moment that there is any difference between the basic learning machinery of children living in rural areas and of those living in centers of population. They believe that rural children should be trained to live in their environment as well as for life thru their environment. They recognize that the essential difference between the problems of rural and urban education are basically economic; that rural people have less opportunity to enrich their experiences thru contact; that the school must provide for the enrichment of experiences thru its program ; that an adequate program is more expensive in rural than in urban centers ; that there is less wealth with which to accomplish the task; and that greater effort must be made by rural people in financing the school unless they are to be content with inferior programs for their children. Rural education is out of balance with American urban education and for that reason rural children do not always have a complete common school to attend. In general, the rural child has been given a shorter school term ; many programs terminate at the close of the elementary grades; the rural secondary program must necessarily be limited to the traditional subjects with little opportunity for a differentiation ; many rural schools are housed General Sessions 143 in inadequate buildings ; the teacher has relatively meager training ; libraries are not available to many rural children ; cultural subjects have not come into their own; and the exceptional child has been given little or no attention. . , , , As an American citizen the rural child has the right to have a school term of standard length, a school program which extends thru the secondaiy grades and which is broad enough to meet his needs and life purposes, a school building which meets reasonable standards of usefulness and sanita¬ tion, a teacher who has at least reached the recognized minimum standard of training, library facilities that respond to his needs, cultural subjects as a regular part of the curriculum, and if he is an exceptional child he should receive special attention thru the school program. The difference between conditions in rural and urban centers is not due to the fact that one is city and the other is country, or to the assumption that rural leadership does not recognize child needs. Rural education has come into its own, and people in rural areas recognize the educational needs of the children. In many places the needs have been realized, and enriched programs have been provided. Some of the most advanced programs to be found are in rural areas, but in most instances they are found in those areas which have relatively high per capita wealth. The people are ready and educational needs are understood, but the money with which to meet these needs is not at hand because the system of control and support of government has favored population centers. First , roads have been built to favor the urban center. When the era of hard-surfaced roads began the first road started from the center and not from the country. Roads radiate from urban centers, more people gather, wealth accumulates and then these centers are permitted to become independent. The center of relative wealth operates its own school and shares none of its wealth with the area which helps to produce it. If a rural child crosses the invisible line separating the urban center from the rural area he is per¬ mitted to use the streets, is protected by the police, and receives equal rights while he is there with every other citizen, but he cannot attend the school unless he pays tuition ; it is one governmental service which is not free to him. If the rural area surrounding the populated center decides to consoli¬ date it must often erect its building inside the corporate limits of the inde¬ pendent district if it is to get full advantage of the radiating roads. Second, there are fewer adults in rural areas than in urban centers to produce wealth . For every child to be educated in iural areas there are two or three adults to provide the resources, while in urban centers there are three or four adults to provide for the education of each child. Many rural boys and girls complete their elementary education in the rural school and when they become producers they go to the urban center to work. Third, the chief support of rural schools is the general tax on farm land. With population widely distributed, and per capita wealth low, farm land must bear the greater burden of support of the most meager program. 144 National Education Association Orators have made plaintive appeals from the platform in order to fix in the minds of their beloved constituents the fact that education is the function of the state, and something should be done about the gross in¬ equality of opportunity ! When many of these statesmen get into positions where they can do something about it they are conspicuously inactive due to their allegiance to vested interests which have accumulated and which have thrown the system out of balance. We shall have great difficulty in redistributing the educational dollar but it must be redistributed if educa¬ tion is to be balanced and unified. The national government and the states have set up a nationwide and statewide machinery for law enforcement, and have never neglected to pro¬ vide in their budgets for the adequate support of this important govern¬ mental function. In order that law may be enforced at all times, the nation has an army and the state the militia to be called into service when the ordi¬ nary means of enforcing the law cannot meet conditions. This service is given to rich and poor communities on an equal basis regardless of the expenses. Several years ago the states recognized the importance of roads, and elaborate road-building programs were inaugurated. Later the federal gov¬ ernment recognized the social value of roads in the program of national planning, and to that end billions of dollars have been appropriated and turned over to states for highway construction and maintenance. Roads are looked upon as social and economic assets and are built thru i ich and poor communities alike. In one county a mile of road may cost $10,000, while in another a mile may cost $50,000. If the road builders followed general educational practise in this case they would spend $10,000 in each county, building in one a mile of road and in the other only one- fifth of a mile. In actual practise a mile of road is the unit of service in the road-building program regardless of cost. The unit of service in providing education should be not equality in expenditures but equality of opportunity. The national government could leave the entire burden of education in the hands of the states, and the states in turn could leave it in the hands of each local community if people lived their entire lives in the communi¬ ties in which they were born, and if there were not significant social conse¬ quences from such a course. A child may be born in a remote mountain cabin, spend his elementary-school years in a one-teacher school, his secondary years in a village community, and his adult life in a city. What happens to a boy or girl in the one-room school is of statewide and even national concern. This is not a plea for special concessions to rural education, neither is it a plea for relief or for emergency legislation. It is a plea that the rural school be recognized as a part of the American educational structure. Rural education neither wants missionaries nor needs them. It wants no sympathy, but merely to be counted when American education comes up for relief, reorganization, and reconstruction. This year the federal government in its program of feeding the hungry, clothing the naked, and housing the homeless, has forced attention upon General Sessions 145 those areas in our social structure which are out of balance. The govern¬ ment has provided physical relief to people living in both rural and urban centers, but educational relief has been extended largely to rural schools. Most of the money going into educational relief has found its way into rural areas. An educational relief map will tell you the story of rural education needs, and will indict the generations that have come and gone in the different states, as well as those responsible for the present methods of school support. Such conditions could not be the result of thoughtful planning. If, during the years, leaders had taken a statewide view in planning the state’s program of educational support, dark spots would not be found on the map of edu¬ cational relief, nor would rural children be in the role of the under¬ privileged. Rural education does not demand merely relief, but a program of perma¬ nent planning thru wdiich the total educational structure may come back into balance. The President in a message to Congress early in June of this year said: “It is childish to speak of recovery (relief) first and reconstruc¬ tion afterward. . . . Our task of reconstruction does not require the creation of new and strange values.” 4 he President would reconstruct and unify our ways of behavior out of familiar but often forgotten ideals and values. He would balance life by a re-arrangement of what we have. In reconstructing our educational program we must recognize the fact that education must be unified — must give equal consideration to the needs of every child in all areas of our country ; that the differences in rural and urban education grow out of the differences in population density and wealth distribution; and that if the program is to be rebalanced a long-time plan must be inaugurated which will reduce these differences and bring to rural and urban child alike an opportunity to attend a good school. If there is a state in this Union that cannot do this the federal government should help. When our country was at war men were called from poor and rich com¬ munities, from rural and urban centers. The men were called from where they were and sent to fight where the danger was. There is a solemn duty which we owe to the children of these men. 4 hat duty is summed up in the principle that we should collect the money where the money is and spend it in educating the children where the children are. Money has favorite lodging places, but the children have no choice — they are everywhere. REPORT FOR BOARD OF DIRECTORS A. L. WHITTENBERG, SECRETARY, ILLINOIS STATE EXAMINING BOARD FOR TEACHERS’ CERTIFICATES, SPRINGFIELD, ILL. Our president wisely selected “Educating for Tomorrow as the theme of this convention. Madam President, you saw the necessity of ha\ing an accurate picture of conditions that obtain with regard to public education in 146 National Education Association every state in the Union. You requested each state director to prepare a brief statement of the problems in his state. Those brief reports were made and were placed in my hands. It would be very interesting indeed if the Representative Assembly could have the opportunity to read these reports coming from each of the forty-eight states. I have spent the major portion of two evenings in studying them and now I am requested to bring to you in a very few minutes a brief resume of these forty-eight reports. In every section of the country the problem of maintaining public educa¬ tion is indeed very serious. These problems vary greatly in different areas. But everywhere it is largely the problem of school finance. Thru the influence of teachers, the legislature of many states has very willingly increased the amount of college training fixed by law for beginning teaching. In every instance this increased amount of preparation required by law is due to the influence of members of our own profession. We are proud of the achievements within the last few years in this respect. In every state our profession has made an earnest effort to secure a more adequate financial support for public schools, but ouf influence in that respect has not been so effective. For some reason governmental forces have appeared willing enough to increase the amount of training for the schoolroom, but have shown a woeful disregard for the financial burdens which teachers are compelled to carry. There can be no question of the devotion of the public school teacher. There is no question of his loyalty to the government and to society. His sacrifices within the last few years have been great. If there has been a public school closed in America it was not because the teacher refused to function. The teacher has performed his duty without salary. Is there any other group of workers that has done more? Wherever schools have closed it was for other reasons and not because the teacher refused to work without a salary. How long will the public permit the American school teacher to carry the burden of school finance? In every state in the Union the constitution provides that the state legis¬ lature of that state shall properly finance the public school system. However varied may be the problems concerning public education in the various states there is one difficulty common to all states. Every state has a legislature. That legislature is commanded by the constitution to find means of properly financing public schools. It, therefore, becomes the duty of the school teacher, your duty and my duty to go back to our respective states and to see that a legislature is elected in November 1934 that will perform this constitutional duty. We shall find ourselves involved in a fight. It may seem that we are unable to win this fight. Here is an aphorism of which I am fond : A few months ago a member of the British Parliament in discussing the probable issue of a contest said : “The size of the dog in a fight is not half so important as the size of the fight in the dog.” If every member of the N. E. A. will enter heartily into this fight there can be no doubt that following the November election there will be an improved attitude toward public edu¬ cation in the legislatures of the several states. General Sessions 147 Madam President, I would address a word to you. You have served this Association with great devotion to duty. In many parts of the United States you have brought messages of wisdom and encouragement. Your devotion to the duties of the office entitles you to the gratitude of all of us. Serious devotion to duty is in my judgment one of the finest human virtues. The longer on this earth I live And view the various qualities of men, The more I see the high stern-featured beauty Of plain devotedness to duty, Steadfast and sure, nor paid with mortal praise; But finds its amplest recompense For life’s ungarlanded expense In work done squarely and unwasted days. LIBRARIES FOR CIVILIZED LIVING CARL H. MILAM, SECRETARY, AMERICAN LIBRARY ASSOCIATION, CHICAGO, ILL. My thesis is that a system of public and school libraries — which will make books and competent guidance in the use of books easily accessible to every person in the United States— is a necessary part of the public equipment for civilized living under the New Deal. When I say “library,” I am thinking of an agency maintained by society to make available to all kinds of people of all ages the facts and ideas which the wise men of this and previous generations have recorded in print. I am thinking, too, of the men and women and boys and girls out of school who want more education and are willing to dig for it; of the man who wants to equip himself for a job and keep himself equipped ; of the increasing number of men and women who take seriously their responsi¬ bilities as citizens ; of the student in school or college who is willing to do more than he has to in order to pass an examination; of the men and women who are not afraid of facts, or of new ideas no matter how radical; of the scholar who must have access to great collections of books if he is to make his contribution to knowledge without waste of time. I am also thinking of the people who read because they enjoy reading. The library at its best— whether public, school, or college library is a dynamic, even aggressive institution, which assumes its full share of le sponsibility for stimulating as well as satisfying intellectual curiosity and reading interest. , . . The New Deal is expected to bring economic security and more leisure. For what? For “a more abundant life”? If that is our goal, then we must provide for every person from childhood to old age, opportunity and con tinuous encouragement for the fullest possible development of persona abilities and social understanding. The goal of a democracy is not efficiency in public administration nor even universal participation in public affairs important as these t ,n^ 148 National Education Association are. Democracy’s objective is the greatest possible advancement of all of its individual citizens. To facilitate such advancement, society must provide institutions and agencies : ( 1 ) for universal education at the lower levels ; (2) for widespread education at the higher levels; (3) that which is now largely lacking in many areas and only meagerly provided in most — agencies for continuing self-education at all levels; (4) for rapid diffusion of un¬ censored facts and ideas to all citizens; (5) for wise use of leisure; and (6) for cultivation of appreciation of social and cultural values which will tend to prevent the domination of life by material motives. Many public agencies exist to serve these needs: schools, libraries, col¬ leges, universities, museums, parks, and playgrounds. Many others main¬ tained as private businesses also contribute, such as theaters, moving pic¬ tures, orchestras, and publications. Of the public institutions, only the schools are even nominally accessible to all of the population. They serve the average person for only a few years. Comparatively few people go to college. Few now have access to museums or organized recreation. Only about sixty out of a hundred can borrow books free of charge. For a very large part of the population, society has failed to provide those public institutions for education, recreation, and culture which are looked upon in our more enlightened communities as necessary equipment for civilized living. Next to the school the public library is the most basic of all such institu¬ tions. It serves art as well as science, hobbies as well as vocations, and education as effectively as recreation. It is the continuation school for every boy or girl or man or woman who cares to use it. It typifies democracy by welcoming and helping the educated and the uneducated, the highest and the lowest. It is also intellectually democratic, for it insists upon its right and obligation to furnish material on all sides of controversial public questions. We have many public libraries, the best, and perhaps some of the poorest, in the world. The best are providing magnificent service in all fields, and leadership in informal education, tho even these have not approached the maximum possibilities of public usefulness. The poorest are so inadequately equipped with books and staff that they cannot possibly meet the needs of those who wish to use them. About forty million people — most of them in rural areas — have no local public libraries of any kind. For these forty million, society has failed to provide one of the essential tools for civilized living; and for the many millions now nominally served by very small libraries, society has done little better. Good library service, according to present standards, can be had for from one to two dollars per capita per year. Most libraries actually operate on much less. Yet, after years of acceptance of the idea of library service, after years of advocacy by school teachers, school administrators, women’s clubs, and librarians, about four-fifths of our rural population and one-third of all our total population have no local public library service. The reason, or at least one reason, is that our units of government are too small to main- General Sessions 149 tain public library service efficiently and economically in areas not thickly populated. The schools and other governmental agencies have taught us the lesson of consolidation. With us, it must be both consolidation and extension. Instead of 6000 public libraries serving 60 percent of the population — much of it very badly — we ought to have about 500 libraries serving every¬ body, or, in the typical state, about 10 libraries instead of 100. Each such library, or library system, would serve a whole metropolitan area, a very large county, or several counties. It would consist of a large central library, branches in every town, village, and neighborhood, daily exchange of books, thoroly trained library personnel, and service to all equal to that now pro¬ vided by our best city library systems. If any such goal is to be achieved in any state within a reasonable length of time, it will be, I think, because the state itself, out of state funds, under¬ takes to set up and maintain a minimum or foundation program of local public library service. I therefore hope for the assumption by each state of responsibility for establishing and maintaining a system of large unit public libraries which will make library service easily accessible to every inhabitant. For those who believe in local self-determination, let me add that it should be possible under such a system for any unit of government to increase the funds and service of its branch library in accordance with the needs and wishes of the local population. Each school must also have its library, for the daily use of library ma¬ terials and service is indispensable to a modern school which endeavors to prepare each individual for a lifetime of self-education. When I say “library” here, I mean, as always, not simply books, but also professional library service. The larger school, both elementary and secondary, must be provided with organized collections of books and adequately trained personnel; the smaller school should get equivalent serv¬ ice thru participation in some plan of large unit administration. I care not at all whether school library service be provided by school authorities or public library authorities. It is essential, however, that the pupil, every pupil if possible, acquire not only the habit of reading, but also, in the interest of his future self-education, the habit of using public libraiies. If, as I believe, it is the business of democracy to provide opportunity for individual development to the highest possible levels, then our national government also has some responsibdity for the institutions of education, recreation, and culture. It has for years demonstrated its intci est in foimal education. Should it not now show a corresponding intei est in libianes and other informal agencies for human enlightenment, possibly thru national planning for the development of such agencies, possibly thru the appoint¬ ment of a new officer associated with the Commissioner of Education? And, if schools and libraries really are necessary, perhaps the federal government will also find a way to aid financially. Every school should havt such library service as will enable it to train its pupils for a lifetime of self-education and enjoyment with books. 150 National Education Association DEFENDING EDUCATION EDWARD A. HAYES, NATIONAL COMMANDER, AMERICAN LEGION, INDIANAPOLIS, IND. Our school system was founded by this nation as a vital means of per¬ petuating the principle of self-government, and our schools and colleges are supported by local, state, and federal government. Daniel Webster said, “On the diffusion of education among the people rests the preservation and per¬ petuation of our free institutions.”* Being a republic, a popular government by rule of the majority, we cannot content ourselves merely with the wish to govern well ; we must attain ability and that requires attaining knowledge, because knowledge will forever govern ignorance. Added to the ability to govern well must be the proper devotion to public welfare which we call patriotism, without which good citizenship is endangered. One of the difficulties in our educational system today lies in the main¬ tenance of useless, superfluous spoilsmen of politics who take the taxes that could be used on the schools to pay the salaries of office holders who could be eliminated if we would modernize our obsolete system of county and local government that was built originally in the days of the ox cart and is endured now in the days of the automobile. The American Legion looks upon our schools in the same light that our government looked upon them when it established education and equal opportunity in the United States for the American people. The American Legion, therefore, has made education a major activity in its Americanism program because if the principles of freedom and de¬ mocracy, for which we fought, and for which thousands of our comrades died, are to be perpetuated, then the children of today, the citizens of to¬ morrow, must know how to exercise their duties of citizenship under our republic. Their freedom, their independence, democracy itself in America, rest on that premise. They must have inculcated in them a sense of indi¬ vidual responsibility in sharing the burdens of government and the protec¬ tion of their government. Upon them in the future the very foundation of our republic will rest. Its progress or its fall will depend upon them. If education fails in its true purpose for all, the nation will fall. If it fails for some, our nation’s progress along democratic lines will be handicapped to that extent. The Legion, therefore, comprised of men and women who made sacri¬ fices and endured hardships to protect the principles and ideals that inspired our system of education, has the right to demand that education be con¬ structive for the country’s welfare and that it be patriotic in character. Members of the Legion not only have their own children attending the schools, as they are doing in virtually every schoolhouse and other educa¬ tional institution in America today, but they also have relatives and friends who have faith in the Legion’s viewpoint of what is patriotic and what is not. General Sessions 151 I was somewhat shocked at first today when a remark was brought to my attention that if the money our government is spending on our army and navy could be used instead on our schools, the problems of full terms and better pay for the teachers would be solved, and our country would be better off. Of course the disarmament of our army and navy is an im¬ possible contingency at this time. Yet behind the thought is a tendency to advocate disarmament that has grown to be entirely too general among our educational and religious institutions to be lightly passed by. Back of it, without doubt on the part of educators, is the desire for peace. But back of that is the dangerous propaganda of subversive movements that have for their objective an entirely different thing — the destruction of our govern¬ ment and the establishment of a new social order. No one is in more accord with the idea of better pay for our teachers, and no one is more determined to see that our schools remain open, than the American Legion. The cooperation in recent months of hundreds of Legion posts all over our country has shown this, and hundreds of schools were kept open by the Legion’s influence against the false economy directed against them. But, I wonder if the person or group thinking about our national defense as that remark indicated, ever considered that if we fail to provide for the defense of this country we would not have any need for schools very long. If that kind of an educator is sincere in his desire for permanent peace, which I infer was meant, and I do not question anyone s sincerity of purpose, he should give thought to the lessons on unpreparedness brought out by every war in which we have engaged. No organization on earth wants to perpetuate peace any more than does the Legion. Invariably when we investigate those who advocate extreme pacifism and disarmament, the strings lead us behind the smoke screen to a leadership that is advocating class struggle and the overthrow of our government by force. It is not my purpose to criticize anyone who honestly disagrees with us. Rather, it is my desire to convert anyone within my hearing to a sane and sensible view in this matter of national defense, which is not only our national life insurance, but wThich is the life, property, and fire insurance for each individual citizen. There has been more sincere effort made since the World War than ever before to outlaw war and to make it impossible, yet today the question in the minds of the statesmen of the world is not whether there will be another war, but when will it be? If the United States of America is to keep out of it, it will be because we will have a navy that can adequately protect our shore lines and our shipping, and because we have the nucleus of an army of sufficient strength that it can send an efficient force into the field if necessary. Therefore, while it is eminently proper for us to lift our voices in the interest of peace and in the interest of reduction of armaments if that can be done step by step on an equal basis, and to cooperate in every practical way to maintain peace, we have a special duty to our people to study the 152 National Education Association problems of national defense. We have a duty to our youth who will be subject to call whether they will it or not, if the protection of our nation demands it. In doing this, you will not be militaristic, nor will you influence pupils in a militaristic way if they study these problems. The American Legion believes the advice of our army and navy officers is sincere and honest in the interest of peace. Those leaders have nothing to do with putting the United States into any war. When it is declared, it is their task primarily to see that the war is stopped as quickly as possible. On the other hand, a sure way of getting into a future war would be to convince all our children that they should not support our government in a national emergency. One sure way of bringing about the defeat of our nation at some future time would be to eliminate now the R. O. T. C., the C. M. T. C., and other civilian components of our national defense forces. The United States looks to its citizens for man power to form the army that might be needed to defend our country, and not to a huge standing army of professional fighters. In modern warfare, the victory would be on the other side before we could adequately train officer material from raw recruits. I want to be positive that no misunderstanding comes from what I am going to say now. We have been watching in the Legion a great many things that have been going on. We have been trying to be fair. We are going to continue to try to be fair. We do not want anyone to draw any wrong inferences from any utterances which we make. There is not now, and there never will be so far as this national commander is concerned, any partisan politics in anything he says or does now or at any other time in the Legion because we are only interested in telling what we know to be the truth. We will be very careful not to say anything regarding which there is any uncertainty in our minds. We of the Legion believe that it is time the leaders in education take a decided stand against some of the strange tenets that are finding foothold in our universities and colleges. Does it not make you think when I can tell you that on a recent trip to California I found the California department of the American Legion in the throes of difficulty with an admitted sect of communists within one of the beautiful valleys of that state? Coming back east, I found in the state of Texas the students of the Texas Christian University in a quarrel with the Legion because a student leader at the head of one of those international relations clubs had been advocating that under no condition would they submit to the edicts of the war depart¬ ment in the event of a national emergency. Now some of us are familiar with the propaganda of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, and the objective of trying to get Americans entangled in the League Court, with the further motive of cancellation of the war debts. It all interlocks beautifully. We found the public press in Texas quoting the student leader advising the older boys’ conference of central and north Texas along the lines of General Sessions 153 propaganda which is easy enough to trace beyond the borders of the United States. We find him declaring that he and other “fools,” to use his term, only fight wars for what he declares to be a “rotten kind of leadership.” “It is far better,” he is quoted, “to face the situation of being called yellow or a cowTard than to go to war.” Then, I was surprised when one of the professors of the university stated he would rather see his two hands cut off than be a member of the forces of any nation, including the United States of America, in the event of a war in the future. In fairness to that university, and the American Legion wishes to be fair in all that it does, I can say that if these boys are inspired by the usual motives, there is something or someone leading them in a direction that is strictly opposite to the purposes for which that university was founded. If that is true, and the statement of the student leader did not receive the approval of the university authorities, then the responsibility of countenanc¬ ing such propaganda clubs should be investigated. Misguided groups con¬ tinuing to teach such pernicious doctrines with effect would soon be able to undermine and destroy our government. Many of you know what happened in the University of Ohio. The Legion "found there a concentrated effort on the part of a number of ministers of the community to prepare the ground so that when some young men, who evidently entered the university for that purpose, rebelled against mili¬ tary training, public opinion would be in favor of them and they would be supported in their refusal. The American Legion thoroly investigated the suspension of the seven students for refusing to participate in that training provided for this land grant institution. Let us not be misled by a group of radical pacifists to break down the obligation that a land grant college owes to our govern¬ ment. Following the investigation, an official resolution was adopted by the Legion there stating that the trouble was inspired by a group in New York, contacting the students at the university, to induce them to make an issue of this training. A list of ministers who had created the issue was furnished to the students and the whole plan was mapped out step by step. Some of the students wffio had raised the issue in the past declared they would fight to do away with our government, but would not fight to protect it. Now these professional conscientious objectors would never have sought to enter such an institution if they were sincere and honest. The student who sincerely and honestly refuses to take two years’ military training would avoid an institution that is obligated as the principal reason for its existence to give that kind of training. The conscientious objector who insists upon attending a land grant school, or university, simply wants to break up the national defense system of the United States. Otherwise, he would go to that college or university that is consistent with his ideas on the subject and which does not provide such training. In effect, he says he will not obey the law, and to that extent he embraces the principle of anarchy. It is the law and it is the obligation of the uni- 154 National Education Association versity that has accepted land and funds of the government to insist that every male student put in a few hours’ military training so that he can serve the nation if the need arises, but without pledging himself to such service. Does it surprise you to know that at Columbia University in New York, not many weeks ago, several hundred students adopted a resolution in which they, too, said that under no conditions would they comply with the edict of the War Department in event of another war? This same thing is going on over the country in various universities. It astounds me. It makes me realize all the more why we had better be exercising our intelligence to support rather than to undermine the old-fashioned patriotism, which we call Americanism. The schools, the universities, and the colleges are not the only objectives of attack for this subversive movement. They are creeping into our churches too. I do not like to deride even by implication any denominational religious sect, but when the official publication of the Epworth League displays an article in black type, written by the secretary of the Methodist Federation for Social Service, and advocating that the young Christian man join the army in the event of war and destroy munitions, I believe it is time for the American people to know about it. I want to say, too, that such people do not represent the great mass of good people within the church. Nevertheless, they take that position by inference and the subversive propaganda they spread does the harm. We of the American Legion who are banded together for God and coun¬ try, are not disparaging any religion. We do not know any religion in the American Legion. There wasn’t any question of whether they were Catholic, Methodist, or Jew, when men now members of the Legion were ordered to go over the top. When the Epworth Herald article was brought to my attention at national headquarters at Indianapolis recently, I would not believe it until I had seen the printed copy of the magazine. It was the issue of March 3 and there in printed word in the publication going out to young people of that denomination was the recommendation that in the event of war those young folks would have one of four choices: No. 1 was called the honorable way of patriotism, and to be honorable, it was pointed out, one must be cannon fodder and be shot, dismembered, or gassed. No. 2 pointed out that one could be a conscientious objector with what was called Ihigh courage. No. 3 advocated that the youth join the forces and after getting in to commit sabotage, to destroy machinery and not carry out orders. It stated that if that appears against moral principles, if that is to lie and deceive, that the youth need have no qualms of conscience because one lies or deceives if he engages in any war. The arti¬ cle goes on to say that if those three choices do not suit, then there is a fourth which really is a further development of the third. It calls for sabotage but with a deliberate intent to get rid of the present economic system of which war is a part. The aiticle goes on to say that if the youth will make this choice, to make it now and to begin to meet with others of like purpose and an iron will to carry out the purpose. It says this means knowing what selfish capitalism is like and a new social order. ' General Sessions 155 Now, does that not have the ring of communism? Well, we looked up the author of the article, this secretary of the Methodist Federation of Social Service. At national headquarters we have a directory in which are listed those people who have had connection with subversive movements and communism. It is called the "Red Network. The name of this author is listed in that book in various connections with communistic activities. Each and every citizen of the United States who enjoys the opportunity and protection afforded him by our American government and institutions, if he is honest, will be willing to share the responsibility of upholding and defending the flag that makes those things possible. The American Legion says that it is not the duty of any one group to carry that burden alone, but it is the duty of all. Sincere in its purpose of promoting peace, and in providing an adequate defense for our nation, the Legion has devised a plan that would distribute equally this burden. We call it Universal Service in Time of War. Its main purpose would be to prevent any profit in war. Its enactment would cost nothing and it would never be used unless war is forced upon us. Those who are misled into believing in disarmament can well subscribe to this principle of Universal Service as a preventive of war. Certainly, if the government of the United States could say upon the declaration of war, that every element, every resource, capital, labor, transportation, and in¬ dustry, as well as man power, must give equal service and with profit to none, there would be no avaricious, plain money-grabbing individual who would advocate war for the purpose of adding to his own personal bank account. Also, with this principle enacted into the basic law of our land, it would be notification to the world that the United States stood solidly united to defend ourselves. And no nation, or group of nations, would seek a fight with us when that is established. In closing, I pledge to you the tireless and loyal support of our 11,003 posts of the American Legion, in making of our schools the guardians of good citizenship which they were originally intended to be, and which they are continuing to be today despite the efforts of some organizations and individuals to make them otherwise. It has only been in recent months, and possibly one or two years back, that this danger of subversive movements was generally recognized and acknowledged, outside of patriotic groups and organizations which had thoroly investigated the matter. The American people are slow to believe that there is anything wrong. When they do wake up, they are just as quick to act. The advocates of communism have thrown a smoke screen of peace propaganda around their objective. Let us be alive to the possibility of communism attaining too great a grip on the educa¬ tional channels of our nation and to the danger of obliterating in the hearts of our citizens the love of that freedom, liberty, and democracy which made possible this great republic of ours. 156 National Education Association ANNOUNCEMENT— REGARDING THREE HUNDREDTH ANNIVERSARY CELEBRATION OF AMERICAN HIGH SCHOOLS WILLARD N. VAN SLYCK, PRINCIPAL, HIGH SCHOOL, TOPEKA, KANS. The year 1935 marks the three hundredth anniversary of the establish¬ ment of secondary schools in America. Five years ago the late Milo H. Stuart, at that time president of the Department of Secondary School Prin¬ cipals, appointed a planning committee of eighteen. The members of this committee were representative of various interests connected with secondary education, viz., secondary-school principals and headmasters, city school su¬ perintendents, state department supervisors, professors of secondary educa¬ tion, and the United States Commissioner of Education. The following general plans have been formulated by the committee as reported by the chairman, C. O. Davis of the University of Michigan: 1. To initiate the celebration at the time of the Department of Superintendence meeting in Atlantic City, February, 1935. 2. To provide a two-day commemorative program, one day of which is to be held jointly with the Department of Superintendence if possible. 3. To make the celebration center about the historical phases of secondary educa¬ tion, but not to omit contemporary and prophetic aspects. 4. To initiate and foster the writing of a number of historical studies on secondary education, to appoint an editing committee to deal with these studies when written, and, if possible, to publish and widely distribute short digests of these various studies. 5. To arrange, if possible, for a historical pageant to be given at the time of the February meeting. 6. To organize subcommittees charged with the responsibility of carrying the celebration program into every section and district of the United States, and to enlist the cooperation of every available agency in so doing. h ourteen subcommittees have been appointed and are at work. Assurances of full and cordial cooperation from the officials of various edu¬ cational organizations and other leaders of educational thought have been received. Mr. Davis informed me last week that the program arranged by the committee was developing in a very encouraging manner, the greatest diffi¬ culty being finance. If any of you can secure $10,000 for Mr. Davis and the committee to use, I am positive they will appreciate your efforts exceedingly. An admirable piece of work has been developed by the publicity committee under the direction of M. H. Robinson of Pittsburgh. He told me yester¬ day of several unusual plans that have been provided, including magazine and radio publicity. We ask each of you to urge the community from which you come to celebrate this anniversary, and impress upon the layman the importance of secondary education. If each of you and the thousands of other teachers interested in the level of our school system will do their part, 1935 will be an outstanding year of progress in the field of secondary education. General Sessions 157 ANNOUNCEMENT— CELEBRATION OF MOTHER’S DAY ANNA JARVIS, FOUNDER, PHILADELPHIA, PA. “Mother’s Day’’ is the phrase commonly used for both the Mother’s Day movement, or work, and the annual celebration of the second Sunday in M ay. The Mother’s Day work was started prior to the Civil War as a home, church, and community work by my mother, Mrs. Anna M. Jarvis. The Mother’s Day celebrations, which give emphasis and extension to the work, were founded by me. The same basic features used by my mother in her work were continued as features of the Mother’s Day celebrations, such as the wearing and giv¬ ing of the flower; the “home” or friendship letter; care and cheer for the war veterans and their home-folks; church, school, and community better¬ ments; and patriotism and goodwill. To these features have been added from time to time others that have meant the progress and worldwide extensions of Mother’s Day movement and celebrations. Mother’s Day workers have developed the movement thru their loyalty, sacrifices, sincerity, and unpaid services, as well as giving their services and, from their own limited means, paying their expenses. It was the ambition of the Mother’s Day founder and co-workers that there should not be any money taint or restrictions regarding Mother’s Day. The money-getting schemes, therefore, of some tradesmen, paid profes¬ sional charity schemers, welfare agencies, and the promoters seeking to use the cumulative benefits of decades of our work for their enterprises by changing Mother’s Day name to Parents’ Day, or splitting it into a Father’s Day, Mother and Daughter Day, Father and Son Day, or Mother-in-Law Day have been a source of bitterness. Appeal is made to all honorable, sincere people of the schools to discountenance any person or concern that seeks to change Mother’s Day name, or to split its observance. Investiga¬ tion will show that they all have ulterior motives and are camouflaged thru some sob story or “poor mother” propaganda, committees of prominent names, or similar deception. The anti-mother promoters .should be exposed in every community in which they rear their heads. Do not have the youth of the schools side¬ tracked from Mother’s Day inspiring observance, thru vaudeville, minstrel, dancing, and other performances on Sunday afternoon under the name of Parents’ Day, or Father’s Day, so that a florist or school superintendent may have personal publicity and work a dishonorable game on the public, youth, and press. If you are an anti-mother promoter, forget Mother’s Day — it is a voluntary movement and observance. Mother’s Day is not a mere “idea,” or a “holiday,” or “maudlin senti¬ ment,” or, like Topsy, “just grow’d.” This all-nation movement has had back of it years of hard, patient, faithful work, with the same kind of over¬ head expenses for rent, heat, light, services, travel, printing, and stationery that the National Education Association has had. 158 National Education Association There is not any celebration or movement of the century comparable to it. It is a worldwide blessing — help us to keep it ennobling. The whole family unit is the design of Mother’s Day. Anything “mother” has she shares. She has been sharing 365 days a year, and in croupy times the nights with the home-folks. One day off — not to be “tired out,” not to be “poor,” not to be forgotten thru lack of filial gratitude, or community or national praise and honor as a “good citizen,” — is due her after all of the ages of being “out of the picture.” There are over fifty holidays and special days listed for “Father” and by “Father.” Mother’s Day is for father and the whole family. Would you try to split or re-name Columbus Day, Labor Day, Memorial Day, or Thanks¬ giving? Or would you tear them apart, or change the name for your busi¬ ness or welfare enterprises? There are other periods of the year for such changes, and Mother’s Day time is established — it is illegal to tamper with its names, dates, emblem, or founder’s name. DEMOCRACY IN EDUCATION THOMAS E. BENNER, DEAN, COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, URBANA, ILL. One of the most important aspects of government in a democracy is the administration of education. In this area we as a profession have direct responsibility of a very special nature. It is not my purpose to discuss the pressing problems of securing more democratic organization within the pro¬ fession, as important as they are. Fortunately, we have become increasingly conscious of them in recent years. I propose, rather, to discuss one or two deficiencies of our educational machinery at the point where the formula¬ tion of general policies by the representatives of the people meets and deter¬ mines for good or for ill what we as a profession may do. The principle that education is a function of the state has been well estab¬ lished by important decisions of the courts in almost every state of the union. Cubberley and Elliott cite as a classic example the Watervliet, New York, case of almost forty years ago. In its briefest outline, that case determined that the state superintendent of public instruction could properly take over the control of a city school system when the local board of education failed to function and could continue this control until the local board was ready to resume its duties. The board of education of Watervliet, divided by politics, had been unable to agree on the appointment of janitors, teachers, principals, and superin¬ tendent. This failure to agree threatened to make impossible the opening of the schools at the appropriate date. The state superintendent of public in¬ struction ordered the board to proceed at once to carry out the duties imposed on it by law. When the board persisted in its failure to act, the state super¬ intendent sent one of his deputies to take charge of the situation with in¬ structions to employ a complete staff. He ordered the board to provide the needed supplies and equipment and to pay for all these from the treasury of the school district. General Sessions 159 It was at this point that the case came to the courts thru an effort of the board of education of Watervliet to prevent the reopening of the schools, the employment of a staff, or the use of school funds of the district for any of these purposes. The court held that the failure of the city of Watervliet, New York, to provide adequately for the education of its children was not merely an action of local concern but a threat against the welfare of the entile state. It concluded, accordingly, that it was within the powers of the state superintendent of public instruction to act as he had done in the interest of the welfare of the entire state which local neglect had placed in jeopardy. The basic principle that education is a function of the state and that the local school unit performs its duties as an agent of the state whose powers the state may extend, diminish, or transfer to other appropriate agencies is well established and has long been recognized in theory both within and without our profession. Unfortunately, as the last four years have strikingly demonstrated, it has in most of our states received no parallel recognition in practise. The educational program of the state has long since become a highly com¬ plicated problem. Its effective administration demands the most competent, the most statesmanlike, the most far-seeing professional leadership which can be secured. It is as ridiculous to assume that this competent, statesman¬ like, far-sighted professional leadership at the head of the state’s system can be secured thru popular election as it would be to expect such leadership to result from popular election of city superintendents of schools. The officers needed in a democratic form of government may be roughly classified into two groups: those whose function it is to render representa¬ tive service, and those whose function it is to render expert service. When we seek representative service, we elect or use some other form of choice which will keep the make-up of the representative body close to the will of the people. When we wish expert service, we select. Any other arrangement is in its practical results the negation of democratic government because, as painful experience has taught us, it is a certain obstacle to realization of the aspirations of the great mass of the people. In accepting complacently the traditional method of choosing the state’s chief educational officer by popular election we have insured that he will render, in the majority of cases, representative service rather than expert service. The skill and the courage of an occasional popularly elected state educational officer has risen above this situation to provide effective state leadership, but this has by no means been usual. In most cases, this state officer in humble recognition of the manner of his choice has kept his ear to the ground and listened for the voice of the people, delaying all forward looking action until that voice has been convincingly expressed by a group large enough to indicate that such action was likely to be of advantage in securing election for another term. If you will examine the school laws of the states in which the chief state school officer is popularly elected and will contrast them with the school 160 National Education Association laws of those states in which he is selected, you will note a striking dif¬ ference. In the first group of states, it will be found that legislation has tended strikingly to be a patchwork of laws enacted to meet emergency conditions as they arise. Let me give a specific example of what I mean : For the past three or four years, the post-graduate enrolments in Amer¬ ican high schools have been mounting because of the inability of graduates to find employment or to finance attendance at an institution of higher education more or less remote. In many of our states the situation has become so acute that there will soon be pressure for the enactment of legisla¬ tion intended to assist local communities further in carrying this new burden. We may waken, one of these days, to find legislation hastily enacted which will in final effect superimpose a little and very expensive junior college on many of our little high schools. This is what I mean by legislation enacted to meet emergencies. The emergency consists of a growing body of public opinion which demands action but does not foresee some of the consequences of the kind of action it proposes. The popularly elected state educational officer who has been awaiting the clear expression of the electorate on which he must depend for another term is likely to move little, if any, earlier than the legislature. As a result, an important issue of state educational policy is decided on the spur of the moment, under the pressure of the need for immediate, action, without opportunity for study and consultation, in an unstatesmanlike, short¬ sighted manner. Thus in these states, step by step, the possibility of develop¬ ing a coordinated program of education is further delayed. In the states which have made provisions for a state board of education free to select a competent educational officer the school laws will commonly be found to present a more orderly growth. The reason is obvious. The continuation in office of this selected professional leader depends on his ability to deal in a statesmanlike manner with the state’s educational prob¬ lems. In other words, an important factor in his professional success is his ability to foresee the development of critical issues such as the one I have cited, to analyze them, to bring lay and professional groups together to consider the problems involved, to consult with the appropriate legislative committees, and, finally, to lead in the preparation of a legislative program which will provide for intelligent, far-sighted solutions. There is still another respect in which the school laws of the states which elect their chief educational officer differ strikingly from those of the states in which these officers are selected. Long experience has demonstrated to our legislators the inadvisability of conferring broad, discretionary powers on individuals. Accordingly, the state traditionally defines in narrow and specific terms the authority granted in such cases. Experience has shown, however, that more extensive power and wider discretion may be granted to boards and commissions in which the necessity for arriving at an agreement among the group serves as an important check on possible abuses. Examples of such grants of broad, discretionary power are to be found in our public service commissions, in our state boards of General Sessions 161 health, and in the trustees of our state universities. As an inevitable con¬ sequence of this well-founded tradition, the school laws in those states which elect their state superintendents of public instruction tend to define his powers so narrowly as to give little chance for the exercise of statesmanship. Contrast this with the wider definition of powers and the resulting stimulus to statesmanship which characterizes school legislation in those states which have provided adequately for state boards of education. In brief, then, I suggest that one of the greatest weaknesses of our demo¬ cratic machinery for the control of education as a function of the state is the persistence in a majority of our states of the popularly elected state school officer. The welfare of the entire school system in states whose expert, professional leadership must come out of the lottery of public election has been at stake and will continue to be at stake as long as this condition per¬ sists. Example after example could be cited of acute school problems of the economic emergency made more acute by this defective provision for state leadership. Let me merely mention a few other examples of striking defects in our educational machinery which stand in the way of democratic control of public education. Many others could be added to the list. In several of our states the typical term of the local schoolboard member is three years. Elections are held annually and a fraction of the board is chosen each year. The effect of so short a term is to make possible the over¬ throw of a majority of the board within the period embracing two annual elections — or exactly a year and a day. Long experience has made clear the need of continuity of policy in public administrative agencies of this sort. No such continuity is effectively guaranteed by a system which permits a majority overturn within so short a period. The experience of one state’s school system has shown strikingly how perfect a device this is for facilitat¬ ing demagoguery in education. One of our largest cities has suffered for years because of the peculiar administrative organization of its school system. The board of education of that city employs three coordinate officers. It has a superintendent of schools in charge of the educational program. There is also a business man¬ ager in charge of the budget, the employment of janitors and engineers and the purchase of books, supplies, and equipment. To these responsibilities there has recently been added the control of school lunchrooms. Finally, the board employs an attorney. Note that these officers are independent of one another and, in each case, are directly responsible only to the board. At the last session of the state legislature, a bill was introduced, the purpose of which was to correct this disorganization. The bill proposed to convert the business manager and attorney into assistants to the superin¬ tendent, subordinate to him, and responsible thru him to the board of educa¬ tion. The obvious desirability of this administrative change grows out of its recognition that the basic function of the public school system is to carry on an educational program and that the employment of a business manager or of an attorney is solely for the purpose of making available to the superin- 162 National Education Association tendent in the formulation of that program the technical advice and as¬ sistance which will assist in insuring its efficient working out in practise. As an example of failure to recognize what constitutes democracy in our educational machinery let me quote the expression of a leader of classroom teachers who opposed this legislation at the state capital on these grounds, “We are interested in democracy in education — not in concentrating more power in the hands of the superintendent.” I need not add that the opposi¬ tion of this leader gave needed aid and comfort to those who opposed the measure for reasons somewhat less naive and helped to insure its eventual defeat. We have said and have heard much within the last few years of our re¬ sponsibility as teachers for a more effective interpretation of our social, economic, and political order in the classroom. There can be no doubt of the need for improvement in that direction. One test of our preparedness for the assumption of this new responsibility is our professional alertness to the defects of that branch of government to which we belong. If our belief in sound principles is genuine, one of its first fruits will be a vigorous and persistent effort to correct the inadequacies of our governmental ma¬ chinery which prevent the smooth functioning of democratic government in the field of public education. CULTURE FOR DEMOCRACY ARMAND J. GERSON, ASSOCIATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PHILADELPHIA, PA. Whatever questions may have arisen in recent years in the minds of cer¬ tain critical groups as to the effectiveness of a democratic order of society, there is not much difference of opinion as to the meaning of the term. Democracy means government by the people ; it implies the consent of the governed and acceptance of the decision of the majority. In form it may vary all the way from the New England town meeting to the complicated Constitution of the English monarchy. Expression of the popular will may be direct or thru some form of representative organization. When we come to the question of culture, the problem of definition is more difficult. In this connection a statement made by a noted contributor to one of our monthly journals is of interest: In conversation with a learned friend lately, our talk ran on various definitions of culture, and on the fact that for one reason or another we found them all unsatis¬ factory. This led us to ponder the notion that culture is one of those things that are perhaps better understood by not being too closely defined, like certain stars that become visible only when one looks a little away from them. . . . There are many such matters, an astonishing number when one comes to count them up; astonishing, too, when one remarks how competent our working knowledge of them may be, notwithstanding our best definitions of them are so incompetent. In the light of this expression of surrender it is surprising to find in the Oxford Dictionary a definition which is not entirely inadequate. Here General Sessions 163 culture is defined as the “training, development, and refinement of mind, tastes, and manners. ” There is an obvious and intimate relation between culture and the setting up of those habits and attitudes which we call appreciations. Indeed, educa¬ tion for leisure consists largely in the development of esthetic tastes and the establishment of contacts with things of beauty. Nature, music, litera¬ ture, and art are thus brought into relation with life. In view of an eco¬ nomic condition in which working hours will be reduced to a minimum and leisure opportunities correspondingly expanded, it would be difficult to over¬ estimate the significance of this phase of the educational process. With the growing recognition that a man may be said to live fully only in those hours that are his own, that part of his education which prepares him for the wholesome and happy use of leisure time is assuming larger importance from day to day. It is commonly assumed that in addition to their happiness value, apprecia¬ tions have a direct bearing upon the development of character. Tho most persons would accept this point of view without serious question, the assump¬ tion will repay a moment’s examination. Second thought suggests certain doubts. Who has not seen the enthusiastic lover of music brutally elbow his way toward a front seat ? What librarian has not had acquaintance with book lovers who seemed to feel no shame in keeping books beyond the pre¬ scribed time or in returning them marked or soiled? It is evident that love of music and love of poetry will not in themselves develop human kind¬ ness and consideration for others. It would be a mistake, however, to allow these exceptions to a generally accepted truth to persuade us that apprecia¬ tions have no character outcomes. Shared enjoyments of beautiful things are humanizing and socializing. More fundamentally, there is still another point of view from which we must consider the problem of cultural appreciations in a democracy. It must be admitted that until recent years, and indeed to a degree even today, we have in this country placed too large an emphasis on material achievement. America has looked upon itself as the land of opportunity and has meant by this chiefly opportunity for the individual to amass wealth or to rise to a position of power. Educators identified themselves with this point of view and tended to measure educational values in terms of effects upon money income. From coast to coast, boys and girls were urged to continue in school so that ultimately they might be in a position to earn more dollars. Success in terms of power was encouraged by constant reference to the fact that any boy, however humble his origin, might aspire to the presidency of the republic. The inevitable result of this emphasis was the encouragement of a competitive attitude inconsistent with ideals of cooperation and with recognition of achievement in the realm of the spirit. There cap he no doubt that this emphasis, which characterized our schools and influenced school leadership for generations, has played its part in bring¬ ing about many of the material achievements for which our people have been conspicuous and of which they are justly proud. Gradually, however, 164 National Education Association and at first timidly, thinkers began to be impressed with the questionable moral outcomes of this materialistic philosophy. Did it not tend to overlook proper recognition of achievements of the spirit? Worse still, did it not, thru its emphasis on competitive effort, tend to produce a nation that valued dollars above service? One of our presidents made pointed reference to “malefactors of great wealth” and there was widespread approval of the implications of the phrase. Thru all classes of society there spread a new emphasis on service. It would be too much to say that leaders of industry and finance gave up or even seriously modified their former competitive practises. True it is, however, that in thousands of cases they supplemented them by the organization of altruistic enterprises, social service, the improve¬ ment of working conditions. Service organizations, made up of representa¬ tives of business, industry, and the professions, became, and have remained, a conspicuous feature of our national life. It is probably not to be expected that in the fundamentals of living the doctrine of service will ever replace that of achievement. In an ideal world in which the Golden Rule would become the guiding principle of action, such a fundamental shift would be conceivable. Eternally human — nay, biological — conditions seem to stand in the way of the realization of this possibility. So long as men are men, it is likely that their conduct will be determined chiefly in terms of their personal interests. Kindness, considera¬ tion, social service, these things will improve as time goes on and will play an increasingly important part in human relationships ; but in the long run they will constitute ameliorations, hardly the substitution of a new doctrine of living. There is a third direction in which leaders of thought are beginning to look for help in their consideration of the profound problem of human happiness. Is there not a vital contribution to be sought in the field of man’s cultural life? May it not be truly said, in one sense at least, that we live most fully, most abundantly, not when we are achieving, not even when we are serving, but when we are immersed in some significant emotional expe¬ rience? If this be true, are we doing all that might be done to enlarge the emotional capacities of our people and to provide suitable, wholesome, uplift¬ ing satisfactions of the spirit? Is there not the possibility that in this direc¬ tion, thru the development of a broader cultural outlook and of cultural appreciations and attitudes, may lie the salvation of our democracy? Humanity’s thirst for the joys to be found in music, literature, and art is not merely for the satisfactions which they promise. Of equal importance is the balance which they give to life. The man or woman who visits art galleries, who goes to concerts, who is conscious of an increasing under¬ standing of these things and of their significance in relation to life acquires as a byproduct that rarest and most comforting of qualities — poise. To the extent that poise is an outcome of culture, culture becomes a prerequisite for a successful democracy. What are the schools to do about it all? In the first place, they must recognize their responsibility. Among the outcomes of public education, cul- General Sessions 165 tural habits and attitudes must be given a place in the front rank. There must be appropriate curriculum provision. The problem must be faced in our programs for the training of teachers and supervisors. And, most impor¬ tant of all, the personal and professional philosophy of each classroom teacher must be colored by the newer and finer outlook on life. The curriculum everywhere has tended to make fuller provision for those essential elements of education whose outcome is to be sought in habits of action, tolerant points of view, and emotional attitudes. It is interesting to note that this recognition of the so-called “imponderables” has been coin¬ cident with the extension of programs of testing, measurement of results, and remedial teaching. Simultaneously with the splendid achievement of our leaders of research in those fields of the curriculum where the instruc¬ tional results admit of precise objective measurement, there has been a striking development in such fields as citizenship training, character educa¬ tion, and appreciation. It is true that the specialist in the field of research is inclined to insist that the objective measurement of outcomes is an essential element in every phase of the educational process. He says, and with seem¬ ingly irrefutable logic, that whatever exists has certain quantitative aspects, and, provided proper instruments of measurement can be devised, may be definitely measured. In general, however, it may be said that most educators agreed that those character elements and those aspects of our emotional experiences that are capable of measurement are comparatively irrelevant. While unquestionably there are certain instructional outcomes in these fields that can be considered quantitatively, it is probable that attempts in this direction may result in a distortion of emphasis by teachers and pupils alike. Many an honest attempt at appreciation teaching has gone to pieces on this rock. Not only has the balance of subjects in the curriculum been modified by the recognition of ever wider educational objectives; within the fields of the so-called cultural subjects themselves changes have been equally marked. There is a tendency away from the mere acquisition of skills in the fields of music, art, and literature, and an increasing emphasis on the development of appreciative attitudes. There is a growing feeling that a wide acquaint¬ ance with the significant work of great poets, painters, and composers, and the cultivation of a genuine joy in the presence of these things of beauty is a more important preparation for living than such technical skills as the schools could hope to develop in the practise of the several fine arts. Not that such technical skills should be omitted from the instructional pro¬ gram. The philosophy of pupil activity and student participation necessarily demands a certain amount of creative work on the part of the learner. Educa¬ tionally, however, the value of such creative activity should not be measured in terms of the artistic worth of the product ; it is the purpose, the planning, the doing, that make it worthwhile. Also it is true that participation may have a certain relation to the building of appreciation habits, altho in the past the importance of this relationship has been much exaggerated. It is questionable whether the performance of a Paderewski or a Kreisler is any 166 National Education Association more meaningful to the child who has taken piano or violin lessons than to the child who has not. It is probably more than questionable whether the pupil who has been encouraged to express himself in halting verse has de¬ veloped a larger capacity for the appreciation of Wordsworth or Masefield. Increasingly, then, the curriculum for elementary and secondary schools thruout the country has made provision for “listening” and “looking” with open ears and seeing eyes. The development of appreciations thru the educational program is not so much a question of the curriculum as it is of the teacher. In the selection and training of teachers, moreover, it is of vital importance to keep in mind that results in this field are conditioned not nearly so much by anything that the teacher may do or by anything that he may say, but rather by what he is. While there are undoubtedly teaching procedures and plans of approach and presentation which will be valuable as suggestions to any instructor in the field of appreciations, these things will always be less vital than the inner spark without which all the teacher’s efforts must result in futility or worse. Appreciation, like character, is chiefly imparted thru contagion. It becomes obvious that no teachers should be selected for work in the field of appreciation whose joy in esthetic experiences is not enthusiastic, wholesome, and honest. Indeed, the question may properly be raised as to whether teachers in any field should not possess this cultural background. Since so much of our cultural development is the outcome of unconscious influences resulting from contacts with others, it may be argued that all pupil-teacher contacts should insure wholesome influences in the field of appreciation as in that of character. At any rate, for the teacher of apprecia¬ tion, a native capacity for esthetic enjoyment and a cultivated taste are a sine qua non. Candidates for admission to teacher-training institutions should, in addition to an examination of other essential qualities, be tested out in this direction. The literal-minded, unimaginative, unsympathetic person has no place in the profession of teaching. It has been the purpose of this paper to indicate the relation of culture to a democratic civilization. Difficult as the term “culture” may be to define, we all have a clear enough notion of its meaning to make discussion possible and helpful. Material success has failed us as the answer to our fundamental national problems. The doctrine of service, humans being what they are, cannot, at this stage of civilization, be put forward as an alterna¬ tive philosophy, helpful and wholesome as it has proved as a palliative to the materialism of the times. Cultural interests, cultural activities open the door upon a new possi¬ bility. For the individual, the development of a cultural life means an increased capacity for happiness, and better still, for tranquility and for poise. For the nation, the more abundant sharing in spiritual enjoyments means larger sympathy, fuller understanding, greater solidarity. The cul¬ tural development that will result from the extension and modification of our educational program would seem to be one of the greatest immediate obligations of the public school systems of America. J^ife -j Membership -Dinner LIFE MEMBERSHIP DINNER The sixth life membership dinner was held at the Washington con¬ vention. Because it has come to be one of the leading features of the conven¬ tion we are including an account in the volume of Proceedings this year. A brief history of the development of life membership will explain why these dinners have become an institution. The charter which was granted by Congress in 1907 ?nakes provision for a Permanent Fund. To increase this fund steps were taken at the Des Moines meeting in 1921 to provide a plan of life memberships. The cost of such a membership was set at $100 and only the income could be used for the cur¬ rent expenses of the Association. The movement did not get under way until about 1927 , so that the larger part of the memberships have been received since that time. Over 5200 persons have contributed this sum of $1001 each and therefore have a part in perpetuating a service to the cause of education. The P ermanent Fund from life memberships has made possible the head¬ quarters building. Much credit for interest and growth is due the officers who have con¬ stantly kept the value of life membership before the profession. However , the one to whom most credit is due is the secretary, J . W . Crabtree , for it was in his mind that the idea was conceived and brought to fruition. The first life membership dinner was held in Atlanta, Ga., in 1929, and was presided over by U el W . Latnkin, president. Northwest Missouri State Teachers College, who was then president of the Association. One has been held each year since 1929 on Monday evening of convention week. E. Ruth Pyrtle, principal, Bancroft School, Lincoln, Nebr., president in 1930, f was the presiding officer at the dinner in Columbus, Ohio. Carroll G. Pearse, Milwaukee, Wis., past president of the Association, presided at the dinner in Los Angeles, Calif., in 1931, and the late Thomas E. Finegan, president, Eastman Teaching Films, Inc., one of the first life members, at the on& in Atlantic City, N. J., in 1932. At Chicago in 1933, Rose A. Pesta, assistant superintendent of schools, and one of the first life members in Chicago, was toast mistress. At the dinner this year, Frank W. Ballou, superintendent of schools, Washington, D. C., and the first life member in the District of Columbia, acted as toastmaster. The precedent for inviting one of the first life membe'rs in the convention city to preside has now become established. The average attendance at these dinners has been 358. The devotion of life members to the profession gives confidence to the growth and development of the plan. Secretary Crabtree estimates that the number of life members will be doubled during this decade and it is certain that the increasing interest in the life membership dinners will mean an in¬ creased attendance each year. [ 168 ] ‘Report of Committees INTRODUCTION Much of the most significant work of the Association is accom¬ plished by committees. The scope of the work carried on by committees during the past year is indicated by the following pages devoted to their reports. For discussion concerning reports see Minutes of the Repre¬ sentative Assembly in the latter part of this book. Complete lists of the membership of each committee are also given elsewhere in this volume. [170] REPORT OF AMERICAN LIBRARY ASSOCIATION COMMITTEE ON COOPERATION WITH THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION1 ADA F. LIVERIGHT, LIBRARIAN, PEDAGOGICAL LIBRARY, BOARD OF EDUCATION, PHILADELPHIA, PA., Chairman ' The centennial anniversary of the establishment of free public schools in Pennsylvania was celebrated during the month of April. In connection with this celebration an exhibition of old textbooks, educational reports, courses of study, and other interesting items was held in the Peda¬ gogical Library. Among the material was a bill dated December 19, 1823, for “tuition together with quills, ink, and use of school library .” In several of the quaint old reports were found references to the practise of rewarding pupils for advanced standing by permitting them to withdraw “enjoyable” books from the school library on Friday afternoon, thus showing that the library was recognized as an agency for providing for the worthy use of leisure a century ago when the curriculum was only the three R’s. Yet in 1934, in spite of the new program of education with its emphasis on social aims, stressing of pupil exploration and provision for individual differences, we find the school library still regarded almost universally by administrators as an addition rather than as an integral part of the school. A recently published work by H. J. Otto entitled Elementary School Organization and Administration, devotes a chapter of 30 pages to the “Administration of Library Service.” Perhaps when more educational writers realize that an enriched curriculum is dependent on the school library, when courses in administration in university departments of education give due consideration to the place of the library in the school organization, the obstacles to library service, chief among them being lack of financial support, will be overcome. That the obstacles are very real is conclusively shown in the monograph on the “Secondary School Library” published as part of the National Survey on Secondary Education in 1933. In an effort to interpret the school library, the American Library Asso¬ ciation Committee on Cooperation with the National Education Association has been concerned during the past year with the following matters: 1. Organization of library advisory service at the annual meetings of the Depart¬ ment of Superintendence and of the National Education Association. At the Depart¬ ment of Superintendence meeting the interest shown was most gratifying. It is the Committee’s hope that it may be equally helpful at the convention now in progress. 2. Setting up at the meetings of the N. E. A. and the Department of Superintendence exhibits showing the organization and administration, planning and equipment of school libraries; training for librarianship ; instruction in the use of books and libraries; aids to book selection. 3. Promoting discussion of school library problems at general and sectional meet¬ ings of the N. E. A. 1 Adopted by Representative Assembly, July 6, 1934. [171] 172 National Education Association 4. Submitting to the Committee on Resolutions of the Department of Superintend¬ ence recommendations concerning the revision of standards for libraries in secondary schools. The chairman of the Resolutions Committee reported that he was in accord with the purposes of the A. L. A. Committee. No formal action, however, was taken. 5. Taking steps toward the reestablishment of the Library Department of the N. E. A. As one writer puts it, “Such a step would renew emphasis on the school library as an educational force which promises to assume increasing importance in proportion to the rate at which school curriculums are ‘freed’ and adult education develops.” The majority of school librarians are members of the A. L. A. from which they derive stimulus and practical aid which cannot be overestimated. The motives for endeavoring to revive the Library Department of the N. E. A. are: a. It is highly important that school administrators and librarians should meet for a consideration of school and library problems. Meetings of the A. L. A. are attended almost exclusively by librarians, hence the need for a joint meeting place for this purpose which a Library Department of the N. E. A. would provide. b. There is an increasing group of teacher-librarians in elementary as well as in high schools who are seldom able to attend meetings of the A. L. A. or state meetings of librarians. A section in the N. E. A. would give them an opportunity to discuss their problems and to realize more fully their connection with the library profession. c. The volume of Proceedings of the N. E. A. provides a medium for the publica¬ tion of papers on school library policies which is official, which carries weight, and which reaches a wide public not otherwise obtainable. Thru state school library supervisors and school library associations the Commit¬ tee has sought the opinion of librarians on reestablishment of the Library Department and has had almost unanimous approval for such a step. In requesting reinstatement it is suggested that a lower minimum of attendance be set since the proportion of librarians to teachers is so small. 6. Submitting to the two associations a preliminary report on the desirability of a study of the underlying principles which should govern school and public library re¬ lationships. Planned coordination for that type of library service which is necessary for the effective functioning of the school program should no longer be deferred. I shall not repeat here the recommendations made in this report but I wish to emphasize the need at this time, when the entire educational program is being submitted to an acid test and undergoing careful revision, for a study or series of studies which would establish a sound basis for public and school library relationships. This can best be done as a cooperative project financed by the N. E. A. and the A. L. A. or thru a subvention from a foundation interested in the subject. This Committee was created in 1931. The foregoing outline of activities of the third year of its existence indicates an increasing awareness of the bonds uniting the two associations. The responsibility for increasing our “sphere of influence” is great. Much important work lies ahead. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON CIVIL SERVICE FOR TEACHERS 1 DONALD DU SHANE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, COLUMBUS, IND., C hairman The National Education Association’s Position on Tenure The National Education Association is committed to the principle of tenure for teachers as an important means of developing and stabilizing the teaching profession, and of enabling the teachers to render a better service 1 Adopted by Representative Assembly, July 6, 1934. Reports of Committees 173 to the children of the United States. The platform of the Association, adopted in 1932 at Atlantic City and reaffirmed in 1933 at Chicago, contains the following statement on tenure of service : Teachers should hold their positions during competence and good behavior. There should be legislation to protect teachers from discharge for political, religious, personal, or other unjust reason, but the laws should not prevent the dismissal of teachers for incompetence, immorality, or unprofessional conduct. In 1915 at Oakland the Association by resolution expressed itself unequiv- ocably'in favor of security of tenure for teachers, and since that date scarcely a year has passed without a resolution reaffirming the need of tenuie and advocating the passage of tenure legislation. In 1924 the tenure commit¬ tee was empowered to give its active support to the association of any state in which there is pending legislation for the protection of teache'rs and super¬ visors. In 1928 the Association promised its support to all legislative move¬ ments for the securing of tenure of position for the teachers of our countiy and commended those states and cities that had safeguarded their schools by creating laws for teacher tenure. N. E. A. Tenure Committee The present National Education Association committee on tenure, now entitled the Committee on Civil Service for Teachers, had its origin in 1911 at the San Francisco meeting of the Association. On motion of Carroll G. Pearse the following resolution was adopted : Resolved, That the president of the National Education Association be authorized to appoint a committee consisting of seven active members, to consider and repoit to the Association its findings and recommendations concerning the salaries, tenure, and pensions of teachers, the committee to take into consideration, among other things, the increased cost of living, the increased professional demands upon the time, strength, and funds of teachers, and whether the increase in teachers’ wages has kept pace with the increase in the wages of other workers, the increase in the cost of living, and the increased demands upon teachers, and Resolved, That the Board of Directors of this Association be, and hereby is, in¬ structed to set aside as an appropriation from the current funds of the Association the sum of three thousand dollars, the same to be used, or so much thereof as may be necessary, for the purposes of the investigation and report as directed herein. The p3.ss3.ge of the 3bove resolution W3S the culmination of efforts of vsrious groups of teachers over 3 long period of years to hsve the Association tske 3n 3ctive psrt in securing better salaries, more security of position thru tenure, 3nd protection in old 3ge thru teachers pensions. When the committee made its first report in 1912 it W3S called the Com¬ mittee on Teachers’ Salaries 3nd Cost of Living, 3nd the topic of te3cher tenure W3S not discussed in the report. For 3 period of eight years the com¬ mittee in its reports g3ve no consideration to the question of tenure. The only recognition given to tenure during this period W3s the ch3nge in the name of the committee at the 1919 meeting to the Committee on Teachers’ Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions. Finally in 1920 the committee gave a report entitled “Preliminary Report on Tenure of Teachers,” which was prepared by I. D. Kandel of the Car- 174 National Education Association negie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. This able presentation of the problems of teacher employment was followed by the appointment of a subcommittee on tenure which submitted reports in 1921, 1922 and 1923 In 1923 the Committee of 100 on the Problem of Tenure was created, and beginning in 1924, under the chairmanship of Fred M. Hunter, a series of comprehensive reports on tenure were issued. Since the resignation of Mr Hunter as chairman of the tenure committee in 1928, reports of the com¬ mittee have been irregular and fragmentary. Purposes of the Tenure Committee A careful study of the resolutions of the National Education Association on the subject of tenure, and of the various reports of the Committee which have been approved thru the years, would seem to indicate the following to be the major functions of this committee: movement^ ^ praCtises for the PurPose of furthering the tenure 2. To assist state teachers associations and federations in their efforts to secure tenure legislation. 3. 1 o create among members of our Association and the general public a better understanding of the justice, reasonableness and need of tenure. To secure tenure for American teachers during competence and good behavior is one of the definite goals of the National Education Association. It is not the purpose of this committee to maintain merely a judicial attitude toward tenure, neither advocating nor opposing it, and giving equal con¬ sideration to its enemies and its friends. The Committee is committed to the principles of tenure by repeated resolutions of the Association. Purposes of Tenure Tenure has as its major objectives the following: 1. To prevent political control of the schools under tenure with the exception of the comparative small probationary group, all tenure teachers are reasonably free irom political, personal, or commercial domination. TT,2, pernlit aud enC0U?Se teachers to devote themselves to their profession. . 'r„ Ule te.a<*ers ate freed from the urge to curry favor, to develop contacts and influence with appo.nting agencies. They are freer from a restless seeking for more stable employment. They are able to plan their preparation and work over a period of years. 3. To provide a reasonable personal and academic freedom for teachers. 4. To encourage competent, public spirited teachers to stay in the schools. 5. Io discourage school management based on fear and to encourage leadership based on confidence and understanding. 6. To prevent the discharge of teachers for political, religious, personal, or other unjust reasons, and to permit the dismissal of those who are incompetent, unworthy and negligent of their duties and responsibilities. Civil Service and Tenure Civil service reform which made its first great advance in the federal government in 1883, spread rapidly, and by 1900 it embraced most of the civil employees of the government and had been adopted by a number of Reports of Committees 175 states and cities. So gross had been the abuses of public office that the benefits of the reform were almost immediately apparent to the public. As found generally in this country certain clerical and other positions are filled by a civil service board from a list of people who have passed a com¬ petitive examination. After appointment to a civil service position an employee, sometimes after a short probationary period, holds his position indefinitely unless removed for inefficiency or immoral conduct. This method of removal is definitely specified and he must be given a written notice, the opportunity of a public hearing, and generally the right to appeal to the courts. Teacher tenure in this country has developed since 1900. In its develop¬ ment! it has followed in a general way the plan of civil service, but the protection afforded teachers against unjust removal from office has been much less certain, the probationary period has been much longer, there has gen¬ erally been no protection against improper discharge during probation, and generally the hearing accorded a teacher is before the very board which desires to discharge him. Owing to various reasons, including the lack of franchise by three-fourths of the teachers, the schools, at the inception of the tenure movement, were fairly free from political domination. While tenure was needed by the schools, it did not, where tried, usher in marked and visible reforms. This is due partly to the fact that schools were already partially free from poli¬ tics, and partly to the very mild measures of protection provided by tenure. The interests of the children and the schools have had first consideration in the teacher tenure movement. For example, a long probationary period has generally been permitted to prevent the permanent appointment of an unfit teacher. In practise long probation makes it possible for a board to defeat the purposes of tenure by discharging teachers at the end of the period. This has actually been the result in numerous rural communities in California and Indiana. Another example is the continuing contract plan as found in Pennsylvania. It was thought that this plan would protect competent teachers and would at the same time put no obstacles in the way of eliminating unfit teachers. In actual practise during the depression, the intent of the law has been defeated by wholesale dismissals of teachers every spring by numerous local boards, followed by the reappointment of most of them at reduced salaries. As more states adopt tenure and try various plans of employment and dismissal it will be possible to detect, with increasing certainty, the necessary safeguards to secure adequate protection of competent teachers. It would seem desirable that a comparative study be made of the extent and provisions of civil service, and of teacher tenure. Changes in the Status of Teachers During the past three years the seriousness of the. financial problems of our public schools has tended to hide the invasion of politics into the schools of certain communities, the increase in the discharge of competent, experi- 176 National Education Association enced teachers to make room for cheaper, inexperienced teachers, or for personal friends or relatives of board members, the elimination of im¬ portant school subjects and activities, the overloading of classes, the injunc¬ tion of fear of unjust discharge into the consciousness of teachers. In many communities teaching morale is being destroyed, the building of a teaching profession has been halted. The committee has not been able to seek information from every state in the country as to the increasing insecurity of teachers, but during the preparation of this report definite information has been received from mem¬ bers of our Association which indicates a situation which should receive careful consideration by the National Education Association. Correspondents from 20 states report a noticeable increase in the discharge of teachers for political reasons. From 22 states come reports of the discharge of teachers because of non-residence in the community. From 30 states it is reported that experienced teachers have been discharged to make places for cheaper inexperienced teachers. From 30 states come letters indicating the discharge of teachers because of the abolishment of teaching positions for the sake of “economy.” Many letters report a destruction of teacher morale, and an increased fear of dis¬ charge for unjustifiable reasons. The committee realizes that the above reports indicate tendencies, and that in general there has not been a breakdown in the necessary protections thrown around teachers. Yet the Committee is of the opinion that there is a greater need in the United States for teacher tenure than ever before. It is the purpose and effect of tenure to correct such tendencies and to protect the schools from such injuries. Tenure and the Administrator There are many in the teaching profession who are opposed to tenure because of a belief that it will make teachers more independent, freer from administrative control, more critical of school and public issues. For exactly the same reasons tenure is most valued by those who advocate it. It is their belief that the teacher must be protected from the fear of unjust discharge, from unreasonable requirements, if the classroom is to become that vital force in our children’s lives which is demanded by the conditions of today. The military conception of education, which contemplates blind and un¬ reasoning obedience of all orders and regulations from official sources, and control of teachers thru fear, has as little place in American education as has the same plan of management in the American classroom. Education needs leadership today as it always has in the past, but to be effective, that leadership must be based on the faith, understanding, and cooperative spirit of the classroom teachers. It is claimed that such leader¬ ship exists and is encouraged under tenure, and that tenure instead of causing a rift between administration and classroom tends to unite the two in a common cause. It is the belief of those who favor tenure that leadership based upon intelligence, ability, and cooperation will be helped by tenure and that leadership based on fear will be handicapped. To throw light on this question it was thought advisable to ascertain if possible the attitudes toward tenure of superintendents who had had a Reports of Committees 177 number of years of experience with it. A confidential inquiry was made of every city superintendent of Indiana. There are one hundred and two cities in this state and replies were received from eighty-three of them. Indiana has had a tenure law since 1927. This statute provides permanent tenure for teachers who have satisfactorily served a probationary period of five years. A permanent teacher cannot be removed for political, religious, or personal reasons, but may be removed for incompetency, insubordination (which shall be deemed to mean a wilful refusal to obey the school laws of this state or reasonable rules prescribed for the government of the public schools of such corporation), neglect of duty, immorality, justifiable decrease in the number of teaching positions, or other good and just cause. Before removal from office a teacher has a right to a written statement of reasons and to a hearing with counsel. REPORT OF INQUIRY Number of city superintendents in Indiana . 102 Number of city superintendents reporting . 83 Number of permanent teachers included in the inquiry . 6958 Number of probationary teachers “ “ “ “ . 1420 Total teachers included in the inquiry . 8378 In spite of the extremely long probationary period of five years, 83.05 percent of the teachers in the reporting cities are on tenure. 14 superintendents reported that tenure had served as a deterrent of salary reduc¬ tion during the depression; 69 reported that it had not. 35 expressed the opinion that tenure had prevented the discharge of teachers for political reasons. 30 expressed the opinion that tenure had prevented the discharge of teachers in order to replace them with less expensive, inexperienced teachers. 27 expressed the opinion that tenure had prevented the discharge of teachers in order to appoint relatives or personal friends of board members. 35 expressed the opinion that tenure had tended to prevent the discharge of non¬ resident teachers in favor of resident candidates. 12 reported that tenure had a bad effect upon teacher improvement in service. 65 reported that tenure had either not affected the preparation of teachers in service or had had a good effect (42 — no change, 23 — good effect). 60 reported that tenure had resulted in a marked decrease in teacher turnover. 13 reported no appreciable effect. 9 reported that tenure had increased teacher turnover because of refusal of boards to continue teachers beyond the probationary period. 73 reported that tenure had had no bad effects on teacher-superintendent re¬ lationships. 5 reported that tenure had had a bad effect. Following are some of the individual comments: Tenure has had a good effect in our schools. Teachers are following suggestions of the superintendent in all ways. They are not inclined to “play politics” as fre¬ quently happened in the past. It has produced a very fine spirit, one of cooperation. Some teachers do better work after they are placed on tenure, others begin im¬ mediately to criticize adversely, other teachers, the schoolboard, the superintendent, and the principal. These are greatly in the minority, however. The most loyal teachers in our system, as well as the least loyal, are tenure teachers. Since the passage of the tenure law teacher-superintendent relationships and cooperation have been decidedly improved. 178 National Education Association Some tenure teachers have developed an attitude that no further supervision of their work is desirable. Tenure has prevented the replacement of experienced teachers by local inexperi¬ enced teachers. Tenure has operated to bring an unfavorable public reaction against teachers who are on tenure. Our tenure teachers are very cooperative and agreeable. While some of our teach¬ ers have taken tenure to mean security in their positions and have lapsed in pro¬ gressive spirit and initiative, the others have taken tenure to mean freedom from worry about political changes and have used all their energy in making their work efficient. It has enhanced their eagerness and initiative. Tenure has lessened unrest and has stabilized conditions during the depression. Our entire force would have been removed had we not had tenure. The effect has not been good here. It has tended to make the teachers more in¬ dependent. Tenure has prevented a raid on our schools by politicians, job-seekers, and tax- reductionists. Without tenure our teachers would have been afraid to stand for adequate tax support and to oppose overloaded classes and the elimination of important subjects and activities. This inquiry would seem to indicate that in Indiana the benefits of tenure have outweighed the detriments. It would also seem to show that on the whole superintendents are not handicapped in their work by tenure. It would also appear that most teachers respond professionally to increased freedom and to protection from lay and schoolboard interference and domination. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 1 ANNIE C. WOODWARD, HIGH SCHOOL, SOMERVILLE, MASS., Chairman In order to obtain new and worthwhile material for the teaching of international relations your Committee sent out a questionnaire. The re¬ sponse was most encouraging; practically every member of our large Com¬ mittee replied with unusually thoughtful and complete statements. The following report is a composite and summary of what we have been able to gather. W as Goodwill Day observed in your state f — Every answer to this ques¬ tion was in the affirmative. Many reports were just checked, showing that they had had pageants, assemblies, club activities, or special classroom work. Others listed such activities as international correspondence ; a worldwide radio program ; goodwill featured in some commencement programs ; super¬ intendents’ bulletins urging Goodwill Day exercises ; newspaper articles about the use of the day; children broadcasting; international peace flag — displayed and discussed ; goodwill messages in articles in educational jour¬ nals; world friendship clubs in schools conducted assembly programs, gave 1 Adopted by Representative Assembly, July 6, 1934, Reports of Committees 179 debates, and offered plays. For an excellent bulletin with suggestions for celebrating this day, I refer you to special bulletin number 162 from the office of the superintendent of Los Angeles City School District. Already many schools are making the most of Goodwill Day and demonstrating its possibilities for promoting world friendship. If you did not have the pleasure of hearing Augustus O. Thomas’ fine program on the last Goodwill Day, you will be glad to know that it is obtainable from headquarters office. It would be a valuable addition to any school library. TV hat have been the contributions to wvrld friendship in your state ? — You will notice a wider variance in the replies to this second question. “We have given a series of fifteen lectures in our school, open to the public, sponsored by the teachers association. Among the noted speakers were a Japanese, a Chinese, a Hindu, an Englishman, and a Russian, each bringing his interpretation of the pertinent issues of his own country.” Again: “The Rotary Club in our state is offering an award for promoting international understanding and goodwill in high school and community. It asks eight questions. Note the first, ‘What courses of study have been offered during 1933- 34 which bear on world relationships? Name the courses and tell how many hours per week they carried.’ ” How very much we need this sort of thing in every state! The same superintendent offers the following methods which have been used in high schools rather effectively: i 1. The use of periodicals such as the American Observer and Uncle Sam’s Diary. 2. The maintenance of bulletin boards on current events. 3. The preparation of scrapbooks dealing with personalities and events. 4. The holding of model conferences such as the League of Nations Assembly. 5. The observance of special days; for example, Armistice, Pan American, and Goodwill. 6. Correspondence with students abroad. This has been done both in elementary schools and in high schools. Of course, much of our elementary-school work has been under the guidance of the Junior Red Cross. 7. Extracurriculum clubs to study and discuss international topics. 8. Participation in the FIDAC essay contest conducted by the American Legion Auxiliary. Outstandingly good is A Syllabus on International Relations of the United States of America to be given in a course in United States history. This syllabus was prepared by a committee of teachers in the social science department of the Sacramento High School, California. Copies may be procured from the World League of International Education Associations, San Francisco, California. It contains a bibliography, presentation of objectives, a teachers’ manual, and study questions and reports. The American Association of University Women offers, for the year 1934- 35, eleven fellowships to study in foreign countries. How few people know that this association has offered fellowships every year since 1890! What better contribution to world understanding can be made! 180 National Education Association One of our most enthusiastic members writes, “Almost two thousand students in the high school wrote essays or orations this year on world friendship, and about five hundred students in another school have joined the World Friendship Club.” These two examples of the great interest taken by teachers and students in the cause of world peace are exceedingly gratify¬ ing. The same person also urges that every educator who has not read the article in Fortune for last March entitled “Arms and the Men,” pray do so immediately. It is thought that this investigation of the whole munitions business will be the biggest step toward establishing world peace that has been taken for many years. When the so-called patriotic groups, who have not yet attained the international viewpoint and who clamor for enlarged armies and navies, realize that they have been the victims of newspaper propaganda published by the munitions factories of the world who make huge profits by perpe¬ trating war scares, they will be less ready to brand those of us who are working for international cooperation as foolish pacifists or dangerous radi¬ cals. I think also that the arms embargo which President Roosevelt has placed on all munitions going to the Grand Chaco, is another step toward the abolishment of war, for, if the profit can be removed, there will be much less pressure toward either actual warfare or even increased arma¬ ments for defense. For courses of study perhaps the best and most helpful will be found in a book entitled TV or Id Friendship , published by the World Friendship Com¬ mittee, Los Angeles, California. W ays of making contacts with foreign countries thru the students. 1. The Boy Scouts International Jamboree held in Godolls, Hungary, last year. 2. Collecting international picture storybooks for even kindergarten children to interest them in their little foreign friends. 3. Students from Oklahoma have been sent to Mexico for study and travel. 4. Exchanging gifts or projects with children of other nations, such as modelling of homes, gardens, and toys. 5. Creating of stamp clubs with the international exchange of stamps. What in your opinion are the necessary steps in the development of world-minded ness? 1. Encourage teachers to read broadly in modern geography, history, and in the literature of the day dealing with life in foreign countries. 2. A deeper respect and appreciation of our own country’s blessings will help young and old to respect the loyalty that other people have for their own countries. 3. A definite organization of our committee and others, who are interested and will take the time and energy to prepare themselves properly as leaders of discus¬ sion groups thruout our country. 4. To teach fundamental ethical concepts in the schools. 5. An appreciation of the fact of economic world interdependence. 6. Offsetting irrational race prejudices with rational racial appreciation, appre¬ ciation of cultural, and other contributions of various races to civilization. Where can the teacher in your state get training for leading discussions in international controversial subjects? — Nearly every state college or uni- Reports of Committees 181 versity furnishes courses regularly and at summer sessions which offer oppor¬ tunity for discussion in controversial subjects. Three states mentioned the opportunity of discussion groups at their International House. Much work is being done, as this report shows, by schools thruout the nation in the teaching of international relations. TThis is being carried on for the most part by teachers who sense the condition of a new world order. It is thru the medium of special programs and wToik supplementary to the regular studies, and often promoted without the authority of the curricu¬ lum, or even specific sanction of the executive of the schools. Sufficient pioneering has been done already to make it advisable that some definite steps be taken to formulate courses of study and teaching procedures in this work. Therefore, your Committee on International Relations recommends that the president and secretary of the National Education Association provide a place on the N. E. A. program for the discussion and promotion of under¬ standing of international relationships. The department need not be a special constitutional division but the officers of the Association should appoint someone each year to take charge and arrange suitable programs so that the large number of educators who are interested in better relations among the nations may have an opportunity to confer, to investigate, and to pre¬ pare material to meet needs and demands for the teaching of better inter¬ national understanding. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS 1 MRS. MYRTLE HOOPER DAHL, HIAWATHA SCHOOL, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN., Chairman Welfare of Childhood and Youth 1. The National Education Association endorses the rapidly growing practise of stressing in the classroom thru units of subjectmatter and thru projects the cultural heritages of the various national, ethnic, and racial groups. 4 ... 2. In order to protect children and their educational opportunities, the National Education Association endorses the Child Labor Amendment to the national Constitution. 3. The moving picture is one of the most important means of education today. The National Education Association joins other organizations, edu¬ cational, patriotic, and religious, in demanding a high type of moving picture for the boys and girls of America. The Association hereby records itself as wholly in sympathy with the current movement to bring about reform in the moving picture industry and to encourage clean, moral films. Particularly does the Association condemn the showing of stories or scenes which threaten the integrity of the American home, ridicule sacred institutions, glorify lawlessness, and make juvenile delinquency a subject of jest or an incite¬ ment to imitation. The practise of block booking of pictures to exhibitors i Adopted by Representative Assembly, July 6, 1934. 182 National Education Association whereby worthy pictures and objectionable ones must be taken in lots is recognized as largely responsible for the unsavory character of contemporary moving picture programs and is condemned without reserve. 4. The National Education Association urges complete and scientific instruction in the schools regarding the effects of alcohol and narcotics on the human body and the social organization, and expresses its disapproval ot any false advertising or propaganda on this subject. c 5' ^^Natl0"al Education Association endorses the plan of the United btates Office of Education for the creation of a Continuing Commission on Youth Problems. , ^he^SS.0clat‘ • ' i DEPARTMENT OF ?>\377-394 [ 362 ] AUDIENCE DISCRIMINATION AS A MEANS OF CONTROLLING THE INFLUENCE OF MOTION PICTURES EDGAR DALE, RESEARCH ASSOCIATE, BUREAU OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH, OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, COLUMBUS, OHIO The data presented in the Payne Fund research monographs indicate clearly that motion pictures influence the sleep, conduct, emotions, atti¬ tudes, and information of children and youth. There are three ways in which the harmful influence of the motion picture can be decreased and the beneficial influence increased. All of them involve the teaching of increased discrimination in regard to motion pictures. First of all, the discriminating person may decide to stay away from the movie entirely and spend his leisure time in a more satisfactory manner. Second, he may attend a motion picture and by the use of critical judg¬ ment increase his enjoyment of the photography, the story, the settings, the dialog, music and sound effects, the acting, and the direction. Further, he will be able to evaluate the motion picture from the point of view of its accuracy and appropriateness. Third, organized motion picture patrons will be able to voice their demands for screen fare not yet available. There is a dearth of screen drama dealing with the significant aspects of modern living. High-school students have already voiced a demand for the filming of such books as The Crisis , Ivanlioe , A Tale of Two Cities, Lorna Doone, Little Women, and Treasure Island. THE MOTION PICTURE AS A SOURCE OF GENERAL INFORMATION P. W. HOLADAY, SHORTRIDGE HIGH SCHOOL, INDIANAPOLIS, IND. This study is a sector of one of the Payne Fund studies in motion picture research. The problem consisted of an analysis of the amount of specific in¬ formation concerning the action and characterizations remembered from the pictures and retained over a period of time, and of an analysis of the general information gained and retained from motion pictures. The latter phase is the subject of this paper. The tests used were general information tests covering the rather limited fields of information included in single pictures, but the total of all tests for all pictures covered a substantial sector of pictures in general. The study was conducted at the University of Iowa and at Ohio State University. Observers consisted of children in the second-third grades, fifth-sixth grades, ninth-tenth grades, and a group of superior adults. Grade- school children were obtained from numerous communities of varying types, so that they furnished a cross-section of American childhood. In all, 3000 observers in five states took a total of 20,000 tests for a total of 813,000 items [ 363 ] 364 National Education Association attempted. Seventeen pictures of quite varying types were used. All proce¬ dures in the selection of test items, construction of tests, administering and evaluating tests were validated by empirical data. All tests were entirely objective. Summarizing briefly the statistical data from this study, general informa¬ tion of the type shown by the pictures is increased 12 to 34 percent when the pictures contain correctly shown information. The effect of time and possibly of later experiences reduces these percentages of informational increase, but at the end of a month and a half there remains a semi-permanent gain of 13 to 27 percent over the knowledge of this type possessed before viewing the picture. If general information is shown in a contrary-to-fact manner in the pictures, it is believed to a certain extent. General information decreases, or rather misinformation increases 8 to 37 percent on this type of material. The younger observers credit this misinformation to a larger extent over a longer period of time, and at the end of a month and a half all four age groups have a loss in information of this type amounting to approximately 20 percent. The average scores of second-third, fifth-sixth, and ninth-tenth grade ob¬ servers are respectively 50, 60, and 80 percent as high as those of superior adults on most of the general information tests in this experiment. A notable exception to these averages is that of the second-third grade group which in proportion neither gains so much on correctly shown information nor loses so much on incorrectly shown information, but with time this youngest group gains an additional amount in the first case and loses an additional amount in the second. These percentages do not seem alarming until the cumulative effect is considered. Seeing ten gang pictures spaced thru a year will cause an increase in knowledge of gangdom which amounts to nearly ten times the amount possessed at the beginning of the year. The data of this study not included in this report and the evidences of other members of the Payne Fund group of experimenters tend to show that the pictures stay with an observer strongly enough and long enough to produce a considerable amount of change when the data of this study are considered. EXPERIMENTATION IN THE TEACHING OF PHYSICS A. W. HURD, RESEARCH ASSOCIATE, INSTITUTE OF SCHOOL EXPERIMENTA¬ TION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. Three experimental teaching units in physics have been used with more than three thousand pupils in more than eighty schools. The experiments in¬ volve a semi-conventional, minimum-essential, in-class plan of instruction ; and a voluntary activity, out-of-class plan to develop initiative, self-reliance, systematization, and self-control. The former is organized around compre¬ hensive topics having large and direct social implications. The content repre¬ sents a concrete attempt to identify what is meant by practical, functional, everyday science. Department of Educational Research 365 The voluntary, individualized, out-of-class activities represent an attempt to integrate education with life activities which will form a portion of a well-ordered leisure-time program. Test data show superior achievement by pupils in experimental schools. The voluntary activities have resulted in many concrete evidences of indi¬ vidual projects well done. Stimulation of the latter is secured by judgments on quality and quantity; and on trait ratings on industry, self-reliance, and systematization. As a whole, the experimentation is designed to improve the secondary-school curriculum, and methods of teaching science. SOME CONCEPTS THAT RESULT FROM HIGH-SCHOOL SCIENCE TEACHING AND IMPLICATIONS FROM THE STANDPOINT OF PSYCHOLOGY ELWOOD D. HEISS, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, EAST STROUDSBURG, PA. Nearly all students that graduate from a modern secondary school have completed one or more courses in science. Because of this fact it is expected that those high-school graduates who enter college will have a knowledge of certain facts, concepts, principles and laws of science, and of certain general patterns of conduct commonly designated as scientific attitudes. In the East Stroudsburg State Teachers College we have been interested in investigating the nature of some concepts held by entering freshmen. By means of free-association tests and personal interviews, data showing the students’ concepts of various phenomena and things have been obtained. An analysis of these data shows that for many students their concepts pertaining to things scientific are a combination of scientific and naive notions. For example, of their conceptions of bacteria this is true for about 55 percent of the group. This is not an exceptional case. We find, in fact, that their con¬ cepts of such physical phenomena as light, heat, and electricity tend to be more naive than scientific. In more than half the cases studied, the students’ high-school training was not precise enough to produce a permanency of desired outcomes. This may be a result of the encyclopedic nature of our high-school science courses which do not provide for or allow the repetition that is required to secure the quality of permanency. There is urgent need of research that will define the concepts to be de¬ veloped by the sciences, and research to determine the learning exercises that when assigned by the teacher will make for permanency of the desired con¬ cepts. Particular attention should also be given to the time required to build up permanent scientific concepts at different grade levels. Until we have this information it will be difficult if not practically impossible to build up an integrated course in science from the first grade to the twelfth grade in our public schools. 366 National Education Association THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE ABILITY TO RECALL AND THE ABILITY TO INFER IN SPECIFIC LEARNING SITUATIONS RALPH C. BEDELL, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, KIRKSVILLE, MO. Since experts in the field of science education recently have emphasized generalized science ideas and their associated attitudes as desirable student outcomes of science training, the relationship between the ability to recall specific factual information and the ability to infer a general idea from given facts and data again comes to the foreground. This investigation, which is based on an extensive series of tests administered to 324 general science students, shows that the ability to recall and the ability to infer are different abilities. Boys are superior to girls in the ability to infer, but no differences occur in recall. In spite of the fact that over 25 percent of the subjects were practically unable to do inference of the type commonly demanded in the general science course, regression equations show that the ability to infer is three times as important as the ability to recall in obtaining teachers’ marks. This indicates that teachers are attempting to mark students on the ability to infer when many of the students cannot successfully perform in this ability. The consequence of such an attempt must be variability in teachers’ marks. We cannot say that this is the sole cause of such variability, but it certainly is one of the major causes. Evidence is also presented to show that investigation is needed to determine the relative difficulty of science generalizations for general science students. We also need information on the best methods of teaching for efficient understanding of generalized science ideas by the student. DIFFERENTIAL FUNCTIONS OF EXAMINATIONS PALMER O. JOHNSON, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. Before we can make much headway in the improvement of teaching, it is essential that we develop examinations which measure accurately the conse¬ quences of our present teaching. A statement of the outcomes of instruction, in specific terms of what the student is to do in order to reveal the extent of his acquisition, provides a basis upon which to project a measurement pro¬ gram. Illustrations are given in this paper of the means employed to develop reliable and valid examinations for the measurement of three outcomes of instruction in three courses in the General College at the University of Minnesota. Two of these courses were in science, the third was in geography and economics. The measurement involved a determination of ( 1 ) the acqui¬ sition of a technical vocabulary, (2) the acquisition of fundamental facts and principles, and (3) the ability to apply vocabulary, facts, and principles in Department of Educational Research 367 the interpretation and solution of problem situations. The separable and com¬ bined importance of college aptitude as measured by a college aptitude test, knowledge of vocabulary, knowledge of facts and principles, in determining the ability to interpret and solve problem situations was analyzed. Approxi¬ mately 65 percent of the common elements were accounted for. In general, the weighting in order of importance was found to be ( 1 ) knowledge of facts and principles, (2) knowledge of vocabulary, and (3) the measure of college aptitude used. The analyzed results have considerable potential value in determining the effectiveness of present materials and methods, as well as in the differentation of students on the basis of the types of mental reactions they possess. THE CONSTRUCTION AND INTERPRETATION OF DIFFERENTIAL ABILITY PATTERNS DAVID SEGEL, SPECIALIST, TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS, UNITED STATES OFFICE OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. What is needed in guidance is method of determining the relative probabilities of success in different occupations or scholastic areas. At the end of various stages of secondary and higher education, it should be decided, naturally, whether or not a student should attempt a higher level of educa¬ tion. Such a decision can be made in part on the basis of tests measuring general aptitude. If the decision is that high school is to be a stepping stone to junior college or college, the particular course may be fairly safely left to the interests of the student as long as college entrance requirements are being met. On the other hand, however, if it is decided that the high-school course shall be the terminal course for a student then it becomes a question as to what subjects or what course should be pursued. We have developed a method for showing graphically test results from which, by inspection, a rough determination of differential success prediction may be made. The data used to illustrate this method were found in the records of one hundred boys who had filled out the Strong Interest Blank and had taken the Iowa High School Content Examination. For our illustration we will use the scores on the five interest ratings on the Strong Interest Blank which proved to have the greater values for differential prediction. These interest ratings were those of engineering, medicine, life insurance salesmanship, per¬ sonnel management, and purchasing agent. Of the four achievement test scores obtainable on the Iowa High School Content Examination, we have used two, namely, English literature and mathematics. In the chart on the following page certain of the results of this testing are given. This chart shows the pattern of Strong interest scores in rela¬ tion to achievement in English literature on the one hand and mathematics on the other. In this chart the solid line represents the average (mean) score on five of the interest ratings of those students who did better in the English 368 National Education Association literature section of the Iowa test than they did on the mathematics section. Similarly the broken line of the chart represents average interest scores for those who had higher scores in mathematics than in English literature. This chart gives for 100 students a picture of the differences in interest scores obtained from students who do better in one subject of a pair of subjects than in the other. This means for similar student groups that those students who have high interest scores for engineering, medicine, and purchasing agent and low differential ability pattern for ACHIEVEMENT IN ENGLISH LITERATURE AND MATHEMATICS. A -.55 B -.36 B ,22 23 -.44 ENGINEER ING MEDICINE PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT l(,^DEAklrc PURCHASING INSURANCE AGENT _ [NTE RESTS S,T,liClEr.NTS WH0 00 BETTER IN ENGLISH LITERATURE THAN IN MATHEMATICS. SIhaDn N,mS FWKir°, BETTER IN MATHEMATICS THAN IN ENGLISH LITERATURE. Department of Educational Research 369 interest scores in life insurance salesmanship and personnel management will do better in mathematics than in English literature. The results of studies, of which this chart is only one illustration, show that these particular items — interest items — are related to differences in achievement. I have mentioned that this is a method for inspectional methods in guid¬ ance. In this case the interest scores of a single individual may be compared with this general pattern and some notion regarding his capabilities can be deduced. I wish, however, to show you the relation between this inspectional method and the more accurate statistical methods. You will note the figures in the upper part of the chart. These are the differential correlation co¬ efficients worked out between the interest involved in each case and the difference between achievement in the subjects. For instance, the first co¬ efficient — .55 is the correlation between interest in engineering and the difference in achievement in English literature and mathematics. This indi¬ cates that there is a definite relationship between this interest in engineering and the difference in achievement in English literature and mathematics. Similarly — .36 has the same meaning except that it shows that the relation¬ ship is not so strong. The next two coefficients, -{-.22 and -{-.23 indicate that the interests concerned — life insurance salesmanship and personnel man¬ agement — are related positively to higher achievement in English literature than in mathematics altho the relationship is not a strong one. I have tried to outline for you a method of showing test scores or other objective data for purposes of differential prediction which might be of value in the practical situation. A GENERALIZED ATTITUDE SCALING TECHNIC H. H. REMMERS, DIRECTOR, DIVISION OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH, PURDUE UNIVERSITY, LAFAYETTE, IND. The Thurstone technic of scaling attitudes is theoretically the soundest that has yet been devised. It suffers from a severe limitation, however — that of the great amount of labor required for the scaling. Practically an un¬ limited number of attitudes, in Thurstone’s sense, may be defined and scaled. Any situation, idea, institution, proposed social action, any phenomenon to which social groups may react contains the possibilities of from one to many scales of attitude. It would be highly desirable to make practically possible the measurement of many more attitudes without sacrificing the theoretical rigor and precision underlying the method developed by Thurstone. A method is proposed which will not increase the labor and which wfill not sacrifice theoretical rigor but which wfill enable the measurement of attitudes toward large groups of objects (“object” is here used in the logical sense as opposed to “subject”). The search for affective statements or stereotypes would be for statements all of which would validly apply to a psychological continuum representing 370 National Education Association attitude toward any and all members of a large group of objects, such as nations, races, sects, institutions, vocations, and political parties. A series of “master scales” can thus be produced. Six such scales are now completed, viz., to measure attitude toward ( 1 ) any vocation, (2) any school subject, (3) any social institution, (4) any racial or national group, (5) any practise, and (6) any homemaking activity. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF MEASUREMENTS OF CONTROL IN MEASURING ABILITY S. A. COURTIS, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN, ANN ARBOR, MICH. It seems especially appropriate that a report on one of the activities of the Southeastern Michigan Round I able for last year should be made at a meeting of which Professor Judd is chairman since it was he who placed a burr under the saddle and started the Round Table off on its present career. This organization is composed of high-school principals and college piofessors of secondary education in the live counties surrounding Detroit. The newly elected executive committee held several meetings during 1932 and canvassed the membership to determine, first, its readiness to undertake a program of concerted attack on secondary-school problems, and secondly, what specific problems were of most immediate interest to the membership of the group. On the basis of interest expressed two committees were ap¬ pointed to carry on investigations and to report their findings to the group. One committee dealt with the problem of the Unadjusted Pupil (with special reference to those whose tastes and abilities do not lie along traditional academic lines) ; the other, with College Relations, that vexing topic which presents itself whenever representatives of college and high school meet. It is on the work of this latter committee that I have been asked to report. 4 he committee undertook to set up a program of scholastic aptitude test¬ ing for the area represented by the Round Table. The American Council Psychological Examination (series of 1932) was chosen for the experiment. I he tests were administered to a total of 7968 pupils in forty-two schools from a membership of sixty schools. Unfortunately, the pupil information blanks and the reports of scholastic rank were not complete for all of these pupils so that some of the findings to be reported here do not apply to all those taking the test. A first table in the final report of the committee presents comparative scores on the American Council Examination for the 23,000 college fresh¬ men who took the same test in colleges thruout the country, for college fresh¬ men at the University of Michigan the preceding year, for the various grades in private secondary schools administering tests under the auspices of the Educational Records Bureau, and for 16,000 Wisconsin seniors. The com¬ plete report gave the distribution for these groups in terms of decile scores. 1 he median score for the Round Table was 127.98 as compared with 138.00 for Wisconsin seniors and 166.00 for college freshmen. Altho these compara- Department of Educational Research 371 tive figures are perhaps not especially significant for individual high-school principals, they do present some idea — especially those of Wisconsin high schools, a comparable group — as to how high-school students of this area compare in academic promise with other groups for whom data are available. Most significant to the individual high-school principal, however, is the next table in which the distribution of scores in ten point intervals is given for all schools combined and individually for each cooperating school. (In reporting this information, schools were identified by code numbers and the identification of his own school communicated to each principal.) Several points about these results are interesting. While schools vary con¬ siderably in size (graduating classes range from 11 to 472), the size of the school bears no relation to showing on the test. This, of course, should be expected. The variations from school to school, however, are greater than might have been anticipated. Median scores range from 93.85 to 190.00, an average more than double that of the lowest ranking school. The first quartile for the three schools which head the list exceeds the score achieved by 75 percent of the pupils in 15 schools from the 42; in other words, for these first three schools only 25 percent made scores as low as those obtained by three-fourths of the graduating classes in one-third of the schools repre¬ sented. Such facts as these are certainly of value to conscientious administra¬ tors and college admission officers in determining what percentage of the various student bodies are likely to profit from a college education as now conceived. On the basis of a disparity such as this among schools of the same geographic area it seems evident that admission policies which are based largely upon the proportionate standing within a graduating class are open to very considerable error. A rule admitting the upper 50 percent of any graduating class would exclude 28 pupils with scores above the average for the area in school Number 2, while admitting 18 pupils with scores below the average from school Number 41 — a school of almost the same enrolment. In the information blank pupils were asked to indicate whether they planned to continue education beyond high school. The replies to this ques¬ tion were tabulated in relation to scores made on the test. The results seem quite significant. Of the 7968 taking the test, 4812 (or 60.4 percent) plan to go on to higher institutions; 2771 are not planning to continue education, 294 are uncertain, and 91 did not reply to the question. On the whole there seems to be here some recognition of personal limitations, as the median score for the group continuing is 139.1566, for those not continuing 112.6305. But median scores do not tell the whole story. The distribution for the group planning to go to college covers as wide a range as that for pupils concluding their education with the high-school course. The fact that 802 (16^6 per¬ cent) of the group planning to continue education achieved scores placing them in the lowest 25 percent of the whole group would seem to be an indi¬ cation of misdirected ambition which probably spells trouble for them, the colleges they attend, and the high schools from which they come. More significant, however, from a social standpoint, is the number of pupils of 372 National Education Association superior ability who have given up hope of future education. Of the group not continuing education or uncertain of continuance 561 (14.6 percent) are pupils in the upper fourth of the entire group in ability; 1161 (36.8 percent) aie above the average of the group. Furthermore, one of the two scores between 330 and o39 recorded for pupils in this testing program was made by a pupil who did not plan to continue his education. No civilization can afford to neglect its best minds. The social waste represented here can¬ not be lightly disregarded. Pupils were asked to suggest their reasons for not continuing education beyond high school. In order of frequency the reasons advanced are : 1. Financial inability. 2. Preference for earning money. 3. Lack of vocational decision. 4. A poor scholastic record in high school. 5. A lack of interest. 6. Unwillingness of parents. It may occasion no surprise to find that in more than half the cases the obstacle to higher education is a financial one, but the fact deserves careful consideration when weighing the arguments of those who would reduce the proportion of state support for colleges and universities and restrict these opportunities more largely to those who can afford to pay for them. No community can afford not to give an opportunity for advanced training to those best equipped to profit from it. A comparison which is of significance in the guidance of pupils to the various higher institutions within the state is that which shows the distribu¬ tion of scores on the test in relation to the higher institutions indicated as the pupils’ first choice. Median scores range from 109.67 to 165.78. In terms of the competi¬ tion which he will meet a student may well be guided out of one type of institution and into another. The largest number of those replying indi¬ cated a choice of the state university and the median intelligence score for this group was highest. It is further significant (as I found from records in the registrars office) that the median score of those who actually were admitted to the University was another 13 points higher and furthermore that there were distinct differences in median test scores among those enter¬ ing the various schools within the University. These data should certainly be taken into account in any guidance procedure affecting pupils, both on the part of the high-school administration and of college personnel officers. The next analyses presented in the committee’s report show the distribu¬ tion of scores in relation, first, to the high-school subject liked least, and second, in relation to those liked best. In terms of the ability of those preferring them, types of courses rank in order: language, mathematics, science. The commercial courses showed the largest number of preferences, but the lowest group in ability. Lest teachers of language, science, and mathematics become unduly puffed up and con¬ sider their fields to be par excellence the food of best minds, it is well to turn to the table of courses liked least where we find the ranking in order of the ability of those disliking them to be language courses, science courses, and mathematics courses. Department of Educational Research 373 Incidentally, mathematics is second on the list in terms of the number who show a distaste for it. Perhaps the only conclusion to be drawn from this is that students of greater ability have more decided likes and dislikes. With reference to comparative test scores in relation to the high-school curriculum, a noticeable difference is to be observed between the average scores of those taking classical, scientific, and general college preparatory courses, and those in commercial, industrial, or general courses. The dif¬ ference between medians for the general college preparatory and the general non-college preparatory curriculums is more than thirty points. It would seem that either as a result of personal choice or of guidance in the high school, pupils of better ability have in general been entering the curriculums which make greater demands on scholastic ability. Here, however, as in previous tables, the spread of distribution may be as significant as the central tendency. The fact that 378 pupils wdth scores below 100 were enrolled in the classical curriculum is distinctly food for thought. The final analysis presents the distribution of scores in terms of the average of marks in high school. A scatter-diagram depicting this relationship shows some agreement between relative scores on the test and achievement as recorded in high-school grades. 1 he correlation between the two is — |— .53 . It is equally noticeable, however, that there are significant divergences. Four hundred and eight pupils with averages of “C” or better are in the lowest 25 percent of the group in ability as measured by this test, and 30 pupils with averages better than “B” are in this lowest fourth of the group. Scholastic rank in high school and scholastic ability as measured by a test such as the American Council Psychological Examination would seem to represent somewhat distinct factors. While data are not available as to the extent of the use of this testing program by individual schools — a crucial consideration — it proved of suffi¬ cient interest to the membership that the organization voted to continue the project for the current year and to expand the program to include an apti¬ tude test at the sophomore level as well as the American Council Test to be administered to all seniors. Furthermore, following a report on the Round Table program at its December meeting the Michigan High School Prin¬ cipals Association voted to participate in the current year’s testing. A NEW TECHNIC OF APPRAISAL COVERING THE CONTENT OF COURSES OF STUDY W. J. OSBURN, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, COLUMBUS, OHIO We have had an abundance of school surveys but none of them have ade~ quately handled the appraisal of the course of study. It was the purpose of the present study to develop an objective technic that could be mastered by the members of an ordinary course of study com¬ mittee and used without the aid of expert judges. The technic to be de¬ scribed has been in process of development for five years in classes at Ohio State University conducted by the author. 374 National Education Association I he first step in the study was to set up in list form the most important elements of a good course of study. The revised list which follows was pub¬ lished in experimental form and has been used for five years. List of the Cardinal Points of Curriculum Content Individual Values 1. Provisions for routine 2. Provisions for thinking 3. Provisions for differentiation 4. Culture content 5. Remedial content 6. Health and safety 7. Leisure 8. Freedom 9. Thrift 10. Ideals and attitudes 11. Responsibility 12. Disciplinary content 13. Vocational content Social Values 1. Social utility 2. Promotion of likemindedness 3. Promotion of social participation 4. Training in leadership 5. Social heritage 6. Provision for self-realization 7. Social interdependence 8. Social progress 9. Social needs 10. Moral values Psychological Values 1. Guidance 2. Gradation 3. Experience for pupil 4. Interests and needs 5. Play and games 6. Transfer values Pedogogical Values 1. Goals 2. Motivation 3. Factual content 4. Activities for pupil 5. Material aids 6. Provision for measurement 7. Bibliographies 8. Assignments and lessons 9. Provision for supervision of study 10. Provision for teacher freedom 11. Devices, methods, and procedures 12. Time allotments 13. Outcomes 14. Information for the teacher Organization 1. Integration 2. Project 3. Unit 4. Contract 5. Difficulty 6. Recognition of relative values. 1 he advisability of establishing quantitative standards for each element soon became apparent. This was done by establishing units for each of the forty-nine elements. Unfortunately these units vary in size from words to whole paragraphs. For example “Routine” units consist of such things as anthmetic combinations, habits, skills, and elements of review; while “Provi¬ sions for thinking have to be listed often as entire paragraphs. Another problem also caused no little trouble. The several elements are not discrete. They overlap. Take “Information for the teacher” for example. In a very real sense everything in the course of study may be looked upon as information for the teacher. However, in actual checking it was agreed that no item should be recorded as “Information for the teacher” if it could be used under some other heading. Again, a musical record may be considered as a material aid, an experience, or perhaps an item of social heritage. A general rule was that in case of doubt a given item was to be recorded under all of the elements to which it seemed to belong. All other Department of Educational Research 375 cases of overlappings were disposed of in like manner by conventional rules which apply uniformly thruout the entire study. It is obvious that when the work which has just been described has been completed the result is a profile of the course of study. Such profiles can easily be presented in graphic form. The following statements prove to be of interest. They indicate which subject ranks highest under each of several items. Arithmetic contains the most routine material. History ranks first in thought content and measure¬ ment. Reading contains the most remedial material, the most provisions for leisure, the most provision for social participation, and the most in the way of methods and devices. Language features differentiation, self-realization, experience for pupil, and bibliography. Social science ranks highest in free¬ dom, ideals, nature content, likemindedness, social interdependence, and morals. Fine art is the leading subject for thrift and social heritage. Health and physical education features health, leadership, social needs, and games. Spelling contains most of social utility, transfer (phonetics), and activities. Music predominates in material aids, gradation, teacher freedom, outcomes, and information for the teacher. Science has the most to say concerning time allotment. The technic for course of study appraisal which has been described is objec¬ tive, valid, and reliable, in spite of the varying units of measurement. The nature of the categories is fortified by the technic of social judgment and experience in actual use. After a short training period local school authorities can secure a reliable appraisal of their courses of study which can easily be presented in graphic form. Better still, by using available profiles of good courses of study as standards the local authorities can construct a course of study to match and thus be assured that their work is creditable and sound. Finally, by noting the gaps and weak spots the schools which have good courses of study can make them still better. Thru these means there should be much less difficulty in transferring our excellent theories into practise. EVALUATION OF THE INTEGRATED CURRICULUM W. W. KEMMERER, DIRECTOR OF CHILD ACCOUNTING AND CURRICULUM, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, HOUSTON, TEXAS A public school system expounding the ideas from educational theorists, psychologists, philosophers, patrons, teachers, and taxpayers finds it neces¬ sary to make progress carefully and cautiously — cautiously to the end that every change of procedure must justify itself in results achieved. When the Houston public schools proceeded to eliminate or reduce to a minimum the fixed daily schedule, water-tight subjectmatter compartments, and other of the characteristics of the formal curriculum, steps were taken to evaluate the results of such a program. Needless to say the evaluation did not involve the entire city but proceeded by taking a cross-section of the city in seventy-three classes. The program was evaluated by means of objec¬ tive tests as well as by devices which were largely subjective. 376 National Education Association In addition to the actual achievement of the students and teachers the lesults learned concerning the evaluation devices themselves were by no means insignificant. I he public generally, however, is more interested in actual results of the evaluation which can be summed up briefly as follows : 1. It is possible thru an activity curriculum to maintain the same standards of achievement in fundamental skill subjects which are maintained when these skills are taught thru logically organized subjects according to fixed daily teaching schedule. 2. Less time than is given to formal drill in the curriculum taught by formal sub¬ jects is needed in the curriculum taught thru activities. 3. There is more time and more possibility for opportunities for the development of creative self-expression in an activity curriculum. 4. An activity curriculum allows more time for real education. 5. Pupils acquire more information thru an activity curriculum. 6. Pupils engaged in activities read more general literature than do those follow¬ ing the more formal curriculum. 7; The activity curriculum increases the pupils’ interests in school and other worth¬ while activities. 8. Following a curriculum which is based on activity tends to improve the quality of teaching. THE EDUCATIONAL PROBLEM PRESENTED BY THE SPANISH-SPEAKING CHILD OF THE SOUTHWEST H. T. MANUEL, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS, AUSTIN, TEXAS The Southwest is an extensive territory with a relatively small population, but the child of the crowded tenement is found as well as the child of the isolated ranch. In the four states bordering upon the Republic of Mexico one child in eight comes from a Spanish-speaking home. About 35,000 who know little or no English become of school age each year. In some districts and schools the population is entirely Spanish-speaking; in others the proportion varies from zero up. Many of these children are descendants of the earliest settlers, but a larger numbei in the area as a whole are children of more recent immigrants. When they enter the public schools they are taught in a language foreign to them. Many never have an adequate opportunity to learn either Spanish or English and are therefore handicapped in a greater or less degree for life. The educational problem is complicated by the inferior socio-economic status of large numbers, and in some places by the indifference and antagonism of the English-speaking group. On the average, the children are retarded in their progress thru the schools and stand relatively low on educational tests. Some, however, in spite of their difficulties, show superior ability and out¬ standing achievement. The average for the group as a whole will undoubt¬ edly rise when they are given adequate educational opportunity. Out of this situation arise many problems which challenge the research worker and the practical educator, and progress is being made toward their solution. Department of Educational Research 377 THE CENTILE STATUS OF GIFTED CHILDREN AT MATURITY LETA S. HOLLINGWORTH, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. Of one hundred and sixteen children testing in the top centile of the dis¬ tribution of school children by Stanford-Binet, 82 percent were found when near maturity, ten years later, to rate in the top centile of the military draft, by Army Alpha. The remainder, most of whom were not yet eighteen years old, rated in high centiles. No individual of either sex regressed to or nearly to average. Fallacies of selection were avoided in the follow-up by complete observa¬ tion of a representative sample (n = 56) of the total number of subjects (n = 148) originally identified in childhood. This result affords a validation, by means of elapsed time, of the predictive power of available mental tests, on the one hand ; and on the other hand, a proof of the constancy of the intellectual development of gifted children, in terms of centile status. EDUCATIONAL NEEDS OF UNEMPLOYED ADULTS M. R. TRABUE, DIRECTOR, BUREAU OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH, UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA, CHAPEL HILL, N. C. The greatest educational needs of unemployed adults are for authentic information about their owm vocational assets and liabilities. The grown man or woman who needs further training is very likely to be unaware of that need. If he does feel a desire to secure further training, he is more than likely to be mistaken regarding the field in which he should seek training. Intensive study of the educational needs of thousands of unemployed adults in Minnesota cities showed that fewer than one in twenty of those who undertook training in fields that had been rated inappropriate gained any¬ thing of value from the training. On the other hand, more than three out of four of those who took training in accordance with the recommendation of the occupational analysis clinics were successful. Those who were found to need further training in order to achieve occupa¬ tional success were already better educated in the ordinary academic sense than were those who did not need training. Instead of helping people to discover their own vocational aptitudes and needs, it appears that our high schools and colleges are actually contributing to the occupational maladjust¬ ments of those who attend them. Information about himself and about the occupational fields which his qualifications fit him to enter is much more important to the average adult than more general education, for without such information the training he may take is as likely to injure as to improve his occupational efficiency. 378 National Education Association THE PENNSYLVANIA STUDY OF THE RELATIONS OF SECONDARY AND HIGHER EDUCATION MAX MC CONN, DEAN, LEHIGH UNIVERSITY, BETHLEHEM, PA. 1 he procedures of the Pennsylvania Study comprise three projects: . L. A.seven"year. cumulatiye study, following the progress of 12,500 pupils thru the junior and senior high school; 2. A five-year cumulative study, following several thousand college students from the senior year in the high school thru college ; 3‘ Ar a,?a)yS1S °f the t0tal educational programs and general academic achieve¬ ment ot all the seniors graduating from Pennsylvania colleges in 1928. T he principal instruments used in all three projects have been compre¬ hensive batteries of objective achievement tests and the American Council on Education Cumulative Record Card. Various conclusions drawn from the experiences of the Study and such analyses as have already been made of the extensive materials include: 1. Additional evidence of the inadequacy of teachers’ grades in measuring any¬ thing substantial or permanent in the way of intellectual progress; which seems to show that in every school systematic use should be made of objective tests to check and support (or query) subjective grades. . 2- Evidence of the incoherence of many school and college programs and the n relevance of many curriculum requirements; seeming to show that our curriculums should contain more of reinforcing sequence, and that ways should be found to avoid forcing or even permitting a student to “take” subjects which have for him at the time no pertinence or significance. 3. Evidence of the disastrous effects of “units” and “credits,” in substituting short¬ term, unconnected artificial goals for long-term real goals in the educational process. It is suggested that such “credits” must eventually be superseded by the plan of comprehensive examinations and the integrated teaching and learning procedures connected therewith. 4. Evidence of the ignorance of most teachers and administrators with respect to everything about their students except the grades earned in courses; an ignorance that can be remedied by using the simple device of the cumulative record. FACTORS WHICH CONTRIBUTE TO DIFFICULTY OF READING MATERIAL WILLIAM S. GRAY, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL. An outstanding problem today in promoting both formal and informal education relates to the need for readable materials adapted to the needs and interests of the children and adults served. If writers and publishers are successful in preparing appropriate mate¬ rials for readers, it is obvious that they must know among other things what are the elements that contribute to ease or difficulty in reading for the par¬ ticular group served. The chief aim of the study reported in this paper was to determine ele¬ ments of expression in written discourse that contribute to ease or difficulty in reading for adults of limited education. Department of Educational Research 379 The technical steps involved included (a) the selection of a list of poten¬ tial elements of difficulty, (b) the measurement of the comprehension of passages containing these elements of difficulty to determine a criterion of difficulty for each test item, (c) the correlation of the frequency of the elements in a passage with its comprehension index to determine the relative significance of the potential elements of difficulty. The elements which contributed most to difficulty for all the readers tested were length of sentence in words, number of words not known to 90 percent of sixth-grade pupils, and number of different hard words. The elements which contributed most to ease and simplicity of reading material were percent of easy words, number of explicit sentences, number of first, second, and third person pronouns, and percent of monosyllabic words. The results of the study have been applied in three ways: (a) in develop¬ ing a method of estimating the difficulty of reading material for adults of limited education; (b) in developing a procedure for estimating how well an adult can read and what material is of appropriate difficulty for him ; (c) in formulating principles relating to the preparation of materials for adults of limited education. EFFECTS OF HANDEDNESS ON REVERSALS IN READING CLIFFORD WOODY, DIRECTOR, BUREAU OF EDUCATIONAL REFERENCE AND RESEARCH, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN, ANN ARBOR, MICH. “Left-handed pupils react to various reading situations just as right- handed pupils do,” is the outstanding conclusion derived from an intensive study on handedness made by Albert J. Phillips, research assistant in the Bureau of Educational Reference and Research at the University of Michi¬ gan. The investigation on the influence of handedness on reversals in reading is a portion of a larger investigation undertaken (by Clifford Woody, di¬ rector of the Bureau) to obtain norms of achievement by children in the primary grades on various types of tests needed in the diagnosis of difficul¬ ties involved in the process of reading. The intensive study involved 136 pairs of right-handed and left-handed pupils matched according to the following criteria: (1) sex, (2) chrono¬ logical age, (3) mental ability, (4) reading ability based on teacher’s place¬ ment, often with the aid of standardized tests, (5) section of a grade with the same teachers in the same school. Thus every effort was made to obtain groups of pure handedness. Of these 136 matched pairs, 33 pairs were in Grade I; 55, in Grade II; and 48, in Grade III. Eighty-four pairs were boys and 52 were girls. Each group was given five different types of tests especially devised for determining the nature and extent of reversals; (1) in the pronunciation of words in isolated lists or in context, (2) in letters, (3) in seeing likenesses and differences in designs, numbers, and words, (4) in eye and hand move¬ ments, (5) in writing letters of the alphabet and in making the digits from one to ten and in drawing a series of designs from memory. 380 National Education Association • Five,!yPes reversafs were used in classifying the responses to the tests given. Total reversals included errors in pronouncing words in lists or context like saying «/« for w«/. “Partial” reversals were the errors in the responses revealing the interchange of certain letters in words like sung for snug. Letter reversals occurred in responses of b for d. “Digit” reversals referred to digits made in reverse order like 8 for 3 or to responses of digits in reverse order like 21 for 12. Reversals “in sequences of words” involved changes in the order of words when reading, e.g., the expression often they would as they would often or they often would. There is a tendency for the group of right-handed pupils in Grade I to Ti °n the rCVerSal and on the readinS tests than the group of left-handed pupils. No plausible explanation is available for this condi- tmn unless it may be an unverified assumption that teachers feeling that left-handed pupils may have a tendency to make reversals exercised more care with them, to prevent such responses than with the right-handed pupils. 1 his tendency is not noticeable in Grades II and III. The mean number of reversals for both groups decreases in each successive grade. Both groups make more “total” and “letter” reversals than any other type of reversal. I he various handedness and eyedness groups approximate the same number of reversals. The one outstanding conclusion derived from the numerous types of com¬ parisons made of the responses given to situations in the battery of tests involving reading or activities closely related to the mental reaction in the act of reading, is that handedness per se with the two groups under consid- eratmn had little or no influence on the type of reading responses made. Whether similar results would be obtained with groups of so-called naturally left-handed pupils who had been trained to be right-handed or with groups m which neither left- nor right-handedness is dominant, only extensive future investigations can determine. TESTING THE ABILITY TO USE THE INDEX AND DICTIONARY HARRIET M. BARTHELMESS, DIVISION OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH, BOARD OF EDUCATION, PHILADELPHIA, PA. Among the important skills involved in reading of the study type is the ability to locate needed information with accuracy and ease. The index and the dictionary are two of the important tools provided for the purpose. From the functional point of view, testing pupils’ ability to use the index and dictionary as reported here serves several’purposes : 1. It focuses teacher attention on the basic skills involved. 2. It shows in which particular skills pupil practise is needed in order to use the index and dictionary more efficiently. 3. It evaluates the degree to which efficiency has been secured. Department of Educational Research 381 From the research point of view, the testing serves these purposes: 1. It shows the relative difficulty of the various skills. 2. It furnishes information as to the specificity of the skills involved. The test I am reporting was constructed with the cooperation of a com¬ mittee of elementary-school principals. This test was applied experimentally to a representative sample consisting of 214 pupils in grade 5 A and 240 pupils in grade 6B. The index test includes a sample index such as might be found in a study- type reader. Pupils are required to find by the use of the index the page loca¬ tions of certain topics. The first sub-test requires the location of data when the key word is a main topic in the index. 4 he second sub-test requires the location of data when the key word is a sub-topic in the index. 1 he third sub-test requires the location of data when the key word is not specifically given. In each part, there are included two topics for which the index gives no page references. This is done in order to make the test situation like the real situation in which the pupil is required to decide whether or not a given book will furnish the information he seeks. The entire index test was done with an accuracy of 67 percent in grade 5A and 82 percent in grade 6B. There is not a high degree of correlation between the ability to use an index, as measured by this test, and intelligence, as measured by the Phila¬ delphia Mental Ability Test. The correlation of the intelligence test and the index test is .53 in grade 5A and .37 in grade 6B. The relationship be¬ tween the index test and reading is also low, being .43 in grade 5A. A general reading comprehension test was used. All these correlations have been cor¬ rected according to the reliability coefficients of the tests involved. 1 heir smallness may be interpreted as indicating a high degree of specificity for the skills involved in the use of the index with a corresponding need for specific practise. The dictionary test has three sub-tests, representing three types of skills, (1) location of words, (2) finding the meaning that fits, and (3) inter¬ preting diacritical marks by the use of the key to pronunciation. In the first sub-test, location of words, are included sixteen diagrammatic reproductions of consecutive dictionary pages including in each case the guide words and the first and last word in each column. Four consecutive pages begin with “issue,” “jealous,” “jobber,” “juicy,” respectively; four more consecutive pages begin with “n” and eight more consecutive pages begin with “s.” In the second sub-test, finding the meaning that fits, ten sentences are given, each containing a word whose meaning depends on the given context. In each case, this word was chosen from a reading book suitable for fourth or fifth grade. The sentence is followed by three meanings of the word as given in the dictionary and the pupil is asked to choose the correct one. In the third sub-test, use of key words, a number of words are given, each repeated with appropriate diacritical marks as given in the dictionary. Fol- 382 National Education Association lowing the word are nine key words from the bottom of the dictionary page. From these the pupil chooses those which help in the pronunciation of the words. The entire dictionary test was done with an accuracy of 51 percent in grade 5A and 63 percent in grade 6B. The correlation of the dictionary test with intelligence, as measured by the Philadelphia Mental Ability Test, is .58 in grade 5A and .37 in grade 6B. The correlation with reading is .50 in grade 5A. All correlations have been corrected according to the reliability coefficients of the tests involved. As with the index test, these low correlations may be taken to indicate a high degree of specificity for the skills involved in the dictionary test, imply¬ ing a corresponding need for specificity of practise. These index and dictionary tests call attention to basic and specific skills involved in the use of these two instruments. They show for the group tested in which of these specific skills more practise is needed in order to use these tools more effectively. Using the main headings of the index only is easier than using sub-headings and either of these procedures is easier than determining whether or not the index will point the way to information answering a given question. In using the dictionary, it is easier to locate words beginning with letters like j, k, u, and v, to each of which comparatively few pages are devoted in the dictionary, than to locate words beginning with letters like a, r, s, and t, to each of which there are many pages devoted in the dictionary. The fewer letters of a given word involved in locating the word the easier is the process. The use of the dictionary for the purpose of finding the correct meaning of a given word is an easier process than finding the correct pronunciation by the interpretation of diacritical marks. Low correlations of the test results with reading and intelligence indicate that the factor of specific training is involved in the results to a great extent. The wide ranges of pupil scores in the several sub-tests point to the impor¬ tance of locating pupils who are markedly in need of remedial work and of providing for these pupils opportunities for becoming conscious of the specific skills needed and for practising them. THE INFLUENCE OF MOTION PICTURES ON CHILDREN W. W. CHARTERS, DIRECTOR, BUREAU OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH, OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, COLUMBUS, OHIO When the history of education is written the first decade of the twentieth century will be remembered as the period of the invention of not one but two instruments of education in rank equal to the invention of the alphabet and the printing press. These are the motion picture and the radio. The radio derives its power from three characteristics. It rises above the serious limitations of print because the listener does not need to be able to read. The young and the illiterate can learn if only they understand the Department of Educational Research 383 spoken language. Its area of influence is universal and its tempo instantane¬ ous. A president in the seat of government can in a single broadcast of ten minutes communicate his ideas to one hundred and twenty million people in every city and country home in the nation. It makes possible a tremendous saving of time and energy. The motion picture, which is the subject of our discussion, stands in a similar position of preeminence with the radio in three respects. It is not handicapped by illiteracy. One does not need to be able to read to obtain ideas from the sound picture. The very young and the illiterate may learn from the motion picture as they cannot do from books. The medium is useful to all who can see. The motion picture possesses superiority as an agency of education because it presents ideas concretely. The audience sees the idea as an event with all the concreteness that follows actions of persons before one’s eyes. Words in print or thru the microphone are abstract and may not be understood. Pictures are concrete and seeing is believing. To see an event is immensely superior to reading about it or hearing of it. Description is a poor substitute for actuality. Learning is assisted by the extraordinary interest that people have in motion pictures. They like to watch them ; they become engrossed in the action'; they forget themselves; they tend to believe what they see, and all of this is favorable to learning and remembering. Just how much children learn from motion pictures has been a subject of scientific research during the last six years. In 1928 the Motion Picture Re¬ search Council, with the cooperation of the Payne Fund, assembled a group of investigators — psychologists, sociologists, and educationists — and set them the commission of discovering in comprehensive fashion what are the facts concerning the influence of motion pictures upon children and youth to replace mere subjective opinion. The results of their investigations are being published and two summaries have been written. One summary, written for the layman, has been published by the Macmillan Company under the title Our Movie Made Children by James Henry Forman. The other summary, written for school and college officers and instructors, is published by the same company under the title Motion Pictures and Youth by the speaker. Consideration of present conditions indicate five problems for the teachers of the nation to face in the motion picture field — an alert realization of the power and place of the motion picture as a social agency to serve in main¬ taining and improving the culture of a nation; the wide and intelligent use of motion pictures in the classroom; the teaching of critical and appreciative discrimination between good and poor pictures; the abolition of compulsory block booking and blind selling by legislation ; and the establishment of an American Film Institute. Upon these problems every teacher should be in¬ formed and should act accordingly. We live at a spectacular moment in education — at an epochal point in its history. We have been slow to realize the significance of the occasion, but we are becoming alert to our surroundings. Once the teachers of the nation take hold of an idea it is on the way to power. 384 National Education Association THE USE OF THE RADIO IN THE SCHOOLS TRACY F. TYLER, SECRETARY AND RESEARCH DIRECTOR, NATIONAL COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION BY RADIO, WASHINGTON, D. C. Broadcasting to schools in the United States on a statewide basis and under state educational authority began first with the inauguration of the Ohio School of the Air in the spring of 1929. The first regular year was 1929-30 when B. H. Darrow, the director, prepared material for classroom use in current events, nature study, story plays and rhythmics, French, chem¬ istry, history dramalogs, geography, music, drama, physics, health, literature, stories, citizenship, the mound builders, and art appreciation. Prior to that time many colleges, universities, and city schools had been experimenting in the use of this new educational medium. During the past year in addition to the Ohio School of the Air, schools of the air under state authority were carried on in Wisconsin and North Carolina. The Wisconsin school used the facilities of the two state stations WHA and WLBL. The North Carolina school used the facilities of all of the eight commercial broadcasting stations in the state. The Ohio school used the state station WOSU and commercial station WLW. The National Broadcasting Company completed recently the sixth year of the Damrosch concerts designed particularly for use in music appreciation courses in elementary and secondary schools. The Columbia Broadcasting System presented the American School of the Air which consisted of mate¬ rials in the fields of history, geography, music, literature, elementary science, and current events. The Chicago schools presented similar materials on a citywide basis using the facilities of station WMAQ. A few other colleges, universities, and cities have presented by radio various materials designed for school use. Research in radio education is going forward and has brought to light a number of valuable facts. Studies carried on by Margaret Harrison at Teachers College, Columbia University, have shown the value of courses in music appreciation. The effectiveness of platform speaking as compared with radio speaking has been measured at the University of Wisconsin. Informal style was found more effective in radio speaking than in platform speaking. Studies at Iowa State College indicate also a slight superiority of a radio speaker over a platform speaker. In the Harvard Psychological Laboratory comparisons were made of visual and auditory presentation. They found some situations favored one method and some the other. Altho these and other studies have been made, there is still need for considerable research in the school radio field. The Ohio Emergency Junior Radio College and the Wisconsin College of the Air, both broadcasting over state-owned stations, are particularly striking examples of the possibilities of broadcasting material to adults. These recently developed projects were planned so that people who were unable to attend college might have some of the advantages of the vast resources of the university. The broadcasts prepared under the direction of the National Department of Educational Research 385 Advisory Council on Radio in Education have made available on a national scale some excellent materials in various subjectmatter fields. Before the United States can make use of radio in education there are a number of problems to be solved. States must either be provided with ade¬ quate facilities so as to reach their respective citizenry, or permanent, de¬ sirable hours must be reserved for their use on commercial stations. How¬ ever, adequate provision for broadcasts by responsible educational authorities is not the only problem which must be solved. The entire curriculum of radio needs careful examination. All radio is educational. Probably too much of it has negative educational value. Certainly the false claims of many advertisers and the numerous undesirable programs being broadcast cannot be justified from the standpoint of public welfare. Solution of these problems rests upon the educators and other members of the so-called intelligent mi¬ nority upon whom depend the efficient functioning and the ultimate success of democracy. THE USE AND ABUSE OF STANDARDIZED TESTS IN THE CLASSROOM J. CAYCE MORRISON, ASSISTANT COMMISSIONER FOR ELEMENTARY EDUCATION, STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT, ALBANY, N. Y. The hope for a science of education lies in the ability of classroom teachers to use adequately the standardized tests as a tool for improving their educa¬ tional treatment of children. The major strategy of the test movement lies not in state and national testing programs, useful as they may sometimes be, but in helping every classroom teacher to become a master workman in the use of standardized tests in her daily work. If we are to have a science of education, the supervisory leadership of the nation’s schools must adapt the standardized test as one of its chief working tools. True, scientific supervision does not in any way interfere with other aspects of supervisory leadership. In the preparation of teachers for intelligent participation in the use and interpretation of tests, schools of education must stress less the textbook and the statistical aspects of testing and provide greater opportunity for student teachers to interpret and use such data in the actual guidance of children. Bureaus of educational research should stress the negative aspects of test¬ ing not less but the positive uses more. Teachers and supervisory officers need scientific guidance in the analysis of their problems, in the selection of the tests to be used, and in the interpretation of data secured. They must look to the specialists in educational research for the improvement of old tools and for the making of new ones. Educational research will progress in direct proportion to its usefulness to teachers and supervisory officers in improving their educational guidance of children. 386 National Education Association SECRETARY’S MINUTES Cleveland, Ohio Saturday Afternoon, February 24, 1934 President Paul T. Rankin presided at the annual business meeting of the American Educational Research Association. Approximately sixty members were present. The minutes of the meeting for 1933 were read and approved. The report of the secretary- treasurer was read and approved. The report of the Auditing Committee, Harold B. Chapman, chairman, was approved. Frank N. Freeman, chairman, reported for the Editorial Board. He outlined plans and policies concerning the Review of Educational Research. The president called attention to the panel discussion on the following Monday, February 26, which was devoted to problems connected with the Review. The report of the Necrology Committee, W. J. Osburn, chairman, was accepted. It was reported that the following active member of the Association had died during the past year: Dale S. Young, Director of Research and Information, State Depart¬ ment of Education, Montgomery, Ala. The representative to the National Committee on Research in Secondary Education, E. J. Ashbaugh, submitted a detailed report from this committee. The report indicated that the committee had undertaken the following lines of work: 1. Stimulating regional conferences on the findings of the National Survey of Secondary Education 2. Cooperating with the Department of Secondary School Principals in planning the tercentenary (1935) of secondary education in the United States 3. Stimulating research in the history of secondary education 4. Stimulating reading and use of the reports of the National Survey of Second¬ ary Education 5. Helping to initiate a study of accrediting standards 6. Investigating possibilities of a national study of youth problems. The president reported the appointment of J. Cayce Morrison to succeed himself for a three-year term as a member of the Editorial Board. Later on, however, Dr. Morrison requested to be excused from future responsibility on this Board and the president appointed Mrs. John K. Norton for the three-year term in his place. The Committee on Membership, B. R. Buckingham, chairman, submitted a report. After discussion by several members the report was adopted and the Executive Com¬ mittee was requested to put its provisions into effect. It was moved by Dr. Freeman that the necessary constitutional steps be taken to create another class of membership to be called associate members. Associate mem¬ bership should be extended to persons engaged in or responsible for research but who do not qualify for active membership. The privileges of the associate members would include the attendance at closed meetings, the printing of their names in the annual directory, but not voting or holding office. The Executive Committee was instructed by the Association to draft an amend¬ ment along the lines suggested by Dr. Freeman and submit it for consideration to the members before the next annual meeting. The report of the Nominating Committee was presented by Clifford Woody. (See Historical Note, p. 362.) There were no other nominations and the secretary was instructed to cast a ballot for these two officers and they were declared elected. NOTE: Many papers delivered at the Department meetings have been printed elsewhere. Due to space limitations these papers have been omitted from this volume. DEPARTMENT OF Elementary School 'Principals « HISTORICAL NOTE The department of elementary school principals, temporarily or¬ ganised as the National Association of Elementary School Principals at the Atlantic City meeting of the Department of Superintendence in Feb- uary, 1921, became a department of the National Education Association at Des Moines in July, 1921. The officers of the Department for the year 1934-35 are: president, M. Emma Brookes, Principal, Miles-Cranwood Schools, Cleveland, Ohio ; first vicepresident, Aaron Kline, Principal, Pullman-Poe Schools, Chicago, III.; second vicepresident, Edythe J. Brown, Principal, Kaley and Marquette Schools, South Bend, hid.; third vicepresident, Ira M. Kline, Principal, Greenburgh Number 8 Schools, White Plains, N. Y .; fourth vicepresident, Sarah L. Young, Principal, Parker School, Oak¬ land, Calif.; fifth vicepresident, Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, Principal, George Washington and Robert Gatewood Schools, Norfolk, Va.; executive secretary, Eva G. Pinkston, 1201 Sixteenth Street, Washing¬ ton, D. C.; executive committee: Herbert C. Hansen, Principal, Tal- cott School, Chicago, 111. (term expires 1935); Cassie F. Roys, Princi¬ pal, Walnut Hill School, Omaha, Nebr. (term expires 1936); Earl R. Laing, Principal, Burt School, Detroit, Mich. ( term expires 1937); Mason A. Stratton, Principal, Brighton Avenue School, Atlantic City, N. J. ( term expires 1938 ). This Department meets twice each year, in February and in July. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meet¬ ings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 1930:333-365 1931:433-465 19 32:377-406 19 33:395-422 [ 388 ] 1921:453 1922:851-886 1923:653-666 1924:545-564 1925:450-477 1926:459-495 1921:419-455 1928:375-409 1929 : 39 1-424 WHERE ARE WE AND WHERE ARE WE GOING EDUCATIONALLY? EDNA MORGAN, PRINCIPAL, ROBERT FULTON SCHOOL, CLEVELAND, ^OHIO The twentieth century has profited by the slow growth of free¬ dom — freedom of thought, beliefs, conduct, and customs which gives us the foundation for the social and intellectual influences of our present civilization. This freedom is one of the determining factors of modern edu¬ cation. Many of the old social controls have gone and education is forced to furnish other factors in their place. Responsibility which formerly belonged to the family is now assumed by the school. The school looks after the physical and moral development of the child, furnishes physicians, nurses, books, and sometimes food and clothing. The corrective health program includes recommendation and proper follow-up by school physician, nurse, and dentist as well as health instruction by classroom teachers. The preventive health program considers that daily inspection of children is important. Teachers are instructed in what to look for. Children understand the need for safeguarding the health of the individual for the protection of the group. The school must provide a character building program to fit present condi¬ tions of life. There are many special agencies whose purpose it is to coop¬ erate with the school in working out such a program, all of which are help¬ ful but the school must carry the greater responsibility. Social and economic conditions of recent years have made these phases of education of vital importance. It is no longer believed that education is for the sole purpose of acquiring facts, but rather to discover and develop to the fullest the natural abilities of each child. Education for social adjustment requires recognition of individual differences and the development of the abilities responsible for these differences. The degree to which education is able to discover these differences and educate differently will control the degree of social adjustment of the individual. Three factors are seen in this problem for education. They are: school discipline which socializes the child ; a curriculum which is carefully and wisely planned ; and methods of teaching which are sound. Unquestioned obedience to a set of adult planned rules will never develop self-control, or power for self-direction in the individual. School rules must be planned in cooperation with children. The children must learn to feel that all such seemingly arbitrary rules are the outgrowth of a social need. Even the youngest children in the building can appreciate the need for no loitering at dismissals in entrances which are used by several hundreds of children. They will grow up in an understanding that the laws of the larger community are for protection of society. Until recent years most curriculums were the result of new subjects or subjectmatter added to the old. Very little had ever been subtracted. One of [ 389 ] 390 National Education Association the tasks of the present generation of educators was to examine these cur- riculums and try by as scientific a procedure as possible to determine their importance. Another task, closely related, was to examine our present civili¬ zation and to plan a curriculum which would meet the present needs with as little waste as possible. We attempt to teach that which explains to the child our ways of living, giving emphasis to experience in the everyday life of the child. The new curriculum provides for the use of subjectmatter but with the children living and participating in various activities all the while. It goes without saying that the modern curriculum and modern methods of teaching call for a skilled teacher. The administrator must set the stage to free this teacher to use his own knowledge, skill, originality, and initiative in achieving the desired results with his pupils. Just as courses of study contain different subjects for different age levels and varying abilities, so methods of teaching must be differentiated. Learn¬ ing must occur thru living and experiencing. School must be a place where the manner of living is made concrete and vital for the child. Our new efforts must be directed toward proper attitudes, points of view, and methods of approach in an education that must be ever-changing. The school is ex¬ pected to guide civilization, not reflect it. A FUNCTIONAL PROGRAM IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION TURNER C. CHANDLER, PRINCIPAL, CLISSOLD AND ESMOND SCHOOLS, CHICAGO, ILL. “Betwixt the devil and the deep blue sea” locates fairly accurately the position of makers of school programs in 1934. Society has insisted upon schools taking over duties formerly performed by church, home, neighbor¬ hood, and farm. School people have made a sincere effort to meet these de¬ mands. Now in the time of a great economic crisis a highly organized and articulate group of the public berates the schools for having introduced those activities necessary for meeting the demand. In the retrenchments and cur¬ tailments forced upon the schools the great unorganized public, particularly in our great cities, has manifested an indifference that is the most serious factor in the situation. How is this situation going to affect the future program of the schools? Certainly the taxpayers are going to insist upon a strict accounting of school expenditures. Retrenchments will be made. They must be so made, however, that the functional program of our schools is not wrecked. Compromises may be made in the matter of buildings, maintenance of buildings, and in administrative machinery and organization. There must be no compromise, on the other hand, in the matter of maintaining salaries at a level that will attract the best talent into the teaching profession. Mediocre teachers may carry on a routine program of conventional subjects in the schools, but a functional program can be maintained only by trained teachers with more than average ability and under the guidance of expert supervision. Department of Elementary School Principals 391 The ultimate success of a democratic school system depends upon the great unorganized public. The indifference of this public in the present crisis may be accounted for by the fact that in 1900, 50 percent of the school popula¬ tion dropped out of school at or below the fifth grade and 97 percent did not complete high school; and even those that remained in school received for the most part a non-functional type of education. Educators must, therefore, hold the lines intact so far as a functional pro¬ gram of education is concerned until a generation trained under such a pro¬ gram becomes active citizens. Educators must not permit this program to be eliminated under the guise of taking away fads and frills. Education must not be reduced to a non-functioning program of three R’s. If we can main¬ tain such a program for one generation, then the future of democratic educa¬ tion in America is assured. REPORT OF 1934 YEARBOOK JOHN S. THOMAS, PRINCIPAL, CLIPPERT SCHOOL, DETROIT, MICH., AND CHAIRMAN, 1934 EDITORIAL COMMITTEE ■ The 1934 Yearbook, Aids to Teaching in the Elementary School , should be of help to principals in formulation of education for the new age. This yearbook concentrates attention upon many aids to teaching which have been used only sporadically. It describes the use of other aids which are almost unknown in many schools. The 1934 Yearbook is progressive. In spirit it looks to a wider oppor¬ tunity for all children to learn. In practise it provides a variety of materials and methods from which each child may choose according to his ability and his interests. In its spirit of helpfulness, in its planning for thfe future, and in its attempt to be practical, the yearbook denotes a sincere belief in pro¬ viding better elementary-school education. Each chapter of the yearbook is complete within itself. Each chapter de¬ scribes organization, uses, future possible values, and appraisal of the aids included under its general heading. Two general chapters open the year¬ book ; these are followed by chapters on : Pictorial and Graphic Aids, Object Materials, Trips and Excursions, Slides, Still Films, and Opaque Projec¬ tions, Motion Pictures, Duplicating Machines and Typewriters, Radio and Sound Equipment, Summary of Research, and Sources of Aids. Any school which made effective and frequent use of all these aids to teaching would differ greatly from any we now know. Perhaps the education for the new age will depend far more upon these aids than the school of the present. True economy in education does not necessarily mean that education must cost less. Far more effective teaching by the use of some of these aids more than offsets the additional expense for materials and equipment. It is the hope of the Editorial Committee that this yearbook will be as helpful to the principals of the country as were its forerunners. It is hoped that this yearbook will help to make the elementary school as dynamic and real as the society of which it is a part. 392 National Education Association CONSTRUCTIVE AND PREVENTIVE ASPECTS OF TEACHER HEALTH STEPHEN F. BAYNE, ASSOCIATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEW YORK, N. Y. We have too long looked upon the teacher as a part of a machine to be discarded when worn or strained. It is our duty as administrators and super¬ visors to look upon the teacher as a living personality growing in wisdom and skill whose powers are to be conserved by humane and intelligent treat¬ ment. This conservation is the charge of the community and, particularly, of supervision and administration. It will be well in these days of stress and trial for us to examine our supervisory procedures to see that nothing we do adds to the strain on the conscientious teacher. Adequate screening by medical and personality tests of prospective teachers is becoming more and more necessary, particularly with the growth of the movement for permanent tenure. For the benefit of the teacher some form of health supervision of the educational staff from the entry of the candidate into the teacher-training institutions until the retirement of the teacher with periodic check-up should form the basis of a health program in a forward looking educational system. To conserve the mental and physical health of teachers a well-balanced, generous program of sabbatical leave, of leave for restoration of health, study, or travel, or in the case of older teachers, for rest should be provided. On the other hand, let us remember that the reason schools exist is not for the teacher but for the child. Teacher health is our concern both for child and for teacher, but primarily for the child, and when the decision is to be made it must be kindly yet firm, with childhood rights as the determining factor. THE SERVICE WHICH ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS SHOULD RENDER AT THIS TIME ELSIE E. GREEN, ADMINISTRATIVE PRINCIPAL, WHITTIER SCHOOL, WASHINGTON, D. C. This is a strategic moment for the elementary principal to make clear that his role is one of educational leadership in a swiftly changing social order. This he can best do, first, by the promotion of desirable, high-quality growth within his school, and second, by the effective interpretation of his educa¬ tional program to his community. Growth must begin with the principal himself, spreading its contagion to his teachers. With such vital, growing leadership, a program must be spread for pupil growth in health, knowl¬ edge, ability to think clearly and independently, in creativity, character, and training for worthwhile use of leisure. The obligation of effective interpretation of his educational program de¬ mands that he convince the taxpayers that their investment of money in the Department of Elementary School Principals 393 public elementary school is sound, because it is permanent, stable, and bears tremendous dividends in enlightened understandings and greater social se¬ curity. He must convince the legislators that it deserves support and promo¬ tion from government, because it is the one great unifying, non-political, non-sectarian force in our national life, and the last hope of democracy, the great American experiment. WHAT A MODERN SCHOOL SHOULD DO FOR A MODERN CHILD ROLLO G. REYNOLDS, PRINCIPAL, HORACE MANN SCHOOL, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. First of all, the schools should attempt to inform children and young people in regard to facts which really are important. With changing times necessarily the range of these facts will change. The second point is that children should be taught how to work. Their initiative should be developed. To succeed in life, the individual should know how to proceed with the task before him. He should have perseverance and understanding. The school should offer an opportunity for the individuals to learn to do by doing. Third, the child should be aided in learning to think “straight.” Nothing is more important for the intellectual, political, and social life of America at the present time than for an individual to be able to make right choices. Our life is made up of the process of choosing. We select the type of work in which we are interested, we choose our friends, we choose our vocations, we decide what our avocations are; in fact nearly all our initial experience is made up of choices. Therefore the individual should learn to think “straight” so that he may be able to choose wisely. The fourth point is that right feelings in children should be fostered. In the last analysis it is what the individual feels in his inmost soul that dis¬ tinguishes one individual from other individuals. Attitudes — correct attitudes, desirable attitudes, helpful attitudes — constitute the essence of the person- alitjL These feelings of the soul influence in large degree the effect of the knowledge which one possesses, the habits of work which one acquires by activity, the results of one’s thinking when one endeavors to decide issues. The wholesome development of the individual is aided very much by work on special projects. If the child seems repressed, then the skilful instructor or the parent will endeavor to discover the cause of the depression and seek to evoke from the child those beautiful natural qualities with which each individual soul is endowed by the Creator. In the development of his atti¬ tudes the child should be led into a sympathetic understanding of the great significance of the power of the Creator as this power reveals itself in the life processes of nature. No part of the American public school system is more important than the kindergarten. It takes the child who has been an individual in a very small 394 National Education Association social group, that of the home, and introduces him into the experiences of living in a larger group. It lays the foundation for those habits and attitudes which make for real cooperative living. Superficial critics of the kindergarten think of it as a place where children play but their criticism is only super¬ ficial. To be sure children play in the kindergarten but those fundamental qualities of character which make for fine personality are begun in the kin¬ dergarten. In my opinion it is the last place that should be selected by the American people for economy. We could perhaps spare some of the time now utilized in higher mathematics and foreign languages but we cannot spare any of the time used at the beginning of the child’s schooling to develop within him those qualities which will make for good citizenship later on. REPORT OF RESOLUTIONS COMMITTEE HERBERT C. HANSEN, PRINCIPAL, TALCOTT SCHOOL, CHICAGO, ILL., Chairman 1. We commend the American Legion for its deep interest in education, as is indicated by the following resolution which was passed at its recent convention in Chicago : It is the sense of this organization that education should be given its proper con¬ sideration by legislative bodies and should not be made to bear a major part of the sacrifices for economy. 2. We commend the splendid work of the Joint Commission on the Emer¬ gency in Education and we hereby pledge that Commission our hearty sup¬ port in carrying out its recommendations. 3. We urge immediate and vigorous action in support of the program of the National Committee for Federal Emergency Aid for Education. 4. We urge that principals assume educational leadership in other states and local communities to develop programs of adequate local and state sup¬ port for schools. 5. We adopt as our educational platform the splendid statements con¬ tained in the report of the Resolutions Committee of which A. B. Heacock was chairman, and which were adopted last July in Chicago. 6. We express our hearty appreciation of the generous hospitality ex¬ tended to us by the Washington Principals’ Club, the teachers of Washing¬ ton, and the several professional organizations of this area. 7. We commend our president, Aaron Kline, for the splendid programs prepared for this convention and for his unswerving devotion to duty thru- out a most critical period. 8. We express appreciation of the valuable work accomplished by the Editorial Committee. Hearty appreciation is due Dr. Hubbard and Miss Pinkston for maintaining a high level of efficiency in all the several activities of our Department. 9. Hearty thanks are hereby extended to all who have assisted in making this a notable convention. Department of Elementary School Principals 395 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON PROFESSIONAL ETHICS MASON A. STRATTON, PRINCIPAL, BRIGHTON AVENUE SCHOOL, ATLANTIC CITY, N. j., Chairman During the meetings of our Department in Cleveland there arose a felt need for some type of plan whereby the work of our Association would be better known to the teachers in training. We have a million teachers in the country with only about 200,000 holding membership in the National Edu¬ cation Association. With about 25,000 elementary-school principals in the country, only 4000 are members of our Department. It was suggested that a committee of our Department be appointed to confer with the American Association of Teachers Colleges to work out such a plan and possibly lead to a course of study to be used in teacher-train¬ ing institutions to make the prospective teacher “organization-minded.” H. L. Donovan, president of the American Association of Teachers Col¬ leges, favored this cooperative effort and heartily endorsed the plan. Imme¬ diately cooperating committees were appointed. Roscoe L. West, president, State Teachers College, Trenton, N. J., is chairman of the committee ap¬ pointed by Dr. Donovan. Dr. West and I have conferred and have canvassed numbers of our group on certain basic problems. We meet tomorrow morning to plan a scheme of work and assignments and expect to be able to present a report in better form at our February meeting in Atlantic City, 1935, and a completed report by our next annual meeting in June 1935. It is interesting to attend several sessions of groups meeting at this present convention to realize how this same need has been felt. At the Life Member¬ ship dinner last evening Dr. Rosier made the point that all recovery pro¬ grams are based on united action and cooperative effort. At a meeting of the Committee on International Relations of the N.E.A. it was my pleasure to find that there, too, the same feeling existed, that the valuable work of the various committees of the N.E.A. is not well under¬ stood. It is our purpose to work on a project whereby our teachers in training may be given thoro instruction as to the work of: N.E.A. — departments, committees, plans; state associations — departments and committees; local associations — departments and committees. We hope, thru this enlightenment, to secure better support of incoming teachers to the profession. We hope to build up a high standard of profes¬ sional ethics — conscious of the obligation of each member of the profession to the group. It is not a question these days of what we get out of, but what we give to our profession. We cannot do this in a day or a year. We can build this foundation grad¬ ually, and make our Department felt and our teacher-training institutions our cooperative workers. 396 National Education Association REPORT OF YEARBOOK COMMITTEE 1 BESS CLEMENT, PRINCIPAL, ELIZA CLARK SCHOOL, CLARKSDALE, MISS., Chairman The 1935 \ earbook of the Department of Elementary School Principals is to deal with the topic Socializing O pportunities in Elementary School Life. The Yearbook will be concerned primarily with the informal group activi¬ ties of the modern elementary school. While in the past, in some school systems, these activities have been labeled “extracurriculum, ” the viewpoint of the present yearbook will be that these are all parts of the child’s normal school experience. Since the preparation of articles is one important professional responsi¬ bility of principals will you call this opportunity to the attention of the ele¬ mentary-school principals of vour school system? The members of the Editorial Committee would welcome correspondence with members of your staff for the purpose of supplying any information. We urge those who are interested in contributing on a specific topic to com¬ municate with us at their earliest convenience. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS A. B. HEACOCK, PRINCIPAL, LOS FELIZ SCHOOL, LOS ANGELES, CALIF., Chairman Concurring in the opinion that the important task which faces our social structure today is that of developing a new point of view capable of seeing beyond national boundaries to embrace the world in which we live and sharing in the belief that it is possible to develop world understanding and international mindedness without loss of national loyalty, your Committee is happy to recommend the Herman-Jordan Plan and the Pact of Paris. Your Committee recommends that a Department of International Rela¬ tions be established in the Office of Education, United States Department of the Interior, under the direction of the United States Commissioner of Education with a similar Department of Education. We recommend the annual observance of World Goodwill Day. We believe that the activities of the Junior Red Cross should be advanced by the public schools of Amer¬ ica. We favor a program of limitation of armaments, land, sea, and air, entered into by all nations. We recommend that the manufacturing and sale of all instrumentalities of war be under direct control of the federal government. We favor a definite program of world economic planning. The Committee expresses its sincere appreciation to all organizations, institu¬ tions, and agencies which are engaged in the promotion of international relations and goodwill. 1 Report given by Samuel Berman, Principal, James R. Ludlow School, Philadelphia Pa in the absence ol Bess Clement. Department of Elementary School Principals 397 REPORT OF NECROLOGY COMMITTEE ELIZABETH MC CORMICK, PRINCIPAL, TIMOTHY O. HOWE SCHOOL, SUPERIOR, WIS., Chairman We are gathered together in the annual meeting of the great National Education Association. As we study great movements of the past in educa¬ tion, as we plan for effective ones for the future, it is fitting that we pause for a moment to pay tribute to those of our co-workers who have this year passed to the great beyond. Whether their service was given in a small rural community, or in one of our great metropolises, who can say what their influence may have been ? Let us do them honor by standing in silence. Benjamin Franklin once said, “I now behold a rising, not a setting sun.” It is for us, the living, to face a rising sun for education, and to dedicate ourselves anewT to the unfinished wTork which our associates did their part to advance. We may not have the names of all our members who died this year, so none will be listed at this time. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN A DEMOCRACY THE HONORABLE JOHN DICKINSON, ASSISTANT UNITED STATES SECRETARY OF COMMERCE, WASHINGTON, D. C. No doubt you have wished to hear and are hearing reports from the dif¬ ferent departments of government which you can take back to your homes about what each of them is doing toward rehabilitation of agriculture and industry and the relief of human misery and suffering. I wish for my own part to bring you a report of a somewhat different kind — an unofficial report from the standpoint of an observer here in Washington as to what your work means in the building of the nation. You see the task of education at close quarters in your own daily work. Here in Washington we get a glimpse of its problems and achievements reflected in a nationwide mirror and it is that national picture as envisaged by those who are responsible for making our democratic government work, that I wish to call to j^our atten¬ tion. Under the conditions of life as they exist today, under our modern methods of working and traveling and employing our leisure, intelligence has ceased to be a luxury. It has become a necessity. Because of the tools we use, the mechanisms upon which we rely, the way in which our life is organized, it is obvious that our whole system of life would break down and become entangled in hopeless snarls if a reasonably high level of intelligence did not prevail among the individuals who make up our communities. I am not speak¬ ing now of the type of intelligence which is needed to reach wise decisions on important questions of government. I am speaking merely of the type of intelligence which is needed for people to get around in this complicated modern world without getting in one another’s way, without injuring one 398 National Education Association anothei, and w ithout injuring themselves. Of course, in a democracy much more than that is needed. If democratic government is to work, if it is to perform the task which all government must perform of maintaining an ordeily social and economic life, and not be swept aside by some more abso¬ lute foim of rulership, as is the fate of governments which cannot govern, then it is essential that our people should have not merely the intelligence to use the modern mechanisms of daily life and find their way about in the modern world without injury, but also that at least the majority of them should be capable of forming sane social judgments and maintaining sane and reasonably far-sighted attitudes toward the major issues of national policy. It is your task to insure that both these results are attained. As teach- ets of the nation, the nation looks to you to train a population which shall be sufficiently intelligent not to add to the snarls and tangles of life by its inability to take advantage of our new technology and which shall also be sufficiently wise and far-sighted and self-restrained to choose and follow wise and far-sighted leadership. 1 do not believe we always realize, unless we make a point of stopping and thinking about it, how basic and essential are accuracy and quickness of lesponse in the kind of world in which we live. In our world today, there is no room foi carelessness and sluggishness. Ehey are too expensive to too many people, and when I speak of expensiveness, I am not thinking merely or mainly in terms of money. I am thinking in terms of time and effort and accomplishment. We hear a great deal about the strain and kill- Pace of modern life, T. hat strain would be infinitely lightened and that pace could be greatly reduced if it wrere possible to rely on a greater measure of carefulness and accuracy. I would therefore recommend to you the inculca¬ tion of accuracy and promptness of response as the basic task of elementary education today. Of course, elementary education should go a great deal farther. There are many othei things that it should do, and I wish to speak of some of them. But there is no more essential or fundamental service that elementary educa¬ tion can render, there is none more imperative, than to relieve the com¬ munity of the burden and strain of guarding against carelessness and slug¬ gishness in a type of civilization which for its proper functioning requires prompt and accurate responses. You aie devoting all that is in you to the study and application of educa¬ tional methods, and you know far better than a mere layman how a given educational end may best be attained. JVdy own teaching experience, which extends over many years, has lain in a different field, but from observation of the students with whom I have had experience, I would like to say a word in behalf of promoting accuracy and quickness of intelligence thru the old basic elementary subjects of writing and spelling and arithmetic. No doubt, as I have said, elementary education must go beyond these things — no doubt there is much to be said in favor of teaching them in a. more attractive and stimulating way than once was done, but in our desire to make them attrac¬ tive and to enhance their appeal, care should be taken not to diminish their Department of Elementary School Principals 399 effectiveness as a means for the inculcation of accuracy and quickness of re¬ sponse. It may be that other and more effective means have been or can be developed, but in the absence of such more effective substitutes, I should like to plead against all arguments based on a desire to make education more attractive, the case for the old-fashioned three R’s. A second task which our modern way of living suggests for elementary education is the task of acquainting our people with their immediate environ¬ ment. In a small agricultural community such acquaintance follows so much as a matter of course from the mere routine of daily life that to make it a matter of education for the schools would hardly be thought of. A country boy or girl grows up to know the landmarks of his community, the roads, the industries, the churches, as a part of his everyday experience. But as communities grow larger, as life grows fuller, the degree of ignorance of his immediate environment which the average citizen displays is often amazing. He does not know the names or locations of the streets a few blocks away from his home. He does not know the public buildings of his town or what they stand for. He does not know where the highways or the railroads lead to that pass thru his community. He knows nothing of its history, of the important and interesting events of which it may have been the scene. He does not know the names of the public officials or civic leaders in his com¬ munity. Obviously, a life lived in such ignorance of a man’s immediate environment is incompatible in all save the most exceptional cases with any true or correct understanding of things farther afield. We may seek to broaden the minds of our children by teaching them something of the history of the American Revolution and the structure of the national government, but these things must inevitably be dim and obscure and can mean very little to minds that are not oriented in their own imme¬ diate environment. Of course, there is a practical side to the type of informa¬ tion about which I am speaking. It is easier for the people of the community to find their way about and to perform their daily tasks more smoothly and efficiently if they know their community. But it is not that side of the matter which I have mainly in mind. What I have in mind is that no one can be expected to think intelligently or fruitfully in however small a way about the larger community of the state or nation who has not had some training in knowing accurately the smaller community, village, town, or city where he belongs and with which he is in direct physical contact. This brings me to another thought about elementary education wTith which my own teaching experience, altho lying in a different field, has im¬ pressed me. I have found that abstract concepts, concepts with a wide scope, have little if any meaning to those who are not in some degree acquainted with the practical details which the concepts sum up and cannot be fruit¬ fully or usefully handled apart from such familiarity with details. For example, people do not ordinarily get very far in talking about the price system unless they have some knowledge of how the prices of particular commodities are made and how and why they change up or down. Similarly, in discussions about government, it is not ordinarily fruitful to discuss such 400 National Education Association a topic as the so-called separation of powers which is one of the features of our American governmental system, without some knowledge of how Congiess works. Much of our public is less fruitful than it should be because it revolves around abstract terms like socialism and individualism. I mention this now to suggest that we cannot get very far in teaching subjects which involve a large use of abstractions to pupils who are still too young to have accumulated a sufficient body of the details upon which the abstractions rest. No doubt it is desirable to begin as early as possible the education of our future citizens in problems of government and economics; but unless this is done in such a way as to keep pace with their direct experience much effort is bound to be wasted. The way to avoid this danger is, as I have said before, to i ely primarily upon acquainting them with their immediate environ¬ ment, with the governmental and economic institutions which exist in the community about them and which they can see embodied in concrete physical form. On such a body of experience a wider understanding can subsequently be built which will have a firm foundation in reality. On the other hand, a type of education which consists merely in the manipulation of abstract terms that have no real concrete meaning to those who use them is futile sleight-of-hand which is likely to have the extremely bad result of divorcing thought on the one hand from reality on the other. At the elementary stage of education what needs to be inculcated is an awareness of, and interest in, people and things. d here remains, of course, the additional problem which cannot be evaded, of making at least a beginning in the development of those habits of abstract thought which ultimately, in the mature and fully educated man, constitute the essence of mental life. How is this to be done at the elementary stage of education? For my own part, I do not believe that it can be done thru such subjects as civics and economics. Valuable as these may be to the mature citizen, and impatient as we may be to give some acquaintance with them to those of our people who must leave school after the elementary stage, the wealth of details which lies behind the abstractions in these subjects is far beyond the experience of the pupil. Such economics and civics as can be taught would seem to be properly limited to a presentation of elementary facts which leave little or no room for training in the use of abstractions. Elementary mathematics, of course, affords an opportunity for such training, but the time-honored device has been the study of language. I am not sure whether today we fully appreciate the importance of language in life. For long it was emphasized in education to such a point that reaction was not only natural, but inevitable. There is always, furthermore, a tendency for language to become divorced from reality, for words to become severed from things, so that an occasional reaction against excessive language teaching is sound and wholesome. And yet, as I have said, when we stop and think of it, there is no tool that is more important in our living and our thinking than language. There is no tool that we use more frequently or has more valid and more important purposes. It lies at the basis of our mental life and our social life. Without it, thought would be impossible, and without Department of Elementary School Principals 401 it, men could not live in communities. And besides this importance of language, it supplies an additional vehicle for the accomplishment of two of the most important objectives of elementary education. In the first place, there is no better agency for the inculcation of accuracy. In the second place, the analytical study of languages is, apart from elementary mathematics, practically the only available vehicle for the development of habits for abstract reasoning in pupils still so immature that they have not at their com¬ mand a body of experience sufficient to enable them to deal fruitfully with social studies. As compared with elementary mathematics, the analytical study of language has the great advantage that it deals with a subjectmatter which men are using continually, whereas their use of figures is only occa¬ sional. I hope I may not have seemed presumptuous in devoting the greater part of what I am saying to subjects in which you are far better versed than I. My excuse for venturing to speak to you about these subjects is precisely that I come to them from the outside and that those of us who are primarily concerned with the problem of government and the larger problem of a better ordering of society cannot avoid facing the question of that upon which we must build. You have the foundations in your hands. Necessarily the foundations will determine the super-structure and those of us who are interested in the super-structure wish to see the foundation firmly laid. A firm foundation means one upon which we may build. It means a foundation that does not attempt to be a super-structure. That means that elementary education should be elementary. It should not attempt to do the things which belong to higher education. Rather, it should lay the basis for higher education. Of course, it is true that the large majority of our people cannot afford the luxury of higher education in the scholastic sense. But it is not merely of that kind of higher education that I am thinking. On a broad foundation to begin with, all life is a process of education and in this sense the elementary education that everyone receives is a preparation for further education thru life if not thru the schools. As such a preparation it needs above all to emphasize the basic things upon which a super-struc¬ ture can later be built. Those basic things are not a premature acquaintance with subjects of an advanced character, but rather training which will be useful to everyone for further growth whether or not he has the opportunity of higher education in the formal sense. Such basic training, which must underlie any improvement in the social order consists primarily, I believe, in the inculcation of accuracy and promptness, in the awakening of an awareness to, and interest in, the immediate physical environment, and an understanding and mastery of language, the chief tool of communication and thought. 402 National Education Association SECRETARY’S MINUTES Cleveland, Ohio The Department of Elementary School Principals held two general sessions at the ittle Theater Piihhc Auditorium. The splendid musical program which preceded the Monday afternoon, February 26, session was given by a boys’ chorus from the Rutherford B. Hayes School, directed by Vera Otto. On Wednesday afternoon Febru¬ ary 28, the orchestra from the Miles Junior High and Elementary School, under the direction of Mary Kennerson, was enthusiastically received. The topics and speakers for the meetings were as follows: First Session, Monday Afternoon, February 26, 1934 Elementary Education and the Recovery Program Greetings, Paul C. Stetson, Superintendent of Schools, Indianapolis, Ind., and President, Department of Superintendence. Report of 1935 Yearbook, Bess Clement, Principal, Eliza Clark School, Clarksdale Miss., and Chairman, 1935 Editorial Committee. Where Are We and Where Are We Going Educationally? Edna Morgan, Principal, Robert Fulton Radio Laboratory School, Cleveland, Ohio. Some Present and Future Aspects of Elementary Education, Rudolph D. Lind¬ quist, Professor of Education, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Discussion from the Floor Second Session, Wednesday Afternoon, February 28, 1934 Elementary Education for the New Age Report of 1934 Yearbook, John S. Thomas, Principal, Clippert School, Detroit, Mich., and Chairman, 1934 Editorial Committee. A Functional Program in Elementary Education, Turner C. Chandler, Prin¬ cipal, Clissold-Esmond Schools, Chicago, Ill. Education and Social Changes in America, George S. Counts, Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Discussion from the Floor Breakfast and Banquet Meetings The usual Department breakfast was held Monday morning, February 26, 7 :30 a.m., at the Statler Hotel. Even tho a blizzard raged, this family get-together registered more than one hundred. President Kline welcomed all and asked that each one present feel his responsibility in making the meeting a success. He then presented the members of the official family and called upon state, city, and county enrolment chairmen to introduce themselves. After a rousing good time we recessed to meet again at our banquet. On Tuesday, February 27, 6 p.m., in the ballroom of the Statler Hotel was held the usual semi-annual banquet of the Department. This lovely affair was attended by 270. The music was furnished by the string quartette of the Greenville High School. Lee Belle Haight, assistant supervisor of schools in charge of elementary vocal music, led the community singing. Charles Lake, superintendent of the Cleve¬ land schools, was the speaker of the occasion. He spoke on “General Trends in Education.” Executive Committee Meeting, Monday Morning, February 26, 1934 Ihe first meeting of the Executive Committee of the Department of Elementary School Principals convened at 9 a.m., the Statler Hotel. The meeting was called to order by President Kline. Those present were: Aaron Kline, president; Elizabeth McCormick, first vicepresident; Mason A. Stratton, second vicepresident; M. Emma Department of Elementary School Principals 403 Brookes, third vicepresident; Margaret C. Mackintosh, fifth vicepresident; Herbert C. Hansen, Earl R. Laing of the Executive Committee, and Eva G. Pinkston, execu¬ tive secretary. The minutes of the meeting at Chicago were read and approved. The report of the executive secretary was read and discussed. After a thoro discussion as to the ways and means of increasing the membership of the Department, a motion was made by Mr. Hansen, seconded by Mr. Laing, authorizing the executive secretary to work out and execute a plan for an emergency drive for membership. Motion carried. A motion was made by Miss McCormick, seconded by Mr. Stratton, that the executive secretary should go to those nearby cities which have asked for help from headquarters. Motion carried. A motion was made by Mr. Laing, seconded by Miss Brookes, that the Depart¬ ment of Elementary School Principals give $25 to the National Education Associa¬ tion for Federal Aid Fund. Motion carried. A motion was made by Mr. Stratton, seconded by Miss Mackintosh, that the con¬ stitution and bylaws be so amended as to include a $50 Life Membership. Motion carried. Payments may be made in full or in deferred payments of $5 or $10 per year. Credit is to be given to those members who have paid their membership this year by letting them add $2 to the fee which they have already sent. This $3 fee and $2 additional would be the first payment on a Life Membership. Mr. Hansen was instructed to make the necessary amendments to the constitution and bylaws and to give the first reading at the Monday program. The second read¬ ing took place Wednesday afternoon and the amendments were passed unanimously. After a discussion of the reduction of the membership dues from $3 to $2, a motion was made by Miss Brookes, seconded by Mr. Hansen, that a decision be postponed until the problem could be more thoroly considered. Motion carried. The following report of the finances of the Department was made by the executive secretary: Permanent Fund . $5855.77 Balance on February 1, 1934 . 4685.26 A more detailed report, as to how the permanent fund came into existence, how it is increased, and how the interest from the fund is used, was given. The minutes of the Executive Committee meeting held in the Baker Hotel, Dallas, Texas, March 3, 1927, show that the following persons were present: E. Ruth Pyrtle, president; W. A. Roe, secretary; Herbert C. Hansen, first vicepresident; Mrs. Julia M. White, second vicepresident; Eva G. Pinkston, third vicepresident; Arthur S. Gist, editor; and M. E. Peterson, W. T. Longshore, and Mrs. Jessie M. Fink, members of the Executive Committee. The following motion was made during this session: Mr. Peterson moved, seconded by Mr. Longshore, that the president appoint a committee of three to amend the constitution and that the committee report at the Seattle convention. Adopted. President Pyrtle appointed Mr. Peterson, Mr. Gi t, and Mr. Roe. At Seattle the following amendment was read and adopted: Article VI of the bylaws read: Ten cents from the membership fee of each member anually shall be set aside as a permanent Reserve Fund of the Department. This fund shall be placed in charge of the Board of Trustees of the National Education Association to be invested and conserved in securities that are legal. The Board of Trustees of the National Education Association shall be the Trustees of said Reserve Fund. At each annual summer meeting of the Department the Trustees shall report in detail the condition of said Fund and shall apportion the income to such uses as may seem, to the Department of Elementary School Principals, advisable. No part of the principal of said fund shall be spent except after the unanimous recommendation of the Executive Committee of the Department of Elementary School Principals duly ratified by a two-thirds vote of the members present at a: stated annual summer meeting of the Department-. 404 National Education Association The minutes of the meeting at Atlanta, Georgia, July 1, 1929, show that the follow¬ ing persons were present: Eva G. Pinkston, president; Helen B. Shove; John A. Spargo; F. H. Duffy; Jessie M. Fink; Elizabeth McCormick; Frank W. Hubbard, assistant director, Research Division, N. E. A.; Herman Ritow, national chairman, Enrolment Committee, and Herbert C. Hansen, secretary. At this meeting it was voted that 50 percent of the cash balance on hand, July 1, 1929, be transferred to the Permanent Fund of the Department. Today, the< fund is $5855.77 and is invested in Newport News bonds. The interest from these bonds is used for paying the expenses of committees and office expenditures. A motion was made and seconded that the meeting adjourn until 9 a.m., Tuesday, February 27. Motion carried. Executive Committee Meeting, Tuesday Morning, February 27, 1934 The meeting was called to order by the president. The Editorial Committee had been invited to attend. The following persons were present: Aaron Kline, president; Elizabeth McCormick, first vicepresident; Mason A. Stratton, second vicepresident; Margaret C. Mackintosh, fifth vicepresident; Herbert C. Hansen, Earl R. Laing of the Executive Committee; John S. Thomas, chairman, 1934 Yearbook; Bess Clement, chaiiman, 1935 \earbook; Frank W. Hubbard, associate director, Research Divi¬ sion, N. E. A.; and Eva G. Pinkston, executive secretary. Mr. Thomas gave a comprehensive report of the Thirteenth Yearbook — Aids to T eaching , and of the work which had been done by the Editorial Committee. He offered several splendid suggestions as to future policies. A motion was made by Mr. Hansen, seconded by Mr. Laing, that a vote of appreciation be given to the Editorial Committee for the splendid work which they had done. Motion carried. Miss Clement, chairman of the 1935 Yearbook, made a fine report of the work v\ hich has been started on the Fourteenth Yearbook, Socializing Opportunities in Elementary School Life. This topic was approved but the Editorial Committee was given the privilege of changing the wording should they deem it necessary. Under present arrangements the member of the Editorial Committee who has served one year becomes chairman. The Editorial Committee recommended that this arrangement be changed so that a member of the Committee would not serve as chairman until the third or last year of membership, and that a special yearbook be prepared by the present committee so that the change could be made without added responsibility to any one member. A motion was made by Mr. Laing, seconded by Miss McCormick, that the plan recommended by the Editorial Committee for chang¬ ing the time for serving as chairman be approved. Motion carried. President Kline discussed the problem of how the Department could get in touch with teacher-training institutions and get them to include courses on the professional ethics for teachers, the idea being that teachers and principals might be made organization-minded before they enter the profession, if courses in the value of or¬ ganization work were offered in teacher-training colleges. It is also important to teach the proper relation existing between teacher, principal, supervisor, and super¬ intendent. The committee should canvass the work now being done and prepare a syllabus of suggested material for such courses to be submitted to all teacher-training colleges. A motion was made by Mr. Stratton, seconded by Miss McCormick, that a committee be appointed to prepare a plan and to offer suggestions for such a course. Motion carried. A motion was made by Mr. Hansen, seconded by Mr. Laing, authorizing Presi¬ dent Kline to confer with Faye Read, president of the Department of Classroom Teachers, for the purpose of establishing a joint committee of elementary principals and classroom teachers to bring about closer cooperation and understanding between principals and teachers for the welfare of the schools. Motion carried. A motion was made by Miss Mackintosh, seconded by Mr. Hansen, that a letter be sent to Carrie Bruhn, president of the Cleveland Principals Club,’ thanking her and her many assistants for their delightful hospitality and personal service in Department of Elementary School Principals 405 making this meeting mosKprofitable for the members of the Department. Motion carried. A motion was made and seconded to adjourn. Motion cariied. Washington, D. C. The Department of Elementary School Priiacipals held two general sessions in the Assembly Room of the Washington Auditorium, on July 2 and 3. The musical program which preceded the Monday afternoon session consisted of beautifu harp selections rendered by William T. Cameron of the United States Navy Band. The musical program which preceded the Tuesday afternoon session was given by m^m bers of the music appreciation group of the Americanization School *>f which Maude E. Aiton is principal. It consisted of dances and folk songs and was arranged by Mrs. Helen C. Kiernan-Vasa, director of music. The topics and speakers for the meetings were as follows: First Session, Monday Afternoon, July 2, 1934 Health Sponsored by the New York Principals Association Constructive and Preventive Aspects of Teacher Health, Stephen F. Bayne, Associate Superintendent in Charge of Personnel, Board of Education, New York, The Mental Health of the Teacher: Its Effect upon the Child, Lawson G. Lowrey, Chairman, New York City Committee for Mental Hygiene, New York, N. Y. Discussion Second Session, Tuesday Afternoon, July 3, 1934 Services of the Modern School What a Modern School Should Do for a Modern Child, Rollo G. Reynolds, Principal, Horace Mann School, Teachers College, Columbia University, New \ oi , N. Y. The Service Which Elementary Principals Should Render at This Time, Elsie E. Green, Principal, Whittier School, Washington, D. C. Reports of Committees Election of Officers Breakfast Meeting, Monday Morning, July 2, 1934 A delightful get-together breakfast was served at SholFs. There were more than one hundred and twenty present. President Aaron Kline gave a word of greeting, emphasized registering at the registration desk in the Washington Auditorium; made announcements of the activities of the week which would interest elementary principals; gave an urgent invitation for all to visit department headquarters in the National Education Association Building; and announced the following Nomi¬ nating Committee for the election of officers for the ensuing year: Earl R. Laing, Detroit, Mich., chairman; Margaret C. Mackintosh, Brooklyn, N. Y. ; George Ha e, Azusa, Calif.; Cecelia Galvin, Indianapolis, Ind. ; and Lillian M. Johnson, Nor¬ folk, Va. Banquet Meeting, Tuesday Evening, July 3, 1934 In the West Ballroom of the Shoreham Hotel, the semi-annual banquet was held. This delightful occasion was made more enjoyable because of the group singing, led by Mrs. Lillian G. Brosseau, instructor in music in the Washington schools and the soloist, Hattie Herfurth, contralto, an elementary-school teacher. Mrs. H. M. 406 National Education Association Belman was the accompanist. The Honorable John Dickinson, Assistant United States Secretary of Commerce, was the guest speaker and his timely topic was Elementary Education in a Democracy.” The hostesses for the evening were the principals of the District schools. All local arrangements for the Department were made by the Washington Principals’ Club of which Cecilia P. Dulin, principal of the Buchanan School, is president. Business Meeting, Tuesday Afternoon, July 3, 1934 At the business meeting President Kline urged the cooperation of all principals in the great undertaking of getting elementary principals to unite and work toward restoring education to its 1929 level. Reports from the following were read and approved: executive secretary, Eva G. Pinkston; Resolutions Committee, Herbert C. Hansen, chairman; Earl R. Laing, and Cassie F. Roys; Professional Ethics Com¬ mittee, Mason A. Stratton, chairman, Turner C. Chandler, Harley W. Lyon, W. T. Longshore, L. Daisy Hammond, Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, Emily Ebersfield, Giles D. C laik, and Sally Blackwell; Yearbook Committee, Bess Clement, chairman, John S. Thomas, and Samuel Berman; International Relations Committee, A. B. Heacock, chaiiman, Mary L. Floyd, and Grace M. Mogle Dreier; Necrology Committee Elizabeth McCormick. Earl R. Laing, Detroit, Mich., chairman of the Nominating Committee, submitted the report for officers for the ensuing year. (See Historical Note, p. 388.) A motion was made by Mr. Laing and seconded by W. T. Longshore, Kansas City, Mo, that the report be adopted. Dorothy Bildersee, New York, N. Y., moved that nominations be closed. There being no opposition to the report, Mr. Laing moved that voting by ballot be dispensed with and that the executive secretary be instructed to cast the vote for the assembly. This motion was seconded by Elizabeth McCormick, Superior, W^is. Motion carried. The ballot was cast by the executive secretary. A motion was made by Herbert C. Hansen, Chicago, Ill., and seconded by Eliza¬ beth McCormick, Superior, Wis., that an expression of appreciation be given to the W ashington Piincipals Club and other individuals for their generous hospitality and for making the meeting such a great success. Executive Committee Meeting, Monday Morning, July 2, 1934 I he meeting was called to order by President Kline in room 701, N.E.A. building. The following persons were present: Aaron Kline, president; Elizabeth McCormick, first vicepresident; Mason A. Stratton, second vicepresident; M. Emma Brookes, third vicepresident; Margaret C. Mackintosh, fifth vicepresident; A. B. Heacock,’ Herbert C. Hansen, and Earl R. Laing of the Executive Committee, and Eva G. Pinkston, executive secretary. A motion was made by Mr. Laing and seconded by Miss Mackintosh, that the minutes of the Cleveland meeting be omitted because all the officers and the mem¬ bers of the Executive Committee had been sent copies which they had approved and returned and these had been published in the April issue of the National Ele¬ mentary Principal. Motion carried. It was brought to the attention of the board by the executive secretary, that the minutes of the Minneapolis meeting had never been published because of the lack of space, eight pages or one-fourth of the bulletin having been assigned to the Joint Commission on the Emergency in Education in the April 1933 issue of the National Elementary Principal. A motion was made by Mr. Stratton, seconded by Miss Brookes, that the minutes of the Minneapolis meeting be published in the October 1934 issue of the National Elementary Principal, so that they will be available in printed form. Motion carried A written report of the executive secretary had been previously given to each Department of Elementary School Principals 407 member of the Executive Committee. The president asked that each section be dis¬ cussed. An expression of appreciation of the work done at headquarters the past year was made by Mr. Laing, and seconded by Miss Brookes. Motion carried. After studying the problems of finance, the Budget Committee was asked to make a proposed budget for the Department for the year 1934-35. Herbert C. Hansen, chairman of the Budget Committee, submitted the following report: Budget, 1934-3 5 Total estimated receipts . Office expenditures and salaries . Contingent fund . Printing and postage . Permanent fund and annuities . $17,500 On motion of Mr. Heacock, seconded by Mr. Stratton, the report of the Budget Committee for 1934-35 was approved. Motion carried. After a detailed discussion as to the ways and means of increasing the member¬ ship of the Department, a motion was made by Miss Brookes, and seconded by Miss McCormick, authorizing the executive secretary to work out and execute a new plan for obtaining members. Motion carried. After a discussion as to the change in time of the meetings of the Executive Com¬ mittee, a motion was made by Mr. Stratton, and seconded by Miss McCormick, to change the time of meetings so as not to conflict with meetings held by the N.E.A. because many of the group are also official delegates to the convention. Motion carried. A motion was made by Mr. Heacock, and seconded by Miss McCormick,, that officers meet at a Sunday morning breakfast at each convention and from this go into executive session. Motion carried. Because of the large amount of splendid material which is available for the National Elementary Principal, it was voted to leave to the judgment of the execu¬ tive secretary as to whether one or more issues of the bulletin would be increased in size. There was a discussion about sending one copy of the Research Bulletin to the members of the Department of Elementary School Principals should one seem to be of especial interest to elementary principals. No final action was taken. A motion was made by Mr. Laing, and seconded by Mr. Hansen, that the executive secretary be instructed to write Frank W. Hubbard, associate director of research, a letter of appreciation for the splendid services he has rendered the Department for many vears in editing the yearbooks and to wish him success and happiness in his chosen field of work. Motion carried. Richard Foster of the Research Division has been assigned to the work of helping the Editorial Committee edit the yearbooks of the Department in the future. Executive Committee Meeting, Tuesday Morning, July 3, 1934 The recessed meeting of the Executive Committee was called to order by President Kline in room 701, N.E.A. building. The following persons were present: Aaron Kline, president; Elizabeth Mc¬ Cormick, first vicepresident; Mason A. Stratton, second vicepresident, M. Emma Brookes, third vicepresident; Margaret C. Mackintosh, fifth vicepresident; A. B. Heacock, Herbert C. Hansen, and Earl R. Laing of the Executive Committee, and Eva G. Pinkston, executive secretary. . $17,500 $7,000 1,000 8,000 1,500 408 National Education Association I he minutes of the meeting of July 2 were read and approved. The morning was devoted to the selection of a suitable life membership emblem, certificate, and card. The executive secretary read the following plan for life mem¬ bership in the Department. Action was taken by the Executive Committee of the Department of Elementary School Principals at the Cleveland meeting, February 26, 1934, to amend the bylaws to include a $50 Life Membership. The income from this source would be placed in the permanent fund of the Department and only the interest used. Payments can be made in full or in deferred payments of $5 or $10 per year. Ci edit to be given to those members who have paid their membership for this year by letting them add $2 to the fee which they have already sent. This $3 membership fee and the $2 additional to be the first payment of a Life Member¬ ship. Life members will receive all publications of the Department thruout life and shall have all rights and privileges of active members. This membership will be non-transferable. I he executive secretary also reported on the progress made since the February meeting. A letter was sent first to each member of the Department whose name appeared in the First \ earbook, asking if they would like to have any particular number of cei tificate when issued. It was felt that the staunch supporters of the Department should have a choice. The second letter went to the entire membership, giving all an invitation to become a charter member of this group. A goal was set for fifty, but up to the time of the convention there were listed fifty-one. Now sixty-one have joined. These names will be listed at the beginning of the directory in the Thirteenth \ earbook which will be sent to all members on September 15. As each application was received a letter was sent asking for their preference about a life membership emblem. Many suggestions have been received and it is most gratifying to headquarters to see the interest which has been exhibited in this new plan which will mean so much to the future of the Department. Stephen O. Ford, representative of the L. G. Balfour Company, which makes the life membership keys for the National Education Association, had been invited to come and give suggestions and prices for an emblem. After much discussion a motion was made by Mr. Laing, and seconded by Mr. Heacock, to ask Mr. Ford to make a drawing using a book for the background and a raised key across, the key to be similar to the one presented to the elementary principals at the Los Angeles meeting and the executive secretary was authorized to go ahead and complete action for the pin. Motion carried. A motion was made by Miss Mackintosh, and seconded by Mr. Stratton, that a letter of appreciation be sent to R. C. T. Jacobs, Dallas, Texas; Frank W. Hubbard Washington, D. C. ; and Harley W. Lyon, Pasadena, Calif., for their splendid drawings for a life membership emblem. Motion carried. A motion was made by Miss Brookes, seconded by Mr. Hansen, instructing the executive secretary to write a letter of appreciation to Margaret C. Mackintosh and her committee for the exceptionally fine program which they had prepared for the Monday afternoon session; that a letter be sent to the New York Principals’ Club thanking them for sponsoring the program; and that a letter be sent to Harold G. Campbell, superintendent of schools, New York, N. Y., informing him of the high praise which it won. A motion was made by Miss McCormick, seconded by Mr. Stratton, that letters be sent to Cecilia Dulin, president of the Washington Principals’ Club, thanking her and her many assistants for their delightful hospitality and personal service in making this meeting so pleasant and profitable for the members of the Department. Motion carried. DEPARTMENT OF %INDERGAR TEN-TRIM AR Y t'D UCATION HISTORICAL NOTE The department of kindergarten-primary education grew out of a meeting of the Froebel Institute of North America, which met in con¬ nection with the Association's meeting in Madison, Wisconsin, in 1884. 1 he name of the Department was changed in 1927 to the Department of Kindergarten-Primary Education. 1 he officers of the Department for the year 1934-35 arc: president, Mrs. Eugenia West Jones, 318 S. Benton Way, Los Angeles, Calif.; vicepresident, Mrs. Daisy Carnall, Columbian School, Denver, Colo.; secretary, Mrs. Florence Hampton, 1210 Granada Avenue, San Marino, Calif., executive committee: Norma Smith, State Department of Edu¬ cation, Montgomery, Ala. (term expires 1935); Geraldine McEnerny, 137 N. Mason Avenue, Chicago, III. (term expires 1936); Dodie Hooe, Board of Education , Dallas, Texas (term expires 1937); Helen Johnson, Central State Teachers College, Mt. Pleasant, Mich, (term expires 1938). Facts 7 elating to the establishment of this Department and records of its meetings will be found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 1884: 74 1885 :349-368 1886 :500-559 1887 :331-361 1 888:323-359 1889 \441 -482 1890 \543-581 1891 : 527 -568 1892:251-303 189 3:321-381 1894:679-704 1895 : 5 10-560 1896:471-514 1897:584-613 189 8:589-619 1899 : 5 30 -57 4 1900 : 365 -402 1901 : 500-5 39 190 2:409-429 190 3:377-406 1904 :415-437 1905 : 341 -372 1906 : 6 26 -629 1907 : 45 5 -47 4 190 8:501-541 1909 : 437 -456 1910 : 37 5 -41 5 1911:477-515 191 2:607-632 191 3:425-445 1914 : 405-420 1915 :629-671 1916:289-310 191 7:417-429 191 8:151-155 1919 :171-178 1920 :191-202 1921:461-469 19 22:969-985 1923:705-718 1924 : 583-596 1925:478-503 1926:497-527 1927:457-472 19 28:411-433 1929:425-448 1930 : 367 -389 1931 : 467 -481 19 32:407-414 19 33:423-433 [ 410 ] THE CHALLENGE OE THE NEW CAROLINE S. WOODRUFF, PRINCIPAL, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, CASTLETON, VT. The new day is a challenge to idealism, a challenge to initiative, a chal¬ lenge to creative thought and creative effort, a challenge to action. It is a challenge to intelligent leadership and in no less commanding terms, to an understanding followership. The ultimate adjusting and administering of our social, educational, and governmental affairs will not be today or next year, or yet in the next decade, but we who are actively engaged in education today do have the supreme privilege of helping to shape the thought for that great day, the thought of youth, for it is they who will have its ultimate fulfilment. What is happening to the public schools all over the country? How are they accepting the challenge of the new day? The financial support of the public schools has been so mercilessly reduced, salaries so cut beyond all proportionate reason that it is making a profound, even a dramatic impres¬ sion, upon thinking people everywhere. It is offering to them, the public, the tax-paying public, a challenge, whether or not they know it. We are seeing in one short year an increase in business, lessening of un¬ employment, schools that have been closed now opening, salaries being restored, budgets tending toward the normal, slowly, yes, but the trend is surely upward. Adversity is not without its compensations and we are com¬ ing to see, first, that public education is a national responsibility, that revenue for the support of the public school shall not be limited to local taxation, but the state must assume a certain responsibility for small local units and the federal government must extend its hand, accordingly, to aid but never to control the various state units. Second, we are coming to see another com¬ pensating result in that the great over-supply of teachers, hordes of whom are ill-prepared, is calling for a more selective group in the teaching pro¬ fession ; and accordingly higher standards of admission to our teacher¬ training institutions are being set up all over the country. A longer period of preparation is being demanded. Already the ratio of the old two-year normal school and the four-year teachers colleges is entirely reversed. Where there were only a short time ago fifty four-year teachers colleges to one hundred and fifty two-year normal schools, there are today one hundred and fifty four-year teachers colleges and only fifty two-year normal schools, with the ratio still changing. Educational authorities in all the states are increas¬ ing the requirements for teachers in our rural and elementary schools from two years to three and four years beyond high school, and we look forward to the day when in every public school thruout the country elementary schools, rural schools, all, there shall be teachers of culture and refinement who bear the stamp of highly educated and professionally trained individuals, skilled in the technic of teaching, fitted to meet the demands of a new social world. [ 411 J 412 National Education Association Our vision is too limited for us to outline today a program of teacher picparation for the coming decade, what with the coming of the nursery school at one end of the curriculum and provision for adult education at the other. But we do look for higher levels of education for the great masses of out people and there can be no higher level of the people unless there be a higher level of those who teach and guide the children and the youth from the kindergarten thru the university. Thus we accept the challenge of the new, the challenge that admits no defeat, that accepts the present situation as only a round of a ladder on which to climb — a vision of a greater day in education than America has ever known, the day in which all fields of edu¬ cational effort shall be united in one supreme effort to make the new day of education a consummate part of the great new world emerging. MENTAL HYGIENE OPPORTUNITIES OF KINDERGARTEN-PRIMARY TEACHERS ESTHER L. RICHARDS, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF PSYCHIATRY, JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY, BALTIMORE, MD. It has been only since psychology and child psychiatry have taught us something of the nature and needs of mental growth and development that education has come to realize that the primary school years of the child’s school life are the most important years of his educational period. Under¬ stand a child during the first four years of his school life, and you have laid a foundation for the superstructure of his entire education. U The first step in becoming behavioristically intelligent concerning the nerves” and “badness” and stupidity of childhood is the realization of the fact that these conditions are symptomatic of strain in some sphere of the child s functioning. This strain may lie in discrepancy between individual capacities and environmental ambitions, or in faulty habit training, or in interparental disharmonies concerning policies of management, or in com¬ binations of all these and other factors. The discovery of these strains takes a little time, and involves an orderly approach in the method of inquiry. It is so easy to jump at conclusions, blaming school for poor teaching, or parents for spoiling, without considering the intellectual stuff which the school is trying to teach, or the psycho-biological stuff that parents are trying to train. We might outline the approach to an orderly inquiry concerning any given problem of poor mental health as follows : I. Stuff out of which the individual is made: Intellectual, Biological, Tempera¬ mental II. Nature and effect of environment and training III. Factors precipitating unwholesome combinations of I and II. In evaluating the ingredients of constitutional endowment, we have tests of science and tests of life; the latter are just as important as the former, altho they cannot be checked by scientific controls. But science has given us no test for temperamental endowment, and yet from earliest childhood Department of Kindergarten-Primary Education 413 environment day by day crystallizes temperamental ingredients in a clear and unmistakable manner. Accordingly the problem of mental health is not constructively attacked by arguing whether heredity or environment is the determining factor in behavior. The real issue in every case is an individual matter dependent upon willingness to take time and patience to find out what kind of environment and training offers any given constitutional en¬ dowment of child and adolescent its best chance of growth and development. Environments of home and school and other institutions of society are constructed on principles of what is good for average child material. Educa¬ tion until recent years developed on the principle of making children fit courses of study, instead of studying educational processes suitable to many different types of children. Until psychology gave us the Binet-Simon in¬ telligence test in 1911, teachers as well as doctors thought that the only intellectually limited child was the idiot, or imbecile, whose defective intel¬ ligence was objective enough to be diagnosed merely by inspection. The intelligence test has been the subject of a great deal of criticism on the part of all sorts of people. This has been due partly to our inherent tendency to believe that each and every one of us is able to size up the intel¬ lectual ability of a human being from his own impressions of intelligence, and partly to the fact that we have never taken the time or trouble to look into the principles underlying the intelligence test. Now it is perfectly true that the intelligence test like any other technic or scientific procedure can be used unintelligently. A wise and careful use of the Binet-Simon examination gives us an estimation of intellectual develop¬ ment that is as reasonably accurate as any other scientific evaluation of human functioning. One has only to follow the results of this psychological procedure in practise over a period of years to realize how well its results tally with the tests of life. If the parents are not particularly observant or of apprehensive tempera¬ ment, the first intimation of intellectual retardation may be discovered only when the child begins school, and teachers complain that it is hard for him to catch on to their program. If classes are large, such a child not infre¬ quently is passed on thru the first few grades without even attracting a teacher’s attention. This is particularly true in schools where group intel¬ ligence tests, such as the Pintner-Cunningham are given to first and second graders. Personally, I have found that the Pintner-Cunningham test tallies quite accurately with the individual Binet-Simon intelligence tests except in a few instances where the temperament of the child may prevent his making a good showing in a group performance. Too often the teacher concludes that he is wilfully inattentive, when in reality his attention span limit is less than that of his classmates. This, to my mind, is one of the most important points of mental hygiene that the primary teacher can grasp. If she miscalculates the intellectual capacities of the border line child she will nag him to work harder and instruct his parents to do the same; she will recommend his promotion to a higher grade on trial, thinking that such a procedure will stimulate his ambition to work harder, and she may send National Education Association him to summer school to make up his deficiencies. Such a procedure is like whipping a tired horse to pull a heavy load. Here lies the cause of the nerves and badness ’ that crop out in junior high-school misfits who are accused of having a terrible case of adolescence. Another tendency of the primary-grade teacher is to delay the transfer of childien to special classes as long as possible, feeling that such a transfer is acknowledgment of her own defeat, and also that it confers a stigma on the child. The child who stays two or three years in first and second grade before transfer to opportunity class is so thoroly discouraged and demoralized fiom the standpoint of educational habits that the special class has no chance to do anything with him. The primary object of all education is the develop¬ ment of good habit patterns in childhood. They cannot be grown if the child cannot take an interest in what you are trying to teach him, and he cannot take an interest in subjectmatter unless he can grasp it. The bulk of behavior problems of childhood begin in the first three grades, and they are to be found in the precocious child who is obliged to be kept back for the sake of his classmates, and in the intellectually slow child who cannot keep up to average class requirements. As far back as 1920 I remember seeing children who were referred to as mentally retarded, and yet they were not, according to intelligence tests. Teachers called them retarded because they could not read. Reading is the most important part of early grade subject- matter. It is an activity which enables a child to orient himself to the world around him more quickly. When he falls down in reading his disability breeds acute sensitiveness to the point of actual shame often formed by lidicule of parents and classmates. I have known teachers to humiliate such a child before a roomfull of children, hoping that calling him “dumb” would stimulate him to greater effort. I have also known stammering to arise from exposure to just such strain. We have had as many as four teachers of non¬ reading children attached to our department of special education in the Baltimore public schools at one time to coach boys and girls in upper grades whose work was seriously handicapped by reading disabilities. Their work does not begin to cover the need for such service. My own interest is in getting first- and second-grade teachers who are intelligent enough to dis¬ cover these children in the early stages of their trouble. I have always felt that the highest paid and best trained teachers in public and private school systems should be those of the first three grades; that these teachers should be selected only after careful study of their pre¬ vious teaching abilities including at least five years of actual teaching ex¬ perience. T. o the candidate s ability to present subjectmatter in an interesting as well as a constructive manner should be added an estimation of her native common sense and flair for sizing up young childhood. The teacher’s natural powers of observation and drawing conclusions from what she observes is often crusted over with too many courses of study in pedagogy and child psychology. The young child needs and needs desperately to be exposed to the best that we can offer him in “the power of thought kindled at the flame of a living thought.” 6 Department of Kindergarten-Primary Education 415 TRENDS IN KINDERGARTEN-PRIMARY EDUCATION TODAY JULIA L. HAHN, SUPERVISING PRINCIPAL, THIRD DIVISION, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, WASHINGTON, D. C. The keynote of progress in the education of young children today is an emphasis upon personality development. For a long time teachers of young children have realized that to “instruct” Johnnie without giving due consideration to what else is happening to him while he is being “instructed” is not real education. It is true that teachers of young children have always been less given to isolated “instruction” than have the teachers of older children. Perhaps we do not deserve so much credit for this as we sometimes claim, for nature has so constituted the young child that isolated instruction just does not work well. I he young child sees to it that we know of his likes and dislikes. His personality defects are easily discerned. He has not yet per¬ fected the skill of hiding them. He reacts to the school environment impulsively and often with little regard to what mere adults think of his enterprises. Life to him is a thrilling experience. Instruction must contribute to the success of the experience if it is enthusiastically received by him. Certain major trends are emerging from our efforts to meet the needs of these fearless experimenters, the children. These trends may be summarized as follows: 1. Recognition of the complexity of the problem of reading readiness, resulting in a program of work for the pre-reading period which avoids the teaching of reading but builds attitudes, abilities, and skills which will later be used 2. Some recent results of critical evaluations of activities a. The demand for greater depth and breadth in children’s activities b. Greater appreciation of the value of real experiences as well as vicarious ones, the former whenever possible to precede the latter c. The present trend in curriculum making, toward a curriculum of social understandings 3. Larger appreciation of creative effort in developing personality and in prepar¬ ing children for meeting the new leisure which faces them 4. The parent-education movement, which has as its aim the close coordination of efforts of home and school in fashioning wholesome personalities. And what of the teacher in this forward movement? Of course she is the most important factor concerned. Upon her depends the success or failure of the entire enterprise. What the teacher must do is to “kindle fires,” to see to it that neither she nor the children lose the spark of inspiration. 416 National Education Association INTERPRETING KINDERGARTEN-PRIMARY EDUCATION TO THE PUBLIC joy ELMER MORGAN, editor, Journal of the National Education Association , WASHINGTON, D. C. It is one of the paradoxes of the present situation to me that the kinder¬ garten which is doing the best job of any unit in the educational system and which is making the most rapid advances in the improvement of that job of any unit in the educational system, should at this time of collapse have suffered more than any other unit. Obviously there is great need to reach the masses of the people to whom in the end we must turn for school support. For fourteen years it has been my task to work at the interpretation of education thru the profession and thru the general public. We have worked with the newspapers and magazines ; we have worked with the radio ; and we have worked with various other agencies outside the school itself. I have come to the conclusion that important as those agencies may be — and they are important — they are relatively unimportant as compared with other instruments of interpretation which we have not used widely enough. The first is the school itself. I wonder how many of you here who deal with young children have taught those children to love their school, to know its purposes, and to carry back to their homes an appreciation of its work? That is a perfectly teachable matter and it is the first approach. Yet when one looks thru the reading materials and other curriculum materials de¬ veloped for young children, he looks almost in vain for even a vocabulary which would help the child to speak to his parents about his school, what it does for him, his appreciation of his teacher and his fellows in the school¬ room. We need to develop for children a vocabulary which will enable them to express to their parents what we know is in their hearts concerning the school. Next to this teaching of the meaning and importance of the school itself, I should put the contact of teachers with the homes. I know that the kinder¬ garten-primary teachers of America were the first teachers to visit the homes and appreciate the importance of that contact between mother and teacher. I know that it is out of the kindergarten-primary group that the great impetus toward parent education came, but I want to stress further the absolute necessity of frequent contact between the teacher and the fathers and mothers of the children in her classes. That contact needs to be some¬ thing more than the visit of a professional person, who goes into the home as a professional person. It needs to be a contact as friend to friend. It means a great deal to the child to know that his father and mother appreciate the teacher and that his teacher knows and appreciates his parents. It means that these two groups with which children are most concerned stand together in unity in their teaching and molding of the child mind. Next to this matter of visiting the homes directly, I should put the prac¬ tise which is spreading rapidly thruout this country of sending into the home at regular intervals material which not only reports on the child’s Department of Kindergarten-Primary Education 417 school progress but contains information for the parent — leaflets giving points in the rearing of children or on the policy of the school or points on how homes can cooperate with the school to promote the success of the children. I should add to these printed materials, the conversations, addresses, and writings directed to the community at large by the teachers and administra¬ tors who are in this branch of the profession. We who are teachers have an opportunity that no one else has to interpret our work, but I wonder how often we have thought thru our work in terms of the vocabulary of the ordinary citizen to a point where we can speak interestingly and intelligently about it? I can think of no branch of the school system where there is a greater body of fascinating material to interest parents and citizens than that of the kindergarten. I would emphasize, too, American Education Week which has grown from small beginnings until it is today reaching literally millions of homes. American Education Week is not just another “week.” We have 30,000,000 people in American public schools. Practically one person in four of our population is devoting full time to the schools. The very destiny of our civilization hinges on this great institution. American Education Week is one time when we ask everybody in the nation to stop and think about the significance of that institution and its importance in our democratic life. The materials now available for American Education Week are more and more adaptable to the specific situation in each community. We have a packet designed especially for the kindergarten and primary grades. That packet represents the judgment of literally hundreds of teachers who have thought and written about the best methods of dramatization to reach the minds of children and parents. I want to bespeak for the American Educa¬ tion Week celebration in 1934 the highest degree of participation. I should add another point in the interpretation of the kindergarten and that is the support of the total program of our great professional organiza¬ tions. The schools of the nation will go up or down together. Whether they go up or down together is going to depend in considerable measure upon what your local, state, and national associations can do. We need all of them. Each of them needs every teacher within its jurisdiction. These associations are the general background against which our individual efforts count. Only as they are able to create general currents of support will it be possible for the individual locality or the individual branch of the profession to hold its own. 418 National Education Association SECRETARY’S MINUTES Washington, D. C. First Session, Luncheon Conference, Tuesday Noon, July 3, 1934 The first session of the Department of Kindergarten-Primary Education was held at the Shoreham Hotel. Catherine R. Watkins, local chairman, welcomed those as¬ sembled and expressed regrets that the superintendent and assistant superintendent of schools of the District of Columbia were unable to be present. Members of the District of Columbia Branch of the Association of Childhood Education provided beautiful floral decorations, place cards, programs, and original songs which made the occasion very festive as well as instructive. After the luncheon the president of the Department, Livia Youngquist Peterson, extended greetings from the Department, also voiced enthusiastic appreciation of the thoughtful planning of the local chairman and her group which added much to the enjoyment of the afternoon. She then introduced the speakers scheduled for the program as follows: Greetings from the Association of Childhood Education, Edna Dean Baker, President, National College of Education, Evanston, Ill. Mental Health Opportunities of Kindergarten-Primary Teachers, Esther L. Richards, Associate Professor of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, Balti¬ more, Md. The Challenge of the New, Caroline S. Woodruff, Principal, State Normal School, Castleton, Vt. Second Session, Thursday Afternoon, July 5, 1934 The joint program and business meeting was held in the Department of the Interior Auditorium. The vicepresident, Norma Smith, introduced the speakers with topics as follows: Trends in the Kindergarten-Primary Field, Julia Hahn, Supervising Principal, Third Division, Public Schools, Washington, D. C. Interpreting Kindergarten-Primary Education to the Public, Joy Elmer Morgan, Editor, Journal of the National Education Association , Washington, D. C. Business The meeting was called to order by the vicepresident, Norma Smith. The secretary gave a brief report of the Chicago meeting. It was approved and placed on file. The president’s report was accepted and placed on file. Geraldine McEnerny, chairman of the Consultants Committee appointed at the Chicago convention was unable to be present. The secretary read her report which was approved and placed on file. At this point the vicepresident recognized a committee from Chicago. The body gave unanimous consent for this committee to present a set of bylaws for the Department. They were read by the chairman, Mary M. Blodgett. After discussion they were amended and adopted, becoming operative at once. The bylaws were then referred to the Executive Committee of the National Education Association for approval. The next order of business was the report of the nominating committee of five — Ethel Roseland, Hollywood, Calif.; Minerva Ford, Grand Rapids, Mich.; Mary M. Blodgett, Chicago, Ill.; Lucy Gage, Nashville, Tenn. ; and Helen S. Baldwin, San Leandro, Calif, chairman. There being no nominations from the floor those named by the committee were elected by acclamation. (See Historical Note, p. 410.) Department of Kindergarten-Primary Education 419 BYLAWS ADOPTED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN-PRIMARY EDUCATION July 5, 1934 Article I — Name .The name of this organization shall be the Department of Kindergarten-Primary Education. Article II — Purposes 1'he purposes of this Department shall be: Section I. To unite kindergarten-primary teachers thruout the country for the discussion of questions pertaining to this field of education. Section II. To promote a better understanding of basic educational principles as applied to all grades. Section III. To acquaint the public with the intellectual, emotional, physical, and social values thru wisely organized kindergarten and primary work. Section IV. To work toward higher educational qualifications and fitness for the initial step into the teaching profession. Section V. To initiate and support movements for the welfare of children and teachers. Section VI. To conduct or cooperate in conducting research studies for the further¬ ance of kindergarten-primary education. Article III — Membership Section I. Membership in this Department shall be of three classes: active, as¬ sociate, and honorary. Section II. Active membership shall be open to members of the National Educa¬ tion Association, who pay the regular membership fee in the Department and who are actively engaged in teaching or supervision in the kindergarten, primary, or elementary groups. Section III. Associate membership shall include members of the National Educa¬ tion Association who are not eligible for active membership. Associate members shall pay the regular membership fee and shall be entitled to all the privileges of the Department except the right to vote and hold office. Section IV. Honorary membership may be conferred upon people who have made outstanding contributions to the Kindergarten-Primary Section of the National Edu¬ cation Association. Names for this honor shall be submitted to the Executive Board and must be unanimously elected by the membership of the section. Honorary mem¬ bers shall neither vote nor pay dues. Article IV — Officers Section I. The officers of the Department shall be a president, a vicepresident, and secretary. No elective officer shall hold office for more than one term. Section II. There shall be an Executive Committee consisting of the officers and four members elected at large. Those elected at large shall be chosen to represent different sections of the country. Section III. Members at large shall hold office for four years, one member retir¬ ing each year. The one receiving the largest number of votes at the first election shall serve four years and the others three, two, and one respectively according to the number of votes secured. Section IV. The president of the Department shall be chairman of the Executive Committee and the secretary shall serve as its secretary. Section V. The retiring president shall become a consulting member of the Execu¬ tive Board for the period of one year following her retirement. 420 National Education Association Article V — Elections Section I. Election of officers and members of the Executive Committee shall take place in the business session of the Department held during the annual meeting of the National Education Association. Section II. Election shall be by ballot except when there is but one candidate for the office when the viva voce (voice method) may be used. Section III. Active members only are entitled to vote. Section IV. The president with the advice and consent of the Executive Com¬ mittee shall appoint a nominating committee not later than January preceding the annual meeting. The committee shall consist of five members, one of whom shall be a member of the Executive Committee. This committee shall nominate one candidate for each office to be filled. Nominations from the floor shall be permitted. Article VI — Duties of Officers Section I. The president shall preside at the meetings of the Department and of the Executive Committee ; call meetings of the Executive Committee at her pleasure or upon the written request of three of its members; sign all orders on the treasury; and perform such other duties as usually pertain to the office. She shall be ex officio, a member of all standing committees. Section II. In the absence of the president of the Department the vicepresident shall perform all the duties of that office. Section III. The secretary shall keep a careful record of the proceedings of the Department and of the Executive Committee and she shall be responsible for their preservation. Within a reasonable time after any meeting of the Department or Executive Committee she shall, upon request, furnish a copy of the minutes to members of the Executive Committee. She shall prepare and keep on file an accurate list of all members of the Department and perform such other duties as may devolve upon her. Section IV. The Executive Committee shall by a majority vote of its members fill all vacancies except that of president. Section V. The Executive Committee shall conduct the business of the Department during the period between meetings; assist the president in the preparation of the annual program; and perform such other duties as may be delegated to it by the Department. Section VI. Annual reports shall contain a list of officers and committees of the Department, together with their addresses and such other matter as the Executive Committee may direct. This report may be printed as a yearbook of the Department. Article VII — Organization and Duties o£ Committee Section I. There shall be two standing committees and such special committees as may be deemed necessary by the president or Department: Committee on Member¬ ship, Committee on Resolutions. Section II. The Membership Committee shall consist of five members appointed by the president with the advice and approval of the Executive Committee, one from each section of the country and a chairman. This committee shall secure mem¬ bership for the Department, collect the annual dues and pay them to the secretary, furnishing therewith a list of the names and addresses of members from whom such dues have been collected, and giving each member the secretary’s receipt counter¬ signed by a member of the Committee. Section III. The Resolutions Committee shall consist of three members, appointed by the president with the advice and approval of the Executive Committee. All resolutions offered at a regular meeting of the Department shall be referred to the Committee on Resolutions unless otherwise ordered by the Department. Department of Kindergarten-Primary Education 421 Section IV. Standing committees shall report to the Department in writing an¬ nually and oftener at the request of the president. Article VIII — Records Section I. The records and accounts of the Department and of its officers and com¬ mittees shall be kept in books provided by the Department and shall be the property of the Department. Section II. The books, papers, records, accounts, and property of any description belonging to the Department shall be turned over to newly-elected officers and committee chairmen. Article IX — Dues Section I. The annual fee for membership shall be fifty cents. Section II. The fiscal year of the Department shall be from September 1 to August 31. The membership year shall coincide with the fiscal year. Article X — Amendments Section I. The bylaws may be amended by a two-thirds vote of the members present at the annual meeting provided the proposed amendment has been sub¬ mitted to the Executive Committee ninety days prior to the annual meeting. Article XI Robert’s Rules of Order shall govern the meetings of the Department and its committees. Article XII This instrument shall become operative immediately upon its adoption July 5f 1934. ( ' ' imI ' 1. ' . / ts , DEPARTMENT OF *Qip Treading HISTORICAL NOTE The department of Lip reading was established at the Philadelphia meeting of the National Education Association , m July 1926, following the required successive meetings of the group, and after a petition had been presented to the Association. The office) s of the D epartment for the year 1934-25 are : president, Estelle E. Samuelson, Supervisor, Educational and Vocational Work, A ew I o) k League fot Hard of H earing , 480 Lexington Avenue , New \ ork, N. Y.; vicepresident, Eliza C. Hannegan, Portland Evening School, 25 Washburn Avenue, Portland, Maine; secretary-treasurer, Jane Cronliolm, 1213 Seventh Avenue, Rock Island, III. e Meetings are held once each year in July. Facts relating to the estab¬ lishment of this Department and the record of meetings are to be found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 1926:1067-1100 1927:473-486 19 28:433-449 1929:449-462 1930 : 39 1-400 1931 : 483-494 19 32:415-422 19 33:433-443 [ 424 I GREETINGS ADA MORGAN HILL, PRESIDENT, DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA LEAGUE FOR THE HARD OF HEARING, WASHINGTON, D. C. AS president of the Washington League for the Hard of Hearing, I ex- tend to you, on behalf of every member of our League, a hearty wel¬ come to our beloved Washington, the capital of our country. We sincerely hope you will enjoy your visit to our city. Since you are a group interested in the work for the hard of hearing, it is not necessary for me to tell you the great value of lip reading, but I do ask you, when you go home, to preach the doctrine to adults with impaired hear¬ ing, to parents of hard-of-hearing children, and to those school officials who have it in their power to help all students who are struggling with lame ears. Help us to win for them those rights which will make their burdens a little lighter. It is only by constant and ceaseless effort that we can hope to accom¬ plish the work for the hard of hearing which will make them useful and happy citizens. I am confident that such a distinguished gathering as we have here, all working for such a noble cause, cannot help but accomplish great good. May you have a happy visit, meeting old friends and making new ones, and may you take home with you memories of a glorious visit. GREETINGS MRS. JAMES F. NORRIS, PRESIDENT, AMERICAN FEDERATION OF ORGANIZA¬ TIONS FOR THE HARD OF HEARING, BOSTON, MASS. I greatly appreciated the invitation extended to me by your president, Miss Kenfield, to say a few words to you about the American Federation of Organizations for the Hard of Hearing, Incorporated. It was the first national organization to form a Lip Reading Teachers’ Council. That was in 1924 and it was a subcommittee under our major Edu¬ cation Committee. Another subcommittee was that on hard-of-hearing chil¬ dren of which I was appointed chairman, an office which I was privileged to hold for eight consecutive years. A study of my printed annual reports will show you that our Federation made the first national survey in 1924-25 to determine what was being done in the schools thruout our country to detect hard-of-hearing children and provide lip reading in the regular grades for those in need of such special instruction. Altho I am not a teacher of lip reading I am one of those whose life has been readjusted largely thru its medium. It was something definite in the way of help held out to me when everything else seemed to be failing. My teacher of lip reading wisely referred me to the local organization for the hard of hearing as a place where many opportunities to practise lip reading I 425 I 426 National Education Association would be offered me as well as chances for rehabilitation thru the program of varied activities offered by the Guild. Therefore, you can understand why I am a firm believer in lip reading for the hard of hearing. It was a pleasure and privilege to have become a mem¬ ber of your Department when it was founded. This is the first one of your meetings that I have been able to attend. We have just held our fifteenth annual conference here in Washington. The Federation fully realizes the important part played by teachers of lip reading. Many of them have been valiant pioneers; many of the more than one hundred local leagues for the hard of hearing have been formed thru their initiative or with their help ; more than eighty of the leagues now com¬ bine to make up our Federation as they have been duly accepted as constituent bodies. Each year at our conferences outstanding papers have been read by promi¬ nent authorities on lip reading. The problem of the hard-of-hearing teacher in the public schools has been ably reported on, as well as the value of the use of hearing aids and audiometer tests. The Federation published the first list of owners of the 4-A Audiometer, school systems offering lip reading in the regular schools, number of 4-A tests, and number of children enrolled in lip-reading classes. In closing, I wish to stress the importance and need of close cooperation between the Department of Lip Reading and the Federation. I feel that we should avoid duplication of effort, and get together in the matter of mapping out our programs each year. THE VOLTA BUREAU, A CLEARING-HOUSE JOSEPHINE B. TIMBERLAKE, SUPERINTENDENT, THE VOLTA BUREAU, WASHINGTON, D. C. Fifty years ago the telephone was hardly out of its infancy, but people were beginning to pride themselves on recognizing its inventor in public. His oft- repeated statement “I am a teacher of the deaf” was beginning to reach those to whom it carried significance, and they were writing to him in increasing numbers : parents, in despair over a child growing up speechless and untaught ; young people, newly deafened and in terror; older people, shrinking from the blanket of silence that was smothering their happiness. He was young, occupied with a thousand interests, but night after night he wrote answers to those letters. No one man, he realized, could do it all ; there must be a center — a clearing-house in the field of impaired hearing. Finally, in 1887, he established a bureau for the increase and diffusion of knowledge relating to the deaf, modestly calling it by the name of the prize which had furnished the nucleus of the endowment. Thus it came about that the name of Volta, rather than that of Bell, is known around the world in connection with work for the deaf. Department of Lip Reading 427 The first superintendent of the Volta Bureau made such far-reaching contacts that even today in some foreign schools the work of the Bureau is the one thing known about efforts for the deaf in America. From the beginning there were two branches of the work — for deaf chil¬ dren and for hard-of-hearing adults. This address deals with the latter. In the early days of the Bureau, there were no schools of lip reading, and the contact was directly with individuals. Later, when schools were established, the Bureau cooperated with the teachers. Still later it aided and encouraged the founding of leagues for the hard of hearing, and the federation of those leagues; and it has rendered much assistance to other educational and social organizations. o _ _ — Members of the Department of Lip Reading are invited to visit the Volta Bureau. The organization feels it a privilege to be the friend of every teacher. One cannot learn all that is in all books, but one can learn where to go for information when it is needed. In the field of deafness there is only one clear¬ ing-house that deals with all types — the Volta Bureau. Call upon it whenever it can help your work. THE EDUCATION OF THE DEAF AND HARD OF HEARING IN THE SAN FRANCISCO PUBLIC SCHOOLS JOSEPH MARR GWINN, MEMBER, N. E. A. BOARD OF TRUSTEES, SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF. Miracles are being performed in a modern way in the oral schools and classes for the deaf. Deaf children thru the service of the schools are being given a substitute for hearing, if not made to hear, and, being dumb, yet they are taught to speak. It is no sudden healing of the organs of hearing or speech, but a long and laborious course of education and training where vision, touch, and muscular sensation substitute for dead ears and stir the dumb tongue to speak. This course is perhaps the hardest task of all teaching and the most expensive form of elementary education. In spite of its difficulty teachers are devoted to the service and in spite of its great cost no taxpayer or member of a board of education has advocated abandoning the program. Strange as it may seem, deafness may never be detected, even by those most intimately associated with the deaf child, such as parents and teachers, or by the child himself. I have known of a case where a child grew to be ten years old before it was learned that this child was almost totally deaf. She had been thought bad and stupid to such a degree that finally she was sent to the diagnostic class and there for the first time it was learned that the child was deaf. It is commonly thought that a child is either deaf or not deaf. The facts show, however, that hearing ability varies from 100 percent perfect to zero. Deafness is of degree. It is necessary to know the ability of the child to hear as determined by mechanical and objective means. I have already indicated that the general impression of parents or teachers cannot be trusted in de¬ termining whether or not a child is deaf, 428 National Education Association When all children were tested, about 1.6 percent of them were found in need of special treatment. Those whose hearing is 90 percent or above are treated as normal children and remain in the regular classes. Those children with a loss of from 10 to 25 percent of hearing are left in their regular classes but are removed from these classes a few times each week for special in¬ struction in lip reading by specially trained teachers. Those with a loss of 25 to 50 percent are sent to special teachers in regular elementary schools. "I he classes taught by these teachers are called contact classes. The children are with a special teacher for part of the time and in the regular classroom the remaining portion of the time. Those having a loss of 50 percent or more of hearing are sent to the oral school for the deaf. In view of the fact that there must be some 300,000 deaf children in the schools of this country, many of whom are not recognized as deaf, and also in view of the belief that some 82 percent of hearing defects could be pre¬ vented or remedied, and further in view of the fact that these deaf children have their rights to life and to enjoy the things of the hearing world, also that they have a right to make their own way and not be a burden on the community, it is apparent that the problem of the deaf and hard-of-hearing children is a great and important one. TRAINING TEACHERS OF LIP READING ESTELLE E. SAMUELSON, SUPERVISOR OF EDUCATIONAL AND EMPLOYMENT WORK, NEW YORK LEAGUE FOR THE HARD OF HEARING, INC., NEW YORK, N. Y. 1 raining over two hundred teachers of lip reading in the space of one year sounds as if the crudest theories of mass production had been applied to a sacred subject — the education of children. Yet it has been done, and not only done according to the pedagogic standards required by American universities, but done with all the care for the welfare of the individual handicapped child which is demanded by the ideals of social work. This teacher-training work is simply a part of the activity of one department of a social agency, the New York League for the Hard of Hearing, Inc. Our two hundred and thirty teachers were trained in five centers and all of the courses were duly accredited courses. Let me list them : 1. Columbia University, summer session, four-point college credit. 2. Teachers College, Columbia University, winter and spring terms, also four points. 3. Bronx Borowide, Association of Teachers, superintendents’ alertness credits. 4. Queensborough Teachers Association, also superintendents’ alertness credits. 5. CWA Project 1 77, Board of Education with cooperation of the New York League for the Hard of Hearing, New York University credits (training given at League headquarters). Allied with these courses and given under League auspices is a training course in a sixth teaching center, the Brooklyn Teachers Association. The Columbia summer session and Teachers College university students might be called miscellaneous, under these four heads: teachers of speech who Department of Lip Reading 429 wished to combine both specialties or who were required to take four points of lip-reading methods as requirements towards their M.A. degree in speech; teachers of the deaf wishing to know more about lip-reading methods for the hard-of-hearing child ; supervisors of special classes and health education ; former school teachers, mostly hard of hearing, working toward their own vocational readjustment; all four classifications trained in teaching children. At the training centers in the boroughs of Bronx and Queens the students are regular grade teachers, all of whom are experienced, who carry official classes in addition to the special lip-reading groups. Some are hard of hearing. Many of these students take the course at the solicitation of their district superintendents with their principals’ cooperation. We now come to the great project made possible for the city department of education by the Civil Works Administration. A survey of the city’s ele¬ mentary and junior high schools, which means approximately 600,000 chil¬ dren to have their hearing tested, was planned and the New York League for the Hard of Hearing was asked to train the teachers and audiometer technicians and to act as general consultant and clearing-house. As head of the League’s educational work and its chief training teacher, much of the responsibility fell to me, under the director of the project — known, by the way, as CWA Project 177 — Daniel Caplin, assistant director of health edu¬ cation, Board of Education, City of New York. The program follows closely that which the League has developed and which has been well tried out in its own surveys and follow-up work over twelve years of experimentation. First comes the survey of the entire school with 4A audiometer for the detection of hearing impairments. This test is repeated for suspected cases. Next is the individual test with the 2 A audiometer, so that we have a test and two retests. Ordinarily the otological examination should follow, with recommendation of lip reading for all chil¬ dren having permanent, or irremediable, loss of hearing acuity. It has not been possible to do this so far, because of the inevitable delay in organizing and instructing the staff of doctors, so that lip-reading instruction has in a few cases preceded otological examination. It is not intended that this condi¬ tion shall last. Immediately following the training period, approximately sixty teachers of lip reading were assigned to take over the lip-reading instruction of the children in those schools in which the complete program including otological examination had been operating under the no cost launching plan. From February 1934 until the present time this provided lip reading for about thirteen hundred children. Lip reading, of course, is taught in the regular school, the children continue to play with their normally hearing schoolmates as well as to recite regular lessons with them. The other articles of the program formulated by the League, proper vocational guidance and special health instruction for parents as well as children, will follow in due course. The student teachers and technicians are all young men and women hold¬ ing license No. 1 or higher licenses, but unappointed for the last three or four years because of the reduction of school budgets. All had had some teaching experience during this time. They were assigned to the League foi tiaining, 430 National Education Association live hours daily for two weeks and a half, beginning January 25, 1934. This means a seventy-five-hour course. We send out our students not merely as teachers but as crusaders for con¬ servation of hearing and the rights of the hard-of-hearing child. Our young teachers of CWA Project 177 not only feel this deeply, as their remarkably happy contacts' with principals and grade teachers show, but they are also pouring their young, unspoiled abilities into the work. Original contribu¬ tions to the pedagogy of lip reading are developing, and what is more, some of them are exceptional people who, because they have been trained along scientific lines, give promise of technical improvements which are sorelv needed. It is my first conviction that, while the itinerant teacher is necessary in lural communities and small school systems, at least one grade teacher in every school should be trained to handle the problems of the hard-of-hearing child Second, teachers of speech can profitably combine both specialities. 1 hird, as a rule, qualified grade teachers make the best lip-reading teachers Our fourth conviction is that the concentrated period of training is desir¬ able and that the teacher himself achieves greater lip-reading ability in the concentrated course. Fifth, I found that the young unappointed teacher, whose mind is still in the receptive student stage, showed greater ability and more ingenuity in preparation of subjectmatter and acquirement of new technics than the student teacher of long experience. My chief conviction, however, is that teachers of lip reading must work to rid the world of the notion that teaching lip reading is the unique branch of pedagogy and that methods of teaching it are a dark and holy mystery. I raining 162 teachers in lip reading in three weeks’ time could not have been accomplished at all, in the present day, without the boundless spiritual resources, the carefully laid foundations and the readiness to seize any oppor¬ tunity which characterize the New York League for the Hard of Hearing. In its own serious poverty and without any possibility of financial return the League gave itself, like a single person, to this great civic service. I rejoice in the outlook for the hard-of-hearing child in the City of New York. The first step to insure him an adequate education and otological care has been taken; we have now before us the enormous task of providing him with adequate vocational guidance and vocational training, and it is my belief that the League and the Board of Education will not fail him. SPEECH AND THE HARD-OF-HEARING CHILD GRACE W. ATHERTON, HEAD TEACHER, SPEECH CORRECTION AND LIP READING, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, WASHINGTON, D. C. Defective hearing is a natural cause for defective speech. If the child has an incomplete perception of sounds he has a good reason for not giving those sounds correctly. There is a very slight distinction between some of our consonant sounds. “Th” and “f,” for instance, sound very much alike even to the unimpaired ear of the young child. Certainly then, we cannot be sur- Department of Lip Reading 431 prised to hear “fumb” for “thumb,” or “fank you,” for “thank you,” in the speech of a hard-of-hearing child. In correcting the speech of these children we build up the correct sound thru the residual hearing. We avoid working on the kinaesthetic level when possible. Of course, if we have enrolled in our public school class a child whose hearing is so seriously impaired that we cannot substitute the correct sound for the incorrect thru his hearing, we then correct his speech by means of lip reading. The exact position of the organs of speech for the sound upon which we are concentrating must then be taught. The child must learn how to look as well as how to listen. W e sometimes find natural lip-readers, children who are unconsciously reading our lips. A child once said to me, “I hear perfectly when I am look¬ ing right at people, but when I turn away I do not seem to hear them at all. A lad in a junior high school recently told his teacher that he was sure he heard as well as ever, but that people talked less plainly and seemed to mumble their words. This boy was sent to me because he had a marked lisp. He remained for lip reading as well. We meet with little difficulty in correcting the actual speech defects of the hard-of-hearing child, but when his defects are corrected we frequently find a marked lack of flexibility in his organs of speech, causing a slovenly condi¬ tion difficult to overcome. He has formed bad speech habits partly thru his inability to hear himself clearly. All of the movements for correct sound production must be made rapidly, instantaneously, and subconsciously. Con¬ tinued lack of flexibility and no attention paid thereto leads to permanently immobile, rigid muscles. To avoid this condition requires frequent, systematic practise of the various motions called for in the transition from consonants to vowels, and vice versa. Continued proper practise results in flexibility of tongue, lips, and pharyngeal muscles, fitting them for their many varied actions. While we consider correcting the speech of the hard of hearing of great importance, we are always gravely concerned about his speaking voice. We sometimes learn that a child is hard of hearing just from his voice. Continued impaired hearing with no attention paid to voice placement and voice train¬ ing has a disastrous effect upon the voice. It loses its “ring,” becomes monoto¬ nous, and often loses its natural placement. It is a less arduous task to keep a voice in its normal condition than to restore it to normalcy, so I always advise teacher and parent to watch the voice carefully. If hearing is injured thru illness, begin at once training for keeping the voice normal. Use all the hearing the child has ; do not allow him to get out of the habit of listening, rather, develop to the fullest extent the listening habit. Do not permit the hard-of-hearing child to make his eyes do all the work, at the expense of his ears. When it is possible for him to hear the teacher’s voice by making an effort, do not put him in the front seat where he can see the teacher’s lips so easily that he will make no effort to hear the voice. Lip reading is a mar¬ velous accomplishment, but do not allow the natural, excellent lip reader to forget to listen because he reads lips so readily. For even a very small per- 432 National Education Association centage of hearing leads to a greater assurance of success in the improvement and correction of speech and voice. The efficient speech specialist always seeks every avenue of approach. I do not know whether it is just a coincidence in the Washington public schools or whether the same condition exists in other cities, we have never had a stutterer in a lip-reading class. I plan some day to prepare a voluminous questionnaire, filled with many questions requiring statistical research and percentages, and I shall send copies to all who have sent questionnaires to me (I think I shall have to have several thousand printed). One of the questions I shall ask is about the hard-of-hearing stutterer. I know there are no stut¬ terers in our oral schools for the deaf. Is that great law of compensation re¬ sponsible for the fact that there are no hard-of-hearing stutterers in our classes ? I consider it a great privilege to be engaged in this business of improving and correcting speech. I know of no special educational activity so filled with thrilling experiences. It is not an easy task. Indeed, on the last day of school every speech teacher feels as tho he could not work one more day, but our minds are filled with memories of little children literally made over, and of lads no longer ashamed to talk, because now they talk “just like the rest of the fellows.” SECRETARY’S MINUTES Washington, D. C. First Session, Monday Afternoon, July 2, 1934 The eighth annual meeting of the Department of Lip Reading of the National Education Association of the United States was called to order in the projection room of the National Geographic Society Building, Estelle E. Samuelson, vice- president, presided in the absence of the president, Coralie N. Kenfield. The minutes of the last business meeting held in Chicago, Ill., were read and approved. The reports of the secretary-treasurer were read and approved. As no official reports from three committee chairmen had been received, the secretary’s reports on the Publicity Committee, the Membership Committee, and the Statistics and Data Committee, were read and approved. The report on an attempt to define the significance of the Department of Lip Reading joining the Department of Special Education, as submitted by Helen Scriver, chairman of the Committee of Department Relations, was read by the secretary and approved. The following letter from the president, Coralie N. Kenfield, was read by the secretary : Members and friends: My second year as executive of this Department, is drawing to a close. It is with a feeling of regret that I am not able to stand before you at our annual meeting and thank you for your loyal support and cooperation during these years. It was my privilege to have been one of the number banded together to work for the formation of this Department of Lip Reading. It will be my pleasure to work for its interests hereafter, and to cooperate in any way for the advance¬ ment of these interests, which are the interests of the hard-of-hearing child, the hard-of-hearing adult, and the teachers that labor for both. Department of Lip Reading 433 To this end I am desirous that our survey of special classes in the United States, undertaken by Miss Kimball as chairman of the Statistics and Data Com¬ mittee, be continued. I feel that this survey is but a starting point, a means to an end— and the end shall not have been attained until every state has definite laws with regard to education and re-education of the hard-of-hearing, and unti every city and town shall awaken to the rights of the hard-of-hearing child and to the needs of the hard-of-hearing adult. # , I rejoice when I read that certain states have made testing of the hearing ot school children compulsory. I could weep when I read “Nothing being done for the hard-of-hearing in this state.” But we must spend no time in tears, such reports should spur us on in our endeavors. We of the classroom, teachers of the hard-of-hearing child, or adult, must see beyond our classroom walls, and must envision all hard-of-hearing individuals and strive to bring to each such rights and privileges as are now enjoyed by the students within our own classrooms. Will you cooperate in furthering this work of our Department of Lip Reading? Most sincerely, Coralie N. Kenfield, President. The report of the Nominating Committee was read by the chairman, Mai ion A. Durfee and approved. The committee presented the following nominations: For president — Estelle E. Samuelson, New York City, N. Y. ; for vicepresident— Eliza C. Hannegan, Portland, Maine; Mary E. Van Horn, Long Island, N. Y. , Bessie L. Whitaker, Ypsilanti, Michigan; for secretary-treasurer Jane M. Cron- holm, Rock Island, Ill. , , There were no nominations from the floor. Announcement was made by the vice- president in the absence of the president, that Mary E. Van Horn wished her name withdrawn as candidate for the vicepresidency. Balloting then took place. (See Historical Note, p. 424.) . .. c j?A A letter from Thomas W. Gosling, chairman of the National Council of Educa¬ tion’s Committee on Resolutions, inviting the Department of Lip Reading to send any matter to which the committee should give attention, was read by the secretary. In reply to this letter the president, Coralie N. Kenfield, sent the following suggestions : This Department is most appreciative of the efforts of Mr. Allan in selecting a meeting room suited to the peculiar needs of hard-of-hearing lip readers. Our annual meetings have all been well attended and their success has been in no small measure due to Mr. Allan’s efforts in the selection of the assembly room. On account of the magnitude of the work of placing each department duiing the national convention we feel especially indebted to Mr. Allan’s thoughtfulness. We should also speak of Joy E. Morgan’s generosity in giving space in the Journal to an article treating of our work. A vote of thanks was tendered the National Geographic Society for the use of the projection room in the beautiful National Geographic Society Building; the hostesses, Miss Haney and Miss Lohrer, for their delightful hospitality and for their personal service in making this meeting enjoyable, and the Sonotone Corporation for wiring the rpom, The secretary was instructed to write the notes of thanks. V ■ . : . \ nt.-r.l Jr* ■ ' p DEPARTMENT OF zMusic Education HISTORICAL NOTE The department of music education was created by the Board of Directors at the Madison, Wis., meeting in 1884. . The Department, dis¬ continued in 1928, was recreated in 1934 by action of the Representative Assembly at the W ashington meeting. Officers are to be appointed. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier proceedings as follows: 1884:23 188 8:369-405 1886 : 5 63 -599 1881:607-653 1888 :625-665 1889 :665-703 1890:811-827 1891:807-827 189 2:507-533 1893:507-543 1894 :925-957 1895 :765-807 1896 :7 18-7 5 4 1891:772-792 1898 : 832-856 1899 :970-998 1900 :531-542 1901 :704-721 190 2:614-644 190 3:683-719 1904 : 675-709 1905 : 627-668 1906 : 703-706 1901:849-877 1908:835-862 1909 : 673-701 1910:789-833 1911: 787-827 191 2:1001-1031 1913: 601-619 1914: 625-649 1915: 847-883 1916: 575-613 1911: 473-491 1918: 315-323 1919: 291-303 1920: 309-311 1921: 507-515 1922:1047-1063 1923: 733-737 1924: 597-613 1925: 504-522 1926: 527-536 1927: 487-495 [ 436 J A STATE FESTIVAL OF HIGH-SCHOOL MUSIC FRANCIS L. BAILEY, STATE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, MONTPELIER, VT. For the past seven years Vermont has had a state music festival. It consists of several programs by bands, orchestras, glee clubs from many high schools, and an all-state orchestra and all-state chorus. Burlington, Vermont, largest city (with a population of 25,000), is the meeting place for the festival. The festival is sponsored jointly by the Headmasters Club, an organiza¬ tion of all the high-school principals of the state, and the Lions Club of Burlington. The festival has grown since 1928 until now twelve or thirteen hundred high-school students participate. Previous to 1928, H. D. Pearl, assistant superintendent of schools of Burlington, and Adrian Holmes, director of the band and orchestra, had taken Burlington high-school orchestras to participate in the New England Festival. Inspired by this New England Festival, these two men conceived the idea of a state music festival for Vermont. Mr. Pearl interested the Head¬ masters Club and the Exchange Club in the idea. After two years the Lions Club took the place of the Exchange Club. For the first two years the schools were represented in the festival only by orchestras. The all-state orchestra, made up of the best musicians from all the orchestras, was formed the second year and has been an annual feature since then. In 1930 the length of the festival was increased to two days and included glee clubs as well as orchestras. For the first three years a contest was carried on between the organizations represented. Three judges decided which school would receive the trophy. In 1931 it was decided to eliminate the contest between schools and the awarding of prizes. That year bands were included in the festival. A parade thru the city was staged to interest more people in the festival. This parade is headed each year by the mayor, leaders of sponsoring organizations, and other people who are interested in music. In 1932 besides the all-state orchestra composed of two hundred eighty students there was our all-state chorus of five hundred voices. Twenty dif¬ ferent schools were represented. (Vermont has but ninety public high schools and thirteen private schools and academies.) The conductors of the all-state orchestra and chorus have been such out¬ standing musicians as Francis Findlay, Harry Whittemore, and Walter H. Butterfield. Since eliminating the competition feature, eminent music edu¬ cators have been invited to come to serve as critics. Osbourne McConathy has acted in this capacity on two occasions. 1 he critic* attends all perform¬ ances and dictates to a stenographer a constructive criticism of the work of each band, orchestra, or glee club. I his criticism is mailed to the director of each group. On the night of the final concert by the all-state orchestra and all-state chorus, the critic addresses students and audience, summing up their work in general and giving his suggestions for the improvement of the music [ 437 ] 438 National Education Association in the state. The organizations feel this criticism is very helpful, and that they get much more out of the festival now since the competition between groups has been eliminated. Osbourne McConathy states there has been a remarkable improvement in two years in intonation, interpretative work, and ensemble. The selection of finer music becomes evident. Mr. Pearl states that “the festivals have not only improved the quality of our music work but have served as inspiration and incentive to both the boys and girls and their parents.” He further states, Personally, I have never had a part in any activity that was as interesting or more worthwhile.” There is no doubt that the influence of the festival has done much to retain music in the schools during the depression. The general program of the festival usually followed is : Friday evening— choruses give a concert, followed by an informal dance, held for visiting students; Saturday morning — rehearsals for All-Vermont chorus and or¬ chestra; Saturday noon — a short parade, led by mayor and others in which all organizations participate; Saturday afternoon— bands and orchestras give a concert; Saturday evening — a concert is given by the All-Vermont Orchestra and Chorus. Several thousand people attend the festival especially on Saturday evening when the governor attends and gives a short address. The Lions Club takes care of arranging for the auditorium, housing of the students (the greatest task), tickets, seating, and stage arrangements, ushering, ticket sales, and the parade. The general chairman and the different committees make up an executive committee which has charge of the entire festival outside of the musical program. This committee sends advance tickets to a large number of selected names. Season tickets for the three concerts are only one dollar each. I he Headmasters Club and Music Supervisors Association select the music, arrange the progiams, determine the eligibility of organizations to participate, and attend to many other details. The Vermont Music Festival, held each year the fore part of May, is con¬ sidered the outstanding school musical event of the year. The festival has not only helped to retain music in the schools, but from its influence has come a greater interest in music thruout the state. Besides the state festival, regional and county festivals are now being held. Music, instead of being considered in part extracurriculum is increasingly becoming more definitely thought of as essential in the complete development of the individual. A STATEWIDE PROGRAM OF MUSIC L. A. WOODS, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF INSTRUCTION, AUSTIN, TEXAS In our state course of study, my co-worker, Jeremiah Rhodes, says : “Music is an expression of the zest of life, an earnest of the true art of living.” We are launching in Texas a curriculum-building program. Music shall be one of the fundamentals in this program. We recognize the need for training the emotions as well as the intellects of children. Leisure time has made it neces- Department of Music Education 439 sary that attention be given to this type of development. That music is a record of spiritual, social, and physical progress of the human race, is a fact that should receive consideration in all curriculum building. Feeling that the moral fiber of our commonwealth is fast giving way and that something must be done to renew our principles in character building, we have set ourselves the task of finding out what should be done in order that we may renew our allegiance to the fundamental principles of good citizenship and righteous living. It seems that preaching is of little avail. Our children in many instances resent the efforts of the teacher and the preacher. We have decided that the best way to do our preaching and teaching is thru song, an educational effort in which all creeds agree. The child is eager to participate in this activity of learning and thereby unconsciously he begins to build character and develop worthwhile citizenship. One cannot sing with¬ out thinking, and as one thinks one lives. The thing that differentiates the people of America from the Hottentot of Africa is not necessarily the color of the skin, but the plane on which they think. Someone has said, “It is not what you think you are but what you think, you are.” The right kind of music will mold the right kind of thinking, and the right kind of thinking will develop the right kind of citizenship. But our size, about which most Texans proudly boast, in the case of a state¬ wide program of music at first thought seems to be our chief handicap. To put over a music program on a statewide basis in a state so large as Texas with 45,000 classroom teachers, 90 percent of whom are untrained in music teach¬ ing, presents what would seem to be an insurmountable difficulty. The pro¬ gram given by the state of Iowa at the National Education Association convention one year ago in Chicago gave me the vision of how the program could be worked out in Texas. I went back to Texas determined to build a music program. A complete Texas music course of study was worked out and printed. It provides the exact procedures in both the graded music classes and the un¬ graded music classes. The music plan in the rural school receives due atten¬ tion. Four phases of this music study in the rural and ungraded schools will include the rote plan, the chorus plan, the project plan, and the monthly outline plan. Our ultimate objective in the Texas music course of study is “Music for every child, and every child for music.” Every child in Texas, no matter where he is located, should know at the end of this next scholastic year at • least ten songs. At the end of his training in the public schools of Texas, we expect every child to be able to sing at least ninety songs from memory. He will learn thirty songs in the primary chorus, thirty songs in the junior chorus, and thirty songs in the senior chorus. Our problems are two, finance and music supervision, and we have worked out solutions for both of them. Texas has in her equalization fund, $3,000,- 000 annually to be used to equalize educational opportunity. New equipment is required each year in the schools receiving this aid. Among this equipment 440 National Education Association w ill be found next year a portable victrola and the necessary books and rec¬ ords for the development of the program. 1 he state is divided into twenty-two state supervisory districts, and each state supervisor is to know the music program and to cooperate in its opera¬ tion. Annually, we have a County Superintendents and County Supervisors Confeience for one week, for the purpose of unifying the educational pro- giam of the state. At the meeting in August the state program for the intro¬ duction of music will be presented to this group. When school opens in September our entire staff of supervision within the state will be prepared for the year s work in music. Ehe equipment will be purchased and in¬ stalled, and each individual teacher will have complete instructions on how to proceed. We are optimistic enough to believe that such a program will help produce a citizenship for Eexas, which will be morally clean, happy, and cooperative. In 1936 Texas observes her centennial. By this time we expect to have taught all of our Texas songs to the 1,600,000 children. We want you to visit our centennial in 1936, and we will greet you with one and one-half million voices trained under this new program, singing themselves into worthwhile citizens. There is no substitute for music in the program of an enlightened and cultured nation. It is a fundamental part in all worthwhile programs, in the clubs, in the civic organizations, in society in general, and in the churches. Why not make it fundamental in our educational program? DEPARTMENT OF \ural Education HISTORICAL note p M-Partment of rural education grew out of the Department of Kural and Agricultural Education which was authorized by the Board of Directors in 190/ At the Chicago meeting in 1919, the Department was reorganized with three organized rural groups then existing— the ational Association of State Supervisors and Inspectors of Rural Schools the County Superintendents’ section of the National Education Association, and the National Association of Persons Engaged in the Pi eparahon of Rural Teachers— under the name of the Department of Kural bducation. See proceedings, 1920:279 . The officers of the Department for the year 1934-35 are: president • E- fafJ!Nrs, Director of Rural Education, State Department of Educa¬ tion, Frankfort, Ky.; vicepresident, Anna Swenson, Director 'of Rural Education State Department of Education, St. Paul, Minn.; secretary Mrs. Kathenne M. Cook, Chief, Division of Special Problems, U. S. Office of Education, Washington, D. C.; executive committee: Helen Hay Heyl Assistant m Rural Education, State Education Department Albany, N Y. ( term expires 1935); O. H. Plenzke, Secretary, Wisconsin t eachers Association, 716 Insurance Building, Madison, Wis. (term ex¬ pires 1936); Fannie W. Dunn, Professor of Rural Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. (term expires 1937) ■ Sue Powers, Superintendent of Shelby County Schools, Memphis Tenn. (tet til expires 1938); Fred C. Fischer, Deputy Commissioner, Wayne C ounty Schools, 2615 Barium Tower, Detroit, Mich, (term expires 1939). The Department meets twice each year, in February and in July. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meet¬ ing are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 1907: 44- 45 190 8:1187-1215 1909: 953- 992 1910 :1081-1114 1911 11117-1161 191 2:1365-1413 1913: 801- 818 1914: 877- 907 191 5:1131-1159 1916: 613- 636 1917: 599- 613 1918: 271- 293 1919: 281- 288 1920: 271- 303 1921: 523- 616 19 22:1099-1222 1923: 745- 841 1924: 651- 714 1925: 522- 576 1926: 537- 600 1927: 497- 559 1928: 453- 543 1929- 463- 541 1930: 401- 499 1931: 495- 540 1932: 42 3- 453 1933: 445- 461 [ 442 ] AWARENESS OF THE PROBLEM OF RURAL EDUCATION ON THE PART OF URBAN EDUCATION E. E. OBERHOLTZER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, HOUSTON, TEXAS The whole problem of education for youth in this democracy is im- • pounded in the awareness of the rural education problem, from the point of view of the leaders of urban education. A comprehensive program of edu¬ cation must be complete enough to provide for all youth the type of educa¬ tion which will enable them to realize maximum individual growth and self-development, as well as to insure social well-being and progress thru the entire learning period. Operating such a program involves all the procedures and improvements incident to the best organization, administration, and teaching of good schools. To develop such a school, guiding principles derived from the proper conception of the school as a functional agency of democracy must be the determinants. There must be no differentiation in programs of education as between rural and urban groups, except that of adaptations to reach and develop enrichment of living; improvement of cultural, social, and economic relations in community life. There is no way to improve the world except to improve human life. The school must become, more and more, the social agency which influences com¬ munity life by developing in youth those higher qualities of living which rise out of changed attitudes and strivings in daily life. The world suffers always when human values recede. Our greatest na¬ tional resources are human values. When calamity strikes in one section, every other section feels the impact. This nation long ago dispatched the frontier. Agrarian days have passed. Time and labor-saving devices in com¬ munication and transportation have broken down the barriers of time and space. Both potential good and potential harm accompany these changes. All educational institutions exist, in the last analysis, in response to the desires and needs of society. Society, like every other evolving organism, will change; its desires and needs will therefore change. The institutions which promote these needs and desires must be the evolving force which give both direction and purpose. The course of society must become more self-directive, but in perfecting this course, high intelligence is indispensable. Society in the throes of a blood¬ less revolution must recognize that the social world is no less modifiable than the material world. Should scientific study and engineering skill attack the realm of human values in the same manner as they have attacked the realm of materialism, the creative spirit of man would blossom, beauty would be substituted for the forbidden fruit of ugliness, truth would prevail over falsehood, and love would conquer hate. The problems of rural and urban education are mutual and integral, socio- centric, and behavioristic. Moreover social behavior and social organization are the antecedents and the accompaniments of social welfare. Hence, the [ 443 1 National Education Association paramount issue that confronts our nation is finding unified and qualified leadership to plan and develop social agencies which will salvage and elevate human kind. Scientific research, experimentation, and human engineering are e raiding forces which inspire new hope. America, with courage, must hastily usher in a new deal for youth, else the New Deal for recovery becomes just another phantom of hope ending in utter despair. And this day will come to America. AWARENESS OF THE PROBLEM OF RURAL EDUCATION ON THE PART OF RURAL EDUCATION ORVILLE G. BRIM, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, COLUMBUS, OHIO From the educational angle, rural life has long been underprivileged. The present social disaster has increased the tragic features of rural life and edu- caUon. According to the November 1933 issue of the Research Bulletin of the National Education Association, “November 1 of the current school year n s almost 2000 rural schools already closed, with no educational oppor¬ tunity available for over 100,000 children. By April 1 it is likely that closed schools will number 20,000 and children affected, 1,000,000.” The teaching staff even in those remaining schools has suffered in quality. Communities have slipped back decades in professional standards and are using the teach¬ ing position as a means of local charity. The rural supervisory service has been riddled or destroyed. You know these things vividly in your commu¬ nities. From that you can deduce the cost to rural childhood. My time could be spent making you more vividly aware of these crying needs on a national scale. I prefer, however, to attempt to increase your awareness of our re¬ sources and their challenge. I want specifically to increase the awareness of rural educators to the following points: 1. The conventional school with its formal organization, its formal values, and curriculum is dead. It was always dead to the child. It is now dead as an educational ideal. In its stead we have the activity school with its emphasis upon experience, on learning thru and for living. This began as an experi¬ mental venture in private schools. It is now the standard in our more pro¬ gressive public schools. 2. In the light of this modern concept of education we find that rural life, supposedly impoverished in educational facilities, abounds in resources. The rural child, long considered underprivileged, is recognized as having a rich potential heritage. The realization of this depends primarily upon the vision and insight of his leaders. 3. This activity school movement is growing steadily in rural areas. Nothing can stop it ultimately. Some states have entered upon it boldly and on a statewide basis. Others are fostering it in promising spots. Many county superintendents are judiciously promoting it in varying degrees, while earnest awakened teachers thruout the land are making the school a place Department of Rural Education 445 where children really live. They are using child experience, home, farm, and community resources and problems in a new way to the end that child life and community life are enriched both immediately and permanently. 4. This is the rural educational frontier, the area of a fascinating adven¬ ture. In my judgment it offers not only the most promising but the sanest solution to our problem. It is a great challenge. I o be unaware of it is to be professionally dead. To neglect its realization is to betray a tiust. AWARENESS OF THE PROBLEM OF RURAL EDUCATION ON THE PART OF THE PUBLIC O. H. PLENZKE, SECRETARY, WISCONSIN TEACHERS ASSOCIATION, MADISON, WIS. The general media of publicity usually employed to create a consciousness on the part of the public that a real emergency exists are well known. Most of these materials are intended for mass enlightenment, but for the purpose of meeting a specific emergency they have limitations. Playing up deplorable conditions usually produces restiveness, but often fails to stimulate collective consideration or to focus judgment. The common means of creating aware¬ ness of education problems should be supplemented by direct methods. The parent-teacher associations, service clubs, and other organizations have within • their ranks leadership which must be led to present the problems directly to the memberships of the associations. Leadership, especially rural leadeiship, must be fostered for this purpose. It is not sufficient to point out calamities and cataclysms alone. With the exhortation should go a positive program to reconstruct education. The public generally will be interested in methods by which educational deficiencies may be corrected so as not to be continually harangued about impending catastrophe. Leadership in local teacheis organ¬ izations must carry specific proposed remedies directly to the people in the localities. The interdependence of town and country, the relationship of state with state and of state with the nation are being brought to the attention of the public with increasing force. A social-mindedness heretofore not always in evidence is manifesting itself and should be capitalized at this time. THE SMALLER SECONDARY SCHOOL IN THE NATIONAL SURVEY OF SECONDARY EDUCATION LEONARD V. KOOS, PROFESSOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL. ; AND ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR OF THE SURVEY The National Survey of Secondary Education recognized the problem of smaller secondary schools to the extent of making their study a major project. The study of the smaller secondary schools was concerned with those schools which in the main afford the opportunities for secondary education to the children of the smaller centers of population and rural areas. In brief 446 National Education Association its major purposes were : (. 1 ) to make an analysis of the status and char¬ acteristics of secondary education in small secondary schools of different sizes; (2) to determine as far as possible the limitations of these schools due to smallness; (3) to investigate a group of selected schools and compare those of different sizes with one another and with the general run of small schools, (4) to determine what, if any, innovations or significant departures from ordinary practises existed in the selected schools that might be of value to smaller secondary schools in general, and (5) to arrive at any obvious conclusions from the whole study significant for state and local policy concerning smaller secondary schools. I he study was based on information gathered from 614 schools. In order to provide a rather complete picture of the two classes of schools the infoimation collected covers a wide range. This information pertains to the size and type of districts (consolidated or unconsolidated) ; the extent of provision of transportation; the material facilities; the training, experi¬ ence, tenure, salaries, and responsibilities of principals and teachers; the curriculum and extracurriculum; procedures in teaching; guidance; pro¬ visions for health ; community relationships ; and many other matters. A manifest conclusion from an overview of the evidence of the whole project pertains to the all but fully consistent superiority of the selected schools represented. The selected schools are in larger districts than are the unselected schools. They are more often in consolidated districts. They more often provide transportation, and provide it for a larger number of pupils. They retain pupils better — at least when they are reorganized schools. The class period is longer. More often they provide the service of part-time librarians, and these librarians have had more training for their work than part-time libra¬ rians in unselected schools. Their principals are better trained both with respect to the total duration of training and the amount of work taken in the special field of education. The tenure of these principals is longer, their teaching loads are more reasonable, and their salaries higher. In material facilities the selected schools are better provided, particularly in such mat¬ ters as size of grounds, service equipment, special rooms, space and equipment for libraries, equipment for motion and still pictures, and free textbooks. They are superior with respect to instruction in that more often in recent years they have made certain additions to the curriculum, are making more frequent use of newer methods of teaching, and are carrying on a greater range of supervisory activities. In the extracurriculum, in pupil accounting and guidance, in extending their education service, and in their community relationships they have gone farther than have the unselected schools. In two respects unselected schools are about on a par with selected schools, namely, in the tenure and in the salaries of teachers. The first general implication from this evidence is that if the selected schools are providing the facilities or carrying on the activities represented in these aspects of superiority, other schools of the same size may well be Department of Rural Education 447 expected to do the same. This is another way of admitting that the unselected schools are improvable. A second conclusion from the evidence of the whole study is with respect to the significance of size of school. The fact is that the differences between the measures reported for one size-group and the next largest among the unselected schools are typically greater than between that size-group and the corresponding size-group among the selected schools. This conclusion is reenforced by a fact not reported in this brief summary, the frequent superi¬ ority of Group III B (the group of largest unselected schools) over Group III of the selected schools, a superiority which can readily be explained by the larger enrolments already reported for the schools of Group 1 1 IB. It also has the corroboration of an important finding in Part I of Monograph Number 5, of the National Survey of Secondary Education, The Reorgani¬ zation of Secondary Education , a finding which is to the effect that, as concerns schools with smaller enrolments, size is a more potent factor of the extent of reorganization than type of organization. This conclusion from the present investigation is another way of saying that size is more important than selection in making for constructive differences among small schools. It would be difficult, if not impossible, to conceive of a conclusion more momentous for the problem of the small high school. The obvious implication from this finding is that the very small high schools ought to be kept to as small a number as possible. Doubtless in most states there are sparsely settled areas that should be provided with secondary- school opportunities even if enrolments are small, but these should be looked on as non-typical developments. After authorization, such schools should be aided in providing the features of a good institution, as suggested above in discussing the first major implication, but the normal and basic assumptions should be that it is easier to provide a good school where a sizable enrolment is assured and that to maintain a good school with a small enrolment is always an up-hill and often impossible task. MAJOR PURPOSES TO BE SERVED BY THE RURAL HIGH SCHOOL O. A. TOWNS, PRINCIPAL, REDDICK COMMUNITY HIdH SCHOOL, REDDICK, ILL. Schools represent a cross-section of the family life of their patrons. Chang¬ ing conditions have always demanded that educational ideals keep pace with material progress. It is fundamental need and not transient desire that remolds the established order. Isolation is the outstanding characteristic of rural life. When the fog of obscurity is lifted isolation becomes a luxury. The rural high school finds its major purpose in furnishing opportunity by which the people of rural communities may touch elbows in common understanding. The challenge of contact arouses ability and energy to strive for recognition that brings to local communities satisfaction in wider acquaintance and pride in local achievement. 448 National Education Association The splendor of rural surroundings becomes inspiring when painted by the hand of history, literature, and science. The changing wonders of nature come as a dull thud in the life of the serf and the peasant. When character is molded by the appreciated evidences of life and welded in its make-up by the recognized forces beneath it, a wholesome and sturdy citizenship follows. Rural life reveals itself only thru its own activities. Surveys and statistics are valuable but leadership that works from the inside out must solve the problem. Before significant changes can be effective new things must be interpreted in terms of the old. Continuous coordination thru tactful leader¬ ship must vitalize visions before they find permanent usefulness. One of the major purposes of the rural high school as it operates over a period of years is to become a center from which there radiates to its community a silent but forceful influence, fully constructive in civic righteousness. SPOKESMEN NEEDED FOR SMALLER SCHOOLS R. V. HUNKINS, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, LEAD, S. D. Smaller incorporated communities, those under 2500 population, out¬ number larger ones four to one. Sixty percent of our high schools are a hundred or less in enrolment. Smaller schools are not only in the over¬ whelming majority but they minister to the educational needs of two-fifths of our people. The unwonted monopoly of our attention that cities have exercised during the past few decades has blinded our leaders to the numer¬ ical preponderance of smaller places and their schools and to the very great importance of both. These schools cannot be eliminated. The number of communities under twenty-five hundred population has doubled since 1890. The number of high schools of one hundred enrolment or less increased 15 percent in the three years ending in 1930. Larger high schools have increased more rapidly, it is true, but that has nothing to do with the problem of smaller schools. Consolidation increases rather than decreases these smaller schools, for the typical consolidated school is made up of one-room schools and has only two hundred fifty pupils in all twelve grades. Larger-unit support for small schools will help, but larger-unit adminis¬ tration of schools in incorporated communities will come with difficulty and will not eliminate small schools. The control of the schools cannot be re¬ moved from the people who control the other social institutions, such as lodges, churches, clubs, and municipal governments in the smaller com¬ munities with their well-established feeling of corporate identity. The present specialists in the field of school administration look with despair upon smaller schools. They support the general prejudice against the possibilities of rural life and rural institutions. We must look elsewhere for leaders and spokesmen for these small schools and find people who have faith in them. The major reason for the need of spokesmen for smaller schools is that power and influence and consideration come from articulation. The smaller- Department of Rural Education 449 school workers have been subdued into silence. They are potentially capable but they have been disheartened by a lack of appreciation and have often exhibited little power simply for the want of cheer leaders. But more recognition is forthcoming. The touted advantages of cities have suffered a reaction because of the cruelty of the depression to millions of our common people living in them. Smaller places and their schools are being more and more appreciated and more and more leaders are becoming encouraged to speak up. It is very possible that our national leaders will in time be worrying more about the overcrowded, mechanized, routinized, and socially stratified city schools, located in noisy, smoke-enshrouded, crime- infested, bread-line surroundings that are not comparable as an educational setting to the pastoral environment of our typical smaller schools. There is no reason why the smaller schools should not be as good or better than the urban schools if they receive the attention and support that competent spokes¬ men can bring them. PRESENTATION OF 1934 YEARBOOK, ECONOMICAL ENRICHMENT OF THE SMALL SECONDARY-SCHOOL CURRICULUM FRANK W. CYR, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. The function of the 1934 Yearbook of the Rural Department of the National Education Association is to show the present status of the small secondary school, discuss certain special problems characteristic of its small¬ ness and to present methods and technics by which such schools may provide a more adequate educational program. It is designed for the use of state departments of education, teachers colleges, superintendents, principals, teachers, and boards of education responsible for the educational program in such schools. There has been a considerable demand in recent years for the develop¬ ment of methods and technics of providing an enriched curriculum in the small secondary school. Our yearbook is designed to meet this need by bringing together and pre¬ senting illustrations from the United States of methods which have proved successful in small schools. While all of the methods discussed have been used successfully in small schools, very few have reached more than a limited number of these schools. Part I contains a brief picture of the small secondary-school situation in the United States. It shows the relative im¬ portance of these schools, the extent to which they are reaching youth of high-school age, and some of the problems they face because of their size. Part II deals with special methods such as alternation of classes, circuit teachers, individual instruction, supervised correspondence study, utilization of community resources, and provision of guidance. Part III is concerned with problems which arise in the reorganization of the school to bring together larger groups. These include both problems of developing a six- 450 National Education Association year high school and problems of consolidating two or more high schools. Part II presents methods of providing education for small groups; Part III, methods of enlarging the group. The yearbook presents a broad attack from many angles of the problems of the small secondary schools, rather than an intensive study of one method. LEADERSHIP OF COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT IN IMPROVING INSTRUCTION FRED D. CRAM, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, IOWA STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, CEDAR FALLS, IOWA Even tho outstanding county superintendents have always promoted im¬ provement of instruction within their own territory, the state superintendent must organize the work on a statewide basis to be effective. This Agnes Samuelson has done in Iowa by means of 1. A course of study for the elementary schools made by a non-salaried drafted committee 2. Conferences of county superintendents 3. A course of study for high schools, each subject in a separate booklet 4. Assistance of the state institutions of higher learning 5. Change of status of state inspectors to helpers and consultants 6. Use of the institute fund to improve instruction 7. Use of workers from the state educational institutions and others to carry demonstrations to teachers thru (a) the institute, (b) Saturday classes, (c) demon¬ stration centers, (d) use of workers in the teachers’ own rooms 8. Intensive drives on one subject a year, which advance is maintained thereafter. To date, these drives have been on reading, 1931-32 ; language and grammar, 1932-33 ; geography, 1933-34 9. An alternating type of program, providing longer recitation periods; seat work one day and class instruction the next. This type of service will be necessary until county superintendents become real leaders, are well prepared for their work, and have given to them gen¬ uine power; educational practise is uniform and desired results attained by like processes ; and teachers are selected on the basis of training and person¬ ality by disinterested superintendents, rather than by those interested in furthering the fortunes of favored applicants. SOME NEEDS AND PROBLEMS OF THE RURAL SCHOOLS R. S. IHLENFELDT, SUPERINTENDENT OF KENOSHA COUNTY SCHOOLS, KENOSHA, WIS. The problems chosen for discussion include the following: 1. The need for a definite philosophy of education on the part of superintendent, supervisors, principals, and teachers of an administrative system 2. The need for an effective organization for the achievement of desired outcomes Department of Rural Education 451 3. The need for a clear perspective of the living and learning possibilities of each unit of a system 4. The need for employing effective channels of interpretation. Presentday educational literature reveals the fact that educational leaders are aligned on any number of fronts emphasizing varied and, in many cases, conflicting views. While regimentation is not to be desired, unless there is clear understanding of educational objectives to be sought, a system is not likely to be welded into a smoothly functioning whole. With reference to the second problem, while rural territory presents problems which appear insurmountable, much can be done to improve existing conditions. In consolidated and larger grade schools, more super¬ visory responsibility should be extended to school principals. In keeping with this, two essentials are apparent: 1. Unqualified principals should become qualified for supervisional responsibility thru professional reading, conferences, and attendance at summer school. 2. Principals with full teaching loads should be relieved of a portion of their load to make additional supervision possible. Possibilities in the direction indicated were emphasized by J. Cayce Mor¬ rison in the July issue of Education. So far as supervision of special and appreciation subjects is concerned, much improvement can be made by encouraging teachers who have inclina¬ tions along special lines to take special work along those particular lines. A teacher may be inclined toward art, another toward music, while still another toward physical education. Thru efficient preparation and effective stimula¬ tion these teachers will qualify for excellent leadership along the line of their special interest. With reference to the third responsibility, to register improvement, the need for doing three things is apparent : 1. There is need for the superintendent to survey his field. 2. There is need for the formulation of a definite, desirable plan of improvement based upon information secured. 3. There is the responsibility of offering effective leadership which will arouse in the minds of laymen existing conditions, and possibilities for improvement. The survey conducted in Kenosha County by the department of rural sociology of the University of Wisconsin state bulletin illustrates the possi¬ bilities along the particular line. The fourth major responsibility, that of interpreting the school to parents and others supporting education, can be effectively done thru the following channels : 1. The open house program to which parents and others interested are invited is presented from seven o’clock to perhaps nine o’clock and includes the following numbers : a. A brief talk on methods pursued b. A demonstration of the work of the school c. An inspection of the work of the children. National Education Association 2. Other channels of interpretation include the following: a. County superintendent’s report to county board b. Bulletins from the county superintendent’s office c. Newspaper articles d. Letters to the board members e. The school newspaper. I here is no educational field at the present time which is more challenging to the student of education than the rural field. The extent to which this challenge is met will depend to no small degree upon the leadership rendered by the county superintendent of schools. THE RURAL SCHOOL PROBLEM J. W. WHITMER, SUPERINTENDENT OF LUCAS COUNTY SCHOOLS, TOLEDO, OHIO In this group we are focusing our attention and efforts on rural education, which is but one of the many important phases in human interest and activity. Just as in the present, so in the past, there have been periods that presented unusually perplexing problems. For a moment, let us reflect on the general situation that obtained during the period of the history of the United States under the Articles of Confederation and the decade immediately following. . rhe llterature of the day reveals a great deal of confusion and many mis¬ givings, especially prior to the adoption of the Constitution. A few statements from the letters written by George Washington clearly bring to light that there was considerable drifting in public thought under the Articles of Con¬ federation. After the adoption of the Constitution statements from letters of the Father of our Country indicate a period of good feeling and general prosperity with straight thinking on the part of public men. Perhaps our general situation and likewise our specific situation as it relates to the rural school problem is in many respects not unlike that of the Revolutionary Period. It would appear that of necessity there must be some casting and drifting about, but in this drifting about we must attempt to solve our problems as best we can and thus it is very possible that we shall be making more real progress than may be clearly in evidence at the time. I wonder if in some way in the near future it will not be possible to elevate our teaching procedures from a level of a theory of education to that of a science of education. The pure scientist and the student of inanimate things has been able to make more progress than has been possible in the case of the social scientist. This possibility has been so because of the nature of things. However, it now devolves upon the educator to make some progress in the social sciences. In other words, we must bring the science of educa¬ tion, psychology, sociology, and economics more nearly abreast with the pure sciences as represented by physics and chemistry. Just as alchemy was the forerunner of the pure sciences, so should the theory of education be but the forerunner of a science of education. Now this will be a real challenge to the educator but some such objective should be set up in our thinking. Department of Rural Education 453 The whole discussion centering around economy in education and giving so much attention to the fads and frills of the day makes us aware that we are not yet sure just what experiences will be offered children in school, or when and by whom such experiences shall be selected and developed. It appears that we should be able to establish a technic that will render it pos¬ sible for us to evaluate teaching procedures lying beyond the realm of the so-called fundamentals and fact items in education. To be sure, we must con¬ tinue to do a good job in the fundamentals, but we must likewise enrich our procedures beyond these fundamentals with aspirations, ideals, and experi¬ ences that tend to make life more abundant. Of course our schools, and the whole matter of public education pertaining to teachers’ salaries, types of buildings, equipment, etc., are of necessity hooked up with the economic situation. When there are disturbances in the social-economic life of a people, we must expect that there will be resultant displacements in the field of education. However, it must be our constant effort to solve our problems in education along with the general problems of the country. RRTRAL EDUCATION ON THE ROAD TO RECOVERY— AD¬ VANCES MADE THRU REORGANIZING AND REDI¬ RECTING COUNTY AND LOCAL SCHOOL PROGRAMS AGNES SAMUELSON, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, DES MOINES, IOWA The topic implies that advances have been made. That is quite in contrast to what the discussions have hinged about these last few sessions. They dealt with losses. We talk now of gains. These gains, like home, sweet home, be they ever so humble, are worth everything because they reflect a changing attitude, a different psychology, and a moving forward. They are the recog¬ nition of the principle of the philosophy dominating our democracy, of the inherent rights of our children to educational opportunity. For example, an increase of about 10 percent in salaries for teachers, as reports to our office seem to indicate, is not much. But it is as much as our people can afford to pay just now and that is our job as educators — to give the best educational program possible at the price our people can afford to pay. It recognizes the teacher’s place in public service and starts his economic status on a rising curve. You ask what are the advances. I have mentioned the trend to slightly increased salaries. I have no figures to show how widespread this is, but the United States Office of Education and the Research Division of the National Education Association are doubtless ready with statistical evidence to verify or disprove this trend. The crux of the advancement needed is support. To relieve the burden of tax on property and at the same time guarantee rural children a minimum and an uninterrupted educational opportunity — that is the uncompleted task in every state. A roll call here would show that this is the common problem 454 National Education Association that has confronted every state legislature. You will also hear on this pro¬ gram about the emergency education legislation in the recent Congress. These programs of reconstructing our financial system of school support are in the making and considerable advancement is bound to come. It cannot be delayed. The interests of the children and of the taxpayers are identical in this respect. Along this line it should be said that state surveys and planning com¬ mittees are at work in many states. If their findings prove adequate as the scientific basis for reorganizing and redirecting county educational programs, some advances are being made in the right direction. While much of this lies yet in the future, the slow work of gathering the facts and developing aware¬ ness of the problem must precede progress. It is in the program to improve instruction and to hold fast to and develop cultural appreciation in music that greatest advancement has been made in our area. It has been extended and made vastly more significant in the lives of our farm folks. The next advance is to extend this program to our small urban communities. The honor letters — a sort of country school Phi Beta Kappa award — have stimulated interest in earning the rural school diploma cum laude. An emphasis upon a given phase of instruction each year in a comprehensive program is bringing about some progress in redirecting county programs along lines of instruction. There is much yet to be done for our schools and by our schools. We have hardly scratched the surface. The first thing needed is a greater awareness of the problem of rural education. Advances will be in proportion to the awareness of the needs — awareness on the part of rural education itself; awareness on the part of urban education ; awareness on the part of the profession ; awareness on the part of the public — then we can get set and go. RURAL EDUCATION ON THE ROAD TO RECOVERY — ADVANCES MADE THRU INTERPRETING THE SCHOOLS TO THE PEOPLE FRANK W. CYR, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. During the last quarter of a century there have been great changes in the ways by which the public has kept in touch with the educational program and it is these changes with which we are most concerned today. With the rapid development of a complex educational program and wdth greater pro¬ fessional training of teachers, the schools grew away from the people and many of the close relationships which had previously existed between school and patrons were broken. The schools soon realized, however, that they existed only at the will of the people and efforts were made to cultivate the public’s goodwill. Par¬ ents were invited to Friday afternoon programs, school entertainments were held, and clubs, athletics, and other extracurriculum activities which related Department of Rural Education 455 school and community were developed. Thru these activities certain rela¬ tionships or ties were established to bridge the gap between school and com¬ munity. There was relatively little attempt, however, to relate the work of the classroom to the needs of the community. The curriculum continued to remain isolated and was preserved as tho it were something sacred in itself. About this time advertising became a profession, and high pressure adver¬ tising in commercial fields was the order of the day. National advertising campaigns were instituted and every possible effort was made to “sell” the product advertised. Its values were emphasized and its limitations and weak¬ nesses glossed over. Education did not entirely escape their influence. Cam¬ paigns were made to build new buildings, sell bonds, consolidate schools, and “sell the schools to the public.” Unconsciously perhaps educators often as¬ sumed the attitude that they had discovered just what was needed in the pro¬ vision of an educational program and that it was their function to “put over’ as much of this as they could “get by with!’ The publicity courses offered in teacher-training institutions often stressed high pressure methods rather than a continuous program for informing the people, and publicity technics were developed to put over a single isolated idea. This was all in keeping with the hysteria of the boom period. But out of the depression we find an entirely different point of view emerging to shape practise. Instead of “putting over” a preconceived program teachers, prin¬ cipals, and superintendents are sitting down with their patrons to discuss the educational program and its functions in achieving a sound and permanent recovery. Educators are interpreting their schools to the people so that out of mutual discussion and consideration of the problems to be faced a sound program adapted to the needs of those served can be developed. We are realiz¬ ing that the present widespread public school system of the United States grew out of the desires and efforts of the people themselves with relatively little guidance, during the earlier years, from professional leaders. We are now attempting to build and carry on a broad educational program adapted to the complex needs of presentday society, out of the mutual efforts of pro¬ fessional educators who furnish the specialized knowledge and leadership, and the public which contributes by intelligently presenting its interests, needs, and desires. At this point it must be noted that this conception is not something which has sprung up full-grown out of the depression. Some far- seeing leaders have had this point of view for years. Its widespread accept¬ ance today is the significant development which is so encouraging in our progress toward recovery. This Department in its last annual bulletin on the Enrichment of the Small Secondary-School Curriculum offers many interesting illustrations of progressive education in rural high schools which should be useful to school patrons in attempting to understand what constitutes a good school. While this Department does not have the time and resources to take more than a small part in the interpretation of the educational program, it can render an important service by encouraging activities under way. The development of a sound point of view on interpreting the schools to the people is one indication that we are on the road to recovery. 456 National Education Association ART FOR RURAL CHILDREN IN THE NEWER SCHOOL JENNIE M. HAVER, HELPING TEACHER, HUNTERDON COUNTY PUBLIC SCHOOLS, CLINTON, N. J. When a child draws something or expresses it in a concrete form with cardboard, clay, or wood, his concept of that thing grows and becomes real. I he child not only learns to think in words, but along with the vocabulary building he associates this creative, individual growing attitude toward graphic expression. Many forms of art thus create a natural expression of thought and another language for the growing child. Power of expression and honest craftsmanship will grow out of the right kind of art teaching which will instil a confidence that the child will carry thru life. Art should be a vital part of rural education. Each rural teacher and every country child should realize that art is a fundamental part of everyday life. Farms, homes, clothing, utensils, automobiles, highways, public buildings; all denote good or poor art. Making choices between the good and the less desirable is part of simple everyday living. It is well when teaching art in country schools to keep certain broad, general objectives in mind such as to train in appreciation of the beautiful, to stimulate creative imagination, to develop technical skill as needed, to study color and work for better color discrimination, and to educate for leisure-time enjoyment of the arts and crafts. Dr. Jacks in The Education of the Whole Man sums up these objec¬ tives when he says, “ A good system of education aims at the liberation of our creative powers and the guidance of them by many paths to forms of beauty.” A powerful motive force for good art work in rural schools is an annual exhibit planned on a county basis. This not only helps to keep the public fully informed, which is necessary, but also gives thousands of children an oppor¬ tunity to participate. Most of the work on display in well-planned exhibi¬ tions demonstrates how art is integrated in the various units of work. As the school subjects are developed they provide motivation for most of the creative work undertaken. The children paint history murals for the walls of their schoolroom, they design friezes showing the development of land and water transportation, they arrange sandtable groups to illustrate units in social science, they make puppets and tiny “movie” theaters, they arrange artistic nature study charts, they carve wood blocks for Christmas cards and wall hangings, and spend weeks in making artistic notebooks and handmade scrapbooks. Results of individual art activities do not alwa5^s seem tangible to the casual observer, but when the combined efforts of thousands of chil¬ dren are assembled in an artistic, well-balanced exhibit there is brought to the attention of an appreciative public a concrete and living force which is significant and not easily forgotten. Department of Rural Education 457 PROVIDING A MORE ADEQUATE SOCIAL AND RECREA¬ TIONAL LIFE FOR THE RURAL CHILD MATTIE E. THOMAS, DIVISION OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION, STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, COLUMBIA, S. C. The rural child of the immediate future has every right to look forward with optimistic anticipation to what the future holds for him in enrichment of social and recreational activities. True, he has not had much in the past, and there has been no definite program for him. This enrichment, thru new experiences, and new contacts will not come from one source alone but from many. There are five of these outstanding sources. The program of parent education is the first. Parents are studying childhood in all of its varying phases, and with all of its implications as such. The second source is from economic freedom, or financial security of the rural parent. The rural parent can hardly think of social and recreational enrichment for his child while he is faced with physical starvation. The third is interpretation of his rich environment, appreciation of those things with which he is daily surrounded, attaching value to those things which are most worthwhile. The fourth is enrichment thru experiences which are being, and will con¬ tinue to be, more abundantly furnished by the world of science — improve¬ ments and inventions. The radio, good roads, and rural electrification are revolutionizing the life of the rural child. The fifth source is contacts with enriched personalities, particularly in the classroom — teachers who can understand, and who are not afraid to give. AN ATTAINABLE LIBRARY PROGRAM FOR RURAL AREAS FRANK L. TOLMAN, DIRECTOR, LIBRARY EXTENSION DIVISION, STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT, NEW YORK, N. Y. In the library world a considered effort is being made to bring the world of books into easy access to all the people. Bookmobiles now honk their way along the country roads of many states. A county library does its real work in many branch libraries located in villages, hamlets, rural schools, country stores, and postoffices. Along dirt roads the booktruck stops at crossroads to fill the baskets of farmers’ wives with the best recent productions of city presses or to make house-to-house delivery where the library sign is dis¬ played in the farm window. The problem of adequate support is the fundamental rural library prob¬ lem. The cost of library service is moderate, but it is difficult to persuade the village and county potentates to include even one cent for libraries in the tax dollar. A practical plan for the expansion of rural library service must build on the foundations that already exist. Different methods may well be used in different states. Where few libraries yet exist, large scale “regional” libraries, serving several counties, may provide the best solution. County libraries 458 National Education Association function efficiently in many states. In New England and New York, with century-old systems of local libraries, replanning existing library systems is more difficult of solution and the progress may necessarily be slower. Universal library service must be kept in mind as the objective and various devices and units may well be used to enrich as well as to expand library service. There are two legs upon which democracy stands, the public schools and the public libraries. The public schools lay the foundation of an education. Libraries, books, and periodicals offer the means of continuing education thruout life. School and library are partners in a complete educational plan. Both are necessary to build men and women competent to meet the problems of today, and to create the better democracy of tomorrow. THE RADIO AS AN AGENCY FOR ENRICHING RURAL LIFE FLORENCE HALE, DIRECTOR OF RADIO, NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, and EDITOR The Grade Teacher , NEW YORK, N.Y. The radio is the most important force in rural education today. Whether or not educators recognize it as such, the fact remains. The radio is doing more to form public opinion, to create musical habits, and to develop dra¬ matic taste than any other method of instruction inside the school or outside. The schoolhouse, the college, and the church require considerable expense and effort on the part of the persons who come to them for enlightenment. The radio, at a minimum of expense and effort, brings its education straight to the home and, if properly equipped, into the schoolhouse itself. Thruout the country many radio sets are found in rural schools, bringing such programs as those of the American School of the Air into the school curriculum. A few localities like Cleveland, for example, have had consid¬ erable success in working out their own series of educational broadcasts di¬ rectly connected with the school course of study. Where such plans have failed, the reason has usually been that those in charge, as well as the indi¬ vidual teacher, had not given long enough time to the study of the peculiar nature of radio broadcasting. More of this work should be done. The radio has not fulfilled the exaggerated prophecies that it would take the place of the teacher, thus reducing the teaching force materially. In my opinion, this never will happen and never should happen. It still remains true that the most important part of teaching is the teacher himself. Char¬ acter, personality, logical thinking, and initiative are the important objectives of education. For their realization, nothing can take the place of the personal contact with the right teacher. Whether or not facilities in schools admit of the school radio program, teachers should not ignore their responsibility for helping pupils and parents to get the most possible good from the out-of-school broadcasts going into rural homes everywhere. The teacher, by advance study of the week’s listed programs, may encourage the parents, thru the children, to listen to the best broadcasts. He will find many programs each week that may serve as illus- Department of Rural Education 459 trative material for his school work. In fact, it is possible for the wide-awake teacher to influence an entire community to get the habit of tuning in on the best features and thus make the radio a constructive force in community life. That it may easily be a destructive force is too obvious to need argument here. The news broadcasts by such men as Lowell Thomas, Edwin C. Hill, and H. V. Kaltenborn may link the school with the home in the study of current events. Madame Schumann-Heink, Lawrence Tibbett, and Richard Crooks may be the means of arousing interest in music instruction in the schools and music appreciation in the community when the opportunity to hear their golden voices is recognized as the rare privilege teachers know it to be. Think of the impetus to history teaching when the voice of the President of the United States is heard in every home! The teacher should know about it, prepare his pupils for it, and make it the chief topic for discussion the following day — again linking up the outside interest with the school interest in a vital way. To do this does not mean the purchase of expensive books of instruction. You have only to follow the announcers’ advice to “consult your daily news¬ papers.” SECRETARY’S MINUTES Cleveland, Ohio Business Meeting, Monday Afternoon, February 26, 1934 A short business meeting of the Department of Rural Education followed the program. The secretary read a proposed amendment to the constitution which would be presented for adoption at the next business meeting, February 27, reading as follows: Section 6 of Article 4 of the constitution and bylaws of the Department of Rural Education is hereby amended by striking out said Section 6 and substituting therefor the following as new Section 6: IV — Section 6. There shall be one representative of this Department who shall serve for a term of six years on the National Council of Education. A new member of this Council shall be elected for a term of six years at the annual meeting of this Department whenever a vacancy occurs by expiration of the term of a mem¬ ber; such new member to take the place of the member whose term then expires. i The meeting then adjourned until Tuesday. Business Meeting, Tuesday Afternoon, February 27, 1934 The regular business meeting of the Department of Rural Education was held following the program. The meeting was called to order by the president and the amendment to the constitution proposed at the preceding meeting was presented and its adoption moved and seconded. The amendment was unanimously adopted. On motion duly seconded and carried the meeting decided to waive reading of the minutes of the previous meeting and the report of the Library Committee. As the next order of business, the report of the Nominating Committee was requested. Mr. Robinson, chairman of the committee, submitted the nominations for officers of the Department for the following year. The report was signed by the following members of the committee: Ray Snyder, New York; Mr. Simpson, Illinois; Mr. Baker, Ohio; 460 National Education Association Miss Heffernan, California; and Mr. Robinson, Michigan. Mr. Robinson moved the adoption of the report. The report was unanimously adopted. The president an¬ nounced that the officers named were elected for the coming year. (See Historical l\ote, p. 442.) The meeting discussed at some length the proposal by Sue Powers of Tennessee that a luncheon or dinner meeting be prepared for the next meeting of the Depart¬ ment. It was suggested by Miss Carney that programs be printed, sent out in advance o the meeting in order to advertise better the meetings of the Department. Mr. Cyr was requested by the meeting to make contacts with Mr. Miller of the newspaper group in order to secure further publicity for the Department if possible. The matter of having fewer meetings was suggested by Miss Dunn and discussed at considerable length. There was some sentiment that the sectional meetings be revived. No definite action was taken but the Executive Committee was requested to give some attention to the consideration of fewer general and more sectional meetings in the preparation of the program for 1934-35. DEPARTMENT OF School ZH'ealth and ‘ Physical Education HISTORICAL NOTE The department of school health and physical education had its beginning as the Department of Child Study which was created at the Asbury Park meeting in 1894. In 1911 the name was changed to the De¬ partment of Child Hygiene. See proceedings 1911:870. In July, 1924, the Department was merged with the Department of Physical and Health Education under the name of the Department of School Health and Physical Education. See proceedings 1924: 96. The officers of the Department for the year 1934-35 are: president, A. IV. Thompson, State 1 eachers College, West Chester, Pa.; vicepres¬ ident, Edna IF. Bailey, Associate Professor of Education, University of California, Berkeley, Calif.; secretary-treasurer, James E. Rogers, Director, National Physical Education Service, 315 Fourth Avenue, Nezv York, N. Y .; executive committee: William E. Burdick, State Di¬ rector of Physical Education, 7 East Mulberry Street, Baltimore, Md. (term expires 1935); Ethel Perrin, American Child Health Association, 450 Seventh Avenue, Nezv York, N. Y. (term expires 1936) ; F. W. Ma- roney, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. (term expires 1937); A. G. Ireland, State Director of Health and Physical Education, 1208 Trenton Trust Building, Trenton, N. J. (term expires 1938). The Department meets once each year, in June. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 1893: 615-678 1894: 40 1895: 944-950 1896: 893-936 1897: 870-915 1898: 929-959 1899 \1064-1096 1901: 758-770 1902: 739-758 1903: 817-846 1904: 803-841 1905: 755-779 1906: 711-713 1907: 925-950 1908: 998-1045 1909: 745-788 1910: 921-948 1911: 905-938 191 2:1141-1151 1913: 667-694 1914: 683-720 1915: 971-994 1916: 681-698 1917: 521-533 1918: 339-357 1919: 315-321 1920: 311-321 1921: 517-522 19 22:1085-1098 1923: 744 1924: 637-649 1925: 577-597 1926: 601-624 1927: 561-581 1928: 545-567 1929: 543-558 1930: 501-527 1931: 541-560 1932: 455-466 1933: 463-475 t 462 ] MEETING COMMUNITY NEEDS THRU HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE HIGH SCHOOL WILLIAM G. MOORHEAD, STATE DIRECTOR OF HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDU¬ CATION, HARRISBURG, PA. Now that the flow of money to education is diminishing, the leaders in the field of health and physical education and the general school administrators should give more thought to our methods, our standards, our organization, our curriculum content, and our work in research. We have, for many years, been making all kinds of experiments, studies, and surveys. They have revealed to us many truths that are important. We should trans¬ fer them from the printed page and make of them an instrument in the development of a practical and worthwhile program. More time should be given to physical education, more effective programming should make it pos¬ sible to send children to the gymnasium at least by grades and in numbers that will permit effective teaching. We need, first, a more intelligent pro¬ gram of activities more intelligently administered with more emphasis on activities with carry-over values — a program built upon needs. Second, a more educational attitude towrard physical education among both physical educators and educators in general. Situations must be provided in the schools to make it possible to make more effective our instruction in health teaching. The health of the individual child should be our first consideration in the administration of our attendance laws. In the conduct of our athletic program, our first concern should be the health of those participating. Heart disease and tuberculosis are altogether too prevalent at the high-school age. The mortality figures for the latter, for all ages, shows a 50 percent drop but only 25 percent for ages ten to nineteen. It is still the leading cause of death for those ages and much higher for girls than for boys. Examination of 30,000 high-school pupils in Pennsylvania revealed that 30 percent re¬ acted positively to the tuberculin test of which 5 percent were active cases. In one community 34 candidates for the track team were given the tuberculin test — 13 reacted positively and the X-ray examination showed that 3 had the disease in active form — one of whom wTas a far-advanced case of pul¬ monary tuberculosis. I o permit tuberculous or seriously infected children to engage in competitive athletic sports may be a little short of murder. No high school should permit its pupils to engage in such activities unless it is positively known that they are not seriously infected by the tubercle bacilli. Ignorance of the child’s true state of health can no longer be excused on the part of schoolboards or school health authorities. Strain is undoubtedly a contributing factor, and it is significant that at the high-school age, children are subjected to strain, mental, emotional, and physical. Our over-crowded school program with its extracurriculum activities must assume much of the responsibility for these conditions. 1 463 ] 464 National Education Association Our medical inspection program should show a change of emphasis from mere detection of defects to a more effective program of correction. One community in our state reports 688 cases of remediable handicaps among its school children with only 50 corrections. The more serious of the health handicaps noted were 108 with defective vision — decayed teeth 350 — dis¬ eased tonsils 230. When considering school costs with regard to money ex¬ pended for “repeaters” because of physical handicaps, what could be more effective than the correction of these defects rather than the elimination of certain so-called “fads” and “frills”? In conclusion, racial progress marches forward upon the feet of healthy and instructed children. There should be no child in America who is not born and does not live under sound conditions of health ; who does not have a full opportunity for education ; who is not free from remediable health handicaps; who does not have prompt and efficient medical attention; who does not have every opportunity and stimulation to develop to the fullest extent his capacities for industry, good health, and creative leadership. ADMINISTRATIVE PROBLEMS IN THE INTEGRATION OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION WITH THE GENERAL SCHOOL PROGRAM A. J. STODDARD, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PROVIDENCE, R. I. Physical education is a relatively new subject in the school curriculum. Its objectives are emerging gradually and are coming to be recognized and accepted generally. It came into the curriculum in response to that broad¬ ened philosophy of education which includes within its scope the develop¬ ment of all sides of the human being. The schools of the past were concerned largely with the growth of the intellectual phase of life ; today, in addition, the emotional and physical are receiving increasing attention. In the beginning, physical education was physical culture; later it became physical training; finally, it is now included as an integral part of the pro¬ gram of education and is dominated by the purposes of education in general. That is, during the first stage in the development of the subject, the aims were physical ; today, the program not only includes the education of the physical as a means to the fuller life, but also education thru the physical as contributing to the objectives of educational programs in general. The difficulty in the education of the physical is one of balance. The objective of education is to develop all of the capacities of the individual so as to contribute most to the pursuit of happiness. Therefore, the purpose is not so much to produce a consciousness of the physical as to free the person from its fettering limitations. There is still in practise a tendency in many schools to over-develop the physical side and to regard it as an end rather than the means to an end. This is especially true in athletics where concen¬ tration along particular lines frequently leads one to neglect other avenues of development that might be more beneficial from the standpoint of his total happiness. The physical should be so educated as to become the servant Department of School Health and Physical Education 465 instead of the master. The body must become a smooth-running engine, able to run at high speed if need be, or to run in intermediate or low, or even to idle sometimes if the driver so desires. The power to relax is fully as im¬ portant to the well-balanced life as is the power to drive. The program of education is concerned with the development of the whole person. He must be equipped with facts, knowledge, and skills essential to his greatest happiness; and he must acquire attitudes, appreciations, and ideals that will function in the abundant instead of the narrow life. Physical education has much to contribute in both fields. Facts about the physical side of life, knowledge of its uses and abuses, and skills involving it constitute important objectives in physical education. There is no phase of education where it is so essential that the program of instruction and learning experiences be adjusted to meet the needs of individuals as in physical education. Here the wrong kind of activity may produce irreparable harm. Constant measurement of progress, analysis of need, and adjustment of program to meet individual differences are not only desirable, as in all education, but fundamental and prerequisite in physical education. It is the right of every individual to develop his own best self and this cannot be done according to a mass pattern. True sportsmanship is one of the most desirable of human traits and one of the most important objectives of all education and especially of physical education. It is an acquired ideal that is built slowly thru the careful forma¬ tion of the right kind of habits and attitudes. Many of the present practises in physical education, especially in the field of athletics, result in wrong attitudes that develop into ideals that can scarcely be characterized as belong¬ ing to true sportsmanship. Somehow, the teachers of physical education must reconcile the promotion of the desire to win with the development of right attitudes towards both winning and losing and all the conditions that at¬ tend both. Good sportsmanship is a priceless quality in a democracy where it is basic to citizenship. PUBLIC SCHOOL OPPORTUNITIES IN THE FIELD OF MENTAL HYGIENE T. A. C. RENNIE, HENRY PHIPPS PSYCHIATRIC CLINIC, JOHNS HOPKINS HOSPITAL, BALTIMORE, MD. The psychiatrist is handicapped in his inclusion in the world of science because he deals with matters about which everyone has an opinion, and about which he is apt to feel that his opinion is right. That field is the one of behavior; behavior in the home, on the playground, in school, and all the complicated relationships that develop from birth to maturity. This behavior has been studied according to a great variety of interests — government, religion, social and economic strivings, the arts, and many more. Until the birth of psychology some fifty years ago, the how and why of behavior attracted surprisingly little interest. Today the specialist in be¬ havior is beginning to have his usefulness recognized at last by the medical 466 National Education Association profession. This was the slowest of all the sciences to include psychiatry as a reputable member of its fold. The psychiatrist is concerned with the mental health of his patient and mental health, if this be defined, is the capacity to get happiness and satis¬ faction from life. He is concerned with the fine balance of all the ingredients of a personality, which results in an integrated, smooth-functioning unit. He has to know something about neurology, sensation, memory and judg¬ ment, habits, emotions, and also that all these mental functionings are intri¬ cately tied up with body systems of digestion, circulation, and glandular function. He knows that it is impossible at any given moment to divide the behavior of a person into activities of mind and activities of body. Mental hygiene is an aspect of hygiene which takes a genetic interest in the behavior of an individual, dealing with assets and liabilities which may or may not develop into pathological behavior. With this formulation of mental hygiene, it seems evident that the mental health of childhood belongs to no one group of society or branch of departmental knowledge. The mental health of childhood must become the active concern of the teacher, parent, physician, is in a position to recognize early the facts of poor mental health, organization that comes in contact with the welfare of children. We need to get the habit of seeing a child’s misfitting or maladjustment as a symptom of a wide range of causal factors. The complaint of “nerves” and “badness” frequently indicates strain in some sphere of the child’s func¬ tioning. The discovery of these strains takes time and an orderly approach. Most frequently we find, as causative strains, physical handicaps, constitu¬ tional endowment, intellectual handicap, poor habit-training, and unwhole¬ some social conditions. The school health department has long limited its interest to the facts of physical health. The teacher, far more than the physician, is in a position to recognize early the facts of poor mental health. She needs to know how to interpret these facts. With such knowledge, she is in a position to become the most constructive force in the community for the growth of happy, contented, well-balanced personalities. THE ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL PROGRAM OF HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION REBECCA STONEROAD, DIRECTOR OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, WASHINGTON, D. C. It is only by the united efforts of teachers, school officials, parents in the home, parent-teacher associations, health organizations, public health offi¬ cials, and community workers, that we can hope to secure sound health which is so necessary to human efficiency and human happiness. The vital importance of health and character education is strongly em¬ phasized in the schools of the District of Columbia. This is shown by the monthly report of the pupil sent home to the parent, in that three-fourths of the printed page of the report is devoted to health habits and character traits. A note to the parent at the beginning of the report states, “The re- Department of School Health and Physical Education 467 sponsibility for health habits and character training rests upon both home and school. We ask your cooperation in the development of the following health habits and character traits.” Following this is a list of fifteen well- known health habits which can be practised only in the home and are be¬ yond the reach of the teacher. There is also a list of character traits for both the home and the school, with space opposite each for a comment by the teacher upon recognition of special achievement in the same by the pupil. The report continues to state, “This report indicates the pupil’s progress in school work and in those essential health habits, traits of character, and attributes of mind that make for wholesome living and good citizenship. Thus our effort is to make the school a vital institution, reaching into the home and into life in the future. No longer is physical education considered a special subject isolated from general education. There has been a broadening of the viewpoint of both educators and specialists. Physical education is now acknowledged to be a phase of education which concerns itself not only with the physical growth and development of the child along with his physical well-being, but also aims to promote those mental, social, and moral qualities which make for good citizenship. THE NEW LEISURE CHALLENGES THE SCHOOLS EUGENE T. LIES, SPECIAL REPRESENTATIVE, NATIONAL RECREATION ASSOCIATION, NEW YORK, N. Y. There is plenty of evidence in history to warrant the hint that a whole people can become infected with a motivating spirit in the use of free time which will lower them to bestial levels. Do we not recall that a wise man once said : “Tell me the way a people uses its leisure and I will tell you the quality of its civilization”? In the days that are gone the few had leisure and we spoke of the “leisure class,” but now the masses have it ; all are in the leisure class. Shall we now pass laws telling them just how they must use this new gift of time? Ever¬ lastingly no. No regimentation, no fascistic ordering would be tolerated — not in America! What then? Laissez faire? At this point comes the need of clear thinking. If we mean by laissez faire that nothing at all shall be done about this rather sudden dropping into the laps of the populace of ten, fifteen, twenty and twenty-five hours per week of extra free time, then from a social point of view we must say that we shall be taking the wrong track with plenty of wreckage in the offing. For after all is not the way that people use leisure determined by two impor¬ tant considerations : one, what is inside of them ; the other, what is out¬ side of them? In other words, inner desires, tastes, interests tell part of the story and the other part has to do with facilities ^yjfflable, alluring oppor¬ tunities awaiting the people’s use. 468 National Education Association If this much be true, then obviously education, training, preparing people for the right use of leisure, breaks into the picture as does the whole matter of community resources for the satisfaction of every worthy desire of human beings for expression or self-fulfilment. A single generation brought up rightly to make full, constructive use of its leisure could conceivably raise by several degrees the very tone of living of the nation. Sheer indifference or neglect of this issue can lead to the opposite result, and the essence of such up-bringing appears to be the instilling in youth of an insatiable desire for more of a good thing, that is, of all the good things they experienced during their early years, assuming that they went thru a joyous, adventurous kind of education. That sort of education must of necessity have carry-over values beyond the formal school years. We know that the hungers of people for enlargement run the whole gamut of human interests, physical, intellectual, social, artistic, dramatic, musical, manual, scientific — and in all these realms ample opportunities for expression according to individual desires are called for in all our com¬ munities. DEPARTMENT OF Science Instruction HISTORICAL NOTE The department of science instruction is an outgrowth of a State Department of N atural Science Teachers which zvas organized at a meet¬ ing of the Colorado State Teachers Association in 1894. It was first known as the Department of Natural Science Instruction. I he officers of the Department for the year 1934-35 are : president, Da C. Davis , Instructor, University High School, Madison, Wis.; vice- president, Mildred Fahy, Principal, Schneider School, 2957 N. Hoyne Avenue, Chicago, III; secretary, Esther Scott, School Administration Annex No. 1, Washington, D. C.; treasurer, Ralph C. Bedell, Instruc¬ tor, Teachers College, Kirksville, Mo. This Department meets once each year, in July. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 1894: 951 1895: 951-958 1896: 937-967 1897: 916-958 1898: 959-984 1899 \1097-1117 1900: 592-608 1901: 771-802 190 2:759-789 190 3:847-895 1904 \843-896 1905 \781-825 1906 \7 19-7 20 190 1:951-957 190 8:965-998 1909:789-828 1910: 949-967 1911: 939-992 191 2:1153-1193 1913: 695-716 1914: 721-773 1915: 995-1028 1916: 699-749 1917: 535-555 1918: 295 1919: 289 1920: 305-308 1921: 663-666 1922:1239-1265 1923: 843-860 1924: 753-774 1925: 598-608 1926:625-636 19 27:583-597 1928:569-589 1929:559-577 1930 : 529-542 1931 : 5 61 -57 5 19 32:467-480 19 33:477-487 [ 470 1 SCIENCE AND OPINION THOMAS W. GOSLING, NATIONAL DIRECTOR, AMERICAN JUNIOR RED CROSS, WASHINGTON, D. C. here is general agreement that the problems which confront Amer- JL ica are of the most serious nature. The validity of almost every standard by which we have been governed in the past is now called into question. Eco¬ nomics, morals, government, are all in such an unsettled state as to leave us in a condition of the greatest perplexity. Under these conditions there are at least four courses open to us. We may affect an attitude of indifference; we may bend our efforts toward the restoration of old conditions; we may accept the theories of radical leaders who find in this situation of unrest a condition altogether to their liking; or we may with calm, deliberate judg¬ ment think our way thru these problems and map out a course of action in harmony with our conclusions. This latter course, as I understand it, is the way of science. The old Baco¬ nian method of induction has not been superseded. We begin with an observed phenomenon ; we make more observations and gather more facts ; we revise or we confirm our original hypothesis on the basis of the new facts and new observations; we generalize the entire process in terms of a law or principle. This procedure gives no place to the closed mind, to indiffer¬ ence, to preconceived notions, or to prejudices. Doubtless the greatest single obstacle to the adoption of the scientific method is self-interest, real or imagined. We have built up thru the years certain vested rights which we do not wish to see disturbed. In general, a vested right may be defined as the right to continue to do things as we always have done them. Another obstacle to scientific thinking is found in deep-seated prejudice. This may be racial, religious, social, economic, or political. Prejudice effec¬ tually closes the mind to new ideas. Dishonesty and ignorance are additional barriers to scientific thinking. Until the millenium arrives, these two will always be with us. The dishonest man must be exposed to public contumely. The ignorant man must be in¬ formed. This latter task is the work of education. It takes no lengthy argument to convince us that public opinion is a very curious thing, uncertain in its quantity, unpredictable in its consequences. If the propagandists and publicity agents find it useful for their own pur¬ poses to make vigorous efforts to guide and to control public opinion, it would seem that the end to be attained is of considerable importance. By the very nature of its calling, the teaching profession cannot have the aims or use the means of those who have personal interests to establish. For purely social ends, however, teachers have a binding obligation to train their pupils from the earliest years of school thru to the end of formal education in habits [471 ] 472 National Education Association of scientific thinking. This obligation is not limited to the teachers of the subjects classified as science. The teachers of these branches, to be sure, have unusual opportunities for teaching the scientific method. Teachers of all other subjects, however, will do their best work only when they strive to arouse in their pupils the alert, honest, open, and fearless mind. We are recognizing now that the equalitarian view of democracy is an impediment to progress when it means other than absolute equality of right before the law. The method of science has demonstrated clearly that in other respects men are quite unequal. Consequently, then, the method of science teaches us to face the facts squarely and to recognize that a democracy involves both leaders and followers. The public opinion on which the oper¬ ation of a democratic system of government depends, functions most ade¬ quately when the great masses of the people are educated in such a manner as to make it possible for them to know who are true leaders and who are false; to be able and willing to reject the false and to accept the true. At the same time, the successful functioning of democracy will depend upon the existence of a large number of leaders who have mastered the true method of science and who have the desire to put their fine qualifications at the service of society. An effective system of public education will provide well- trained followers and high-minded leaders. THE HIGH SCHOOL AND THE COMMUNITY OTIS W. CALDWELL, DIRECTOR, INSTITUTE OF SCHOOL EXPERIMENTATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. Whatever the futures of the pupils may be, their present community in¬ terests center in and radiate from their high school. The American public high school is a community agency not matched elsewhere during human history. Do we accept and use it as such? Three major questions are raised regarding prevailing and generally accepted high-school practise. Can this school render its best service by continuing to be so largely a school of languages? Many pupil programs are almost wholly languages; such cases are typical of about half of all pupils. Some educators think this plan good. If schools do not produce good linguists, teach more language, some say. This is a false doctrine. Some say learn modern foreign language for its use when traveling, but few travel to foreign countries, and these employ an English-speaking guide. Some say study foreign language for help to English, but language teachers are often faulty in English, and the claim is not proved. More time to thinking subjects, less in language will improve language as well as other education. Set up a program of experimentation to make complete change in way language is taught. Make thought-subject teachers teach language. High-school education is scrappy, not unified. Pupils study dissociated subjects. There is no plan for integration. Teachers provide pupil with well- Department of Science Instruction 473 organized, bur separate, piles of building materials from which his personal educational structure is supposed to be built. But no guides, no blue prints for this structure are given him. This needed integration should be built by using the thought subjects as core of high-school education, building other subjects upon and about those. That is, the natural sciences, history, civics, geography, economics are the integrating centers since they include the thinking materials encountered in life. The other subjects, language and art, should be related to these integrating subjects. The school organization is itself the logical training place in citizenship. Pupil cooperation in the school community is a logical preparation for cooperation in the larger civic community. A measure of real, not make- believe responsibility is essential to development of school citizenship as well as public citizenship. AN ANALYSIS OF THE TYPES OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD USED BY THE LAYMAN IN TYPICAL OUT-OF¬ SCHOOL SITUATIONS RALPH K. WATKINS, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI, COLUMBIA, MO. If we are to accept an analysis of the thought processes needed by the layman in the solution of homely natural science problems as scientific method, the need for a definite group of trainings becomes obvious. A sug¬ gestive list of the most needed areas of training for the development of abilities to use such scientific methods follows : 1. Training in the analysis of common and homely problems, location and defi¬ nition of the essential factors in a problem 2. Training in the interpretation of the significances of scientific experiments 3. Training in the recognition of and the selection of authorities 4. Training in the use of reliable sources of scientific information 5. Training in discrimination between reliable and unreliable sources of infor¬ mation 6. Training in the formulation of “reasonable hypotheses” based upon established facts and principles 7. Training in the reading of science materials 8. Training in the interpretative reading of tables of data, graphs, and diagrams 9. Training in the use of technics of problem solving most often useful to the layman, e. g., (a) Checking proposed solutions to specific problems by reference to established generalizations and principles; (b) Experimental verification by re¬ peated trials; (c) Experimental verification by rotation; (d) Experimental verifi¬ cation by the use of controls; (e) Use of the case method of verification 10. Training in the use of an authority 11. Training in comparison and cross-checking authorities 12. Training in the use of at least some of the tools of scientific measurement 13. Training in the estimation or prediction of an error of measurement and the significance of such an error 14. Training in the selection of suitable measures for particular problems 474 National Education Association 15. Training in distinguishing cases calling for experimental verification; cases calling for verification by check with established principles; and cases calling for verification by appeal to authority. If such trainings as these could be established by schools in the younger generation, or with adults thru current means of adult education, we might indeed begin to make use of such science as we now have or may accumulate in the near future. SCIENCE AS THE STUDENT SEES IT HENRY BRECHBILL, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF 4 MARYLAND, COLLEGE PARK, MD. The use of laboratory apparatus and materials does not insure the identi¬ fication in the mind of the pupil with science outside of school. Too often pupils come to associate such equipment and even science itself with school only. Teachers seldom take their pupils out of the school plant in their science study and a large proportion of pupils feel disappointed later at the failure of the science they learned in high school to connect with the world outside. This condition may be improved by inclusion in the science courses of more definite knowledge of the lives and works of those who deal with science outside of school, especially of the makers of science. To do this the teacher must himself know where science is to be found. Scientists of the early modern age worked as isolated individuals. The seventeenth century saw the advent of the scientific academies and societies ; in the eighteenth century the universities took up research; and recently governments, foundations, and industries have provided workshops of sci¬ ence. If school science is taught as the work of these human agencies, it will lose much of its abstract quality in the minds of child learners. NATURE CLUB ACTIVITIES IN EAST MAUCH CHUNK KARL H. BLANCH, HIGH SCHOOL, EAST MAUCH CHUNK, PA. East Mauch Chunk schools have found a solution to the problem of main¬ taining interest in nature club activities thru a club project which includes the establishment of a fifteen-acre evergreen tree plantation and wild life preserve. During the past four years boys and girls in three groups — a nature study club (grades 4-6), a garden club (grades 5-12), and an outdoor club (grades 7-12) — have planted five thousand baby evergreen trees, made over a mile of stone-lined paths, planned rock gardens and flower beds, and built an outdoor stone amphitheatre seating four hundred. Food plants for wild animals have been planted and, because no hunting is permitted, rabbits, pheasants, quail, and squirrels are numerous and tame. Department of Science Instruction 475 Each of the nature clubs has a definite responsibility in the project. The outdoor club sponsors the tree-planting, the garden club the care of the flowers, and the nature club, wild-life conservation. Arbor Day is observed annually by the planting of a tree in the preserve by each pupil in the public school system. Exercises commemorative of Arbor Day are held ; this year in the new outdoor amphitheatre. Much interest is shown by the townspeople in the project, and help has been given by the CWA, the State Department of Forests and Waters, the county farm agent, and others. The project is the result of the purchase of a tract of waste woodland adjoining the high-school athletic field by a schoolboard which had vision enough to realize the possibilities thus afforded for nature study activities. TRAINED TEACHERS FOR NATURE GARDENS W. H. D. MEIER, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, FRAMINGHAM, MASS. “This day the Normal School, the first in the country, commenced. Three pupils were examined by the Board of Visitors and admitted.” The school was located at Lexington, Massachusetts. It is now at Framingham. This was the beginning battle of the successful struggle for public education of all the children in America. The “new battle against ignorance,” which Cyrus Peirce, under the leadership of Horace Mann, began, was a battle for “liberty and democracy.” It was a continuation of the Revolution which had its beginning on Lexington Common. An examination of the daily journal kept by Cyrus Peirce would reveal to us that the majority of the courses offered in the first school are the same as the courses in the schools of today. The contents of the courses, tho, have changed with the needs of the people. Circumstances change today as never before in the history of mankind. Even during the past decade, industry has taught young workers by letting them work. Now, they are cast into the schools. “Train them to use leisure time” is the slogan. That seems easy. The schools are already fairly well equipped with play apparatus and grounds. To add to this, millions of dollars are being expended in material and free labor for more opportunity for play. Play is good. It must be borne in mind, however, that work is not play. When young people arrive at the required age, they cannot be turned sud¬ denly from play to work. You might as well keep children out of school and begin their mental training at the age of sixteen as to begin their training to work at the age of sixteen. To become successful workers, children must be taught to work by working. This training must begin in childhood. While working, chil¬ dren should have an opportunity to earn and they should learn to keep a part of all they earn. This will make them successful workers and also help them form habits of economy that will in later life help keep them off the welfare list and out of the government welfare workers line. 476 National Education Association THE EXCELLENT TEACHER IRVING F. PEARSON, SUPERINTENDENT, WINNEBAGO COUNTY PUBLIC SCHOOLS, ROCKFORD, ILL. Mary Jones is generally recognized as an excellent teacher. She is a young lady from an average middle-class Christian family devoted to home and community life. Miss Jones is interested in her rural school and its com¬ munity. At times she thinks of her advancement in the profession and resolves that in the near future she will further her education and secure a better position. Before she began her teaching and ever since, she has analyzed herself in relation to her work, her profession, and to her district. She believes that her attitudes are not wholly intellectual but partly emotional, and that will¬ power and thought can strengthen desirable attitudes and overcome undesir¬ able ones. M iss Jones has decided that discipline is not an end in itself, but rather a gradual change from external to internal control. She is more eager to correct and to pardon than to condemn and to punish. In respect to teaching in general, Miss Jones believes first, that excellen¬ cies rather than errors should be emphasized; second, that she teaches because she loves to teach ; third, that her whole soul will always be in the work; fourth, that teaching is a fine art; fifth, that she must teach children rather than subjects; and sixth, that teaching is a privilege of spiritual value. M iss Jones purposes to be friendly with her community, to have a vital interest in its affairs and to be thoroly cooperative with it. Miss Jones is a living example which inspires pupil effort and community appreciation and admiration. Miss Jones is in fact a compilation of the attributes assigned to the excel¬ lent teacher by one thousand classroom teachers thruout the United States as recorded in the book The Excellent Teacher , by Joseph Avent of the UnL versity of Tennessee. THE UNITED STATES COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY— ITS WORK AND PROBLEMS HELEN M. STRONG, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, WASHINGTON, D. C. The safety of every ship which enters an American harbor from Alaska to the Caribbean, from the Philippines to Puerto Rico, depends upon the Coast and Geodetic Survey. On land, engineers for all surveying operations and many kinds of construction work rely upon the geodetic control estab¬ lished by this same survey. Geodetic control surveys lay the foundation for the topographic survey on land and the hydrographic survey on water, which provide the source material out of which maps and charts are made. These surveys are the field work which, by means of triangulation, establishes exact locations and ele- Department of Science Instruction 477 vations and provides the basic framework of all maps. Upon this the car¬ tographer may lay down his state or county boundaries, rivers, and lakes. The topographer may in turn go into the field and, on it, locate his contours for mountain, valley, and plain; his roads, railroads, and houses; his streams and coastlines. Flood control engineers will use the basic geodetic survey to aid in locating reservoirs and dams, drainage, and conservancy areas. Hydrog- raphers will tie into triangulation stations along the coast so as to place precisely their lines of soundings, sunken rocks, and rocks awash, and thus accurately develop the depth curves of the sea bottom, providing the data for navigation charts. Geodetic surveys first were made in widely separated areas — some on the Atlantic Coast, some in the Middlewest, and others along the Pacific Coast. Gradually these areas merged, and a line of precise triangulation was carried across the country along the 39th parallel. Later other lines were extended north-and-south and east-and-west. When the “forty-niners,” in their rush for gold, overnight changed San Francisco Bay from a harbor far out on the edge of human interest, to the focal point toward which ships headed from all parts of the world, no control surveys had been made along the Pacific Coast. In this emergency four of the younger officers of the Coast Survey, stationed in its Washington office, volunteered to go to the Pacific Coast and undertake “for one year to do any duty however hard or manual,” at their regular rate of pay, sixty dollars a month. So the survey was accomplished. Methods and equipment for surveying on land and sea have changed materially since the early work on the Atlantic and Pacific Coasts. In place of the sailing ship and the hand-lead is the steam vessel which carries modern scientific instruments, more than one of which was developed by Coast Survey engineers. Among these are the fathometer, the wire drag, and radio acoustic range finding equipment. The first two enable the surveyor to cover thoroly the ocean bottoms, without stopping the ship, whereas with a hand-lead and sailing vessel, the ship had to be stopped while several hundred feet of line were paid out and hauled in again. With development of radio acoustic range-finding apparatus, even in a fog, a survey ship may locate itself and go forward with its work of sounding. The method used is briefly this. Small bombs are exploded by the survey ship. Hydrophones have been placed at established locations on the shore. These receive the explosions and relay the times of explosion to the survey ship by characteristic radio signals. Thus the survey ship obtains a fix by sound instead of sight and locates its position. On fog-ridden coasts the work of sounding has been known to go forward without interruption, even when the bowsprit is invisible from the bridge. This device has proven invaluable on the north Pacific Coast and off New England. Changing coast lines necessitate new surveys. Whenever you read of a great storm sweeping the Gulf of Mexico, the “graveyard of ships” off Cape Hatteras, the shifting shoals of Peaked Hill Bar and Monomoy off Cape Cod, or that ever moving long line of barrier reefs and sand spits fringing 478 National Education Association the seaboard from Long Island to Cape Sable and thence around the Gulf of Mexico to the mouth of the Rio Grande, you may know that Coast Survey parties soon will be in those waters, resurveying the changed bottom and shore line so that ships may sail safely, for the forces of nature have decreed that constant surveying is the price of safe navigation. So vast is this task of charting the coastal waters and running survey lines over the land, that the Coast and Geodetic Survey faces a great responsi¬ bility for the life and safety of those of the future who go down to the sea in ships, and for the well-being of the millions who earn their livelihood or seek their pleasure on the land. As in the days of the “forty-niners,” its engi¬ neers will continue to carry on their work with scientific accuracy and whole¬ hearted devotion. NATURE STUDY IN EVERYDAY LIFE PAUL R. YOUNG, SUPERVISOR OF SCHOOL GARDENING, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, CLEVELAND, OHIO Gardening is the everyday approach to nature for most people, and a very logical way of teaching many phases of nature study in the schools. If the schools are to accept the challenge of preparing children for the many hours of leisure the future seems to hold for our people, they cannot afford to leave out gardening as one of the primary avocational subjects. The startling growth of public interest in gardening magazines and books, garden clubs, and gardens themselves, shows that the public has begun to appreciate the place of the garden as a leisure-time occupation. Can the schools afford to omit a subject which so completely satisfies every require¬ ment, social as well as individual, for worthwhile use of time not needed for gainful work? Cleveland’s Board of Education -includes gardening as an integral part of school science and is conducting a program which is accepted with ap¬ proval by teachers, parents, and children. About 46,000 children in grades 3 to 6 inclusive are receiving regular school-time instruction in gardening; nearly 11,000 children are conducting home or school garden projects. The time is not far distant when gardening must take its place with music, art, and physical education, as an essential part of the school’s program to prepare children for all-round living. SECRETARY’S MINUTES Washington, D. C. First Session, Monday Afternoon, July 2, 1934 The first session followed a joint meeting with the Department of Secondary Education. On the general program, this Department was represented by Otis W. Caldwell of Columbia University. The futility of many high-school subjects such as languages was discussed in his paper entitled “The High School and the Community.” Department of Science Instruction 479 At the Science Department session immediately following on July 2, Ellen Eddy Shaw, the president, presided. The following were the speakers and their subjects: An Analysis of the Types of Scientific Method Used by the Layman in Typical Out-Of-School Situations, Ralph K. Watkins, Professor of Education, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. Science and Opinion, Thomas W. Gosling, Director, American Junior Red Cross, Washington, D. C. Science as the Student Sees It, Henry Brechbill, Assistant Professor of Educa¬ tion, University of Maryland, College Park, Md. The attendance was about one hundred for this session. Second Session, Thursday Afternoon, July 5, 1934 Mildred Fahy, secretary of the Department, presided at the last session. The speakers and their subjects were as follows: Teaching Science in an Elementary School that Uses the Unit Method of Instruction, Helene Nichols, Teacher, Public School, Manhasset, Long Island, N. Y. The Teacher and His Community, Irving F. Pearson, Superintendent, Winne¬ bago County Public Schools, Rockford, Ill. The Coast and Geodetic Survey, Its Work and Problems, Helen M. Strong, U. S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D. C. The Moral and Spiritual Values of Work with Nature, Willis A. Sutton, Superintendent of Schools, Atlanta, Ga. Nature Study in Everyday Life, Paul Young, Director of School Gardens, Public Schools, Cleveland, Ohio. At the business meeting officers were elected. (See Historical Note, p. 470.) The attendance was about two hundred and fifty. Ellen Eddy Shaw, the retiring presi¬ dent, was highly commended for her excellent work in bringing the work and mem¬ bership of this Department to such high levels. This Department was the only one to offer tours of the scientific departments of the government. On Monday the famous gardens of the city were visited. On Tuesday evening the Naval Observatory was explored, and on Thursday morning the Department of Commerce and many other government bureaus were visited. All these were without any expense to those participating. ■ . •• <■ ' . ' I 1 it /fj y • . ’ i ; : • - • ■ j . . • > _ ■ ! - .. ' ' ••• i 1 : r u n y v** viiboxgjr u DEPARTMENT OF Secondary Education HISTORICAL NOTE The department of secondary education was established in 1886. It lapsed temporarily in 1924. In 1931 it was revived by the Delegate As¬ sembly of the National Education Association at its annual convention in Los Angeles. The officers of the Department for the year 1934-35 are: president, Ernest D. Lewis , Room 1901, 130 West 42nd Street, New York, N. ¥.; vicepresident, George R. Rankin, Boys Technical High School, Mil¬ waukee, Wis.; secretary, Ann E. Ryder, Dickinson High School, I ersey City, N. !.; treasurer, George M. Strong, East High School, Colum¬ bus, Ohio ; regional directors: Robert W. House, Director for South¬ ern Region, Salem High School, Salem, Va.,’ S. 0. Severson, Director for Midwestern Region, South High School, Minneapolis, Minn.; Grace Kenelian, Director for Intermountain Region, Chester S. Morey Junior High School, Denver, Colo.; Grace M. Davis, Director for Pacific Re¬ gion, Modesto High School, Modesto, Calif.; Augustus Ludwig, Director for Eastern Region, Pershing Junior High School, Brooklyn, N. Y . This Department meets once a year, in luly. Facts relating to the estab¬ lishment of the Department, its revival, and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 1886:21 1887 : 393-442 1888 :401-433 1889 \497-533 1890 :61 3-655 1891 :615-687 189 2:333-373 189 3:177-242 1894:7 43-794 1895 \579-635 1896 :557-619 1897 \644-699 1898 :664-700 1899:601-817 1900:428-453 1901 : 5 65 -604 1902 : 455 -492 190 8:429-486 1904 :473-536 1905 :423-479 1906 : 633-636 1907 :521-710 1908:577-667 1909:479-522 1910 : 443-5 33 1911:555-657 1912 :663-765 191 3:469-499 1914 : 445 -48 8 1915:723-753 1916:517-574 1917 :253-284 1918: 177-189 1919: 195-204 1920: 209-230 1921: 667-678 1922:1267-1293 1923: 861-880 1924: 775-802 1932: 481-492 1933: 489-506 [ 482 ] CARRYING EDUCATION TO THE COMMUNITY FLORENCE HALE, DIRECTOR OF RADIO, NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ; and editor, Grade Teacher , NEW YORK, N. Y. Should taxpayers be obliged to pay for high-school education for all children? Couldn’t their responsibility well end, in these days, at the close of the grammar school? Are deans of women in high schools really necessary, or is this just an emotional fad? Shouldn t a good high-school teacher be able to look after his own pupils without another person being paid to tell him how? Is it not going pretty far to ask taxpayers to pay for instrumental music lessons for high-school pupils making up an orchestra? These things are worthy enough when there is plenty of money, but under present conditions could they not well be cut out in the interests of economy? These and dozens of other questions are threatening the best service of high schools everywhere in this country. Some such inquiries are innocent enough. Some, we believe, are motivated by those anxious to build up a class system in this country which shall shut the child of poor parents out from the larger opportunities, making him ready to receive smaller wages and to be amenable to discipline from those above. Ten years ago, most of the public and all of the educators would have thought a person who raised these questions either insane or a crank. Today, such questions are com¬ monly raised — in the newspapers, in community meetings, and over the radio. If definite steps are not taken immediately to clear the public thinking along these lines during the coming year, we may find our high schools ruined and all that we have done in the last fifty years thrown into the waste heap. If this happens, we may be somewhat to blame in that we have been slow to take the public into our confidence to the end that they shall be intelligent supporters of equal opportunity for every child, of the cultural subjects in high school, and of those departments which tend to build char¬ acter and safeguard the adolescent pupil. During the coming year, members of the Department of Secondary Edu¬ cation can scarcely do better than to apportion such subjects as the above to different groups of their members over the country, asking such educators to make definite plans — over the radio, at community meetings, and thru letters and visits in the homes — to inform the public why it is tragic for their interests if any one of these valuable activities which have been so long in building, should be summarily dismissed. Explain to them that under such conditions only the shell of a high-school education remains for which most of the money paid would actually then be wasted. We need to build better high schools and to keep more children in them instead of turning them loose on the streets. We need more teachers like our deans of women especially trained in understanding adolescent girlhood. We need more music rather than less. My greatest criticism would be that too few children have [ 483 ] 484 National Education Association been grouped in the orchestras rather than that money has been spent on such instruction. Let us not talk about the ignorance and indifference of the public until we can claim that we have originated and carried out a definite program calculated to bring into every home the educational viewpoint regarding all of these matters that are now under fire. We talk too much among our¬ selves, in our meetings and conventions, and do too little to reach the public who are paying the bills. THE HIGH SCHOOL AND THE CULTURAL LIFE OF THE COMMUNITY WILLIAM MATHER LEWIS, PRESIDENT, LAFAYETTE COLLEGE, EASTON, PA. Emotional instability is a growing disease in America. Its effects are seen in suicides, sex crimes, divorce, juvenile delinquency, drug addiction, and drunkenness. It is promoted by much of the commercialized entertain¬ ment provided by those whose moral sense is dulled thru a desire for gain. Millions of children patronize moving picture theatres two or three times weekly thruout the United States. Many of the plays which they see are lurid sex exhibitions or dramas with gun play and crime as the central theme. Research shows that 90 percent of what one remembers of these plays the day after viewing them remains in the mind three months later. Obviously, the moving picture is having a widespread effect on the emo¬ tional outlook of our people. Another harmful emotional influence is found in the exciting and often indecent publications exhibited on newstands. The best answer which we have to these influences is the education of the emotions thru beauty. The youth of high-school age who is surrounded by influences which better his taste and appreciation soon learns to reject what is tawdry and degrading. The development of musical instruction in high schools, the organization of orchestras and choruses, is having an amazing influence. The enrichment of the high-school library and the guidance of the pupil in the matter of reading values is of great benefit. Nature study and the appreciation of art for every student aid in pro¬ moting emotional stability. And these things originating in the schools are disseminated in the homes of the community by the pupils. The development of the Little Theatre movement in high schools should be universally encouraged. Thru this agency the community is given an opportunity to see good plays and to develop a taste for real art in the theatre. Under the leadership of the high-school principal and teachers, community forums for the discussion of public affairs, literature, psychology, and countless other subjects should be organized. Thus may the high school be a dominating influence in the cultural life of the community. Department of Secondary Education 485 MEETING COMMUNITY NEEDS THRU THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS FREDERICK HOUK LAW, HEAD, DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH, STUYVESANT HIGH SCHOOL, NEW YORK, N. Y. “Wanted: Honest young Americans of high character, who like what is good, true, and beautiful, and who can talk and write clearly and effectively.” This advertisement is expressed in some way by every community in the country. In general, from the secondary schools the communities demand five products: Americanization, character, personality, helpful habits, and practical skills. Literature should be taught as the Bible of the race, and definitely should shape character. For that reason it should command greatest emphasis and greatest time. For that reason, also, the teaching of English and of Ameri¬ can literature should not be in the hands of teachers of foreign birth or of immediate foreign origin, nor should it be taught by teachers who sneer at the race ideals. The teaching of literature must counteract the influence of city life and lurid pictures and publications. Modern books, however popular, should be excluded unless they meet the standards set by the best books of the past. There is no room in the schools for cynical and vulgar books, even best¬ sellers. Teachers should teach literature as the reflection of the high wisdom gathered by the ages. The teachers definitely should aim to restore the old reverence for beauty, truth, and goodness, and should replace “flaming youth” by “idealistic youth.” Habits of system and of neatness, and especially a number of practical skills, including the old-time skill in clear penmanship, must be inculcated by the teachers of English, if they are to meet community needs. Practical writing, rather than literary writing, should occupy the atten¬ tion of teachers of composition, for the great mass of pupils will have slight occasion for anything but the practical. MEETING COMMUNITY NEEDS THRU THE STUDY OF LATIN IN THE HIGH SCHOOLS WILBERT L. CARR, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. The study of Latin in the high schools (always provided that suitable materials and methods of instruction are employed), helps to meet the need of an American boy or girl to extend his or her linguistic horizon by dis¬ covering: a. That his own native language is not the only language that exists or has existed in the world b. That his own native language has ancestors and sisters and cousins c. That the more he learns about the most important ancestor of English, namely Latin, the better he can understand and use many English words 486 National Education Association d. That the more he learns about Latin grammar the better he can understand and use in his speech and writing the principles of English grammar e. That the more he learns about Latin the more easily he will be able to under¬ stand Latin, French, Italian, and Spanish words and phrases which have been taken over bodily into English speech and writing f. That the more he learns about Latin the more easily he can remember the correct spelling of many English words which have been taken quite directly from Latin. The study of Latin in the high school helps to meet the need of an Amer¬ ican boy or girl to extend his or her social horizon by discovering: a. That many of our presentday American social and political institutions have been inherited from Rome b. That the Romans met and solved for their day many social, economic, and political problems which are very much like our own c. That except for the use of steam, electricity, and combustion engines the Romans lived very much as we do today d. That it is quite impossible to understand the history of Western Europe and the Americas without some knowledge of the civilizations which developed around the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. The study of Latin in the high school helps to meet the need of an Ameri¬ can boy or girl to extend and deepen his or her appreciation of English and American literature by discovering: a. That much of the best literature in the English language has been written by men and women who were steeped in the traditions of ancient Greece and Rome b. That the key to the understanding of many of the references and allusions in English prose and poetry is an understanding of the mythology, traditions, and history of Greece and Rome c. That the literary forms of English literature all had their origin in Greece and Rome d. That the fundamental rhythms of English poetry are those which were de¬ veloped by Greek poets and passed on to the Western world by Roman poets. The study of Latin in the high school helps to meet the need of an Ameri¬ can boy or girl to cultivate an attitude of courage, patriotism, and self- sacrifice by a sympathetic reading of a. Stories about men as Horatius, Scaevola, Fabricius, and Regulus b. Patriotic appeals of Cicero for a greater devotion to one’s country, “the com¬ mon parent of us all” c. The exalted poetry of Vergil, for whom Rome was indeed the “Eternal City.” The study of Latin in the high school helps to meet the need of an American boy or girl to cultivate the habit of carrying thru a project which is cumulative in character and which therefore involves: a. Persistent and continued effort each day and day after day b. Building each day upon the results of the previous day’s work c. Obvious rewards for persistent effort and obvious penalties for “slacking.” Department of Secondary Education 487 MEETING COMMUNITY NEEDS THRU THE TEACHING OF MATHEMATICS IN HIGH SCHOOLS W. S. SCHLAUCH, MATHEMATICS OF BUSINESS, NEW YORK UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. The major needs of all communities under a democratic regime, at all times, and especially in times of stress are: 1. Vocations and businesses efficiently conducted 2. Citizens, who, because of intelligent planning, remain self-supporting thruout their lives 3. A politico-economic structure which functions smoothly and successfully because its citizens understand this structure and actively and intelligently participate in its affairs. Mathematics in high schools can help to supply these needs in two chief ways : First, by giving future citizens control of the most powerful instrument for calculation and investigation that the human race has evolved, and directly helping them to a generalized and more efficient control over the mathematical calculations and functional relations met in business, finance, and the professions. Second, by showing students how mathematics is applied in business science, finance, economics, and other practical subjects. This involves a knowledge on the part of the teacher of many collateral sciences and practical fields. He cannot teach interest and discount thruout the use of a functional equation, compound interest by the binomial theorem, or annuities and bond valuation by the use of geometric progression, unless he knows these business subjects. Neither can he teach the analysis of customer demand or the study of the trend of demand, unless he knows something about mathematics of statistics, as well as some accounting. Neither can he teach economic insight, and show how economists are using mathematics as in Keynes’ equations of general price level unless he knows considerable economics as well as the theory of equations. What teachers in the high schools of the United States need to do to measure up to the task thus set forth may be summed up as follows: 1. Minimize or drop such algebraic technics as have no application in the fields mentioned, or similar fields. 2. Add to the curriculum in mathematics subjectmatter which does so function, as, e. g., probability, insurance, statistics, annuities, and their applications. 3. Study the fields in which mathematics is scoring its greatest triumphs, and which are most useful to the citizen: economics, statistics, accounting, mechanics, physics, finance, navigation, astronomy. 4. Give illustrations and practical problems taken from these fields to illustrate the use of algebraic processes and technics instead of using the old traditional material and problems. 488 National Education Association CURRICULUM CHANGES DEMANDED BY THE INDUS¬ TRIAL CRISIS ARTHUR M. SEYBOLD, HEADMASTER, OAK LANE COUNTRY DAY SCHOOL OF TEMPLE UNIVERSITY, PHILADELPHIA, PA. The public schools as well as the whole held of education are facing a crisis. This crisis will be met and our schools will not only survive but they will soon enter an era of much expanded service for our people. Our country is at the threshold of a new age in which vested interests and rugged indi¬ vidualism will give way to the needs and to the welfare of the great masses which now grope for the solutions of their economic and their social diffi¬ culties. Curriculum reconstruction is one of the greatest problems which our schools must face in this period of national rehabilitation. Since the whole world is at grips with the problem of a new economic life and a new social life, it seems to me that the secondary, schools should shape their curriculums about the needs of the people engaged in this struggle. One of the greatest responsibilities which we face at the present time in solving our curriculum problem is that of unity of purpose. The educators of the nation must weigh most seriously the ends sought in the subjects taught. If the subject is needed for pupil adjustment, for orientation, and socialization in the life that the pupil is now leading and is going to lead, the information and the experiences brought to the student should be retained. We have come to an age in the development of civilization when attitudes are more important than information, when right conduct is better than functionless training in the fundamental skills. We should now emphasize those aims which have to do with attitudes and appreciations. For this reason we should develop in children an increased power of adaptiveness, power in critical selection, power in emotional control, a newly awakened sense of social responsibility, and an intensified desire for creative expression. We should select comprehensive general aims which seek to inspire right attitudes and right conduct. These aims should be less rhe¬ torical and more real, they should be made as operative as our specific aims now are. Thru these broad purposes we should make our curriculum a pro¬ gram of life activities and not a mere list of subjects. We should now move slowly toward a program in which the curriculums consist mainly of sug¬ gestive approaches to problems of orientation, personality integration, social responsibility, and creative activity, allowing gradually less time for in¬ formational absorption. Whether we like to admit it or not a new world is about us everywhere and a much increased knowledge of ways of behavior will be demanded by our new civilization. Our information and our emotions may be anchored to a civilization which has disappeared beyond the horizon, but a new world is here and we must do something about it. This program thus so inadequately stated may be sympathetically considered or an attempt at a Department of Secondary Education 489 plan quite unlike this may find approval. Some action, however, must be taken or our communities will wring a new order out of our present dilemma without our aid. We must bring hope to youth who have no purpose, and we must seek to help those who have adequate purposes but no places to apply them. We must formulate a new program, we must interpret this program to a dazed public, and we must advance with this public into a new era. WHY THE PUBLIC SHOULD SUPPORT ITS HIGH SCHOOLS JOY ELMER MORGAN, editor, Journal of the National Education Associa¬ tion , WASHINGTON, D. C. Within a generation America will probably face a choice between the nationalization of its youth on a large scale or the rapid expansion of the free public high school. In 1880 we had 100,000 people in our secondary schools; in 1890, 200,000; in 1900, half a million; in 1910, a million; in 1920, two million; in 1930, five million; and today there are three million young people under eighteen years of age in America for whom there are neither schools nor jobs. The Civilian Conservation Corps camps are en¬ rolling over 400,000 boys, but they make, at this time, no provision at all for girls. These national activities for youth, however, fine in themselves, will not take the place of education rooted into the family and neighbor¬ hood life. So I repeat that within a generation America will face a choice between the nationalization of youth — which in the end means the uproot¬ ing of youth — and the doubling of its high-school enrolment. What shall we do with our youth? We cannot beg the question much longer. Each year these young people are getting older and stronger, more desperate. Those who hold the reins of power are also getting a year older and a year weaker. Our young people want opportunity, understanding, the stable and abiding satisfactions of life, and if we do not develop a system of schools and a civilization that will give them those fundamental values, they will eventually take the matter out of our hands and we shall wonder where our eyes and ears were during the years when the storm was gathering. Youth will not be denied. Growth is a mighty power. You have seen a rock torn asunder by the roots of a tree. The growth of youth is like that. It cannot be stopped and it knows no obstacles. These young people at the gates cannot forever be denied. They stand ready and eager to take their places in the world, and we must answer the question, What are we going to do about our young people? A few cities have made a beginning. Our first approach lies in human accounting. It is to count these young people in our states, in our counties, and in our cities, know who they are, where they are, what opportunities they have, and what their needs are. School Graduates is the subject of a report from the University of Denver. A similar study has been made in Milwaukee and comparable studies are being carried forward in other cities. We should carry on this program of human accounting not only in 490 National Education Association emergencies or once in five years, but every year as a matter of course because it is only on that basis that we can determine what should be the content and organization of our high schools. Obviously high schools which must provide for 10,000,000 young men and women will be different from those which now provide for 5,000,000. We shall have to learn to do some of the things which the CCC camps have learned to do. Those camps are meeting an emergency situation, but many of their activities will be permanent. They do offer to the unemployed boy who has dependents a valuable opportunity; they offer no opportunity to the unemployed boy who has no dependents and as yet they offer no oppor¬ tunity to the unemployed girl. What are we to do with our youth up to the age of eighteen or twenty when the best technical engineers and industrial experts are agreed that they cannot be used in the industry and agriculture of the future? There will probably have to be a program in which there will be a certain amount of pay or at least subsistence. Are we going to turn them over to army disci¬ pline, to a camp life which will leave them still uprooted and still leave the problem of adjustment into business, industry, and agriculture unsolved; or are we going to arouse our communities to face the situation and develop an educational program running twelve months and including not only classroom activities but instruction outside the classroom in the fields, parks, and in all sorts of activities? It is that sort of concrete help which the high school of tomorrow must give. If it gives that kind of help it will not have difficulty in getting public appreciation and support. On the other hand, if high school and college cannot give youth an answer to these problems, the same thing will happen in America that has happened in Europe. The young people will turn on their teachers and on the very institution upon which society must depend if it is to make progress. HOW WE MAY SUPPORT OUR HIGH SCHOOLS EUGENE S. LAWLER, RESEARCH ASSOCIATE, EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. The increased attendance in high schools due to the elimination of youth from industry and the consequent greater demand for high-school education can be expected to continue, and fortunately these increased demands for secondary education have come upon us in the midst of a tremendous de¬ pression. Just when secondary education has needed to expand the most, the funds to finance such expansion have been cut off. In a way, we need not be surprised at the fact that at the time of greatest need funds are difficult to obtain. To put the matter in a different way, we can say that the educational profession is in the same position as many types of business are at present. On account of the tremendously reduced income of the country, we are meeting increased sales resistance, and the question of how we may support Department of Secondary Education 491 high-school education is in reality a question of what we as a teaching pro¬ fession can do to overcome this increased sales resistance. On the whole educators have a right to feel that the country has “stood by” education. Notwithstanding the fact that we are spending something less than 75 percent of what we spent in 1930-31 per pupil, the percentage of the national income which is devoted to education is now greater than it was in predepression days, and this, in the face of the widespread reduction in incomes of all types of citizens, should be realized when we view the reductions that have been made in the support for high schools. After everything has been done which can be done towards increasing the value of the services of the high schools to the country, and after all avail¬ able methods of reducing the cost of those services have been employed, there will remain the fact that the cost of these services will have to be met for some time to come out of a greatly depleted national income, which seems to call for “new sources of revenue.” But there are no new sources of revenue. All the costs of government, as well as of the expenditures which we make as individuals, must be financed from the national income. The statements frequently made that taxes are necessarily evil in their influence on business and recovery are essentially fallacious. If the govern¬ ment collects money for the sake of supporting necessary functions and social services, it spends the money in ways that maintain industrial activity just as truly as tho it had been spent by the man who paid the taxes as an individual. Nor does the fact that we shall have to pay a larger portion in taxes for the next few years necessarily mean that we shall be impeded in recovery or suffer bad economic consequences. If, before 1927, Great Britain could afford to use 22 percent of her national income for taxation, Norway 20 percent, France 8J4 percent, and Japan 14.4 percent, when the United States was taxing itself to the extent of only 10.2 percent of its income, we ought to be able to spend the 15 percent of our income which, it is anticipated, will be required for necessary functions of government and the repayment of our debts, in the light of the fact that the income per capita of the United States is so much larger than that of any other nation. The foregoing paragraphs do not uphold the theory that we can tax ourselves rich, but that taxation for legitimate and necessary governmental services does not impoverish a people. SECRETARY’S MINUTES Washington, D. C. First Session, Monday Afternoon, July 2, 1934 “The High School and the Community” was the theme of two general meetings and eleven round-table conferences held by the Department of Secondary Education. The first of the general meetings, that of July 2, was held in Corcoran Hall, George Washington University. The addresses, which were all valuable and stimulating, were as follows: Carrying Education to the Community, Florence Hale, Director of Radio, National Education Association; and Editor, The Grade Teacher, New York, N. Y. 492 National Education Association The High School and the General Cultural Life of The Community, William Mather Lewis, President, Lafayette College, Easton, Pa. Effective Community Relationships for the Smaller High School, Frank W. Cyr, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Questioning Certain Prevailing Practises, Otis W. Caldwell, Director, Institute of School Experimentation, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. After the addresses the general meeting broke up into round-table conferences in which papers were read followed by discussions as to the value to the community of each of the curriculum subjects. These round-table conferences were held in conjunction with either another department of the National Education Association or a national association of subject teachers; thus the round-table conference on commercial subjects was a joint conference of the Department of Secondary Educa¬ tion and the Department of Business Education of the National Education Asso¬ ciation, and the round-table conference on English was a joint conference of the Department of Secondary Education and the National Association of Teachers of English, etc. The program of the afternoon was completed by a reception and exhibition of the original work of teachers given by the Junior and Senior High-School Teachers Association of the District of Columbia at the Arts Club. Mrs. Page Kirk and Hugh Stewart Smith were in general charge. Second Session, Thursday Afternoon, July 5, 1934 The second session continued the discussion of the general theme with papers presented as follows: Curriculum Changes Demanded by the Industrial Crisis, Arthur M. Seybold, Headmaster, Oak Lane Country Day School of Temple University, Philadelphia, Pa. Why the Public Should Support its High Schools, Joy Elmer Morgan, Editor, Journal of the National Education Association, Washington, D. C. How the Public Can Finance Its High Schools, Eugene S. Lawler, Research Associate, Educational Administration, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Business Meeting, Thursday Afternoon, July 5, 1934 Following the second session the annual business meeting of the Department was held in Corcoran Hall, George Washington University. The president of the Department, Ernest D. Lewis, presided and in the absence of Ann E. Ryder, secre¬ tary, appointed L. Hall Bartlett, Garden City High School, Garden City, N. Y., temporary secretary. Following the informal report of the president on the affairs of the Department the secretary’s report of the Chicago meeting as presented in the Proceedings was adopted. The report of the treasurer, George M. Strong, East High School, Columbus, Ohio, was approved. The report showed a balance on hand, July 1, of $66.81. A motion of Leslie A. Reed of the Camden, N. J., High School was carried which authorized the Executive Committee to provide a plan by means of which local organizations of secondary-school teachers may be affiliated with the Department, such plan to be considered by the next annual meeting as a possible amendment to the constitution. The Executive Committee was authorized by this motion to adopt such a plan temporarily for the year 1934-35 if it seemed advisable to the committee. Other discussion followed regarding means of increasing membership in the Department and plans for the Denver meeting which resulted in no positive action being taken. The annual election of officers and regional directors for 1934-35 completed the business meeting. (See Historical note, p. 482.) DEPARTMENT OF (Secondary School Principals HISTORICAL NOTE The department of secondary school principals was organized in Topeka, Kansas, in 1886, under the name of the Department of Sec¬ ondary Instruction. Anticipating the proposed merger of the National Association of Secondary Principals with the National Education Asso¬ ciation, the name of the Department was changed to the Department of Secondary School Principals. The officers of the Department for the year 1934-85 are: president, Charles F. Allen, Principal, West Side Junior High School, Little Rock, Ark.; first vicepresident, Harrison C. Lyseth, State Supervisor of Secondary Education, Augusta, Maine; second vicepresident, Willard N. Van Slyck ; Principal, High School, Topeka, Kans.; secretary-treas¬ urer, H. V. Church, 5835 Kimbark Avenue, Chicago, III.; executive committee: Robert B. Clem, Principal, Shawnee High School, Louis¬ ville, Ky.; Merton C. Hill, Director of Admissions, University of Cali¬ fornia, Berkeley, Calif.; W. L. Newton, Headmaster, Rome Free Acad¬ emy, Rome, N. Y. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 1887 : 393-442 1888 :401-433 1889 \497 -533 1890 \613-655 1891 \615-687 189 2:333-373 1893 :177-242 1894:743-794 189 3:579-635 1896:557-619 1891:644-699 189 8:664-700 1899:601-817 1900 : 428 -45 3 1901 : 565 -604 190 2:455-492 190 3:429-486 1904 : 47 3 -536 190 5:423-479 1906 :63 3-636 1901:521-710 1908 : 577 -667 1909:479-522 1910:443-533 1911 :555-657 191 2:663-765 191 3:469-499 1914:445-488 1915 :7 23-7 53 1916:517-574 1911: 253-284 1918: 177-189 1919: 195-204 1920: 209-230 1921: 667-678 1922:1267-1293 1923: 861-880 1924: 775-802 1925: 450-477 1926: 637-652 1921:599-677 1928 : 591 -650 1929:579-632 1930 :5 43-595 1931 : 577 -620 19 32:493-524 19 33:507-530 f [ 494] THE PLACE OF THE TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOL IN MODERN EDUCATION DE WITT S. MORGAN, PRINCIPAL, ARSENAL TECHNICAL SCHOOLS, INDIANAPOLIS, IND. A technical high school is a secondary school whose curriculum or¬ ganization and practises exhibit its major purposes to be to prepare pupils in the arts and sciences, in the underlying practises in some trades, and to help (with emphasis on help) qualify them to engage in a trade or some branch of productive industry. There must be some highly important implications for education in the social facts which we face if we really believe that education should be defi¬ nitely helpful to pupils in finding a place for themselves. We hear much about the new population in the secondary school. What is it that is new about the new population ? Perhaps first in order of mention is the fact that they have come to the high school in increasingly larger proportion from parental and home background where interests are in mechanical and tech¬ nical processes. The recent bulletin of the National Survey of Secondary Education, The Secondary-School Population, makes a comparative study of occupational background of pupils of the school population of Seattle, Wash¬ ington, in 1920! and 1930, based upon the study of George S. Counts in 1930. Now this bulletin does not necessarily imply that the pupils from these occupational groups will find their livelihood in these groups. But we do know that native interest, native aptitude, and social contact which carries with it opportunity, will draw them in the same general occupational direc¬ tion. Furthermore, we know even more surely that occupational opportunity is largest in these fields. In the United States as a whole in 1930, 40 percent of all gainfully employed workers were in manufacturing and mechanical industries and trades. In these east North Central states, 53 percent of all gainfully employed workers were in those occupational classes. With family heritage of interest in mechanical fields, with occupational opportunity most likely there, it does not seem unreasonable that educational interest can best be caught with activities related to these fields of work. The most pressing problem of secondary-school administration is to find the kind of education which will effectually serve, not alone the twenty-five who may have opportunity for further training, but at the same time equally serve the seventy-five for whom the high school is the last contact with education. But it is in place to inquire whether there really is a kind of preparation in the arts and sciences, in the underlying practises in some trades, which is effectual both for the educational growth of those in the high schools and which will actually help them to find their place according to the conditions which they actually face. The problem of finding a place in society promises to be critical enough even for the college-trained for years to come. Certainly [ 495 ] 496 National Education Association it can be no less acute for the larger multitude who will leave school at the end of, or within, the secondary-school period. It seems increasingly clear that the future economic welfare of large numbers of our pupils will depend in large measure upon their ability to “light on their feet” thru a series of enforced occupational tryouts in the form of unemployment and re¬ employment. For many who have these personal attributes which will bring advancement, the rub comes in getting a start. For those who do not possess these personal attributes, it is necessary for them to get many starts. In either case, the offerings which are now common to the technical high schools as we know them are such that certain elementary skills may be developed which will help pupils, especially in the lower occupational groups, gain that all-important thing — an initial foothold — in the industrial order. This factor of getting initial employment dare not be forgotten in thinking of the kind of training which will help the larger number of our pupils to find a place for themselves. We make a mistake if we do not think about the practical vocational training which will help our pupils get a start on a job. There must be training which will contribute to adjustment to changing conditions as well as for enlarging opportunity. To meet this dual problem, it seems that the technical high school is or can be especially adapted, and in this it has a unique opportunity. It can offer a broad industrial training in basic and underlying practises in a range of industrial areas. But at the same time, for those whose interests and per¬ sonal conditions demand, it can narrow its training early. For others, it can defer such specialized training until a sound industrial and accompanying academic foundation has been laid. There are basic knowledges of practises and principles without knowledge of which a youth in this modern day finds himself in a daze in modern industry. There are fundamentals upon which we can build a broad tech¬ nical training. We can make our pupils more able to meet the demands of a machine age, keep them somewhat abreast of modern refinements of basic processes, and at the same time, as ability and maturity will permit, develop a specific skill which in normal times will be in reasonable demand. The training of the technical high school does not need to close the door to further educational opportunity for any pupil. Many of our high schools today are graduating pupils who have developed a high skill in commercial art and at the same time have completed courses which fully meet entrance requirements of colleges and universities. We should not and we need not make this training for a mechanical age close the road to higher training for any pupil who can profit thereby. We believe that for many the technical high school can solve an educational dilemma. Many now prepare definitely for earning a living, and by proper subject election they prepare for higher training if the opportunity ever comes. We do not believe that the inclusion of technical training in education of our pupils limits in any way opportunity for their socialization ; in fact, we believe it is an agency to aid in this. The processes of socialization and civilization are not mere reading books about cooperation and the duties Department of Secondary School Principals 497 of a citizen. Civilizing of our pupils is not mere getting pupils into discus¬ sion groups for an academic discussion of the responsibilities of the individual in an interdependent society. The English schoolmaster has long had as great faith in the civilizing influence of the playfield as he has had in a program of civic teaching thru the precepts of the classroom. The important thing to make of a boy a good citizen is to make it possible for him to make his services sufficiently valuable that society will pay him for what he does ; that he can earn an honest living* pay his bills when they come due, live honorably and wholesomely, confident that he and his children can rely on the clarity of his mind, the strength of his body, and the skill of his hands to get food and clothing and shelter. Such is, after all, the foundation of good citizenship. WHAT CONSTITUTES A GOOD SECONDARY SCHOOL AND BY WHAT STANDARDS SHOULD IT BE EVALUATED? CHARLES H. JUDD, DEAN, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL. The dean of a school of education who is called on to state his views as to the direction in which any movement toward a new plan of standardiza¬ tion should trend, will, of course, be largely influenced by his desire to see the secondary schools of the country organize their activities in accordance with the results of scientific study of education. One broad, general state¬ ment which can be made as clearly indicating the point of view of a dean of a school of education is that nothing can be justified in a secondary school merely on the ground that it is now there. If I were compelled to judge secondary schools on the basis of a single standard I should set up that standard in somewhat the following form : From the principal of each secondary school applying for approval is required a report indicating some particular in which experimental modification has been undertaken during the past year in the curriculum, class organization, methods of dealing with the public or the pupils, or in some other phase of school work. This report shall include a clear description of the plan of the experiment undertaken and an evaluation of the results obtained by the experiment. In case a principal reported that no experiment had been undertaken in his school during the past year, I should not have the slightest hesitation in putting the school on probation. If a similar condition of stagnation were reported a second time, I should have no hesitation in removing the school from the approved list. It has been one of the most disastrous consequences of the standardizing practises of the past that they have tolerated stagna¬ tion. Tl hey have allowed schools to regard themselves as good in comparison with a series of minimum requirements derived from the average of a group. They have not compelled schools to compare themselves with themselves and to show progress as an essential evidence of approvable vitality. 498 National Education Association The second standard which I should stress would be a standard relating to personnel work with pupils. Concretely, the standard would be as follows: Report six cases in which pupils showing signs of maladjustment in their courses or in their general social relations were fully readjusted thru special attention given them by the school staff. Describe the way in which these cases were discovered, the way in which they were treated, and present the evidence that the treatment was successful. The reason why the foregoing standard calls for six cases only is that this number is sufficient to provide a sample of what the school is doing. If each efficient principal of a secondary school described six cases of effective read¬ justment of pupils each year, educational literature would be enriched to the point where it would become really stimulating. The third standard would be as follows : The principal of the school shall cause to be transmitted to the inspector one or more statements from committees of the faculty with regard to plans which they have matured during the year for the cultivation in the pupils of the school habits of reading or independent effort wholly outside the assignments of any course. Lists of books read or of constructive activities undertaken or of excursions organized and carried to successful completion should be submitted as a part of each statement. This third standard emphasizes the view that no school is a good school which is limited in its influence on its pupils to classroom exercises. It is a curious fact about the conventional standards used in times past that they call for descriptions of static qualities and deal very little with evidences of effective influence. It can be readily shown that a static quality is no virtue. The three standards suggested up to this point may be classified as stand¬ ards relating to symptoms of vitality. I should require each school on the approved list to report on these three standards each year. Reports on these standards will show whether the operations of the school are vigorous and aggressive. I draw a sharp distinction between these standards and those which refer to characteristics of the school which have to do with certain less variable traits. Lest I should be misunderstood, let me pause to say with all emphasis that the distinction which I am trying to draw is not a distinc¬ tion which deals with comparative importances, but is a distinction which deals with aspects or characteristics that differ in nature. A comparatively permanent aspect of a secondary school is its curriculum or the training of its staff. A more permanent aspect is its building equipment. The building probably does not need to be made a matter of examination more than once in every six or eight years. When the building has been inspected and made a subject of report, it can be assumed from that time on for a number of years. The only question which needs to be raised is the question of the way in which the building is cared for and used. Similarly the staff and the cur¬ riculum will change slowly. The gradual changes in the curriculum will be reported when they occur as a part of the program of experimentation called for under the first standard recommended in an earlier section of this paper. Reports on new members of the staff might be required every two Department of Secondary School Principals 499 years. I judge that there ought to be a report on the curriculum as a whole at least every three years. I should like to suggest the form of curriculum standard which may be thought of as standard number four in my proposed list : The principal shall give an account of the kind of population which surrounds the school, the kinds of positions to which graduates of the school go, the available resources of the community for the support of schools. On the background of the foregoing statements, the principal shall give a description of the curriculum admin¬ istered by the school, describing the reasons for each course included. The suggested standard four seems to me to represent a view regarding standards which is worthy of careful consideration. Each school is here thought of as an agency functioning in a community. To be sure, the com¬ munity must not be narrowly conceived. The reason why attention is called to the positions to which graduates go is that the larger community must be constantly kept in mind. The curriculum is, however, a community serv¬ ice, not a relic of historical pasts brought down from communities which lived totally different lives from those lived by the present generation. The curriculum is an evolving service. Its units do not fluctuate from day to day, but they should change in a tempo which comports with the tempo of social change in the community around the school. If civilization brings to the surface new obligations which arise from new complex forms of industrial or economic organization, the school must change its curriculum service. It was stated in an earlier paragraph that the order in which standards have been presented is not an indication of their comparative importance. We are now at the point in our discussion where it may be appropriate to say that perhaps the curriculum standard should be thought of as the most important standard in the whole list. It is so important that it should cer¬ tainly not be allowed to continue to be formulated in the terms in which it has commonly been expressed by the conventional standardizing agencies. The curriculum of secondary schools has not only tended to remain static in the past ; it has been compelled to remain static by the standards enforced by colleges and regional associations. Particular subjects have been specifically mentioned and artificially maintained in the curriculum by highly detailed standards. Suppose that a school should arrive at the advanced stage of intel¬ ligence where it decided to let pupils do some of their English as independent reading. Should not the curriculum standard permit the school to adopt a new quantification of its English? Suppose that a way can be found of teaching the useful concepts of mathematics without encumbering the pupils’ programs with the trash which scholastic tradition has embedded in the conventional courses in algebra and demonstrative geometry. Should a school be outlawed for improving its treatment of this important subject? There should certainly be a curriculum standard, but not a subject-program which is fixed and universally enforced. I feel confident that the old standards have had their day. They did their service nobly at a time when secondary schools were emerging out of the 500 National Education Association darkness. The new standards will have to be different, because the whole social situation is different. We are today in possession of scientific instru¬ ments of evaluation and we can find on every hand stimulating examples of progress. We have a new concept of public education. We are outliving formalism and petty regard for trivialities. We have learned to think in terms of function rather than in terms of structure. WHAT CONSTITUTES A GOOD SECONDARY SCHOOL AND BY WHAT STANDARDS SHOULD IT BE EVALUATED? THOMAS H. BRIGGS, PROFESSOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. Objectives of secondary education, soundly based, clearly enunciated, and definitely directive, are precisely what we do not have. We have never had them. It is true that from the beginning in our country we have set forth in broad general terms objectives for secondary education, but like political platforms they have been neglected and forgotten in administration. Our spirit has been that of laissez faire. Some highly professional leaders have realized the need that secondary schools have of guidance, but have felt that in the formative period we had best not standardize too strictly lest experimentation and progress be hindered. This spirit has certainly not hin¬ dered experimentation, but with equal certainty it has not to any notable extent stimulated it. There have been many experiments, it is true, mostly in minor and loosely related matters; but we have developed no habit and no technics of carefully evaluating novelties; and, unfortunately, we have by and large no ardent desire to incorporate into general practise even those procedures that seem successful. We are a conservative people, as the uni¬ formity of our secondary schools without central compulsion proves, and we change slowly. We even procrastinate shamelessly to incorporate into our programs what the most scientific research proves. Far more schools now need guidance into better practises than need freedom to an experimentation for which they have neither the vision nor the competence. I have hearty sympathy with the movement to restate our standards, and I have no doubt that the commission of the North Central Association will formulate a set far better than any that we have had before. But by logic I am compelled to the conclusion that before we can propose satisfactory standards, we must far more definitely than we have done before, agree on what we want secondary schools to produce. In the field of mechanics we have standards definite to the thousandth of an inch. Wiry? Because in de¬ signing a radio tube or a carburetor we decide first of all precisely what we wish it to do. Altho even in mechanics such precision as I have mentioned is not always used, the principle of objective desired is the beginning of planning and of evaluation. A purchaser wanting a motor truck considers what work it will have to do, decides on the characteristics that seem desir¬ able, and then in those terms considers the offerings of the market. The Department of Secondary School Principals 501 objectives of secondary education may of necessity at present be somewhat less definite; but if we do not at first decide what we want the institution to produce, how can we plan its procedure, either in general or in detail, and how can we evaluate its success ? It is futile to retort that we do not want an exact and uniform product. Certainly we do not. But what do we want the secondary school to produce? If we say youth better prepared for the service of church and state, we ascer¬ tain what these institutions demand and then devise means of training youth to perform the required services “justly, skilfully, and magnanimously.” If we say youth trained for “the great end and real business of living,” we have first to learn what that ideal requires before we can either plan or evaluate. If we say leadership, we must as a basis for everything subsequent consider the kinds of leadership desired and then specify the qualities and activities necessary to insure it. If we say competent to share richly in the cultural heritage of civilization, we must first know what that culture is and then plan the training that one must have to receive and enjoy it. It should be manifest that our primary need is agreement on objectives that are soundly based, clearly enunciated, and definitely directive. Without them we can neither plan wisely nor evaluate sensibly. The demand for new standards is just another evidence of the growing sense of need for more fundamental concepts of education — indeed of the meaning of democracy and of life itself. Such concepts must be formulated and popularized before the new program for high schools can be made. And I have undisturbed faith that we are steadily growing into a state of mind that will be satisfied with nothing less than a basic attack on the whole problem. The Committee on the Orientation of Secondary Education (of the Department of Secondary School Principals) is attempting to do some of the spade work necessary before the first stones of the foundation can be laid. Reform we do need in secondary education ; every one admits that. Civili¬ zation has again marched ahead while most of the schools are still two, three, or more stations behind. Healthy reform takes time, but it is the only kind worthwhile. Instead of becoming too impatient and either following quack¬ eries on the one hand, or subsiding into contented and thoughtless robots, on the other, let us insist on a fundamental rebuilding of secondary educa¬ tion, participate in it if we can, encourage every honest effort, and after the program has won our understanding and approval, translate it into the most efficient practise. 502 National Education Association WHAT CONSTITUTES A GOOD SECONDARY SCHOOL AND BY WHAT STANDARDS SHOULD IT BE EVALUATED? FRANCIS L. BACON, PRINCIPAL, EVANSTON TOWNSHIP HIGH SCHOOL, EVANSTON, ILL. No one would like to know the answer to the question, “What constitutes a good high school?” more than the average high-school principal. The in¬ sistently immediate and future concern of the high-school principal with standards for buildings and equipment must perforce be related to the most economical use of all physical facilities. Adequate space, by all means, but a hitherto unknown flexibility of standards is highly desirable. These stand¬ ards should be determined and applied thru the findings of research in respect to architectural suitability, building materials, space provisions, and adapta¬ tion of apparatus and equipment. Much is said about college admission standards but there is little the individual high school can do in the determination of these standards. The high school can and probably should concern itself markedly with the in¬ fluences which the college preparatory standards exert upon the standards of instruction and the organization and content of the curriculums. Cer¬ tainly it may be strongly argued that secondary schools should set up their own standards for graduation requirements, for scholastic achievement, and for the suitability of subjectmatter — and all of these quite apart from college specifications. Subject content and methods of presentation need a new set of evaluated standards on the basis of what is truly best for the pupils. An indication that principals are alert on this point is evidenced by the committee created by the Department of Secondary-School Principals upon the objectives, the issues, and the functions of secondary education. The high school especially needs the development of standards which may be translated effectively into the life of the pupils and of the community. Existing and past standards have been too intimately related to the pedagogical world. In the past the high school has often been particularly concerned with its percentage of failure, with attempts to keep the general failure rate rea¬ sonably low, and to balance the various subject fields with favorable com¬ parisons in failure percentages. It should be recognized that a high school is not necessarily doing the best work because its general failure rate is low or because the percent of passing is as high in Latin or geometry as in any other subjects. Pupils who cannot profit in reasonable proportion to the time expended should probably fail, provided the school has made a sincere and intelligent effort to discover and direct pupil abilities, interests, and needs. This latter statement emphasizes the point that the real standard of the school should be related to an adequate and wisely administered guidance program so that failure, in any instance, should either be a reflection upon the school whose functions in direction and diagnosis were at fault or upon the parents who did not support the school standards. A good school must Department of Secondary School Principals 503 meet this test satisfactorily from within its own organization and, at the same time, carry understanding to the home and obtain aid from the parents. Another way of measuring school efficiency develops out of the situation I have been considering. We need a new interpretation of the standards we have created in respect to marking schemes and devices. Our individual personnel and guidance work plus the findings of research should be devel¬ oped sufficiently to measure individual capacity of the pupil over against his actual achievement. Under such a plan the only mark deserving con¬ sideration would be that which measured the relationship of accomplishment to capacity. Possibly another standard by which the good high school could be judged is in respect to the specific provisions for those pupils who do not respond to abstractions, who cannot or will not think; but whose emotions may be an ever ready and productive source of response. There are high-school principals who believe that what a school does for such pupils is a more significant indication of effective education than what is done for a no larger number who are winning honors in abstract subjectmatter. Another possibility which may have received less attention than it deserves may be summarized under the name of agencies of pupil expression. We are not, in this instance, thinking primarily of the creative arts. We are thinking beyond the mere test of the classroom to demonstrations of expression in the activities of the school and of the community. Unfortunately the lack of standards in these regards within the community, oftentimes nullifies the superior standing of the school in its relationship to the specific pedagogical standards, which are supposed to set up the formula by which our main question of what constitutes a good school is answered. What are the ideals of the good school? Instantly comes the question, how are we to measure them? Suffice it to point out the fact that each school by design, or by utter lack of intent, gives ample indication of its idealistic or motivating spirit. Perhaps it is expecting too much to hope that a workable standard may be offered amid such intangibles. The fact remains that the morale, the spirit, the manifest idealism of the school may not be wisely ignored in any attempt to determine what constitutes the good school. Obviously a direct effort to establish ideals or attitudes within the school should be skilfully tuned to the possibilities for practical realization. The good school will have harmonized the relationships between play and work, leisure and recreation. Our standards in’ this field have been woefully insufficient or worse. The variance in achievement among second¬ ary schools is well enough known by principals and college admission officers. How many pupils work too hard? How many are affected nervously by too much mental strain and too little physical activity? How many wear them¬ selves out with excessive play and recreational activity and allow their mental equipment to be slightly, if at all, stimulated by scholarly endeavor? What checks and balances are there in the program of work and play relative to an understanding, appreciation, and maintenance of good health? Do organization and methods combine to the fostering of efficient work habits 504 National Education Association with adequate knowledge of working technics and methods of study? How well have the ends of leisure and of work been translated into immediate values, into conscious application to the life that now is? All of these are questions which cannot remain unanswered in any intelligent appraisal of the factors which constitute a good high school. It is especially important to stress the significance of effective teacher understanding and responsibility if we are to realize improvements in stand¬ ards. May we emphasize that most of all the making of a good school will depend on superior mental abilities, effective personal attributes, and the potentiality for continued growth on the part of the teaching staff. Objectives of the secondary school which may be interpreted into prac¬ tical standards are particularly important, not only as measures of what is being done but as directional stimuli to better purposes and more equitable accomplishment. The school has been and must continue to be the standard bearer against a multitude of varying interests and forces which ever con¬ spire to a lowering of the most worthy ideals and the highest achievement. WHAT CONSTITUTES A GOOD SECONDARY SCHOOL AND BY WHAT STANDARDS SHOULD IT BE EVALUATED? WALTER L. BISSELL, HEAD, ENGLISH DEPARTMENT, CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL, CLEVELAND, OHIO First, I see in presentday conditions the necessity for the teacher to modify his technic to enable him to do as good a job as he has been doing — better if possible — with less time per pupil in which to do it. Everywhere drastic economies have increased the teacher’s load. By what methods may the teacher meet this first challenge? The answer will probably come from the pooling of methods and resources. The good secondary school of today and tomorrow will call upon the pupils them¬ selves for a far greater cooperation in the work of teaching themselves than they have been asked to give in the past. The teacher in the classroom will guide and counsel and inspire more and talk less. In this newer technic the pupil will more and more be taken into junior partnership in the busi¬ ness of education and he will assume a larger responsibility for the citizen¬ ship of his classroom community. From here it is but a short step to my second proposal for the secondary school that stands ready to accept the challenge of the times. The school of today and tomorrow must settle down seriously to the task of turning out young men and women better equipped for social responsibilities. We have by no means exhausted our possibilities. It is difficult to conceive of a set-up more ideally contrived for training in citizenship than the secondary school affords, and yet we are turning out from these laboratories thousands of young men and women who have never proved by actual test or in practise that they are fitted for the larger community of city, state, and nation. Department of Secondary School Principals 505 The third challenge is to restore to youth his rightful hope for his future and his confidence in the precept that honest effort achieves success. Youth today is looking out upon a world of bread lines and soup kitchens. He feels that the world today doesn’t need him and hasn’t any job for him. Yet the gravest danger to him lies not in his realization that he isn’t wanted, but rather in his confusion as to what it is all about. He looks upon a world of shattered ideals, a world disillusioned by war. Youth is naturally an idealist, a hero-worshiper. He sees everywhere idols smashed, captains of finance discredited, the gangster publicized by tabloid sheets and Hollywood films. Little wonder youth doesn’t understand. Who does? We must build for him other and worthier ideals. We must not let him go forth without aspiration. As never before we must glorify for him the conquests of the scientist, the architect, the craftsman, the scholar, the artist, the social worker. There must still be the thrill of the game. WHAT CONSTITUTES A GOOD SECONDARY SCHOOL AND BY WHAT STANDARDS SHOULD IT BE EVALUATED? FREDERICK HOUK LAW, PRESIDENT, HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS ASSOCIATION, NEW YORK, N. Y. Constant relationship with reality, thru constant illustration from daily life, marks the ideal secondary school. Illustration and application, every lesson married to the life of today, make every lesson in every subject a prophecy for the future. The opening of the doors of opportunity for individual lives marks the work of the best secondary school. A course of study or a lesson that has no value for the pupil is one that is omitted by the true school, for such a school centers all its work around individual needs. For that reason it groups its pupils ; it has a variety of courses ; it adapts its work to the personalities of the pupils, as well as to the needs of the community. What constitutes a good secondary school? The ideal secondary school is a school that gives to every pupil the greatest incentive to wish to learn, the greatest curiosity to find out what, why, and how; the greatest oppor¬ tunity to gain skill, thru observation, imitation, and practise; the greatest wish to work thruout life in such a way as to do most for humanity, for country, and for self. By what standards should a secondary school be evaluated? Certainly not by the routine of its procedure ; not by the number and the kind of its courses of study; not by the number of its pupils or teachers; not by the value of its equipment, but wholly and solely by its product in the lives of its graduates and former students. No one would think of judging a factory by anything except its product, aside from the safety, the comfort, and the fair treatment of its workers, and its general harmony with effective methods of work. The real test comes with the product, and on that test the reputa¬ tion is made or lost. 506 National Education Association By what standards should a secondary school be evaluated ? By the ques¬ tioning attitude of its pupils when in school ; by their lives after graduation ; by their work as individuals, as citizens, as world-minded human beings in a common brotherhood of man; by their affection for their teachers and their school, both before and after graduation. The huge secondary schools of today, with their thousands of pupils, their costly and elaborate buildings, and their variety of work, have turned in the direction of mass imprintation, of larger and larger units of instruc¬ tion, and have brought about such an involved machinery that now pupils and teachers are scarcely acquainted, and frequently know little or nothing about one another’s inner lives and ambitions. It is not money that will save the schools. It is a return to the old intimacy between teacher and pupil. WHAT CONSTITUTES A GOOD SECONDARY SCHOOL AND BY WHAT STANDARDS SHOULD IT BE EVALUATED? GEORGE E. CARROTHERS, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF MICH¬ IGAN, ANN ARBOR, MICH. The commissions on secondary schools of the six regional accrediting associations have set themselves the task of finding an answer to the question, What is a good high school? George F. Zook, United States Commissioner of Education, has given his unqualified support to the study and has already rendered valuable assistance in getting the study started. Each regional association has a set of standards for use in selecting schools to be approved. These have been built up piece by piece, standard by stand¬ ard, over a long period of time, and, as some claim, possibly without due regard to changing social conditions. It is always the hope that only good schools will be selected. It is also hoped that no good school applying for membership will be rejected. Yet the standards, for the most part quantita¬ tive in nature, may exclude schools doing a good quality of work. Quantity is even today of great importance but quality is of still greater importance. It may be that a good quality of production is possible without the necessity of meeting all of the carefully developed, specially prescribed, quantitative measures. To find the measure of quality is the first and most important reason for launching the study. A second reason for this undertaking is to try to find a way whereby the regional associations may come to be considered somewhat less as a police force and somewhat more as helpful, stimulating, encouraging friends. At present too large a part of the work is that of checking on member schools to see that they do not violate any of the sacred rules and regulations. Regional associations ought to be in the most favored positions for helping growing, dynamic schools. The impact of the six associations, thinking and hammering on the one problem at the same time thruout the nation ought to be immensely better than any association working alone. Also, the present appears to be a very suitable time for the inauguration of such a study. The twenty-eight volumes Department of Secondary School Principals 507 of the National Survey of Secondary Education, just being received from the press, contain a large amount of useful information. The Commission on Institutions of Higher Education of the North Cen¬ tral Association is just now completing a study of standards for use in accrediting colleges. Dr. Zook and his committee doubtless will have noted some difficulties along the way which they can help the secondary commis¬ sions avoid. They have probably developed certain technics which can be passed on. They will doubtless have discovered certain guiding principles which will be useful to a committee organized to study standards for the accrediting of secondary schools. To save these commissions on secondary schools for a continuance of their leadership, it seems wise and timely to plan for an internal survey. Those most concerned want to know how best to pilot the organizations along broader paths of usefulness. WHAT CONSTITUTES A GOOD SECONDARY SCHOOL AND BY WHAT STANDARDS SHOULD IT BE EVALUATED? CLYDE M. HILL, CHAIRMAN, DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, YALE UNIVERSITY, NEW HAVEN, CONN. In the signs of the times he who runs may read at least three trends, por¬ tentous in themselves and bearing directly on this matter of high-school education. We are at last beginning to realize the fact that social recon¬ struction is a continuous and never-ending process, which in a society suffi¬ ciently intelligent need no longer be haphazard or reckless. We are beginning, also, to suspect that technological progress is bound to continue in a world which has yet to learn to distinguish between idleness and leisure. And we are dimly conscious that society as a whole is becoming more liberal-minded, slowly overcoming the inhibitions of the century gone by. These things we realize, more or less definitely; their significance for education and particu¬ larly for high-school education we have not yet clearly perceived. Once social reconstruction is recognized as continuous, planning is sure to take a more prominent place in the process than has been the case in the past. While leadership in social planning will come from technically trained indi¬ viduals, success will be largely dependent upon the extent to which there is consent, understanding, and intelligent cooperation on the part of the masses. This means that all normal adolescents, as well as adults, must participate in the process, not only now but in the future. Hence, the task of the high school becomes the preparation of adolescents to participate in bringing about desirable changes in the social order, and the development of an ability to adapt themselves successfully to a new social order, a new code of morality, and a new way of living. The high school must, to some extent at least, anticipate the direction of social change. Thru its students it will inevitably exert great influence and can guide change 508 National Education Association along socially desirable lines. The implications of this newly interpreted task for the school itself are momentous. What is taught, how it is taught, and the administration of the entire system will be affected fundamentally. Technological progress means that there will be a new attitude toward the place of work in society, very different from the traditional conception. It has been suggested that we shall have a new code of morals based upon an economy of plenty. We have already discovered that, altho many people do not work, they must eat. Certainly, there will be a change in the ratio of work time and leisure time. It is likely that what we now look upon as serious unemployment will become a normal situation. There will come a better distribution of the world’s work than exists at the moment, but normally we shall all be confronted not with short blocks of leisure time but with large blocks of it. Whatever may be the first reaction to the new freedom, men are sure to find in creative self-expression the answer to the problem which the new leisure presents to the individual and to society as a whole. Here the high school will have to lay a new emphasis. TEXTBOOKS AND LESSON OUTLINES IN TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOLS BENJAMIN F. COMFORT, PRINCIPAL, CASS TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOL, DETROIT, MICH. Technical high schools in the United States started after Paul Hanus visited Germany and reported on what the Germans had accomplished in technical and trade school education for fifty years previous. That was 1905-06. The Germans were very secretive about technical knowledge and the teaching of it and the United States had to originate its own technic in teaching adolescent students laboratory and shop practise. Consequently, there has been an evolution along these lines little known to the cut and dried academic teacher in the past twenty-five years. In 1904 the Germans made the dictum that they had nothing to fear from the United States in world trade competition, after visiting our schools and exposition in 1904. They said we were neglecting trade and technical educa¬ tion, and a wave of indignation arose. American pride was hurt. The news¬ papers took up the hue and cry and belittled our teachers because we had not kept abreast of Germany in technical education. Since that time American schoolmen have been busy, and today we have technical high schools, trade schools, and corporation schools second to none in the world. But the crux of the problem came in what we should teach these adoles¬ cents and what not to teach. Germany would not give us any of her experi¬ ence. Their instruction was a state secret like their manufacture of analine dyes and serums which they capitalized. But Yankee ingenuity came to the front and we drew on our own resources to develop a technic suited to our own needs and to apply it in our own way. Department of Secondary School Principals 509 Consequently, the Cass Technical High School, Detroit, Michigan, has been a laboratory for the development of secondary technical education for the past twenty-seven years. It was established in 1907. Laboratory manuals, lesson sheets, unit courses, and textbooks have been evolved out of the work under the different department heads who are graduate engineers with ripe experience in industry, and who are teachers of adolescents of long standing. The courses have been evolved under the system of calling in the industrial managers and foremen who have pre¬ scribed the equipment for the shops and laboratories and who have collabo¬ rated with the teachers on the content of the subjectmatter to be taught. Cass Technical High School used the method to first introduce anything new in its curriculum in the evening school and try it out with the adults. If it succeeds there and proves itself to be what men and women want, then it is adapted to the capacity and level of the adolescent mind. Thus have been developed courses in shop; mathematics; electrical construction and arma¬ ture winding; machine shop practise ; chemical analysis ; metallurgy, material testing; aeronautics; auto mechanics; home economics; dietetics; occupa¬ tional therapy; printing; tool designing; and many others. The result of these policies is that the Cass Technical High School has 4700 day students and sends out 700 senior high-school graduates each year who are gladly received in the varied industries of Detroit. The evening school has 4000 who pursue unit courses mostly, and who are working in the industries, but who desire additional technical knowledge to advance themselves in their particular occupations. It gives the people the kind of education that they desire and are eager to acquire. Textbooks, laboratory manuals, and lesson sheets have been developed in the leading technical high schools of the United States and Canada, a list of which has been compiled by the speaker and is available by writing to Cass Technical High School. DISCUSSION GROUPS AND RESEARCH SECTION Due to space limitations, the material from the discussion groups and research section of the winter meeting is not included in this volume of Proceedings. This material may be found in full in Bulletin No. 50, Pro¬ ceedings of the Eighteenth Annual Meeting of the Department of Secondary- School Principals, March, 1934. THE FUNCTIONS OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN THE PEACE OF THE WORLD ARTHUR CHARLES WATKINS, DIRECTOR OF THE NATIONAL STUDENT FORUM ON THE PARIS PACT, WASHINGTON, D. C. Practically all schools of thought in the educational field agree that it is one of the chief functions of education to train boys and girls for citizen¬ ship. As 80 percent of the high-school population in the United States never 510 National Education Association goes on to higher school training, it is clear that a large part of the duty of citizenship training falls upon the secondary schools. As the Paris Pact is the supreme law of the land and represents the higher peak of our foreign policy, it is the duty of the schools to teach it. This may best be done in correlation with history, civics, problems of democracy, or other social science classes. It has been done in this way in 8000 American high schools in the last five years. The great civic problem today, as always, for all people is that of learning how to live together. The problems that press upon all today, as all you teachers well know, are such as these: ways of earning a living; attitudes toward those who differ — tolerance, intolerance, appreciation, and encour¬ agement; patriotism and the concept of loyalty; standards of ethics, war, and peace. History study should lead to the cultivation in both teachers and students of a policy of fair judgment. In the study of wars and of political and social conflicts, a class effort should always be made to discover and formulate the case for both sides and then to appraise the case as justly as possible. Always the students should be helped to remember that no nation or party of indi¬ viduals had all the right or all the wrong on its side. There is much to be said for the suggestion that history textbooks should be written by a group or commission representing disinterested as well as interested points of view. The most-to-be-desired outcome of the study of history, civics, problems of democracy, international relations, and the one most important in train¬ ing for the higher citizenship is that of patriotism. A really fruitful study of history, covering the story of how our country has grown out of the past, with all the precious vital offerings that have been made to its present state, should lead every student to a deep and genuine respect and love for the country in which he was born or for that into whose life he has been adopted. Genuine patriotism will contain no boasting of superior qualities or for¬ tunate circumstances. It will be marked by a consciousness of the high and special calling of the nation, thru its unique gifts and advantages, to serve the world at large. Patriotism will understand that, whatever skills or advan¬ tages have come to us as a nation, in the world economy these lay us under obligation to utilize them in behalf of all neighbor peoples. Moreover, the true patriot will desire no present or future advantage for his own country at the expense of or to the disadvantage of a neighbor country. In other words, patriotism must never degenerate into what is known as nationalism. America is indebted to all the rest of the world for what she is today. She has a deep responsibility to share her advantages with the rest of the world. She may and should offer her benefits but she should never think of herself as resting under “the white man’s burden,” as imperialistic thought has expressed it. In humility she should endeavor to become conscious of her faults, and eager to correct them before the eyes of her neighbors. Above all else, she should strive to become the ideal citizen-nation among the nations, decently, actively cooperative, inasmuch as she is dependent upon all and they are all to a great degree dependent upon her. Department of Secondary School Principals 511 PROPOSED NATIONAL STUDY OF SECONDARY-SCHOOL STANDARDS BY REGIONAL STANDARDIZING AGENCIES JOSEPH ROEMER, PROFESSOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION, PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS, NASHVILLE, TENN. The cataclysmic changes that have been felt in commerce and industry are equally strong in the educational world. Old objectives are being re¬ written ; long established procedures are being abandoned ; venerable stand¬ ards are being discarded ; and almost every educational philosophy, belief, dictum, or practise is being given the acid test. For a number of years there has been a growing restlessness and dissatis¬ faction on the part of many educators with the standards and procedures of the various regional associations. The criticisms have been that standards are mechanical, arbitrary, and unscientific; that they hurt rather than help the program of secondary education in many instances; do not meas¬ ure accomplishments, products, and qualities; stress the letter rather than the spirit of school work; stress standardizing procedures rather than educa¬ tional problems; restrict advanced schools from doing the best work by forcing too close adherence to arbitrary standards; and measure mechanic and static conditions rather than programs, products, outcomes, results, and achievements. In the proposed national study an effort will be made to find what the characteristics of a good secondary school are, by what means and processes a good school develops into a better school, what means and methods may be employed to evaluate the activities of a school in terms of its objectives, and how regional associations may stimulate secondary schools to con¬ tinuous growth. Standards must be developed that will deal with such problems as experi¬ mental modification of school procedures ; personnel work with pupils ; cul¬ tivation of reading habits outside of school ; a well-balanced inclusive curri¬ culum; an organized, functioning extracurriculum activities program; an intramural sports program; guidance work; school-community relation¬ ships; professional activities of faculty; an inclusive office set-up; and a complete health program. The proposed standards presume, as a working hypothesis, that regional standardizing agencies exist for the purpose of stimulating secondary schools to continuous growth and all procedures and physical facilities of the sec¬ ondary school will be judged in terms of this hypothesis. All the means or instruments of measurement derived will have to do with evaluating the effectiveness of a school in terms of its program and its stated objectives. Then, on this new basis of standardizations, the characteristics of a good secondary school will be sought in terms of its growth, its development, its program, its effectiveness, its output or product. Physical facilities will be considered only as a necessary means — the machinery needed to turn out the product — the real thing to be considered. 512 National Education Association Evidently a goodly portion of patience and common sense must be exer¬ cised in working out this program. Too much is at stake to act hastily and without due deliberation. It is going to be necessary to make some adjustments in this two- or three^ear transition period. Present standards, properly modified, will have to function until the new ones are ready. HOW THE GUIDANCE PROGRAM IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS MAY FUNCTION IN THE NEW DEMOCRACY OSCAR GRANGER, PRINCIPAL, HAVERFORD TOWNSHIP SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL, UPPER DARBY, PA. The function of the secondary schools in the new democracy is to train the growing citizen in the important business of living in a complex society. The training necessary in the business of making a living will be left to the post high-school period. The business of guidance will not stop at mere vocational and educational problems, but will deal daily with the growing citizen, guiding his development, physically, intellectually, and socially, so as to produce a well-rounded citizen for the new democracy. This citizen will be physically able to perpetuate his race. He will be intellectually well equipped and he will have developed a social consciousness that will make him act for the good of society rather than for selfish personal gain. A new kind of individualism will take the place of the rugged individualism that served in the past. This new individualism will preserve American liberty by so schooling the citizen that he will find his satisfaction in self-assertion in actions helpful to his society. DEPARTMENT OF Social Studies HISTORICAL NOTE The department of social studies was formerly the National Council for the Social Studies and zuas created as a Department of the National Education Association by the Board of Directors at the Indianapolis meeting of the Association in 1925. The officers of the Department for the year 1934-25 are: president, Howard E. Wilson , Graduate School of Education , Harvard University , Cambridge, Mass.; first vicepresident, Edgar B. Wesley, Assistant Professor of Education, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.; second vicepresident, Roy O. Hughes, Assistant Director, Curriculum Department, Public Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa.; secretary-treasurer, Bessie L. Pierce, Associate Professor of American History, University of Chicago, Chicago, III.; board of directors: Cecelia R. Irvine, Uni¬ versity High School, West Los Angeles, Calif.; William A. Hamm, Head, Social Studies Department, Walton High School, New York N. Y. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 19 26:653-663 19 21:679-695 1928 -.651-654 1929 : 633 -642 1930 : 5 97 -606 1931 :62 1-632 1932 :525-532 19 33: S3 1-5 36 IMPLICATIONS OF THE REPORT OF THE COMMISSION ON THE SOCIAL STUDIES OF THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION R. O. HUGHES, ASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF CURRICULUM STUDY, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, PITTSBURGH, PA. The report of this Commission was a disappointment to many who looked for a fairly definite statement of policies and program that might be taken up by the schools of the United States. The Commission deliberately chose not to be specific about such recommendations, tho it did take positive attitudes on matters of a social and economic character and on certain educa¬ tional methods where such definite pronouncements had not been antici¬ pated. The form and language of the report is not of a character to give it wide popular appeal. If the report intends to propose the acceptance and inculcation of the idea that a social and economic order built on the principle of collectivism is inevitable, it goes farther than many are willing to follow it. The report properly emphasizes the importance of a treatment of the social studies which will constantly cohere with current life and problems and will make such an attitude the governing principle in the arrangement of a school curriculum. It also properly stresses the desirability of arranging a program which will be continuously logical and developmental in char¬ acter and adjusted to the interests and capacity of pupils, beginning with the kindergarten and continuing all the way thru the school program into the junior college and adult education. Much faithful effort has been de¬ voted to the work of the Commission by those who have been actually responsible for the administration of its work. The special monographs issued under its auspices may be even more valuable than the formal report of the Commission. If thru its activities more intelligent attention will be directed towards the importance of the social studies in school, community, and nation, its work will have been worthwhile. IMPLICATIONS OF THE REPORT OF THE COMMISSION ON THE SOCIAL STUDIES OF THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION KENNETH E. GELL, EAST HIGH SCHOOL, ROCHESTER, N. Y. Teachers and supervisors of the social sciences in the secondary schools who have waited five years for the final report of the Commission on the Social Studies must have received the report with mingled feelings. The Commission’s report has much of value in it in those sections which are treated with generality or deal with visions of the future. In such matters [515] 516 National Education Association it has rendered services to the high-school teacher in the following ways: it has emphasized the importance to society of the social sciences and the social science teacher; it has sponsored a liberalism in the interpretation of the present state of society ; it has reaffirmed education as an art ; it has crys¬ tallized in its “Frame of Reference” the chief characteristics and conditions of our society in a way so clear that he who runs may read. In these regards the report will be a uniting force within the profession for our further efforts and will give us a common reference point for future thinking. The Commission’s report would have been more valuable if it had not neglected to take account of certain important facts regarding the character of American secondary education, such as its mass instruction, the civil service character of the teachers, and the fact that few students progress beyond the high school and many more fail to remain for the full course. This last fact places an importance upon the high-school curriculum which is not properly stressed in the report. The Commission’s report is disappointing in that it is much too general in its terms to be of great practical value in curriculum building. It fails to give due consideration to the fact that education must differ in its content and method with the mentality and needs of individual students, and the report thereby fails to assist adequately in the important and concrete task of detailed curriculum construction. The report’s chief weakness is its chap¬ ter on “Tests and Testing” which seems to go counter to the literature and best thought on that subject, and in so doing must either bring confusion to our present understanding and practises or be repudiated. LEARNING EXERCISES FOR PUPILS IN THE SOCIAL STUDIES GEORGE W. HODGKINS, TEACHER, ROOSEVELT HIGH SCHOOL, WASHINGTON, D. C. Tradition tells us that read-memorize-recite was once the accepted formula of learning activity in such social studies as were then included in the curri¬ culum. The modern teacher in this field is aware of a much wider range of activities in which the pupil may engage. Yet, in our critical moments, we may well raise the question whether we have here an organized array of developing skills in the handling of social science materials, or a mere col¬ lection of possible activities to be drawn upon as convenient. Learning exercises may be viewed as means of “putting over” a particular unit of school work, but educational economy suggests that, to a very large extent, they should be developing those same skills and interests which the pupils can and will continue to use in keeping up with and doing their part in the world outside of school days. In this light they must be well adapted to the abilities and interests and probable future needs of the individuals concerned, and vitally linked with sound and practical objectives of social science instruction. Various practical problems such as instructional mate¬ rials and check-up on results must also be taken care of. Department of Social Studies 517 While we may point with pride to the success of some of our pupils in their social studies activities, there are numerous others in our expanding second¬ ary schools who seem to find little that they can do with real effectiveness and satisfaction. It may be that some of the activities are simply unsuited to them, but skill in the really suitable activities needs to be developed by as carefully planned curriculum arrangements as are accorded to the sequence of subjectmatter in our social studies courses. USING MAPS IN THE TEACHING OF THE SOCIAL STUDIES H. ALFRED MARCHANT, HIGH SCHOOL, CORINTH, N. Y. Our problem in the use of maps in the social studies may be reduced to these two questions : what maps shall we use, and how shall we use them ? To refer you to specific maps now published might be difficult in view of the proposals I wish to make on how to use maps. Instead, I shall merely outline the steps which seem logical to me in the using of maps in the various levels of study in the schools and, incidentally, propose certain principles to be used in the choice of maps. Definite recommendations, which deserve more detailed treatment, follow. In the use of maps proceed step by step from facts and ideas and concepts to the use of symbols for those in maps, in order to procure the connection between the symbols and the realities represented. Stay as close as possible to reality in your map representations without causing confusion and with the maintenance of clarity and simplicity in the maps used. Retain the reality of meaning in the maps and by constant visualization, verbal and pictorial, of the connection between the realities represented and the symbols used. Use every map aid given for the purpose for which the map is intended to be used. Avoid “busy work” with maps, deriving instead only meaningful and purposeful information from them. And lastly, be sure your pupils know how to read maps before blaming them for failing to obtain desired information from them. Test the ability of your pupils, and then teach them what thev lack. More specific recommendations are: 1. Supplement realistic symbols which may be inefficient with more efficient less realistic ones where possible before supplanting them by the latter. This can easily be done with symbols of direction. 2. Develop the concept of the spherical shape of the apparently flat earth by a picture story of an imaginary journey off into space, in which the curvature of the horizon and the shape of the earth are revealed. 3. In a series of pictures, demonstrate the distortion of the spherical map neces¬ sary for converting it into a flat map. 4. Develop more accurately an appreciation of the size of areas mapped by using successive maps of small areas followed by larger areas differing in scale by a ratio of not more than about one to ten. 5.. Keep these visualized stories and the comparison of area constantly before pupils and frequently in use until they know them almost by heart. 518 National Education Association STIMULATING AND GUIDING CLASSROOM DISCUSSION HORACE KIDGER, HEAD, SOCIAL STUDIES DEPARTMENT, HIGH SCHOOL, NEWTON, MASS. The best recitation is that recitation which is the most natural. The greater the amount of stimulating and guiding of classroom discussion done by the pupils themselves, the greater will be the efficiency of the recitation. In our quest for ^educational efficiency, we overlook frequently the most natural procedure and replace it with some so-called better way which is unnatural and which is ineffective to the extent in which it is unnatural. One of the most telling contributions of the teacher in any classroom dis¬ cussion is to suggest some possible result from premises advanced in discus¬ sion. This is not an invitation for a teacher to become an analogy monger, wherein he sells his own ideas instead of enlarging upon vital situations aris¬ ing from the factual needs of the group. How frequently a group finds itself at a loss to understand adequately some propositon because the funda¬ mentals are not clear! Then comes the opportunity on the part of the teacher to suggest cases or situations which have related and clarifying knowledge for a more complete comprehension of the original project. There will be no confusion if there is the unseen guidance of the teacher — an emphasis or enlargement of some topic before the public eye ; the stressing of utterly divergent views of persons or newspapers ; the skilful statement in a seemingly convincing way of a viewpoint which the teacher knows to be absolutely opposite to the sentiments of some of the class ; the demand of the pupil to know whether such a viewpoint is the accepted one by most people ; the suggestion by the teacher that the best way out is to have the pupil settle the proposition himself by seeking facts. The best recitation is the one in which the teacher is present to stimulate rather than to dominate the situation. It is the recitation which in reality is not a recitation at all in the accepted use of the term but is a continuation of the inherent right of the American citizen to disagree. It is the extension of the habit of argument which arises at no definite time or place but which gives each person the inalienable right to express his views whether he suc¬ ceeds in carrying conviction or not. HISTORICAL ENTERTAINMENTS AND MUSEUMS FOR SCHOOLS AND COMMUNITIES O. W. MOSHER, JR., HISTORY DEPARTMENT, KANSAS STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, EMPORIA, KANS. Everyone is a collector of relics of some sort — old letters, pictures, stamps, and coins may be found in almost any home, and the intelligent study of these objects has undoubted cultural value. While our states, cities, and universities have museums for the display of such objects, very little has been done to encourage public schools, smaller communities, and private collectors in the exhibition and study of their historic objects. Department of Social Studies 519 In this, European countries are ahead of us, for there are folk and com¬ munity museums and academies that meet even in the smaller towns to discuss historical questions. At the present time in the United States there is a movement to make the cultural life of our small towns, farming districts, and community centers created in connection with subsistence homesteads and Tennessee Valley projects richer by encouraging worthwhile programs. In these difficult times it is peculiarly fitting that our schools should take the lead in encouraging community efforts for the display, conservation, and collection of its rarities, in providing patriotic and intelligent speakers to discuss the insistent problems of the day and interpret the projects of our administration. Public historical entertainments would aid, too, in bringing to light mate¬ rials of value that otherwise would escape detection. There are in private hands enough Lincoln letters with which to write a more significant life of the emancipator if they could only be located, but at present this cannot be done as there is no central depository where records of very valuable documents in private hands are located. It is evident that some system of cooperation between schools, and the state and national historical associa¬ tions should be created in order that such priceless additions to our history be located and conserved. fi zh\ h > i j 'j?.\ i m DEPARTMENT OF Special Education HISTORICAL NOTE Application for the establishment of a Department of Special Edu¬ cation was made at the Atlanta convention in 1929. A petition hearing more than 250 names was presented at that time. The creation of the Department was authorized a year later at the convention in Columbus. In Los Angeles the group of teachers and administrators interested in special education met on July 2 and final plans for the creation of the Department were made and a constitution was adopted. The officers of the Department for the year 1934-25 are: president, Lavilla A. Ward, Supervisor of Special Classes, Department of Public Instruction, Madison, Wis.; vicepresident, F. B. Smith, 2717 Ninth Avenue, Sacramento , Calif.; secretary-treasurer, Mrs. Ruby Coutu, Guidance and Speech Correction, Board of Education, Madison, Wis. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 1931:633-644 1932 :5 33-542 1933:537-550 [ 522 ] THE EMOTIONAL LIFE OF THE CHILD SMILEY BLANTON, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PSYCHIATRY, CORNELL UNIVERSITY MEDICAL SCHOOL, NEW YORK, N. Y. The emotional life has been somewhat neglected in the educational program for the child. It is a fact, however, that intellectual life cannot function unless there is in the child’s mind a feeling of security, serenity, and contentment. Many children with superior intelligence fail in their school work because of fear, anxiety, and feelings of frustration which block off their thinking capacity. Especially do we find children who have a feeling of wrong-doing because of a too strict early training. I hese children feel so inferior, so inadequate, that they are unable to do their school work. 1l hey cannot learn. We therefore necessarily are forced to consider the emotional life of the child if we wish to give him a well-rounded education. The three fundamental emotions which we shall discuss are fear, anger, and love. Every normal person has a certain amount of fear and anxiety. It is only when this anxiety is unusual in amount or misplaced in its direc¬ tion, that it is abnormal. Anger occurs when the child is blocked or frus¬ trated. If the child has too many restrictions he may develop a case of chronic anger or irritation. The love-life of the child is of course important as regards his educational life. The child loves his parents and feels secure in their love. Later on he has to love others outside the home. If the child gets too much love he becomes dependent and full of anxiety. If he is not given enough love and affection he develops a sense of inferiority and a fear. The understanding of the love-life of the child is of great importance in the intellectual training of the child. THE PHYSICAL CARE OF THE HANDICAPPED CHILD IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS MRS. CLARA LOITMAN SMITH, PROVIDENCE, R. I. There are large numbers of children in our public schools who need special help in order to carry on their school life without detriment to their physical well-being. These children may be classed in one or more of the following groups: 1. The tuberculosis group includes children who have suspicious or latent tuber¬ culosis; those who have a family history of tuberculosis; those who have been exposed to tuberculosis. 2. The malnourished, underpar, or delicate child group — the diagnosis of this condition must be made on physical examination by a physician experienced with children, who knows the family and personal history of the child. 3. The organic cardiac group includes children who have an organic cardian lesion but whose condition has passed the acute stage. [ 523 1 524 National Education Association 4. The convalescent group includes children returning to school after diseases such as pneumonia, chorea, or surgical operations. 5. The miscellaneous group includes children with minor nervous disorders, or minor orthopedic defects. Altho these children mentioned above all have definite physical defects or handicaps, they have no obvious stigmata and are able to attend regular public schools. Extra rest and extra proper nutrition during the school day is of great benefit to these children. We must try to prevent over-fatigue which is so prevalent among our school children and which effects so much harm to their physical and mental well-being. A practical and efficient school pro¬ gram which was organized by the writer in the Boston public schools permits the selected children to rest and eat in school under proper supervision and under suitable conditions. The child’s own interest in himself must be secured and home cooperation is imperative. Remedial physical defects should be corrected insofar as possible. Physical examination of the child should be made by the physician as often as deemed necessary and the child’s physical health and progress should be followed by the school physician and school nurse. Our aim must be to keep our children well and happy, for health is so neces¬ sary for all the pleasures as well as duties of life. In all our work with our children, we must not be content to achieve at what we aim, but we must aim at what we ought to achieve. WHAT SHOULD BE THE AIMS, FUNCTIONS, AND RANGE OF A SATISFACTORY PROGRAM OF SPECIAL EDUCATION FOR ATYPICAL CHILDREN? LEONARD YOUNG, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, DULUTH, MINN. 4 he Topic Group F of the General Subject Committee II of the Depart¬ ment of Superintendence for the meeting held in Cleveland, February 1934 was assigned the topic, “What Should Be the Aims, Functions, and Range of a Satisfactory Program of Special Education for Atypical Children?” Approximately fifty people attended the meetings of the group and took active part in the discussions. Superintendents of city and county schools, superintendents or directors of state special schools, supervisors of special classes in city schools, and teachers of special classes for atypical children in state and city schools made up the group. All those participating in the dis¬ cussions and in the formulation of the report were actually in touch with or engaged in the work of education of atypical children thru administra¬ tion, supervision, or classroom teaching. The report of Topic Group F printed on page 183 of the Official Report of the Department of Superintendence for 1934 is as follows: Conservative estimates show that one out of five children in the United States requires or will be greatly benefited by a differentiated program of special educa¬ tion adapted to his needs. Such exceptional children are those who, according to Department of Special Education 525 the White House Conference, “deviate from the average child to such an extent as to require special treatment or training in order to make the most of their pos¬ sibilities.” This group includes children with supernormal mentality, subnormal mentality, physical handicaps, emotional and social maladjustments, and multiple deviations from the normal. The aim in the education of the exceptional child is exactly the same as that for all children, namely, so to develop the whole child, that he may more fully and com¬ pletely participate in, contribute to, and live happily in the economic, political, cul¬ tural, and social world of his time. The function of a program of special education is to provide the services, activi¬ ties, equipment, and other facilities necessary to achieve these aims. Fundamentally important among these services is not only the adequate training of teachers for these special groups, but also such training for all teachers as will enable them to recog¬ nize and to help solve the problems of exceptional children wherever they may be found. . ... . The range of such a program should be as wide as possible in its application. The difficulties and problems arising in extending it to all exceptional children must be met and solved by the cooperation of local, state, and national authorities thiu proper legislation and adequate financial support. This report is very brief in order to conform to the directions given to all topic groups in making their reports. The members of the discussion group realized that only a portion of the number of atypical children who would be benefited are now included in a program of special education. This is due to the fact that many children are not centrally located so that they may be brought together in class groups. Until the local, state, and national authorities work out ways and means for bringing these isolated pupils together in groups, they must be included in regular classes. For this reason the members of the discussion group were emphatic in their recommendation that teacher-training institutions include in their courses in education * such training for all teachers as will enable them to recognize and to help solve the problems of exceptional children wherever they may be found.” While it could not be included in the limit set for the report of the topic group, it was the opinion that the responsibility for setting up a satisfactoi\ program of education for atypical children rests primarily with the depart¬ ment of education of each state. However, the state department should and must have the financial cooperation of national and local educational authorities. TREATMENT OF SPEECH DISORDERS OSKAR DIETHELM, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF PSYCHIATRV, JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY, BALTIMORE, MD. For the correct treatment of speech disorders it is essential to distinguish between disorders which are due to an organic distuibance of the biain or to malformation of the peripheral organs which are used for speech, and speech disturbance which is due to emotional influences. The teim stutter¬ ing” should be applied to this latter group only. There is no organic basis 526 National Education Association for stuttering. We therefore have to study the child’s personality make-up and try to understand the factors which are disturbing his ease. It is not correct to use speech training for the correction of stuttering, because a stutterer can talk perfectly well when at ease. Speech training is used for all the disorders which are on an organic basis. Even in these cases, however, the child s personality has to be taken into consideration and unfavorable environmental influences adjusted. Speech training in connection with gen¬ eral reeducation is also of considerable importance in cases where faulty speech is due to poor education or to general behavior disorders. Stuttering is a speech habit which is formed in the plastic years of early childhood. It may therefore become so ingrained that it is no longer modi¬ fiable. As in every personality disorder, the outcome of treatment depends on how long the difficulty has existed and the extent to which disturbing personality and environmental factors can be modified. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN A SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF MRS. GRACE MOORE HEIDER, RESEARCH DEPARTMENT, CLARKE SCHOOL, NORTHAMPTON, MASS. I can best tell you what we are doing at Clarke School, and what we hope to do, by describing two or three concrete problems on which we have been working during this last year. First, there is a study of lip reading. It is more important than any single school subject for the hearing child since it is not only an end in itself but to some extent the means by which other subjects will be mastered. More than that, upon his success in lip reading will often depend his social adjust¬ ment in a world where most people hear. We based our study of lip reading on a motion picture test which we checked with the teachers’ estimates of lip-reading ability. One of the most striking results that we found was very great individual differences in lip reading. On the average we found that the difference between the best and poorest lip reader of each age-group was ten times the yearly progress. One would probably not find such a wide range of difference in an ordi¬ nary school subject. T his means that lip reading involves special problems. It is probably more dependent on natural ability than on training. In fact, after the initial stages lip reading seems to be relatively independent of amount of training. What are these abilities on which lip reading depends? First, one suggests general intelligence, i. e., that lip reading is more dependent on intelligence or general capacity to learn than upon knowledge resulting from any specific discipline. This is true to some extent, yet it does not fully explain differences in lip-reading achievement. Every teacher knows that there are children who show great ability in other work who are very poor lip readers. One Department of Special Education 527 finds the same discrepancy in performance tests. In some cases the child who obtained an unusually high score on a mental test was at the bottom of his group on lip reading. Achievement tests offer indirect evidence of this same fact. Then, on what does lip reading depend? Teachers of lip reading have long stressed the importance of personality. Thus, they speak of alertness of mind as making for good lip reading. Again, most teachers agree that the person with a keenly analytical mind often has difficulty in reading the lips. This observation can be understood when we think of the actual task involved in lip reading. Many of the elements of speech are made in the back of the mouth and are not visible for lip reading. The pattern of lip reading lacks many of the essential elements of the spoken language to which meaning is attached. It offers an incomplete picture. Therefore, the understanding of lip reading involves an ability to grasp wholes — to supply missing parts — and above all, to guess. The person with an exact, scientific mind who wants to grasp each detail precisely before he goes on to the next has the greater difficulty. Therefore, the very quality by which a man succeeds in some fields may cause him to be a relatively poor reader. All this suggests that a study of personality differences may be important for lip reading. There is considerable literature on this subject in psychology. One of the principal problems on which we are engaged just now is that of relating this work which has been done in the psychology of personality to lip reading. As one approach to it we have studied two groups of children. In the one were children who on the basis of lip-reading tests, achievement tests, and teachers’ ratings were relatively better in lip reading than in school achievement. The children of the two groups were approximately equal in education age. We made a series of experiments wfith the children of the two groups to try to determine whether they could be distinguished in terms of personality differences. An experiment which yielded especially interesting results was one which showed whether a person pays more attention to form or to color. It has been found that there are marked individual differences in this respect. The person who notices color is, on the whole, of the integrated type — the one who prefers form, the more rigid, analytical type. The group of relatively good lip readers tended to favor color; that of relatively poor lip readers, to favor form. This is, of course, exactly what one would have expected on the basis of the earlier studies of personality. It seems significant in that it may point to something which is fundamental for lip reading. Another factor which has not yet been studied in relation to personality differences as such — but which must be closely related to them — is a sense of rhythm. We found that there was a high correlation between lip-reading ability and ability to follow a rhythm. Since finding this relationship on our tests we have asked adults who were deaf whether this seemed reasonable to them. Each has said that among his deaf friends those who were good dancers were usually good lip readers. This would suggest that the person 528 National Education Association \\ ho can give himself to a rhythm and follow it, can also give himself up to the task of following lip movements, and it is in agreement with what we know of the demands of the task itself. All this merely outlines the first steps of a much more comprehensive attack on the problem. We do not give any of our results as final. However, they are clear enough to make us feel very strongly that while lip reading, like every acquired ability, is to a great extent dependent on general intelligence, and while special training plays a great part, especially in the initial stages, it is nevertheless much more closely related to fundamental factors of per¬ sonality make-up than are most subjects which the normal school child is called upon to master. What does this mean for the education of the deaf? First, it calls for a more thoro study of the factors which make for good lip reading. Then there must be more comprehensive studies of different ways of teaching lip reading. This should especially make possible an analysis of lip-reading problems in individual children and the adaptation of method to meet the special needs of the child. Only in this way may we hope to equalize the great individual differences which one finds in lip-reading achievement. It also means a frank recognition of the fact that at present many children are poorer in lip reading than their level of intelligence would lead one to expect. At the same time our tests and studies show clearly that any deaf child, granted he has fair eyesight, can learn to read the lips to such an extent that he is immeasurably better able to face the world than if he has not made the effort to acquire this ability. Another problem which is now being studied concerns the use of written language by deaf and hearing children. There are two ways of gaining a mastery of language. The one is the way in which a hearing child acquires his mother tongue. He does not learn rules. He hears language which fol¬ lows rules, and by piactise and imitation he works from rough approxima¬ tions of the language of his environment to a real mastery of it. The other extreme would be to learn all the rules, and from them derive the special formulation of language in single cases. The way the deaf child learns lan¬ guage is in between these two extremes. We have recently made one attack on this problem. We prepared a short drama — in motion pictures. It was shown to all the children at the Cfiarke School who were old enough to write a desciiption of it, and to all the children of corresponding grades in a good public school in the city. A comparison of the length of sentences in the two groups shows that in the school for the deaf the younger children used rather short, clearly-defined sentences, and that with increasing age their sentences became longer and longer. The youngest hearing children, on the other hand, used long, undefined sentences loosely put together, and as they became older came to use shorter and more exact forms. From this one study, at least, one may say that the hearing child begins with a wealth of material, but material which is chaotic in form, not thoroly under control. Department of Special Education 529 The deaf child, who starts with more limited material, has it under better control from the beginning. But we know he does not usually attain the same degree of ease and fluency of expression as does the hearing child, and the problem is how to help him to do so. One further study which I will only mention concerns the effects of deaf¬ ness on the structure of the personality. One may speak of it as an effort to determine the psychological situation of the deaf. The plan of this work is based on studies made by students of Professor Kurt Lewin, now of Cornell University, who is especially concerned with problems of the dynamics of personality. It is impossible to go into the study which we are making in a short report. I can only say that we obtain our material by personal interview and that the interviews are made by persons who are in close contact with the deaf. By analyzing and organizing material of this sort we hope to build up a picture of the ways in which deafness affects the individual, or rather of the way in which it may affect different kinds of individuals in different environments, and so gain more insight into the psychological situation of the person who has deafness to cope with. THE STATUS OF THE HARD-OF-HEARING CHILD IN SPECIAL EDUCATION AGATHA SCALLY, INSTRUCTOR IN LIP READING, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, BALTIMORE, MD. The present status of the hard-of-hearing child in special education is due to the efforts of the American Federation of Organizations for the Hard of Hearing in arousing interest all over the United States in the needs of these children. This work has made rapid progress since 1924 when this Federation’s newly organized Committee on Hard-of-Hearing Children began an investigation to determine the extent of deafness among school children. The unusual success of this committee can be attributed chiefly to two factors : ( 1 ) The recent widespread interest which the science of medi¬ cine has taken in the investigation of deafness; and (2) the interest of the physicist in this field. The combined efforts of the otologist and physicist have made possible a marked advance in the technic of testing hearing. A more significant step forward along this line was the development of the 4-A Audiometer by the scientists of the Bell Telephone laboratories under the direction of Harvey Fletcher. The chief problems in testing had been the lack of standardization for most of the tests, especially the tuning forks which were used very widely, and the fact that each test had to be an individual one. The 4-A Audiometer revolutionized the testing of hearing in that it was devised to test a group of 40 children at one time and is claimed to be a standardized test. Working under the direction of the American Federation of Organiza¬ tions for the Hard of Hearing, Dr. Fletcher and Dr. Fowler made a study with the 4-A Audiometer to determine the number of school children with 530 National Education Association hearing defects. This investigation showed 14 percent of the school popula¬ tion to have a hearing impairment. Widely varying figures have been sub¬ mitted by cities conducting surveys following this report. The first step fol¬ lowing the discovery of a hearing defect should be an otological examination. Altho this seems a most necessary procedure it is not universal. In educational planning for the hard-of-hearing child, selection and place¬ ment are the important factors. Allowance must be made for the subjective elements in this as in other phases of the work. Some public schools provide three types of classes for children whose hearing is not normal, namely: deaf classes, hearing conservation classes, and lip-reading classes. Hard-of-hearing children are considered for placement in hearing conservation classes and lip-reading classes. All too frequently they have been misplaced in deaf classes and educated as deaf children. Hearing conservation classes are designed to provide the means for a satisfactory emotional and educational adjustment for children who are unable to make normal progress in the regular grade. Voice training, speech correction, and lip reading form a major part of the program. The schedule of work in the regular curriculum is carried out on a cooperative basis, thus giving an opportunity for the hard-of-hearing child to live in a normal atmos¬ phere. Children assigned to a lip-reading class require only periodic instruc¬ tion in lip reading to help them to keep their places in the regular grade. Factors other than the degree of deafness must be considered in allocating the children. A study was made, during the past year, at the Johns Hopkins University to determine the basis of selection for placement in these classes. The following factors were found to be necessary for consideration : A — Loss of hearing; B — Speech ability; C — Prognosis of hearing improvement; D — Social adjustment; E — School achievement; F — Retardation. Cruel as it may seem, it must be admitted that modern developments in this type of education have not kept pace with developments in either the field of mentally handicapped or in other fields of education for the physically handicapped. At first sight one might be tempted to believe that this situation is due to a prohibitive cost in the education of this particular type of child. A comparison of the figures in the city of Baltimore in 1933 shows that approximately the following amounts were spent in supervision, supplies, and instruction: for the mentally handicapped, $238,000 for 3193 pupils; for the physically handicapped, $143,000 for 2198 pupils. The per capita cost for the mentally handicapped was approximately $75; for the physically handicapped the per capita cost was approximately $65. Investigating these figures further a comparison may be shown of the costs for educating the various types of physically handicapped in relation to the hard-of-hearing group. The approximate total cost of supervision, sup¬ plies, and instruction for the hard of hearing was $6500, with a per capita cost of approximately $33. Twenty-three thousand dollars was spent on the crippled group with a per capita cost of $82. Thirteen thousand dollars was the amount required for the partially-sighted with a per capita of $96. A Department of Special Education 531 closer inspection brings out this point, that of the three types considered, the cost for educating the hard of hearing was lowest, with the crippled ranking next and the partially sighted highest. The purpose of all this expenditure of public funds is to prevent these children from becoming a burden economically to the community when they reach maturity. The hard of hearing succeed economically, not because of any emphasis on this phase of their training, but in spite of a lack of it. The economic returns from those with defective hearing are far in advance of any other types of handicapped children. 1 heir status in industry is very sound in comparison with the mentally handicapped, the crippled, or the partially sighted. As a group they become independent, self-supporting, economically competent members of society, and are far less of a burden to the community or state. The extent to which the status of the hard-of-hearing child in special education is advanced is dependent upon two factors, namely, the educational policy and the spontaneity of the public. Perhaps the most impressive means of compelling attention is to point out the logic of the situation. Adequate special education during the ordinary school period, obviates the necessity for a re-education of the hard-of-hearing child later in life. The movement must flow toward the direction of further research in fundamental problems pertaining to the hard of hearing by interesting research workers in the field of general education in this phase of special education. THE PLACE OF THE BLIND AND THE PARTIALLY- SEEING CHILD IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM MRS. FRANCES WOODWARD LITTLE, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY, MARYLAND SOCIETY FOR THE PREVENTION OF BLINDNESS, BALTIMORE, MD. The blind child must be kept in the seeing world as he must take his part in the work of the world. , . Cost of education — The cost of the education of the blind child is about eight times as much in the institution, and three times as much in the day school, as the education of a seeing child. Eye hygiene in public school systems— Vision tests of every pre-school child ought to be made so as to detect the defects in the formative stage of Eye strain— Eleven percent of all school children in the United States are suffering from eye strain, the result of improper illumination both natural and artificial, bad posture, placement of seats, desks, blackboards, and last but not least, badly printed books on a shiny surface. Prevention — Every public school must teach its children, also the parents, that fireworks, B.B. guns, air rifles, toy darts, and the supposedly harmless sparklers and torpedoes are very dangerous playfellows ; also to cooperate with the safety councils and societies for the prevention of blindness, in their effort to prohibit the manufacture and sale of these dangerous playfellows. 532 National Education Association Crossed eyes — See that every crossed eye is corrected in the very young child. Sight-saving classes — Sight-saving classes ought to be established in all school systems. The purpose of these classes is to improve impaired vision. In many instances after a child has spent two or three years in these classes, he is able to return to the regular grades. EDUCATING THE CRIPPLED CHILD harry p. latshaw, director, special education, public schools, BALTIMORE, MD. Gf the many types of physically handicapped children, the one that elicits the greatest public interest is the cripple, because his handicap is so dramatic¬ ally evident, even at a casual glance. In educating the cripple, many facilities need to be offered in addition to those of the ordinary school. Baltimore offers special facilities to all crippled children whose handicap is so severe that they cannot get to school under their own powers of locomo¬ tion, and whose academic attainment is that appropriate to grades one to nine, inclusive; viz., elementary school and junior high. But transportation is furnished. Ramps are provided to obviate the difficulty of going up and down stairs. For the same reason the school work for these children is all on one floor. The school furniture includes wheelchairs and, when needed, special attachments to the seating equipment. Physiotherapy is the main resource for strengthening the weakened muscles of these children. The work in hydrotherapy includes a systematic use of the shower baths, but more particularly, the under-water massage work of the treatment tank and free swimming in the pool. The under-water massage work is particularly beneficial to children suffering from infantile paralysis, as their muscles are extremely weak, flabby, and sensitive. The heliotherapy consists of short wave, ultra-violet radiation from a carbon arc solarium, the effect of which is to strengthen weakened musculature and build up the general health. As increase in strength occurs, the treatment- tank type of massage is dropped, and the child is promoted to the typical bakings and muscular manipulations which characterize physiotherapeutic massage. As the child strengthens under this routine, he is promoted to cor¬ rective gymnastics, where specific muscles are strengthened thru carefully planned and supervised exercises. Simultaneously with working his way thru these various stages of muscular strengthening thru physiotherapy, the child participates in out-of-door play during the school recess periods. There are three play groups. Group one consists of children whose games are sedentary, such as jacks, finger plays, ball rolling, and guessing contests. Group two indulges in exercises by walking thru the out-of-doors ramp, by climbing the varied flights of practise steps whose risers are of graduated heights, and by playing relatively inactive types of games. Group three in¬ dulges in practically all the usual schoolyard sports and games. Department of Special Education 533 Children selected by the school physician have scheduled rest periods in the cot room under supervision. The Maryland League for Crippled Chil¬ dren, acting in cooperation with the various hospital clinics, attends to the readjustment of orthopedic braces, shoes, and plaster casts. The readjust¬ ments, if made at the proper time, helpfully supplement the physiotherapeutic technics above described ; if neglected, vitiate any gains attained. The school lunch, with carefully balanced menu, is furnished free of charge to the crip¬ pled children as a part of the body-building regime of the school. Vocational guidance for these children is thru try-out courses and counsel¬ ing in the junior high school. Those students whose physical condition and achievement justify further training are taken in charge by the State Division of Rehabilitation for vocational training “on the job” at government expense. The employer, in whose shop the student-apprentice is trained, is under no obligation to hire the trainee, but he usually does so. If this does not occur, the State Division of Rehabilitation endeavors to secure the trainee a job and to follow him for a reasonable time so as to be sure that satisfactory placement has been made. There are three hospital classes for crippled children, two at Children’s Hospital, and one at Kernan’s. When the children have sufficiently re¬ covered from operative procedures to warrant their studying, either thru bedside teaching or thru classroom instruction, they receive instruction from a teacher supplied by the department of education. Home teaching is furnished to convalescent, physically handicapped chil¬ dren, most of whom are cripples. The teacher visits the home, instructing the child in the minimum essentials of the regular grade work. This is continued until such time as conditions are right for the return of the child to school in the type of class appropriate to his need. EDUCATION OF GIFTED CHILDREN— A CHALLENGE CORA LEE DANIELSON, ASSISTANT SUPERVISOR, SECTION OF EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LOS ANGELES, CALIF. The United States is wasting its most valuable human asset, its high-grade intelligence. It is failing to train the leader who might contribute most to its social welfare. The attempt to disregard the existence of superior mental ability or to trust to its conservation thru mass instruction in heterogeneous groups has resulted in the apparent loss to society of valuable leadership. Only 4000 of the 1,500,000 children in America who should be in training are now receiving special instruction. Experiment has proved that ability is conserved at its potential strength under a program of enrichment in subject- • matter and methods of instruction. The exercise of desirable attitudes, in¬ itiative, independence, and leadership develops strength in those traits. We must reinterpret equal opportunity for all children since opportunities are not equal unless we provide the chance for each to develop to the maxi¬ mum extent of his potentiality. “Nothing is more undemocratic than to expect equal results from unequal abilities.” 534 National Education Association THE EDUCATION OF THE MENTALLY RETARDED META L. ANDERSON, SUPERVISOR, SPECIAL CLASSES, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, ST. LOUIS, MO. Jl ho is jnentally retarded? — It is usual to consider that the children whose intelligence quotients fall between 50 and 70 are mentally retarded and proper candidates for special classes. This is a very practical basis for classi¬ fication and perhaps even selection for special classes, but many questions arise in regard to the children with intelligence quotients just above 70 the 7 2’s, 76’s, or even 78’s. Also, there is much to learn about the children with intelligence quotients of 58 or 68 who actually succeed, after a fashion, in the regular grades of the elementary school and even high school. There is much more for us to know about the selection of children for special class placement. Transition period in the education of mentally retarded children — The education of mentally retarded children is no longer considered a mysterious procedure suitable only for children who are not normal. Special education at its best is simply good education. The principles of the education of mentally retarded are not different from the principle underlying education of any group of children. T- he pioneers in special education for mentally retarded always maintained that the normal children would profit by the same type of education given to the slower children, and now that “progressive education” has come to the elementary grades, their wishes have come true. There are many problems raised by the new situation. It is quite natural that some administrations should believe that mentally retarded children can be taught in the elementary grades where the activity programs are followed. This may be so, but it is now a bit soon to add to the elementary- grade teacher the burden of learning to know special children while they are working out these new programs. They have quite enough to do without this at the present time. This is a transition period in the education of the mentally retarded as well as in the education of the normal children. The aim should be to keep the best of what we now have and move forward slowly as we learn how to do better. Relationship of special classes to elementary grades — This relationship needs to be closer between special classes and elementary grades. Teachers in each department have much to contribute to the others. Better technics of teaching will be found in each group when a closer cooperation is established. The future — It is dangerous to hazard a guess, even, but this much seems certain, that education for the mentally retarded in the future will be different from what it is now. It will be better. DEPARTMENT OF £ UPE RINTENDENCE HISTORICAL NOTE The department of superintendence was the outgrowth of a meet- uig of the National Teachers' Association in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, 1865, at which time the state and city superintendents present decided to form an organisation of their own. Final action zuas taken in Washing¬ ton, D. C., in February, 1866. The new organisation was called the Na¬ tional Association of School Superintendents. In 1870 , the National Association of School Superintendents merged into the National Education Association as a Department. In 1921, the Department was reorganised and a fulltime secretary employed. It pub¬ lishes a report of its annual meeting and a yearbook which are sent only to members. J The officers of the Department for the year 1934-35 are: president E. E. Oberholtser, Superintendent of Schools, Houston, Texas; first vicepresident, Paul C. Stetson, Superintendent of Schools, Indian- apohs, Ind.; second vicepresident, A. J. Stoddard, Superintendent of Schools, Providence, R. I.; executive secretary, Sherwood D. Shank- land, 1201 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C .; executive committee: Ben G. Graham, Superintendent of Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa.; Carroll R. Reed, Superintendent of Schools, Minneapolis, Minn.; Charles S. Meek, Superintendent of Schools, Toledo, Ohio; George C. Bush, Superintend¬ ent of Schools, South Pasadena, Calif. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 1873:244-271 1874:297 1873:291 1877:253-261 1879:223 1880 : 235-236 1881:252 188 3:131 1884 : 283-292 188 8:160-191 1886 : 333-350 1887 :509-538 1888:513-543 1889:611-613 1890 : 365-542 1891 : 37 9 -525 189 2:559-743 1894 : 25 2-59 2 1898:213-429 1896 : 231 -392 189 7:195-316 1898 : 303-488 1899:251-379 1882 :¥t 11: 1-1 12 1900 :183-296 1901 :189-348 190 2:151-305 190 3:139-300 1904 : 173-332 1908:155-270 1906: 29-214 190 7:145-327 190 8:129-312 1909 : 159-330 1910 :143-306 1911 :161-329 1912: 329-497 1913: 99-354 1914: 133-291 1915: 253-525 1916: 895-1099 1917: 661-845 1918: 473-683 1919: 483-673 1920: 407-536 1921: 679-849 1922:1295-1464 1923: 881-1024 1924:803-961 19 25:633-862 1926:665-838 1927:697-871 19 28:655-830 1929 : 643 -8 02 1930:607-770 1931:645-800 19 32:543-677 19 33:551-680 [ 536 ] FIRST GENERAL SESSION, SUNDAY AFTERNOON, FERUARY 25 Vesper Service WELCOME TO CLEVELAND CHARLES H. LAKE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CLEVELAND, OHIO This is the fourth time in sixteen years that Cleveland has entertained the Department of Superintendence and it is very gratifying to those of us who live in Cleveland that you have accepted our invitation again at this most important time when there is so very much to do in education, and when so much responsibility rests on this Department of Superin¬ tendence. All Cleveland welcomes you and hopes that your visit here may be most profitable and interesting. Cleveland is one of the great cities of this great country that has been working assiduously to determine the answers to the many social, eco¬ nomic, political, and emotional problems that have arisen for our solution; one of the cities that is working to perfect a system of education that will guarantee the maintenance and improvement of the plan of government that was established by our ancestors some one hundred and fifty-eight years ago. Confident hope born of knowledge, intelligent courage, and de¬ cisive well-poised action will, in my opinion, produce desirable results in the solution of these problems. We have not been standing still in education. We have been thinking in the past few years, and to some purpose. And this meeting should do much to clarify thinking on the best practises and procedures for our work. We have emerged from the period during which there has been so much of internal dissension, born of misunderstanding; so much of criticism on the lips of so many; so much of suspicion of the purposes, the plans, and the in¬ tegrity of all; so much of accusation, resulting from suspicion and igno¬ rance. We have emerged from the period when fear has been so prevalent in the hearts of men ; when initiative has been stultified ; when courage has been temporarily thwarted ; when industry has been paralyzed ; when re¬ treat has been the order of the day ; when we have been fighting the wind¬ mills of despair ; when doubt has assailed every feature of education ; when imaginary dollars were paramount. We have emerged definitely from that period and are on our way for¬ ward to a better day for all worthy endeavor. No group can go forward alone. Our schools, our industrial life, our governments must all go forward together. The day for competition for scanty dollars between our different governmental agencies must be over, the day when private and special interests may imagine that they can thrive on the money withheld from those governmental agencies which alone make government worth¬ while, is over. The conflicts between selfishness and the mutual advan- [ 537 ] 538 National Education Association tages of our social group must cease. All these things will come in the in¬ terests, and as the result, of a better economic planning, a better conduct of business, and a better social planning, and education must lead the way. We cannot desire the return of the system of a few years ago. We must eradicate the absurd hopes for the return of the “terrible days of pros¬ perity.” We have the ability to meet the challenge of the times, to con¬ struct the foundation for a better society thru our educational system. We have the leadership to devise sound plans for financing education and to get them into operation. We have the courage to carry on, in the face of adverse criticism and discouragements; to accomplish the tasks we have set for ourselves. We must believe that we have all these qualities. This meeting of the Department of Superintendence has the possibility of being the most important educational meeting of the period. We ap¬ preciate having you here. We know that you will want to come again. DEMOCRACY AND RELIGION WILLIAM LOWE BRYAN, PRESIDENT, INDIANA UNIVERSITY, BLOOMINGTON, IND. John Dewey, forty years ago or more, said that while democracy was under severe criticism as a theory, it was everywhere progressing as a fact. And, the first thing I wish to do is to call swift attention to the movement away from autocracy toward democracy from the Declaration of Inde¬ pendence in the United States to the end of the World War, and then to call attention to the movement away from democracy toward autocracy from the end of the World War down to this present day. Let us think of a few of the outstanding facts. In 1783 the United States was recognized and the Republic extended to the Mississippi. In 1848 the Republic extended to the Pacific. From 1789 to 1793 the French fought thru revolution and terror to establish a government where there should be liberty, equality, and fraternity. And, thru regressions and pro¬ gressions since that time, the French people at last established the French Republic in 1871. In 1820, or about that time, the Latin American provinces renewed their fight for liberty, and by the help of James Monroe and George Canning, Prime Minister of England, all Latin American states became, in name or reality, republics. In 1848 the German people fought to escape from the autocracy of the Hohenzollerns and other kings, and to achieve a republic. Their efforts failed and after 1848 many of the best of them came to America and many of the best citizens of America today are the descendants of those who, like Carl Schurz, having failed to achieve a republic, gave their strength to the Republic of America. And, since 1848, what wonders, what miracles have happened thruout the world! China has struggled to become a republic. Turkey this year Department of Superintendence 539 celebrated the tenth year of establishment of a republic of a kind. For a moment Russia tried to become a republic in the midst of the World War, and at the end of it, Germany, Austria, and other states. I have thought of this whole movement that it might be shown as a moving picture. I would have you look at the screen where there is a revolving globe and the globe turns once around for each year since 1796 to 1934. And, if you see there all the autocracies in black and the re¬ publics in white, you see the black world turning white decade after decade until at the close of the World War it was nearly everywhere white so that Mr. Wilson might well have thought we had fought successfully to make the world safe for democracy. But, if you see the world turning after that, year after year, you see it turning black again so that whatever they have in Russia is as much a despotism as it was under Peter the Great or Ivan the Terrible. In Italy they have Musso¬ lini. In Germany they have Hitler. We are told again and again, we are told this morning by Sir Philip Gibbs in one of the Cleveland papers, that all Europe is turning Fascist and there are many who think the United States also is about to conclude that democratic government is a failure and that we must also revert to a dictatorship. It has been very easy to make this speech so far, for I have simply stated facts that all know, and I cannot think that any question that you are to discuss here, you schoolmen of America, can be any more important than this one — whether, in face of this unprecedented situation, we also are to surrender the liberty for which men aspired and men fought thru hun¬ dreds of years. What do your young people believe about this? What do you school people believe about this? Has the depression fought you not only out of your prosperity but out of your faith? I asked a student this question the other day. He came to interview me. He came to ask me what I thought of the youth movements in Europe. I will say in parenthesis that there is something wonderfully good about those youth movements in those coun¬ tries. At any rate, there is something those young people are willing to fight for. I wanted to know what our young people are willing to fight for and die for. I asked this young man, “What is it you and your com¬ rades want from the government?” “We want to be let alone!” That is the one thing that he cannot have. With three-quarters of the world on fire, the one certain thing is that no person can be let alone! We cannot meet this situation with indifference and cannot meet it with be¬ wilderment. I want to speak very briefly of two things. I wish to lift myself out of the atmosphere of fury and bewilderment and try to see, as well as I can, first, what the absence of liberty has meant in some of the countries where they haven’t had liberty or where they have lost it. I think of India which, I suppose, has never had liberty. It has passed from one autocrat to another and even under the beneficent government 540 National Education Association of England, the people of India have had no liberty to create a state for themselves. What has this done for India? The common people, of course, ha\ e accepted it like dumb, driven cattle. What have the intellectuals done? We should not forget that there is an aristocracy of intelligence and spirit in India as there has always been. How have they met this problem? The charactei istic response has been surrender. The characteristic response has been that of Buddha. It has been surrender. It has been Nirvana. They who say that Nirvana is death, do lie. They who say that Nirvana is life, do err. Nirvana is escape. Nirvana is silence — silence from action, silence from speech, silence from thought. Well, that is an alluring idea, and I will say to you that many times I have wished that I might escape from the war that life is everywhere and could go with my beloved wife to a lodge in some far wilderness, escape from the radio and telephone and newspaper, and all the con¬ fusions of the world, and live there in peace and silence. But I cannot ac¬ cept that life. I must not so surrender. I think of Greece which once had liberty, and whatever the faults in that Grecian life and Grecian government before Philip and Alexander, Greece of that time became the light of the world and remains a great part of the light of the world. I want to read three sentences from Zellar, unexcelled historian of philosophy. After reciting in a series of volumes the history of Greek philosophy down to Socrates, Aristotle, and Plato, he writes the following sentences : By the Battle of Chaeionea, 338 B. C., the doom of Greece was sealed and never since then (he was writing in 1885) has Greece attained to real political freedom.” That is the first sentence. Second : “Greek philosophy, like Greek art, is the offspring of Greek political independence.” I he three great schools of philosophy after that were Stoicism, Epicu¬ reanism and Philosophic Skepticism, and this is the sentence, “Stoicapathy, Epicurean self-contentment and Skeptic imperturbability were the doctrines which suited the political helplessness of the age.” Greece had liberty in the days of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, Aeschy¬ lus, Euripides, Demosthenes, and the rest who make this one of the great ages in the history of the world. After that, the long twilight and then the darkness. Germany had liberty in the days of Zellar, in the days when the German university gave forth the light which can come alone from free¬ dom, freedom which it does not now possess. I have read in one Latin author of four hundred years before Christ how, when the Gauls invaded Rome, they put the young men and the best of the senators in the citadel so that they might there maintain the Roman state and the Roman name. 4 he other senators sat in their senate house and people outside remained to be slain by the Gauls, happy that their sacnfice might maintain the Roman Republic. I have read from another author, four hundred years later, that when the Vandals invaded Italy, Department of Superintendence 541 Rome fell because multitudes joined the barbarians against the despotism of their own government. Wherever liberty has been lost, we find in fact the truth of the saying of de Musset which he uttered after the revolution, and after Napoleon. “They that were after the flesh, gave themselves up to the lusts of the flesh, and they that were after the spirit, gave themselves up to despair.” WLat then can we do ? Where shall we find an ideal that we may believe in thru whatever darkness and danger we have to pass? This is no time for me to give the view that I have of that profound movement of life on this planet which I think points us to the goal of society. I believe this to be the trend of evolution and life on this planet : that life, if we may person¬ alize it for a moment, has sought to create beings that have a maximum of freedom and a maximum of free cooperation. We have the effort of life in the plants, in the tree with its varied parts which nevertheless must work together ; but a tree is not the greatest triumph of life. We have it on another level in the human body, and one may read in that remarkable book of Pro¬ fessor Cannon of Harvard University, The Wisdom of the Body, the mar¬ velous way the organisms work together so that we may survive. But, the human body is not the highest triumph of life on earth. We have a wonder¬ ful example, a wonderful achievement in any successful society, even in a savage clan, where you have personalities, each separate from every other, yet working together under a dictator. But, the barbaric clan is not the highest achievement of life. We have to look higher for the place where there is more of freedom and more of free cooperation. I give you a real actual illustration of what life in one of its highest manifestations has to show in the world’s scholars thruout the world. Every scholar must be free. He must be in large part self-directed. It is impossible that any scholar of worth, force, strength, and achievement should work under a dictator. The scholar must be free, and yet the whole body of scholars in all fields work together. The body of free scholars working everywhere together points the way to the goal. It is not the highest possibility but it points the way to the highest — a society of persons, each independent, each free, each in large part self-directed, yet working together in harmony toward the highest good. That which is necessary in science is necessary in other things also. Galileo was not free. He must say that the earth stands still. The scholar in the University of Berlin today is not free. He must say nothing which is con¬ trary to the will of the dictator. Learning must be free and education must be free. We must have the ways and means of bringing up the generation, determined not by some one superman who tells us all what we must do and what we must not do but we must have the wealth of the variety, the wealth of the precious differences in the minds of all the schoolmen and school- women, fathers and mothers. We must have freedom at the same time that we have in reasonable measure cooperation together. And, religion must be free or it is nothing. Religion cannot live under a dictator who tells us what we must believe, and what rites we should have and 542 National Education Association what ecclesiastical organization we must have. We must have freedom. The individual must be able to go alone to the center of his heart to commune there mystically with his God and then must come from that communion to join with others in that free community of souls which is the Kingdom of God. Once, in a great crisis, Wordsworth began a sonnet to Milton, the apostle of Liberty. He says, “Milton, thou shouldst be with us at this hour.” And so, my last word to you today is this: “Washington, thou shouldst be with us at this hour.” In a world where nearly all the world was governed by kings, this Cincinnatus refused a crown and returned to his farm. What we pray for is that the spirit of Washington should stand now as he stood then on the Atlantic Shore, facing the tyrant across the sea at one time and facing mob violence on the other. We want the spirit of Washington as he faced George III in 1776 and as he faced Robespierre in 1793. SECOND GENERAL SESSION, MONDAY MORNING, FEBRUARY 26 Education for the New America THE NEW LEISURE CHALLENGES THE SCHOOLS JOHN H. FINLEY, THE NEW YORK TIMES, NEW YORK, N. Y. Twenty years ago I made a May Day address at the college in which my daughter was a freshman on the general subject of education for the best use of leisure. In order to give it academic standing I gave my address the title “ The Wisdoms of Leisure,” and I made the specific suggestion that the school should have in its May Day heart this preparation for a happier life on this planet thru availing of the freedom of free time. I thought that I was the first to reach this conclusion, but before I got to the end of my search for helpful material I discovered that Aristotle had arrived at the same con¬ clusion somewhat more than two thousand years ago. He, however, was thinking only of the privileged few instead of the mass of men, women, and children who have now come into a still larger freedom than I dreamed of even twenty years ago. He went farther than I quite dared to go, for he said that the right use of leisure was the chief object of education. I had been taught in my catechism that to glorify God was the chief end of man. And the suggestion of this new definition of education was that this was one way, perhaps the chief way, in which to glorify Him and enjoy Him forever. Now I can quote not only Aristotle but the greatest thinkers of our own day in support of what I long ago began to preach. Elihu Root, whom we in New York regard as.our first citizen, has said that in his judgment “there is no problem before the world today more important than the training for the right use of leisure.” Former President Hoover, when he was Secretary Department of Superintendence 543 of Commerce, said that our stage of civilization is not going to depend upon what we do when we work so much as upon what we do with our time off. I was brought up, out in the valley which stretches from here to the Rocky Mountains, on a Sunday School song which began, “Work, for the night is coming.” It seems now, by reason of restricted hours of labor and the agonizing extent of unemployment, quite out of date. What we need to buoy our hearts is a song for the hours that can no longer be filled with work — the hours of free or compelled leisure — but should none the less be used to make life even more abundant, happy, and useful than it was for those who sang a half century ago with ardor the song of work which enjoined us to “work thru the morning hours; to work while the dew is sparkling; to work mid springing flowers ; to work while the day grows brighter, to work thru the sunny noon ; to fill brightest hours with labor ; to give every flying minute something to keep in store ; to work under the sunset skies ; to work while the last beam fadeth, fadeth to shine no more ; and even to work while the night is darkening, when man’s work is o’er.” It was a joyous song whose only sad line was “when man’s work is o’er.” The sad experience of the last few years is that millions have had no oppor¬ tunity to “fill brightest hours with labor.” Substitute for the word “work” one which suggests the fullest active enjoyment of the hours which have been released for one’s free use and you have a song for a new day and for the “New Deal,” as it is called. I should use the word “play” if it still kept its original meaning, which was to “occupy one’s self busily about a thing or person,” to “cultivate,” to “exercise one’s self habitually in an action,” to “rejoice” and “be glad.” But play is not quite comprehensive enough in its usual definition, tho heaven knows, we need even play, just play, for thousands of children who can have it only at their peril in city streets. But the word “recreation” is broad enough to include “play” in its every expression and also many ac¬ tivities that are usually not thought of as play — music, the drama, the crafts, every free activity and especially creative activity for the enrichment of life. When I was commissioner of education I used to call the 2,000,000 chil¬ dren in the schools of the state my millionaires, in that they had at least 20,000,000 minutes more to live than I had, assuming that they were to live to the age which I have now myself reached. I, was accustomed to say to them that they would have to spend nearly a third of their fortune in sleep and sickness and nearly a third in work, but that they would have left another third, most of which they might spend in making the most of their spiritual selves, cultivating skills thru which the talents with which they are born might be put to their highest personal and social use. I found some years ago in a London Labor paper the tabulated results of a questionnaire as to the allotment of time, assuming that years reached the Scriptural number: 544 National Education Association Y ear . Sleep Washing Shaving v Dressing Years 23 School . VA 18 W alking VX Work . Waiting for trains 3 Reading . 7 Idling . Play . m i Vt Sund rips 2 54 Entertainment . . Years Days 15 The eighteen years of work will now be reduced for millions to twelve years. It is that margin of six years which may now be added to the leisure \eais for reading, for play, for walking, for idling, for sundries — a fortune altogether of thirty-five years out of the seventy after sleep and work have been subtracted. A new time pattern for life ! A longer compulsory school period, to begin with, the leisure to learn the lessons of the race, and to remember the Creator in the days of youth, with all of youth’s buoyancy of spirit and so not only to end child labor but also to prevent the evil days from becoming inevitable. Then a shorter work period for the rest of a longer expectation of life, but coupled with the leisure in which to approach the being one has the heritage to become. For with the great mass of men and women, the vocation no longer furnishes the possibility of perfecting themselves thru perfecting their works. The most beautiful essay in all literature, so far as I know, on labor and leisure, the Thirty-eighth Chapter in the Book of Ec- clesiasticus, begins with the statement that “he that hath little business shall become wise, and continues in this fashion : How shall he become wise that holdeth the plow, that glorieth in the shaft of the goad, that dnveth oxen, and is occupied in their labours, and whose discourse is of the stock of bulls? He will set his heart upon turning his furrows; and his wakefulness is to give his heifers their fodder. So is every artificer and work- master that passeth his time by night as by day; that cuts gravings of signets, and whose diligence is to make great variety; he will set his heart to preserve likeness in his portraiture, and will be wakeful to finish his work. So is the smith sitting by the anvil, and considering the unwrought iron; the vapour of the fire will waste is flesh, and in the heat of the furnace will he wrestle with his work; the noise of the hammer will be ever in his ear, and his eyes are upon the pattern of the vessel; he will set his heart upon perfecting his works and he will be wakeful to adorn t era perfectly. So is the potter sitting at his work, and turning the wheel about with his feet, who is always anxiously set at his work and all his handiwork is by number; he will fashion the clay with his arm, and will bend its strength in front of his feet; he will apply his heart to finish the glazing, and he will be wakeful to make clean the furnace. All these put their trust in their hands; and each be- cometh wise in his own work. Without these shall not a city be inhabited, and men shall not sojourn nor walk up and down therein. . . . They will maintain the fabric of the world; and in the handiwork of their craft is their prayer. But this ancient writer goes on to say that they could have no part in the councils of the people, that is, in public affairs (which is one function of a citizen in a democracy), or time to apply their souls. But even the satisfaction which the ancient found in his craft, in perfect¬ ing his works, has for the most part been lost. The machine which he attends Department of Superintendence 545 has taken away tnat joy, but it has given him a leisure in which, under self- discipline, he may set his heart upon perfecting some skill of his free choice — “applying his soul,” and incidentally perfecting himself and not only taking his part in promoting the common happiness of his community but also in maintaining the common good of the world as well as its fabric. And it is our high responsibility to help prepare those who are soon to possess the earth for this new world of labor and leisure, which is probably to have even less labor and even more leisure — the new hope of man’s indi¬ vidual salvation, even in the midst of regimentation. But, as I have often said, it will be a far more difficult task of civilization to teach men and women to use leisure rightly than to instruct them how to laboi efficiently. I am thinking that teachers in their own persons and attitudes have preeminently this high task, the more difficult of the two. They must not ignore or think superciliously or lightly of the problem of vocation (that of making vocational labor itself as directly serviceable to human happiness as possible and of making all who labor as happy and efficient in that service as erring human nature and merciless inorganic nature will let us). They are especially to exemplify and encourage in their own living and aspiring the best, noblest use of free time. It is not in the narrow cabin six feet square, to quote the famous simile of Bishop Blougranis Apology, that we must all cross the ocean of this life _ just for the sake of reaching the other side— a cabin where there is room for only the bare sea furniture, the equipment for vocation. Everyone really has space foi what he wants most to take with him ; not always for the physical pianoforte, the shelf of Balzac, the “little Greek books they get up so well in Leipzig, the famed Corregio s fleeting glow,” but certainly space for all the satisfactions which these give, if only we availed of them. In a book prepared for the second NRA, entitled The New Leisure Chal¬ lenges the Schools by Eugene T. Lies, there is a nineteen-point statement of principles signed by forty-five hundred leaders in American life. Most of these have to. do with the recreational needs and duties of every man, with the arts of leisure and the roads that lead to them. But the first and second have to do with every child : 1. Every child needs to be exposed to the growth-giving activities that have brought satisfaction thru the ages — to climbing, chasing, tumbling; to tramping, swimming, dancing, skating, ball games ; to singing, playing musical instruments, ramatizing; to making things with his hands, to working with sticks and stones and sand and water, to building and modeling; to caring for pets; to gardening, to nature; to trying simple scientific experiments; to learning team-play, group ac¬ tivity, and adventure, comradeship in doing things with others. 2. Eveiy child needs to discover which activities give him personal satsfaction. In these activities he should be helped to develop the essential skills. Several of these activities should be of such a nature that he can keep them up in adult life. When the Creator banished man from the Garden of Eden in the person of Adam and Eve, He put them under what is called the “curse” of eating their bread in the sweat of their faces. But either out of love or out of pity 546 National Education Association He made a code for their descendants, the human race, that they should not work more than six days in a week. (“Six days shalt thou labor and do all thy work.’’) An employer of labor recently asked me if a five-day week would violate this commandment. But this commandment or code is now to be interpreted in the light of the Great Commandment, “Love thy neigh¬ bor as thyself.” Man will find his way back to paradise not only by finding his opportunity to do his share of the world’s work and doing it, but in in¬ creasing measure making highest use of his free time. And the children in their free, happy, unclouded play, will show us the way back or forward to that paradise, for of such is the Kingdom of Heaven. The code of the leisure into which we would see mankind led is suggested in the Leisure Commandment. For ourselves who are in the adult years, and some of us with little time- fortune left, so to use our leisure as to emphasize for them the most precious things even if we may not attain them, I have written this Leisure Com¬ mandment : Remember the days of thy leisure to keep them holy. Thou shalt do with all thy might and skill thy share of the work of the world, whether on land, at sea, or in the heavens above the earth. Thou shalt keep as hallowed thy time of leisure and find thine hours of unemployment blest by thy best use of them. THE CONTRIBUTION OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS HAROLD G. CAMPBELL, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEW YORK, N. Y. A recent reviewer in the literary supplement of the London Times has quoted a passage to the effect that in this age some ironic freak of fortune seems to have bestowed upon mankind a talent for setting up admirable social, economic, and political agencies only to find that they cannot be operated effectively except by creatures on a higher intellectual and moral plane than the general average of the living generation. While the writer did not so intend it, his thought may be taken as a criticism of education. What he has said means simply that the things which society seeks to accomplish for its own betterment are good. The machinery for the accomplishment of these things is at hand, but we lack the men to operate it successfully. We are unable to achieve our own ideals or to reach the goal we have set for ourselves because we have not a suf¬ ficient number of men and women with the proper training and the high character necessary to bring about the better day. Is this true? If so, has education been at fault? Let us accept the thought as a criticism of our¬ selves if only for the purpose of inspiring education to greater service. Whether education has been at fault or not, it is our task for the present and for the future so to train the youth of the land that they will have both the character and the intellectual capacity to work in cooperation with their fellow men for the highest good and for Social justice. Department of Superintendence 547 The lack heretofore seems to have been one of character and of failure to adhere to ethical principles, rather than a lack of ability. There has likewise been a failure to comprehend fundamental principles of sociology and economics. The lack of character has manifested itself in the all too frequent revelations of unfair dealing in business and finance, and in the all too numerous instances of malfeasance in public office. The failure to understand sociological and economic principles came clearly to view with the crash of 1929. Many of the men we had looked upon as the leaders of what James Truslow Adams has called “our business civilization” were found to be nothing more than gentlemen who bought things as cheaply as they could and sold them for as much as they could with little regard for the fairness of their dealings. The fact that their selfishness and ineptitude had plunged us into the depths was bad enough, but their complete inability to suggest any way of getting us out was worse. They knew neither how it had happened nor why it had happened. They were not able even to see the extent of the collapse or to grasp its significance. When asked what ought to be done they said simply, “Things will adjust themselves.” Our disillusionment was quite thoro. The gods of business and finance had a queer code of ethics and very little knowledge of economic laws or social problems. They wTere not fair in their dealings even with one another and were motivated almost wholly by a desire for personal gain. Left to themselves they were found to be very nearly helpless. There was no agreement among them as to what should be done 'and many had not the slightest idea how to extricate their followers from the desperate situation into which they had led them. What should be of deepest concern to us is the fact that most of these men who failed so miserably were the products of our system of education. They, and those who worshipped them and found them to be false gods, were once in our schools, public or private. Either we failed to teach them the proper way of life or, having taught them, they deliberately ignored the lesson. The likelihood is that we did not give them a real understand¬ ing of social, economic, political, or moral principles. What some choose to call the national recovery program or the “New Deal” is in reality an effort to accomplish by legislation and government action the very things that education in the past should have accomplished. Every statute, every law, presumes a failure on the part of education, for what need would there be to direct men by legislative enactment that they must be fair in their dealings with one another, pay fair wages, and not misrepresent their goods in the market place, if we who were their teachers had really and effectively taught them the lesson? Every governmental regulation in the social or economic field presumes a lack of character, a lack of social consciousness, and a failure on the part of those at whom it is directed to realize that the social good depends upon their observance of man’s responsibility to his fellow man. This, too. is a lesson that we should have taught, and must teach now. 548 National Education Association Our government has enacted a large body of legislation and called for the adoption of corollary codes. The basic aim of them all is to compel men to be ethical — to be as we should have taught them to be without reference to statute or code. This has been our failure. Out of it we now have a clearer conception of our duty. Perhaps there is an excuse for us. Perhaps when life was simpler and when the home and the church played a greater part in the training of youth than they now play, our function appeared more nar¬ rowly defined, but whether excusable or not the failure has been recorded against us. There is no excuse for us now. The public school of today takes the child at a much earlier age and has him in its care until he has grown to manhood. No longer does he come to us at seven and leave us at twelve or fourteen. We have nursery schools and schools for adults. We have assumed responsibility not merely for the development of the student’s mental, manual, or artistic capability but for the development of his whole personality. Modern life has made necessary the assumption of this respon¬ sibility and we must discharge it or again be found wanting. We have called upon the people for vast sums of money to make possible this new educational program and if we are to survive as the social agency we now conceive ourselves to be we cannot fail in the task that is before us. What began not long ago as a plan for economic recovery widened almost immediately into a program for the attainment of complete social justice and the establishment of a new order — a new America if you will. The problem involved is not new. Rather is it one that has been crying out for solution thru all the ages. It is a problem of education. If any one thing is clear at this time it is that education has a more important part to play in realizing the new social order than has the government itself because the very essence of the thing is right conduct and right conduct must be the result of teaching and not of legislation. From now until the end of time we may enact laws in an attempt to make men recognize their obligations to society, but the only way in which this recognition may be accomplished actually is by education. We may call sessions of Congress, seek amendments to our Constitution, summon world conferences, or do any one of a number of things hopeful that we may thus hasten the arrival of an improved social order and even tho we might thus attain it, it would fail if education had not prepared men properly to administer it. We are witnessing in this country today a new struggle between the strict constructionists and the liberal interpreters of the federal Constitu¬ tion. The whole country is awaiting the outcome of the test to which the recovery program laws will be put when they come before the United States Supreme Court. Education may remain aloof from this struggle and yet perform its full duty, for no matter which interpretation may prevail and no matter what may be our social structure now or in the future, it will stand or fall not by reason of the fact that it was erected in accordance with Mr. Roosevelt’s understanding of the functions of Department of Superintendence 549 government, or Mr. Hoover’s, but by reason of the character and honesty of the men in whose hands we place the reins of government and the conduct of our social and economic affairs. After all is there really anything new about this “New Deal”? Does it not embody the very ideals that are to be found in the legal, political, and economic philosophies of those who formulated the American concept of government and society? The trouble in the past has been that we did not live up to these ideals. Today we have awakened to the possibilities of attaining an improved social order thru the realization of these ideals, and we are making a determined, intelligent, and cooperative effort to find a way out of our difficulties not by turning to some new form of govern¬ ment but within the framework of the old democracy. We hear it said that there has been a political revolution. Has the revolt after all not been against dishonesty and incompetence; against the failure of our leaders to practise what they have preached, or to live up to what have always been American ideals? Has the revolt not been one against the abuses of our system rather than against the system itself — against unfairness, unsocial conduct and attitudes in business, industry, and banking? American states¬ men have ever promised that all should have equality of opportunity. Even in the twenties, which are now supposed to be the years of the old order, we find Justice Cardozo remarking quite as a matter of fact in his essay on Liberty and Government that “the perception of this truth has brought about a growing acceptance in our law of the power of the legislature to regulate industrial conditions — to establish some degree of equality of opportunity between the affluent and the needy. There was some opposition to the movement based upon an individualistic philosophy which permeated for a time the decisions of the courts, yet the movement gained an impetus that could not be withstood.” Indeed the whole philosophy of the new order may be found in the judicial opinions of Justices Cardozo, Brandeis, Stone, and Holmes who, by translating ancient truths into modern terms and applying them to our modern industrial civilization, became the prophets of the New Deal. Their opinions, dealing with constitutional questions of a social and eco¬ nomic nature, are based not so much upon legal concepts as upon moral concepts, and their quest has been the quest for social justice. It is my belief that every teacher of history and civics and every teacher of economics and sociology should familiarize himself with the decisions of the United States Supreme Court and the opinions of the Justices on questions having to do with the rights of the individual on the one hand and the interests of society as a whole on the other. The story of the new order is contained in these opinions, and it will be apparent at once to educators that the attainment of the ideals sought depends upon educating our youth to the acceptance of this theory of social justice. This we must do by character training, by greater emphasis upon study of the social sciences, and by instilling in our youth a real understanding of the American tradition, which is and always has been that the individual shall achieve happiness not thru selfishness but thru unselfish service. 550 National Education Association A current periodical declares that we educators are groping for the stars ; that we cannot create a new social order or generate new social ideas. The answer is that the ideas of the new order are not new. Rather are they ideals which education, having dedicated itself to the task, can and will achieve. The millions of boys and girls in the public schools of this country today will control the destinies of the new America. They are not responsible for the evil heritage which we are bequeathing them. The seriousness of the situation warrants consideration of the simple fundamentals to which I have called attention. What are we to do? How are we to train our youth so that when the social order has been reconstructed there will be men with the high sense of duty and the real devotion to the general welfare necessary for the full realization of the American ideal? We must of course proceed with the individualization of the educative process, but in dealing with each of our students as an individual we must make clear that he is one of a group and that successful living depends upon cooperative effort by the individual in the group. We must imbue our youth with a determination to strive for perfection in whatever he may undertake to do and to be mindful that he will be judged by the manner in which he performs the smaller tasks as well as the larger ones. To help him succeed we must convince him that intensive application of mind and hand, thoughtfulness, resourcefulness, and unwillingness to say a thing cannot be done until he has exhausted every legitimate means of doing it, is the only formula. We must widen his interests, make him curious and eager to know more and encourage him to be both an analyst and a critic. At the same time we must teach him to be appreciative rather than merely tolerant of the views and opinions of others. We must show him that nothing is more important than that he be absolutely dependable and trustworthy and that fair play is the rule of life. Educators in the past have emphasized the good life as resulting from the influence of the good teacher, the spirit of the well-regulated school and the radiative power of literature, geography, history, and civics. These are all important but we must do more. The schoolroom must become a moral and social laboratory where the old verities of honesty, probity, goodwill, and tolerance are analyzed and rationalized, and the ways of right justified to youth. It is not only the what of the moral life we must seek. The why is equally important and until youth is convinced that this moral life rests upon a firm foundation, the structure so elaborately raised in school may later be shaken. It may be well, therefore, to bring the fundamental problems of morality into the classroom where reason and ripe experience may analyze them, and to have the pupils apply the gen¬ eral principles evolved to everyday experiences. Perhaps all of this is just another way of saying that we must resolve to do more thoroly that which we have already undertaken to do. Perhaps, after all, it comes down to just this, that we must teach youth to do unto others as they would have others do unto them. Department of Superintendence 551 PUBLIC EDUCATION AND NATIONAL WELFARE GEORGE F. ZOOK, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. Both in fundamental law and in common purpose the American nation is dedicated to the high purpose of promoting and protecting the general welfare of its citizens. Notwithstanding the disconcerting failures in other parts of the world we are still deeply convinced that these blessings may be had in larger measure thru the processes of democratic government than thru any possible substitute. Any form of government, however, is a piece of social machinery not unlike other tools and devices. It performs successfully only when the conditions for its operation are favorable. A dictatorship presupposes a high degree of public confidence in the central authority and a willingness to follow policies which others decide. A democracy, on the other hand, assumes that the major policies of a nation will be developed thru the formal or informal expression of public opinion. No clearer distinction between the two types of government can be drawn than their respective attitudes toward education. In a dictatorship educational opportunities may properly be restricted as has been done in some instances abroad. In a democracy, however, widespread and extended education is a fundamental necessity. My assignment is to discuss with you the relation of education to national welfare. National welfare is a term with many component parts. It has its material aspects on the one hand and its cultural possibilities on the other. In other words, it is concerned in part with those processes which supply our people with the material necessities and conveniences of life. It would be a poor civilization, however, which was based on material abundance alone. Our ultimate goal is to supply to everyone, according to his needs, food for the mind, the heart, and the spirit as well as for the body. A study of recent census figures reveals the striking increase in the adult population as compared to the number of children. Thru the application of science men and women have found a way of living fifteen to twenty years longer than they did a few decades ago. Added to this situation is the decreasing birth rate. Altho there was an increase in the total popula¬ tion of 17,000,000 from 1920 to 1930 there w’as, during the same period, a decrease of 128,000 in the number of children under five years of age in this country. In other words, instead of 782 persons over sixteen years of age for every 1,000 children as in 1790, there were in 1930, 2,013 such persons for every 1,000 children. Verily, in spite of the infirmities which come to a population composed of an increasing proportion of older people, it does seem as if a population composed so much more largely of adults than formerly should be able to take care of themselves and their smaller number of children fairly well. If instead of 81,700,000 adults to care for 40,600,000 children, as at present, there were but 31,700,000 adults to care for 40,600,000 children, our carping critics of school ex¬ penditures might have something about which to complain. 552 National Education Association A part of our increased power of production is also due, as everyone knows, to the increasing tendency of women to enter the industries, com¬ merce, and the professions. Women are working alongside the men today in the feverish race to supply every tinselled toy and every hope of the longing heart. A third factor in increased production results from our amazing develop¬ ment of applied science. Few people realize to what extent our schools and colleges are responsible for this development. If, however, one turns back the pages of history seventy-five years, one encounters everywhere a vague but persistent realization that the colleges must find new ways of helping to increase material production and of teaching growing youth how to use the new discoveries to that end. Out of this movement came the colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts. Presently the federal government granted considerable sums of money for the development of agricultural experiment stations in each of the forty-eight states. Thru the nearly half century of their existence there has been built up a great body of scientific knowledge which has so mul¬ tiplied the possibilities of agricultural production as to make us consider seriously, in spite of our growing population, the reduction of agricultural acreage and the elimination of submarginal land. Much the same process of research into other fields of applied science has gone forward in the laboratories of our universities until we are no longer surprised at some new invention which enables one man to do the work of twenty. With the development of machinery and new processes the operations of industry, commerce, and agriculture become more complicated. Unskilled hand labor is constantly being supplanted with men who in the operation of a machine use their hands less and their heads more. Here is the opportu¬ nity and the responsibility for the development of vocational education. The schools as well as the colleges should realize that the increasing proportion of youth who now go in for further education wish to prepare themselves for a great variety of vocations which the new processes of production have called into being. While I am convinced that much yet remains to be done in integrating the vocational work of the schools and colleges with the requirements of industry, agriculture, and commerce it is clear that as a result of research in applied science and of vocational training and professional education we can even now easily produce on the average from five to ten times the amount of material necessities in the way of food, clothing, shelter, and other requirements of physical life than was possible a few decades ago. In other words, our entire population can live better and have greater opportu- « nities with one-half the grinding work than was possible for our fathers and grandfathers. Far more than is generally appreciated, these good things in life are the contributions of the university and college laboratories on the one hand, and of the school classrooms and shops on the other. Department of Superintendence 553 If, as seems clear, the abundance of production in this country is due largely to research in applied science laboratories, it might be well at this time for the colleges and universities to turn their energies more largely in the direction of studying and working out a better system of distribution of goods. There is today the same vague but persistent feeling of need in this area that there was relative to increased production two generations ago. While the problem is somewhat more intangible'and is more complicated by the factor of human selfishness, it is nevertheless susceptible to the same processes of study and scientific treatment. Increasingly we must look for a solution of the problem of distribution to the researches of college professors and to the men and women whom they train. To whatever extent men and women can be relieved from work in pro¬ ducing the necessities of life, to that extent they have increased opportunity for recreation and self-improvement. Leisure-time and self-improvement activities which we establish coopera¬ tively must be paid for thru self-imposed taxes, dues, and fees. *1 hey include, on the one hand, the church, the lodges, and a great variety of social organi¬ zations and, on the other, all our public agencies supported thru taxation. Among the latter the schools loom largest in total expenditure. It is to the great credit of the American people that they have been willing to employ a constantly increasing proportion of the adult population not needed in the production of material goods, in this public agency of individual and social improvement. For a long time, however, we have all been conscious of a large amount of public criticism of the schools. Even now we find more lethargy about what we believe to be the proper financial support of the schools than we like. There can be no question that our first responsibility is to reawaken the American people to the fundamental significance of education in order that we may get it back on a basis at least as effective as in the pre-depress- ion days. I am convinced, however, that in spite of economies wisely administered and even a degree of personal sacrifice on the part of the teaching profess¬ ion seldom seen among public employees, we may not again be able to cap¬ ture the confidence and hence the support of our fellow citizens unless we can adapt the educational system to the demands of the new society into which we seem to be entering. I believe that it is possible to recapture the confidence of the adult popu¬ lation of this country so that they can be convinced that the program of the schools is adapting itself to the needs of the new era into which we are entering more rapidly than we realize. I believe further that the key to this situation is quite consciously to adopt the policy of making the schools of the future for men and women as well as for boys and girls. Let us see what is involved in this change of policy. In the first place, it is not so radical a change as at first it may seem. For a number of years there has been a steady evolution in this direction. For example, today more than 50 percent of the high-school age group is enrolled in the secondary schools as against only 20 percent in 1916. 554 National Education Association The higher institutions including the municipal junior colleges have doubled the percentage of this age group who are enrolled for college work since about 1916. Classes for adults have been developed by a great variety of agencies including the schools from one end of the country to the other. Apparently increasing numbers of adults are taking seriously the advice of Professor Thorndike and others that it is as easy for adults to learn as it is for children. To whatever degree this is true the obligation and re¬ sponsibility for continued self-improvement is just as definite for the adult as it is for the child. Many a parent would do well to take to himself some of the words of advice as to wasted opportunities which he so freely imparts to his youthful offspring. Nevertheless much remains to be done before it may be said that the schools are for adults as well as for children. For example, let us take the field of vocational education. The vocations are changing so rapidly these days that many a man finds that the vocation for which he prepared so seriously has been pulled out from under him by economic changes. He must therefore prepare himself for a modification of his old vocation or perhaps for an entirely new one. The need for appropriate and adequate facilities in the field of vocational education is evident. Henceforth many an adult will have to learn two or more different trades in the course of an ordinary life time. There are certain byproducts of the movement for adult education which, as is often true, are extremely important. In the first place such a program will bring an increasing proportion of the adult population into intimate contact with the schools and thus there will be developed an increasing in¬ terest in the school program. There are very few adults who remain un¬ sympathetic to the schools as soon as they give themselves an opportunity to become acquainted with them. In the next place an extensive program of adult education is bound to give school administrators and teachers an extensive opportunity to become better acquainted with the interests and problems of actual life. Such re¬ alities of community life are bound to serve as a constant protest against any tendency toward artificiality in the schools. In short, the gap between school life and later life, which often seems wider than it really is, will be lessened sufficiently to restore that degree of public confidence toward which any social agency aspires. I believe that “our national welfare depends upon our ability to produce the necessities and conveniences of life in the most expeditious manner possible.” The research laboratories of our colleges and universities have delved into the mvsteries of science and brought forth the necessary technical knowledge for this purpose. Our professional and vocational schools have trained great numbers of our population to use the mechanical processes necessary to Department of Superintendence 555 produce a great abundance of material goods. As yet we have not learned how to distribute the fruits of our toil equitably, but here again our schools and higher institutions ought to be extremely helpful. More particularly, however, the educational system needs to survey its responsibilities for helping men and women as well as boys and girls to live an abundant life. The task is a comprehensive one, calling for the integra¬ tion of a number of efforts hitherto segregated into some scheme which will give every individual extended opportunities to explore and develop his in¬ terests and talents. Our ultimate goal is a happy, contented nation of citizens whose personal rights are respected, who are conscious that the door of opportunity is always open to them, and who know that they are expected to make a contribu¬ tion to the common good. To all of these considerations education makes notable contributions. Indeed, education and national welfare are so inter¬ dependent that one is inconceivable without the other. THE 1934 YEARBOOK ON CRITICAL PROBLEMS IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION BEN G. GRAHAM, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PITTSBURGH, PA. The Yearbook considers first the structure of government and its effect on the administration of the schools. It deals next with the scope of educa¬ tion and the local administrative unit and then passes to the financial sup¬ port of public education. In the fourth chapter, the lay control of public schools is considered, and this is followed by professional administration in school control. Next it deals with efficiency in school management, followed by the teaching staff and the formulation and execution of administrative policies. This is naturally followed by economy in school administration, and concludes with a most timely and helpful discussion concerning helping citizens to know their schools. It is not necessary to attempt a detailed review of the entire report, even if time permitted, for each member of the Depart¬ ment can, and we hope will, read the entire report. The Commission believes that the critical problems which are presented to school administration can be solved successfully only thru intelligent leadership on the part of men who are charged with the responsibility of school administration. If the public-school system of this country is to be protected from the dangerous forces now moving against it, reorganization is essential in respect to administrative units. A public-school system cannot succeed as a part of our social order in a rapidly changing civilization with 12,070 school administrative units in Illinois, 8,747 in Kansas, or 2,587 in Pennsvlvania. A determined effort must be made under the leadership of school administration to reduce the number of school administrative units to the end that we may achieve better schools at less cost with an equal¬ ization of opportunity for all boys and girls no matter in what part of the state they may reside. We cannot expect or have the right to receive ade¬ quate support for public education without a proper reorganization of our school systems in several of our states. 556 National Education Association School administration must also face the problem of lay control. The public must not only be informed concerning its pernicious effects in respect to slashing budgets at the expense of American childhood but also as to the way in which, thru state legislatures, undesirable and unnecessary subjects have been saddled upon our program of studies. In this period of economic distress one of the most critical problems faced by our schools is maintaining the health and physical welfare of our pupils. Children, when undernourished, hungry, or insufficiently clad, cannot be kept in school and cannot profit from instruction. At the present time, all of these ills confront us to a degree never before experienced in this generation. Medical authorities have brought to our attention the rapid increase in undernourishment and are pointing out the evils which will follow in its train. Necessarily, the schools have had to organize special methods of relieving this nationally serious situation as well as cooperating with the established welfare agencies in their regular services. The Yearbook concludes with the chapter “Helping Citizens to Know Their Schools” which was contributed by John K. Norton, chairman of the Joint Commission on the Emergency in Education and others associated with him. Dr. Norton was added to the Commission in 1933 for this purpose. In this chapter school administrators will find many helpful suggestions in interpreting their schools to the public. The summary and conclusions of this chapter deserve to be quoted : The complexity of modern life and the rapidity of social changes have tended to obscure the fundamental place of the school in the social organization. The passing of this cloud before the public mind has produced at times an apparent in¬ difference to the social contribution of education. Alarmed, many educators have sprung to the task of building into citizens a faith in education and a willingness to support and to improve the school program. Some of these educators have mounted the rostrum to scold citizens. While chal¬ lenging speakers have in many instances produced renewed interest, the results are usually temporary. Public opinion tends to be suspicious of special pleading. Other educators have borrowed from the methods of political machines and big business. They whip up enthusiasm to “put across” a plan “with a bang.” Such tactics also have produced results — both constructive and destructive. Often the recoil from the campaign puts the educational program further back than when it started. When the tumult dies, those with greater patience and more un¬ derstanding of human nature are left the task of reconstrucion. There is a third method which is gaining wider acceptance among school people. This plan is that of continuously interpreting the schools fully, calmly, and frankly. Citizens are invited to examine the educational process, to give sugges¬ tions, and to participate in the satisfactions of child culture. Such a program, of necessity, has certain definite characteristics: (1) It is broad and forward-looking in its conception process. (2) It is a continuous plan with campaign tactics only one of many procedures. (3) It enlists the active participation of laymen of all types as well as teachers, pupils, and administrators. (4) It is a varied plan — utilizing the intangible social contacts as well as the more concrete devices of the newspaper, the circular letter, and the magazine. (5) It is a fundamental plan in which education as an essential element of society is stressed — and taxation, salaries, and budgets are of second importance. (6) It is a long-time plan which builds into the lives of youth an appreciation of the educational heritage. Department of Superintendence 557 Government by the people depends upon the ability of the people to govern. To prepare citizens of the new country for the duty of self-government, the nation’s founders established free schools. For more than a century, American statesmen have encouraged the extension of equal educational opportunity, and have called upon the people to protect this inherent right whenever it has been threatened by selfish greed or financial difficulties. In the present emergency, the friends of democracy will not weaken the support of the institution upon which popular government is built. They will preserve the schools in the same faith and for the same basic purposes for which they were established by the nation’s founders. The 1934 Commission, in concluding this report, desires to express its appreciation of the services of William G. Carr, director of research, who advised with the Commission in its deliberations, and particularly to Frank W. Hubbard, associate director of research, who served as secretary of the Commission, prepared the preliminary drafts of portions of various chapters, and edited the Yearbook for publication. The Commission is indebted to Sherwood D. Shankland, executive secretary of the Department of Super¬ intendence, for his constant attention to the many business details connected with the Yearbook publication and for his never failing courtesy. THIRD GENERAL SESSION, MONDAY EVENING, FEBRUARY 26 Banquet GREETINGS TO THE CONVENTION 1 CHARLES E. MERRIAM, CHAIRMAN, DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL. In the United States, education is a second religion, the finest flower of American idealism, the symbol of the hopes of parents for a finer life for their sons and daughters. The pioneer, the immigrant, the mass of the com¬ munity, look to education for the realization of all the dreams that have not been realized in their own hard lives. That their children might have this golden key to opportunity, millions of men and women have made pathetic and incredible sacrifice of comfort and convenience. Defenders of militarism point to the great stimulation of the sacrificial impulse in the moments of war. I do not deny what I have seen. But I proclaim the greater sacrifice — less dramatic but as real and human — the sacrifice offered in millions of lowly homes, that the children of America might enjoy an American education. It was not great natural resources alone that made America great. The Indians roamed over fertile soil, over treasures of silver, gold, copper, iron, oil. Other countries have undeveloped wealth. America became great because its people were intelligent, and struggled constantly toward higher levels of intelligence. The next generation should not be penalized because of the stupidity of the present one. Otherwise posterity will be more stupid than we are. If our 1 Read by Milton C. Potter, superintendent of schools, Milwaukee, Wis. 558 National Education Association poverty drives us backward toward a lower level of life, then we must go. But on the contrary, there is reason to believe that with our present resources and our present equipment, we might double our production and corre¬ spondingly raise the standard of living. For my part, I regard education as one of the prior charges on the national income. Expenditure for education is self-liquidating — an investment upon which there will be rich returns — the outcome of education is not a dead loss, but a living asset. The essence of economy is a sound balancing of needs, not a mere refusal to function ; and the needs of education in the national economy of America are in grave danger of being unbalanced. My greetings to the superintendents and best wishes for more power to them in the struggle to preserve the American school system as a basis for the coming tasks of the American democracy. EDUCATING CHILDREN FOR THE NEW DEAL RABBI ABBA HILLEL SILVER, THE ANSEL ROAD TEMPLE, CLEVELAND, OHIO All over the world the New Deal has begun. In some countries it is far advanced. In others — in ours — it has only taken the first feeble, hesitant steps. But its progress is inevitable, and the change which it will bring about will be permanent. The New Deal is not an emergency measure to tide over a depression. It is a reorganization of society to make future depressions unlikely. Its purpose is to refashion the economic system under which we have lived and which has now been found wanting in so many essential features. In refashioning our domestic economy, it will, of course, also refashion government. For politics is a byproduct of economics. Inevitably it will affect our moral code, our social thought and action, our attitudes, and our aspirations. The New Deal will give us a new civilization. It remains to be seen whether it will be a better civilization or not. The advent of the New Deal was not a matter of choice. Life willed it and we must adjust ourselves to it. We must try to control as far as possible its future develop¬ ment in the hope of acquiring under it some of the desirable things which the old deal failed to give us, while at the same time, conserving some of the precious and cherished values of the old dispensation. The New Deal will not give us perfection. It will give us a new chance to mold our world a little nearer to our hearts’ desire — to give our children a larger measure of security than we enjoyed, to raise some' of the valleys and level off some of the peaks, to wipe out some of the glaring inequalities, to resolve the contradiction between abundance of all things and the inability of millions to partake of them, and to substitute for uncurbed competitive individualism a measure of social planning and control. These things are coming to be. He who resists them is like King Canute fatuously trying to stem the oncoming waves of the ocean. The readiness with which we will face the new situation, the courage and vision with Department of Superintendence 559 which we will set about organizing for the new social order, will determine whether that new social order will be born in agony and in blood, or not. Our government is making a valiant effort to lay the foundations of the new social order in peace and security. It is trying thru many new and untried devices to solve the desperate problems of unemployment, to put men back to work and to make their jobs secure, to correlate production and distribution, to supervise and, in so far as it is necessary, to control industry, to raise the standard of living so that the purchasing power of the nation will be equal to its production power — to make banking, credit, and finance serve the ends of society and not the grasping ambitions of anti-social profiteers. All this is the work not of a day or a year but of an age! Our generation will only see the incipient stages of the vast transformation. It cannot suc¬ ceed if the rising generation is not prepared intellectually and spiritually for it, if the ideals underlying it are not woven into the thought-pattern of the children of today — the citizens of tomorrow. It may be difficult for us, who are, after all, children of the old world, or at best children of a transition world, in which the old and the new clash and struggle for mastery, confusing us and undermining our con¬ fidence, to teach the new ideals to the rising generation with that full measure of confidence and enthusiasm which the task requires. But the task cannot and must not be shirked because it is difficult. It is an additional challenge to the intellectual alertness and spiritual integrity of the truly great teacher. I offer no new theory of education and no new technic of education. I am qualified to do neither. I suspect that the catalog of new educational theories has been pretty well exhausted. I furthermore suspect that super-refinement in educational methodology is only another form of decadence. I merely suggest that greater emphasis should be placed in our education today on the social sciences and that the largest measure of freedom should be allowed in the teaching of these sciences. If we are to work for a better social order, our children must be taught to know what is wrong with the existing social order. Its deficiencies must be uncovered, its short-comings exposed, fairly, frankly, without passion or bias but without under-statement, subterfuge or apologetics. The child must be made aware of the price which society pays for these deficiencies and shortcomings in terms of human suffering, deprivations, loss of opportunities, and discontent. He should be made to realize that these undesirable condi¬ tions are not inherent or inevitable. He should be apprised of the plans and programs which have been offered to deal with these difficult problems. He should be encouraged to study them fairly and critically and should be directed into the ways of critical appraisal. He should not be propagandized, only enlightened and guided. Care should be taken not to erect an emo¬ tional barrier between the child and certain ideas or sets of ideas which the teacher may regard as radical or revolutionary. 1 he revolutionary doctrines of yesterday are the commonplace doctrines of today. Economics, sociology, 560 National Education Association civics, government, international relations should become the most vital and the most liberal sciences taught in our schools. On only one thing all teachers may well be dogmatic — on the moral significance of the cooperative society which is coming to be. This has been the immemorial dream — heretofore the unrealized dream — of humanity since the beginning. All spiritual movements of mankind had this ideal at the very core of their inspiration. All great religions taught the nobility of the shared life, of the peaceful, neighborly, and cooperative life. This has been the goal of all the weary marches of civilization. Our children should be trained to think less in terms of their careers and the personal success and material advancement and more in terms of a helpful and joyous co-worker in the common social task. The model for emulation set before the growing child should not be the poor boy who by dint of Work and thrift became rich, but the boy who by dint of the cultivation of his character and the exercise of his talents became a valuable member of community, a builder of the better social order. The ideal which we hold up for our children in sports (teamwork) should be stressed in all the social sciences which we teach. Sportsmanship is one of the finest qualities of character and is most tragically lacking in our econ¬ omic and social life. A real game is won on merit only. In a real game, ancestry, influence, position, and money count for nothing. In a real game one doesn’t cheat, or bully or play foul. In a real game opponents are, as far as possible, equally matched. When one’s adversary is handicapped by weight or size or age, due allowance is made for the fact. Above all, in a real game, there are rules which the players are proud and zealous to observe. In a real game one is a generous winner and a game loser. In a real game it is the team that counts, and the individual gladly subordinates himself to the group strategy for the sake of the ultimate victory of the team. If men would but carry over into their economic, social, and political life some of these splendid disciplines of sportsmanship, what a cleansing of the Augean stables there would ensue; how much more of justice and fair dealing and how much less of exploitation and cruelty there would be. For the sake of the children of the rising generations themselves, if for no other reason, they should be trained to think of themselves as members of a great human fraternity — a cooperative commonwealth ; for it will go hard under the New Deal with the lone wolf, the predatory exploiter, the anti¬ social omnivorous human ! Greater emphasis should be placed particularly upon the science or art of democratic government, for two reasons: first, because the sphere of government will be immeasurably wider in the future than it has ever been in the past. Government will expand and embrace more and more of the economic field under the New Deal. That is the very key to the new approach. Our old economic system, largely free from government control, has broken down. Government had to step in, not merely to relieve wide¬ spread distress caused by this breakdown, but to salvage the very system itself. As government steps in, it takes more and more control, at first ten- Department of Superintendence 561 tatively, eventually definitely and permanently. There can be no central planning without a large measure of political control. Hence it becomes imperative, now that our economic fortunes, too, are in the hands of govern¬ ment, that government shall come into the hands of the trained, the com¬ petent, the morally dependable. And this is possible only if the electorate is intelligent, informed, and alert. There is national disaster in the offing under the New Deal unless we can produce political leaders whose in¬ telligence and moral resources will prove equal to the tremendous demands which the new politico-economic regime will make upon them. Up to now we have been a people quite indifferent to politics. The very word among us has had an unsavory taste. We could get along — even with bad government. We can no longer ! Bad government will wreck our whole economic life. In the second place our democratic government is now on trial. It has been challenged. New theories of government have arisen which have en¬ gulfed great nations in Europe. Dictatorship has now a host of powerful champions in the world. It has been erected into a new philosophy of govern¬ ment. Government by the people has been denounced as a total failure. It should be ruthlessly suppressed. Fascism, Nazism, Bolshevism, regardless of their differing objectives, are united in one conviction — that progress is possible only thru dictatorship. Three hundred million people already live under dictatorship. If democrary has any future at all, that future lies with the great his¬ toric democracies of the world — England, France, and the United States. The one hopeful fact in the onsweeping tide of triumphant Fascism or absolutism in Europe is this: that those governments which have succumbed to dictatorship have never had a great democratic tradition. Russia, which was the first to go dictatorial, lived under the most rigorous and oppressive type of dictatorship and had democracy only about six months during the Kerensky regime, so it was quite natural for the Russian people to pass from one form of despotic government to another, especially when the other promised so much economic improvement to the masses. The political tradition of Italy has not been a democratic tradition; it rather comes from the city-states of the Renaissance which were governed bv men exactly the type of Mussolini, benevolent or malevolent dictators. The situation in Germany has been similar. The basic political tradition of that country was not democratic. The tradition of Germany for 700 years was that of small states ruled by princes or grafs or dukes who exercised absolutist power so that when a period of emergency arose, the people could not and did not depend upon their rather incipient democratic institutions but scrapped them in their desperation. These three great democracies, however — England, France, and the United States — have had a long tradition of self-government of popular sovereignty. They have passed thru many crises in the past without destroy¬ ing their democratic apparatus, their democratic machinery, so if there is any future to democratic government in the world, it seems to me that future rests solely with these great democracies, if we fail to vitalize our 562 National Education Association democratic institutions, to improve our political apparatus, so that by means of them we shall be able to solve our desperate economic problems and bring about greater justice and greater security, then democracy will go under, even here. Under the New Deal, men will have more leisure than ever before. Out of 168 hours in the week, men will work thirty or thirty-five hours. They will have more time to spend on leisure than on work. How will men use that leisure? Leisure can devastate life or it can become the fruitful field for a growing and expanding life. In his leisure hours man is free from the routine and drive of his job and he can then enjoy those adventures of mind and spirit which his routine tasks may deny him. He can recreate him¬ self and abundantly enrich his life. For real living we need more than a job and an income. We need beauty and knowledge. We need books and pictures and music. We need song and dance and play. We need travel and adventure. We need friends and com¬ panionship and the interchange of stimulating minds. We need contact with all that has been created by the aristocracy of the mind, hand, and soul thru all the ages. All this we can enjoy only in our leisure. We must, therefore, teach our children how to use their future leisure time profitably and creatively by arousing their interests in those numerous activities of the body and mind which they can pursue as amateurs in later life. Our children should be guided into the ways of international thought and international cooperation. In its first stages the New Deal seems to be leading to an intensification of economic isolationism all over the world, and to be intensified nationalism and racialism. The economic struggle has led many nations to attempt to solve their problems thru economic nationalism. This has contributed to aggressive and competitive nationalism all over the world. I spent the last year in Europe, a sabbatical year’s leave of absence. I travelled from land to land and from country to country. I have been in Europe many times before but I have never seen Europe so fractionalized as it is today. The universal ideal which captivated the minds of men in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the ideal of a federation of Europe has been pushed out of the minds of men. Internationalism has become suspect. Some of the noblest ideals of mankind are today being broken on the wheel of nationalism. In some countries this nationalism is still further restricted to a fantastic race cult, and in its name citizens are being disfranchised, de¬ graded, and denied the opportunities of education and even the means of livelihood. This fragmentization of Europe has led to the well-known mood of suspicion and fear which presages war. The youth of Europe is being de¬ liberately indoctrinated with the idea of the inevitability of the next war. Everywhere one finds the youth in uniform, marching and chanting war hymns. It is now sixteen years since the last war, and a new generation is now ready for the trenches. We must save our children from the blight of such nationalism and militarism. In our teaching of history, we must stress the common fate and Department of Superintendence 563 destiny of the human race, not only the fate and destiny of our own nation. We must stress the fact of our human interdependence. Above all we must expose the villainy and falsity of national chauvinism, race snobbery, and religious fanaticism. We must clearly show that no nation can live unto itself alone and can solve its problems by itself alone, and furthermore that no problems are ever solved by war. No human hopes ever blossom amidst the broken corpses of the battlefields. In peace alone can human life unfold and the ideals of mankind thrive. Here, then, is our task: to prepare our children for the new day by stressing the social sciences, by frank and honest discussions of conditions as they are and of the projected plans by which to reconstruct them, by em¬ phasizing the supremacy of the cooperative life, by preparing our youth for active participation in political life, by arousing them to those supplementary curriculum activities which in later life will enable them to use leisure creatively, and by widening their mental and spiritual horizons so as to in¬ clude the whole of humanity, the federated society of tomorrow. FOURTH GENERAL SESSION, TUESDAY MORNING, FEBRUARY 27 Some National Problems in Education PLANNED TEACHER PRODUCTION ARTHUR B. MOEHLMAN, PROFESSOR OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN, ANN ARBOR, MICH. There were 200,000 legally qualified teachers without positions in De¬ cember 1933, according to the federal Office of Education. These facts can no longer be glossed over by glib statements that “there is no oversupply of adequately trained teachers.” Regardless of institutional or professional attitude, the fact that there is this serious oversupply of legally qualified teachers is at once significant and dangerous, calling for definite consider¬ ation and action. Under conditions of free competition teaching positions will tend to go to the marginal teachers or the lower quarter in training, who will compete for them most vigorously on the lower salary levels. Tenure laws in certain states and the tradition of tenure in our cities tend to limit free competition to some extent, but in villages and rural areas, where the thirty-day tradition of service prevails, the actual effect may now be observed. Jobs are now actually going at smaller rates to the most poorly trained teachers. Teacher oversupply has received considerable attention recently by critics outside of the profession, and we must admit the truth that the de¬ pression is not the sole reason for our oversupply of teachers. Even if we established pre-depression teacher-pupil ratios and brought into our schools the 2,280,000 children between six to fifteen years, 102,000 more teachers, or just half of our present oversupply, would be required. An overproduction 564 National Education Association of 100,000 must still be credited to lack of intelligent planning on our part. The outside presumption seems to be that we had the intelligence to apply rational planning to our needs. Maybe we were given credit for knowing more than we did. The reasons for existing conditions are not hard to find. Teacher pro¬ duction in this country, particularly upon the teachers college level, has been heavily influenced by the widely accepted democratic concept that anyone who wants to become a teacher should be allowed to do so. In actual practise many curbs, including length of training, quality of work, and cer¬ tification, have modified complete laissez-faire but not enough to cause training schools to drop considerable numbers of students for intellectual or cultural inadequacy. Our training institutions have been consciously guilty of passing the buck” to the field administrator and permitting him to ascertain whether graduates, already equipped with long term or life cer¬ tificates, were actually qualified to teach. The American worship of the number cult in higher education has been pathetic. Reaching for numbers to become bigger and better” resulted in vigorous inter-institutional competition within states. Teacher-training centers set up specific spheres of influence and control, largely thru institutional prestige and control over field jobs. T. hey have vied vigorously with one another for more territory and more students. Such conditions were created bv lack of coordination or integration of the higher institutions of learning within a state, each being allowed to develop at will and regardless of need. Treading the high¬ ways and byways for students, an aftermath of the World War teacher shortage, became quickly crystallized as a natural policy. Economic-political factors continued the maintenance long beyond the period of need of short term training schools. The farmer’s political interest in rural education as a “cash crop,” thru possible employment of a slightly trained daughter, has never been courageously faced. Our state departments of public instruc¬ tion, seldom overburdened with accurate and live information concerning the conditions and needs of the schools, offered little leadership. The last ten years may be considered the era of free competition and laissez-faire in our higher institutions of learning. Now we pay the price. There are two naive assumptions held by many in the field of teacher training. The first is that if we go on producing more and better trained teachers they will by some miracle quickly replace the inadequately trained now in service. The second assumption is that we can arbitrarily cut off the lower 25 percent in service and substitute for them the better trained newcomers. In the first situation, the job will tend to go to the cheapest teacher, which frequently means the most poorly trained. Secondly, it is only folly to imagine that the lower 25 percent can be eliminated from service merely because their qualifications are now considered inadequate. Such a plan will never work in stable times. The only way in which field training requirements can be practically raised is thru the gradual upgrading of present teachers and the progressive elimination of those incapable of taking further training. The process is bound to be a slow one and will Department of Superintendence 565 probably take at least ten years to accomplish. Superintendents could help even at present by carefully selecting only the better qualified teachers for their new positions. In general, little discrimination is being used and uni¬ versity graduates are actually handicapped because of their inability to com¬ pete on the lower salary levels. There seems to be little comfort or merit in either of these assumptions. The emergency problem in personnel is the existing oversupply which is a threat regardless of depression. There is only one answer. We must stop quickly the production of teachers so poorly trained that they can be turned out within two years or less after completing the twelfth grade. The imme¬ diate problem confronting every state is the rapid elimination of all training institutions with less than four-year programs, and the consolidation and limitation of the others. Let us not repeat past errors again in the future. What can be done with the present 200,000 unemployed teachers? The problem lies squarely before each state. The answer depends upon how much each state desires adequate educational facilities for its children. One hun¬ dred thousand could be absorbed next month by restoration of an average state teacher-pupil ratio of 30, and by actually bringing into school attend¬ ance the 2,280,000 children legally required to attend under existing com¬ pulsory education laws. Even under existing conditions, with the possible exception of twelve states, there is sufficient finance available, without raising more funds, for this purpose. It merely means reallocation of certain expendi¬ tures. Part of the second hundred thousand could also be absorbed if our city school systems would provide rationally for adult education as a distinct teaching job instead of considering it an overtime activity for day-school teachers. Adult education has never been considered in its true significance, but largely as an extra-revenue and overtime activity. The same is true of sum¬ mer school. Every city school system has goodly numbers of teachers who carry full load during the day and also work evenings and in summer. Over a period of time under these strains their efficiency is decreased and their intellectual growth stunted. Why should not adult education be regarded as worthy of full-time service? Intelligent reorganization of this extremely important development will permit the absorption of part of the surplus. This problem might be solved immediately by the adoption of a code for teachers following NRA precedent. What of the future? What is the general outlook for teaching? Has public education reached a point of stabilization? Will future activities be more circumscribed and limited than before the depression? Let us examine the tendencies. The Age of Power will provide for an increasing amount of leisure and a smaller amount of constant employment in terms of man hours. Child labor will be completely eliminated. By 1940 practically all children under eighteen years of age must be cared for in our schools. The continuity of employment with respect to type will probably be no more constant than 566 National Education Association at present. New inventions and technical changes will maintain the need for progressive economic rehabilitation. Social and economic demands on the public schools will increase greatly within the next few years. There is no indication that these demands will be served in greater proportion by non-public agencies. On the other hand, we face the problem of a total population that is rapidly moving to a point of stabilization. The true death rate exceeded the true birth rate for the first time in our history in 1932. Ti C 1940 population ^cording to Dublin will be approxi¬ mately 131,000,000 or nine million under previous estimates. The relation¬ ship of age-groups within this total will also shift considerably. In 1930 38.8 percent were in age-groups below twenty. In 1940 this division will include not more than 33.8 percent. Expressed in numbers of the probable 1940 total there will probably be not more than 44,278,000 people under twenty years, an actua decrease in totals of 3,358,718 over 1930. Will this decrease affect public education by 1940? I think not. The implications are now perfectly apparent that there will be an increase in registration thru age nineteen or into the later secondary years. The social need for the better enforcement of compulsory attendance laws will tend to increase attendance by several million. There is also the possibility of development in the preprimary unit or what is now classified experimentally as nursery and kindergarten. However, it is doubtful whether much growth in this division will take place before 1940. In fact, continued emphasis on parental education plus greater leisure might actually have the opposite effect. Considering only the age-groups between five and twenty, I estimate conservatively that the 1940 day school enrolment in public and non-public elementary and secondary schools will be slightly in excess of 33,000 000 as opposed to the 1930 membership of 28,388,346. Applying a teacher-pupil ratio of thirty for the country as a whole, the total number of teachers required would be 1 ,100,000 as opposed to the current public and non-public school total of 925,000. The requirements for new jobs between 1934 and 1940 on this basis should be approximately 30,000 a year. Estimating re¬ placements conservatively at 10 percent annually, the total annual require¬ ment for day-school teachers by 1940 will probably be 130,000 per year as opposed to an estimated demand for 160,000 prior to 1930. The tremendous development of adult education in the past two decades may be classed as one of our educational phenomena. Increased leisure, the esire to rehabilitate or improve one’s economic status, the continuation of intellectual pursuits on a purely cultural basis have all helped swell this total. This growth both public and private, has taken place under adverse conditions. Fairly high tuition rates, apathetic boards of education, lack of recognition of the importance of adult education by administrators, and com¬ plete ignoring of the problem by teacher-training institutions might all be considered as deterring and restricting forces. Despite these handicaps the movement grew rapidly until the depression when these activities were among the first whose meager allowances were cut. Department of Superintendence 567 In 1940 there will be 59,212,000 persons between the ages of twenty to fifty years. A conservative estimate places the number who will spend fur¬ ther time in school afternoons and evenings for recreation, rehabilitation, advance, and constructive use of the new leisure, at twenty millions. Many believe the number will be closer to thirty millions. Who is going to teach them? Who will plan and administer the program? It will naturally be impossible for the regular day-school staff to meet these demands. Further, the new adult program will be vastly different from the rather formalized teaching of children. It will require different training and different technics. As a matter of social necessity, a specialized staff must be built to meet these needs. The current practise of permitting teachers to work from eight in the morning until ten at night cannot continue. There are several broad lines of activity essential to any program of planned teacher production and basic to any specific plan of procedure. Since the need for teachers with respect to quality and quantity depends on the requirements of the public schools of the state, I believe that the first fundamental requirement is to establish in each state a general extra- legal central planning commission for public education. This commission should include the educational leaders from all branches of work in our schools, specialists in sociology, economics, political science, geography, biology, and psychology, representative leaders from industry, commerce, agriculture, and transportation. This commission, assisted by technical specialists, should study the needs of the state and make recommendations for the basic structure and methods of financing education for the new era. The program or plan developed by the commission and adopted by the state will be the pattern on which future teacher production must be based. I he second need is to establish in each department of public instruction a personnel division where accurate service records of teachers may be kept and experience tables developed for replacement needs. Coordinating this division with that of child accounting will make it possible to provide spe¬ cific and complete information of number and quality need by t3^pes of schools and districts. No planning program is possible without continuing accurate records kept up-to-date and interpreted by trained individuals. Many of our current difficulties have arisen thru the overcrowding of certain fields and the lack of differentiation or certificate specialization. I he organization of the traditional salary schedule places all emphasis on secondary education. In general much of the current teacher oversupply is in secondary education. With that field contracted, they surge on the ele¬ mentary school. Certification by activity and by general field of preparation is one means of solving this difficulty. The life certificate should be abolished. The power to determine the number and type supply of teachers should be centered in the department of public instruction by placing there com¬ plete legal control of all power of certification, including also the power to revoke licenses. 568 National Education Association Institutions of higher learning within each state should be definitely coordinated thru central control to eliminate senseless competition, ex¬ travagant overlapping, and the undignified presentday scramble for stu¬ dents and for large capital investments. Teachers colleges should be reor¬ ganized on a four-year basis with the first two years modeled upon present junior-college tendencies. They could then serve as regional colleges for the first two years, confining the upper classes to teacher training. With the ego-urge for numbers satisfied in this way, and the staff differentiation made possible by a fairly stable enrolment, better selection of teachers would be possible. Quality and scope of training teachers can no longer be left completely to individual institutions to determine. The planning of the general types of training is a matter in which the field as well as the state is directly in¬ terested. It is therefore desirable that a second and more restricted con¬ tinuing advisory group be created in each state on which teachers, prin¬ cipals and superintendents are represented, as well as all of the teacher¬ training institutions. Thru general cooperation, teacher-training curricu- lums might then be developed functionally rather than based on tradition and institutional or personal idiosyncracies. Standards of personnel selection in like manner cannot be left completely to individual institutions and decided as now on the urge for students. The state department of public instruction, assisted by the advisory coun¬ cil on teaching personnel, could establish general standards for admission on a much wider base than now considered. Specific standards for vitality, mentality, social intelligence, emotional stability, ideals and attitudes, gen¬ eral culture and motivation, might well be set up to secure better balance than is now possible except by luck. General admission tests should be administered by each institution in terms of these operating standards. In like manner standards of achievement and graduation should be developed and given at all terminal points. The state may set the standards, permit¬ ting them to be administered by the institution subject to appraisal and review. The great need in this country today is for better teachers. When we consider that 26.2 percent of the elementary teachers now employed and 8.5 percent of our secondary-school teachers have less than one year of training beyond the twelfth grade, or in totals, that one-third of our teach¬ ers have the cultural outlook of the high-school graduate, the magnitude of the problem can be visioned. We have need for more than the docile tech¬ nician that the teachers colleges have been furnishing in such great num¬ bers and for the university-trained subject specialist whose concept of edu¬ cation as a social process is still extremely hazy despite the influence of schools of education. We need a new teacher, well balanced and fearless, with an understanding of the culture in which he lives and to which he must contribute; a teacher with both equipment and vision and well pre¬ pared with respect to detailed and technical knowledge. The problem of preparing this teacher can only be achieved thru the cooperation of all in¬ stitutions and interests within each state. Department of Superintendence 569 INTERPRETING THE SCPIOOLS TO THE PUBLIC MERLE sidener, president, sidener, van riper, AND KEELING, INC., INDIANAPOLIS, IND. I believe that we should stop and think for a minute of this business of education as one of the great basic industries, even aside from the service it renders. Considered from the standpoint of amount of money invested and the expenditures, it ought to be regarded as a basic industry and we ought to look at its opportunities as do those who control and man¬ age great basic industries. ^ Business, as an institution, regards goodwill as its most important asset. That was true long before the depression came along. But, those businesses that enjoy the public friendship and goodwill survived this period much better than those that had not built up that friendly attitude on the part of the public. From now on, business is going to devote more of its effort, more of its attention, to creating a friendliness on the part of the public by making business worthy of that friendliness. This whole New Deal that we find ourselves in is based purely on the desire to bring social relations between capital and labor, employer and em¬ ployee, into such form that there may be a better cooperation thru a better appreciation. All right. We of the schools have suffered more during this period than perhaps has business as an institution. My friends, we have suffered more because we did not have that public friendliness and under¬ standing and goodwill toward our institutions that we were entitled to have. We have been so busy all thru these years in production, we have been so busy doing a good job of educating, that we haven’t had the time, we haven t felt the necessity for doing an equally good job of informing the public about what we were doing, and the result has been that during this period w^e found ourselves constantly retrenching and forced back. Me who represent the schoolboards have tried to stand up and fight but when we tried to get even the business men with whom we had business relations and who had confidence in us, to grant us partly enough money to operate, we found them pushing us back solel}r because they did not have a proper comprehension of the importance of keeping the educational institutions going. Now, that having been the case, it looks as tho we might have learned a lesson. It seems we might borrow something from business as an insti¬ tution and think a little more in terms of business in the schools than so much of professionalism. Don’t misunderstand that statement. We who are engaged in business, in marketing, know that unless there is a good product produced by an adequate institution, there is no use in trying to sell it. I am not for the minute suggesting there ought to be the slightest let¬ down on the production side of schools but rather that we shall, instead of reducing any effort on that side, increase the effort on the other side of selling the schools to the public. Now, I have just got to get around to some terms I understand and I am going to ask you if you won’t please try to understand them because it 570 National Education Association may give you a bit of different viewpoint on this subject of interpreting the schools to the public. We have a good product. We have a good educational system. I he public-school system of this country fundamentally is sound. Where it is not now operating, it is not adequately financed to do the job. I herefore, we who are engaged in the production end of education ought to give more thought now to advertising and selling the schools to the public in order that we may have adequate financing. Production in industry has ceased to be the big problem. Selling, market¬ ing, distributing is commanding the greater attention on the part of busi¬ ness management these days. There was a time when the effort was to make two blades of grass grow where one grew before. Now somebody says the problem is to sell the second blade of grass that we have produced but have not adequately distributed. Now, we are producing in the schools and are distributing but there is another factor in business that is commanding a lot of attention these days and that is financing the business. Many a business has gone out of busi¬ ness because it was not adequately financed. Many others during this period of depression have been forced back and are not adequately doing the job and I think that is where we are finding ourselves today. Because of lack of finances, we have reduced our expenditures, reduced salaries, cut down operation to the point where if it were not for those who feel their job is a mission, a tremendous conscientious obligation, the schools today would be wholly inadequate. The teachers and you superintendents and principals have felt the obligation. They have gone along and done the best they could under the circumstances. Nevertheless, if we do not come to a better appieciation of the necessity to finance schools adequately, we are not going to catch up to the procession again. We have been backed up considerably. We have lost a lot and it will be difficult to catch up. We have been ter¬ ribly restricted not only in housing programs but in increased teacher loads and lack of care of buildings. We are handicapped purely from the financial standpoint. But, that is not my main point. I don’t believe we are going to get back where we belong in our relationship to the public until we ourselves regard it as just as much an obligation to educate the public as it is to educate the children. Until we get to that point where we say, “This thing is of equal importance, this thing of selling the schools is of equal importance to the production in the schools,” we are not going to get on an adequate balance. Now, I would like to lay before you the responsibility of realizing the importance of creating and financing a department in your schools that can carry on this work of selling the schools to the public. With a few exceptions, so far as I have been able to discover, the public relations work in the schools has been a lefthanded enterprise. In a few instances I believe they have had adequately financed departments but it is certainly the exception where you find in the budget an item for this department, whatever it may be called. I am not much concerned what it should be Department of Superintendence 571 called. Everything these days that is really useful has a wrong meaning. “Public relations” has been used by public utilities and other types of busi¬ ness until it seems to be in the class of a propaganda. Publicity might be used but to speak of publicity in the schools seems to advertise the superin¬ tendent. I am not very much concerned about what to call it. I am concerned that we should develop a department where there is responsibility placed for carrying on the work of selling the schools while the other work of pro¬ duction is carried on. We started out in Indianapolis to do the job. We had a man at the head of it. We started out with that department splendidly organized with that kind of a program, but as soon as the taxpayers began to shoot at us, we got scared a bit and backed up. We didn’t have the conviction — and when I say that, I suspect most of you, if you are honest, are in the same class. We didn’t have the conviction that that was an essential part of our business and, therefore, dropped it. I am hoping that what is said here will arouse in your mind a better consciousness of the responsibility of carrying on that part of your business, that part of the schools. There can be no standard plan for all communities because communi¬ ties differ in size and make-up. But there can be a standard purpose and policy, which is that this thing I am talking about is essential. There can be a standard in the establishment of a department, headed by a man who has no other job than the conduct of the sales department of the schools. This business of having some assistant superintendent do it when he has time, or using the English professor from one of the high schools to try to arrange a few newspaper stories, or trying to get somebody from the music department to put on a radio program now and then, is worse than nothing! And, if it can not be done in a systematic, organized fashion, I should say, “Let it go entirely.” But, if it is possible to create the department, then make a program and place on the head of that department the re¬ sponsibility for carrying it thru just as the responsibility is on the superin¬ tendent for the general leadership of the schools. Once that is established and once we believe that it ought to be done, it will be carried out and we will have more constructive work of the type that is now found in a few centers of this country. That department’s job is to inform the public constructively. I am not going to go into a lot of details on the plan. There isn’t time for it, and, anyway, I find, from browsing thru your literature, that you discuss this subject every year at conventions but don’t do much about it and I don’t see much use discussing it if you don’t do something about it. Now, there has just been published a book entitled, Teacher and Public: A Handbook of Interpretation for Teachers. It is the Eighth Yearbook for the Department of Classroom Teachers and contains the best collec¬ tion of all the details and methods to be put into one of these departments that could be found any place. The details are important, to be sure, but of what use is it to discuss the details if you don’t do anything about it? What I want to stress is the importance of the creation of a department that will go on and on in spite of depressions, that will have a place in your 572 National Education Association budget. I am a school commissioner. Ask me why I haven't it in my budget. Ask me and I will tell you. I am not so sure but that if the superintendent had pressed the members of the board a little harder, it would be in the budget. Once you get to the point where you absolutely believe this must be done, you will get it done because you get everything else done that you feel is essential. You fight for it! You stand for it! You go thru with it. But, up to this time, this has been a lefthanded enterprise, not sufficiently essential. It is my honest opinion that unless we of the schools take a dif¬ ferent attitude toward our responsibility of informing the public, of cre¬ ating goodwill and friendliness on the part of the public, our schools never again wdll have the splendid opportunity they have had in the past. I am Just as much convinced that we will do as good a job on the selling side of our business in the next ten years as we have been doing on the pioduction side and that we will not again suffer from a depression, no matter when the depression comes, as we have during this period. There is not the slightest question that if everybody in my community, taxpayers and parents, knew as much as they have a right to know about our schools, how we operate, what our policies are, what our purposes are, what our accomplishments and achievements are, no taxing board would have dared to cut our tax appropriation because they would have burned down the state house. T he parent-teacher association got up a few resolutions but they didn t make enough noise, didn’t represent enough taxpayers, didn’t talk as loud and as long as the men with the money bags who were con¬ cerned with their money and not the children of the community. We had one banker who said, “My grandfather and grandmother only went to school four months. I don’t know why the school year of the chil¬ dren of Indiana can’t be cut down.” That is pure ignorance and you and I are at fault. You and I didn’t prepare these people, who pay the taxes, with an appreciation of education from a selfish standpoint. If I could have had enough time with that banker, I could have sold him on the idea that unless there was enough money to keep the schools going, one of these days they would tear his bank down and take his money because there is a great deal of feeling! There is only one place to stop it and that is in the schools. There is only one force that will keep the country stable and that is education. \ ou can’t put a price on that ! Then, aren’t we remiss, aren’t we failing in our job when we do not fight for this thing, when we just let it be swept aside by the slightest influence that comes along, when we fail to be convinced ourselves yet in our own hearts know that we must have the community in closer contact with the schools, that we must take the schools to the community and bring the community to the schools, that we shall not overlook a single opportunity, as suggested in Teacher and Public , to make the public understand us and know us and bring us closer together so that we may have that fine mutual understanding, we of the schools and they who pay for the schools? Let me urge you to be militant, to make a militant defense, to fight , fight , fight to make the United States safe for education. Department of Superintendence 573 FIFTH GENERAL SESSION, TUESDAY EVENING, FEBRUARY 27 EDUCATION AT THE CROSSROADS PAYSON SMITH, STATE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, BOSTON, MASS. This convention is meeting during an educational crisis that is without precedent. The material evidences of that crisis are so vividly before us that there is no need to catalog them. Terms shortened, salaries lowered, activities curtailed, opportunities denied ; these are the livid scars that are upon the face of American education today. The storm has been no respecter of places. Schools that in the golden 1920’s were still primitive have now ceased to exist even in their meager¬ ness. Schools that were in the van of educational progress have been forced to retreat. Indeed, tragic as is the story of closed schools, it may well be asked whether the greatest damage that has come to education may not prove to have resulted from the retreat from the fronts of progress. In these circumstances this convention should and will give prominent consideration to the adequate financial support of schools. From this place should and will go out the word that now, and not later, school terms should be restored, that now and not later the wages of teach¬ ers should be lifted at least to the level of the industrial codes, that now and not later suitable supplies and decent textbooks be put in the hands of children, that now and not later should a check be put on the in¬ creasing slaughter of activities essential to the education of our youth, and that now and not later there be stopped those practices in the employ¬ ment of teachers which are insidiously undermining the quality of teaching service, practises which put first the place of residence of the candidate and second, or last, the interest of the child who is to be taught. Urgent and important as it is, however, to restore appropriations for schools, to revise our system of taxation, to broaden the base of school sup¬ port, and to find more just ways of distributing school funds, yet I venture to say that these questions are only a part and, perhaps, the lesser part of the present responsibility of educational administration. The record of the past and the exigencies of the present point alike to another responsibility of commanding position. This is not the first time that the American people have seemed to falter in their devotion to education. Twice before in this century education has stood at the crossroads. One hundred years ago, almost to the year, after a sweeping economic depression, the public schools had become so poor that parents would not send their children to them if they could afford to send them to private tuition schools. But in the 1 830’s a group of leaders, conspicuous among them Horace Mann, went to the people and waged a vigorous campaign for the rescue both of the ideals and the substance of popular education. So effectively did these leaders do their work that there 574 National Education Association began a movement which swept across the country fixing firmly and finally the principle of free democratic education. Again, in the late 1870’s, following another economic depression, the people appeared for a few years to doubt their ability to support in practise the theory of universal education. In the school reports of that period we note voices of discouragement and fear. For three consecutive years there was an interruption of that progress which the preceding half century had recorded. But in 1879, as in 1835, the people at the parting of the educa¬ tional way decided to take not the road that led down, but the one that led on and up. Beginning in 1880, and continuing to 1929, was an era of educational development, dramatic, almost spectacular, and altogether without prec¬ edent in this or in any other country. In that era, enrolment in secondary schools and colleges grew at rates far outstripping rates of population in¬ crease, piling up totals greater than in all other western civilizations com¬ bined. In 1880, a small percentage of the teachers were trained accord¬ ing to any acceptable standards. In 1880, higher educational opportunities for women were almost non-existent. In 1880, compulsory education and child labor laws were hardly worthy of the name. In 1880, technical edu¬ cation was only in its feeble beginnings. In 1880, school courses were nar¬ row and adapted to the needs of only a minority of youth. In 1880, there was almost no provision for the special education of handicapped children, except for the totally deaf or totally blind. In 1880, few chances existed anywhere between the seas for a boy to get a trade education in school unless he should first be committed to a reformatory. In 1880, school equip¬ ment and school buildings for the most part were meager and often for¬ lorn. There is no need to take the time to state the contrasting conditions of today. They are before your eyes wTerever you may live and they are there as the irrefutable evidence of the abiding faith of the American people in education and of their desire generously to support it. As we read the record therefore, are w^e not impressed with the manner in which our predecessors trod the new roads that had been chosen? From this distance it is not the anxiety of the bleak years that impresses us. It is rather what happened after the period of perplexity and hesitancy had passed. Not what happened to the support of schools in periods of depression, but what happened to the spirit and substance of education after the depression had passed — that is what is significant to us now. I repeat, therefore, that far more commanding even than the exigent fiscal problems of the moment is the consideration of what is to happen to education ; what new vistas are to open before it ; what new plans must be made for it now that, as we hope, the storm has spent its fury. In this century now closing there have been these two eras, that of the establishment of the principle of universal free education, and that of educational expansion. How will the historian of the future record the era now beginning? Probably he will characterize it as an era of educational evaluation or, perhaps, as one of the better application of education. More- Department of Superintendence 575 over, it is no part of wisdom to conclude that the present difficulties of the schools are solely due to economic conditions. He is half blind who thinks he sees that the public is interested only in what the schools cost. There is plenty of evidence that the public is interested even more in what the schools are doing, whether the schools are producing results commensurate with the investment of money and time. That is a far more commanding, a far more persistent, and for us just now, a far more interesting question than any other current question about education. It is a question, moreover, that presses for answer not only as it relates to public schools, but as it re¬ lates to private ones as well ; not only as to lower schools, but as to colleges and universities. In no uncertain manner education is to be asked to give an account of itself. The taxpayer, the citizen, the parent, even the pupil himself is asking, “Does education give an adequate, a commensurate re¬ turn for what it costs in money and in time?” The question is a broad one. It has many bearings. It is not an easy one to answer. Indeed, a final and completely satisfactory answer may never be given. There is every reason, however, why the most serious and per¬ sistent search for an answer should be made. The problem need not and should not be approached in any apologetic or defensive manner. You can lay your hands on plenty of things that offer proof that the schools, even tho they have not fully succeeded, have at least not utterly failed. That the teachers of this republic have not labored in vain is attested by the fact that the American people have carried on patiently, tolerantly, even good-naturedly thru the most trying experience that has ever befallen them. If our institutions are worth saving, as we believe they are, the American schools have repaid all they have cost for a generation in what they have done in the past three years. I do not believe that education is about to choose a new and sharply divergent way. “New schools for old” is not my slogan. Then there is that other current phrase, “Education for a changing world.” If education for a changing world means that we must visualize what may seem to be the inevitable form and structure of a new world and so influence and modify youth that it will conform to it, then the expression leaves me a little cold. Better let us have an education that will change the world. The world needs today not so much institutions that will train youth for Fascism or Hitlerism or Bolshevism or any other “ism,” even Ameri¬ canism, as it needs institutions that will develop thinking, reasoning beings with the wisdom and the will to master individually and together their own life situations. However that may be, what educational leadership should provide forth¬ with is the means of searching investigations of the objectives of the elaborate and extensive instrumentalities for improvement that exist in our schools. These investigations should include not only the larger objec¬ tives of education. They should attempt to give answers to that host of questions which you and I and everyone are being asked about the specific subjects taught in the schools. 576 National Education Association Whatever the mode of approach to an appraisal of education, or what¬ ever the means found to make education more effective, may we not hope that one important outcome will be that of making the educational process infinitely more realistic. There is much discussion of the need of teaching and training children so that they can meet the problems of adult life, to relate in some direct fashion the tasks of the present to that of the future. Education may deal too much in futures. Prepare for it! Prepare for it! That’s the phrase! Shall we ever rid our¬ selves of the notion that preparation is not the sole or chief aim of educa¬ tion? 1 he primary aim of education is growth, not preparation. Prepara¬ tion all down the line to the kindergarten and up the line even to death has too much dominion over life. Shall we not sometime be wise enough to see that all experiences of life, including those of the schools, are but so many materials to be used in the day that now is, to promote mental, moral, and spiritual develop¬ ment? In this new era of evaluation and redirection of education the ap¬ proach must be increasingly realistic, to the end that actual gain in stature may daily result to him who is being educated. To illustrate the point, let me take three commonplace examples, one from the traditional subjects, one growing out of a current demand for practical service, and one from those larger objectives now often set up both by laymen and by educators. For the first, the modern languages — I believe we should not abandon the teaching of them. But it would be quite as well to do so unless we can teach them from some other viewpoint than that of preparation. We spend millions in the teaching of modern languages without getting what would seem to be the most elementary, and, therefore, the most important result, namely, the ability to speak or to understand the language. Some day, the modern languages may be so taught that the student will actually grow into possession of a new power of expression. When that day comes there will be more general approval of spending time and money on these subjects. This illustration may serve to point to you many others where we teach both traditional and newer subjects with too little consciousness that they have a close and realistic relationship to the current experience of the child. Again, let me take one of those numerous things that have crept into the schools as a result of the innocent belief of many citizens that if you can get a pupil to study something or to talk about it, you will necessarily work some important change in his habits. School savings plans have been adopted in hundreds of school systems in the sincere belief that they will promote personal thrift. Candor compels the admission that in thousands of cases they do nothing of the sort, they serve only as a weekly draft on fathers’ or mothers’ pocketbooks, costing the pupil not an iota of planning or self-denial. When thrift education in¬ cludes some plan by which the child can make savings in relation to his own allowance or earnings or in relation to his own planning it will take on some significance as an educational experience, and not until then will it Department of Superintendence 577 do so. In other words, much of this program is now highly idealistic and gets nowhere. Let it take on the form of realism and it will arrive. Let this again serve as an illustration of certain things in the schools that are not to be abolished, but are to be made more effective because made more realistic, more definitely used day by day in relation to the child’s experiences. For a third illustration. There is much clamor for training youth for the duties of citizenship. Of course, we are all for that. But even here, there is a chance to consider what is the most effective approach to so desir¬ able a goal. I submit it is not fair to youth to try to compel it to face at one and the same time both its own problems and those of the present adult generation. If your schools happen to be so far from a state capitol that your boys cannot get there to listen to debates, or, as the saying is, to study government first hand, do not despair; you may still be providing some very good citizens without these aids. You certainly are doing so if you are providing an environment suitable to the age of the pupils and are utilizing that environment for the best possible present experiences of youth ; if you are permitting pupils to learn the lessons, to play the games, and to enjoy the experiences that are suited to their age and development. Education should not be so much interested in producing citizens ac¬ cording to a pattern or with reference to a now pending civic problem. Education is or should be much more concerned with helping boys and girls to develop so that they will have the intelligence and the will to meet adequately the problems of their own time. The entire means of the child’s growth are to be found in his own world. All the social implications of education are there and not in some far-off situation. It may well be that in this opening era of the better application we shall find our greatest service to be that of gearing our schools more nicely, not to our needs, but to the needs of those we seek to educate. Two services then, await us, first unquestionably the settlement as speedily as possible of the pressing material problems of the schools; and second, the fundamental, the farther-reaching service of making these schools serve better the interests of the thirty million children whose cause we represent. It must have been great fun to have been a pathfinder in 1835 or in 1880. Perhaps that joy can be recaptured in 1934. FEDERAL AID— BOON OR BANE? WILLIAM F. RUSSELL, DEAN, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. The public schools are dear to the hearts of the American people. We love them because they belong to us. No national government forces them upon us. No minister of education prescribes their operation. We take educational orders from no higher power. The public schools are our own. We created them. We, the people, determine wdio shall learn, who shall teach, what shall be taught and by what methods, what the school shall 578 National Education Association be like, where it shall be located — and we reach down in our pockets and pay the bill. American schools are folk-made, and they are folk-controlled and folk-directed as well. This system is America’s pride and joy. In it we all take great delight. When we look overseas, we find no envy for the highly centralized school system of France, where most of the funds are supplied by the nation as a whole and most of the control rests in Paris. Nor do we find much to imitate when we look upon Australia, with its huge states each in complete control of its schools. There all the money comes from the state as a whole, the locality makes no contribution. All powers reside at the capital. The parents have nothing to say. We can go from country to country in the wmrld today and note the way in which certain of the strongest governments are using their highly centralized school systems to entrench themselves for years to come. Citi¬ zens in disagreement are being coerced; the recalcitrant are banished; rebels are stood before firing squads. But these measures are not neces¬ sary with the citizens of tomorrow. The young are being enticed, their minds are being seduced, helpless in the powerful grasp of propaganda thru nationwide compulsory education completely under national control. The minds of the oncoming generation are being poured into a mold. Thus the American has only to examine education in Russia, Japan, or Nazi Germany to come to appreciate the precious treasure that he has in the American public schools. They are locally controlled. They are sensitive to the will of our people. By their place in our plan of government, they are at the focus of a myriad of conflicting interests. They are almost per¬ fectly protected from nationwide partisan or transitory desires. There is a remote chance that some Hitler in some future time might be elected to high office in the United States; but he would have a difficult time, indeed, , to win control of our schools and colleges. That is, he could not have dominated the schools in the past ; but a new day is at hand. Our government is changing. The depression is modifying the balance of power between the localities, the states and the federal gov¬ ernment; and there is a good possibility that measures now pending, if adopted, may alter fundamentally the American method of school adminis¬ tration, and make our schools more like those in Europe or Asia that I have cited. It is unnecessary for me at this time, for this audience, to give in detail the argument which justifies federal participation in the financing of edu¬ cation. We know that this is no new idea. It was advocated in the days of the Confederation. It was implied in the Ordinance of 1785. It was sug¬ gested several times in the Constitutional Convention and was in mind when the General Welfare Clause was drawn. It was advocated both by Alex¬ ander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson. Constitutional amendments to pro¬ vide it were recommended to Congress by Madison and Monroe. Step by step, in the distribution of the national surplus, in the first Morrill Act and in the succession of acts down to the present day, the federal government has Department of Superintendence 579 played an increasing part in supporting education in the states. We also understand the gradual obsolescence of the taxing system which has tried to support education upon the proceeds of a tax upon the property of a limited taxing area. There was once a time when wealth as measured by land and buildings, and educational burden, as measured by children in the district school, were roughly proportional from area to area and from state to state; but the growth of transportation and communication, the develop¬ ment of technology, the flight from country to city, and the concentration of capital — all manifestations of the Machine and Power Ages — have disturbed this balance. Financial resources and educational burdens within the bor¬ ders of the states have been found to vary so widely from community to community that state equalization of financial support has been found necessary. Following a similar line of reasoning, experts in school finance have come to believe that federal aid is necessary. From the study of the efforts made by the state to assist localities to provide minimum educational programs, they have come to learn what was hidden from the layman — that, just as a remote district in many a state is unable to support even a minimum educa¬ tional offering and in consequence state aid is needed ; so an entire state, like Arkansas or South Carolina or South Dakota, may be similarly dis¬ qualified from being able to support as a state the kind of educational pro¬ gram that the American people deem to be the minimum. Even if there had been no depression, it would have been necessary for the national govern¬ ment to take a share in the financial support of education in order to main¬ tain a minimum standard thruout the United States. Nineteen twenty-nine was a boom year in the stock market. Nineteen twentv-nine was the cul¬ mination of an era of great prosperity; 1929 marked a high point in the general use of automobiles and radios ; but, even in that golden age, Ameri¬ can children in manv states in no small numbers went to hovels for schools, remained there for short terms, and were taught hv the kind of ignorant teacher that starvation wages would employ. Federal aid would have had to come, depression or no depression ! But the economic conditions of the last four vears have hastened a development which otherwise might have been long delaved. Decreases in incomes, shrinking property values, collapse of basic industries, the des¬ perate state of agriculture and manufacturing, the failure of the banks — all th ese factors in whole or in part removed the ability to pav from a sub stantial part of the population. Taxes could he levied on real estate, hut they could not be collected. The result is the lamentable situation of the moment. Schools are closed. Children are on the street. Teachers are paid in scrip or not at all. Essential services have been discontinued and institutions abandoned. This distress tugs at our heart strings. This social stupidity stirs us to action. One thing comes to mind. Let us strive to reform state laws and institute new modes of taxation : hut the truth is that everv time the federal government devises a new tax or increases an old one, it is all the more difficult for the states to correct their present systems. In fact, some tax experts are now advocating that all tax collections be made by Washing- 580 National Education Association ton because the federal government, by taxing incomes and imports and by its large sales taxes on automobiles, alcohol and tobacco, has removed from the states the only taxes which could be collected. Thus the real difficulty in the present educational situation has not been caused by the depression. It has merely intensified a difficulty that has been growing for many years. I he federal government has absorbed the sources of revenues, and it must share these wdth the states and localities. Many of us, realizing this situation, have devoted our best efforts to this problem for many years; and we have worked harder than ever since the time of the last meeting of this Depart¬ ment. Federal aid to education in some form sometime is bound to come. Now the question which I would discuss tonight is this: Shall we do America a service in bringing the federal government to the support of the schools? Are we in danger of destroying the American heritage? At the moment our schools are controlled by us. They are safe from the sinister influence of the small politician. Shall we sell our control of the mind of the American child ? It is said that he who pays the piper, calls the tune. Like many an old adage, this is a half truth. Of course, it would have been possible for the laird of the castle to have made such an arrangement with the piper. He could have said that he would make no payment unless the piper played the particular tune he desired. He could specifically have retained discretionary authority, and himself have called the tune. But there are other ways of paying pipers. The laird might find one night on his estate a band of pipers, cold, wet, and starving, because they had been paid in scrip. They might even have been forced to sell or pawn their pipes. There is nothing to stop the laird from saying that all who might wish to play at his feast would be fed, clothed, sheltered, and provided with new pipes. Or the laird could offer ten shillings to each piper who would play, regardless of what tune he chose. Or he could apply to the pipers’ union and agree to pay the wage scale fixed by the code for 36 hours of piping a week, and then hang out a blue eagle. Or he could offer a fixed sum to all musicians, pipers included. It is not necessary that he wTho pays the piper calls the tune. Whether he calls it or not depends upon the particular arrangement made between the two contracting parties. I suppose that there are no schools in the world, even in the United States, so free from domination by central authority as the schools of England, Scotland, and Wales. There the control rests in education committees, sub¬ committees of governmental bodies elected locally. The schools of a borough or an urban district are quite free of domination by the central authorities, and even wdthin a particular school system the details of the curriculum, the choice of textbooks, the nature of the instruction, and the spirit of the school itself are often within the prerogative of the individual school, even of the individual teacher himself. Central authorities will bring influence to bear upon the local committees by hints, by the publication of comparisons and statistics, by research and by advice. One of the most important reorganiza¬ tions of education in England was stimulated by a small brochure entitled Department of Superintendence 581 “Some Suggestions for the Consideration of Teachers.” In spite of this local autonomy, more than half of the bill for public education in Great Britain is paid by the central government, by Parliament in Westminster. Why is it that this system did not transfer control? Because the man who pays the piper does not choose to call the tune. Because the pipers would refuse to play if someone else called the tune. He pays half the salary of the piper; he pays half the cost of keeping the audience in health so that it can hear the tune when played. He takes a definite share in certain other expenses. Parliament does not say that it will grant the president of the Board of Education £88,000,000 to use as he sees fit. It does not appropriate the equivalent of $427,000,000 to be used as the Board of Education, the central authority, may deem wise. The whole program is put down in black and white in detail, and administration thenceforth is automatic. This is what is meant by a government of laws, not a government of men. This is the plan which I hope that we shall follow in the United States in the long run. But there are certain powerful influences and certain color¬ ful personalities in education and public life in the United States today who, for reasons which to themselves are adequate, are forcing us away from the English example and pushing us toward a form of federal participation in education which is likely to weaken local control, and strengthen dis¬ cretionary authority at Washington. These influences and personalities fall into three groups. There are those who have been accustomed to rescue the perishing. Most of the argument for federal aid is based upon distress, and this has its par¬ ticular appeal to members of welfare organizations, clubs for social service, and charity and aid societies, who, individually and corporately, know how to extend the helping hand. Definite methods have been developed by years of experience in charity organizations ; and it is only natural that those who have learned how best to relieve the distressed, help the indigent, cure the sick, and care for the unemployed, should assume that the same methods can be applied to the relief of a distressed school system. The method is to grant an adequate sum of money to an efficient and kindly individual who will study the individual cases which present themselves to him, dole out aid and adjust and readjust his program according to particular needs as they emerge. It is onlv natural that the members of this group would prefer to meet the emergency in education by granting a large sum of money to an individual or a board in Washington to hand out according to best judg¬ ment upon evidence of acute distress. We readilv appreciate the public spirit and logic of this point of view : but we who are connected with schools, above all others, should see the danger that is certain to follow. You can put authoritv over poor people at Washington ; you can grant power to deal W'th the unemployed ; vou can give funds to relieve human miserv caused bv a flood, an earthquake, or a depression : but, if vou put schools in this class, no matter how great their need for aid may be, discretionary authority and power inevitably will grow at Washington. The second group, composed in the main of lawyers and professors of political science, from its study of local and state government, has become 582 National Education Association impatient of the de]av and inefficiencies of legislatures, boards of aldermen, and commissions. They know that there is stupidity and occasional corrup¬ tion in our state and city governments, and it is only natural for them to infer that this applies equally well to schoolboards. The argument for centralization of power under the New Deal appeals greatly to them. They like its experimental attitude. In all future relations of the federal govern¬ ment to education, they say, let us apply these general principles. Place the control of funds in an individual or a board at Washington. Only in that wav will the money go where it is needed. Only with authority in Wash¬ ington can misuse and misappropriation of funds be avoided. This plan of administration appears to have worked verv well in the last vear in helping to solve the problems of the farmer, in developing the NRA and in con¬ structing public works. It would be successful and welcome in the building of school buildings, in transporting pupils, and in the purchase of supplies and equipment. We do not greatly object to centralized control of cotton and wheat, roads and canals, or codes which regulate business: but we must not forget that the American people cannot afford to lose their im¬ mediate control of the interna — what is taught and how — in their public schools. No person, no board should be given the power to force local author¬ ities to conform to any set pattern. The administrative technics of the New Deal, excellent tho they may be, must not be applied to our schools. It is a little more difficult to define the third group. Many members of our own profession belong to it. It is composed of those who are iust one step behind the procession in the studv of school finance. In the earlv days, in devising plans for the state distribution of school funds, it was thought satisfactory to distribute a sum of money in proportion to the number of children of school age, to the number enrolled, or to the number in average daily attendance. Students of school finance found these plans to be inade¬ quate, and schemes were devised to distribute funds according to effort and need. It was thought that the distressed districts should receive more aid than would be provided by such a measure as the number of the pupils ; and in some states equalization funds were set up for distribution to the poorer districts according to the judgment of the state superintendent or the state board of education. To stimulate effort grants were made with provisos attached. A state would offer a certain sum toward the erection of a certain type of building, the equipping of a laboratory or the provision of a special teacher. Sometimes communities were offered aid, provided that they raised a proportionate sum themselves. The members of this third group have reached this stage in their thinking. They want federal aid to be set up on some such basis as this. They hope to see a federal board created which will study the effort and need of the states and the localities, and in its discretion be empowered to make grants upon as objective a basis as possible. You and I readily appreciate that this point of view seems sensible, but we must remember one thing. It was the power to distribute state funds which brought discretionary authority to state departments of education. It was the fact that localities had to match funds by the states, that there was a Department of Superintendence 583 certain quid pro quo, which worked for the appointment of inspectors and centralization of educational control. If similar programs are advocated and adopted for the distribution of federal funds to the states, I fear that inevitably power and authority will grow in Washington. During the last six months, a number of us, as representatives of various educational, labor, and social organizations, have been meeting together in Washington, in the effort to draft a plan for federal aid during the emergency upon which we could all agree. We canvassed the field. We called for advice from all the experts that we could find. We considered the problem not only from the point of view of the schools, but we looked at it in the light of the relation of schools to other governmental and social agencies. We have come to an agreement upon a program ; one that is printed in the Februarv Journal of the National Education Association. But our agreement was only the result of a long and bitter struggle. Most of us agreed that emergency aid in almost any form was needed for the balance of this school year, merely to keep the schools in operation. Whatever way this aid would be given, whether by a separate act of Congress, or by the interpretation of an existing act under the discretionary authority of a special board or agency, or even of a single official, we agreed that this would be all right for the emergency during the balance of this year. We recommended a grant of $50,000,000 at once, and this has been taken care of thru the interpretation of a statute and the administration of Mr. Hop¬ kins. We also recommended a grant of $100,000,000 for the next school year to be distributed upon as objective a basis as possible by a board in Washington. But the big question was what to recommend for the balance of the period of the emergency. The three groups just mentioned, each advanced its point of view. Those who approached it from the point of view of charity suggested discretionary authority to be conferred upon an individual in Washington. Those who were suspicious of local government wished discretionary authority and experimentation at Washington. Those who were one step behind the school finance procession wished a national board of education at Washington which would devise a plan for distribution designed to stimulate effort and compensate for need. The representatives of the National Education Association, the Department of Superintendence, and the Progressive Education Association stood together. T1 hey recom¬ mended the appropriation of a large sum of money, possibly $400,000,000, to be distributed to the states and localities on an objective basis, to be administered in an automatic way, preferably by some auditor or account¬ ant or bookkeeper. This is in accord with the modern theory of the distri¬ bution of school funds. In fact the latest idea is somewhat amusing because the experts in school finance, upon the basis of new premises, have come to an old conclusion. We know how ancient housewives’ remedies sometimes anticipate later scientific studies in medicine. We know that the Chinese did not catch cholera or typhoid because they boiled their water and ate no raw 584 National Education Association food. The boiling of the water and the cooking of the food were not based upon modern scientific medicine. I suppose it came as the result of the workings of the law of natural selection. Similarly French and Russian housewives fed their children from the soup pot, and thus provided a diet rich in all the requisite vitamins. It is modern research, by its studies, that has revealed the worth of these old customs. So it has been in the field of school finance. In the early days it was deemed satisfactory to distribute money in proportion to the number of children of school age, to the number enrolled, or to the number in average daily attendance. This was later shown to be absurd, and schemes were de¬ vised to distribute funds in proportion to effort and need. This in turn has more recently been succeeded by another series of formulas designed to give equality among the various localities. The first step was to secure a measure of the cost of the standard minimum educational program which should be offered to every child. It was then necessary to determine the rate of local taxation which would raise this sum in the richest district. Then each district in the state would be compelled to tax itself at the same rate upon an equalized assessment; and the central authority would automatically provide the balance. Fhis is distribution of school funds according to what is termed the principle of equality. According to this plan, one district within a state gets nothing. All the others get something, much or little according as they have heavy or light educational burdens, and in proportion as they are poor or rich. But there is another principle of aid from central to local authorities which is finding favor. This is termed the principle of efficiency . The idea is that a free people cannot rest content with a bare minimum educational program. Education must be moving onward and upward. Certainly every child must have a certain minimum offering, but unless there is opportunity here and there for something better, for a new development, for readjust¬ ment or advance, educationallv we should be in the doldrums. There is a good deal to be said for encouraging “that extra something.” Central author¬ ities can well afford to shore up the entire educational structure. One of the greatest fallacies commonly believed in this depression is that distress is confined to the schools which have been closed. Our people should realize that there is just as much distress where home economics has been eliminated, where physical education instructors have been discharged, where equipment has not been purchased, where supervisors have been eliminated, where the curriculum has gone back to the three R’s. If we are to have an alive and alert system, we must go beyond a dead and uniform minimum. It is to provide and encourage development all along the line that the principle of efficiencv was advanced. Under this formula something is given to every locality, large or small. Aid is given to help the poor and the weak, but it is also provided to foster variation everywhere. If you are interested in following this argument, I suggest that you read Dr. Mort’s discussion in the recently published New Jersey report. Now the amusing thing about this modern theory of school finance is this: w hen you grant state aid upon the combination of these two principles, Department of Superintendence 585 that of equality and that of efficiency, it comes out very close to the old school population basis. In fact, if the principle of equality and the principle of efficiency were to be applied to the nation as a whole, we should be safe in recommending to Congress that by far the best way to meet the im¬ mediate emergency in education would be to grant to each state a sum of $11 per pupil in average daily attendance for the school year 1932-33, with a slight additional amount for the less densely settled states. No board of strategy would be needed. No discretionary authority would be retained. Minimum programs would be cared for. Schools could be reopened at once. The whole financial structure would be propped up. Local control would be preserved. It would be the best way to meet the emergency. I now find mvself in a somewhat embarrassing position. When our com¬ mittee finally came to an agreement in Washington on the particular pro¬ gram which we should advocate, we all said that we would stand firmly behind the six-point program. (1) $50,000,000 for immediate aid for the balance of this year to keep schools open, to be administered on any basis bv a board or individual in Washington; (2) $100,000,000 for next year for the same purpose, to be administered by a board in Washington upon some objective basis; (3) a substantial sum (we thought of $300,000,000 or $400,000,000) upon the principles of equality and efficiency; (4) loans to the localities secured by frozen assets in banks and taxes anticipated ; • (5) grants for school buildings, and (6) $30,000,000 for college students. I want to stand squarely behind this program. I want to urge your co¬ operation, but I must make plain that this means the whole proqram. The Federal Emergency Relief Administration has looked with favor on items 1 and 6, and has now practically incorporated these suggestions in its own program. It probably will look with favor on Ttem 2. Items 4 and 5 are in line with certain other governmental policies. What we should fear is the passing-over of Item 3. There are many men and women close to the Administration in Washington who cannot see the force or wisdom of a general grant to all the states to be administered upon an obiective basis in an automatic way. The relief-minded (the first group which I discussed) wish to give the monev to the Relief Administration. The political scientists of the New Deal distrust state and local government and want to give out federal money according to the dictates of a federal board or official. The advocates of distribution of state funds upon the basis of effort and need want to duplicate at Washington the older experience of the less advanced states. These are powerful forces to combat. Right now, hearings are being held before Congress in Washington, upon the measures submitted to fid fill this six-point program. There the relief-minded will sav their sav, and if their point of view prevails, control will grow at Washington. The nolitical scientists of the New Deal will advocate all items except the third, and power will grow at Washington. The older order of state financial experts will advocate effort and need, and centralization of school administration will develop in the nation just as it did in the states. 586 National Education Association I shall agree with anybody upon any plan of national aid to education for the next six months. But for any time beyond that, it is my public duty, it is your public duty, it is the duty of the Department of Superin¬ tendence, to express not only our hopes but our fears. We have a plan for federal aid to education, expressed in the third point of the six-point pro¬ gram, which gives aid to all the states upon an automatic, objective basis. It has been carefully developed. It has been adequately studied. It has been tested. It will bring immediate relief in the emergency. It will leave the power in the states and localities where it should remain. It will enable the federal government to help pay the bill. Federal aid in any other form will tend to transfer the power away from the people. It will become repugnant to us. Mistakes made now mav take years to correct; and federal aid of the wrong kind, and the growth of the beginnings of educational despotism, however slight, will retard the development of American education for generations to come. Let us stand wholeheartedlv behind the whole program. Let us put special emphasis upon the third, the advanced, step. Only if this is included, only if this becomes the basis for future action, will federal aid, so desperately needed at the moment, become a boon and not a bane. SIXTH GENERAL SESSION, WEDNESDAY MORNING, FEBRUARY 28 Public Education and National Welfare EDUCATION IN THIS NEW AGE EDWARD A. FILENE, MERCHANT, BOSTON, MASS. I cannot speak to professional educators upon the theory and technic of education. When business men assume to educate our educators, the results are not always satisfactory. They may even educate the educators into an understanding of what a lot of things there are in life which business men do not know. But educators also are not free from unwarranted assumptions. That has recently become obvious. No matter how big a fool a “big business man” may have made of himself before an audience of educators, those educators have usually assumed that he did understand business. And we know now that that is not so. Great financiers wrecked our finances. Power kings turned out to be weaklings. Captains of industry fled from the battle at the first smell of danger and, by cutting wages and curtailing the public buying power, led the grand stampede away from industry and toward unemployment. It is time, surely, that we business men should be very humble, and begin to question our assumption of a divine prerogative to give advice to every¬ body else. Yet I do not see how business could, if it were in a mood to do Department of Superintendence 587 so, keep its hands off our problems of education. Nor can I see how educators can longer leave the field of business to business men. Business problems are your problems quite as definitely as they are ours ; and uneducated as we may be to cope with it, the problem of education is our problem quite as much as it is yours. The time has come when we must think these things thru together. Fifty years’ study of the problem of business, and of the social and political problems which have arisen from the evolution of business, has compelled me to see that there is no basic solution for them except in education. On the other hand — and 1 say it with full knowledge that I am un¬ qualified to tell professional educators what to do — I have been forced to conclude that there is no solution merely in more education of the tradi¬ tional and customary kind. No student of business during the past fifty years could fail to note how the whole world was being brought closer and closer together by the ad¬ vance of trade. But there was no general education in accordance with this great world fact, with the result that the world was torn to pieces in war. No student of business evolution in America could fail to note the in¬ escapable tendency within our economic mechanism toward greater and greater cooperation. But our education was not in cooperation. Our educa¬ tion was in hotter and hotter competition and in rugged individualism. It was evident everywhere that we were living in a new order, but it was equally evident that we were experiencing a new and increasing dis¬ order, and we were not being educated to discover what the trouble was. We said, for instance, that parents should bring up their children in the way that parents used to bring them up ; not troubling ourselves very much to find out why they were not doing so or even if such a thing were no longer possible. We said there should be stricter laws and swifter justice, and thou¬ sands of committees and commissions busied themselves promoting this and that reform. But we were dealing everywhere with effects, not causes. Every¬ body was engaged in repair work, not in reconstruction in accordance with the revolutionary changes thru which our world was passing. In the socalled exact sciences, to be sure, amazing progress was being made ; and a new discovery in a chemical laboratory might suddenly result in the total scrapping of huge industrial plants, and the inauguration not only of new methods, but also of a new science and a new approach to the whole fundamental problem. In our social, political, and educational ex¬ perimenting, however, we have had no such luck. We never exchange a going social order for a better one if we can help it. We wait invariably until the old order is completely wrecked, and then our tendency is to keep as much of the old pattern in the new design as pos¬ sible. We suffer from corrupt and inefficient government in our cities ; but if it is not too utterly corrupt, it is next to impossible to get our citizens to do anything about it. And when they are aroused to elect a reform administra- 588 National Education Association tion, the reforms are usually so ineffective, that there is always imminent danger of the majority voting in the forces of evil again. It is true that we have experimental schools; and after years and years of discouraging effort, some of these exeperiments are gradually given an opportunity to make limited demonstrations here and there; but you edu¬ cators know how slow the process is. Now, why is this process slow ? Is it because we have so much time that there is no need for haste? Is it because we are producing such a satisfactory brand of citizenship now that we can afford to let well enough alone? Or is it, perchance, that Americans are naturally so conservative that great changes are not to be expected? We all know that it is none of these. We have little time. Staggering problems are pressing upon us, requiring a degree of understanding that we have not developed. Our citizens are not only unequipped to cope with these new problems, but are pitifully unable, often, to maintain standards of ordinary honesty and decency in their municipal and state, and sometimes even in their national governments. As for conservatism, the average American is not in the least averse to change. Millions of Americans turn in fine, serviceable, and efficient auto¬ mobiles annually because each insists upon having a car with a few new ideas in it. You may criticize that attitude. You may call it flashy. You may call it extravagant. The point is that you cannot call it conservative. But how about the matter of human relations in America, and the American’s attitude toward them? Our educators will agree, I think, that there can be no more important problems. All morality, all character, all socalled spiritual development can be measured onlv in terms of human relations and the responsibilities which they entail. But how manv Ameri¬ cans, up to March 4, 1933, evinced any particular eagerness for new ideas in that direction? Have our American schools so advanced in their understanding of human relations as to be able to sell us a better code of human conduct year after year? Have they kept pace, say, with the motor car industry? Some may think these questions unfair. We cannot draw an analogy, they will say, between the development of human character and the development of a machine. The schools, they will protest, do teach good citizenship. They uphold the moral code. They exalt virtue and warn against vice. And if it happens that crime and corruption fill the land, the responsibility lies with the criminal and the corrupt, not with an educational system which has consistently held up the opposite ideal. In other words, we should judge our educational system by its intentions — not by its results. Well, we will not argue the point. Let us ask, rather, why do we get such great and such rapid results in the field of chemistry and physics, and why are results so slow and so disappointing in the matter of human conduct and of human character? Is it because we understand the laws of chemistry and of physics, and can therefore teach them accurately and exactly, whereas we do not know the Department of Superintendence 589 laws of moral and spiritual development and cannot be certain as to just what we should teach? No. The exact opposite is the case. We do not know the laws of chemistry and physics. We know we do not — therefore we have to find out what they are, and therefore we do make appreciable progress. As to moral conduct, however, we are sure that we know it all to start with. Therefore, we don’t have to learn anything. Therefore, no matter how human relations may change, we make little change in our teaching — at least until conditions get so terrible that no one takes the old teachings seriously any longer, and we don’t even believe them ourselves. Therefore, we do not make appreciable progress. One result of this sort of moral education is that many students do not see the point and eventually become bad men, while others readily accept it and become good men. And the result upon society, as a rule, is that many of the good do more harm than the bad. It has been good men, not bad, who have given us our worst govern¬ ment. It was good men, not bad, who have led us into wars. It was good men who exploited labor most abominably. It was good men, as a rule, who recently wrecked our financial system and brought millions to the verge of starvation. These were men of character. If they had been mere self-indulgent weak¬ lings, they would never have been exalted to such places of power. They were educated, according to our existing concept of education, both intellec¬ tually and morally. You could trust them absolutely not to pick your pocket or to hit you over the head with a lead pipe. They were fine husbands and fathers. They fairly doted on their families, and they denied themselves leisure, often, preferring to toil and scheme early and late to make it possible for those families to live like royalty — that is, like royalty used to live. No, thev were not immoral. Some of them did not even break the law; but they broke the country. They were educated but they didn’t know any better, for they were not educated in human relations as they are and had no conception of their responsibilities. They were educated in the code of human relations as they used to be and their conduct was conduct which used to be all right. They understood the necessity for sweeping changes in industry ; for production had become a matter of fact-finding, and when they found a way to produce more goods with less overhead, they did not hesitate to scrap their obsolescent machinery. But they saw no necessity for any change in man’s attitude toward man. That subject had never been presented in terms of fact-finding at all. Those who proposed sweeping changes in this field — that is, changes in keeping with the sweep of events — were looked upon as extremists. It seemed normal, and Americans generally were edu¬ cated to think of it as normal, that in a world where human relations were changing with dazzling rapidity, our attitude toward human problems should change only by imperceptible degrees. 590 National Education Association We called this attitude “conservatism” altho, as we must now perceive, nothing whatever was conserved by it. We cannot conserve the values of the past by trying to conserve the formulas of the past. A course of conduct which is normal and construc¬ tive in an agrarian age may become abnormal and destructive in a machine age. “The letter killeth. Only the spirit giveth life.” Orthodoxy in morals is the end of true morality ; for by over-emphasizing those virtues which were once successfully developed, it neglects to call attention to the virtues which most need to be developed now. Similarly, orthodoxy in teaching is the depth of education. Teaching our children what to think cannot possibly fit them for life in these changing times. W e do not know what they should think; for they must deal with things which we know nothing about. We must teach them how to think — how to find out about those things, so that they may apply this new knowl¬ edge to the new problems with which they will inevitably be faced. ^ That way, I am convinced, lies education. With the old approach, much of our education becomes a lie. Naive ignorance is dangerous enough, but confident knowledge of things that have ceased to be true is more dangerous. The toughest task before the business man today is not the learning of busi¬ ness. It is the unlearning of what he was taught was business — what he is positively sure is business because it used to be business. We may even learn a lot of new truths ; but if we simply add them to our ancient superstitions, we are very likelv to be sunk. That is how business was so recently sunk. American business men generally had come to see that high wages meant high buying-power ; and in the early days of the depression they made more or less effort to keep wages up. That was a wonderful new thing, in history, but it didn’t work. It didn’t work because we tried to combine that idea with a lot of fatal knowledge which we had not yet un¬ learned. We tried to keep wages at a certain level, for instance, when if we had studied all the facts, we would have seen that that level was still not high enough to provide a market for the enormous and constantly increasing output of our machine age. We couldn’t sell and we had to slow down production ; and we laid off men and created unemployment and put still further crimps in the public s buying-power. And when the public inevitably bought still less, we dropped the high-wage theory as impractical and brought on conditions of panic and paralysis. Now, we did that because we didn’t know any better ; and we didn’t know any better, not because of any natural stupidity, but because we had not been properly educated. Oh, I know what educators can say. They can say that we business men would not permit the schools to tackle the problem of human relations in the same bold, experimental, fact-finding way in which they tackle the problems of chemistry and physics. That s true. The schools have turned out graduates so densely ignor¬ ant of the things which most needed to be known that these graduates would Department of Superintendence 591 not permit the schools to turn out a better product. There is no need, then, of the pot calling the kettle black. Traditional thinking was our common enemy. Neither the best type of business nor the best type of education could, in the very nature of things, result from it. And so, in the course of time, we had a nation with more graduates per square foot than had ever been known before, utterly baffled by the problem of how to keep a people with great surpluses of all of life’s necessities from suffering individually for the want of them. I think I can say without even being accused of partisanship, that had it not been for the extraordinary leadership of President Roosevelt, America would very likely have been thrown into some such social convulsion as has occurred in several European countries. And had there been such a con¬ vulsion, it would not have been the fault of radical tendencies in America, but of a fixed and firm American tradition which would not permit us to consider and to deal with fundamental changes when those fundamental changes were actually taking place. We had to wait for a collapse. What, I wonder, would any of us think of a system of physical education, if its graduates uniformly waited for a physical collapse before taking any measures to guard their health? We know that many individuals are thus neglectful, but the course is not advocated and not accepted as normal. It is chiefly in the matter of human relations — of the actual structure of society — that we have learned not to expect results from our educational efforts. This structure is basically economic. It changes as our economic mechan¬ ism changes; and if in this period of the greatest and most rapid changes in human historv, we do not find out what these changes are, and how they relate us to other human beings, we shall be powerless to deal with the human problems which arise. If these changes were a great mystery and beyond the province of human investigation, perhaps the only hope for society would be to keep its mem¬ bers regimented as far as possible, under high-pressure policing, according to some code of conduct handed down to us from heaven knows where. But our economic structure, complicated as it may be, is no more mysterious than the human body; and the human relations which are determined by it can be and would be understood and dealt with, if it were our educational prac¬ tise to approach the problem in an objective, fact-finding way. Now, I do not presume to give you the formula for this new and necessary kind of teaching. You have the formula already and are using it constantly. In the scientific courses — that is, the courses which aim, not merely at the handing down of old knowledge but the digging up of knowledge which has never been known before — students are encouraged to experiment and to make a note of everything that happens. When they complete an experiment successfully, they are encouraged to apply the principles which they have learned to the perfection of chemical, mechanical, and electrical apparatus which, if perfected, will still further change human relations. 592 National Education Association But are they encouraged to employ this method in solving the problems of these new human relations? You educators know, better than I can tell you. Is it suggested that they clean up their cities by this method ? Or are they not exhorted, rather, to stick to the traditional method — the method by which we periodically throw bad men out of office and elect good men to do the bad things thereafter. Is it suggested that, having learned the scientific method, they try their hands at creating an up-to-date Constitution for America, in place of one which divides us into now meaningless geographical districts and makes it next to impossible for our socalled representatives to achieve a national view? Is it suggested that they find out what are the moral principles governing human conduct in this machine age and that they employ fact-finding for the purpose of constructing a practical moral code? Or are they not urged rather, to follow the codes which were practical in societies where human relations were altogether different? We cannot make good citizens of those who cannot see their actual re¬ lation to society and cannot therefore become conscious of their actual re¬ sponsibilities. We may make them obedient and law-abiding, and they may even be well-intentioned and kind. But good citizenship demands a positive, constructive attitude toward society, and an understanding of the relation¬ ships involved. We cannot develop this by telling children to be good, or even by priming them with the formulas of goodness which actually were effective and constructive in the days when human society was put together in very different wavs. What we do get from this attempt to fasten ancient formulas upon modern minds — and calling the process education — is not even the conser¬ vatism which seems to be our aim. When we try to teach people what to think, instead of how to think, we get such extremes of conduct as to threaten our social stability. I refer to the law of pendulum thinking. Now it is possible that you never heard of any law by that particular name. I do not care about that. I do not care what you call it, and if you can give it a better name, I shall not be offended. But the law is obvious and it works like this. Whenever a society hangs on to a formula as long as it can, and does not change it when, as, and if the facts disclose that it needs changing, it eventually lets go of that formula with a violent reaction. It does not go back to some moderate, more rational position. It swings definitely to the opposite extreme; and when this position becomes no longer tenable, back it goes again, away past the point of equilibrium, toward the first or a similar extreme once more. America has seemingly been saved in the nick of time from such a catastrophe by the sudden introduction of experiment and fact-finding in government and business relations, before the point of desperation has quite been reached. The secret of President Roosevelt’s leadership cannot be Department of Superintendence 593 found either in his charming personality or in his exceptional political acumen. Fortunately, he is well equipped with both ; and considering the seriousness of the national crisis, we may well rejoice that he is so endowed. Nevertheless, the essential greatness of the President lies in the fact that he has not appealed to tradition or to prejudice. He has not even appealed to “public opinion,” for the crisis was one in which government by opinion would not do; He did not say: “This is my platform, and I shall abide by it,” or “This is my creed and I shall remain loval.” What he said in effect was : This is the trouble ; and this is one of the things which we are going to try in seeking to effect a cure. If the experiment is successful, we shall go on with it. If it fails, we shall abandon it and try something else.” The nation is not out of danger yet by any means. Already the voice of the Tory is heard in the land, not with any contention that the President is ignoring the facts, but that he is violating the sacred traditions of pioneer times, when everybody of necessity did business according to his individual hunches and protected his profits with his individual six-shooter. There is great promise, however, that America will now turn permanently to fact-finding in the arrangement of its economic affairs, and this promise must be of peculiar interest to educators. For with fact-finding accepted as the normal approach to the study of human relations, the schools will be • freed to educate in a sense in which they have not been able to educate before. Education, I understand, means drawing out — the drawing out of the individual mind into a greater and greater awareness — especially awareness of one’s relations to the community and the acceptance of the responsibilities which they suggest. But heretofore our schools, even if the business interests had permitted it, could scarcely have initiated their students into an under¬ standing of America with any certainty that the understanding would make for loyalty and devotion. America, with all its prosperity, was chaotic; and drawing out the mind of youth into an awareness of this chaos, while it might lead some to seek the way of law and order, was quite likely to result in the acceptance of chaos as a fundamental condition of life. Millions at least were so educated in and outside the schools. The result was cynicism, individualism, irre¬ sponsibility — the negation of any purpose, and plan, and therefore of any real faith, in life. At last, however, we have the beginnings of an ordered society in this machine age. By fact-finding, we have discovered that it did have a human purpose after all. The function of business, we have discovered, is to get goods to people — not merely to offer goods for sale, but to enable the masses to buy. This, of course, will necessitate a plan ; and the plan is being worked out, not according to anybody’s utopian dreams but with a direct and sci¬ entific approach to the social facts. Under this plan, whatever its eventual details may prove to be, we know that the masses must have a more adequate share of the wealth that is pro- 594 National Education Association duced. We know also that they must have leisure, else they cannot consume the numberless things which, under science, have become available now. But thev must have more than that. Thev must have responsibility — an awareness of their relation to the whole plan and consequent interest in its success. All this could not be taught before, because it was never true before. Earnest critics of our social planlessness could proclaim their theories ; but so could self-seeking demagogs, while dreary traditionalists chanted their outworn formulas of the past. There might be endless debate, but the econ¬ omic struggle was so strenuous that few could give attention to the merits of the debate. Under the circumstances, we can hardlv wonder that educa¬ tion failed. But that era, it appears, is over. The day of economic order and of social understanding has dawned. Our opinions may differ widely still, but now it doesn’t matter. We are thru, I hope, with following opinions. We are now after the facts of everybody’s relation to everybody else. Nor will the intense struggle for individual existence divert us now from considering these facts. For that struggle has now became collective, and it is to everybody’s individual interest to see to it that everybody else’s interest is considered. That is the meaning of the New Deal. That is the meaning of all these business codes : and those who are viewing the event in terms of particular criticism are missing the point entirely. It may be that this Ad¬ ministration, which I have considered so wise, is doing wrong and foolish things. But if so, in the very nature of this fact-finding program, errors will be corrected as they are proved to be errors. Some plan which will take everybody into consideration must eventuate ; and it must provide for con¬ sumption by the masses of the tremendous volume of wealth which the masses, under science and scientific management, are now able to produce. Fascism does not provide for that. Hitlerism, based on the archaic theory that might makes right and the end justifies the means, can have no enduring social plan. Nor does communism provide for it; altho, to be fair to the great Russian experimenters, we must recognize that it is their ul¬ timate intention to provide for everybody when in the course of time every¬ body shall have been made over into an unquestioning communist. In America, however, regardless of our conflicting theories, we may all unite in finding out just what plan will make such ample provision for everybody. Our machine has become so productive that capitalism cannot continue unless adequate consumption is provided for ; and if, as some con¬ tend, capitalism cannot continue if there is such adequate consumption, none of us need worry. So long as everybody is provided with wealth, leisure, security, and culture and, in the nature of this provision, becomes so defi¬ nitely and understandably related to the whole scheme that social respon¬ sibility may normally be expected, it will make little difference whether we call it capitalism or something else. Department of Superintendence 595 Education in this new age will be effective because it will be dealing not with the worn-out axioms of former ages, nor with the other-worldly dreams of those who can find no place in their utopias for the facts of human nature. It will be effective because it will be dealing with actualities. And there is no reason why it should not be as effective in the development of social and spiritual values as it now is in the development of material achievements. EDUCATION AND THE PREVENTION OF CRIME ROYAL S. COPELAND, UNITED STATES SENATOR FROM NEW YORK We have chosen in America to turn over to the school teachers, not only those duties which are naturally theirs, but also many of the functions which should be performed in the home. We have come to expect the teacher to instruct our children in manners, personal hygiene, social eti¬ quette, and the household arts. We expect the teacher to give by precept and example that moral and ethical training which in other times was imparted by the home and the church. At this moment I have no desire to challenge the fundamental wisdom of this, our almost universal custom. It is mentioned merely to prepare the wav for certain comments which will follow. Before entering upon that discussion let me pay a brief tribute to the teacher. I regard that public servant as the most potent factor in the training of our children in honesty, worthy ambition, self-control, and substantial preparation for merited success in the battle of life. It happens many times that the influence of an inspiring teacher has neutralized evil tendencies which environment has imposed upon unfor¬ tunate children. No thoughtful person who analyzes his own mind can fail to find reason for gratitude to this or that teacher for the rich contribution of noble thoughts and desires planted there during school days. The teacher is the most self-sacrificing, hard-working, and poorlv paid individual of all those included in the schedule of public servants. That is my honest conviction and one I have held for many years. Certain recent experiences of my own have given me a growing belief that America must lean still more heavily upon the school teacher. As chairman of a committee appointed by the United States Senate to investi¬ gate crime, it has been my duty to listen to the testimony of hundreds of witnesses. What we have learned centers upon one point — the necessity of preventing juvenile delinquency. To accomplish this, the schools can do more than all other agencies within public control. The importance of what I have to say to vou is emphasized by the sta¬ tistics of crime. In the United States today the average age of the criminal is twenty-three years. The largest age group is found at nineteen and the next largest group at eighteen. The seeds of moral delinquency sown and grown during school age, develop into evil plants, the fruits of which are publicly displayed by boys and girls long befgj*e there is maturity of their minds and bodies. 596 National Education Association In saying these things to this particular group, I am not unmindful that the members of your association have long been concerned over the problems which crime presents. I am aware of the serious thought you have given this subject and am acquainted with your Research Bulletin on “Crime Pre¬ vention thru Education,” published in 1932, and your Tenth Yearbook of the Department of Superintendence on Character Education, published in the same year. I am depending on your wide background of knowledge to fill in an outline of the facts for which I have but brief space. I must trust your trained imaginations to supply the details, depending upon your proved patriotism and loyalty to perfect and carry out some such plan as the one I shall propose. There are some interesting statistics found in a report published in the Manufacturers Record. In this an estimate is made, founded upon known facts to some extent and upon estimates in others, and the report states that the cost of crime, the annual crime bill in the United States, is thirteen billion dollars. Our national income is now reduced so that it is less than fifty billion dollars, perhaps not more than forty billion. Therefore, it is safe to say that one-fourth of the national income is spent to pay the costs of crime. This sum, as is pointed out in your bulletin, exceeds by at least three times our total expenditures for education. We can agree, I believe, that the cost of crime in money and in reduced morality of the people, is devastating bevond computation. You know better than I how much the situation has been aggravated by recent publicity given the activities within the law of certain metropolitan bankers, utility heads, and business executives. Such infractions of the moral law reported by the press, are dramatic presentations which must have undermined the public morale and the morals of many individuals. Your minds will quickly jump to acts within your own knowledge, where perhaps there may have been smaller monetary losses but which are equally dis¬ tressing examples of that lack of the sense of trusteeship and general public spirit which should characterize men of affairs. The anti-social conduct of persons operating within the law, ruthlessly exploiting the economic re¬ sources of the public, has inflamed the minds and emotions of criminals and of weaklings. Recognized as one of the major causes of our economic con¬ dition, those acts have added to the general social unrest. In short, the factors that have acted to promote criminality have been added to of late, because of economic conditions and what the average man believes is the chief cause of our economic distress. No matter how we ap¬ proach the problem, we surely must agree that the menace of anti-social behavior and actual crime is greater than ever before. Where does crime begin ? The answer to that question will determine what we should do about it. While there are many causes, no doubt, yet there will be no dispute of the thesis that the perfect home should develop the perfect character. Most of us regard character building as the primary responsibility of the home. But, if I may jump to my conclusion on this point, I am forced to recognize that there is no immediate hope of greatly 597 Department of Superintendence improving the home conditions of those who may later follow criminal careers. To accomplish this end is a long range process. We think of the church as having a heavy responsibility in character building. But if there is any failure there, I can criticize no church except* mv own. For any except my own denomination, I have no right to comment upon the adequacy of its character-building program or to make recommen¬ dations for the extension of its work. I will say of my own denomination that 1 believe there is much more it should be doing. But whatever the churches may do in the future, we cannot turn to them for an immediate and major attack on the problem of crime. I pause only long enough to express con¬ fidence that the church will lend support to a well-planned program of prevention. This brings me to the schools. It is an old custom, familiar to you, to carry to the door-step of the school all the problems that cannot be solved in the home or elsewhere in the community. To blame the schools and the teachers appears to be one of the diversions of the American people. But it is not in this spirit that I approach the subject under discussion. I could devote my available time to reviewing the forces which have tended to transfer from the home to the school almost the entire responsi¬ bility for the welfare of children. To you this is a well-known story. But when I turn my thoughts to what the schools can and should do in the matter before us, I have been wondering how the public would respond to a new plan. What would happen to a proposal that the public schools assume the responsibility for a basic crime prevention program? In face of the alarming facts about crime and the growing anti-social conduct within the law, may not the public be wondering just what has happened and why ? How many are inquiring how such a state of affairs has come to pass in a country that has so liberally supported schools for the express purpose of insuring good citizenship? Personally, of course, I do not place upon the Ameiican public-school system primary responsibility for this crisis. But what shall we say in reply to those who charge the public schools with a share of the blame? The report and a digest of the hearings of our Senate subcommittee will soon be off the press and they contain pointed discussions of this question. I want to refer you to this report for comments on the merits of the public- school record of past performance. Whatever may be your own conclusions, I know you are ready to face the issue of your future responsibilities in this field and of course it is the future alone that we can do anything about, whether in the line of your duty or mine. One of the questions I want to ask you today is this: Does the habit of appraising the results of schools in terms of intellectual achievement and manual skill have anything or everything to do with our trouble? To define clearlv what I mean I want to make reference to two recent publications: First, the committee of the American Association of University Professors, in its report issued last May, stated that the purpose of college teaching is to “induce self-propelled intellectual activity on the part of the student.” 598 National Education Association The second reference is to a report of the Commission on the Social Studies, entitled: A Charter for the Social Sciences in the Schools , drafted by Charles A. Beard. This is intended to emphasize the value of scholarship and skill in scientific method as a primary dominating objective. This point of view is epitomized on the 99th page of the report, which I quote : All the way thru the schools the process may be followed, ever sharpening the mind (the italics are mine) by increasing the complexity o£ the situations about which questions are asked and of the materials necessary to correct answers, rising steadily in the complexity and abstraction of the subjects considered. The words “character,” “conduct,” “behavior,” “attitude,” and “emo¬ tions,” do not appear in Beard’s index. His discussion of character and the process of character building are limited to a few sentences in the closing pages of his 117-page Charter. These two reports financed by large founda¬ tions seem to represent the point of view of orthodox leadership of our higher educational institutions. Is it proper for me to ask: Have not educators tended to define the job of the schools in terms of developing tool skill, and of mastering content? Have they not placed remarkable emphasis upon “sharpening the minds” of those who are to be the lawyers and the executives of the future, as well as the minds of the average run of us who pass thru the school system? Has not the habit of appraising the results of schools in terms of intellectual achievement and manual skill, tended to produce a citizenry with sharpened wits and skilled craftsmanship, rather than a realizing sense of social ob¬ ligation and good citizenship? Has not our attention been too sharply focused on mastery of the scientific method of intellectual achievement? Let me turn from this questioning process a moment to sav this: Some¬ times the scientist becomes so engrossed in what he sees in the microscope that he fails to lift his eye from the instrument to gaze upon the wide world about him. Other scientists may become so militant as regards their theories that they engage in wordy battle to worst their opponents. So many of these contests are going on at the same time that those of us who are onlookers are worn out in our efforts to see the whole show. Our brains no longer function as they should and we begin to suffer from a sort of creeping paralysis. In consequence, we become incapable of accurate estimate of the value of the theories proposed. I have asked what I intended to be pointed questions regarding problems which to me as a layman are not being solved by the intelligentsia — and I use that word with perfect respect. But in all candor, I believe they are shooting over the target. We must take society as it is. Our program of edu¬ cation must be suited to the requirements and capabilities of each boy and girl according to individual need. Perhaps the examples I have given are sufficient preface to a preliminary concrete suggestion dealing with a way in which the public schools can help in a major attack on the prevention of crime. The suggestion calls for a thoro-going application of a particular one of the many generally accepted Department of Superintendence 599 proposals, with which you are familiar, a proposal which because of the lag I have mentioned, has not yet been adopted into universal practise. Nearly ten years ago Ben D. Wood, of Columbia University, proposed the adoption of a continuous record card for general use in the public-school system. The plan for a continuous record has been promoted by various agencies, including the American Council on Education. Many individuals have urged its adoption. Professor Wood early proposed that the school rec¬ ord should include, not only the classroom grades, but also it should be a behavior record, so designed as to disclose the blossoming character of the child. Such a behavior record has been demonstrated and, as I view it, greatly improved in the practise of the Rochester Athenaeum. If the system is used, as I believe it should be in every community, the pub¬ lic schools will have placed every child under expert observation. The child who shows anti-social tendencies may then be given special attention and such treatment as the individual case requires. Under this system, prevention of crime can be undertaken in time to produce results. You can readily imagine the far-reaching effects if the character-building agencies of the community collaborate energetically with the schools in helping suspected pre-delinquents to achieve normal adjustment. Of course, it is not enough merely to start upon another campaign of record making. Attics and basements are filled with “reports” and material which its fond authors thought to be of such importance that it might some¬ time be studied, formulated and made of practical use. Holding the same idea, the United States Government is erecting what is called the Archives Building. It occupies an entire square on Pennsylvania Avenue in Washing¬ ton. This is to be used to store papers, some of them valuable no doubt, but many of them worthless trash. If the behavior reports for which I plead were to be filed in cabinets some¬ where, in order that a statistically inclined person might use them sometime, I should not be interested. Such reports are invaluable, however, if their sig¬ nificance is immediately recognized. If a pupil in the schools has habits of thought or tendencies which may become anti-social in their nature, there should be instituted at once an inquiry to determine what is wrong and what if anything can be done about it. To this end, there must be set up in connection with every school system a means of immediate treatment of the child who appears to need it. Surely in every community there are enough general medical practitioners, dentists, psychiatrists, specialists, and surgeons, also trained psychologists and social workers, who will gladly examine the child and give the school authorities the needed help to determine a course of action. The thought I have in mind is that the behavior card will carry a warning that there is danger along the path of progress of this particular pupil. It may be a red light, indicating the necessity to “stop, look, and listen.” If it serves to attract attention to the need of treatment and, if as a result of collaboration with these scientific consultants, the child is returned to mental and physical health, our first purpose has been accomplished. 600 National Education Association But important as the use of the behavior record will be with the problem child, its use is vastly more important with all the rest of the pupils. My good friend, Eugene A. Colligan, president of Hunter College, has supplied me with an excellent manuscript relating to teacher guidance in conducting character education in the public-school system of New York. These guides suggest a thoroly sound program of day-to-day instruction. In taking over the guidance of a new pupil, the teacher is at great disad¬ vantage without a history of the child’s behavior in the earlier grades. As I view the problem, behavior records promise to do for the practise of the teacher in the field of character building, what records have done for the doctor in his practise. Except in case of emergency, no surgeon would think of operating unless he had studied the case records of the patient. The re¬ ports of what the attending physicians have found in the past will help the surgeon to do a good job and perhaps will be the determining factor as to what shall be undertaken surgically. I hese references to the behavior record system pave the way for another question : Is it possible to do vastly better in character building than we are now doing? If you answer in the affirmative, there remains the question as to how we shall break thru the restraints that have stood in the way of progress in this field. How must we go about our task if we are to make full use of the available knowledge and experience at our command? As a first movement in a major attack let us secure from the public a new mandate. Let us have new specifications of the results expected from public education or a restatement of objectives. I believe that in drawing these speci¬ fications there must be written in large letters certain primary conditions. We expect results in character and in everything that is essential to good cit¬ izenship, rather than results measured chiefly in terms of facts learned, or in terms of pure intellectual activity, or sharpened minds. If you agree with me, I am prepared to join with you in an effort to win general acceptance of a pub¬ lic policy redefined in such terms as I have stated. The national government may assemble facts which will be helpful in the formulation of a general policy in education. Let it be borne in mind, how¬ ever, that the states never delegated to the federal government any legislative or administrative authority in the field of education. Under our states’ rights doctrine, the acceptance of a new policy and of action under such a policy must be left to voluntary cooperation of the states and of the localities in each state. In order to have an agency to coordinate such volunteer efforts and to assist in the work of our Senate Subcommittee on Crime, we have formed an advisory body known as the Education and Law Conference. The plan of organization of the conference assumes that its members will all be vol¬ untary, non-official, unpaid workers. We are in process of organizing an advisory committee and several techni¬ cal committees. Thru these we hope to carry on the work of the conference. The members of these technical committees will be selected from experts known to be free to actively participate in the work of the conference. For Department of Superintendence 601 example : Ben D. Wood has accepted the chairmanship of our committee on records, and W. W. Charters, the chairmanship of the committee on instructional materials. Other committees will be organized as the plan proceeds. If we agree upon the wisdom of such an organization, we need to con¬ sider a second step. Sane practical measures must be taken to develop in practise a full expression of a new American policy in education. Such measures should be evolved as will not interfere with presentday essential educational practise and without reduction in efficiency in providing the pupils with the tools of literacy. It is particularly important in these days of economic stress too, not to increase unduly the cost of the schools. I want to turn away from my formal remarks at this point. I don’t care how much education costs; I don’t care how many sacrifices must be made in other ways to provide for education ; the taxpayers, federal and state, at this particular time must provide the means to operate the schools at topnotch if we are to succeed in the prevention of crime. If I had my way, the compulsory school age would be raised. When we find that in crime the largest group is found at nineteen and the next largest group at eighteen, there must be some way found to keep our children in school longer, so that the kindly and directing hand of education may be longer on the shoulder of youth. I- plead with all America to give to the schools the support that they need at this time. The desired results cannot be attained unless the plan I am suggesting is so stated as to catch the imagination of every community and command its respect and voluntary cooperation. To make a clinical test, to use the words of my profession, and to demonstrate the type of development pro¬ posed, Dr. Frank W. Ballou, superintendent of the Washington schools, is hoping to initiate the proposed plan in the District of Columbia. This will involve evolution in many areas. You can see that he must face prob¬ lems in administration, records, individual instruction, materials of instruc¬ tion, training teachers in service, adult classes, and evening classes. In com¬ munity contacts there will be a new relationship to the movies, the press, the facilities for recreation, the church, the juvenile courts, children’s or¬ ganizations, and many more. In the furtherance of Dr. Ballou’s hoped-for development, the Ameri¬ can Council on Education and the Education and Law Conference have set up a joint committee for the coordination of community effort in mak¬ ing this development a success. Under this arrangement the technical com¬ mittees of the Education and Law Conference serve in an advisory capac¬ ity only. The local joint committee functioning as a Committee of the American Council has assumed the responsibility for all operating activities. I have given you the details of this set-up because I want you to see how we are proposing to face not only the local conditions but the deep- rooted traditions of states’ rights and local autonomy. The most that may be claimed for the federal government in such a matter is that it is the 602 National Education Association function of the Congress to do what it can for the people under the Gen¬ eral Welfare Clause of our Constitution. Our experience with prohibition has reminded us that it is futile to attempt to modify the practises of our people in major activities thru con¬ stitutional amendment and federal legislation. Just as the operation of bringing about temperance in America rests upon the educational agencies of our country, so the building of character and good citizenship is more dependent upon voluntary cooperation than upon laws. It has seemed necessary for the success of the Washington project to seek general public approval of this plan and also the approval and coopera¬ tion of the colleges and universities in the District, the churches, the so- called character-building agencies, the welfare agencies and all the rest of the agencies which you know from experience affect operations of the public-school system. I hope the procedure proposed for the District of Columbia will be followed in each state. A New Deal in education must grow from the seeds of progressive ideas and ideals which have been so generally planted locally by you and other leaders in the past. The agencies of informal education must have a large place in any con¬ sideration of this subject. For example, newspapers, motion pictures, and radio make a daily impression on the majority of our people. That the com¬ bined influence of these agencies is growing, more constructive, requires only a comparison of the releases of a decade ago with those of the present. Here, as in other areas of education, the path of progress is thru coopera¬ tive study and action and I hope these agencies will join in using for this purpose the Education and Law Conference. Because I place such complete dependence upon voluntary cooperation, I have concluded there is needed only one general legislative enactment by the Congress. In consequence, I have introduced in the Senate a bill which is intended to serve two purposes : First, it is intended to establish privilege status in the courts for teachers and their behavior records of the Ben Wood type — records which I hope will eventually be established for every child of school age in this land. Second, I hope this bill will establish, so far as the federal government is con¬ cerned, the professional status of the teacher as parallel with and comparable in its dignity and authority to that of the doctor and clergyman. If this proposed act meets with your approval, I trust you will join the movement to see that it is also written into the statutes of the forty-eight states. Support of such legislation assumes that you are ready to support my major thesis, which is that we must redefine the desired objectives of education, placing emphasis upon character and behavior. If you do support this thesis, I repeat: We must secure, from the public, support for a restatement of what should be the American policy as to the desired results of education in terms of character and citizenship, as well as content. We must secure from higher educational institutions an eman¬ cipation from the requirements for college entrance insofar as they in fact interfere with the legitimate efforts to achieve results in terms of a newly Department of Superintendence 603 defined public policy. If this policy is adopted, the colleges themselves may well go thru a period of soul searching as to the possibility of their own need of readjusting their practises. To these ends I bespeak your voluntary cooperation, both in the general support of the Education and Law Conference, and in the work of its Education Committees, in fostering joint projects initiated in the spirit of the proposed District of Columbia project. If by this means we can make a successful attack upon juvenile delinquency, the next generation will bless us for our efforts. If we succeed in deepening the public spirit of our stu¬ dents and developing that high sense of trusteeship which will stand the test during the competitive actions of later life, we shall have saved the nation from a repetition of the alarming disclosures of vicious conduct in high places. We shall have had a large part too, in giving to America the leading place in moral as well as technical education. OUR NATIONAL DIVIDENDS FROM PUBLIC EDUCATION E. C. HARTWELL, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BUFFALO, N. Y. In the historic city of Marietta, a modest bronze tablet marks the first capital of the old Northwest Territory. The tablet describes this domain as a land where no witch was ever hanged, no heretic was ever burned, and no slave was ever born or lived. It was for the government of this territory that the fathers of the republic adopted the famous ordinance of 1787 — a document which reflected at its best the high idealism of both northern and southern colonies. It is in this ordinance, older even than the Constitution or the Union, that we find the immortal declaration: “Re¬ ligion, Morality, and Knowledge, being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged.” What was originally announced as a policy for a new and unorganized territory has become a guiding principle for the entire republic. A govern¬ ment founded on the fundamental principle that its authority comes only from the consent of the governed, could scarcely do otherwise. The level of intelligence and virtue maintained by the people inevitably conditions the success of a democracy. As one of our schoolmaster presidents, James A. Garfield, said: “Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither justice nor freedom can be permanently maintained.” This is the legal justification for taxing the wealth of all the people to educate the children of all the people. Compulsory attendance laws, mandatory requirements, steadily elevated standards for teachers, laws regulating the conditions of labor for children, the construction of adequate school buildings — all have had their inception in the purpose of govern¬ ment to improve the quality of its citizenry. In certain quarters it has recently become fashionable to question the wisdom of our efforts to educate all of our children. We are told that we already have too many educated people, that our efforts are too often mis- 604 National Education Association applied, that our product falls far short of what ought reasonably to be expected. The social, political, and economic evils of the day are cited as evidence of the failure of the public school to achieve the purposes for which it is organized and maintained. An adequate reply to such strictures requires something more than an at¬ tack on the motives of the men who make them. So many people speaking in the name of education have indulged in oracular utterances about the socalled failures of the public school that the wonder of the situation is that the lay citizen continues to have any faith in the institution at all. If a popular professor from a great graduate school of education tells the public that the high schools of the United States have been so inefficiently conducted as to warrant the indictment of school authorities for misuse of public money, the press naturally rushes the pronouncement to all corners of the country, and in every community there will be found someone prepared to quote him as an authority. If another professor from a great university tells audiences all over the country that what the school needs is to burn up its textbooks, throw away its courses of study, and destroy its equipment, is there any wonder that the taxpaying layman, sitting in an audience of ap¬ plauding school teachers, goes away with the canker of suspicion planted in his soul that the school system is in a bad way? This sort of thing has been going on for a long time. Nearly every criti¬ cism of the school from outside the profession has found its original author within the profession itself. I think of only one important exception, and that deals with the amount of money appropriated for educational purposes. Often the profession has felt that it was less than should be available, and usually those who paid the bills have questioned whether it was not already more than it ought to be. If some of our citizens, harassed with ever-mounting taxes, threatened bankruptcy, and industrial paralysis, recall to mind the dismal utterances which in more prosperous times poured from the lips of those in high places of educational authority, the matter can scarcely be one of surprise. With a mounting divorce rate, with an apparent breakdown in the ideals of pub¬ lic service which we are told obtained in some vaguely-defined earlier day, with an epidemic of scandalous financial chicanery in high places, with an alleged increase in juvenile delinquency, it is not only natural but entirely proper for society to examine all of the agencies upon which it has been accustomed to rely for protection. The public school need not be apologetic in the face of such an inquiry. Neither need it confess failure because its ideals have not been fully attained. Science itself is fallible, Democracy is far from perfect, and after two thou¬ sand years of Christianity, humanity is still weak and sinful. No one will deny that the humblest school in the country endeavors and always has endeavored to teach honesty, purity, and fidelity to trust. It is a rare school which does not constantly strive to inculcate desirable standards of conduct, ideals, and attitudes of mind. Legions of witnesses could be assembled to testify to the life-long stimulus to worthy living acquired at school. Is it Department of Superintendence 605 seriously suggested when some millionaire bank-wrecker betrays his trust, robs his depositors, double-crosses his partners, cheats the government on his tax return, or deserts his wife, that his conduct is the result of a defective system of public education? Wouldn’t it be more worthwhile to inquire as to the sources of our national fortitude during the hardships of the last four years, our restraint in the face of financial betrayal, official ineptitude, and industrial collapse? Is it open to reasonable doubt that much of this spirit is a part of our national dividends from our investment in public education? We have had a marvelous amount of respect for properly con¬ stituted authority, intelligent cooperation in plans for recovery and in gen¬ erous service for the needy, much of which unquestionably reflects the lessons daily taught by our standing army of a million public-school teachers. With all of our interest in the problem of juvenile delinquency, it is well to remember that the problem is as old as the recorded history of the race. One of the oldest pieces of writing exhumed by the archeologists deals with the concern of an adult writer for the delinquencies of the youth of his day. Holy Writ refers to the problem in its very first chapter. We read that Cain, for no explained reason except jealousy, slew his young brother. As I understand the account, Cain was engaged in an activity program at the time. He had plenty of playground and his environment and heredity were exactly the same as those of his brother whom he slew. I come from a city which, like many others represented here, provides a great diversification of educational opportunity, an excellent system of vocational schools of precisely the type recommended by Warden Lawes, special health services, playgrounds, psychological tests, and a curriculum in which character building has a distinct emphasis — all administered and operated by devoted teachers thoroly alive to their social responsibilities. Yet in spite of it all we still have some juvenile delinquency. Consider the fixed factors of our problem. Our compulsory attendance laws require children to attend school for not more than eight years, but no one of these years is really a year. It is a year of thirty-six or thirty-eight or forty weeks, and no one of the weeks is a regular week. It is a five-day week, and no one of the days is a regular day. It is a five or five-and-one-half-hour day. Most of the teachers of the United States facing classes tomorrow morning will find in those classes more pupils than there are minutes in the recitation. At its best the compulsory attendance law attempts to secure for the pupils of the state one minute of the teacher’s time per recitation, five days a week, forty weeks a year, for eight years. This is an appallingly small amount of time in which to accomplish all of the things which society expects to be achieved. In that time we are not only supposed to teach children to read intelligently and with discrimination, to compute accurately and rapidly, to spell correctly, and to write legibly, but we are also expected to teach them something about the laws of health and the prevention of disease, something about the government and the institutions under which they live, and something of world geography, besides fostering a long list of desirable habits, ideals, capacities and attitudes of mind. The school is expected to 606 National Education Association teach children to be reverent, honest, patriotic, law-abiding, thrifty, indus¬ trious, cooperative, charitable, punctual, obedient, and moral.* Of necessity the school carries on much of its work in constant competi¬ tion with very potent adverse influences outside the control of school author¬ ities. The school is obliged to operate with all of the limitations, traditions, and cumbersome machinery apparently inevitable in a public department. It carries on in spite of its inability to correct the social and economic causes responsible for many of its problems. Poverty and the inherited physical and mental handicaps to which the race is heir, are conditions with which the school is required to deal but which it can scarcely be charged with creating. As to the degree of success with which the public school has met its responsibilities, the limitations of time permit the calling of only one wit¬ ness. I am, therefore, ignoring the army of men and women whose lives have been devoted to the work of educating the nation’s youth. Their testi¬ mony which ought to be first sought and which certainly is of extraordinarily high significance, would probably be regarded in certain quarters as preju¬ diced and too idealistic. I am willing to rest the case on the testimony of the National Industrial Conference Board, a body representing big busi¬ ness, corporate interests and many millions of dollars in annual taxes. Surely their opinion on the question of dividends from the investment in public education is one to which lesser taxpaying bodies ought to listen with respect. In September 1929 Magnus Alexander, president of this powerful organ¬ ization, presented a report dealing with this question, and in his preface wrote as follows: Public education of the youth of the land is one of the most fundamental func¬ tions and responsibilities of society, of vital concern to all groups. It is not uncom¬ mon to hear remarks disparaging or attacking this social function, often carelessly uttered but sometimes arising out of deliberate consideration. While specific criti¬ cism founded on fact and experience may with propriety be made regarding one or another aspect of the public-school system, care should be taken not to level general criticism against this fundamental social institution, unless it be based on a thoro consideration of all the facts and circumstances involved, and be offered with a constructive purpose. In summarizing the more obvious accomplishments of public education, the National Industrial Conference Board reports in part as follows: First: Illiteracy among the native born has been reduced to a negligible quantity, except among the Negroes and socalled “poor whites” in certain portions of the South. This is perhaps the most striking measurable attainment. Second: The proportion of young persons enrolled in secondary education is larger in the United States than in any other section of the world. Despite criti¬ cism of the results of such education, the fact that this large proportion of our youth should even be “exposed” to such advanced training represents obviously an enormous advance in general opportunities for higher education and culture. Third: All public education is definitely permeated with the ideal that the ob¬ jective of education is not only mental training, but also character building. This aim has found a constantly widening expression in the efforts to build up and strengthen moral character and provide general vocational guidance and effective- Department of Superintendence 607 ness by giving youth a broader knowledge of the more important influences in his environment, . Fourth; As a consequence of the accomplishments so far enumerated, the voca¬ tional aims of public education have been rather definitely defined and advanced beyond the period of experimentation. Already, preliminary training for com¬ mercial pursuits has been put in practise on a broad scale and substantial progress has been made in setting up definite courses of training in the metal trades the building trades, and the textile and printing industries. Finally: In a comprehensive but general way our system of public education may be granted to have been a potent influence in developing in our country higher standards of literary appreciation; improved tastes in music, reading, and sport, general knowledge of the laws of health and prevention of disease; improved standards of living; assimilation of the foreign born; recognition of ability, and pieliminary training for the professions and for many vocations. Just as the school cannot claim credit for all that is good in our present social life, neither may it properly be held responsible for all that is undesirable. It must be recognized, however, that without the influence of the school constantly being directed to the development of the best qualities in American youth, the present moral, civic, and social conditions in this country would be less desirable than they are at present. Our schools have been more than melting pots of foreign civilization. They have definitely and powerfully contributed to the creating and building up of better types of citizens and improved attitudes toward life. This testimony does not come from a school man’s brain trust, nor from resolutions adopted by an educational association. It comes from a source tarely accused of being fulsome in its praise of the public schools — from business and industry. Surely in the light of such a judgment the school may frankly acknowledge its defects and shortcomings and still rightly be proud of its record of accomplishment. In times of depiession it has not passed its dividends, and even if a short¬ sighted policy or mistaken notions of economy forced the school to close its doors, the nation would continue for a long time to come to reap rich returns from the investment hitherto made in its public-school system. SEVENTH GENERAL SESSION, WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON, FEBRUARY 28 A Comprehensive Program of Public Education THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS FRANK G. PICKELL, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, MONTCLAIR, N. J. We are in the midst of social changes and economic crises. Indeed we are passing from one crisis to another from day to day in kaleidoscopic fashion. Nowhere in our civic life is there a greater uncertainty of procedure or more doubt as to desirable outcomes, nor more confusion as to the type of program needed to cope with the perplexing problems of the day than in the public school. We are so close to the changes going on that it is well- nigh impossible for us to interpret their meaning, certainly their ultimate meaning. The situation is complicated also by the fact that the economic crisis has forced undue and drastic curtailments in school programs in all sections of 608 National Education Association the country. What was considered a justifiable and a comprehensive pro¬ gram of education only yesterday would today be considered the rankest kind of extravagance, and if an attempt were made to maintain yesterday’s program at yesterday’s cost the people would rebel. As it is, we are charged with having built up a gigantic and unnecessarily costly educational machine. The public is still maintaining that, as drastic as the reductions in educa¬ tional costs have been, still greater reductions should be forced upon us. The common plea of the spokesmen for the taxpayers is that we should return to the three R’s. All of these and many other facts as to educational curtailments have been pointed out by the Joint Commission on the Emergency in Education, but as serious as conditions are, they do not present so great a challenge to educators as the challenge to find a way to maintain the efficiency of the schools in these distressing times. I am sorry to say that for the most part the educators of the country are spending their time and energy in trying to hold fast to that piogram which prevailed at the beginning of our national depression rather than accepting frankly the challenge of reorganizing the educational program and discovering ways and means of continuing to give children their rightful opportunity to secure an education under the forced reduction of cost. Unless we can find some way under which our schools can continue to render efficient service in these times, then the good effects that should come from the forced reconsideration of educational curriculums, school organ¬ ization and administration, will have been lost. Rather than spend our entire time defending the educational set up as it was in 1929, we need to bend our every energy toward an interpretation of the social, economic, and civic changes going on about us in order that the school may become a functional institution in terms of the new problems in which the boys and girls of America will find themselves enmeshed tomorrow, which new pro¬ gram must be broadly inclusive, more effective, and for the present at least, much less expensive than the school of 1929. There is one basic fact to be kept in mind. 1 he public schools are sup¬ posed to serve the needs of the children. There is just as great variation in those individual needs in days of depression as in days of prosperity. The children vary just as much in ability, their interests are just as widely divergent, their aptitudes show just as great a spread, their habits and atti¬ tudes require just as much tutelage and just as careful supervision in bad times as in prosperous times. From the standpoint of the children, the pro¬ gram of education must receive social rather than economic consideration. Of course, I admit that in some respects the needs of the children are not the same in times of distress as in times of prosperity. Their health may need greater protection. More attention may have to be given to their feed¬ ing and care because the family income is cut off, and recreational needs are perhaps greater, but on the whole the scope of the program of education must be considered fairly independently of the financial crisis. Department of Superintendence 609 The dcsiiable outcomes of education present a far different matter for consideration. I think it will readily be granted that we are entering upon some sort of new social and civic organization. The old democracy in which individualism and deadly competition ran rampant, in which untrammeled opportunity to amass great profits and great fortunes, often at the expense of the public good, is, to say the least, undergoing a metamorphosis. We are at the present moment witnessing some sort of peaceful, social revolu¬ tion. No one knows just wffiere it will end nor what the outcome will be. If ever there was a challenge to teachers of America to know and to under¬ stand civic and social problems, that challenge exists today. In the ele¬ mentary school, where we have children at their most plastic age, we have got to face the question of whether we are going to prepare them for the new social order by providing them with wise and competent teachers or whether we are not. There is just one answer to the question. Consequently instead of there being a lowering of professional standards, instead of our going out into the maiket and purchasing the cheapest teachers available, we ha\ e got to take the position that we now’ need better trained teachers than ever before— teachers who have the proper social outlook, teachers who are intelligent enough to study and attempt to interpret the meaning of the changing social order. Greater care must betaken in the selection and train¬ ing of prospective teachers to the end that the market shall not continue to be flooded wuth mediocrity. The goals or outcomes of our educational program should be expressed in terms of the best interpretation which the best minds of this country can make of the present social, economic and civic trends, not only in this countiy, but in the other nations as well, and we must attempt at least to 1 educe the meaning of the trends to a working program — a thing which is difficult to do in normal times, but which the economic crisis makes doubly difficult. Curtailment in education has forced many communities to increase class sizes to the point where teachers cannot give pupils individual atten¬ tion, nor with these working conditions suddenly forced upon them can they do much more than keep the old school program and methods going. These schools have become static, the teachers have become drill masters again, busy in the process of indoctrinating boys and girls rather than in de\ eloping social habits and attitudes which will make for open-mindedness. From the standpoint of the foregoing considerations, I want to discuss briefly what I consider to be a minimum, essential program of elementary education both as to methods and as to curriculum. The elementary school should include a program of kindergarten education for the purpose of giving boys and girls a chance to develop social habits. Whether we should definitely embark upon a program of nursery-school education I am uncer¬ tain, but I am not in favor of transferring the obligations of the home to the school. The elementary school under no conditions should be forced to maintain classes of undue size. Classes should be small enough to permit the teacher to teach the children as individuals and not as a mass. The method of instruction should be based upon individual needs and the pupils 610 National Education Association should not be regimented and passed thru the school as an army is marched from one point to another on the battle front. I want the elementary pupils to have a good grounding in all of the tool subjects, but more important than that I want the school organized to give practise in the art of cooper¬ ative endeavor. If I am in a position to interpret the social meanings of the N.R.A. and similar, organized, governmental efforts, such as process taxes, regulation of industry, and the imposition of extremely high taxes on the larger incomes, the rights of the individual in the future are going to be made subordinate to the general good. Consequently, the school must place emphasis upon cooperation. Pupils should be taught to work out projects and problems in groups, with emphasis upon a division of the responsibility but with each pupil realizing that success depends upon his cooperating with others. As rapidly as possible, traditional school marks should be eliminated and in their stead the school should place emphasis upon improvement and growth in terms of the pupils’ ability. The traditional gradation of pupils into first grade, second grade, third grade, and so on should be completely replaced by a scheme under which pupils would be placed where they naturally could do their best work and be happiest in doing it. Both pro¬ motion and failure as traditionally conceived would, under this scheme, cease to have meaning, for they could no longer serve as stimuli to effort. Pupil placements would be made whenever it was to the advantage of the pupils to make them. This type of organization would place a premium upon cooperation. It would encourage respect and consideration for the other fellow, and give meaning to the notion that the public good is para¬ mount to the unbridled rights of the individual. To those who would main¬ tain that this means a killing off of individual initiative, let us immediately say that such a school would place the highest possible premium upon initia¬ tive and ability and that it would immediately capitalize them for the common good. A second important goal of the elementary school is tolerance tolerance of new ideas, tolerance toward change. The elementary school is peculiarly the place to develop those habits and attitudes conducive to that tolerance. Instead of indoctrination, the method and the treatment of subjectmatter should be of such character as to encourage open-mindedness and a high regard for truth. In presenting this side of a comprehensive elementary school, I am mindful of the fact that we have a long, long, road to travel and a difficult one in securing that tolerance on the part of the parents which will make it possible for us to discuss controversial questions, and to teach the truth. In view of the constancy of the needs of the children, and in view of the social and civic changes going on about us, I see no possible way of restrict¬ ing our elementary curriculum to the point where the bare skeleton of the three R’s remains. As a matter of fact, in the development of the attitudes and habits of the type I have mentioned, there are many subjects in the elementary curriculum much more essential than reading, writing, and arithmetic as important as these are. To deny children such subjects as music 611 Department of Superintendence rind art or those civic and social studies which, under proper organization and teaching, transcend in importance every other subject in the school curriculum is to deprive the elementary school of the very instruments which are of most use in developing that type of citizenship needed in any changing social order. The school needs more instruments of this kind now than it does when complacency is the chief, characteristic, public attitude toward social and civic problems. The new elementary school should be simplified. The length of time devoted to elementary education cannot be shortened. The job, as I see it, is much too great to be encompassed in a briefer time. The curriculum may well be simplified by coordinating subjects, thereby allowing a greater amount of time for the functional use of those knowledges, skills, habits, and attitudes which we hope to develop. Furthermore, the elementary school must consider it a part of its function to provide a suitable educational pro¬ gram for every atypical child who has enough mental capacity to profit from school experience. It is evident that the movement toward a shortened working day is going to gain momentum. Our people will have more and more time to them¬ selves, and as the people indulge this leisure time, so will go the country. This presents a peculiarly important challenge to the elementary school. It would be a great mistake to assume that all of the leisure-time activities must be superv lsed and directed. That wmuld be as great a mistake as a policy which would totally ignore the challenge of leisure. Rather we must begin in the elementary school to develop those interests, those likes and dislikes which will serve as adequate guides to the individual during his leisure time. To this end the elementary-school program, instead of being curtailed as to socalled fads and frills and extracurriculum activities, must be made more inclusive. I think this need not add one cent to the cost of elementary education. It is a sad commentary on our public leadership that in these times of national distress when recreational needs are increased, we have deliberately set about to curtail playgrounds, recreational centers, evening-school activities, and community center activities. We have closed our school buildings. We have cut off opportunity for amateur dramatics. We have eliminated music, closed down our orchestras and other group activities which from the child’s point of view are as essential in preparing him for useful citizenship and social competency as any part of the more formal educational pabulum. We cannot escape yet another responsibility in the elementary school. The health of the nation depends in large degree upon our protection oft the health of the little children, but more important than that it depends upon our teaching these children by precept, example, and practise how to protect their health and how to prevent the spread of contagious diseases. I have the feeling that health education is not so much to be taught as it is to be practised. Habit formation here is the important criterion of success. Consequently, every elementary school should see to it that a wise, far- reaching, and fundamental program of health education is carried out. 612 National Education Association In this discussion I have restricted myself largely to social considerations. The elementary-school program must be considered in the light of the needs of the children which are fairly constant and in the light of the best inter¬ pretation that we can make of the trend of the times. I have tried to empha¬ size the point that such an approach to a consideration of a comprehensive program in the elementary school forces us to the conclusion that teachers are now confronted with greater challenges to understand and interpret social changes than ever before. High standards of professional training must be maintained, and the emphasis in our teacher-training institutions should be focused upon social and civic alertness. If we can secure teachers with this kind of training, and if they can be free to discuss controversial questions, to teach facts and present the truth, then I shall feel that we have made real progress and that we have at last approached the time when the elementary school can be said to be comprehensive. An elementary school organized in terms of social outcomes will differ greatly from the traditional elementary school. It will, as an effective instru¬ ment in a changing democracy, be markedly superior to the school of 1929. We do not wish nor can we go back to the school of 1929, any more than we can go back to the school of 1900. We must go forward. To go forward means to develop a program which will serve present needs. The program of the prosperous days when money flowed like honey thru the land will never again be the program we need. Finally, this newer type of school will cost no more than the traditional school, and perhaps it may cost less. It will produce better results at what¬ ever cost level the schools must finally operate and, therefore, I feel that I have pointed out how the elementary-school program can be made both economically and socially comprehensive and sound. THE OUTLOOK FOR SECONDARY EDUCATION HOWELL CHENEY, SECRETARY OF CHENEY BROTHERS, SILK MANUFAC¬ TURERS, MANCHESTER, CONN. The teaching staff thruout the country will decrease in the year 1933-34 about 7500. The enrolment will increase by about 68,000 pupils (1.9 per cent), and the average daily attendance by 39,000 pupils. The charges in budgets for current expenses in the school systems were decreased by about 20 percent in three years, from 1930-31 to 1933-34. The charges in budgets for capital outlay were, reduced by approximately 80 percent between 1930 and 1931 and the estimated budgets for 1933 and 1934 inclusive. It is sig¬ nificant to observe how much greater, in view of the circumstances, were the reductions in capital expenditures than those for current maintenance. The median reduction on teachers’ salaries for all cities reporting was slightly less than 14 percent for the three years between September 1930 and June 1933. In spite of continued demands during these three years for reductions in school services, it is interesting to note that more than 80 percent of all cities reporting have maintained their programs of art, phys- Department of Superintendence 613 ical education, homemaking, and industrial arts; and that 77 percent of the cities have maintained their musical programs as they were during the year 1929-30; and, strange as it may seem, a substantial number of cities increased their programs in these subjects during the past three years. All groups, except the one composed of the largest cities which probably pro¬ gressed fastest previous to the period under consideration, report increases in their programs in these fields. The number of teachers laid off represented an accumulated decrease since 1930-31 of 4.6 percent, or about 18,600 teachers in city schools for the Dnited States as a whole. The percentage varies from one-half of 1 percent in cities of 100,000 population or more in the North Atlantic states to 4.1 percent in cities of from 30,000 to 100,000 population in the South Atlantic states; but in order to cover the whole country let us assume that the number of teachers laid off for the country as a whole instead of being 4.6 percent was 5 percent. The average increase of enrolment for the country as a whole was 1.9 percent, which represented a very slight decrease in the elementary schools and a very considerable increase in the secondary schools. Again it is encouraging to note that more than 90 percent of all cities reporting either maintained their educational services for physically handicapped children and for high-school graduates equal to standards obtaining in 1929-30 or increased them beyond those standards; 80 percent did as well with classes for mentally handicapped and kindergarten children and with playground and recreation services. A good deal of emphasis has been laid upon the fact that with the decreas¬ ing teacher force and with the increasing pupil enrolment the teacher load was definitely increasing. According to the report for all cities, the teacher load in the United States as a whole for the year 1930-31 was 30.3 and in 1933-34 was estimated to be 32.4, or an increase of approximately two pupils per teacher. Again, approximately three-fourths of the schools have either maintained or increased the length of the school year and 25 percent have decreased the length of the school year — the greater majority of the decreases being from one to five days. The above gives a decidedly more cheerful view of the losses which the school systems of the country as a whole have suffered. It is true the returns seem to indicate that salaries have been cut an average of 14 percent, whereas employment has fallen off 5 percent, making a total loss in income to teachers as a class of something in excess of 15 percent. By including the small country schools thruout the United States, ranging in towns from 2500 and above, let us admit that teachers have lost at the outside 20 percent of their income. This loss in income was more than offset by the increase in purchasing power of the dollar which is estimated to have been in excess of 24 percent during this period. Again, I realize that this figure brings no comfort to the teacher or the locality in which the wages have been cut by a much greater amount ; but let us for the sake of comparison look at ourselves in relation to the indus¬ trial population. It is generally conceded that their total income as a class 614 National Education Association has fallen off to some figure varying between 60 percent and 66% percent of what they were receiving in 1929; that is, their income in the year 1932-33 was between 33% percent and 40 percent of the income they re¬ ceived in 1929. Measured in its purchasing power, this brought their income to possibly 50 percent of that of 1929. You are correct in emphasizing the fact that at the very time when your material resources were being restricted your burden was being increased by the rapidly increasing number of children thrown upon you to be edu¬ cated. Not only are greater numbers everywhere facing you, but no one realizes more keenly than do the teachers themselves that the average quality of intellectual attainment of the pupils is of a lower order because of the added numbers. In the older systems, under which the way was open for children to go to work when they reached the age of fourteen, the natural forces of selection would send the child of superior mental ability into the high school and the child of inferior ability into industry. No one knows better than the teachers the burden this has placed upon them and the inherent difficulty of the problem of increasing numbers and decreasing ability. You have endeavored heroically to meet it, and here the public does not give you sufficient credit for the efforts you have made. Inevitably and of necessity it has compelled you to lower seriously the standards of accom¬ plishment. In the field of college preparatory work alone you have perhaps main¬ tained existing standards. In all other fields the many efforts made to meet the situation are testimony to the pressure under which you were. In some instances you did this thru modifying your marking systems in favor of the dull boy. The result was the acceptance of a degeneration of the stand¬ ard of accomplishment. In other cases you definitely gave to pupils of in¬ ferior ability tasks requiring less mental effort and a less degree of concen¬ tration than those you required of a higher grade of ability. The result again was a depreciation of the standard of accomplishment. In other cases you adopted the individual project, contract, Dalton, or Morrison plan with many variations, under which each pupil more or less regulated his own degree of progress. Here theoretically you abandoned schedules of pro¬ motion and the pupil determined his own rate of promotion. Inevitably the average degree of attainment was lower than under the older systems if measured by the requirements put up to pupils who were preparing for college. Finally, you had overwhelming numbers coming to you. To demote them or even to fail to advance them meant only multiplying the problems for the next year. They were, therefore, in name only promoted — again, however, pushed on to standards of lower accomplishment. Unquestionably this has had a demoralizing effect upon the whole stand¬ ard of secondary education. In the main you have been forced to accept the fact that no fixed standards could be maintained and you were obliged to do the best with the oncoming numbers that the reduced resources made possible. Department of Superintendence 615 Is there no way open that will cause a strengthening of your standards of accomplishment and a raising rather than a degenerating of the high- school curriculum ? Is it not true that you have too vaguely conceived of your objectives and while sti uggling to deal with masses have been unable to get your eyes set on the vision of the possible attainment? Too often and too insistently has the idea been advanced that it was the function of the public school in itself to be a major factor in making over our social organization. Society had failed; the world had collapsed; and we were everywhere faced with a social organization that would not properly function. With more heroism than reason, public educators advanced the theory that it was the duty of the public-school system to make over our social organization, to create a new Point of view towards social aims, and to save society, as has so often been said, from any possibility in the future of a collapse such as we are now experiencing. Det us hold clearly before us some definite attainable aims for which our public secondary education system exists and then see if we cannot find within those aims the inspiration for an ever-widening influence of their applicability. You exist for twTo distinct purposes: 1. To train the minds and bodies of the pupils entrusted to you to lead happy and useful lives in a condition of a changing social development — “effective power for work and service during a healthy and active life.” (Eliot.) 2. You owe it as an inescapable duty to these same boys and girls not only to exercise, develop, and train their minds and bodies, but to guide and direct them to those fields where their peculiar and individual abilities are likely to find their most happy and effective exercise. Training the mind and body, and guidance, give you a held not only large enough in which to work for a high ideal of accomplish¬ ment, but compelling enough to hold you to useful restraints. Can there be a training to develop power for effective work and service without an insistence upon accomplishment or achievement by the indi¬ vidual? President Eliots definition of the objectives of education means nothing without it, for ‘power for work and service” could not by any sttetch of the imagination become effective without achievement. Further, can there be a conscious sense of accomplishment upon pro¬ gressively higher plans of achievement without 1. A genuine development of the abilities, interests and aptitudes of the in¬ dividual which make for power until they have matured into habits? 2. Jiabits which have laid firm foundations of achievement in the lower planes of accomplishment? •3. A definite relating of both innate abilities and developing powers to their opportunities for expression in the environment of an intense reality which is soon to face them? Our second definition of your objectives, which comprise your respon¬ sibilities for guidance, holds you responsible not as agents apart or as all- qualified and independent diagnosticians, but in common with pupils and their parents for constant and proper guidance into those avenues of both academic theory and practical expression for which you are searching. Inde- 616 National Education Association pendent and ex-parte guidance, no matter how much reenforced by psy¬ chology, cannot accomplish your objective. This requires of you first a more exact classification and guiding of your pupils than is now possible, and second, a far more exact and definite connection with the opportunities which are open in the community than you possess at present, and also a far more exact knowledge of the past life and family history of the individual. A COMPREHENSIVE PLAN FOR HIGHER EDUCATION J. B. EDMONSON, DEAN, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN, ANN ARBOR, MICH. Until recently it has been very unusual for a discussion of plans for higher education to be included on the same program with papers on plans for elementary and secondary education. The former separation reflected our disposition to treat colleges and universities as institutions that have little in common with the public schools. We are now convinced that this view has been most unfortunate and that it has tended to create an unfortunate and costly gap between public education and higher education. It has tended to encourage the idea that the two were inherently different and were, at best, friendly enemies. The recent unpleasant experiences in securing funds for education on all levels have convinced many leaders that we need a philosophy of American education that is all-embracing. Recent developments have pointed to the necessity of treating education on all levels as part of a unified whole, and to the importance of a well-planned program for the promotion of the gen¬ eral welfare of our social order thru education. It is therefore desirable that public-school representatives feel a real obligation to aid our institutions of higher education in finding their place in the general scheme of education and in planning for its fulfilment, and that the higher institutions should aid the public schools in a similar undertaking. This paper relates to a comprehensive plan for higher education on a tax- supported basis, altho it is conceded that the privately supported colleges and universities have always played a very important part in American edu¬ cation. To an increasing extent our municipalities and state governments are developing institutions of higher learning supported largely from public funds. The importance and the necessity of establishing and maintaining tax-supported colleges and universities is becoming more and more gener¬ ally recognized. This attitude does not indicate any unfriendliness toward private enterprise in the field of higher education ; instead, it is a recognition of the fact that the demand for advanced training has far out-run the facili¬ ties that are available thru non-public agencies. The evidence of growing popular interest in higher education is found in the hundreds of articles which have been written regarding collegiate education. Department of Superintendence 617 Numerous books relating to college problems have also appeared, and cer¬ tain regional and national organizations have issued many reports relating to trends and changes in higher education. The present movements in higher education tend to show the following characteristics : 1. The breaking up of the four-year unit of the liberal arts college into a lower division commonly called the junior college and a higher division known as the senior college. 2. The development of a few new types of higher institutions to meet special needs. 3. An increasing differentiation between general and special education with a tendency to emphasize specialization in the upper years. 4. An effort to provide greater completeness in general education thru orienta¬ tion courses with increasing emphasis on mastery in specialized fields of learning. 5. A more intelligent and sympathetic consideration of the individual student thru provision for guidance and counseling. 6. An effort to extend higher education to new groups thru a variety of pro¬ grams of adult education. 7. A marked increase of attention to instructional problems in higher education. This list of characteristics is incomplete, but it serves to suggest the variety of changes that higher institutions are facing. It also points to the fact that our higher institutions are not as adverse to changes as many critics would have us believe. The first question that I want to raise is, “What has brought about this demand for changes in former policies in higher education?” Each one is entitled to his own answer to this question. In my opinion the demand has been created in part by the changes that have taken place in the field of pub¬ lic education. It is a recognized fact that the whole educational structure of public education has been in the process of readjustment for the past two decades. The traditional 8-4 system has been modified by the introduction of the junior high school, or by some other modification involving a regroup¬ ing of grades. The regrouping has brought a demand for curriculum changes and related modifications of school practise. More significant, however, than the regrouping of grades has been the general acceptance of a more democratic philosophy of education which demands that all adolescents be given the opportunity for education at the secondary school level. The ac¬ ceptance of this newer philosophy has aroused interest in curriculum prob¬ lems, as well as interest in methods of instruction that will enable the school to provide for significant differences in the abilities, capacities, and interests of pupils. These changes in public education have influenced the thinking of the public with regard to the objectives, organization, curriculum, and methods of teaching in higher institutions. One of the most powerful influences in the direction of change has been the growing demand of the public that more young people be given an op¬ portunity for education beyond the secondary school. When collegiate train¬ ing was a privilege of a rather highly selected group, the colleges could be as conservative in curriculum and instructional matters as the interests of a carefully chosen group might warrant. In recent years, however, eco- 618 National Education Association nomic changes and a democratic philosophy of education have combined to bring to the colleges a group of students who are not, and never will be, interested in the older curriculum of the liberal arts colleges. The private colleges have, of course, been in a position to resist the influence of this group of students; but the tax-supported colleges have found it necessary to make adjustments to meet their needs. The demand for changes has also been supported by the development of newer types of higher institutions created to meet certain new needs. I refer to the recent development of the junior colleges, the municipal universities, and the teachers colleges. These new units have been free from certain of the traditions of the older colleges and have introduced practises that have tended to influence the whole field of higher education. Judging from recent reports and articles on higher education, there are certain recommendations relating to a comprehensive plan of higher educa¬ tion that appear to meet with very general approval of leaders in the field. These recommendations will be presented under several headings: (1) ob¬ jectives and scope of a state system, (2) articulation with other educational units, (3) financial support, and (4) coordination of the work of the dif¬ ferent higher institutions. In the matter of objectives, the pronouncements in the recent California Survey furnish a broad basis for planning. It is proposed that a comprehen¬ sive plan of state education should recognize the obligation . . . to educate the people to greater and greater competency, in performing: First, the general social obligations of citizenship or membership in American civilization required of all men and women, and Second, the particular or specialized services to society allotted to different oc¬ cupational groups, membership in any one of which is a matter of individual choice and fitness. These educational functions correspond with the two types of requirement which modern social life lays upon every citizen.1 In this California Survey the task of providing general preparation for social obligation is assigned to the units below the senior college. This is stressed in the following paragraph : It is the primary and fundamental function of the common school system ex¬ tending from the earliest years of schooling, thru kindergarten, elementary school, junior and senior high school, and the junior college, to educate the citizen for effective participation in all those common understandings and cooperations which are necessary to sustain the best in our complex contemporaneous civilization which is American.2 In the California Survey there is also a definition of the function of higher institutions which emphasizes their responsibility for training specialists. I he statement reads as follows : It is the main function of the university system, which includes the upper di¬ visions of colleges, the graduate schools, and the professional schools, to educate 1 Elementary School Journal, November 1932, p. 162. 2 Ibid, p. 163. Department of Superintendence 619 specialists for the strategically important social services which modern civilization requires, and to do this with full regard to the number of such specialists that society can utilize. Among the specialized callings for which the university system educates are research, teaching, the ministry, the law, medicine and surgery, engineering, and similar professions.3 In view of the foregoing statement of objectives we should plan a com¬ prehensive state system of higher education so that there would be 1. A recognition of the importance of providing some type of education beyond the senior high-school level for an increasing number of young people 2. A recognition that the first two years of work above the senior high school should be a period for general training 3. Adequate safeguards against the admission to professional schools of too large a number of candidates and of candidates of relatively inferior ability and preparation 4. Cooperative efforts on the part of the various higher institutions to discover students of unusual ability and to guide them into appropriate courses of training, and to provide financial aid for talented persons of limited means 5. Emphasis on provision for continuing education after graduation from college, including plans for a program of adult education supported cooperatively by the different higher institutions. It is believed that careful consideration of these five proposals would de¬ velop greater clarity of opinion regarding objectives of higher education and would tend to promote a desirable degree of unity in the whole educational program of a given state. The problem of effective articulation between units in our educational system demands critical analysis of some former and present policies and practises. As educators we should cease thinking of our educational system as composed of public education and higher education and should recognize the fact that we need a unified system with effective articulation of the dif¬ ferent parts. In a comprehensively organized state system we should plan so that there would be 1. Provisions for a degree of articulation between higher institutions and the secondary schools of a kind that would tend to promote the interests of both units in the state system of education 2. Emphasis on unity in the state system of education and an effort made to avoid the tendency to consider the tax-supported units in higher education as separate from the elementary and secondary schools 3. Provision for acquainting all high-school students and citizens generally with the opportunities for higher education within the state. If emphasis were placed on these proposals some of the present costly criticism of higher education might be avoided. It is essential that a plan for a comprehensive state system of higher edu¬ cation should include provision for financial support. In fact the current financial stringency has forced American higher education to become greatly concerned about many of its former policies and has created a situation in some states where competing higher institutions were in desperate quarrels 3 Ibid, p. 165. 620 National Education Association over sources of financial support. Among the proposals relating to these im¬ portant problems are the following : 1. There should be devised a type of financial support that would give a reason¬ able degree of permanency of financial support 2. Theie should be a recognition of the principle that a community may estab¬ lish its own junior college to be supported on the same basis as the elementary and secondary units maintained by the community 3. There should be a recognition of the principle that the state or the com¬ munity will furnish a considerable part of the cost of higher education below the level of the professional schools 4. There should be adequate subsidies for the advancement of research, as well as subsidies for the study of problems of special significance to the state 5. There should be continued studies of trends in costs in the fields of higher education within the state. The problem of financial support is so involved that the foregoing pro¬ posals offer only a few suggestions concerning some of the significant issues that must De reviewed in planning for a comprehensive program. One of the problems that is now attracting the attention of many students of governmental organization is that of the more effective coordination of the work and activities of the higher institutions of a state. As a part of a comprehensive plan it is proposed that 1. There should be some plan for coordination of work of the various educa¬ tional boards unless the state has adopted a policy of a single board 2. There should be a redefinition of functions and policies of higher institutions from time to time to the end that unnecessary duplication may be avoided and new demands satisfied 3. There should be such arrangements for the reviewing of plans for the ex¬ pansion of any one of the higher institutions into new fields as will insure that un¬ necessary duplication and competition between the higher institutions is avoided 4. There should be recognition of the service that is available thru privately supported higher institutions within the state ; and 5. There should be an effort to divide the responsibility in highly specialized fields with the higher institutions in neighboring states. The suggestions given under the foregoing main topics give a total of eighteen specific proposals that should be considered in making a compre¬ hensive plan for a state system of higher education. It is conceded that this list is partial and far from exhaustive. It is, however, sufficiently extensive to indicate that it is a gigantic task to plan for a comprehensive state system and one involving numerous and far-reaching changes in present programs as found in many states. In conclusion, I want to stress the need for greater attention to planning for the program of American education. These are the days when everyone is concerned with proposals to restore financial and business health. Concern is almost as keen in proposals to prevent the economic system from getting out of order in the future as in proposals to cure the present disorder. The idea of economic planning is receiving much consideration by responsible leaders. While business is concerned with appraising its past and trying to read the future, it is not surprising that many persons should demand that Department of Superintendence 621 the educators also appraise the past and try to read the future. It is quite certain that the growing demand for economic planning in the world of business will increase the demand for economic planning in the field of edu¬ cation, especially on the secondary and college levels. Our professional or¬ ganization should cooperate actively in this planning for education. REPORTS OF GENERAL SUBJECT COMMITTEES I. THE ADMINISTRATION OF TEACHER TRAINING EDWARD D. ROBERTS, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CINCINNATI, OHIO, Chairman The seven topic groups organized under this general subject devoted the two afternoons assigned for this purpose to the consideration of the various topics upon which summary report is now being submitted. The meetings were well attended on both days and the participation in the discussion was general and stimulating. In accordance with the plan of organization established for the commit¬ tees, brief summaries of the position reached by the various groups were prepared and will be published in the proceedings of this meeting. Addi¬ tional material of various kinds will also be made available by deposit in the research office of the Department, which will extend the use of the va¬ rious studies in such manner as may be found possible. In its study, Topic Group A devoted itself to a consideration of “What, If Any, Limitation of the Supply of New Teachers Should Be Established, by Whom and How?” The general basis of the consideration is the prac¬ tical situation, prevalent all over the country, of a large oversupply of teach¬ ers. The reduction which is suggested as a solution of this immediate prob lem should be based upon general considerations which attempt to deter mine possible controls of prospective candidates for preparation for teach¬ ing, the qualities essential for successful practise in the professional service of teaching in the schools of tomorrow, and the finding and qualifying of those who must provide the professional leadership essential to the develop¬ ment of the schools and school programs of the immediate future. There have been developments in several states toward a control of future teacher supply by establishing qualifications for entrance into teacher-training institutions, partly by using standing in the high-school class, a certain part only of which being accepted for admission, partly by the use of various types of ability or achievement tests, partly by establishing tuition costs to be paid by the students. It must be admitted, however, that these controls are not uniformly applied thruout the country, tho there is evidence of an in¬ creasing use of them. A positive control may be exercised by certificating agencies. These should be unified in the various states under the responsibility of state departments of education, and these departments should set themselves to the establish¬ ment of standards professionally defensible and adequate to the obligation 622 National Education Association resting upon certification agencies to fix and to hold to qualification require¬ ments adjusted to presentday conditions, high enough to assure competent workers and flexible enough to make certain that the constantly changing conditions of presentday society will be met by constantly changing school organizations, school programs, school service rendered by adequately pre¬ pared, professionally competent, intelligent, and successful individual prac¬ titioners. Topic Group B had as its subject of consideration 4 * What Coordination of Teacher-Training Programs Should Be Established in States and in the Nation ? and attempted to find ways by which the work of the various agencies which offer professional courses for the preparation of teachers can be coordinated and strengthened and made to serve best the needs of the schools. T he facts of the wide variation in teacher preparation among the various states and even within states have been made apparent by the National Survey of the Education of Teachers, conducted by the federal Office of Education. The outcome of such variation is found in the schools where these variously trained teachers are at work. It may be asserted that the character of the schools and the outcomes of their work reflect positively the good or poor qualification of the teachers at work in them, and are good schools or poor schools as the preparation of the teachers was good or poor. Consequently, teacher-training programs must be coordinated if there is to be a constantly more adequate qualification of professional workers and a steadily finer outcome of the experience of boys and girls in the schools in which these teachers serve. In the various states such coordination is the direct responsibility of state departments of education, which should make use of all professional agencies in the state as well as of regional and na¬ tional professional and accrediting agencies. The United States Office of Education may help in an advisory capacity and by providing such assist¬ ance as is represented in the National Survey of the Education of Teachers conducted under the auspices of this office. What Should Be the Course of Study for Prospective Teachers ?” with an attempt to determine apioper balance between professional and academic subjects in the preparation of teachers, was the consideration of Topic Group C. The need of broadening the type of education offered in the schools in Inch the teacheis of today and tomorrow are to work so as to assure the Pupils the widest possible contact with contemporary problems, and an ability to become increasingly self-directive in a society that is constantly changing, demand the broadest cultural and academic background for the teachers as well as a larger functional background than has been true in the past, and a closer relationship between theory and practise. Teachers must be educated for the profession rather than merely trained for a job. However, there need not be radical changes in curriculum content but rather, adequate interpretations of significant values of existing curriculums in terms of the present. The practise teaching may well be reinforced by an internship of one year before certification and the effectiveness of the prac- Department of Superintendence 623 tise teaching work should be measured objectively as a valuable factor in increasing the effectiveness of this phase of teacher education. Topic Group D considered “What Should Be the Controls of Practise Teaching in Public Schools Conducted under the Responsibility of Teacher- Training Institutions?” with a view to determining the basis for a sound cooperation in this field between the public schools and the teacher-training institution. The administration of this program should assure the children of the classes involved, student teachers well selected, and fitted by personality, ability, training, and promise of success to serve the pupils well. The labora¬ tory work in the schools should be directed by a responsible supervisor from the training institution. The public-school teachers assigned to assist in the supervision of the student teacher should receive special compensation from public-school funds for this service. It is advisable to secure the approval and cooperation of the patrons of the school whose children are involved in the student teaching project. It is a fundamental obligation of all concerned to make the practise teaching organization of maximum value to the children involved. The student teachers are entitled to a suitable teaching opportunity which should include participation in a representative variety of teaching activities and grade assignments, but only such as will contribute to the growth of the student teacher. The length of time spent in student teaching should be long enough to assure minimum mastery. Such assignment should be based upon the student teacher having the assurance that his personality, knowledge of theory, native ability, and scholastic standing qualify him to anticipate rea¬ sonable success as a student teacher. “What Should Teacher-Training Institutions Do in the Placement and Follow-up of Their Graduates?” was the topic of Group E which en¬ deavored to determine the mutual share of responsibility of school systems and teacher-training institutions in the prevention of failure during the first year of teaching. While training institutions should graduate and place only teachers am¬ bitious and qualified to develop in pupils qualities of citizenship fundamental to the safety and progress of the republic, who should therefore be indi¬ viduals of intelligence, independent thought power, public spirit, disposition to service, character, and health, it is essential that quality be the supreme criterion in placement programs. Consequently, the placement office must base its work upon a program of selection which eliminates unqualified appli¬ cants. This office must regard its work as a professional responsibility and not merely a clerical routine. The work must not be incidental to other obligations, but should be handled aggressively and be dominated by a high professional spirit. Furthermore, training institutions permeated with the spirit of educa¬ tional service will not attempt to dominate school systems, but will feel a responsibility for following-up the beginning teacher during one or two years, especially in areas without adequate supervision. This will involve fre¬ quent contacts between school system officials and teachers and the staffs 624 National Education Association of training institutions. The training institutions cannot afford to stay at home if they are to be a creative force in their contacts with the youth of the land, and if they realize that their work is not finished until their prod¬ ucts are functioning successfully in classrooms. It may be asserted that teachers colleges and normal schools are experi¬ encing a challenge which will force them to participate in and to prepare teachers to participate intelligently in the thought life of this age. If they succeed in meeting this challenge, it will be because they have an ear to the ground out in the field where the college, with and thru its graduates does a creative task in reorganizing, reestablishing, and preserving the intellectual life of the land on a concrete functioning basis. _ In the consideration of topic F, “What Are the Obligations of Teacher- Training Institutions for the Improvement of Teachers in Service ?” it was discovered that only a beginning in this field has been made in the country, tho the development has reached large proportions in certain areas and in particular institutions, but there are possibilities not yet fully real¬ ized. Training institutions must accept responsibility for continued service to teachers at work in schools, with a view to developing a constantly better and fuller philosophy, possibly pragmatic in character, which will enable the teachers to see our changing life steadily and as a whole. This will not only be service of great value to teachers at work, but will constitute a renewed motivation, with the ultimate value of rejuvenation of the institution by the introduction of new problems from the field, and the vitalization of the institution’s work by contact with the daily problems and experiences of school classrooms. The final topic, G, was “How Shall Prospective Teachers Be Selected for Training and upon What Basis Admitted to Teacher-Training Institu¬ tions? Thruout the country there are evidences of the desirability of es¬ tablishing requirements for admission to preparation for teaching, and in¬ creasingly eligibility requirements are being established by states and by institutions. These range from highly developed mathematical formulas to selective admission based upon general scholarship, health, character, and leadership. This development has possibilities of fundamental importance to the fu¬ ture of teaching, in that it suggests an initial control over the entrance into the preparation programs, and assumes a better selection and consequently more competent, more highly qualified, more effective body of school work¬ ers in the classrooms of the country. It doses this summary of the topic group considerations at a point which justifies the quotation of a special letter of Roger W. Babson, dated January 22, 1934, and entitled “Future of Education.” Permission to quote this im¬ portant statement has been granted to the speaker, in writing, by Babson’s Reports, Incorporated. \\ ith all the taik there is today about technology and the machine age, some clients may wonder what people are to do for a living when the dreams of the (echnoci ats come true. (Let me add, moreover, that I believe that some day these Department of Superintendence 625 dreams will be realized.) We have only one stomach and can eat only a limited amount of food. We have only two feet and can wear only a limited number of shoes. There is a limit to w'hat an individual can spend sensibly on food, clothing, shelter, and even amusement. No one on this planet has more than twenty-four hours a day. America is gradually approaching a consumption saturation point. On the other hand, altho we ourselves may have all we need of material things, we must not forget that hundreds of millions of other people are today barely exist¬ ing* Therefore, before thinking about four-hour days, we should continue to raise crops and make goods for those less fortunate than ourselves. As this is a job of gen¬ erations rather than mere years, we need not now worry about the dangers of the machine age. So long as one human being is in want of food, clothing, or shelter, no right-minded and able-bodied person should be content to work only a few hours a day. Yet I must grant that theoretically the technocrats are right. We are constantly approaching a time when everyone can enjoy a standard of living equivalent to an income of $10,000 per year by working four hours per day for four days per week under proper organization. (This will come, however, thru the laboratory work by scientists rather than thru legislative work by radicals.) Therefore, clients are justified in asking: What will take up the slack? Or, to state the question in another way: What will we do with our spare time? Is there some line of work which can be expanded as the demand for agricultural, construction, and industrial workers declines? I believe that there is such a line, and here is my reason. Altho people can, to their own advantage, consume only a limited amount of food, clothing, shelter, and amusements, there is no limit to their own develop¬ ment physically, intellectually, and spiritually. Thru breeding, training, and char¬ acter, the possibilities of every race are beyond the dreams of the most visionary. These possibilities put the most progressive technocrat in the ox-cart class. Instead of one Edison, there can easily be a. million; instead of one Einstein, there easily could be another million; and so on ad infinitum. It is merely a question of proper breeding, training, and character. This development to which I have referred will come about thru increasing the quality and numbers of the teaching profession. My grandson — now in school in Wellesley, Massachusetts — is one of a class of forty-three! Gradually, as parents and taxpayers have more sense, the size of these classes will be reduced to thirty, twenty, ten, and even smaller. I forecast the time when each scholar will have one special teacher, and perhaps several specialists as did Helen Keller. Considering the results which her teacher, Miss Sullivan, obtained with this deaf, dumb, and blind student, the possibility of universal independent tutoring becomes apparent. Therefore, as I visualize the future, I see the number of teachers increase as the number of agriculturists, skilled laborers, and industrial workers decrease. Future generations will realize it will be far better for them to do a full day’s work themselves and employ more people to develop their children physically, intellectually, and spiritually. Christian teaching is an industry that can never be overdone, as it is turning out a product of which there can never be a surplus. Even today the safest and most profitable investment is in education. Whatever social or political systems may be tried in the future, children will always be the greatest assets. Stocks, bonds, bank accounts, insurance policies, and real estate holdings may easily pass out of existence. Our children, however, will always be ours. Whatever happens to bankers, manufacturers, and merchants, the efficient teacher will always be in demand. Moreover, as leisure time increases, the demand for those who can train others physically, intellectually, and spiritually will rapidly increase. Even today many families are looking for such persons to come into their homes and guide their boys and girls. 626 National Education Association II. A COMPREHENSIVE PROGRAM OF PUBLIC EDUCATION J. STEVENS KADESCH, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, MEDFORD, MASS., Chairman At the outset it is necessary for us to assume that it is impossible in the brief time allotted to this report to touch upon all the phases of the dis¬ cussion as it was developed in the sixteen topic divisions into which the gen- eial subject was resolved. I herefore, only the most salient points brought out by the discussions can be here enumerated. This general subject, “A Comprehensive Program of Public Education,” might well serve at another time as an appropriate convention theme of this department when all the resources of the Department of Superintendence and its allied organizations might be concentrated in determining the scope of such a program. A. — Education for a New Order In the new social order in which rivalry and the profit motive are to be diminished; in which, we hope, friendliness will mitigate the evils of un¬ bridled nationalism, and in which economic, social, and political equality will come nearer to being an accomplished fact, the school will have a tremen¬ dous responsibility in interpreting and in perpetuating the advances made in this period of readjustment. The new education for the new order must pioduce citizens who understand and who have the intelligence to control the civilization of which they are a part. We may not be in agreement as to whether a new social order has yet been born, or as to what form it is to take when it is born. On one thing, however, we can be in agreement : Mankind, intellectually, has struck its tents and is again on the march. We are in one of the rare moods when a whole nation is changing its outlook. For education which has the responsibility for training individuals to par¬ ticipate cooperatively in social control, this change in perspective is signifi¬ cant, and the outlook for education depends upon the outlook of education. 1 he ability and desire to think collectively and to engage in social planning is a prerequisite of good citizenship in a democracy. The new education calls emphatically for the development of the program of studies and the activities of the school in directions that will yield greater returns in the development of character and of citizenship. The rapidly in¬ creasing defiance of law and order demands immediate action. We should fearlessly clear the curriculum of much subjectmatter that has no imme¬ diate social or economic value and include in our curriculums materials that would bring to boys and girls vital experiences that would give them a con¬ structive attitude toward citizenship and life. Let us hope that there will be, thru the power of a redirected education, less worship of the golden calf and more desire for attitudes that make for a life rich in things of the spirit. Department of Superintendence 627 B. — Function of State Departments of Education There are two ways in which the state department of education may be effective in carrying forward a comprehensive program of public education : first, thru legal control exercised by the state department, and second, thru leadership by the staff of the state department thru a comprehensive pro¬ gram of supervision, by research and experimentation, and by the organiza¬ tion of laymen and of the profession in the support of a developing pro¬ gram of public education. There is need to distinguish sharply between those functions of the state department which may involve control and those which may be classified under the category of leadership or supervision. There is no good reason why the state should not determine by law cer¬ tain standards having to do with external matters. Examples of this type of control are to be found in the determination of minimum standards for school sites, for buildings and equipment; in the designation of attendance and administrative districts ; in the control of procedures in the fields of ac¬ counting, budget making, the placing of insurance, borrowing and bonding practises, and the like; and in the determination of certain standards which shall be met by all those who are to be licensed to teach, supervise, or admin¬ ister the school system. In none of these cases does the state seek to set up maximum requirements. It proposes, however, to safeguard the local communities thru the deter¬ mination of certain minimum standards. These standards can be and should be administered thru the state department of education. The internal affairs of the school system, having to do with the organ¬ ization of schools, the curriculums and courses of study, and with methods of teaching, should be left to the local administrative and supervisory of¬ ficers. The leadership of the state office in this area should encourage local initiative. The function of the state department, when adequately carried out, requires the development of a professional staff of highly expert work¬ ers whose services are made available to local school systems. In the development of this program of supervision and leadership, large dependence should be placed upon research and experimentation. The com¬ plete cooperation of local authorities is, of course, a necessary condition of these undertakings and should be secured without legal enactment and with no thought of control of the local school system by the state. C. — Cooperation of Federal Government A comprehensive program of public education meets social, civic, and avocational as well as vocational standards, for persons of both sexes and all ages. Thus far the federal government has merely stimulated ; it has not cooperated. It has touched education at isolated points, never comprehen¬ sively except thru the land grants now of so little significance. The necessity of greatly increased federal cooperation in education is evident to all who accept the New Deal. Heretofore every evidence of 628 National Education Association federal control in education was condemned; yet the New Deal speaks in terms of drastic control of child labor, hours of employment, minimum wage, price control by processing and devaluation, reduction of acreage, banking practise, and what next? The New Deal has now accepted that unity of national interest in many directions which school workers long have maintained exists with reference to public education. Therefore, to give to idle children the same chance as to idle men and women, to give to teachers the minimum protection accorded unskilled labor (if they deserve no more), to maintain a “minimum program” of public education thruout the nation, to support training for leisure no less than training for labor, to reeducate adults disabled by changes in industry, as well as by mere machinery, to train teachers along with agriculturists and engineers, to extend credit under state authorization to districts in financial arrears, we call upon the national government for more than educational advice, research, or leadership. The debacle is economic, and financial sup¬ port alone will sustain the present social agencies and governmental struc¬ ture. Other mild forms of cooperation on the part of the federal government, are like water to a choking animal unable to drink and assuage its thirst. Federal aid extended to education should be administered by the state authorities to the same degree as is now operative in other forms of federal aid. D. — Preschool and Kindergarten The consensus of opinion of this group was that nursery schools and kindergartens were indispensable units of the school system and that their elimination would be violently protested by the parents who have learned to appreciate their usefulness in the proper development of child life. A young child s education should begin long before his entrance upon the formal training of the first grade. During these early years, his activities should be properly directed, since he learns more in this early period than at any other period of his life. The nursery school and kindergarten adapt the child to his environment; inculcate proper health habits, build up de¬ sirable mental and moral attitudes, eliminate behavior problems, and help to socialize the child by teaching him to play and work with other children. E. — Elementary — The Preadolescent Group A redefinition of educational objectives in the light of new evidence has convinced this committee that finality and fixity are neither desirable nor attainable. The factors that determine a final statement of objectives are as variable as is the case of the child to be educated, the peculiarities of the community in which he is to be educated, and the social organization for which he is being educated. A satisfactory educational program for elementary-school children cannot be confined to the school alone. The school is an integral part of the com- Department of Superintendence 629 munity. It is the one organization within the community where race and creed prejudices can be eliminated in community planning. The school, then, is in the most strategic position to lead in planning a twenty-four-hour day program for children of elementary-school age. This program implies a closer home and school cooperation and a general community understanding as to the aims and objectives the community sets up as the educational pro¬ gram for the children of elementary-school age. Because economic, indus¬ trial, social, religious, and cultural factors vary so greatly in different com¬ munities, each community should determine its own objectives for a satis¬ factory program of education adapted to the needs of that community. The ten objectives considered of major importance for elementary schools are listed in descending order as follows: 1. Cheerful and effective cooperation with others individually and in groups 2. Mastery of tool subjects 3. Integrated personality — good physical, mental, emotional, moral, and social habits and attitudes 4. Health including physical security and maintenance of physical efficiency 5. Creative expression 6. Development of an understanding and an appreciation of the physical world 7. Ability to effectively organize and present one’s thoughts to others (Social intercommunication) 8. Provision for differences in needs, in interests, and in abilities of pupils 9. Development of an understanding and an appreciation of organized society 10. Clarity and coherence of thought. F. — Atypical Children Conservative estimates show that one out of five children in the United States requires, or, will be greatly benefited by a differentiated program of special education adapted to his needs. Such exceptional children are those who, according to the White House Conference, “deviate from the average child to such an extent as to require special treatment or training in order to make the most of their possibilities.” This group includes chil¬ dren with supernormal mentality, subnormal mentality, physical handicaps, emotional and social maladjustments, and multiple deviations from the normal. The aim in the education of the exceptional child is exactly the same as that for all children, namely, so to develop the whole child, that he may more fully and completely participate in, contribute to, and live happily in the economic, political, cultural, and social world of his time. The function of a program of special education is to provide the services, activities, equipment, and other facilities, necessary to achieve these aims. Fundamentally important among these services is not only the adequate training of teachers for these special groups, but also such training for all teachers as will enable them to recognize and to help solve the problems of exceptional children wherever they may be found. 630 National Education Association The range of such a program should be as wide as possible in its appli¬ cation. The difficulties and problems arising in extending it to all excep¬ tional children must be met and solved by the cooperation of local, state, and national authorities thru proper legislation and adequate financial support. G. — Junior and Senior High School — the Adolescent Group The report of this group is submitted as a tentative statement only. The objectives and the statements covering scope and delimiting principles are designed to be intermediate between broad generalizations and specific items. They should be supplemented later by detailed materials explaining the procedure necessary to attain them. The desirable objectives as agreed upon are: 1. Adequate mastery, appreciation, and use of appropriate subjectmatter in the light of pupil needs 2. Development of sound methods of thinking and reasoning 3. Critical appraisal of one’s own experiences and acceptance of responsibility for increasing self-direction of one’s continuous education 4. Development and preservation of best mental and physical health 5. Acceptance of responsibility for intelligent and active participation in civic, political, and social life 6. The development of adequate individual resources for the right use of leisure time 7. Adequate training and preparation for home life 8. The practise of high standards of individual and of group integrity and honor 9. The effective use of language. Scope 1. An appropriate type of secondary education should be provided for each adolescent 2. The social integration of students should be continued on a higher intellectual level. 3. Personnel work should be promoted to discover the special interests, aptitudes, and capacities of each student. 4. Guidance work should be promoted to: (a) develop interests in many fields of knowledge; (b) reveal higher educational endeavors possible to the individual; (c) direct the student into the highest vocational activity of which he is capable; and (d) educate for a socially desirable use of leisure. Delimiting Principles 1. Direction of the pupil’s learning should be the foundational purpose of the teacher. Direct teaching should be used to motivate and to guide the pupil’s program of self-education. 2. Subjectmatter should be differentiated on levels of adequate mastery for use in real life situations and for appreciation by the pupil. 3. In the spirit of a progressive democracy, the nation’s program of secondary education should preserve the best ideals and objectives of the present and promote worthy ideals and desirable objectives for the future. 4. Group similarities and individual differences should be employed to promote effectively and economically a program of secondary education. Department of Superintendence 631 H. — Junior College and College Levels Present trends are forcing large numbers of youth to remain in school until the age of twenty. Consequently, the junior college rather than the present senior high school will tend to provide the last full-time liberal edu¬ cation that increasing proportions of youth will ever receive. 1 he public junior college should be considered a part of higher education and admin¬ istered as a definite part of the public-school system. The junior college at present should provide differentiated curriculums for such groups as those not continuing full-time schooling, those proceeding to a senior college, and those wishing later to enter specific professional schools. But the trend is definitely toward a liberal college offering for more* and more students. Unless junior-college facilities are reasonably available to all youth of a given area it is distinctly unwise to shorten the total time for completing the elementary, junior high, and senior high schools in that area. There should be no distinction except in length of time between the junior college and the liberal arts college. The curriculum of the latter should pro¬ vide for two phases: personal culture with great latitude for variations in depth, but some specialization required ; and civic preparedness which should be more uniform and less elective. The ends to be sought for the in¬ dividual in each of these fields are performance, mastery, and appreciation learnings. The spirit of any liberal college teaching is more important than curriculum labels; therefore all valuable college experiences including stu¬ dent activities may be considered a part of liberal college offering. I. — Center of Social Service A comprehensive study of present social and educational needs reveals the fact that schools may extend the use of their facilities and equipment and thereby serve a greater public need. Some of the more significant func¬ tions of the school as a center of social service are as follows : 1. It will furnish opportunity for a greater cooperation of public agencies for the public good, and extend both social and educational interests. 2. Such a service should tend to create better attitudes and respect for both school and society, and should be planned to stimulate intellectual growth of the com¬ munity, to foster a true spirit of service and economy. 3. Under responsible leadership such service will lead to a higher concept of education, of health, recreational, and cultural needs of the community, and foster an interest in community welfare. 4. It will furnish an excellent opportunity to extend to greater public use what the school has to offer for the public good. 5. It will provide a comprehensive program for the wiser use of leisure, care¬ fully guided and sponsored — intellectual, recreational, moral. There must necessarily be some checks placed upon the use of the school facilities, in order to guarantee their proper use. \ 632 National Education Association J— Vocational and Cultural Service The following is a synthesis of the discussions of this topic group. Vocational education is that phase of education which has for its major purpose the preparation for, entrance upon, and success in a recognized profitable occupation. The committee reports the consensus as favoring the following principles : 1. Recognition of certain prerequisites for success (in the order of their impor¬ tance) in a vocational field: (a) occupational intelligence, (b) technical knowledge, and (c) “manipulative” skill. 2. Recognition of the need for a more “realistic” type of general education which will serve as a foundation for any phase of vocational education. 3. Recognition of the need for including more “humanizing” elements in voca¬ tional programs as contrasted with our mechanization for all types of curriculums, including the vocational, thus enabling the program of American education to help the individual to adapt himself to a rapidly changing social economic order. 4. Recognition of the desirability of deferring specific vocational training until the age of 18. 5. Recognition of the economy of providing centralized schools for specialized types of vocational training where the product of the schools will meet the require¬ ments of the vocations in the area served. 6. Recognition of the possibility and desirability for public programs of educa¬ tion on a basis of close cooperation among all social agencies, including vocations, which will utilize the best and most effective opportunities of each in accomplishing the aim of an improving society. K. — Child Accounting A major responsibility of a school superintendent i,s to develop a system of records which takes account of every major condition which affects the life and progress of the child. While the superintendent cannot be held re¬ sponsible for many of these conditions, he should be cognizant of them and sensitive to their influence on the education of the child. We believe that a knowledge of such conditions and an adequate system of recording the pertinent facts regarding them as they relate to each individual child is a necessary step toward a complete socialization of our schools. Without question there is a lamentable lack of uniformity regarding child accounting records in our schools. The practises run all the way from an almost complete absence of records to systems where certain phases of accounting are carried to the extreme and where extreme use is made of elaborate forms. In view of the above and consistent with the findings of our topic group, we recommend that the Department of Superintendence use its good offices to secure the approval of superintendents thruout the country of the fol¬ lowing principles regarding child accounting: 1. Maintaining a continuous census from birth to eighteen years 2. Uniform routine records and reports on enrolment, attendance, and age-grade tables Department of Superintendence 633 3. Standardization of terms, and methods of computing such items as percentage of attendance, pupil-teacher ratio, cost per pupil, etc. 4. Standardized cumulative records for all pupils, with additional special forms for problem children 5. A long-term report in cycles of four or five years covering important data on teacher load, group pupil progress, school building utilization, etc. 6. We approve the work of committees which are developing standardization blanks but we believe that the uniform acceptance by superintendents of the general principle is of paramount importance at this time. L. — Educational Program for Leisure To meet the challenge of the new leisure a comprehensive and practical program of education is needed, for both children and adults. Obviously the formulation and development of such a program present serious problems. Just as obviously, their solution will pay rich rewards, for in the wise and wholesome use of our increasing leisure lies the pos¬ sibility of raising our civilization to a level considerably above any reached in previous periods of the world’s history. One point in the needed educational program appears to me to be funda¬ mental. As the machine age progresses, the emphasis in schooling must be shifted more and more from vocational to avocational objectives. Children must learn not so much how to earn a living as how to live. But just as fundamental is the fact that children can learn to use their leisure wisely and creatively only insofar as their elders understand and practise the intelligent use of spare time. Leadership, much of it thru example, is probably the requirement for the success of this educational program. Teachers must educate themselves in the better use of leisure. The teacher who has no hobbies of a creative sort cannot hope to inspire children to cultivate hobbies or other stimulating recreational activities. M. — Guidance in a Time of Unemployment The period of unemployment thru which we are struggling has brought new and difficult problems to all our schools in the educational and voca¬ tional guidance of young people. This was made evident from reports of activities dealing with unemployment in different parts of the country. Accounts were given of the Job Counseling Service in Boston, the Adjust¬ ment Service in New York City, and of such experiments as Craft-Work of the Friends among the miners in West Virginia, the Mississippi En¬ clave, and the Farm Movement in Texas. All attempts to make adjust¬ ments for the unemployed gave evidence of the failure of our schools at all levels to guide students in the understanding of the economic order in which they have been living; to aid them to a better knowledge of their own interests, aptitudes, and abilities; to give them a philosophy of life with which to meet a troubled world ; and to aid them in the wise selection of fields of service in which they might labor with profit both to themselves and to society. 634 National Education Association In summing up the discussion the following resolutions were adopted by the group : 1. T. he school has a distinct responsibility for guidance, initiating in a broad general program and then pointing toward more specific guidance as the students advance thru the higher levels of education. 2. A primary obligation of guidance in the school is to teach that the social fact of intei d ependence justifies the uniform regard in which we hold every man who renders a constructive service. 3. This program of guidance should lead young people to see that oftentimes the richest rewards come from service rendered to society. N. — An Adequate Program of Guidance 1 his committee in considering the development of a program of guidance that would prove simple and inexpensive formulated a brief outline of statements that emphasized the importance of studying the individual dif¬ ference of pupils; the importance of pupil adjustment thru classification and choice of electives; the importance of cumulative records of growth as a basis for individual counseling; the importance of the relationship between the placement and follow-up of graduates and the curriculum of the school ; and the importance of closing the gap between school and employment as the most practical means of keeping the schools in touch with the changing life and demands of the community. T here should be better understanding of the nature of the guidance proc¬ esses and the recognition of guidance as a principal function of the school. A guidance program may be introduced into a school system with little increase in the school budget, provided guidance research produces more economical classification of pupils and provided guidance is substituted for fractional parts of other class activities. O. — Reorganization of Educational Offerings This is an age when old solutions are no longer adequate and the facts of yesterday are not valid today. It is an age of science with rapid expansion and accumulation of knowledge and an age of tremendous change socially and economically. If schools are to be socially effective in our democracy, in¬ struction materials must be kept up-to-date in light of the new knowledge and the school program must be consciously directed toward the prepara¬ tion of children for a new order. Curriculum content must be carefully appraised and evaluated, or else edu¬ cation may be diverted into a cheap contemporaneousness. Care must be taken that the emphasis on change does not cause children to lose sight of the permanent elements in life and human nature. Perhaps the instruction ma¬ terials should be weighed more on the side of the general principles and trends of the day and less on the actual solutions in effect at the moment. P. — Universal Education The committee agreed that economic and social forces resulting from the machine age make it necessary to continue universal education up to the age Department of Superintendence 635 of eighteen or twenty years of age. The tragic spread of unemployment, over-production, and increased efficiency of machinery have made it neces¬ sary to reduce the hours of labor and the number who work. The problems of more complex society demand a gradual improvement of the general level of intelligence. This makes necessary continued universal education for youth up to. the age of eighteen or twenty. The increase of educational op¬ portunities on the upper level should be accompanied by a more effective edu¬ cational program for nursery, kindergarten, and elementary-school children. The character of this general education provided between the ages of four and twenty should be determined by a special committee appointed by the Department of Superintendence to consider the reorganization of the entire elementary- and secondary-school curriculum on a new and more functional basis. This functional curriculum must include the following types of ac¬ tivities: practical arts, social studies, fine arts, science, literature, hygiene (mental, social, and physical), medical and dental service, and a rich pro¬ gram of leisure activities including sports, hobbies, dancing, dramatic and other creative arts. This functional program should not be narrowly vo¬ cational, but should rather aim at an all-round type of social development and should involve actual life situations and deal with real life problems. Conclusion And finally: “A little leaven leaveneth the whole lump.” This educational process is, shall we say, the stimulus which is to the development of the pupil as the leaven to the loaf. Let us expand the metaphor and complete the homely analogy. First, there is the introduction of the yeast into this mass of raw material, the dough-lumpish stuff, heavy, amorphous, inert. The leaven begins to work; the mass rises to notable heights and noble proportions; it looks ready for the proving ground, the oven. But is it? Watch the efficient and intelligent housewife, shall we say the teacher, who is not deceived by this specious inflation. She takes the dough and molds it anew, until the yeast has permeated the inmost recesses of the mass. She then sets it aside for a time in an atmosphere of warmth and geniality, where once more it assumes promising and imposing proportions and is really ready for the oven — “the trial by fire,” to continue the symbolism, whence the finished product emerges, a thing of form and comeliness, of worth and substance. III. FINANCING PUBLIC EDUCATION FRANK W. BALLOU, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, WASHINGTON, D. C., Chairman The relentless impact of the economic depression continues to deepen the crisis in American education. The critical period in education, thus brought about, steadily and inevitably visits its devastating effect on society. This proc¬ ess, if allowed to continue unabated, threatens the very foundations of our democracy, so utterly dependent on education. National Education Association The income of the American people decreased from $80,000,000,000 in 1929 to $40,000,000,000 in 1932. 1 his decrease in income has made inevi¬ table a reduction in money available for all government services, including education. 4 he economic depression resulting from reduced income has shortened school terms, eliminated many important school services, reduced salaries of the persons employed in the teaching profession, forced 200,000 ceitified teachers on the rolls of the unemployed, and deprived a million chil¬ dren in the nation of any education whatever during a part of this school year. Two thousand six hundred schools were closed on or before January 1, 1934, and 20,000 schools will probably be closed by April 1, 1934. Money spent on schools in 1933-34 will be $563,000,000 less than in 1929-30. Budget reductions in several states range from 25 to 40 percent. City school budgets averaged 20 percent less for 1933-34 than in 1931. School building construction in 1933-34 is 75 percent less than in 1930. Some public schools ha\ e gone on a tuition basis, thus forcing children out of school who cannot afford to pay. There are 1,000,000 more pupils in high school than in 1930, but there are 40,000 fewer public-school teachers in the nation. Two hun¬ dred thousand teachers, one in every four, are receiving less than $750 an¬ nually, whereas the amount paid factory hands under the “blanket” code is $728 ; 85,000 are receiving less than $450 annually ; 45,000 are receiving less than $300 annually; and 40,000 teachers are owed $40,000,000 in back pay. The Response of the Profession Members of the educational profession will continue to consider them¬ selves the selected spokesmen for the children now in our schools. Officers and teachers will continue to recognize and discharge their civic obligation, their professional responsibility, and their personal privilege to develop public opinion to a realization of the fact that education is “the debt eter¬ nal which this geneiation of adults owes the next generation now in our schools. It is our professional and patriotic duty to do everything within our power to see to it that the children of today shall be provided with an adequate education in order that they may meet and solve effectively the problems that will face them as citizens of the future. The nation, the state, and the community count on the educational profession to prepare the boys and girls for the school of life possessed of that knowledge, that power to think sti aight, and those ideals of citizenship that are essential to the pres¬ ervation of the democracy itself. Renewal of Our Faith in Education — A Statement of Fundamentals Any consideration o/ the economic and social conditions that face us today must convince us of the necessity of intelligence, understanding, and high purpose as the basis of securing social justice. Ignorance will never bring oi dei out of the present chaos; only intelligence and high purpose can. Department of Superintendence 637 Let us never permit ourselves to forget that what we want the citizens of the next generation to know or to be able to do or to be must be provided for in the current educational program. A system of public education founded on the principle of equal educational opportunity for all the chil¬ dren of all the people represents the spirit of America. It is responsible, in no small measure, for the achievements of American life. It will continue to be increasingly responsible in the future as the nation moves out of eco¬ nomic demoralization and forward to new challenges and new victories. To reduce the amount and quality of our educational program is to reduce the standard of enlightenment among our people and to break down social morale. We propose a renewal of our faith in public education in the following statement of fundamentals: IV e believe that universal education must provide every child, youth, and adult with educational opportunities according to their several individual needs, capaci¬ ties, and probable future careers, ranging from the time systematic education in the schools may reasonably begin in nursery schools and kindergartens until the time when the individual is prepared to enter gainful occupation and render the maximum service to the social order of his day. IV e believe that the general principle of universal education must be recognized as constituting a first claim on the wealth of the nation and as transcending such chance or incidental facts as residence, race, individual capacity, or economic status. IV e believe that the financing of public education is an inescapable public concern, as necessary to any current program of industrial and economic recovery as it is to our social, economic, and political welfare in the future. Improving the Financing of Public Education 1. Universal Free Public Education To meet their economic and social conditions the American people have established a program of universal free public education ranging from kin¬ dergarten thru the university. From the kindergarten at the beginning a pupil may pass up an educational ladder thru elementary schools, junior high schools, senior high schools, and college and university. For educational and social reasons in recent years nursery schools have been established to extend education and training to the earlier years of childhood preceding kinder¬ garten. At the upper end of the ladder, society today recognizes the importance of providing educational opportunity for specialized training in the arts and sciences required by those who will be leaders in the development of our social and economic life. In addition to the regular systematic day school instruction of collegiate grade, various part-time educational provisions have been made for the education of adults who have already established them¬ selves in gainful occupations. This movement is another evidence not only of the service which the public schools are rendering to society, but also evidence of the insatiable desire of the American people for education. For young people who must leave school early, various types of more specialized forms of education have been established. These include continuation and 638 National Education Association pait time schools, trade and technical schools, and other forms of vocational education. Summer schools and evening schools likewise represent an extension of the school organization to perform educational services supplementary to the regular day school program. IVdore and more, summer and evening schools approach the form and standards of the day school service which thev undertook in the beginning to supplement. The program of instruction in the public school of America has been con¬ tinuously enriched to the end that it might increasingly incorporate in its form and content the social conditions of the world for which the school undertakes to prepare the youth of the nation. 2. Economic and Social Importance of Education Eheie is urgent need today that the economic and social importance of education should be more generally and better understood. Only brief state¬ ments can be made on these two important matters. Economic Conditions The business man does not always realize that the public schools are not only providing him with employees, but are also creating in hundreds of thousands of young people the desire for better home conditions than their parents have enjoyed, and an ambition for securing the opportunity to enjoy those things that make for the more abundant life. The public schools are creating demands for the things that industry is supplying the market. The millions of dollars that are expended in advertising would be largely wasted if the reading public could not be counted on as having an interest in the procurement of the things advertised. More than any other agency, the public schools are creating in the hearts and minds of young people of the nation a demand for things to be consumed out of the stocks of the merchants. Education in the public schools creates the market for the products of the world. The natural resources of this nation possessed no real value for the savage. The natural resources have become valuable as the educated man has created a use and hence a demand for them. When the educated man wanted a modern house, the lumber in the trees of the forests took on value. When the educated man wanted to build concrete streets in our congested cities, the sand and gravel on the shores of our streams became of real worth. Educators everywhere recognize the fact that money for the support of the public schools comes largely from commerce and industry. Those in charge of the public schools are likewise concerned to see to it that the gradu¬ ates of the public schools shall be prepared to assist in increasing the wealth of the nation thru every productive activity and also trained to enjoy the wealth that they accumulate. Social Conditions Thru increased knowledge, coupled with the courage and determination born of confidence in possibilities of achievement, man has reached the far- Department of Superintendence 639 thermost points of the earth at the north and south poles. Today we com¬ municate not only by telephone and telegraph, but by wireless, by radio, and by television. The automobile has greatly modified transportation both for commerce and for pleasure, and the moving picture contains great pos¬ sibilities for entertainment and instruction. These and the many labor-sav¬ ing devices now in general use are but evidences of man’s mastery over the foices of nature and the application of those results to the improvement of the conditions of human life. As an illustration of a social condition which calls for a dynamic pro¬ gram of education adequately financed let us consider the recent trend in labor conditions. With the increased productivity per worker which modern invention and technology have made possible, shorter working hours now prevail, and the working man has at his disposal a significant amount of un¬ employed time. Furthermore, the labor of young children is being steadily reduced and wdll ultimately become outlawed by the developments of re¬ cent years. Also the movement for old age security and the provisions for earlier retirement are resulting in free time for a considerable number of the older group in the total population. The years of life between the present upper ages of the compulsory attendance law and the age of employment in the twenties represent a period of years with which society must now become increasingly concerned. High- school enrolment has greatly increased already and the schools are bound to have increasing demands made on them for many kinds of vocational education. Society must take care in some suitable, constructive way of the youth of America between the ages of sixteen and twenty-one. Competition for employment will continue to be keen as long as the supply of skilled labor exceeds the demand. Vocational training and preparation for produc¬ tive employment will be an increasing necessity. The shorter hours which are being established by labor in order to in¬ crease the distribution of employment present to the school system of America a demand for training in worthwhile recreational activities in which youths and adults may engage after they leave school. The gist of this discussion is embraced in the concept that as social and economic conditions change, the educational program must change with it, and also that such education in turn leads on to the production of changed and better conditions — in essence, education is the agency for social better¬ ment. This meaning of education gives new meaning to the financing of education and the methods of raising the money for schools. If this dynamic education is to be supported, its meaning and possibilities must be realized by the people. One of the real tasks of the profession is to bring to the people information and guidance to this end. For this work of interpretation there is the greatest need of factual investigation to ascertain the nature of the re¬ sults obtained in schools on varying expenditure levels, in terms of individual and social welfare, and in terms that will be understood by the public. 640 National Education Association 3. A Sound System of Taxation In every civilized country the government establishes and operates public services for the benefit of its citizens. For all these services citizens pay taxes. Education is one of the services which the public undertakes to perform. Education consumes seventeen cents of each dollar of public money ex¬ pended. In general about twelve cents of this is for elementary schools, three cents for high schools, and two cents for colleges and universities. A sound system of taxation is fundamental in the securing of school rev¬ enue. While it is recognized that details of taxation may differ in different cities and in different states, nevertheless there are some features that ought to characterize a sound system. A sound system of taxation is one which provides the revenues necessary to meet the legitimate needs of the government ; which is economical in cost of operation ; which provides for the payment in convenient instalments ; which is sufficiently flexible to be adjustable from time to time as needs and conditions change; which is sufficiently diversified as to types of taxes, to result in an equitable distribution of government costs among all citizens; and finally which is equitable to all persons and interests concerned. The tax on property accounts for about 50 percent of all federal, state, and local taxes collected. About 90 percent of all local taxes are from the property tax. The property tax covers, in general, taxes on real estate and, to a minor degree, on personal property. Altho the property tax has been the foundation of American local finance it has become increasingly unsatisfactory because of the practical impossi¬ bility of taxing all kinds and classes of property at the same rate. Improvement in the property tax should be along the line of recognition of different classes of property and the necessity of taxing these various classes of property in a manner appropriate to each. For example, mines and forests should be taxed on a different basis from that used for city real estate and farm lands. Likewise personal property should be reclassified for tax purposes. Improvements in the property tax may also be brought about in the direction of equalized assessments and better administration of the tax. Wide differences prevail in assessed value of property, ranging in different communities from below 50 percent to 100 percent of its true value. Better administration of the property tax is to be found in the direction of improved local assessment, in the state supervision of local tax administra¬ tion, in the establishment of state boards of equalization of assessments, and in provision for permanent professional state tax commissions. The need for these improvements is undeniable. But even when they shall have been accomplished, the fact remains that the property tax will continue to be inadequate as a chief source of school support. Other forms of taxation for government services, including the schools, must of necessity be developed. A broadened tax base is the compelling demand of the hour. This can be achieved only thru the development of a thoroly differentiated tax system which will bear equitably upon all people. Department of Superintendence 641 . Il has long been an established policy to use the credit of the local taxa¬ tion unit of government as a means of borrowing money for capital outlay, represented by the purchase of sites and the construction of school buildings in most states this is authorized by referendum in a public meeting of the qualified voters of the district. Frequently the maximum limitation on the amount to be raised is fixed by state law. This general policy has been established in order that the cost of public- school buildings may be distributed in general over the generations of people who will benefit from the public service which the school renders. This method of financing school building construction does not impose undue urdens on the tax budget of the year or years in which the construction takes place. This plan of borrowing usually involves loans running ten, fifteen, or twenty years with provision for their gradual and complete amortization within a period of years specified. In periods of financial distress school districts have been compelled to make short term loans for operating expenses. This questionable procedure beais eloquent testimony to the failure of the current system of taxation to provide the money necessary for the usual government services in times of financial depression. In spite of the fact that school districts have been driven to borrowing because of such exigencies as tax delinquencies, frozen assets, and the like, a warning should be sounded against the insidious dangers of their being forced into heavy borrowing to meet past or current obligations. A far etter answer is to be found in aid from larger governmental units. Finally, in the reorganization of the tax system, we desire to point out t e grave consequences that result from constitutional and legislative pro¬ vision imposing tax limitations upon communities. Such impositions unduly and unwisely restrict the will of the people in local communities. 4. Reorganization of Local Units of Administration Traditionally the local school unit of one type or another has been at the base of public education. It provides the democratic way thru which the schools may be kept close to the people and responsive to their aspirations. As such it should be cherished and preserved. The particular purposes served by the local unit, rural or urban, are to provide for school administration and the financing of education. In the past this local unit has borne the lion s share of financing local schools. The other part of school support has come from the state. Conditions at present neces¬ sitate an increasing amount of state school support. It is necessary, however, to provide for a partial financing by the local unit in order that the people may have an opportunity for expressing themselves regarding the educational program and to support the same from local resources beyond whatever level of offering the state may help to finance. Thus, as an integrated system for supporting education approaches the ideal, the prime consideration becomes not so much the desirable local unit for school finance, as the most economical and efficient unit to permit the unhampered development of a complete ran^e of educational offerings. 642 National Education Association The very small unit, such as the common school district, is far from satis¬ factory because it is so small as to make it impossible to provide economically therein the educational program that modern social and economic conditions demand. For this purpose, the larger the unit the better. It is doubtful, how¬ ever, whether there is any one type of unit which will be equally satisfactory in all parts of the country. A unit for school finance should be free from arbitrary limitations of any type. On the one hand it should not be limited to the school attendance area; on the other, it should not be restricted by rural-urban or other polit¬ ical boundaries. A satisfactory unit might include a municipality and ad¬ jacent rural territory, might be less than a county, or might properly include two or more counties. Constitutional and statutory limitations should be sufficiently elastic to facilitate the reorganization of local units as the need for such reorganization is shown. In order that desirable changes may be promptly made, there should be established competent agencies, such as professionally staffed state departments of education equipped for supervisory and research services to study needs, develop plans, and recommend modifications. 5. State Responsibility and State Support No element of the educational finance program which we are presenting as the result of our deliberations at this great convention is of such fun¬ damental significance as state support for education. Thruout our states local support, dependent almost exclusively upon the property tax, is today the chief reliance for the financing of schools. The acute difficulty in secur¬ ing funds for schools and the consequent denial or impoverishment of educa¬ tional opportunity has been demonstrated repeatedly to lie in the failure of property taxation to produce revenue. We talk about the relief of the real property tax ; yet where else can we first turn except to the parent state to whom is available the broader and more equitable tax base? Whatever else may be done in our varied attack upon the problem, one road upon which we must inevitably travel lies in the development of extended and scientific systems of state support. Fortunately this is as logical and broadly beneficial as it is imperative. That the state is responsible for education has for generations been evidenced by constitutions, by court decisions, by law, and by practise. Responsibility itself cannot be delegated ; but our American states have delegated very largely the support of schools to local units. Nevertheless, when, by the ruthless operation of economic and social forces this delegated support has become weak and ineffective, the discharge of basic responsibility requires that the financing of schools be assured by the state itself in whatever pro¬ portions may become necessary. This fundamental logic is thoroly supported by conditions in both poverty stricken and wealthy districts thruout the nation. Facts of the National Finance Survey disclose that in normal times the poorer districts were un¬ able to support a defensible educational program. In depression times the districts that are suffering most are likewise the poverty stricken districts. Department of Superintendence 643 On the other hand in practically every state the able and interested com¬ munities have offered superior educational programs, which have, as it were, carried the torch of leadership within the area. In times of economic disaster the leadership and the influence of such communities without the equalizing auspices of the state’s financial aid, are jeopardized, if not de¬ stroyed, by the breakdown of the property tax source. Finally, it is un¬ deniable that where state support has been best developed, there conditions are generally most favorable today. It must be apparent, therefore, that in the face of unquestionable re¬ sponsibility and the challenging operation of economic forces, the right of youth and the protection of our democratic society alike demand a swing to state support. The contributions of the experience in some of our states and of the excellent researches of the past decade point unmistakably to the con¬ clusion that any plan of state support must be in keeping with the principle of equalization of educational opportunity, best defined by the Educational Finance Inquiry. This principle was recently investigated, elaborated, and intensively tested by the National Survey of School Finance. In order to carry out this principle of equalization and to rehabilitate school support, it is our firm belief that every state should provide at once for the guarantee of a satisfactory foundation program of education to every boy and girl. This is a first essential of state support. The privilege of the benefits of such a foundation program cannot safely be left to the caprice of chance factors. Ability to support schools and the number of children to be educated do not exist equally in the different communities within a state. It is the duty of the state to see that wealth wherever it may be available meets its obligation to make this foundation program a reality for boys and girls wherever they may live. This should be accomplished by using state funds from tax sources other than general property, to equalize the burden in all communities of supporting the foundation program. It is apparent that the lower the local contribution to the state’s foundation program, the greater will be the relief to the local property tax. While thus guaranteeing the foundation program by the application of state support to the equalization thereof, it is of vital importance that the right of local initiative be protected for the offering in any community of an educational opportunity beyond that which the state may aid. This is a fundamental of the American school system, a right to be cherished along with our faith in educational opportunity. The expression of this local initiative thru the willingness to pay for a program richer in possibilities than the state can guarantee to all, plays a great part in the growth and develop¬ ment of efficient education. There is evidence on every side that this important phase of the educa¬ tional structure is seriously under attack. It is limited in its operation by the fact that local initiative is financed by taxpayers already relatively over¬ burdened. In addition, there are sweeping over us trends for the intro¬ duction of tax limitations, non-democratic, budgetary, reviewing control bodies and various degrees of fiscal dependence which bid fair to hamstring 644 National Education Association or entirely eliminate local initiative. Some states have even gone to the point of sacrificing the local right to build a super-program in their attempts to shore up their state education programs on the lower levels. Educators and citizens must be made aware of these dangerous tendencies in order that the American ideal of local initiative and its expression in the educational program may be preserved. 6. Federal Emergency Aid Just as the need of local school support demands a positive swing toward greater state financial participation, so both local and state support require the rehabilitating auspices of the federal government. This is the challenge of the emergency. Admittedly, school support based on the property tax has broken down. The closing of schools, the poverty of the educational offering, and the denial of educational opportunity are factual conditions pointing inevitably to the failure of both local and state support in many of our states, and pointing inevitably also to the resources of the whole nation. Everyone knows that the ability of the forty-eight states to finance an adequate pro¬ gram of public education is as varied as the ability of school units within a state. Everyone knowTs that no state can be sufficient unto itself in the face of the current mobility of adult population. If this be true in normal times how much more significant in these abnormal days! It is just plain common sense that some states are, by both natural and social forces, in worse financial condition than others. The crisis in American education is extensive, serious, spreading daily into new territory, and affecting increasing numbers of children. At a time when an increased number of children must be taken care of in the schools there are fewer teachers to teach them, and school budgets for the support of the schools have been drastically reduced. Sound educational programs which have been built up thru the years are now stripped of the services most essential in equipping youth to meet presentday problems. The wide vari¬ ance within and among the states in educational opportunities and ability to support education which existed prior to the depression has been intensified during the depression. A year ago when the economic crisis was at its worst the federal govern¬ ment, in order to reestablish confidence and to regain the road to recovery, entered upon a relief program unparalleled in American history. It declared a bank moratorium to assist banks to reestablish their credit. It established the N.R.A. to set business and industry on the road to recovery. The Agricultural Adjustment Act was passed to assist the farmer. The Federal Emergency Relief Administration was established to render federal aid to supplement unemployment relief. We have commended the government for its program of public works and we have shown that, if such federal participation is warranted for roads, dams, and waterworks, it is equally justified for schools. We know that education is mostly labor and public service. We know that it is self-liquidating. ... By the true interpretation of the traditions of the past, by the needs of normal times, by the urgency of the depression we conclude that substantial support of our public Department of Superintendence 645 schools . . . should at once become a part of the program for recovery. — William F. Russell. In accordance with these views the Federal Advisory Committee on Emer¬ gency Aid in Education on January 6, 1934, adopted a six-step program for federal financial assistance for education as an emergency measure. The essential facts of the six steps are as follows: 1. A federal appropriation of $50,000,000 for keeping schools open during 1933-34. 2. A federal emergency appropriation of $100,000,000 to keep schools open during 1934-35. 3. A substantial federal appropriation, the bill for which calls for $300,000,000 for 1934-35, to replace the shrinkage in funds now derived from local taxes on property; in other words, to rehabilitate school support. 4. The release of local school funds for maintenance by refinancing school dis¬ trict indebtedness and providing federal funds to school districts for educational purposes. 5. That 10 percent of any new appropriations for public works shall be allocated for building schools, colleges, and other educational enterprises. 6. A federal appropriation of $30,000,000 to assist students to go to college. The importance of federal emergency aid to education during the emer¬ gency is well established by the facts. The above program furnishes a good basis for discussion and action. Considering the vast significance of this problem of state and federal partic pauon in the financing of education and the importance of charting a planned and scientifically evolved course for the future a]ong this line, we must indicate the necessity of research. Particularly we wish to urge that provision be made for thorogoing study and investigation of this area by governmental and professional units, well staffed and financed for the pur¬ pose, and we point to the evident necessity of an immediate resumption of the National Survey of School Finance. Platform for Educators We have developed in this report a six-point program for the improve¬ ment of the financing of public education which we offer as a platform for the educational profession. 1. The creation of an intelligent public opinion on the importance of the complete development and maintenance of universal free public education from the kinder¬ garten thru the university. 2. A vigorous campaign in every community thruout the nation to inform the public of the economic and social importance of education, both in the current program of industrial and economic recovery and in our social, economic, and political welfare in the future. 3. Cooperation of educators with other government officials in securing a suitable, comprehensive, and flexible tax system in order to provide adequate financial sup¬ port for all necessary government services including the schools, and to provide also for a just distribution of taxes on all members of the community. 4. The enlargement and reorganization of local units of school administration so as to make available in an economical manner to the youth of the community complete educational opportunities on elementary and secondary levels. 646 National Education Association 5. A more general realization of the principle of state responsibility and state financial support for education thru a long-time financial plan for public education, comprehensive in scope, based on experienced judgment and objective data cooper¬ atively developed, continually subject to review and revision, reflecting faithfully at all times the broad educational policy of the people, and recognizing the principle of local initiative and control. 6. Securing the adoption of the six-point program of federal aid developed by the Advisory Committee on Emergency Aid for Education and adopted January 6, 1934. Conclusion: The Spirit of America The economic depression is now challenging and threatening the estab¬ lished educational program by means of which this nation has risen, in a comparatively short period of years in the life of a nation, from a few strug¬ gling colonies on the Atlantic seaboard in 1776 to a place of outstanding leadership among the nations of the world at the present time. The basis of this outstanding achievement in American democracy is to be found in the unique program of American education and in the spirit of America which has stimulated and guided the American people to higher and higher suc¬ cess. The present crisis in education will be met in the spirit of America. What is the spirit of America? It is difficult to define, but we all know it when we see it. It is the spirit of the colonists, of the circuit riders and the missionary priests, of the colonial schoolmen, of noble women, of great judges and jurists, of the builders of our railroads, of the Empire State Building, of our subways, our airways, our steamship lines, and of our telephone and tele¬ graph systems. It is the spirit of unselfish service for the common good. It is the spirit and glory of America that twenty million people can be unem¬ ployed, and face starvation, and still hope for the arrival of the better day thru the instrumentalities of organized government and not thru revolt and revolution. It is the spirit of America that a political revolution can take place at a national election by ballots and not by bullets. It is the spirit of President Franklin D. Roosevelt who promises to lead us from social and economic chaos into a new social order and who proclaims that “this crisis can be met but not in a day or a year, and education is a vital factor.” The American spirit is ennobled by aspiration, fortified with patience, hallowed thru sacrifice, and sustained by a dauntless courage. It has given to men, women, and children of every land, opportunities such as they never before enjoyed at any time anywhere. It has held the promise of still greater things to be. It still holds that promise. There are possibilities for almost unlimited hope notwithstanding the fog of today’s confusion. How are those possibilities of hope to be realized ? Primarily in putting first things first in our thinking and in our lives. If this be done, schools will not be allowed to close. Rather, the doors of the schools will be opened wider and truth and inspiration will be exalted. If first things are put first, love of home and family, love of country, respect and tolerance for all mankind, and unselfishness will take on a new meaning and value and permanence, and will again become the compelling ideals in the thoughts and actions of men. Department of Superintendence 647 The school, the home, and the church will find their places as the corner¬ stones of the intellectual, social, and spiritual temple which we must create in the minds and hearts of the youth of America. Then shall we exalt the spiritual over the material, truth and beauty over profit, and goodness above gold. IV. EDUCATION FOR THE NEW AMERICA WILLARD E. GIVENS, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, OAKLAND, CALIF., Chairman This report comes directly from the thinking together of more than one thousand members of the Department of Superintendence. In this critical transition period, great issues confront us, especially the issue of building an economy of plenty for all. We are convinced that we stand today at the verge of a great culture. We are now entering an epoch in which man can bring forth a civilization of abundance, of tolerance, and of beauty. The facts justify the conclusion that the existing economic system, if run at its full capacity and efficiency, can wipe out economic in¬ security for every American. In fact, engineers assure us that the production system cannot be kept going unless we distribute a very large amount of purchasing power to all of the people. A niggardly buying power and a policy of restriction of output will destroy our potentially magnificent system. But to achieve these things, many drastic changes must be made. A dying laissez-faire must be completely destroyed and all of us, including the “own¬ ers,” must be subjected to a large degree of social control. A large section of our discussion group, accepting the conclusions of distinguished students, maintain that in our fragile, interdependent society the credit agencies, the basic industries and utilities cannot be centrally planned and operated under private ownership. Hence, they will join in creating a swift nationwide campaign of adult education which will support President Roosevelt in taking these over and operating them at full capacity as a unified national system in the interest of all of the people. The crucial need of a vast campaign to create a new climate of economic, social understanding among our adult population is shown by the danger in the Fascist challenge to democracy. We are convinced that the American people wish to preserve the democratic way of social change. But that as¬ sumes the consent of the people, and that can be given only when the people understand. Hence, it is our conviction that the educational workers of America must bind themselves together now in a powerful union to create tens of thousands of citizens’ groups to study these critical economic and social problems. Every avenue of information and education should be used to realize the one economic issue of the day realistic to our people — namely a plenty economy vs. a poverty economy. Moreover, this kind of adult education is imperative if we are to take the next educational step, namely, the building of a great program of studies 648 National Education Association for the schools of the new America. One central core of that program will be a new social science which will be built directly from the factors and problems of our contemporary society ; from the economic and social trends which produced the current crisis; from the best projection into the future of the optional pathways producing social change. Thus, youth mmt con¬ front squarely the controversial issues of our day and by constant study of sources and continuous practise in forum discussion comprehend the factors and forces that produced our crisis and the alternative roads ahead. But cultural reconstruction is coordinate in importance with economic reconstruction. Hence, a second central core of the new program shall be a great stream of creative and appreciative activities. If the American is to live to his fullest capacity, he must be given an opportunity to develop to the utmost his capacity for expression and for appreciation. Corresponding changes must be made in the life that the young people will live in school. The whole competitive regime aid its scheme of rank-order marks and promotions will have to be replaced by a program of cooperation and self-cultivation. The International Viewpoint The schools must provide instructional opportunities adapted to present- day needs. We share the contribution, both material and cultural, of other nations. We must learn to live as good neighbors since we shall benefit most if each nation has a share in the orderly and unified progress of mankind. Internationalism implies not a super-government but a more exten 'ed civilization, a better planned organizing of trade and cultural relations among all nations. Teachers in all grades and in all subjects must inspire pupils to acquire not only information about foreign countries but right attitudes — the ability to think and feel without baseless prejudice. Controversial issues must be discussed in the schools. Whether we will or no, many such subjects are known to the pupils and discussed by them. For intelligent discussion teachers must themselves be interested and well in¬ formed. A broad foundation in the social science field coupled with travel is desirable. Schools should make available, materials to which all have ready access. The teacher may state her own opinion, not by an ostentatious display of dogmatic opinion, but by a careful presentation of facts and points of view. Attitudes are the desirable objectives. On the lower levels internationalism may be presented informally; on the higher levels it may be desirable to organize some aspects in a systematic fashion. The Relationship of the Individual to Society Thru the ages man has struggled to secure for himself liberty and justice. Seldom are these two factors found together in the proper relation to each other. Usually one or the other predominates. It is the aim of the new regime to harmonize these two ideas so that there will be no conflict be¬ tween individual rights and rights of organized society. Department of Superintendence 649 To meet the present crises in our social, economic, and industrial life, there must be more education for all the people. Equal educational op¬ portunity must be extended to all. The program must include both nursery schools and classes for the adults. There must be less formal education and more creative work. Thinking must be international in its scope. True value of citizenship will be stressed. The individual will be made to feel his responsibility in maintaining law and order. He will gain a new appreciation of ownership of property, the right to make a living, individual initiative, sobriety and temperance, and the worthy use of leisure. There must be a new interpretation of service to one’s country. It must be given in peace as well as in war. To do jury duty and to perform other com¬ munity service should be considered a privilege as well as a duty. Things stressed in the new regime will be honesty, tolerance, fair play, and dignity of labor. The employer will be permitted to make a fair profit on his investment. The laborer will be protected in his rights. An equitable distribution of income will be sought. This means cooperation. Society has taken advanced steps. Where shall we find leadership to carry on the new program? The institution that is prepared and equipped to develop leadership is the school. Shall it assume the responsibility? Shall the teachers and school officials accept the challenge? Have they the courage and ability to do it? The Machinery for Preparing and Validating a Plan for American Education Education represents the organized attempt of society to transmit to on¬ coming generations those of its mores essential for its protection and ad¬ vancement. In primitive societies the interest and welfare of the group rather than of the individual was paramount. Under such conditions, edu¬ cation was shaped by the status quo and necessarily lagged behind the social, economic, political, and cultural development of society since its purpose was to transmit and not to create these organizations, ideas, and ideals. Thus education has ever developed out of the framework of the existing dominant social ideals. In a planned society education must also evaluate present prac¬ tises and proposed changes in order to determine their place in the educa¬ tional plans. In a planned economy we may expect improvement of education by reason of: (a) Continuous improvement within the social order whereby education shall have available better mores to transmit; (b) by the operation of a planning organization, or agency, which may consider a new and better social framework within which society may operate; and (c) the functioning of the school as an agency in the work of planning. Such a planning agency must necessarily consist of individuals made up from groups fully repre¬ sentative of the society and favorable to modification of the established order toward more desirable goals. The machinery for such planning should be national in set-up and in operation. 650 National Education Association If the social and economic life of the nation is to be developed in accord¬ ance with an intelligent plan, education must not only be incorporated as an important element in such planning but the planning must be validated by education upon a national and local basis. The validating machinery should not necessarily be the planning machinery but should lead to further plan¬ ning. The agencies needed are : 1. Central research staff: either (a) Federal Department of Education; or (b) en¬ larged staff in Office of Education; or (c) research staff supported by departments of the National Education Association and various foundations with cooperating graduate schools of education. 2. State research staffs (forty-eight): either (a) completely financed and con¬ trolled by the state; or (b) on a cooperative basis, partly supported by federal government and partly by state; or (c) partly or entirely supported by state educa¬ tion association and graduate schools of education. 3. Federal Council for Educational Research composed of the chief officers of the central research staff and the chief officer of each of the state research staffs. 4. Continuous contact groups: (a) in which central research staff meets with the national officers of such groups as the National Congress of Parents and Teachers, organized labor, private and parochial schools, chambers of commerce, American Legion, and other organized minorities for discussion of educational problems; (b) in which state research staff meets with state and local officers of the above groups. Adult Education The presentday functions of education must include the education of the adult as well as the young. Education must be a continuous process thru adult life. There are three considerations that are evident. There is need of an effective adult education in order to secure an inter¬ national understanding, looking towards permanent peace. Transportation and communication growth and improvements compel a more effective and complete understanding of the relationship and dependency of world powers. Adults must be able to do more than merely be able to read in order to guarantee world peace. Changing conditions of the life of the people, fewer workers in various fields, fewer hours of work, less labor and more leisure require adult education on an effective basis. The psychological factor now removes age as any excuse for not learning. It has been definitely determined that learning with speed and effectiveness can take place beyond middle life. Opportunities must be provided for leadership, guidance, and stimulation. What agencies shall we enlarge and establish for increasing the effectiveness of adult education? They are: libraries, reading plans, bibliographies, radio services, sound pictures, mu¬ seums, counseling service, forums, schools for both children and adults, supported by both personal and public funds. Adult teaching requires a special technic of a sort the day public-school teacher does not have. Experimental research must enter the field to reveal more information with reference to the amount, kinds, and quantity of adult needs, capacities, interests, and values attending the varieties of teaching methods. Acquiring comprehensions and skills involves different technics. Department of Superintendence 651 Materials for adult education are lacking. There is a distinct need for materials suited to the adult leader that involve simplicity of statements and vocabulary. The support of adult education in all its desirable phases remains an un¬ solved problem. The sources of revenue for the education of adults seem to lie in the direction of tax revenue, personal tuitions, donations, gifts, federal subsidy, and free service. Recreation and Leisure-Time Activities The school club has definite values as a leisure-time activity at the junior and senior secondary-school levels. A wide range of electives provided thru the organization of club activities should be offered in every school. Recreational and leisure-time activities found in movements of the scouting type provide adventure and pioneer experiences which were in the natural environment of American youth two generations ago. These ac¬ tivities should be encouraged and supported. The school as a social center has passed the experimental stage. The trend toward an urban society demands certain definite modifications of technics employed in directing the social, political, religious, and economic life of a rural society. The social center movement can be a valuable agency in the development and direction of desirable social trends. The community house and playgrounds are units designed to expand and amplify the program of the school as a social center. Both have definite values capable of enrichment thru the development and integration of a program of recreation and leisure-time activities for the community as a whole. Education in a modern democracy is a continuing process. There is no such thing as stable equilibrium in mental growth. The menace of the provincial mind is found in the trend toward economic nationalism, political demagoguery, jingoism, dictatorships, militarism, and the subversion of choice in action under organized propaganda. The public forum movement is the one aspect of modern trends in adult education that is seeking to train men and women to face facts in the present social order. It should be encouraged in every community as the one stand for the freedom of speech and political action. A substantial contribution from the school in the training of young people in the profitable use of leisure time is found in the ability to choose and evaluate the worth of leisure-time activities. The motion-picture theater, the dance hall, and the pool room are commercial enterprises and will be with our social order for generations to come. The ability to exercise wise choice in their use is a part of the task assigned to those responsible for the wise and profitable use of leisure time. The development of a program for the direction of recreational and leisure-time activities for the new America cannot be accomplished by any one of the many organizations at work in the field today. A unification of effort and plan is imperative. Men and women in education must become 652 National Education Association familiar with the work of all organizations engaged in the study of recrea¬ tion and leisure time and seek ways and means for cooperation. Accomplishment in the field of recreation and leisure-time instruction for the masses has suffered because of the number of separate organizations en¬ gaged in promotion and management. The need of the hour is found in the demand for the definition and unification of objectives and the cooperation of forces at work in the field. Society’s Obligation to Youth In view of the rapid and apparently far-reaching social and economic changes now appearing in America and other parts of the world, it is obvious that the schools must consider the education of children with reference to progress and changes in the social-economic order of human society. Teachers are confused and bewildered by the issues involved. Freedom to teach the truth in the classroom is not yet established. The school is only one of many agencies responsible for planning for the future and for training the American child for effective and happy participation in the life of the future, whatever that future may be. The public schools must conserve the best of our civilization and train for openmindedness and adaptability. The basic ideals of a democratic society in America are still fundamentally sound. The chief purpose of the school should be to develop the youth of America in the direction of personal enrichment, refinement, expansion and expression of the life of each individual. Teaching truth, cultivating high ideals of hu¬ man value and welfare, training in habits of openmindedness and in attitudes of willingness to change from the old to the new, holding up ideals of good, long established by human experience — these are some of the guide posts to follow into the future. The chief asset of our public-school system is the faith of the people in the public schools. This faith, in spite of critics, reverses, and burdens, remains unbroken. ‘Tull well do they know that to close our schools means the disin¬ tegration of our society and that our American ideals of equality, freedom, and opportunity must be kept alive.” Ample provision must be made for an adequate program of vocational education. The funds for some types of this training should be provided by local sources, for some types, by the states, and some types should be sup¬ ported by the federal government. Vocational education must include more than narrow trade-training It must be made flexible, highly adaptable, and constantly adjusted to changing social and industrial conditions. The school must seek to increase the possible range of opportunity for the worker. An adequate program of vocational education must include adult education for the readjustment of adult workers whose old occupations have been eliminated by new machinery or processes. The kind of America which will be built in the future will depend upon the kind of personalities we build in our children and young people today, under our guidance, example, and leadership. Department of Superintendence 653 Spiritual Ideals Some spiritual ideals and values persist from generation to generation. These ideals however, are subject to changing interpretations as the material conditions of life change, while still others prove themselves quite inadequate in a changed social order. We endorse and wish to emphasize the goals named by the N.E.A. Committee on Social-Economic Goals of America. These are: hereditary strength, physical security, participation in an evolving culture, an active, flexible personality, suitable occupation, economic security, mental security, equality of opportunity, freedom, and fair play. We believe that the sacredness of personality will be achieved to the degree that individual members of our social order attain these goals or ideals. The schools of America may help to attain needed ideals in the character and conduct of American youth as follows: Make the subjectmatter of the curriculum roughly proportional in kind and in amount to major life activities, due allowance being provided for the contributions of the home, the church, and other extra-school activities. Select objectives and subjectmatter in support of them that will require experi¬ ence primarily rather than memory to master. Select for service in the schools only those teachers that are schoolroom personifi¬ cations of desirable ideals of worthy living and good citizenship. Reinvigorate the work of the training schools where these teachers are prepared for service by: (a) Selecting for training only those candidates best qualified as determined by a rigorous selective process (b) Giving a first certificate to teach only after a period of demonstrated success (c) Remaking the training curriculum and experience so as to produce teachers who are primarily conscious of the child and his world, rather than skilled technicians. Stimulate the teacher’s maximal service by providing: (a) Compensation that will attract and hold the highest type of personality and furnish adequate means to nourish a high quality of professional experience (b) Security of tenure (c) Equipment that measures up to the needs of the professional worker. Secure the cooperation of the home, church, and other character-building agencies by: (a) Informing parents, religious teachers, and leaders of youth of the aims and methods of teaching ideals in the school (b) Soliciting their cooperation so as to integrate the teaching ideals in the school, with the teaching in the home, church, and other agencies, thus securing a high level of continuity of effort and achievement. The Public-School Curriculum The major problem of education in our times arises out of the fact that we live in a period of fundamental social change. In the new democracy, education must share in the responsibility of giving purpose and direction to social change. The major function of the school is the social orientation of the individual. It must seek to give him understanding of the society in which he lives, of its problems, of the transition to a new social order, and 654 National Education Association prepare him to participate wisely in making choices as to social and economic arrangements which face the American people. A second major function is to aid the individual to discover and develop his own interests, abilities, and potentialities to the maximum, and to direct these in ways to enhance values both for the individual and for society. Education must operate according to a well-formulated social policy. All education, whether primary, secondary, higher, or adult, whether in school or outside the school, should be based on the same educational philosophy, dif¬ ferences in the program at the various levels being of degree rather than of kind. The new curriculum comprises all the activities of the school that have any educative effect. It comprises the entire life of the school and its inter¬ actions with its environment. The core of the curriculum should be im¬ proved practise in social living, calling for a study of society, its problems, and the utilization of such information in community practise, thus making the school an integral part of community life. The curriculum must provide also for maximum opportunity for the development of individual interests and abilities, including creative and est etic outlets. Subjectmatter will be considered instrumental and not an end in itself. The process of learning will be of equal importance with the materials of learning, thus building effective habits for continuing education after the school as an institution ceases to function in the life of the learner. 1 he curriculum will be composed of broad integrated activities, growing out of life experiences, thus ending the narrow, academic, non-functional subject courses. The program of activities of individual children will be adjusted to make for maximum all-round growth, thus removing the pres¬ ent overemphasis upon academic intellectual ends. Much attention will be paid to the development of hobbies and permanent leisure-time interests. The curriculum will be developed as a cooperative enterprise involving all members of the teaching profession and the lay public. A great respon¬ sibility will rest upon the classroom teacher, who is in closest contact with the learner. Students of American society, scholars in every field, will make t eir contributions thru the development of systems of values and accurate measurements. The present curriculum of professional educational institu¬ tions will need to be reconstructed in accordance with the principles laid down in this report. Only by the recognition of these basic principles can the public-school curriculum be organized to educate youth to assume their responsibilities in the new America. The Responsibilities of Boards of Education It is necessary that boards of education appreciate the changing social order and the added responsibilities of the schools resulting therefrom. Thev must recognize that these demands will make education cost more than at present. Boards of education must provide a suitably planned education program for those older children who are forced to remain in school because of this Department of Superintendence 655 changing order. Increased leisure of both adults and youth brings new obli¬ gations to our schools, which necessitate modification and extension of exist¬ ing school programs. The fundamental principle that boards of education should legislate and leave their executives to carry out their policies is even more imperative under the new social order than it was in the past. Boards of education must be willing to spend enough money to open school buildings as community centers at all available times when not used for instructional purposes. The additional cost involved will so greatly reduce the crime bill that every community will recognize the value of the investment. Boards of education must take the public into their confidence by a carefully studied system of public relations and public information. V. PUBLIC EDUCATION AND PUBLIC WELFARE LESLIE A. BUTLER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, GRAND RAPIDS, MICH., Chairman The intimate relationship of public education and public welfare has been recognized since the incipiency of the American government. The pre¬ ambles of our national and many of our state constitutions have embodied the ideal of the fundamental importance of the education of the populace in order to promote the general welfare. The ordinance of the Northwest Territory in 1787 insisted that schools and the means of education shall for¬ ever be encouraged. Supreme courts in some of the states carved out of this territory have, when rendering decisions in cases involving educational meas¬ ures, considered this document as fundamental law. In general, however, this concept has heretofore been interpreted by some communities, and especially certain vested interests, in a too narrow and restricted fashion, and the ideal of universal free education has been accorded only half-hearted lip service. Perhaps rugged individualism accounts in part for the attitude, but technological unemployment, occupational obsolescence, and other conditions emanating from the present situation, accompanied by a fuller appreciation of the sociological implications of the leisure hour, have brought many more thinking people to a realization of the significance of the importance of an electorate that is, in a general sense, broadly cultured. In harmony with this reawakening of the American people three hundred superintendents met in groups under the competent guidance of able chair¬ men and secretaries to consider the subject of public education and public welfare. At this juncture I wish to pay tribute to the vigor with which they have attacked their problems and the thoroness with which they have exe¬ cuted the plans of President Stetson. It is my responsibility as general chair¬ man to report as accurately as time will permit the conclusion of the several groups. One question to which the public in recent years has given much attention is crime and delinquency. Some contend that crime is on the increase. A magazine w riter recently held that the increase in recent years amounts to 350 percent. There are charges of a wave of delinquency among boys and 656 National Education Association girls of high-school and college age. Upon investigation we find that there are no nationwide complete and uniform data to verify these assertions. There is genuine danger in a prolonged controversy over this subject in that it closes our eyes to certain other problems which lend themselves to educa¬ tional treatment. Suffice it for our purposes to say that juvenile court records show that crime among youth is not increasing. So far as children are con- * cerned there is no crime wave. No small amount of credit, after all, is due the schools for this condition. The very nature of the school program is a constructive factor. As a whole, teachers comprise a superior social group. The character and example of the teachers present an uplifting force both within and without the schoolroom. The extracurriculum activities of many schools promote character building. Vocational guidance programs now in operation in many schools under the supervision of deans and counselors are of inestimable value. Organizations such as Boy Scouts, Campfire Girls, and other youth movements have a wholesome effect upon our young people. Even tho juvenile delinquency is on the decrease we must admit there is more than a modern progressive society can afford. Considering the human and economic aspects, the waste is enormous. The schools should organize more flexible curriculums to meet the varying types of ability and aptitudes ; employ better trained attendance officers with a background for social work; employ an adequate visiting teacher force, definitely trained for social work; promote closer cooperation on the part of the home, the school, juvenile courts, and other agencies; develop a more sympathetic understanding and appreciation of children and their personal problems on the part of all teach¬ ers; develop a more extensive use of the schools as social centers for both children and adults; expand the recreational activities for children for which the school assumes the responsibility; develop an appropriate school environ¬ ment in which more attention will be given the student’s adjustment to the social group. The schools alone cannot expect to eliminate all the conditions underlying the maladjustments in childhood. Inheritance has its part and, likewise, en¬ vironment has its influence. Studies show that definite relationship exists be¬ tween juvenile delinquency and the economic status of the family. In Cleve¬ land, 80 percent of the court cases of delinquency come from the 25 percent of its population housed in rental districts of $25 per month or under. These difficult problems of American life must be subjected to the concerted attack of government, church, home, school, and other social institutions. Having considered preventive educational measures, let us turn to a more positive phase of the modern program, namely, the renewed emphasis on citizenship and character. This Department has demonstrated its interest in this field by devoting no small amount of money to the preparation of the Tenth Yearbook. In this volume we have defined the objective of character education as the discovery or creation of a way of living which conserves and produces as many values as possible for as many persons as possible over as Department of Superintendence 657 long a time as possible. Character education is the facilitation of this wav of life. The modern school is a way of life. Life is a succession of choices and requires definite opportunities for proper choices. Pupil participation in school govei nment reveals to the student body the futility of unwise choices and the value of character in leadership. Phe direction and management of athletics, the preparation of student publications, the management of clubs, and many other activities furnish unlimited opportunities for the exercise of civic responsibilities which is an effective form of character training. In addition to these, . the changes which have developed in the schoolroom as shown by the socialized recitation, the contact plan, the library-laboratory- research procedure, all contribute to constructive and cooperative self-direc¬ tion in the social group. It follows that in these school life experiences stu¬ dents develop three essentials of all group life; first, the establishment and acceptance of proper standards of conduct; second, the development of hon¬ esty with one’s self and the avoidance of self-deceit ; and third, the conquer¬ ing of the predominatingly self-centered attitude and the attainment of an attitude which accepts realities and recognizes the rights and interests of others. These, according to Frank N. Freeman when addressing one of our groups last Tuesday, are the essentials of character education. The natural and desirable outcome of ethical character and the well- ordered life should be happiness for the individual and his relatives and asso¬ ciates. Three inalienable rights of men are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Happiness, or a permeation of pleasurable satisfaction, is the result of the fulfilment of the self, both by its own activities and products of others. The modern world has tended to make man a producer, a cog fitting into a machine. But C. Hanford Henderson more wisely writes, “If man is the highest product of creation, then civilization must be judged, not by what man produces, but by the manner of man produced. By nature man loves beauty in all its forms. His better, truer self strives to grow and to express itself.” The cultural aim in education recognizes the importance of the emotional life; that the sweet human value must be cherished. And so the schools, first thru the initiative of great leaders, and now with an ever increasing public interest, are bringing art, literature, and music into the lives of the coming An occasional child has real talent. The genius is brought to light, encour¬ aged, and the artist developed toward his own happiness and the happiness of society. A much greater number, tho without genius, are rich in the capac¬ ity to enjoy and to participate under leadership. The schools, by instruction in art, literature, and music, bring to them the joy of creative expression and give them permanently desirable habits and understandings. Those in whom there may be but little talent have in these fields much more of help toward the satisfying enjoyments in life than is found in the verbal, bookish, and formal elements of school. 658 National Education Association The aim of education is to lead the child to become a capable, useful, and happy member of society. Whether in the self-expression of the individ¬ ual or in the group enjoyments, art, literature, and music, in and thru the schools, are giving an uplift toward a complete and well-rounded life. In the attainment and the preservation of happiness and contentment, good health is of supreme importance. The striking improvement in the health of the American people in the past half century is evidenced by the increase in the life span, the reduction of infant mortality, the decrease in traffic acci¬ dents among children and in tuberculosis and diphtheria. Evidence exists to support the claim that school health programs embodied in health service, health education, and physical education activities have made important contributions to these accomplishments and to the further improvement of health of school children. In many communities systematic attention is given to the correction of health defects, the inculcation of health habits, improve¬ ment of social attitudes and character, and the establishment of recreational leisure-time activities and habits. These results represent actual and poten¬ tial saving to taxpayers of hundreds of millions of dollars annually. School health programs, thru prevention, involve great economic saving. L. I. Dublin, statistician of the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, esti¬ mated the yearly economic loss due to sickness and postponable deaths at $8,250,000,000, which will be decreased by further education of the youth. He also estimated the yearly economic gain due to increased expectation of life as $3,500,000,000. While the schools can claim only part of the credit for the yearly decrease in illness and for the increase in life expectancy, if a small fraction of the sums saved should be allocated to our schools, a large portion of our yearly education bills would be paid. Schools help to decrease death rates. In eight years prior to 1922, the accidental death rate for children from five to fourteen years old increased 15 percent, and the adult rate decreased 16 percent. Since 1922, when child safety education was made a part of the curriculum, the death rate for chil¬ dren decreased 11 percent, while that of adults increased 18 percent. Be¬ tween 1927 and 1930, when adult fatalities for motor vehicle accidents in¬ creased 25 percent, and those of the preschool children increased 10 percent, the deaths of children of school age actually showed a 10 percent decrease. Greater coordination of interest and efforts has been brought about among educators, physicians, health authorities, and other leaders, so that a coop¬ erative and economic program has benefited the people. The school and com¬ munity have cooperated in serving one another and assuming joint respon¬ sibilities, so that the school plus the community has become stronger than either the school or the community separately. Better health of the people has resulted. An important factor conditioning an individual’s happiness and frequently his mental and physical health is the extent to which he functions satisfac¬ torily in his work. All education contributes to vocational efficiency but cer¬ tain knowledges and skills are required in the commerce and industry of every community. Department of Superintendence 659 In the new order our young people will probably not be admitted to in¬ dustry until they are two or three years older than formerly. In these very meetings compulsory attendance until the age of twenty has been predicted. "I herefore they will have the opportunity to receive more general education as well as more vocational and technical training before entering the indus¬ trial and business world. These students are as much entitled to this type of preparation for their life work as are those other students entitled to train¬ ing in preparation for a professional career. But in our enthusiasm for spe¬ cific training we should not lose sight of the need for a general educational background. All our people are first to be citizens. Investigation by one of our groups working on this subject revealed that even employers prefer that prospective employees possess a general educational background with enough training in vocational technic to enter their institutions without too lon^ a period of special instruction. The strictly vocational courses must be liberal¬ ized to include a larger proportion of social and cultural knowledge in order to meet the requirements of industry and citizenship for dependability in character and general intelligence. The guidance department of the school should maintain a follow-up service that will encourage the graduate to con¬ tinue his education with a view to increasing his efficiency as a worker and his usefulness as a citizen. Increasingly the vocational function of the school is extending into the field of adult education. This is a hopeful sign, and the movement should be accelerated as rapidly as the educators of the country can convince their sev¬ eral communities of the vital need of this educational service. Indeed, adult education is an important feature of the New Deal. Many of our citizens need reeducation in order that they may function in the new regime in a fashion satisfactory to themselves and to society. Our present concept of edu¬ cation is that it is as broad as life, that it begins with the cradle and ends with the grave. To meet these requirements is not difficult because of the avail¬ ability of our school plants and equipment at a time not used by our young people and a time most desired by adults. The American standard of living is a composite of the levels upon which life is lived. The schools help to maintain and raise the standard of living by contributing to these levels. They serve to make the individual and the community more independent economically. They add greatly to the ability of individuals and communities to participate in wholesome recreational ac¬ tivities. They contribute to community health and individual physical well¬ being. 1 hey develop attitudes and personality traits and furnish information for more effective home life. They make possible more intelligent and more effective citizenship. They train individuals to more intelligent appreciation of beauty in art, literature, and music. They stimulate high moral and spirit¬ ual ideals in thought and conduct. In all of these directions they contribute to the living of life on a higher level. Because of its present importance, how¬ ever, this report will concern itself with the contribution of the schools to¬ ward maintaining and lifting the economic status of our people. 660 National Education Association Industry is recognizing increasingly the importance of education by requir¬ ing training for administrative and directive positions. In general, incomes correspond to the amount of training individuals possess and economic suc¬ cess is determined to a large extent by education. The Department of Com¬ merce reports that of 570 commercial bankruptcies over 40 percent of the proprietors did not finish the grade schools; approximately 70 percent were not high-school graduates; and less than 10 percent were college graduates. But perhaps the greatest contribution that the schools make toward improv¬ ing the economic status of our people is by increasing thru education the de¬ mand for goods and services. Business in the past has seemingly been blind to the fact that its only hope of increasing markets for manufactured goods is thru the stimulation of ever more extensive educational activities. Many bus¬ iness executives have not even been selfishly interested in education. Few in¬ vestments can bring greater returns to business than those made by lifting the general level of education because education creates compelling desires and establishes needs for the goods that industries produce. It has been because of the foundation training done in the schools and the increased emphasis upon the intelligent study of the sciences and the methods of modern research that there has been created by the product of our educational institutions steadily improved equipment with which men can satisfy fundamental needs. It is by the process of manufacturing goods to satisfy new wants that indus¬ try enlarges its field of work. There is much still to be done in the schools. We must have that teaching of the fundamentals of social and economic relations among men and classes of men, and that teaching of functions of government that will permit an intelligent citizenship to elect leaders with the capacity to direct the opera¬ tion of our economic life. Also, the school must increasingly provide that body of information that will enable its product to make a more intelligent investment and expenditure of its income. In the present situation, what should the school contribute to the life of the community, and how? The school in these days must be a source from which radiates those subtle influences that mold community life. Health habits of the child have a beneficial effect on the general health of the home. Art activity of the school will be evidenced in the change of standards in the home. That school is not functioning as a vital institution where the home and the community do not in their ideals and practises begin to show that the teachings of the classroom register in the improvement and elevation of community life. The time is here when student discussion of conditions and problems of our modern life should lead to individual, social, and civic betterment. Only thru courage, initiative, and leadership of our young people will changes be effected. The challenge to them that the world of tomorrow is theirs and they must prepare themselves to make that world and to live in it is the vital challenge that our young people are entitled to have brought to them in these troubled times. Department of Superintendence 661 The teacher’s work is not concerned wholly with classroom instruction. It is his to see that what he teaches is reinforced in community life and that the forces of the community, both individual and organized, are led into a sympathy and a practise that will make school and life a unity. Then shall he begin practically to realize that in the school building only a small part of real education is attempted or achieved. With the accomplishment and achievement of all of these objectives American education will become increasingly a stabilizing influence in the social and industrial life of the American commonwealth. The wholesome attitude of American people during the depression has been the product of long years of sound education. The American people have gone thru the depression with optimistic courage, in spite of the extreme personal distress from which many have suffered. They have exhibited confidence in the ade¬ quacy of a democratic society to function during periods of extreme economic distress. The educational system of this country can properly take credit for a large contribution to the attitude exhibited by the people. The American teacher has sacrificed much in this depression. American teachers have faithfully performed their duties in spite of the most difficult conditions arising from drastic retrenchments and increased enrolments. 1 hey have given services indispensable to the public. This they have done altho their compensations have been meager and in many cases long post¬ poned. They have provided relief for children, supplementing from their private resources the aid given by the government. They have participated in such movements as adult education and community forums for the cultiva¬ tion of intelligence and for the maintenance of morals. The American schools are ready to meet and endeavor courageously to solve their problems. The educational system of the United States has shown itself ready to meet new social and industrial conditions by undertaking experimental changes in the conten-s and methods of instruction. If the rate has been slow at which innovations are achieved in the schools, the fact re¬ mains that there has been great progress in enlarging the scope and range of public education even during the years of the depression. New courses in economics, political science, sociology, and in vocational subjects are being formulated and taught in schools of various grades. The schools are making a valiant effort to contribute to the improvement of the social life. VI. A NATIONAL OUTLOOK ON EDUCATION JOHN K. NORTON, TE'CHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y., Chairman Education is in a critical condition in many areas. The schools which failed to open last fall, and which made no provision for the education of their children can be numbered by the hundreds. Districts which have drastically shortened their school terms number tens of thousands. One teacher in four this year will receive a wage, even if it is paid in full, lower than would be legal under the N.R.A. Educational programs have been 662 National Education Association seriously harmed, not only in poorer sections, but also in many favored com¬ munities. Why is it that schools find themselves in a critical condition a year after the crisis of the depression has passed? Why is it that a public service of such importance has ceased to exist in some communities and has suffered serious impairment in many others? Committee VI, appointed to consider the “National Outlook on Education,” believes these questions cannot be met by superficial answers. The current plight of education is not solely the outcome of new factors and forces which have originated since 1929. Rather, the educational crisis has its roots in conditions which existed before the onset of the depression. The depression has aggravated these conditions and has increased their harmful effect. It has revealed the weak timbers in our educational struc¬ ture as in other areas of life. By locating and strengthening these weak timbers, education may be placed on a firmer foundation. The depression has also revealed the sound timbers of the educational structure. We realize as never before the permanent validity of the idea of universal education. Experience has again demonstrated that to be free the people of a nation must possess sufficient intelligence to guide their own destinies. They cannot safely trust them to any small group. Recent years have also emphasized the soundness of the idea of a common school. Common understanding is essential if America is to keep within bounds the divisive influences which grow out of differences in race, creed, and economic and social status. The depression has reemphasized the neces¬ sity of public support for education, if we wish education to be the right of all, rather than the privilege of the few. But these and other sound timbers in the structure of public education make no less necessary the re¬ placement of the weak timbers. Many of the current difficulties of the schools have their roots in the failure to recognize that education today has certain inescapable relation¬ ships to the nation as a whole. It will continue to suffer in the future, until this hard fact finds expression in appropriate changes. Education has suffered severely in this crisis because we have been attempting to deal on a local and state basis, with forces which are nationwide in their origin and power. Lest there be misunderstanding, let it be emphasized that national in¬ terest in education need not, and should not, involve weakening the vital principle that education is a matter for state responsibility and local manage¬ ment. In fact, state control and local management of our schools can be effective only if a third participant is brought into the situation — that par¬ ticipant is the nation as a whole. Let us make this principle concrete. At the present time there are a variety of emergency welfare activities on which we are expending billions of dollars in the teeth of a major depression. We are also expending hundreds of millions for a military and naval program of unprecedented peace-time scope. Why is this possible, when schools are closed, and millions of children are being offered but half an educational loaf? Did we consciously decide to provide for the unemployed at the ex- Department of Superintendence 663 pense of the children of the nation? Do the people really prefer that edu¬ cation should he starved while record appropriations are made for the ex¬ pansion of the army and navy? If not, then why is it being done? It is being done because the federal government can use taxes, which effectively tap taxpaying ability and credit, and because the federal government is not hamstrung in employing these taxes by the limitations of state and local boundaries. It therefore finds it possible to aid public enterprises which it deems important. Education is included only to a limited extent. Rather, it is supported almost wholly in many states thru the property tax. Many owners of property, particularly in a time of depression, have little ability to pay taxes. Furthermore, the school district is fiscally limited by the amount of property which chance factors may have located within its boundaries. Taxpaying ability, poorly measured by property ownership, at the best is subject to ex¬ treme fluctuation. Fiscal solvency of school districts is frequently depend¬ ent on the prosperity of a single factory or mine, or on the condition of a specialized type of agriculture. Taxpaying ability frequently dodges agilely from one area to another or escapes to island colonies of tax dodgers. One section of this committee considered the immediate emergency aspects of the educational situation which grow out of these conditions. It en¬ dorsed a program of legislation now before the Congress of the United States and which is the subject of hearings this week before the Committee on Education of the House of Representatives. This program was developed by a number of educational and lay organizations called together by our able United States Commissioner of Education. It calls for the following types of temporary, emergency aid for education: 1. An appropriation of $50,000,000 for immediate relief to open closed schools and to keep schools open which are threatened with early closing during the remainder of this school year. 2. One hundred million dollars for relief for next year to be distributed on an objective basis by a board of which the United States Commissioner of Education shall be chairman. 3. Substantial appropriations to be distributed to the states by an objective formula, based on need and ability and defined in the Act. 4. Loans against frozen assets such as delinquent taxes and closed banks. 5. Allocation of not less than 10 percent of new appropriations for public works for the construction of needed school buildings. 6. Thirty million dollars to assist worthy college students unable to continue their education due to family unemployment and other emergency conditions. This program is being effectively supported in W ashington by a number of organizations including the National Committee for Federal Emergency Aid for Education of which James H. Richmond, state superintendent of public instruction of Kentucky, is chairman. This committee has the hearty support of the Legislative Commission of the National Education Asso¬ ciation and of the Joint Commission on the Emergency in Education. It de¬ serves vigorous support. 664 National Education Association We are glad to report that two items in the program of the National Committee foi Federal Emergency Aid for Education have already been substantially attained. 1 hey are the emergency assistance to keep rural schools open during the rest of this year and the aid to assist deserving students to complete this year of college work. The committee responsible for “A National Outlook on Education,” however, considered more than the immediate emergency aspects of this problem. Another topic group concludes that the inexorable operation of the fiscal conditions described above, will slowly starve education, even in normal times, unless they are realistically faced. 4 he time has come to proclaim the principle of a national minimum or foundation program of financial support for the* education of every child, whether he happens to live in Maine, Arkansas, or California. This mini¬ mum educational opportunity should be financed jointly by the nation and the states, according to taxpaying ability. Such a development offers no threat to state and local autonomy in the control and management of education. 7'he opposite is the case. Abolition of local control of education wh.ch, under the stress of the depression has taken place in some states, is the inevitable outcome of attempts to finance educa¬ tion in the twentieth century thru taxes, and units of school administration, developed in the nineteenth century. Federal funds necessary to assist each state in financing a minimum pro¬ gram of education should be distributed auromatica'ly to the states upon the basis of an objective formula, such fund to be administered by the state thru its duly constituted authorities, with no control exercised by the federal government, save that no state government should thereby diminish the amount of its support for education. For some this will be an unwelcome proposal, but what is the alternative? It is slow starvation for education, broken by periods of instability and destruction such as that of the last three yea-s. If education is to receive financial support, adequate in amount and sufficiently stable to permit con¬ tinuity of program, we must free ourselves from ideas of the last century and realistically face the conditions of modern economic organization. Another topic group of Committee VI considered Negro education. The present distribution of national . wealth has operated to the educational detriment of the Negro race which constitutes one-tenth of our population. The measurable response of the Negro population to even limited educa¬ tional opportunity has been most gratifying. It is deplorable that the depres¬ sion has resulted in lamentable curtailment of educational opportunity for this large portion of our population. Social justice and general economic welfare demand that, in the provision of educational opportunity, the needs of Negro pupils and teachers be given equitable consideration along with those of all other groups. Another section of this committee considered federal poliev affecting education outside the forty-eight state school systems. Most of the federal departments now exercise educational functions in dealing with territorial Department of Superintendence 665 possessions, in acting as the wards of primitive peoples, or in connection with military and naval posts. Among the recommendations of tins com¬ mittee are the following: (1) That expert guidance be secured by the federal departments in determining educational policy and organization thru the medium of surveys by the United ‘States Office of Education (2) That qualified experts be made responsible for the supervision and control of this work (3) That an interdepartmental federal council be organized to coordinate better the government’s far-flung educational work in this area. Fundamental educational reconstruction waits upon the strengthening of another timber in our educational structure. The time has come for a reappraisal, in the light of the lessons of the depression, of the purposes and content of our courses of study. We do not deprec ate the noble service per¬ formed by public schools frequently under serious handicaps. Our schools have played no small part in creating what is perhaps the best educated population, man for man, which exists in any important nation. They have played a major role in inculcating an appreciation of our democratic form of government, which has permitted this most difficult type of government to continue in a far-flung area, differing widely in topography and climate, and populated by a people of diverse origins and economic interests. Nor would we depreciate the vital role of the schools as a conservator of the best of the past. Most of man’s guidance as he gropes his way forward must come from the past. Every generation must build its gains on the lessons which the race has learned in centuries of bitter but illuminating experience. The wise teacher keeps the past clearly in mind as he seeks to instruct the rising generation. But it is equally certain that the teacher who merely looks to the past becomes a brake on progress. The race has suffered quite as much from un¬ duly delaying needed changes in its ways of thinking as from changing them too rapidly. Can any clear thinking teacher question that this nation would be a better place to live in, if money-making as the badge of success had received more critical consideration? Is it beyond the power and outside the duty of public education to recognize the need for less selfish individualism and more social cooperation in the conduct of our affairs? The decades which lie just ahead, if they are to be traveled without mis¬ hap, call for a quality of social intelligence superior to that required in the pioneer epoch. How can we bring sufficient intelligence into the planning and regulation of our common affairs, to guarantee economic and political stability, and at the same time preserve certain vital areas of individual initi¬ ative and freedom? This question can be successfully answered only by a socially intelligent people. American education has no more important task than to discover better means whereby this requisite social intelligence can be developed. 666 National Education Association One section of Committee VI developed principles whereby contribu¬ tions of organizations and business enterprises may be appraised and in- corpoi ated in the educational program. These principles deserve the thought¬ ful consideration of those who would protect this program from selfish en¬ croachments, but who recognize the need of vitalizing instruction with materials of philanthropic and business organizations. The present educational situation places a heavy responsibility upon the educatois of the nation. I he section topic group of this committee which studied professional organizations of educators recommends the revision of the piesent loose and ineffective relationship between the various state associations and the National Education Association. This reorganization would result in closer coordination, and would bring matters of national impoitance moie directly and vitally to the attention of members of state and local associations and bring about more intelligent and unified effort. Educatois should oiganize to provide leadership needed in order that schools appropriate to the demands of our times may be developed. Already thousands of teachers, working thru a variety of organizations, are coming to grips with the problems which must be met if education is to accomplish its purposes. A preliminary survey just made by the Joint Commission on the Emergency in Education lists one hundred and fifty groups which have recently completed or are now conducting important investigations which are pertinent to educational recovery and reconstruction. If this wholesome activity is to be most effective, the recommendations of these deliberative groups must be integrated into a national plan for educa¬ tion and tianslated into practise by state and local school systems. The pieliminary investigation by the Joint Commission reveals that this work is proceeding under a great variety of uncoordinated agencies. Many im¬ portant deliberative commissions lack facilities for bringing their findings to the attention of educators and encouraging their incorporation in practise. These conditions weaken educational recovery. The National Education Association and the Department of Superin¬ tendence are agencies which should provide for the development of an American plan for education. Many states have already established councils for such planning on a statewide basis. These councils would doubtless cooperate with a parallel national group in getting recommendations before the people, and into action. To give this proposal definiteness, the Joint Commission on the Emer¬ gency in Education at this meeting presented to the executive committees of the Department of Superintendence and of the National Education Asso¬ ciation, a proposal for a clearinghouse on educational appraisal and plan¬ ning. This proposal provides for the canvassing of the recommendations of educational organizations and deliberative committees, which are pertinent to educational recovery, and for their coordination in a unified program of educational planning. A National Outlook on Education suggests approaches to the solution of the problems of education such as those illustrated in this report. Nothing Department of Superintendence 667 less than a broadly conceived program for educational recovery will guar¬ antee the strengthening of the weak educational timbers which these trying days have made all too evident. Such a program will correct existing in¬ equalities and provide an educational structure adequate to serve a new America. VII. INTERPRETING THE SCHOOLS TO THE PUBLIC FRANK A. JENSEN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, rockford, ILL., Chairman This report is not a recital of any theory or program of public relations between the schools and the public as one would expect to find in a treatise on school administration. On the contrary, it is a review of what has been going on during the past year, in an attempt to interpret the schools to the public, in 704 cities, varying from 2000 to 250,000 in population and dis¬ tributed over 46 states. Principles of Public Relations A program for interpreting the schools to the public must be based upon a clear definition of the objectives and goals of public education. The public should think of the schools in terms of what the schools exist for. The pres¬ ent quite general criticism and distrust of the public schools are largely due to the public’s misunderstanding of the goals of free public education. In the past, educators have aided the public, or a very small minority of the public, in selling a majority of the public some new function for the school. Some of this selling, however, has been done in spite of the school people. The school today, then, is to a very large extent the product of social trends, and now it becomes the problem of those who work in the schools to interpret this program. Much has been done in the way of publicity campaigns for new school building programs; and each new activity has been sold to the public, but little or no effort, until the last decade, has been made in helping the public to understand schools. It can also be said that our program has been one of addition, and not one of eliminating that which has served its purpose. Of course, no healthy program of interpreting the schools to the public can be accomplished when it is not guided by a philosophy of education for a tax-supported school system. The laws and the supreme court decisions of the various states define the legal status of the schools. It is important that the function of education be defined and interpreted in accordance with the legal status of the schools for the existing social order. The legal theory is that public schools are necessary to preserve and enhance democratic institutions. It is quite im¬ portant that the purpose of public education be stated clearly, simply, and completely; and the purpose of a program of interpretation is to get the public on common ground in the matter of the objectives of a free system 668 National Education Association of public education. With such a common understanding there will be no place for such statements as: “Free education should stop with the eighth grade”; “Free education should stop with high-school graduation,” “fads and frills of education.” Moehlman defines public relations as “organized, factual, informational services for the purposes of keeping the public informed of its educational program.. This definition may or may not be satisfactory, but the purpose of a public relations program must be established and that purpose is to keep the public informed. A plan of interpretation once set up should differentiate between public relations and publicity, and should distinguish .between public relations and propaganda. Effective methods of appraisal of the interpretation program should be set up in order to keep the public relations a functional project of the school. American Education Week A school system with the objectives of education stated in terms of society as it exists today and with a well-defined public relations program meets a national program for the interpretation of the schools in American Educa¬ tion Week in November each year. This is a national, state, and local pro¬ gram set up quite definitely each year by the National Education Association. Duiing the last three years the program has been arranged in terms of the real problems before education, and more communities have worked out local programs with the suggestions for American Education Week. The committee. in charge of the sub-topic, “American Education Week,” makes the following comments : (1) The week in which November 11 falls seems to be the best time. (2) Other agencies cooperate actively, as (a) the American Legion,’ (b) parent- teacher associations, (c) newspapers, (d) service clubs, (e) women’s clubs, (f) churches. v ' (3) The following five devices or agencies most commonly used are parent- teacher associations, special pupil programs, newspapers, visiting days, and school exhibits. (4) About 80 percent of cities have an organized observance of American Edu¬ cation Week and all report it a worthwhile project with teachers cooperating and interested in the programs. (5) Most effective vvork is done when it is organized for the city as a whole and not left to each building or unit to carry on its own programs. The committee makes the following recommendations: (a) Material from the National Education Association should be made available earlier each year, (b) American Education Week should open the year’s program in public relations, (c) State departments should take a more active part in the program, (d) Regular school work should e emphasized on visiting days, (e) The President, governors, and mayors should issue proclamations for the week. Public Relations Agents and Agencies Public relations agents and agencies are the lines and means of com¬ munication between the public and its schools. How to develop and utilize Department of Superintendence 669 these lines of communication to best advantage and how they can be made most effective were considered by eleven committees. Each agent and agency has its own peculiar contributions to make to the program. Each tends to reinforce the efforts of the others. People not moved by the impact of ideas conveyed to them thru two or three sources may be aroused to vigorous action when the ideas are conveyed to them thru several sources in slightly different form. The Teacher When an increasing number of patrons of the school begin to say, “They didn’t do it that way when I went to school,” it is a sign that the patrons of that school have not been taught to appreciate the present worth of the school. The most important agent in a public relations program is a well-informed and skillful teacher. The teacher thru daily contact with the pupil provides a constant source of information about the school. As a public relations agent the teacher must do a good job in the classroom, make positive contacts with the parents, and make a series of community contacts. The teacher as an agent for public relations must work thru all the agencies of the pro¬ gram set up for the whole school system as opposed to special departments. A manual training teacher should be able to interpret more than just his own held. The committee reports that teachers visit about 25 percent of the homes represented in their rooms, and recommends that they should visit 50 per¬ cent of the homes once each year and 25 percent twice each year. The committee also ranked the various public relations avenues for teachers, as follows: (1) good teaching; (2) visiting homes; (3) parent-teacher asso¬ ciation work; (4) contacts with parents while visiting school; and (5) the press, when a part of a school interpretation program. The Administrative Agents The leadership in interpreting the schools to the public must be centered in the administrative agents, and success of the plan depends on a leadership that emphasizes the interpretation of the schools rather than the inter¬ pretation of the leadership. Many public relations programs have been interpreted by the public as a sales project for the superintendent and teachers. ' In interpreting the schools to the public, there are four classes of people that compose the public. They are as follows: (1) school promoters and workers, (2) pupils, (3) patrons, and (4) other citizens. It is the common experience for workers in the school to be familiar with their own departments only, and often they are not as well versed in that capacity as they should be. With all this in view, the administrative agent should begin interpretation of the schools to the public right among his co¬ workers and then extend his promotion thruout all the public. Teachers and 670 National Education Association supervisors of special subjects appearing on all the parent-teacher association programs in the city, together with undue activity in the press, may become classed as a public relations program by vested interests. Newspapers It seems quite evident from the reports and conferences that there has een a fiee and frank discussion of topics considered as is shown by the fol¬ lowing suggestions made to the Department of Superintendence: JAThe DePartI"ent Of Superintendence should create at once a full-time bureau \itn a personnel of trained newspaper writers. (2) On the staff of every superintendent of schools there should be a competent school1 p°ubHceiry!PaPer 'ra!ning Wh° W0Uld deVOte at least 3 part of his in Idnrt'p ' °°lsnaf J0urnalism should be asked to include in their curriculums a course n education. Most newspaper writers know little about school finance, curriculums and selection of teaching personnel. ’ (4) School administrators should be required to take a course in public relations. Community Agencies The committee on community agencies suggests the enlisting of such agencies as (a) business and commercial clubs, (b) service clubs, and (c) professional organizations other than educational groups. Apparently superintendents have not fully realized the possibilities of these organizations as public relations agencies. The most outstanding assist¬ ance given to schools by these agencies in the past appears to be in the way of providing medical service, clothing, and food for the needy. These agencies as a rule have educational committees which can disseminate information a out the work of the schools. Parent-teacher associations represent probably the most effective community agency supporting the schools. Their programs make it possible for the schools to demonstrate their activities. Publications The publications developed during the last quarter of the century in school systems are divided into two groups : ( 1 ) Publications prepared under t e direction of the board of education, the superintendent of schools, or some other authorized administrative agent, as annual and special reports, audits and surveys, letters, handbills, bulletins, pamphlets, and courses of study ; and (2) publications prepared under direction of the teaching staff by students such as newspapers, yearbooks, handbooks, and magazines. Student publications are quite common thruout the country and have not been ^curtailed greatly during the depression. The committee reports that student publications are not recognized as a public relations agency by a majority of school people at present, while a mmority take the opposite view and say the publications of students have possibilities which have not been used in this line. Annual and special reports come in for severe criticism as being too volu¬ minous and not appealing or understandable to the lay reader. Favorable Department of Superintendence 671 comment was made on some recent reports which have had the layman in mind as the reader of the reports. Few cities publish a school paper, but where they do, a special opportunity is offered to get information to the public. The School Plant A modern school plant is in itself an expression of the larger community educational program and the objectives of education. Auditoriums, clinics, gymnasiums, laboratories, libraries, modern classrooms, playgrounds, and shops, together with their equipment, represent the physical embodiment of educational ideas and ideals. As such, they are potentially at least an impor¬ tant public relations agency — a means of interpreting the educational pro¬ gram to the public. Radio The radio can serve ( 1 ) to keep parents in sympathy with the changing emphasis in curriculum matters and methods of teaching; (2) to reinterpret the objectives of education to the public; and (3) to increase the support of wise school legislation. The committee recommends the establishing in each city of an outstanding list of speakers for educational programs. This list should include many out¬ side of the teaching profession. At present, there is a reaction against high- powered salesmanship. The radio address should deal with facts and should be given from an informational standpoint. These talks should definitely differentiate between true and false economy and should increase support for wise legislation. School Activities School activities as an agency in a public relations program have to do with activities that can help interpret the schools to the public. Public per¬ formances by extracurriculum organizations, demonstrations of actual school work, commencement exercises, school exhibits, visitation days, school enter¬ tainments, and educational and recreational activities for adults provided thru night schools and social centers offer many opportunities for strength¬ ening the ties between home and school. The problem is to grasp the oppor¬ tunities which school activities present for developing wholesome public rela¬ tions and to utilize them in effective ways without interfering with their educational functioning. The conduct of schoolmen is often inexcusably stupid. For example, instead of encouraging parents to visit our schools, we frequently allow them to gain the impression that their presence is not wanted. It is not at all surprising that the public has no adequate con¬ ception of the function of the various activities which go to make up the pro¬ gram of a modern school. Outside Educational Agencies The following outside educational agencies were considered : state and local teachers associations, university, college and state departments of edu- 672 National Education Association cation, the National League of Women Voters, the American Association of University Women, the Joint Commission on the Emergency in Educa¬ tion, and the National Education Association. The help rendered by these agencies has been largely in terms of the superintendent’s attitude ; some ask for cooperation and get it, while others ignore these agencies. Competent speakers and effective research studies on education are available in the uni¬ versities and colleges. These outside agencies are at the service of the public schools in developing an interpretation program. Public Relations Technics A program of interpreting the schools to the public to be effective should be continuous thruout the year. This program should function thru the board of education, the superintendent of schools, and all school employees, professional and non-professional. Emphasis should always be placed on fac¬ tual information about the schools. All this presupposes a public relations department in each school system, which sets up an all-year scheme and makes possible special programs as a part of the continuous planning. Such an organization will provide the instructions necessary for the teaching per¬ sonnel to carry on home contacts for effective school interpretation. CLOSING CEREMONIES Mr. Cody: A pleasant duty devolves on me at the present time. Mr. President, will you please stand? You are the last of the saints to occupy this high office. You have done a mighty fine job. You haven’t ever talked thru your Stetson hat. Yours has been a program of progress. It is an ancient custom to present to the retiring president of the Department concrete evidence of his fine work. This, you will notice, looks like a tombstone. Here you will find your name and date — and there is still a little room there. But, anyway, it is a pleasure at this time to place in your hands this gift and may you possess it with equal credit to yourself and honor to the profession which you represent. President Stetson : This is symbolic of the greatest honor and greatest privilege that can come to any schoolman and I shall always cherish it. I think, Dr. Cody, it now means I have been initiated into membership with that most useless and happy group, the Past Presidents. A year ago I took up this office with fear and trembling and humbleness ; I lay it down with gratitude. It has been the greatest experience of my professional life. I thank you all and wish you Godspeed. DEPARTMENT OF Supervisors and ‘Directors of Instruction HISTORICAL NOTE The department of supervisors and directors of instruction in its inception was an independent society called the National Conference on Educational Method , organised at Atlantic City in February 1921. The first number of its publication the journal of educational method,. zvas published in September of the same year. At the Boston meeting, in February 1928, the name of the society was changed to the National Con¬ ference of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction, and the Executive Committee zvas instructed to prepare a petition asking for acceptance as a department by the National Education Association. This petition was acted upon favorably at the Minneapolis meeting of the N. E. A. in July 1929 and a regular department zvas thus created. The Department publishes a yearbook and a journal, now called educational method. Meetings are held tzvice a year, in connection with the conventions of the N . E. A. and of the Department of Superintendence . The officers of the Department for the year 1934-35 are: president, Paul T. Rankin, Supervising Director, Department of Instruction, Board of Education, Detroit, Mich,; first vicepresident, Leonard Pozver, As¬ sistant Superintendent of Schools , Tulsa, Okla.; second vicepresident, Helen J. Piper, Supervisor of School Grades 4, 5, and 6, Lynn, Mass.; secretary-treasurer, James F. Hosic, Professor of Education , Teach¬ ers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y .; executive com¬ mittee, officers of the Department, ex officio: Mildred English, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Raleigh, N. C.; Ernest Horn, Professor of Education, State University of Iozva, lozva City, lozva; J . Cayce Morri¬ son, Assistant Commissioner for Elementary Education, State Depart¬ ment of Education , Albany, N. Y. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of its meetings may be found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follozvs: 1928 :831-S32 1930:773-800 193 2:679-693 1929 \803-825 1931:801-824 1933:681-695 [ 674 ] THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND CREATIVE SUPERVISION BESS GOODYKOONTZ, ASSISTANT UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. ^"^he topic implies that the scientific method and creative supervision 1L are> or tnay be, complementary ; that the scientific method contributes to doing a really creative job. This paper will be addressed to that point of view In order to stand oft and get a perspective, suppose we examine just what supervision has to face at the present time to secure maximum results. If we may define creative supervision as the job of establishing conditions in which each teacher can do her best work, it may be helpful to examine the situation on which the creative supervisor is to work. With what stuft is she to create? What is the job which supervisors, creative and scientific, must face these days to provide good working conditions? In the first place, they are to work with a teaching staff which has had insecurity as its constant companion now for several years. City schools now employ 18,000 fewer teachers than they did in 1930, and according to the reports of state superintendents there are approximately 200,000 certificated teachers who wish to teach but cannot secure employment. Since 1930 at least one in every seven cities has reduced its art, music, physical education, or health staffs. T hese are figures often seen, but when we view them in the light of our present problem wre realize that the situation in which teachers are working is at present one of insecurity and instability. Teachers are facing severe difficulties in classrooms today thru drastic reductions. Lack of ordinary teacher materials is common, and, at present many schools are operating with abnormal lack of equipment. Another diffi¬ culty, accentuated by this lack of equipment, is the sudden and unlooked for increase in enrolments. Lack of employment opportunities, want, cold, and hunger have sent many children to school and have increased enrolments at a time when provisions for children have dwindled. A third element in the general situation which creative supervision is supposed to struggle with is that of inadequacy of training of the teaching staff. I he statement that teachers are inadequately prepared for the re¬ sponsibilities put upon them has become a truism. We expect and have the less well-trained teachers in our one-room rural schools, but the situation is none too good even in the city elementary schools. We cannot say that the depression has drawn this discouraging picture of the training situation thruout the country; it always has been a bad one. The last few years with their decreased resources and increased responsibilities have encouraged us to examine the situation more critically than we have before. r [ 675 ] | 676 National Education Association 1 o add only one other element in this situation subject to change thru supervision, we may consider the status of the curriculum at the present time. Prom 1928 on thru 1930 was a period of intense curriculum revision. During that period 60 cities issued more than 170 new courses of study. Since 1930 the Office of Education has received copies of 59 course of study publications issued by state departments. This tremendous activity in making and remaking courses of study is both hopeful and discouraging. All this together, however, summarizes a rather disheartening picture of the situation in which the supervisors and directors of instruction now find themselves. If you are of the school which believes that starving artists create the best pictures, then there is much of hope in the situation for you. If you believe that it is the job of creative supervisors to provide healthful conditions, physical, mental, and emotional, in which good teaching may be done, then there is much work indicated in the pictures here drawn and many places in which the spirit of scientific inquiry may help. First, of course, the supervisors will employ it in locating the problems that are deterrents to teachers’ best work. Letting the program of improvement grow out of these problems is a different kind of supervision from that which starts with a preconceived, full-fledged plan for change. We cannot undertake to analyze these pressing problems, or to follow them thru their stages of investigation and experimentation. This is for other speakers and the new yearbook to do. However, we may examine a few problems which profes¬ sional literature indicates are fairly common, and see how scientific technics are an ally in solving them. One problem which continues to press for experimentation is that of determining proper teaching loads for individual teachers in elementary schools. The debate over generalist versus specialist continues. Changes in technics are frequent and rapid ; the terms in our pedagogic vocabulary show this. Diagnosis, remedial instruction, case study, timed test, contract, unit, job sheet, ability group, activity, aptitude test, individual drill card — these are only a few of the terms selected from the modern teacher’s vocabulary showing somewhat the range and degree of specialization neces¬ sary to keep in step with today’s methods. Besides these instructional responsibilities there is an ever-increasing range of extra-instructional activities in which schools, and therefore teachers, are asked to share. Because of these heavy demands, it seems inevitable that elementary schools must make some division of teachers’ responsibilities in order to accomplish their purposes. If some careful investigations of teachers’ preferences, teachers’ aptitudes, pupils’ reactions, and pupil growth could be made, we would have a better basis for making decisions in this matter which has so much to do with instructional efficiency. Another typical problem facing elementary supervisors is that presented by the group of new teachers coming into the school systems from teachers colleges. Everyone recognizes the splendid progress made by teachers colleges in arranging varied, practical teaching experience for each student. But even Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 677 yet it is difficult to give a prospective teacher adequate pre-training in situa¬ tions which are like the ones he will meet on the job. Every year into our rural and smaller town schools, and into our city elementary schools from their own city training schools, comes a new group of recruits. Immediately it becomes the task of supervisors and directors of instruction, of supervising principals, of follow-up supervisors from the teachers colleges, to find ways of capitalizing their fine enthusiasm, initiative, and energy ; their real intelligence and capacity for hard work ; their ambition for doing well what they have been getting ready for, for several long years. This problem repeats itself every year, and supervisors have done pioneer work on it. Just recently accounts are heard of the use of new teachers in a sort of internship in the schools for a year before they are finally appointed. This appears to have many good points: it actually places the new teachers and does not engender bad feeling toward the wffiole system of education by pre¬ paring people for work which they cannot find when they are ready for it ; it also helps greatly in the present seriously overcrowded condition of the schools in providing smaller classes, in aiding overworked teachers, and at the same time in giving a practical training on the job. From another city comes a report of the organization of panel discussion groups of the new teachers so that they may get acquainted, discuss their difficulties, compare notes. In still another city we read of a series of Satur¬ day demonstrations planned to help all comers (and all comers are volun¬ teers) in many of the hard situations which the supervisors find in their travels. Teaching load, new recruits, curriculum development are only part of the job, as every supervisor knows. But as illustrations they do fairly well if they will serve to indicate a few of the problems in which use of the scientific method offers to pay most handsomely in establishing a good grow¬ ing climate for teachers as well as for pupils. THE USE OF OBJECTIVE MEASURES IN EVALUATING INSTRUCTION WILLIAM A. BROWNELL, DUKE UNIVERSITY, DURHAM, N. C. There is a feeling in some quarters that classroom measurements which are not objective are of little worth for the evaluation of instruction. The feel¬ ing is not confined to a few college professors who think of measurement in terms of research and thus divorce teaching and testing. On the contrary, it is found all too commonly among administrative and supervisory officials and among teachers themselves. The prevalence of this emphasis on objective measurement in the classroom justifies, even demands, critical consideration. Upon examination objective measures are found to be objective only in the sense that they are agieed-upon values. Elsewhere, that is, everywhere except in the scoring, “objective” measures are characterized by subjectivity 678 National Education Association as are all other measures. Then, too, objectivity is not infrequently purchased at the expense of other aspects of measurement which are essential to the true evaluation and to the improvement of teaching. Thus, in their eagerness to secure objective measures teachers and supervisors may oftentimes fail to penetrate to the conditions hack of the objective measures and so de¬ prive themselves of the vital information they need for the directing of instruction. The great emphasis on objectivity in classroom measurement has arisen from a failure to distinguish between measures for the purposes of research and measures for use in teaching. It is only rarely that teachers and supervisors are called upon to engage in research : when they are, they need of course to concern themselves especially with objectivity in their measures; otherwise, they should be interested particularly in the compre¬ hensiveness and the validity of their measures. The over-emphasis on objectivity in classroom measurement has had two evil consequences. It has robbed teachers of their confidence in their judg¬ ment — and. judgment still remains the chief agency in evaluating the effec¬ tiveness of teaching. It has led to narrow measurement of educational out¬ comes. When only objective measures are acceptable, only a limited number of outcomes can be measured. The new technics for the measurement of “intangible” outcomes are still in an experimental stage. If required to measure objectively, the teacher measures what he can measure objectively and neglects other outcomes. The plea is not for the abandonment of objective measures, but for recog¬ nition of their limitations as well as for their values. Supervision can now perhaps best be improved by refining and correcting and bettering judgment instead of continuing to undermine it. PRESENTATION OF THE SEVENTH YEARBOOK: SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN SUPERVISION PAUL T. RANKIN, SUPERVISING DIRECTOR OF INSTRUCTION, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, DETROIT, MICH. The Seventh Yearbook, the third to deal with the scientific aspect of supervision, attempts to answer the question, “How can I as a supervisor incorporate the scientific procedure in each of my regular activities, and especially how can I utilize scientific method in organizing my entire supervisory program?” The point of view of the yearbook may be expressed in the form of four principles upon which there was general, informal agreement within the committee. The first is that supervision — the promotion of pupil growth thru teacher growth — is tremendously important in the educational pro¬ gram. The second principle is that supervision, since it deals with the educa¬ tion of the whole child, must reflect all major life emphases. The third principle is that scientific method, which has proved to be so powerful and so helpful an approach to the solution of the problems of technological ad- Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 679 \ ance of social and economic life, and of government, can be and must be applied increasingly to the solution of the problems of supervision. The fourth principle is that the scientific method can be applied to every activity in which supervisors engage. The yearbook is organized around the activities carried on by supervisors, lather than around the elements or the type applications of the scientific method in education. It is not a yearbook on scientific method in the abstract; it deals with supei vision, with the problems met by supervisors in the per- foimance of their legular duties, and with the use of the method of science m solving these problems. So far as this book is concerned, scientific method is a means, a means to the end of improved supervision, and, thru this, to improved instruction. Fhe material included may be grouped in three divi¬ sions. 1 he first two chapters present respectively introductory discussions of scientific method and of supervision. The next two chapters treat of the bearing of scientific procedure upon tw’o general aspects of supervision i the organization of supervision, and the planning of the supervisory program as a whole. The remaining five chapters present ways of utilizing the method of science in the conduct of five major activities of supervisors! appraisal, the piomotion of teacher growth, curriculum studies, the preparation of courses of study, and the selection and preparation of instructional materials. I he committee has spent considerable time in the preparation of this year¬ book. Because of our acquaintance with the book, we should perhaps point out the elements which seem to us especially new and suggestive. Here are five points which are considered significant. The first is the emphasis upon the public relations aspect of the work of supervisors. Second is the emphasis on the planning of the supervisory program as a whole in the . light of the situation which exists and the objectives which are sought. Third is the plea for the use by supervisors of all possible data which bear upon the ques¬ tions which confront them. Fourth is the series of suggestions offered in the application of scientific method to the development of courses of study, and to the selection and preparation of instructional materials. Finally, the com¬ mittee wishes to stress the attempt made in this yearbook to afford aid to supervisors in applying the principles of science to every major activity of supervisors. EVALUATION AND APPRAISAL OF THE YEARBOOK CLIFFORD WOODY, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN, ANN ARBOR, MICH. One outstanding feature of the present volume is its close relationship to previous contributions of the series. Quotations from the Third, Fourth, and Sixth Yearbooks used in furthering the discussion of the present volume not only attest to the value of the previous books but tend to connect this one with those that have gone before. The presentation of this report as the 680 National Education Association joint product of the committee as a whole also stamps it as a suitable com¬ panion for the previous volumes. The treatment of the concept “scientific method” is especially simple and lucid. The mere sound of these words often appalls the inexperienced and the inadequately trained, but when the concept is explained as “the solution of a problem on the basis of the facts” a great deal of the mystery of the term is removed. The characteristics of scientific method as gleaned from various books dealing with the procedure in sciences like psychology, as¬ tronomy, and bacteriology, and from those expounding the use of scientific procedure in various fields of learning, are illustrated with great simplicity and vividness. The committee in charge of the preparation of the Seventh Yearbook may have been a little more courageous than committees in charge of preparing other yearbooks in that the present committee has made some efforts to define supervision. The committee members charged with the responsibility of preparing the Fourth Yearbook, The Evaluation of Supervision , could reach no satisfactory definition of the term supervision so they omitted any effort to define it and proceeded to set up the criteria for measuring its effects. The committee in charge of the preparation of the present yearbook likewise has not exactly defined supervision but seems to have adopted what it terms an all-inclusive purpose of supervision, viz., “pupil growth thru teacher growth.” The committee in adopting such a conception of the function of supervision makes its function coterminous with the function of the school. Thus supervision, while primarily interested in pupil growth, must function very largely thru indirect means : the teachers, the parents, the community, the curriculum, supervisory meetings, supervisory bulletins, or the like. This conception of the function of supervision is very similar to that stressed in previous yearbooks as evidenced by quotations from the Third, Fourth, and Sixth Yearbooks. The members of the committee avoided any effort to set up the education values which should be sought either in education or in supervision. No doubt they had the feeling that they did not wish to consider themselves as an infallible educational dictatorial body or an educational supreme court and wisely stated that the values to be stressed must depend upon the philos¬ ophy of education prevailing in any given educational unit. The functions of supervision are very well outlined under the following headings: (1) study of the pupil, (2) training of teachers, (3) conduct of curriculum investigations, (4) preparation and installation of courses of study, (5) selection of textbooks and preparation of materials of instruc¬ tion, and (6) conduct of a public relations program. The discussion under each of these headings is very comprehensive and illuminating. The super¬ visor is surely given a comprehensive vision of the numerous and sundry tasks which fall to his lot. Both theoretical and specific suggestions are of¬ fered for utilizing scientific method in carrying thru certain types of super¬ visory undertakings. The supervisor is given hints as to the use of scientific Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 681 method on every hand. There is one omission, however. He is not told how to use scientific method in the evaluation of his own efforts. Possibly the cause for the omission is the modest efforts of the Fourth Yearbook, under the chairmanship of the writer, on The Evaluation of Supervision. Possibly the omission results from the acceptance of the all-inclusive function of super¬ vision— “pupil growth thru teacher growth”— with implications of wide¬ spread effects on all the various factors in the school environment, including effects on pupils, teachers, parents, and the community, the building, the curriculum, courses of study, materials of instruction, and the numerous devices for supervisory and administrative activities. The citizens of a community may be mystified at the nature of the activities in which a super¬ visor engages but they will not be over-awed by evidence or a plan for getting evidence for showing the relative achievements in systems with and without supervision. The worth of supervision is implied but not established. It would seem the addition of a chapter on the use of the scientific method in measuring the effects of supervision would have been advisable. One of the major characteristics of supervision as outlined in the Third Yearbook and adopted by the committee in charge of the present yearbook is that of being cooperative. committee apparently has accepted the principle of democratic par¬ ticipation and cooperative undertaking in the various supervisory activities. In many chapters the suggestions for utilizing the scientific method involve the principles of democracy and participation. While there is much evidence of supervision as a democratic and coopera¬ tive activity, one is often jarred in reading the yearbook by sentences and sections which seem to suggest that the supervisor, instead of being one of a group trying by means of collective efforts or group thinking to arrive at the solution of problems, is a trained leader with a scientifically developed program, consisting of both long time and short time planning, who is exercising all the powers at his command to get his fellow workers to accept the program. While there may be a conflict in statements concerning the provision for democratic participation in certain chapters of the yearbook, there is con¬ stant reference to the needs for working and planning with teachers. There are two implications made at various places in this yearbook that should prove a challenge to the membership of this Department : The first implication suggests that the supervisors are not utilizing the results of research and scientific method in their work as they should ; the second implication, that supervisors as a group are not engaging in creative research as they should. In general the yearbook is very challenging, as I hope is evident from this brief evaluation. The little summaries at the beginning of each chapter are very helpful. The book as a whole, while possessing a few inconsistencies, is remarkably consistent in thought and in pattern. Slight variations of the steps involved in the scientific solution of a problem appear in almost every chapter and efforts are made to illustrate the applications of these steps in 682 National Education Association dealing with the problem under consideration. Both the values of making application of scientific method and the limitations and difficulties of using such methods are pointed out. The definition of scientific method is broad enough to include the claims of both scientists and philosophers. The prac¬ tical suggestions offered in the different chapters should be helpful to super¬ visors in each of the various functions constituting the work of supervision. The committee faced a difficult task in the preparation of this yearbook, but the results of their efforts are deserving of highest commendations. PROSPECTUS OF EIGHTH YEARBOOK— MATERIALS OF INSTRUCTION FANNIE W. DUNN, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y., Chairman Recognizing the important part which materials play in any program of education, and the handicaps resulting from inadequate or unbalanced provi¬ sion, the Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction of the National Education Association has selected Materials of Instruction as the theme of its 1935 yearbook. The yearbook is designed to serve the Depart¬ ment and all others concerned with the promotion of modern programs of education. It is planned to include analysis of the services materials play in a modern educational program ; criteria, either compiled from prior studies or de¬ veloped specifically for this yearbook; reports of practise, both trends and selected superior cases; critical review of current recommendations; digests of prior studies, in cases where need for availability justifies; annotated short lists of materials for various purposes, authenticated and supported ; and bibliographies. The scope contemplated includes materials for the various aspects of the curriculum, both elementary and secondary, and also for child study and child accounting. Especial consideration will be given to the place and service of books in modern education. There will be treatment also of mate¬ rials of education afforded by the local environment. Both the library and the museum will be specifically discussed. In addition to general provisions for all aspects of instruction, there will be consideration of adaptations to meet individual and local needs, such as differences of schools, children, teachers, and communities; type situations, as large and small classes, city and country schools; and different plans of school organization or methods of instruction. Desirable modifications of school buildings and grounds will be treated as material conditions of de¬ sired adaptations, and the discussion of standard texts will be concerned with their service and selection for purposes of child study and individualization. A further section of the yearbook is planned to deal with the administra¬ tion and management of materials, including the part of administrator, super- Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 683 visor, teacher, and child therein, with especial consideration of the relation of the supervisor to the whole situation. Other members of the Eighth \ earhook Committee are Mildred English, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Raleigh, N. C. ; Helen H. Heyl, State Supervisor of Rural Schools, Albany, N. Y. ; Ernest Horn, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa; Helen M. Reynolds, Director, Kindergarten- Primary Grades, Seattle, Wash.; M rs. Margaret M. Smith, Principal, Ebert School, Denver, Colo; Maycie Southall, Peabody College for Teach¬ ers, Nashville, Tenn. ; Florence Stratemeyer, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. ; and Willis L. Uhl, School of Education, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash. THE TYPE OF INSTRUCTION DEMANDED BY THE PRESENT EDUCATIONAL AND SOCIAL CRISIS * E. W. BUTTERFfELD, STATE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, HARTFORD, CONN. As civilization rises luxuries become necessities. The first printed books were well illustrated and magnificently bound. They were badges of scholar¬ ship or they were family heirlooms. They were kept behind glass doors where they could be seen. Then came quantity production and the rising of the masses. I he library and the book became not signs of erudition or wealth but guides and companions. By this change in civilization time was abolished. Elaborate books are still published but the ones which the people read are the ones written in a language which they can understand on subjects in which they are interested and the ones published in a form which they can handle. Books are for use ; not for exhibition. The automobiles of 1900 were not speedy. They were not comfortable. They were unreliable in action. But they were costly and they were rare. It was a distinction to drive one and the owner was a public character. The possession of an automobile was a decoration which proved the owner was not as other men are. Then the number increased, the price dropped, and the automobile became not an indication of wealth but an implement of use. At this time distance was abolished. Imperial cars are still produced but those which crowd our highways are those which are dependable and unostentatious. Cars are for use; not for show. So with the American high schools. In 1900 our high schools became colleges in miniature. To attend was a distinction ; to graduate required a public exhibition. To send a son or daughter to the high school raised the social status of the family. A class pin, a class ring, and a cachophonic yell were badges which all respected. It mattered little what studies were pursued for attendance itself was a social decoration. Now it is no distinction to attend the high school. All youth is there and the common educational period which in the days of Horace Mann one hundred years ago went from ten to fourteen, has now in a generation gone from fourteen to eighteen. This tide will not recede for never again will 684 National Education Association there be employment for immature youth. Some 5,000,000 American boys and girls are attending high schools. They are doing this, not for the honor of it; not that they may wear an academic badge; but that they may use education in their daily lives. As with books and automobiles, production has gone up ; prices have come down ; high-school education is not for social honor but for daily use. Our schools face this new task. While children are still pupils, the schools are to educate all, to lead to social adjustments, to train for a mechanical age, and to give, thru club activities, thru music and art and moving picture appreciation and homemaking and beauty culture, the interests that will carry happiness thru many dull and sordid years. Happy is the boy or girl who can love or be loved, endure or be endured, as long as he lives by all classes and conditions of men, and this means wife and husband, children, sisters-in-law, traffic officers, mailmen and milkmen, near neighbors and their evening callers, tax collectors, pastors, radio an¬ nouncers, and all who daily share our few earthly roods. Fortunate is the boy or girl who, till the close of his days, can walk blithely thru a world of machinery and mechanical servants, who loves her vacuum cleaner, who suffers with his carbon incrusted spark plugs, who is at home with his violin, with her tulip garden, who can nurse back to health the invalided typewriter, sink drain, or oil burner, who, as master or mis¬ tress, can rule happily and with calm confidence the mechanical servants of our civilization and direct the genii that science has for us released. Blessed is the boy or girl who, for fifty years, will meet in turn pain, worry, poverty, loss of friends, hard work, generous in amount and monoto¬ nous in nature, and all of the woes and ills that flesh is heir to, and yet will search for no escape thru the door of despair, suicide, or insanity. For all, this is a world of social contacts to be enjoyed, of mechanical adjustments to be used, and of a hard, hard life to be endured, and the maintenance of adequate education includes the adjustment of schools to these needs. SELF-SUPERVISION BY TEACHERS, A PRACTICAL WAY OUT WILLIAM T. MELCHIOR, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION, SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY, SYRACUSE, N. Y. Not in this generation has there been so great a demand for creative genius and masterful leadership in supervision as right now. The public is demand¬ ing that supervisors give an account of their stewardship. Boards of educa¬ tion, taxpayers’ leagues, and mayors’ commissions are attempting to weigh the values of supervision to determine, if possible, whether it shall be con¬ sidered an indispensible science and art in the learning-teacher process or whether it shall be considered an educational luxury. Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 685 While supervision has been a fertile field for research, there are still many unsolved problems. At a time when such an educational science and social art as supervision is so critically suspended pending the outcome of laity opinion, it is imperative that the profession continue open-mindedly in its search for truth as to why there should be supervision, what should be done in supervision, and how it should be done. This discussion is concerned primarily with one of the “how’s,” namely, self-supervision. Supervision will reach its highest levels when it challenges teachers to solve their own instructional problems in the light of the best scientific information available. Supervision of the immediate present and future must liberate each teacher in his school, aid each one to become effi¬ cient in self-analysis, self-criticism, and self-improvement. A practical way out of our present condition is to substitute self-supervision for at least cer¬ tain types of supervision. Supervision is preclusion. Supervision must, in the future, avoid the tide¬ like social and economic conditions which will be prevalent. It will anticipate pitfalls, and, by constructive work, build safely over and across these re¬ lapsing pe'riods, in order that children may gain at all times by the foresight and wisdom of supervisory programs. With high-strung nerves and despair prevailing among so many adults, our boys and girls should find in their schools a place in which there is calm¬ ness and assurance. There they should experience constructive, life-building processes. Their teachers and their supervisors holding, as they do, the vital places of leadership, must be free from the shackles of tradition and must be actuated by a spirit of scientific inquiry. They must grow. Every week I linger for a day in schoolrooms where calmness does prevail, where teachers and pupils are living happily in the assurance of certain creative endeavors. These teachers are rich in philosophy, rich in hopes, ideals, beliefs, in culture, and understandings; they are rich in improved methods and improved management. Back of this is a self-supervisory program, based on the democratic and creative philosophy of modern education. This emancipating philosophy is gradually filtering thru an antagonistic attitude toward supervision, and is destined to change the entire life of teacher and pupil within the classroom. The only final defense for teachers’ and supervisors’ salaries is a proved ability. When supervisors prove to teachers their ability, and when pupils are really interested in school because good teachers are doing good teaching, then will parents become interested and become more loyal in their support. What doctor, lawyer, or preacher can depend year after year upon support unless he makes good ? He rises or falls on the basis of his activity. Modern supervision is interested in just that. How can supervision, curtailed as it now is, help teachers to help themselves make good in the immediate present ? The first direct challenge is that supervisors and teachers study, work, and improve, actuated by the scientific spirit of inquiry and diligent application and by the artist’s creative genius and unrequited toil. 686 National Education Association WISE AND UNWISE ECONOMIES IN A PROGRAM OF SUPERVISION E. E. OBERHOLTZER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, HOUSTON, TEXAS; AND PRESIDENT, DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE Any discussion of a program of supervision will necessarily involve some analysis of the functions of the different departments of the school organiza¬ tion. In this discussion no attempt is made to draw any fine distinctions or lines of demarcation between administration and supervision. The concep¬ tion of supervision which treats it as a creative, scientific, and cooperative enterprise more nearly fits the idea in the mind as to what constitutes an adequate program of supervision. Then, too, a program connotes plannipg, organization, and direction toward well-designated goals. A program of supervision which is adequate and economical must meet fully these provi¬ sions. Supervision is a creative enterprise. Among its objectives is that of the development of a group of professional workers who are trained'to attack their problem scientifically. A sound supervisory program must be based upon an adequate and comprehensive philosophy of education, the meaning of which must be mastered by teachers and supervisors. Generally speaking, the functions of supervision may be summarized under four main headings : inspection, research, training, and guidance. While recognizing the necessity of inspection for administrative purposes, there is a tendency in supervision to minimize inspection and to emphasize training. Both inspection and research become subsidiary functions to the training and guidance of teachers. The training program concerns itself with keep¬ ing the personnel informed and practised in the best educational procedures. It creates a responsive attitude, a mind alert to new ideas and methods, a desire to cooperate, and an inspiration and vision for creative and construc¬ tive effort. Summarizing, then, it is unwise economy in a program of supervision to leave teachers with unguided, uninspired leadership to develop by trial and error the many knowledges and practises involved in the complexities of teaching and learning. Thus economy in the program of supervision provides for fully qualified supervisory personnel adequate to organize a cooperative professional pro¬ gram based on a “mutual recognition of interests” of those becoming a part of the group affected. The creative supervisor is scientific-minded, and sym¬ pathetically social-minded. With understanding he strives for uniformity of purpose rather than uniformity of practise ; bases his findings and sugges¬ tions for improvement upon professional objectives and impersonal stand¬ ards built upon the findings of research and the best educational theory and practise and applied with the human element in mind. Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 687 SUPERVISION AND THE DEMOCRATIC WAY OF LIVING WORTH MC CLURE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SEATTLE, WASH. • In order to understand American education one must keep in mind its distinctively local and unpopular origin, unplanned by any individual or group but inevitably responsive to the evolving ideals and aspirations of thousands of far-flung local communities. What the people value most in life, American schools eventually reflect. Local educational programs change in consequence of community discus¬ sion and agitation ; of organized research by great universities and a national Office of Education, carefully shorn of all administrative functions; of propaganda brought to bear locally and nationally by pressure groups. Schools advance faster in some districts than in others. Such is the way of democracy. American educational aims — Analysis of trends reveals two apparently paradoxial poles around which American life and American educational efforts — however fumbling the approach — have been centered. These may be stated as follows: The sanctity of individual personality; and the general welfare of society. The influence of both of these values has been manifested, not only in the school program itself but in the related areas of religious instruction, organ¬ ized play and recreation, and the promotion of child care and protection. Originally concerned with the general uplift, these programs all take more and more the direction of capitalizing individual interests and capacities and meeting individual needs, of building individual personality. A nation of socialized individuals — There is no real paradox in these two aspirations. America desires that every child shall be adequately assisted to realize the best that is in him — to develop his talents to the utmost, whether he has one, two, or five. But America also purposes that he shall recognize his responsibility and obligation to devote these talents to the advancement of the general welfare, not to the exploitation of his neighbors in the interests of selfish acquisition. Every worthwhile goal of American life is compre¬ hended by these two aims. As education looks ahead it must do so on these terms. America must become a nation of socialized individuals. These individuals must be equipped thru training to make satisfactory personal adjustments to rapid change, and to deal intelligently with consequences as yet unre¬ vealed of economic and social evolution. What does this mean for the educa¬ tion of children? We shall concern ourselves with but four of the many possible implications. First of all it means a re-interpretation of school life. The life of the school is an important sector of the child’s experience. It is essential to revise the purposes which control that life. This is not to minimize the essential value of efficient organization. Organization and administration are but the means by which the educational aims of the school arc sought to be attained — the 688 National Education Association mechanical expressions of an educational program. The school head, if he has insight, gives them thoughtful attention in order that they may bulk less largely, rather than more largely, in the life of the school. He brings them into the focus of attention at times in order that they may be generally relegated to the fringe. He is quick to regard undue prominence of machinery as evidence of probable waste. He dominates organization and administra¬ tion that they may not dominate him. He evaluates them, not in terms of intricacy and mechanical cunning, but in terms of educational values served. The new guidance — A few generations ago when the function of educa¬ tion was to provide pupils fortunate enough to be able to continue in school with a working acquaintanceship with the three R’s, and when comparatively few pupils continued their school beyond that point, the guidance of pupils was a simple problem. American life steadily became more complex, however. America now has come to demand that all the children of all the people go to school and stay there for a definite number of years. American education for children falls far short in its sensitiveness to the need for guidance, or, as sometimes designated, for individualization. It is still too much dominated by the tradition of uniformity, still too willing to believe that children are not individuals, that recognition of individual tendencies may be postponed until adolescence, and to leave “broadening and finding” activities to the movement and similar attempts on the part of progressive educationalists. American philosophy for the education of children still has a long way to go in this direction. The times call for increasing emphasis upon character development. There is too much tendency in modern life to interpret success in terms of tangibles and not enough tendency to view it in terms of those intangible values which nevertheless represent in themselves certain indestructible satisfactions at¬ tainable by those whose lives are useful to their fellowmen. There is nothing particularly new about this idea of character building, of course. Good teach¬ ers and good schools have always been concerned about character growth. It is apparent, however, that efforts in the past have frequently been either somewhat narrow in scope, that is, limited to one type of approach, such as direct ethical instruction or pupil self-government, for example ; or they have been carried on by teachers as individuals without any attempt at coordinated effort. What is indicated for the future is that there shall be first of all a broad understanding of what is meant by character education. Character edu¬ cation in America is the mastery of a truly democratic way of living. The coordination of community life — A corollary of the point of view that character education is the development of a democratic way of living is the necessity for coordination of all the sectors of the child’s experience to the end that they shall be individually and socially productive. The family is already on the way to closer understanding with the school in the trend toward parental education. Educational leaders must encourage this trend. Religious education, public recreational and character building agencies need Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 689 to be more closely related to the schools* The schools should not hesitate to take the initiative in bringing together such a pooling of constructive agencies and focusing their attention upon conditions jeopardizing the inter¬ ests of childhood. Education, as every other constructive agency, must project itself into the future and assist to bring under control the destructive forces which, like Victor Hugo’s runaway cannon, now batter relentlessly at the vitals of the ship of state. The new school of democracy will take form out of the purposes which constitute the “American dream.” Its philosophy will be constructive, not one of mere suppressive dissent. Its organization will be simple; attuned carefully to its purposes. Its daily life and discipline will be continuously adapted to new concepts of democratic aims. In guiding this new school none may share more richly in enlarged vision of service than the teaching staff, who will be led in cooperative endeavor, let us hope, by enlightened supervisors and principals. EVALUATING CLASSROOM WORK INGA OLLA HELSETH, DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION, COLLEGE OF WILLIAM AND MARY, WILLIAMSBURG, VA. The teacher must have a big vision for education if he is to evaluate in fundamental terms. He must see education in terms of growth in human¬ kind and in individuals. He must see our own era as one of basic change. (Compare era of political revolution or era of industrial revolution.) Too much attention tends now to be concentrated on mechanical advances, mate¬ rial results, and pressing annoyances of the moment. More attention should be given to mankind’s search for understanding of how the individual may become a finer personality and understanding of how man may act coop¬ eratively for greater joy of all. The teacher needs to consider changes in American life. Lay forefathers in a pioneer time had vision for schools that gave literacy while education came in home, kitchen, dairy, store, and church. Children participated in varied adult activities. Changes caused children to lose opportunities for education thru participation and made unsatisfactory the school’s formal efforts to aid literacy. The modern classroom teacher is slowly achieving a conception for a total education for the learner in the modern type of community. This conception of a new day in the classroom affects every part of educa¬ tion — purposes, teacher-learner relationships, technics of pupil and teacher, course of study, books, schedules, organization, equipment, building, super¬ visory and administrative activities. With varied purposes and technics, many shall be evaluating — parents, patrons, board members, community leaders, scholars, administrators, super- 690 National Education Association visors, teachers, and most important of all, learners. The evaluations should be in terms of : 1. Growth— showing practical detailed steps forward to highest ideals conceivable at present. 2. Flexibility to permit reflective thinking to modify. 3. Pi ocesses of growth rather than elements of products. 4. Modifications of educational processes while learner is in action. 5. Modifications of educational institutions and agencies while learner is in action. 6. Content involving problems and situations near to the advancing point in man¬ kind s development in order that there may be hope of transfer by the average intelligence to the problems and situations of the next adult generation. 7. C onception of education as an ongoing process for the whole of individual’s life, not for formal school days nor formal school hours within those days. 8. Learner with responsibility and freedom, integrating a personality from life experiences. 9. Active participation in continuous gradual reconstruction of social relation¬ ships, processes, and institutions of the group from birth to death. 10. Chance for learner to be well born into favorable home and community sur¬ roundings and leadership held as important as chance for proper school conditions and leadership. Evaluation in such terms will mean gradual constructive modification at every point of present practise: 1. Using machinery for lockstep movement such as groupings and promotions. 2. Teaching within subjects such as reading, composition, and arithmetic. 3. Checking on individual learner. 4. Employing teachers. 5. Acting in classrooms — thinking, planning, using materials, and maintaining conditions for work. (Consider each of these points by imaginatively visiting in turn six classrooms, each successive classroom a step higher on the scale.) Evaluation in such teims is practical insofar as education leaders catch vision and become devoted, continuous students, and public begins to think in such terms under guidance. SECRETARY’S MINUTES Cleveland, Ohio The fourteenth annual meeting of this Department comprised two general ses¬ sions and a Tuesday luncheon, as in other years. The Board of Directors met at breakfast on Monday and the Membership Committee on Tuesday. At the two gen¬ eral sessions the attendance was in the aggregate considerably larger than at Min¬ neapolis. So many members dropped in for the Monday breakfast that a general invitation will be extended next year. First Session, Tuesday Morning, February 27, 1934 1 he theme of the first general session was the same as that of the current Seventh \ earbook, T he Use of Scientific Method in Supervisory Programs,” but only the last two of the five papers read related to the yearbook. Miss Goodykoontz, speak¬ ing on “Scientific Method and Creative Supervision,” took the position that truly Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 691 scientific work is creative, and gave examples from nationwide observation. Miss Hall, in her paper on “Scientific Method and Cooperative Supervision,” gave an account of some twelve achievements in the Minneapolis schools. Professor Brownell brought out forcibly the limitations of “Objective Measures in Evaluating Instruc¬ tion.” “The more objective the measure,” he declared, “the more superficial and unimportant it is.” His analysis of the falsity of conclusions frequently drawn from classroom tests was striking. Professor Rankin explained the purpose and plan of the yearbook and summed up each of the nine chapters. Professor Woody sup¬ plied the critical approach to a proper appreciation of the book. Second Session, Wednesday Morning, February 28, 1934 The theme of the second general session was “The Redirection of the Educational Program To Meet the Needs of the Present Crisis.” Commissioner Butterfield of Connecticut dealt with “The Type of Instruction Demanded.’ His paper was humor¬ ous and highly stimulating. He showed by concrete instances how times have changed, and outlined a five-point educational program to meet them. Miss Zirbes pressed home “The Challenge of the Present Crisis for a New Type of Supervision.” Professor Melchior showed how “Self-Supervision by Teachers” may be made to help meet the need. He made an interesting reference to certain experiences in South America. Finally, Superintendent Oberholtzer, president-elect of the Depart¬ ment of Superintendence, distinguished “Wise and Unwise Economies in a Program of Supervision.” At the business meeting following the general session on Wednesday, five mem¬ bers were elected to the Board of Directors for a term of three years, namely, Mary Browning of Louisville, Ky., Elizabeth Hall of Minneapolis, Minn., Elma Neal of San Antonio, Texas, Paul T. Rankin of Detroit, Mich., and Franklin M. Underwood, of St. Louis, Mo. Meeting of the Board of Directors, Monday, February 26, 1934 At the meeting of the Board of Directors the following were present: Directors-at- Large English, Hahn, Hall, Horn, Hosic, Kibbe, and Neal; also Director Power of Oklahoma and Mary E. O’Connor, of Natick, Massachusetts, proxy for Director Piper from that state. The minutes of the Minneapolis meeting as printed in Educational Method for April 1933, were approved. The financial report, including a comparative statement for 1932-33, 1933-34, and a forecast for 1934-35, was accepted; likewise a report of the Auditing Committee, composed of J. Cayce Mor¬ rison, chairman, Sim J. Smith, and Lawrence S. Chase. This committee met in New York, November 24, 1933, and examined the financial accounts of the secretary- treasurer, checking them against his financial report for the year July 1, 1932, to June 30, 1933. The committee found this report correct as rendered. It also inquired into the system of auditing in use in relation to the Teachers College Bureau of Publications, publishing agent for the Department. Finally, the committee recom¬ mended the separation of checking account and savings account as items under “Cash in Bank,” and also that the budget should show comparisons of each item with the corresponding item for each of the two preceding years. The Board directed the appointment of an auditing committee for the ensuing year and requested that recommendations as to financial policy be included in its report. A single half-day session of the Department was ordered for the summer meeting in Washington. This will be in charge of Leonard Power, first vicepresident. The work of the Membership Committee, under the leadership of Maybell G. Bush, was commended. It was agreed that the organization of state affiliates should be encouraged. 692 National Education Association The possibility of issuing certain numbers of Educational Method as double num¬ bers devoted largely to special subjects was discussed without formal action. This matter will be acted upon by the Executive Committee. The report of the nominating committee, Miss Neal, chairman, Miss Hahn, and Mr. Power, proposed the following: for president, Paul T. Rankin of Detroit, Mich., first vicepresident, Leonard Power of Tulsa, Okla.; second vicepresident, Helen J. Piper of Lynn, Mass.; Member of Executive Committee to succeed Miss Hall, Mildred English of Raleigh, N. C. DEPARTMENT OF Supervisors and Teachers of JTome Economics HISTORICAL NOTE At the Atlanta meeting of the Association in 1929 the necessary peti¬ tion for the formulation of a Department of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics was presented to the Representative Assembly and to the Executive Committee. This petition was presented by the National Conference of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics. In 1930 at the Columbus , Ohio , meeting the Department was created by formal vote. The former home economics organization has had a history rich in accomplishments. Its good work will continue as a department of the Association. The officers of the Department for the year 1934-35 are: president, Leila Buncc, Supervisor of Home Economics , Fulton County High Schools , Atlanta , Ga.; vicepresident, Ada Kennedy, Head, Home Eco¬ nomics Department, John Muir Technical High School, Pasadena, Calif. ; secretary, Alice L. Currier, Supervisor of Home Economics, 12 Howard Avenue, Pawtucket , R. I.; treasurer, Miriam A. Weikert, Home Edu¬ cation Adviser for York County, 1203 South Queen Street, York, Pa, Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of its meetings may be found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 1931 \825-844 1932:695-712 19 33:697-708 [ 694 ] THE CONSUMER IN THE NEW CITIZENSHIP CAROLINE F. WARE, MEMBER OF THE STAFF OF THE CONSUMERS’ ADVISORY BOARD OF THE NATIONAL RECOVERY ADMINISTRATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. ^rpuiE new citizenship in 1934 is economic citizenship. We have denied 1 that citizenship to our ten million unemployed. Our problem is to do in the economic field what our ancestors did in the political field, i.e., to bring a shift from the idea that the state (formerly the political state, now the economic), is for the personal use of those who control it, to the idea that it must be operated for the use and benefit of all. The home economists are in a particularly good position to lead in that shift. They have focused on the needs of people and have looked at products for their usefulness, not their profitableness. The thinking of most of our producers has not kept pace with changes in technic. Short-sightedly, many try to make profit out of scarcity when the economic machine will only operate on the basis of abundance. The con¬ sumer thus becomes the key to an effectively operating economic system. We must work out methods of rewarding the producer who serves the consumer. Consumers traditionally have been apathetic, even making some advertisers think that they like to be fooled. You home economists know better. The consumer interests need to be positively represented — e.g., the balance implied in the NRA advisory boards, for business, labor, and the consumer. On many other matters of public policy the consumer view is important — e.g., banking and the question of purchasing power, wages adequate to pro¬ vide purchasing power, insurance, etc. The consumer view is necessary to give balance. Consumers should share in the administrative end of produc¬ tion. Industry would benefit by knowing the potential consumer demand and by producing to meet it. The diets prepared by the Bureau of Home Eco¬ nomics could be used to figure how much acreage would be needed if all con¬ sumers ate well. It is more difficult to make estimates for industrial products. Here is a challenge for home economists. The latter need to work to deter¬ mine consumer needs and desires in order to furnish guides to industrjL Consumers should know the nature of an industry and its products in order to take the profit out of “gypping” and put it into service. More exten- tive use of quality standards would help here. It is necessary to study whether industry is run efficiently from the viewpoint of service to consumer and to bring pressure to have it so run. Again, here is a great opportunity for con¬ sumer education open to home economists. If home economists will earn the “economist” part of their name in terms of an economy of abundance, they can lead the way toward an economic state in which we can all be proud of our citizenship. [ 695 ] 696 National Education Association OCCUPATIONAL ADJUSTMENT IN THE NEW CITIZENSHIP t ROBERT HOPPOCK, ASSISTANT TO THE DIRECTOR, NATIONAL OCCUPATIONAL CONFERENCE, NEW YORK, N. Y. In approaching this new problem more attention must be given to the distribution of human material in terms of numbers; there should be more conscious effort to view the problem scientifically rather than emotionally. The problem confronting us now is to provide enough jobs to go around. The ultimate solution of this problem is still a question. However, a new step has been taken by the government in acknowledging it can do something about an economic depression. A factor in solving this problem is to deter¬ mine how many should be trained in each occupation. Occupational quotas may be the answer; work has been started to learn possible future occupa¬ tional openings. In time we may hope for a definite and constructive ap¬ proach to this problem. Then by persuasion and education it is hoped to steer people into channels where they may later find employment. Another problem is the fitting of the job to the ability of the person. Some work has already been done on this line. The matter of finger dexterity has been studied. Considerable accuracy in determining finger dexterity can be obtained by applying the results of this study. Another problem is helping people to get into occupation that will bring an optimistic amount of satis¬ faction, i.e., the emotional reaction of each person to his job. Comparisons of teachers who like their jobs with teachers who are dis¬ satisfied have revealed a number of surprising relationships between job satisfaction and other factors. The satisfied teachers were on the average seven and one-half years older, ten pounds heavier, more of them were married. More of the satisfied teachers regarded themselves as religious; but fewer of them felt forced to do things which hurt their consciences. Thirty percent of the dissatisfied group answered “yes” to the question “Do you have to do things in your job that hurt your conscience?” Forty percent answered “yes” to the question “Is there too much politics in your job?” Three-fourths or more of both groups felt that their jobs gave them a fine opportunity to help others. About one-fourth of the dissatisfied teachers said they were not happy when fourteen to eighteen years old and they had a strong desire to run away from home. About the same number were “shy with other children” and had parents who were not happily married. Over 90 percent of both groups said that they liked children. Apparently job satisfaction is affected by many factors which have not ordinarily been considered by teachers, parents, and employers. It may be that the effect of early home training on a developing personality has more to do with subsequent job satisfaction than any other factor. Job satisfaction and emotional stability are closely related and anything which can be done to help children in stabilizing their emotions is a step toward founding happier homes. Department of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Econclmics 697 EDUCATION FOR THE NEW CITIZENSHIP JOHN W. WITHERS, DEAN, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION", NEW YORK UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. We are entering a new era, i.e., either a time of great advancement or a prolonged period of uncertainty and suffering. The hope for national safety and advance lies in the education of our young people. Their problems are more difficult than any which ever confronted any people. There is need for a change in the major emphasis of education. In the past its interest has centered in education devoted to knowledge and skills in machinery, industry, commerce, and the production of wealth. Large sums have been devoted to scientific research along these lines and the results have been astounding. The question now is “Have we reached the maximum of efficiency in these lines?” Not the elimination of labor but its redirection is the great need of today. We have learned how to manage our resources, now we must learn how to manage ourselves ; wTe need instruction and research in human relations, how to serve more efficiently and how to live richer and more wffiolesome lives. The forces of education are too little concerned in understanding life outside of the halls of learning. A more careful selection and higher education for teachers must be re¬ quired if we are to fit pupils for this New7 Deal. This more profound preparation should include the study of life as it is now going on ; education must be seen in its relation to the activities of life. Our teaching methods must be modified and our objectives changed. It is not enough to master knowledge so that we may solve problems of primary interest to ourselves; emphasis must be placed on our responsibility to the rank and file of our fellows and to our community. We should foster ideals to create eternal values rather than spend our strength in making things to be consumed by the makers. WOMEN IN THE CITIZENSHIPS OF YESTERDAY, TODAY, AND TOMORROW MRS. MARY R. BEARD, AUTHOR, NEW MILFORD, CONN. In Germany reversion to the war spirit is setting the wThole world flaming with a renewed zeal for battle. Our own nation rushes to enlarge its navy, increase its number of bombing planes, recede from bold talk about dis¬ armament, and take up the matter of woman power in the next war with the firm intention of using it more abundantly. In these circumstances, home economics, child psychology, equal opportunity as between the sexes, if still timely themes and realities, have a timeliness which reaches to all the shores of action and thought. 71 hey become involved in the wide current of events where a battle to the death is being fought between civilization and barba¬ rism, once again, as it has been fought many times before, and often to the defeat of civilization. Our very lives are at stake as well as our ideals. 698 National Education Association Nor is it from Europe alone that the peril to life and the civilization rest¬ ing on reason and understanding rather than on force arises. In our own nation the family is losing ground too. It is meeting its rival in undomesti¬ cated nomads, some of them legionnaires; in landless, homeless, and toolless men and women thrown for sustenance on reduced resources, wandering to and fro across the continent looking for food, clothing, and shelter and finding little, if any, of the one or the other. America has witnessed many migrations representing the wanderers of the world, but none like this latest migration. Hitherto men and women moved from the east to the west mainly in family groups, except during a gold rush or some other temporary excitement when the chances of gain were extraordinarily promising. They often had a little capital in hand. They took with them plows and cattle and household goods with which to make new settlements on the land. If they went singly they could count on independence as tillers of the soil, as teachers, lawyers, journalists, merchants, or day laborers of some sort. But today even the nomadic families who work in the cranberry bogs, in the lettuce patches, at picking peas, or gathering fruits, are meeting their Waterloo. The most that a contemporary wanderer can hope for is to secure a post of dependence on someone else. The independence of farming families so characteristic of our young republic is becoming an anachronism, as the republic ages. Forsaking a factory job in New England to teach on the frontier is no longer a romantic exchange for an American maiden. A young man hesitates to seek his fortune and affect politics by setting up a country newspaper in a rising town or hanging out his shingle as a lawyer in the unexploited west. Women can count on less success as traveling sales¬ men, Emma McChesney style. Individuals can rely no more on being able to tuck in somewhere on the lower levels of employment or to discover the proverbial room at the top. Not only is the family breaking down in America but with its collapse comes the collapse of the individual. I do not have at hand the figures of this wreckage. There are of course figures on family relief which may be procured from its administrators. The figures on roving are not so easily procurable, if possible to get at all. Nor do the statistics of unemployment, marital status, or public relief indi¬ cate in its fullness and perfection in any case the social drama being played around us at this hour. Mothers are quietly looking for paid work tho not listed as unemployed. The sex struggle over paid jobs is day by day intensi¬ fying. Social unrest is reaching the stage of riots. There are calls for revolu¬ tion. The cry of pacifists is being lost in the war cry. Reason loses its grip on our brain cells. Thought becomes paralyzed. Fear conquers all. In such a situation what is citizenship today? And what relation does home economics bear to it now? One reads this declaration in the utterances of home economics leaders: “The teaching of home economics would soon become stale and largely unprofitable without research and new knowledge.” Our comment may well be that the necessary research and new knowledge must take account of the total situation in which the home functions, if at Department of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics 699 all — namely of political economy as a whole. While it is well to note and encourage the ten major departments of the federal government which per¬ form services for the home, the role of family income in home life is even more basic than these. The scheme for home economics teaching and culture which limits its enterprise to the best use of an economy of scarcity, is far too narrow. Such a scheme becomes too “precious,” too specialized, too blind to the risks of a steadily lowering scarcity, too indifferent to the potentialities of plenty. And thus we come to the vital issue of women and citizenship. The family culture is preeminently the woman’s culture. And it is the woman’s culture which is being preeminently undermined. But with respect to what lies ahead women seem less concerned than men. At least they are less articulate with plans for the future. This I attribute in large part to the fact that women are a lost sex — a sex lost to itself as far as knowledge of its past goes and a sex left out of modern written history which passes as authoritative. Thus women in these days have almost no historical consciousness of women. But if the subject that was assigned me — “Women in the Citizenship of Today, Yesterday, and Tomorrow” — is timely, that timeliness has a time depth which, unrecognized, nevertheless appears to me to be a basic fact in the case of woman and citizenship. Out of men’s knowledge of men’s past undoubtedly arises a masculine feeling for masculine power which eventuates in such social phenomena- as dictatorships, Caesarism, Napoleonism, rebellion, constitution-making, po¬ litical party insurgency, and war. Students in our lower schools and in our colleges all study the history of the male. They read it, they discuss it, they write themes upon it, they ponder upon it. It stamps itself upon their intel¬ ligence. It makes an indelible impression upon their emotions. Great men have been close students of the history of men. Man is great in proportion to his astuteness in understanding the history of man. That knowledge gives him the materials with which to work efficiently for the ends which he sets for himself. That knowledge tends to give him even a mastery over women — intellectual and emotional mastery. Women know practically nothing of their own past. There is no time depth to their timely interests. In scarcely a classroom of this vast continent is a single course given on the history of woman. For scarcely a teacher in this broad land knows that woman has a history of her own. The thesis has become an idee fixe that woman has been a subject sex thruout the ages — subject to the will and purposes of man. Even energetic American women fancy that their sex has hut recently waked from the sleep of the centuries and is therefore too inexperienced in citizenship to he able to take a clear-cut and indomitable stand on social problems. Women have a consciousness of kind, but almost no knowledge of kind. I should like to go into the reasons for this anomaly but I must restrict myself instead to a hasty sketching of woman as the citizen of yesterday in order to emphasize the need of filling up the gap in her training. 700 National Education Association Par from a subject sex were the first women whom we meet in history as it now unfolds, that is, the history revealed thru anthropological research. This research awards to primitive woman the credit for launching civiliza¬ tion itself. It ascribes to her the first “creative intelligence” by the exercise of which human life was given a sharp distinction from animal life. In brief, anthropologists say that she invented all the industrial arts, such as cooking, brewing, making stoves, spinning, weaving, butchering, and tanning. They declare her to be the original doctor and nurse. Some scholars are convinced that woman was the discoverer of agriculture — hence of the hearth and home. Woman was the first owner of land. She may have tamed special ani¬ mals for her domestic and industrial needs, such as the wildcat to ward off vermin from her larder, the ancestor of the donkey to serve as a beast of burden, and the milk-giving creatures to aid her in feeding her young. A personality so ingenious, even if but a part of this handsome record is justly hers, lifted her mate above the status of a wild biped however brawny were his muscles and savage his temper. We should be gnawing our bones raw like the dogs if it were not for primitive woman. Verbal legends among people still possessing no written literature, to something like a fifty-fifty percent, make woman the fire-finder. That we are not all nomads still, pure and simple, is due to the excitement of the first women over agriculture and their persistent and loving farming. The family and creative labor were woman’s contributions to the social order. That was citizenship at the start. Then in the time depth which is history we meet the woman citizen on a higher level where ideas about society at large take form. Altho it is customary to attribute only to men the building of the systematic thought of Greece, the truth is that women had a vital share in that building and that many of its features reflect the feminine nature and point of view. One who examines the ancient writings themselves instead of modern interpreta¬ tions of those writings learns that women were members of all the Greek schools of philosophy and sometimes heads of them. They were articulate as well as receptive. Men were not ashamed to be understudies of intellectual women. For instance Zeno, the founder of the great Stoic sect, had attended a school of philosophy at Megara over which Eukleides presided. All the Megarans were forbidden at that time to visit Athens at will and so she was wont to steal into the city at night, heavily shrouded, to hold talks with Socrates, and slip out at dawn stealthily. And wherever one explores into Greek social thought — and Greek thought was distinctly social — one comes upon the challenging minds of women, their expressions of opinion, their movement over the islands wTere the “idea of the idea” was being developed,' and their interest in the “golden mean,” for example, for wdiich the Greeks remain so famous. The Greeks were profiting by the primitive inventions and moving on to a consideration of what the mind and emotions signify. Mounting to another level in the time depth which is history we arrive at the citizenship which bears the impress of the Roman woman. While a high degree of classical education was attained in Rome and that by the patronage Department of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics 701 of ladies to a notable extent, it was the love of power and pomp which stands out as the emphatic trait of dominant Roman women and men in the imperial age at least. The transition from a republic to an empire was by no means the work of men alone. Many women of the Caesars, as Ferrero and others show, were as avaricious, as blood-thirsty, as imperialistic, as pleasure-craving, and as unscrupulous as the Caesars themselves. And times without number the history of Rome was made by women directly, power falling to them as heads of the great clans when the male chieftains were dead. And the male chieftains rarely died natural deaths. Wars, murders, orgies, and other catastrophies bore the men to premature graves and fre¬ quently left women in charge of the clans. Since the story of all Rome is the story of clan rivalry and rule, the story of all Roman citizenship is warmly colored with feminine ambition and will. Women had a direct and masterful role in the drama of Roman imperialist power. They helped to make Roman civilization. They likewise helped to destroy it. They led indeed in the withdrawal from the responsibility of citi¬ zenship which eventuated in the widespread system of monastic culture. With the wealth of Roman ladies, the Christian Church floated the organi¬ zation of celibate retreats many of which were early established on rich women’s existing estates and others on land which they bought for the purpose. Women took a lively part in the quarrels over creeds and the de¬ termination of the dominant doctrines of Christendom, even to the decisions relative to the meaning of sex. Thru the pressure, the watching, and the warding of women, the Dalmation monk, Jerome, was made to prepare the Latin version of Christendom’s Bible. On occasion women made and unmade popes. But later they acquired a sense of obligation to barbaric Europe. It was not only in the realm of other-worldly speculation, not only in pre-occupation with the self-perfective agencies of fasting, hymning, and praying, not only in the task of building up the huge clerical estate that medieval nuns were employed. They were undertaking new tasks of civilization concerned with mortal life even while they attempted to get ready for the life hereafter. In W oman under Monasticism, Lina Eckenstein produces innumerable scenes in that medieval drama of citizenship which the nuns enacted. They were often great feudal barons with all the rights and. prerogatives of such. They were also great teachers, scientists, doctors, nurses, writers, and counselors about civic affairs. 1 hey aided in paving the way toward the modern age. Out of imperialist defeatism they helped to erect a feudalism which flowered in national states and in the Renaissance. Coming up thru the time depth which is history to the era of national states we meet there in the stratum nearer our own time, more women — pre-machine-age women, women on horseback with a flair for politics. There was for instance Isabella who did so much to unify Spain, compel it to catch up with Italian culture (then catching up with classical art and philosophy), and launch it on its over-sea career. Neighboring France in rich measure owes its rise to effective statehood to three women : Christine de Pisan, 702 National Education Association Jeanne d’Arc, and Agnes Sorel. Amid feudalism, the first of these ham¬ mered in the idea of business enterprise and the value of a middle class, among other things. The second inspired the military energy essential for unification and independence. The third kept the weak king on his feet after Jeanne d’Arc lifted him from his knees. So in England, it was Eliza¬ beth, now meeting her due in a competent biography by John Neale, who made her will count in the rise of the English State, in its ambitions, and in its triumphs. In the eighteenth century women rulers were the dictators of Europe for more than a quarter of a century. Let us not forget Elizabeth and Catherine of Russia, Maria Theresa of Austria, the Spanish and Swedish royal careerists, or the girl-queen, Marie • Antoinette, when we think of women and citizenship. But we rise now from the time depth which is history to these, our times. Not however until we have passed thru strata revealing home economists of the houshold industry era. There we have as our guide Alice Clark, who drew such a vivid and scholarly picture of English society, The Working Life of Woman in the Seventeenth Century. The kind of women she por¬ trays working at household affairs made the American Revolution practical. Their citizenship in a new world was essential to independence. The crafts¬ manship of women and the output of their skills furnished to royal governors and other observers in America signs of the coming political storm. Mean¬ while women mathematicians, traders, landlords, planters, tillers of the soil, teachers, doctors, and thinkers, were, like men, advancing the arts of busi¬ ness and philosophy by means of which a republic could make its debut among monarchies. The republic was captured by captains of industry armed with machines, after agrarians tried to hold it but failed. And this change in political economy brought on the feminist movement in the shadow of which we pursue our discussion of home economics, woman, and citizenship. I call feminism a shadow because its substance is laissez faire, free and ruthless competition, the ethics of each one for himself and the devil take the hind¬ most, the psychology of superiority and inferiority induced by what is termed “success.” Recently however there was discernible no shadow to be associated with feminism. The substance which it actually reflected seemed a pure white light. Now we seem to be in the dusk, not the dawn, of feministic competition ; in the dusk, not the dawn, of masculine competition free and untrammeled, at any rate. The state of the world in 1934 can hardly be missed by any literate person and for nearly every citizen its tragedies penetrate to the heart. Mutual aid is the crying need of a society devastated by an excess of individualism. In this crisis will women be the cultural laggards of history? Or will the imprint of their personalities on citizenship demonstrate a new force, a keener reasoning, a genuine contribution to mankind in its ascent from primitive life and labor, thru greedy acquisition and reckless enjoyment, out of irrationality and mysticism and sheer self-perfection, toward demo¬ cratic perfection — toward a society properly fed, clothed, and sheltered, Department of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics 703 valuing homemaking as one of its finest arts, yet ethically advanced and providing for the broad social arts? If American women, members of the National Education Association and others, decide to make efficient living general and the good life for all their dream and practical goal, they may conceivably do the most creative thing in all social history up to date. I o so create, however, women must make radical moral, ethical, and esthetic decisions. When primitive woman started civilization all she had to work with was roots and fibres, fire stones and water holes, nuts and fruits, wild beasts and her skeptical mate. Today the American woman has for her tools a technology of infinite potentiality, the i aw material of political organization, an elastic governmental practise, liter¬ acy, and a great energy cultivated by physical and mental hygiene. What use will she make of her extraordinary opportunities? Has she grown lethargic intellectually? Or has she, too, the cunosit)^ and the zeal of the first women who made civilized life possible at all ? (< We have been told repeatedly by the pious that in the beginning was the Word.” But anthropologists now insist that in the beginning was “joy and art for life’s sake.” These were distinctly feminine traits. They seem pri¬ mordial. In the end they may prove effective in saving mankind from its self-destructive tendencies which developed partly thru excess devotion to the Word and partly thru the rise of opportunities for greed. Out of the power which women have shown may flower the power for the lack of which society perishes. But if so, women must cease to be the lost sex _ the sex lost even to itself. SECRETARY’S MINUTES Washington, D. C. Business Meeting, Monday Afternoon, July 2, 1934 The business meeting of the Department was held in the Hall of Service, D. C. Chapter, American Red Cross. Carlotta C. Greer called the meeting to order. The minutes of the last business meeting held in Cleveland, February 24, 1934, were read and approved. Mary M. Buckley, chairman of the Membership Committee, presented the report of her committee which was accepted. Miss Greer explained that a comprehensive leport from the Nutrition Committee, Ada Hess, chairman, had been mimeographed and copies were ready for distribution to the members of the department. The report of the Economics Committee, Benjamin Andrews, chairman, was read and approved. The report of the Bibliogrhphy Committee, Beulah I. Coon, chairman, was read and approved. Mary M. Buckley, treasurer, gave the financial report of the department. It was accepted. A motion presented by Emma S. Jacobs was carried to request all city supervisors o home economics to endeavor to raise $5 for use by the department as an emergencv fund. J The following members of a Resolutions Committee were named by the chair: Mary Gale Cawthorn, Mrs. Mabel L. Rees, Katherine Kearney. i 704 National Education Association The report of the Visual Education Committee, Rose Marie Kronmiller, was read and approved. Emma S. Jacobs, as representative to the National Council of Education, reported. A discussion as to what day or days to hold the February meeting was opened and it was suggested it be held on the Saturday previous to the meeting of the Department of Superintendence of the N. E. A. The report of the Nominating Committee, Lora Lewis, chairman, was presented and accepted. (See Historical Note, p. 694.) DEPARTMENT OF Teachers (Colleges HISTORICAL NOTE The department of teachers colleges takes the place of the Depart¬ ment of Normal Schools , zvhich zvas formed at the Cleveland meeting , August 19, 1870, by a reorganization of the American Normal School As¬ sociation zvhich had been organized in 1858. See proceedings, 1870:176; 1906:524. In 1924 it zvas voted to appoint a committee to discuss the pos¬ sibility of combining with the American Association of Teachers Colleges. See proceedings, 1924:614. In 1925 the combination zvas effected. It zvas arranged that the National Education Association take over the publica¬ tions of the American Association of Teachers Colleges, including its yearbook, in 1926. The officers of the Department for the year 1934-35 are: president, H. L. Donovan, President, Eastern Kentucky State Teachers College, Richmond, Ky.; vicepresident, H. F. Estill, President, Sam Houston State Teachers College, Huntsville, Texas; secretary-treasurer, Charles W. Hunt, Principal, State Normal School, Oneonta, N. Y .; executive committee: C. H. Fisher, President, State Normal School, Bellingham, Wash, (term expires 1935); George A. Selke, President, State Teachers College, St. Cloud , Minn, (term expires 1936) ; Norman W. Cameron, President, State Teachers College, West Chester, Pa. ( term expires 1937). Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found, in earlier volumes of proceedings as follozvs: 1870: 1- 88 1873 :164-199 1874:214-254 1875 -.138-153 1876 :157-211 1877 ‘.139-174 1879 :113-135 1880 :176-192 1881 199-218 188 2:173-180 1884 :236-258 1885 :22 3-247 1886 :387-420 1887 :465-508 1888 :463-512 1889 :555-609 1890 :715-755 1891:709-740 1892 :407-433 1894:819-870 1895 :672-717 1896:642-665 1897 :709-735 1898 :728-756 1899 :835-903 1900 :480-490 1901 :635-645 1902 :529-643 1903 :539-593 1904 :567-591 1905 :517-555 1906 :707-711 1907 :739-758 1908 ’.703-738 1909 :547-596 1910 :563-593 1911 :695-707 191 2:809-896 191 3:523-552 1914 :497-564 1915 :763-813 1916 -.441-460 1917 :383-416 1918 :209-234 '1919 :221-257 1920:237-262 1921:515 192 2:1063-1084 1923 :737-743 1924:613-635 1925 :863 1926 :839-947 1927 :873-950 1928 :833-948 1929:827-936 1930 :801-910 1931 :845-945 1932 :713-785 19 33:709-777 [ 706 ] REALISM, PURPOSING, AND INTEGRATION DANIEL B. PRESCOTT, RUTGERS UNIVERSITY, NEW BRUNSW'ICK, N. J. If r is i he major thesis of this paper that mental hygiene, as taught to JL teachers, needs a new point of focus. At present teachers are given the idea tha<- integi ation, the single-minded condition of mental health, is achieved thiu absence of conflict, thru the avoidance of situations that might involve unpleasant emotions. But this is really a negative attitude. I wish to stress the point that integration is secured more surely and permanently by the de¬ velopment of a positive, purposive outlook on life — even if some measure of frustration is experienced more or less continuously as the individual works tow aid his goals. Then I have a second thesis. It is the extension of this first principle to that great social entity, the nation. I feel that a nation is mentally healthy only when it has great collective purposes that it is seeking to accomplish. Even a cursory examination of history or of con- temporaiy w7oild conditions will show that the greatest vitality and vigor of national effort is found in the countries challenged to accomplish col¬ lectively cei tain definite and consciously stated objectives. Finally there is a third proposition. It is that individual citizens can best feel a sense of their own personal worth as they apply themselves realistically to the task of furthering the great rational goals of their nation. In other words, I hold that people should state their own personal purposes in terms of the larger objectives of their nation. *1 o sum up — the thesis of this paper is that mental hygiene should shift its perspective awTay from the analysis of the individual and his needs. Instead w^e should study the collective interdepend¬ ence that exists within our society and that is reality for all of us. When this is done it will surely be discovered that individual purposing of a construc¬ tive social type must replace the_ anarchistic personal purposing that has been fostered traditionally in our time. Weigh the fairness of the following analysis and see whether one is not forced to these conclusions. Under the impetus of a strong belief in the efficacy of science and growing out of the observation of the industrial applications of science, our curriculum makers have analyzed life’s various activities to discover vrhat to teach. They have tried to learn what specific knowledges and skills are necessary to successful individual functioning in the vocational, avocational, personal, and civic phases of our existence. When they have discovered the words used most frequently in our language, the eye-movement habits essential to speedy silent reading, the skills necessary to an efficient typist or stenographer, the dates and events that marked the turning points in oui histoi v, or the ideals that our forefathers found adapted to their times, they have told us to teach this agglomeration of items to the pupils in our schools. They have suggested that we ‘‘form the necessary stimulus-response bonds, or that wre “condition” our children to these habits or ideals by clever psychological set-ups, just as one might train animals for a circus [ 707 ] 708 National Education Association performance. They believed that this was “scientific” education but, as you see, it was “adjustive” rather than purposive education. They had seen these specific knowledges and skills in use and could prove it ; they had Professor Thorndike’s word for the neural bonds (that is, until Professor Lashley spoke up) so they turned the schools into assembly lines. Each child as he was carried along the slowly progressing line had a number combina¬ tion nut added here, a loose historical screw tightened there and the motor of “desire for success” assembled independently along another line on the birthdays of our eminent statesmen and industrialists. This process of forming stimulus-response bonds to meet life’s various activity needs was to produce the “adjusted individual,” the smoothly functioning car in the crowded traffic of our urban life. Plow has it worked out? We have the highest incidence of nervous break¬ downs, insanity, divorce, and crime of any nation on earth. In other words the cars were turned over to crazy drivers, half-blind drivers, drunken drivers, drivers who didn’t know where they were going and had had no experience with driving before. Our scientific educators forgot that every car made has been turned over to an intelligence to be used purposively. They forgot that driving a car successfully implies constant control over it exercised by a mind continuously evaluating the changing panorama, figuring out the purposes and intentions of fellow drivers on the highway, and cooperating with them to help them get where they are going as wTell as striving to arrive himself. Our scientific educators forgot all about the driver. No wonder we have had smash-ups. Stated in other terms, we have forgotten that knowledge and skill have no value or meaning except in terms of the purposes for which they are used. Our schools have too often failed to provide this integrative core of a purpose, about which to bind all the knowledge and skill into a smoothly functioning, self-directing unit. The error came thru the stimulus-response fallacy, for we are not machines controlled by external stimulation but living organisms behaving in response to internally originated desires, aspirations, longings. In fact external stimuli have meaning for us only in terms of our internal needs. Education cannot afford to neglect purpose longer. Perhaps we have thought that the home or the church should supply the integrative elements, should show the meaning of life to our children and guide them in the formation of their purposes. An answer to this is that the home and the church have been even more unconscious than school people as to what has been happening to our world. The church, ridden by tradi¬ tion, has not known how to translate its highest ideals into practical, mundane goals for its members. The home has more often established the desires and purposes of its children and these goals have been anarchistic, individual aspirations out of harmony with present times. The result was that, when schools failed to guide the direction in which the knowledge and skills that they taught should be applied, false goals were established and our present chaos came into being. Department of Teachers Colleges 700 Please do not regard this presentation as made in a spirit of blame or fault-finding either of home, school, or teacher-training institutions. I am merely trying to describe cause and effect in order to deduce needed next steps. It was entirely inevitable that what has occurred would occur. We merely have the misfortune — or the good fortune — to live in a time of social transition and our success in envisaging possible and desirable new goals will determine the roughness and length of the transition passage. I say that the present is an inevitable outgrowth of the past — our forebears had a continent to conquer, exploit, and organize. Conditions then de¬ manded lugged individualism’ ; “competition” was truly the stimulating hormone of a developing community as it effected improvement after im¬ provement; extra-legal combinations were often the most practicable means of getting something done. The fruits of these ideals and procedures were good during the nineteenth century, they conquered and developed a great land and those weaker individuals lost on the way have been forgotten in the face of a generally higher standard of living and of visual monuments of material advancement. But the idea of living by “rugged individualism,” by competition, by extra- legal combinations of persons strategically placed has persisted in our own highly complex and highly interdependent industrial civilization. This is natural because the latter has come into being like a mushroom within the last thirty years and we have not had time to develop the new collective ideals. Now with what result do the old mores persist? Daily we get fresh news of crooked politics, of the use of high governmental position to favor special interests in exploiting the people^ of the betrayal of public trust by bankers, of the filching of savings by stock manipulators, of the extension of labor and commercial rackets. We are also in the midst of the most seri¬ ous breakdown that our economic ‘system has ever faced — and what is the status of art, music, and recreation generally under commercial domination ? Of course people are blaming the schools. They are saying that education has failed. But this is hardly just, for the schools have been used by competi¬ tive society to perpetuate itself. But so acute became the competition for money, as we have had to buy, instead of make, an ever-increasing propor¬ tion of the articles and services upon which life depends, that adults lost perspective. They forgot that life has deeper and more persistent meanings than the securing of various goods. Therefore they asked for and received from the schools a training in terms of effective knowledges and skills and failed to get what they would not have tolerated — a penetrating philosophy of life that was continuously reevaluating goals as conditions changed. But we cannot wait longer and remain mentally healthy, either as individuals or as a nation. We must begin collectively to formulate our goals, to re¬ establish perspective as to the meaning of life, to consider the means by which we are to effect a reorganization of society. Surely here are enough challenging tasks for everybody — tasks adapted to every level of intelligence! The next question that arises is : Where may teachers turn for the sources of their own inspiration? How many teachers know what will constitute 710 National Education Association genuine value in the emerging collectivist society? Who can envisage spe¬ cific goals with their pupils, when the future is so nebulous? Shall they give ear to some one of the fanatical “isms” that are being presented? Or shall they await a dictator and then indoctrinate for him ? These are indeed vital and pressing questions. An interesting implication for the answer comes from a recent report of the International Missionary Council. This report is a reexamination of the whole missionary enterprise in the light of considerations raised by the Layman s Foreign Mission Inquiry published last year. The new report contains the following sentences: “Across the world today are powerful forces at play, which are dissolving the modern mood like strong acid dissolves cheap amalgam. Two such faiths are foremost: nationalism and communism. They do not invite participation ; they command allegiance. They declare finalities. They silence criticism. They demand sacrifice. They do not pamper men; they conscript their very souls. They do not magnify the individual, they require his all in the service of the whole.” Is it some¬ thing of this sort that we need here in America? I do not think so, and yet we must recognize that the high idealism of Christianity is making no progress whatever in the face of the compelling loyalties described above. Where nationalism or communism takes hold on a people personal religion is at once eclipsed. The report continues: “Man’s mind, lulled by com¬ forting self-inflation, is ill-tempered for the challenge of their confident dogmatism. H is life, made flabby by lush-worldliness, is ill-prepared for the rigors of their discipline. We begin to see ourselves truly at last and the mirror returns to us a disquietingly stupid and weak and bewildered countenance. Ours is the paralysis of humiliating self-discovery.” Can this be the real reason why you and I have “been waiting before declaring our¬ selves partisan to some vital reform? Have we lacked the guts to face the music? I think not. I believe rather that we have been confused. That we have not known where to place our loyalty, where to lead our teachers. Will either nationalism or communism eventually overtake us and dictate our loyalties? I think not. I believe that it is very significant that neither of these movements has been able to make any considerable progress either in the United States or in the British Commonwealth of Nations and it is in these that democracy has its deepest roots. Of course our society must be reorganized, of course it will be essentially collective — we shall be coerced into that by our specialized methods of production, by our interdependence. But our methods of arriving there can still be democratic. Possibly the die is cast already and the New Deal is a faltering first step in the right direction. But it is not my intention to describe the new loyalties, the new national purposes that are to give meaning to the lives of our pupils as they struggle to achieve them. Rather I am concerned with the methods by which teachers and pupils alike may discover this broad social motivation for themselves. If we are not to be swept by the tides of fascist nationalism or militant com¬ munism where can we look? Well, perhaps not toward any utopia at all. 711 Department of Teachers Colleges I he very catastrophes that have come, the very difficulties with which we now struggle can show the way. W e psychologists and mental hygienists, and also the psychiatrists, have been very fond of explaining mental and emotional maladjustment in terms of failing to face reality. We have invented terms — rationalization, com¬ pensation, emotional complex, flight from reality — to describe the person who is not seeing life as it really is. But we ourselves have showTn these very tendencies in our social thinking and we have encouraged teachers to encourage their pupils to do likewise. All of us together have permitted our purposes to become personal and individualistic while the world about us was becoming social, collective, interdependent. We have not kept our minds clear as to what the realities of contemporary life are. Especially we have ignored the real problems of our time, we have not even tried to understand them. Instead we have closed our eyes and said that they didn’t exist. The prescription for us and for teachers, then, is the prescription given by all psychiatrists to maladjusted persons — ^Reexamine life, find out what is reality, reshape your desires and purposes in terms of that reality.” Briefly, I will translate this prescription into school practise in order that you may understand the task of the teacher as I envisage it. If we are to reveal the world to children as it really is, the school subjects that make up the curriculum as we have it now should be abolished. In their places the children should join with their teachers in studying such questions as the following: 1. How does man control the forces of nature so that he may feed, clothe, house, and transport himself effectively? 2. How does man use the resources of nature steadily to improve his own con¬ dition ? 3. How have men organized to accomplish more efficiently the maintaining of the conditions essential, to life? 4. What is knowledge? How has man transmitted his accumulated knowledge of life from generation to generation? How can we decide what to value in the heritage of the past? 5. What have men discovered to he worth striving for? Are there basic human needs and aspirations beyond the satisfaction of physical needs? 6. What is beauty? Goodness? Truth? Justice? Liberty? Why has man always talked about and what has he felt about these and other ideal abstractions? Has the meaning of each changed from period to period? For each of these questions the discussion should grow out of experiences which the children themselves have had. The study should lead back thru the experience of mankind and should persist until the children can give clear statements of the values involved. Then the problems of the present should be reexamined in the light of these values in order to envisage the direction of progress from here and now. I am not thinking in terms of a semester course here, but in terms of the total school experience of our children. I would reorganize in some such fashion the work of all institutions from kindergarten thru the university. If this were done I submit that there would emerge many collective pur¬ poses and much self-evaluation in terms of one’s own place in this grand 712 National Education Association scheme of things. Then a final step should be taken. Teacher and pupils should undertake immediately some socially-useful activities in the com¬ munity. These would translate purpose into action and unfold new chal¬ lenges. In my opinion, then, we face the choice either of being coerced by events into an unreasoned and conscripted loyalty to nationalism or to communism, or of undertaking speedily the reorganization of our educational machinery in such a way as to develop an equally compelling loyalty to the democratic way of collectivizing our society. If the schools will reveal the world as it is, if they will undertake to study the values in life as revealed by the experience of mankind, then I believe that our young people will understand what their opportunities and obligations are and will be eager to have a part in the building of a society friendly to the good life for all its citizens. If the schools are not willing to reorganize, or if our society will not permit them to reorganize, then we must take what comes. Can the teachers colleges prepare teachers to do the job of studying with children as I have analyzed it? I believe that they can, but certainly their psychology and mental hygiene courses must be strikingly reoriented. In¬ stead of teaching in stimulus-response terms and talking of the establish¬ ment of bonds they must show how the accumulating experiences of child¬ hood generate ideals, hopes, and values for which the individual strives. But the individual apart from the society that makes him and in which he functions is no fact. So the psychologist must concern himself with more than the processes of “social conditioning,” he himself must know where his society is going, what it is trying to accomplish. Then he must lead em¬ bryonic teachers with him in a critical evaluation of these social goals and help them develop skill in crystallizing the meaning of experience in the minds of children. It is not that our teachers must be practised indoctrina- tors. It is that mental health takes place only when there is a core of mean¬ ing to life, that they must realize that the core of meaning in contemporary life must be social rather than individualistic. Then the mental hygienists, too, have a task that is more than the amelioration of maladjustments. They must see their jobs in the more positive aspect of helping the individual to develop a sense of personal worth based upon efficient action that harmonizes with the actions of others striving with him for a collective goal. To summarize: Integration is not achieved thru striving for absence of emotional conflict. It comes rather from the presence of commanding loyal¬ ties that cement the total knowledge and experience of the individual into a consistent whole. Contemporary life is highly interdependent, hence the loyalties must be to constructive social purposes consonant with the develop¬ ment of a closely-knit collective society. Social organization must extend as widely as interdependence exists, namely, thruout the world. Our social pur¬ poses, then, must eventually be conceived in these terms. Department of Teachers Colleges 713 TRAINING TEACHERS TO USE MENTAL HYGIENE CARLETON washburne, superintendent of schools, winnetka, ill. I he present responsibilities of education necessitate the wise use of mental hygiene by the classroom teacher. By mental hygiene I mean an approach to problems of personality and behavior that goes behind the scenes and deals understandingly with the often unconscious emotional origins of these problems. A teacher well trained in this mental hygiene approach handles all children (including “normal” ones) in such a way as to avoid the ag¬ gravating of incipient problems and to give every child the best possible chance to integrate his own conflicting desires, to adjust himself to the group, and to have satisfying and socially desirable outlets for his energies. Up to the present, few, if any, teacher-training institutions make adequate preparation for the mental hygiene aspect of teaching. Should they do so? Is mental hygiene a legitimate school function? Isn’t it perhaps a field for specialists? Hasn’t the school a big enough job teaching school subjects — reading, arithmetic, spelling, writing, history, civics, geography, physiology, and such? Isn’t mental hygiene a frill, better let alone by schools already hard pressed financially? Isn’t it too new and inadequately explored a field for the schools — particularly the public schools — to enter? The answer to these questions depends on one’s concept of education. Traditionally, education consists of passing on to children some of the most important parts of their social heritage. The race has learned a great deal as civilization has advanced. In order to preserve this learning and to equip children to participate in the highly organized society of today, formal in¬ struction seems to be indispensable. If the schools will do a thoro job of this instruction, most people will say they have done their whole duty. But there is another concept of education. It is that each child shall be developed into as fine a human being as possible — developed personally and socially. Such development necessarily includes giving him his social heri¬ tage — this second, more comprehensive concept embraces the narrower tra¬ ditional one — but it also includes the child’s physical well-being; it includes not only the intellectual content of his mind, but the way he uses his in¬ formation and skills. It includes helping him to choose and prepare for his vocation; it includes training him in the wholesome use of leisure; and it includes the development of his personality and character. But can the schools do this job? Aren’t teachers and school administra¬ tors as a whole a timid, undertrained, often old maidish (male or female), mediocre lot? Aren’t schoolboards often ridden by politics and usually com¬ posed of second- or third-rate individuals, who have only such limited con¬ cepts of education as their own traditional education gave them? Can a stream rise higher than its source? Can education lift itself by its own bootstraps ? It is a large order, so large that it will take a long time to fill it effectively and wisely. But the children are here and are growing up. We must do 714 National Education Association something with them. We see all around us the results of the failure of the traditional concept of education — people literate but often using their skill in the three R’s foolishly or harmfully ; people trained to believe in a democracy but unable to operate it without mediocrity and corruption ; people mechanically efficient to the point of throwing themselves out of work and socially so inefficient that they make the wealth of the nation a cause for the poverty and despair of its citizens; people addicted to sensationalism in newspaper, magazine, movie, and radio, and emotionally so unstable that as many persons are in institutions for the insane as are in institutions of learning. It is the schools alone that have all the children — tomorrow’s entire citizenry — in their hands. With some sort of training, organization, and direction, somehow the schools must do the job. Fortunately the metaphors of streams rising above their source and lifting oneself by one’s bootstraps are false. We are dealing with living, growing things, not bootstraps or water. Trees rise far above their seeds. They lift themselves up and up and up in their striving toward the light. There are in the teaching profession ample powers of growth. Those powers respond to the stimulus of light, and the light is increasing. It is this view of education that justifies mental hygiene in the schools. We have some light on mental hygiene. It is only a dawning light, to be sure, and many areas are still shrouded in darkness. But he is blind indeed, who cannot see that the causes underlying maladjustment and undesirable behavior are being gradually illuminated. How, then, are we to train our teachers to use such light as we have and to contribute to an increase of that light? Training for the use of mental hygiene requires first of all that the teacher be a reasonably well-adjusted person. Provision must be made, there¬ fore, to help teachers achieve such adjustment. It is said that when in one of our large universities a mental hygiene clinic was established for the students, it was so much needed and used by the faculty that the students were neglected until the clinic staff could be enlarged. Anna Freud, who is following in her illustrious father’s footsteps, said to me in Vienna, “Every teacher-training school should have on its staff a psychiatrist who would psychoanalyze every person who is to become a teacher.” Thus stated the proposal is extreme and probably both unnecessary and undesirable. But that every teacher-training school and every school system should have access to some form of mental hygiene service to help teachers overcome their own more flagrant maladjustments is fairly obvious. It is a step which is already being taken in some places, and is one of crucial importance. In the second place, teachers should understand something of the theory and practise of mental hygiene. They need courses in the subject. Such courses would naturally include fairly extensive reading in the field, lectures and discussions, but particularly would include case studies of actual prob¬ lems. The training should be clinical as well as theoretical. Department of Teachers Colleges 715 Side by side with this training in finding the hidden causes back of un¬ desirable behavior, there should be constructive training in giving children wholesome outlets for their energies, opportunities for normal and socially desirable satisfactions. Some of the more modern teacher-training institutions today are taking care of this phase of the work thru their “activities pro¬ gram” and other types of group and creative work. Following such preparation there should be in-service training. The school system in which the teacher is functioning should of course have access to some sort of psychiatric service. To some schools today this may seem like an impractical or utopian proposition — much as music and art and shop wrork and phvsical education seemed to the teachers a couple of generations ago. But as the mental hygiene work is even more fundamental than some of these other desirable additions to the curriculum, it can and will take its place in school organization. Such a department not only can help the teacher by handling the most difficult of her problem children, but can continuously advise with her as to how she can most effectively work with those children whose problems are less severe. If the department’s relationship to the school is sufficiently intimate so that it helps to guide school policies and so that the teacher is constantly imbued with this point of view, it becomes an invaluable part of in-service training. Perhaps the point of view herein expressed can be made more concrete by reciting an actual example. Such an example might be chosen from Mont¬ clair, New Jersey, or from Toronto, or from any of several other centers. I am, however, choosing an example from Winnetka, because I am more intimately acquainted, naturally, with what Winnetka is doing. Teachers do not usually come to Winnetka trained in mental hygiene. We therefore require that all newly appointed teachers before beginning their work take a course in mental hygiene in one of our two teacher¬ training institutions. One of these, the Winnetka Summer School for Teachers, is an extension of the Northern Illinois State Teachers College, and is operated for six weeks each summer. Its course in “Child Adjustment” is conducted by one of the members of Winnetka’s Department of Educa¬ tional Counsel — our child guidance clinic. She is a person who, before going into the mental hygiene field, had been a regular classroom teacher and who had then taken the two years of graduate work required for psychiatric social workers. We lay considerable stress on the importance of having our mental hygienists be people who know first hand the classroom teacher’s problems. In the attempt at concentration upon the problems of an individual, a teacher may forget that this must be balanced with common-sense classroom manage¬ ment. I have known good teachers to lose their grip on the class because of too much concentration on the personality problems of individuals. There is a place, even in the most progressive schools, for teacher authority and even for temporarily repressive measures, just as there is a place for tooth¬ ache gum or other palliatives in medicine. When our “educational coun¬ selor” gives a course in mental hygiene, she knows from her own experience 716 National Education Association as a teacher that class morale must be maintained and that temporary ex¬ pedients have their place even when one recognizes that undesirable behavior is symptomatic of causes that may lie deep beneath the surface. She is able to show the harm of refusing to use some of the common-sense methods of handling a class, at the same time that she shows the still greater danger of exclusive reliance upon such measures. Her course includes the assignment of reading, the discussion of basic principles, and particularly the analysis of real cases that she has been han¬ dling during the preceding year or two. The theory is all tied in with actual practise. Usually there is at least one child who is being studied by the Department of Educational Counsel and who is attending the summer school. During the latter part of the course the students may be given oppor¬ tunities to observe this child quietly, and to find out just what sort of treatment has been recommended. Our other teacher-training institution is the Graduate Teachers College of Winnetka. This takes only a small number of carefully selected graduate students, and gives them year-round training for from one to three years. One course which all students must take is that in mental hygiene. It is given by the school psychiatrist with the assistance of one or both of the educational counselors. It is not unlike the summer course, except that it goes deeper and that the students are allowed to participate in some of the staff conferences, when all members of the Department are concentrating upon the study of a particular case. They also have much more opportunity to observe these cases, and sometimes even to be of assistance to the counselors. In both cases the people who are giving the course are people who are dealing with the actual classroom problems that arise — people to whom these problems are referred when they are unusually difficult, and people who are giving advice to teachers on the less difficult problems. In each course the theory is fully integrated with the practical work of the schools. Real children, real experiences, real problems, are the basis for all the discussions. I have said that in-service training requires access to some sort of a mental hygiene department. A word as to how our Department of Educational Counsel came into being and how it functions in the training of the teachers after they are on the job may be suggestive to other schools. W e could not afford a psychiatrist. We were fortunately near enough to Chicago to be able to borrow one for a day each week from the Institute for Juvenile Research, which is a state child guidance clinic. We could not afford a psychologist; so we passed the hat among interested parents and raised the necessary fund. Now he has become an established institution, not even dropped during the retrenchments of the depression. We had no money for educational counselors — so several years ago we disbanded our “special room” for subnormals, and replaced the teacher with a counselor who, among her other duties, supervised the work of the subnormals in classrooms of children of approximately their own age. This work with subnormals has since been taken over to a considerable extent by the Department of Teachers Colleges 717 psychologist and certain others. The point is that we got our counselor with¬ out increasing our budget, and then afterward worked out a solution for the subnormals. This counselor proved so valuable that the next year the faculty voted to increase class size slightly — it only meant one more child on the average per class — so that we could do with one less teacher and have an additional counselor.1 Our pediatricians (fortunately there were two fine ones in Winnetka) were sufficiently interested to donate their services. Thus the Department of Educational Counsel — a psychiatrist, a psychologist, counselors, and pediatricians — came into being. This Department has had from the beginning three functions : case work with the more difficult problem children, training parents, and training teachers. Its existence as an integral part of the school system is of the utmost importance in training teachers in service. This training is of several kinds. First, there are actual classes from time to time similar to the summer school classes, organized after school hours during the year. T hese were particularly necessary when many of our teachers had not had the summer school or graduate teachers college training. Second, the Department helps individual teachers with their own personal adjustment. Third, a teacher sits in on a staff conference when one of her own problem children is being studied by the Department as a whole. This staff conference is always attended by both counselors, psychologist, psychiatrist, pediatricians, the child’s teacher, the child’s prin¬ cipal, and the superintendent of schools. Light can thus be shed on the prob¬ lem from every angle, and whatever administrative changes have to be made to fit the child’s case can be put into immediate effect, since everyone con¬ cerned is present. The participation in these staff conferences is invaluable training for the teacher who learns to contribute her share toward the solution of the problem. In the fourth place, the educational counselors are members of the school faculties. They are in and about the schools con¬ stantly as consultants. Teachers solve many of their problems themselves with the help of the counselor’s advice and without the formality of a staff conference. Finally, and perhaps most important, is the atmosphere of the whole school system — the fact that the principals, supervisors, teachers, and an increasing number of parents are looking at children more understand- ingly, with deeper insight. This influence is subtle, but it is an exceedingly valuable part of the training of teachers in service. Mental hygiene used wisely by well-trained teachers permeates every part of the life of the school. It contributes its share to curriculum build¬ ing, to educational methods, and to all school activities. It is an essential part of any attempt to educate the whole child. 1 There was a period when we got a grant from the Rosenwald Fund and had four counselors and a secretary. We are hack to two now, because we have no Rosenwald grant and taxes are badly in arrears. 718 National Education Association WHAT CONTRIBUTION HAS MENTAL HYGIENE TO MAKE TO THE TRAINING OF A TEACHER? MAUD E. WATSON, DIRECTOR, CHILD GUIDANCE DIVISION, CHILDREN’S FUND OF MICHIGAN, DETROIT, MICH. Probably the greatest contribution mental hygiene will make to the teacher-training program of the future will be assistance in the selection o the teacher herself. As we have looked over such programs in the past we have been impressed with the emphasis placed on textbook knowledge and methods acquired by the student teacher as well as her academic marks, with too little attention to how well adjusted emotionally this same student is; what have been her life experiences; how well she has met the reality of her own life situations ; and what are her real reasons for wishing to become a teacher. Is it because this is the profession selected by her parents as a result of their educational drive or is it because the girl’s mother has selected this profession because she herself would have liked to have become a teacher and never had the opportunity and here is a chance to live this experience thru her daughter? Each year one sees in the clinic, parents with their daughters who have come for advice about a future vocation. It is interesting to note that many times it is the parent who takes the initiative, asks and answers all the questions, and finally sums up the situation by’ saying, Well, I think Mary should be a social worker or teacher.” Some time ago we saw a girl who came with her father to inquire about possibilities for a future position in social work. She was a junior in college. Her father opened the interview by saying that he did not wish his daughter to teach as he thought teachers were apt to be “narrow” and had fewer opportunities to meet men of the “right sort.” At that point one wondered what unsatisfying experience he had had in the past with school teachers. He launched into all the opportunities as he saw them of social work. Altho the interview had lasted almost an hour, we had not yet heard what Mary thought. The father was called from the office and as we leaned forward and said quietly, “Mary, what do you really want to do?” her face lighted up and she said, “I would love to be a kindergarten teacher. I love children. I hate social work. I don’t like ‘dirty families.’ But father thinks teaching kindergarten is silly.” Perhaps her very conception of social work was in¬ terpretive of the resistance she would have later if she followed this profession. Later in the interview it came out that Mary had voluntarily given her services every vacation since she was a senior in high school assist¬ ing in a summer kindergarten and during the winter consulted everyone who could contribute new material for her kindergarten work. With such a dominating father, however, it is needless to point out that Mary will probably eventually become a social worker. Is it not true, too, that out of the student’s own insecurity and her inability to face competitive situations she often seeks a profession which offers less competition and more security in tenure of office? Department of Teachers Colleges 7 19 Another question might well be asked : Plow intelligent is this girl who has presented herself for teacher training ? She may memorize textbook as¬ signments readily, giving back to her instructors what she thinks they wish to hear, but what about intelligent initiative, interest in community and world problems, and ability to relate them to classroom assignments. There is a growing emphasis in current educational literature on the necessity of relating school experiences more and more to later adult life experiences. The teacher of the future must not only be versed in textbook knowledge but must have an interest in the growing, developing personality of the child with whom she comes in contact and, in addition, an understanding of her own mechanisms and emotional needs. Is this student-teacher with emotional problems, which will possibly interfere with her relationships w’ith parents and pupils, one who can be made aware of these during her training period, accept them, and constructively work them out under guidance? This is an important question wrhen one views what maladjusted teachers can do to pupils in a classroom. Frequently one sees a teacher overburdened with her own insecurity, defensive, exacting, and authoritative; nagging the pupils; demanding that answers tally exactly with textbook information, allowing little initiative in replies. Later it is often found that her insecurity and feelings of inferi¬ ority have been a part of her personality since childhood. Perhaps she has been dominated at home by parents who out of their own ego needs left no opportunity for decisions on her part. At school she may have been sub¬ jected to much the same pattern. Finally in a position of her own, insecure in the handling of herself as well as the children, she resorts to methods which are readily observed as interpretive of her own inability to understand herself adequately and her relationships with her pupils. Interestingly enough the teacher, overburdened by her own emotional conflicts, has little energy left to teach or ability to help the boys and girls objectively to understand themselves and the behavior of other children about them. Life situations in an unprotected environment will later demand this of every pupil and education should prepare him adequately for an interpretation of the ever- increasing complexity in human relationships. Nor is it an uncommon situation to see the effect of a principal and his personality difficulties reflected thru the teachers to the pupils. For example, a pi incipal, who out of his own insecurity must be the dominating force in the school, usually selects teachers who have little or no initiative and who follow out his many rules and regulations to the “letter of the law.” The pressure brought to bear upon pupils in such a school can be seen in the lines in the hall and general apathy in the classroom where questions are answered with “clock-like” regularity. There are few spontaneous contributions be¬ cause even the few offered are discouraged with a warning to repeat what is said in the “lesson.” Under such a regime the pupils who are highly intelli¬ gent but sensitive and in-going, gradually withdraw in silence and perhaps retreat in day-dreaming. The more out-going attempt to make themselves heard by causing trouble in the classroom or frequently truant out of the 720 National Education Association situation as often as possible. When one views such a school, one is struck by the futility of emphasizing mental hygiene with these teachers unless one can first give the principal some understanding of his own need for authority and the effect as one sees it in the selection of his teachers and the general atmosphere of the school. Mental hygiene gives the teacher a better understanding of the behavior of children. I eachers with this training soon come to accept the fact that behavior is purposive and symptomatic of the child’s needs, satisfactions, and dissatisfactions in relation to his environment and that lying, stealing, and failure to work cannot be met on a superficial level by punishment, e. g., detention after school. 1 he cause must be discovered. Sometimes the cause may be found out of the school in parental handling ; sometimes in rivalry and jealousy situations with his own brothers and sisters; and sometimes within the handling of the teacher herself. Jack, a sensitive lad thirteen years of age, sent to the Child Guidance Clinic by a special room teacher of a very dull group of children because he “bullied’ the other children, quarreled, and would not work, was regarded by his teacher as being feebleminded. The first noticeable thing about the boy was his conflict evidenced in his stuttering. He was found at the clinic to have very good average intelligence but very defective vision. This was later corrected by glasses. His major complaint was “that he hated school because no one ever listened to him and the other kids teased him because he couldn’t talk plain.” Even his parents had little patience with him because he was much slower than their other children. His major interest was in radio repairing and when he was given a chance to select a school where he perhaps would be more satisfied, he chose a trade school where he has done excellent work and where he has found a “good friend” in the boys’ coun¬ selor who, like the worker at the clinic, has had time to listen to him. His stuttering has entirely disappeared and he is well liked by the other boys in his group because he “knows his work.” Had his first teacher recognized that he was more intelligent than the group, that he was having difficulty with his vision aside from the fact that the other boys were “making fun” of his speech, much of his trouble could have been eliminated without his ever being referred to a clinic. Punishment in the schoolroom is of the greatest interest. If the child is in-going, he keeps within himself his own dissatisfaction, bewilderment, and unhappiness and retreats into day-dreaming (to escape a reality situation which he can no longer face), crying for no apparent cause, physical com¬ plaints with no organic basis, e. g., nausea, headaches, and fainting attacks. He is sensitive and unable to get along with other children. If he is out-going, he is perhaps more annoying to the teacher, for he projects upon his environ¬ ment his dissatisfaction, “talks back,” truants, lies, and steals. In other wmrds, the outward behavior manifestations that we see in chil¬ dren as well as in adults are but symptomatic of the deeper needs and strivings of the individual. The teacher may nag, scold, and keep the child after school, even report him to the probation officer for truancy, for ex- Department of Teachers Colleges 721 ample, but unless the cause is understood, punishment is of no avail except to make the child unhappier and more in conflict. Truancy, as we all know, sometimes means too difficult a situation in school for the dull child, so h@ runs away. On the other hand, the school situation may give too little stimu¬ lation for the superior child so, “bored” and unhappy, he fails to face a disagreeable reality and leaves it for something more interesting. -The teacher, like the parent, needs to recognize early the fact that her pattern of authority has grown out of her own parental handling. If she has had stem, dominating parents, too often she either throws over all regard for authority or becomes even stricter and demands instant obedience on the pait of the child. Children quickly identify their teacher with their parents in methods of punishment. A ten-year-old recently said of his teacher, “She is just like my stepmother, ‘crabs’ all the time.” A teacher’s own inadequacy to meet a situation is often indicated by her sarcasm, calling a child up before the class, and the child punishes the teacher later out of his own hurt feelings by whispering or causing the children to laugh or create a disturbance. The effectiveness of punishment is seen only when it is intelligently worked out w ith the child and he sees the relationship to the offense which he has committed. It is of interest as one reviews records of some juvenile courts to see how often the judge, the probation officer, the teacher, and the parents all re¬ iterate, for example in regard to stealing, “You know you should not steal- why do you keep on doing it?” The child says, “But I won’t any more.” Then one sees a child rejected on every side at home and at school ; with no place in his group ; unhappy, dissatisfied, conflicted. One wonders why, with such a clear interpretation of the boy’s problem, something is not done to change attitudes about him, to help the boy understand his tendency to steal, because after all no amount of advice can prevent his continuance until he understands and can do something himself about stealing. Assistance, too, may be given to teachers thru mental hygiene in regard to promotions and marks. So often they are insisted upon by parents who have a tremendous educational drive and who can accept nothing less than “Johnny being on the honor roll. There is, of course, often no understanding that Johnny cannot attain these standards and with increased pressure at home and at school he shows more and more indifference, failure in school, sometimes a certain amount of bravado and cheating, or again a more regressive type of pattern such as illness without an organic basis which again secures for him the sympathy and attention of his parents and teachers. We have watched with interest the past three years how skilfully some teachers with an understanding of mental hygiene handle these interviews, allowing the parents to state first their own hopes and ambitions without the teacher immediately projecting her advice in the matter and little by little getting the parents to accept the fact that Johnny has ability to attain certain standards and no higher and that he should be allowed to work without in¬ creasing conflict until he is able to make use of the ability he has. Of course, the teacher herself must just as readily understand that the highly intelligent 722 National Education Association child torn by conflicts cannot be told, “You have good intelligence, you can work if you will.” Until he can be given some awareness of these problems and what is causing them, no amount of pressure on her part or the parents’ will help. Perhaps facing failure as a reality situation in school may later have a therapeutic value, particularly if the child understands his own part in the failure. Certainly there have been many instances in the adult world during the depression of failure faced inadequately and many striking examples of people who were never properly fitted for their positions, which severe competition has brought to light. The most challenging contribution still to be made by the mental hygiene field is only dimly outlined and not clearly seen : a contribution to the meth¬ ods of teaching and interpretation of material coming from children them¬ selves in what they verbalize, what they write in stories and what they draw into their pictures. If we all accept the objectives of education something like this, perhaps we can better discuss methods of teaching: 1. To help the child face competitive reality daily, so that he may face it later as an adult with less conflict and need to avoid it by various methods which are so well known to all of us as adults — rationalization, alcoholism, illness without an organic basis, etc. 2. To help the child to evaluate objectively situations and personalities as he meets them. 3. To encourage critical, analytical, intelligent thinking in intelligent children so that later they may make a contribution in adult life and not leave leadership in the hands of those less fitted for intelligent leadership. With such a definition, we can readily see how the teacher becomes much more passive in attitude and allows the children initiative in expressing themselves; not answering their questions but rather casting them back upon the pupil with “What do you think?” What a contrast to the method of “pouring in” upon students information which they either accept or reject. The degree of acceptance or rejection is probably never really known until examination time and the evidence is seen there in the few facts remembered. Forgetting perhaps has a new interpretation. It is selective and purposive, the outgrowth frequently of emotional resistance to the subject taught or to the teacher presenting the material, or due to conflicts that the child may have growing out of emotional problems at home and at school. How dif¬ ferently, too, we now look at papers handed in late and tardiness at school — examples of the child’s inability to face reality. How essential it is, then, that the teacher and child have an understanding of why he needs to escape this particular situation and how he can be helped to meet it in the future. New classroom material presented then becomes particularly interesting from a mental hygiene point of view. Merely projecting new material on a class is so easy and can be done with so little effort on the part of the teacher in these days of too many pupils and overburdened programs, but what of the pupil? Teachers, like lecturers, are often astounded at what they are reported to have said, but it is universally accepted that each individual hears only what he wishes to hear, and that frequently is colored by his own emo- Department of Teaceiers Colleges 723 tional needs. 1 here must be an emotional acceptance of the new material, a readiness on the part of the pupil to accept it. This can be done by giving him the responsibility for helping to think the new problem thru and by ver¬ balizing his own thoughts as he goes along — an opportunity to reject at the moment and not later rationalize by blaming the teacher or by “blocking” off facts he cannot accept and hence does not “remember.” Recently in a classroom of 6-B I was struck by the unusual interest of the pupils in their work which did not lag during the entire hour. They were working on projects and were organized in a commission form of govern¬ ment. When one of the pupils was asked how the various members of the commission were elected, she went into an intelligent description of the fact that the pupils selected were those who had acquired the greatest number of points for work completed and who seemed to understand their particular subject thoroly, e. g., geography. A little boy sitting nearby said, “Sometimes it doesn’t always work that way, we vote for our friends whether they un¬ derstand their work or not and then we get into trouble.” When it was suggested that sometimes “grown ups” in the community did the same thing, he replied, “That’s what daddy says and they get into trouble the same way in city government.” The teacher, a quiet, understanding young chap, con¬ tinued an interested but passive attitude during the entire period, even when the new material for the next day was presented. He stated the subject for discussion briefly and then asked for questions and comments. Enthusiastically the pupils entered in, relating the new material to old, suggested methods for acquiring further material, and except for a slight insecurity on the part of the young teacher the questions were thrown back upon the individuals ask¬ ing, or upon other members of the group. Here one saw intelligent thinking, interest, and enthusiasm in the work. There is no doubt that mental hygiene has a contribution to make to the teacher-training field, but it must be made by the best equipped emotionally mature people in this field as the finest contributions in the educational world are made by the best trained, mature, experienced educators. The two fields are mutually dependent upon each other and have as a common objec¬ tive to fit the child for the reality of adult life with all of its changing economic and social standards and ever increasing complexities of human relationships. The best of each field then must be offered to the teachers who have the carrying out of this objective. SOME FORGOTTEN QUALITIES OF TEACHERS NED H. DEARBORN, DIRECTOR, INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION, NEW YORK UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. “If I had not a system to defend, how easily I might tell you the truth.” This is quoted from an account of one of America’s great teachers, written by President Emeritus Charles Thwing of Western Reserve University. At times, states the biographer, Josiah Royce seemed to reflect that trenchant sentiment. I have no system to defend. A conflict of ideals, according to 724 National Education Association Hegel, is the essence of tragedy. It would surprise me if in this group there is any conflict of ideals regarding the essential qualities of teachers. I, there¬ fore, anticipate no tragedy in this afternoon’s program and I hope for some truth. We do have conflicts in methods of realizing our ideals and we may easily misunderstand one another in our search for truth. The latter danger may be attributed to the imperfection of the human mind. “Most of us,” says Wil¬ liam Roscoe Thayer (and I am applying this to professional educators), “are so conscious of being a composite of good and bad that we are properly skeptical when we read of persons too pure and luminous to cast a shadow. We tolerate the pious fibs carved in an epitaph on a tombstone — the lapidary, as Doctor Johnson remarked, is not under oath . . . .” One might add, neither are educators when appraising themselves. With these more or less implied admissions I am now ready to announce my text. I will do so with due respect to religionists, in the form of a beatitude : Blessed is the educator of teachers who perceives the present impotence of science to deal adequately with their personal and social qualities. Human beings, including school teachers, are strange creatures. They must have a banner to follow, a label to display, a cause to defend, or an issue to debate. Not so long since, we educators enlisted under the banner of scholarship ; then we made for ourselves a badge that proudly displayed the magic word “Science”; that led us to the cause of methods in teaching and we became technicians; and today we strive mightily to make an issue of personality adjustment. Strange, isn’t it? Strange, too, that we unconsciously do that which we so often condemn in others. We deplore biased and fiery speeches of anarchists, communists, fascists, and socialists; we frown upon the unyielding dogmatism of religious sects ; and we shudder at many of the social cults that spring up here and there, day in and day out. I have a profound respect for scholarship and yet I believe that scholarship advocated as a primary and dominant purpose in education is an inheritance of the intellectual aristocracy of the Middle Ages and, more recently, of the cultural aristocracy of a new nation bent on defending herself against the charges of cultural inferiority. Scholarship so conceived has no place of such importance in a universal and free system of education in a democratic society. I have a profound respect for science, both pure and applied, and yet I believe that we in education adopted that label much earlier than natural evolution warrants. Certainly others do not recognize us as scientists. The official organ of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in announcing the election of its new president, Professor E. L. Thorndike, stated that “he is noted for his educational theories.” You and I proclaim him as one of our best apostles of science in education. True, our science is in its early stages of development and like any infant it may often stumble and fall in its efforts to walk upright. That does not justify naming it Cun¬ ningham, Brothron, or Venzke. Department of Teachers Colleges 725 On the other hand, I wax enthusiastic when I remember that only yester¬ year the science of education was an infant in arms and that today it is an active, if not a precocious, child rapidly growing to the full powers of ma¬ turity. Tomorrow we can rejoice in its adulthood. The trouble with those of my generation is that we saw the infant first when it began to creep. Father, mother, and all the other members of our family concentrated upon it such complete and exclusive attention that we acquired a distorted appreciation of its place (at the age of infancy) in the list of social institutions. It is still the favorite member of our family. I have a profound respect for the technical education of teachers and yet I believe that the artist without the materials of his art is anachronistic. The educational gains of the twentieth century are almost wholly in the methods, materials, and measurement of instruction, to use Professor Bagley’s ter¬ minology. Very gratifying are those gains, but for them we paid a price. We neglected even the kinds of scholarships suited to a democratic society; we neglected the ideals of individual and group behavior ; and we grossly dis¬ regarded the processes of rational thought that lie at the bottom of social progress and that mark man from beast, l hese are a part of the price we paid for educational statistics, tests, lesson plans, drill materials, grading systems, courses of study, child-centered schools, and the technics of class¬ room management to say nothing of school building standards, accounting systems, and methods of authorizing bond issues. The pity of it all is that we didn’t need to pay any such price. We simply enrolled in a cause that blinded us temporarily to other virtues. I have a profound respect for personality adjustment and yet our present knowledge of personal and social qualities and the seeming intangibility of personality make adjustment work something less than a science. We face uncharted seas, if you will permit me to change my figure of speech. We have a few bold explorers but the navigators of the crews are not equipped with precise, scientific instruments. Neither was Columbus but he reached a new land full of promise. So I would not discourage voyages of scientific explora¬ tion on the uncharted seas of personality. Mental hygiene, in my judgment, constitutes our best hope in this kind of exploration. Professor Harvey W. Zorbaugh writes in the February 1932 issue of The Journal of Educational Sociology : Two conflicting philosophies dominate education today; the philosophy of educa¬ tion as discipline, and the philosophy of education as self-improvement. . . . There is a third philosophy slowly working its way into educational practise, the philosophy of education as adjustment. This philosophy is neither curriculum centered nor child centered, but life centered. It views education as a process of learning to live and getting along with others. So far as discipline, knowledge, and skill contribute to this process, they are good. So far as freedom and creation contribute to this process they are good. But education so conceived is more concerned with the child’s personality than with his mind or his talents, more interested in his emotional atti¬ tudes than in his abilities. It sees education as a process of socialization, and the senool s function as one of continual guidance. It would measure its success solely in terms of the effectiveness of the personalities of the children who have grown up 726 National Education Association in its schools. Education conceived as adjustment, combining the virtues of old and new schools with values of its own, promises a working philosophy that will make it possible for our schools to accept the responsibility that is undoubtedly theirs. This seems to be the educational theory underlying mental hygiene. Whether we believe it is the last word or not, we can find in it reason for hope that personal and social qualities of teachers may emerge as pleasant waters inviting constant and profitable use, and relatively free from present dangers. A recent bibliography in the field of guidance, of which adjustment is rapidly becoming an increasingly important part, appears in the February 1934 issue of 7 he Journal of Educational Sociology . The names Hartshorne, Mays, Morris, Townsend, Boardman, Wickman, Grove, Isaacs, Anderson, Kennedy, and Zorbaugh are only a few of those identified with this area of school service. The list creates confidence in the future of personality ad¬ justment work. They see the problem not as identifying and classifying per¬ sonal and social traits for purposes of individual diagnosis, prescription, or surgery, but as analysis of such traits in terms of the individual’s social back¬ ground, his environmental influences, and sometimes his physical condition. This seems to be the direction of presentday science in dealing with the elusive traits of personality. New York state has a program for the admission of students to her state teachers colleges and state normal schools. I happen to have reports from the Albany State College for Teachers and the State Teachers College at Buf¬ falo. Doctor Morris is a pioneer in this field. President Brubacher in an excellent address last October at the convocation of the University of the State of New York refers to their program “to select dynamic personalities.” He thoughtfully and properly recognizes the present limits of the program. Doctor Oscar E. Hertzberg reported in January 1934 on the state program and particularly on Buffalo’s work on selective admissions. One aspect of the program is related to “non-intellectual and non-academic qualities.” Here as at Albany the tests used and the treatment of test results reveal the most advanced knowledge available. In a letter to me, Doctor Hertzberg makes the following statement that supports my views expressed above: “I think we want to be careful not to rely too much upon tests for the diagnosing of personality. We certainly do not want our teachers all cut to a pattern. As far as gross physical defects are concerned and personality maladjustments to the extent that the candidate shows need of psychiatric care, the admissions program should eliminate. But for the great majority of students, highly qualified from the academic angle, I feel that we should consider the development of a desirable personality as part of the college curriculum rather than as a prerequisite for it. I think we need to be care¬ ful lest the ‘measurement of personality’ become ridiculous.” President M. Ernest Townsend, of the New Jersey State Normal School at Newark, in the October 1933 issue of Mental Hygiene, urges “that only those shall be graduated and presented for certification who are competent — - Department of Teachers Colleges 727 ns persons — to undertake the highly personal service of teaching.” He has developed an outstanding personnel program. It is a plan of social education so lacking generally in our agencies of teacher education thruout the country. Doctor Townsend’s stud)7, “The Administration of Student Personnel Serv¬ ices in Teacher-Training Institutions in the United States,” is in many respects a heavy indictment of our institutions. \ his is indeed a serious mat¬ ter and deserves our careful study. Now that I have paid my respects to educators in general, deflated the science of education to its proper place in the 1934 sun, demonstrated (I hope) a passing acquaintance with the field of mental hygiene and person¬ ality adjustment, and expressed my faith in the workers dealing with per¬ sonal and social qualities of teachers, I repair to my almost forgotten sub¬ ject, “Some Forgotten Qualities of Teachers.” I have chosen a few of the outstanding teachers of all time, nearly all of them schoolmasters. I have read about them to detect some of their per¬ sonal qualities. What makes a great person great? What makes a great teacher great? Dare we hope for great teachers in our public schools? Just a few, maybe? Dare we hope even for superior and good teachers? Or must we resign ourselves to the mediocre and the inferior? Townsend says there is evidence that the chances are almost seven to one that in the course of twelve years of public school education a child will encounter at least two teachers of emotionally unstable, neurotic, and even psychopathic personali¬ ties. Not a pleasant contemplation. Many contend we can never have great teachers due to regimentation in supervision and administration and due to the philosophy of our society. That is something to ponder. In the meantime, we may enjoy a peep into pedagogical paradise. Abelard, the great dialectician, was in his day a heretic. He held that reason precedes faith, that it must lead men to faith, and make faith accept¬ able to men. He stood for the abandonment of the mystic for the rational¬ istic. Imagine the enthusiasm with which the religionists of the twelfth century received that doctrine! He sacrificed a comfortable home to search for learning; he suffered the persecutions that usually beset leaders of thought who are “ahead of their time” ; and he came involuntarily and vio¬ lently to an untimely end. While generally recognized as a great teacher of teachers, Abelard lacked the stuff of martyrs, the political ability of Luther. Possessed of a penetrating mind and preeminent in humanistic idealism, he was at the same time “pathetically irresolute.” It is said of him that the fates had made him the hero of a great drama but ironically denied him a hero’s strength. In the Age of Pericles every Athenian citizen was free to choose what to do. It was an age when thinking was encouraged. Socrates concluded that money-making was not worthwhile and devoted his time to thinking about truth. Pythagorean philosophers were concerned with the art of healing, astronomy, music, and mathematics. Others discussed fi re, air, water, the earth, the expanse of the sky, and the doctrine of atoms. Socrates examined National Education Association 728 all these theories and concluded that rational thought always tries to obtain some practical good. He enjoyed talking with men, trying to clarify his notions regarding beauty, justice, and reality. Thru these associations, he became a great teacher stimulating thought by his method of questioning. In this he led men, as the first step in rational thought, to define their thoughts and to agree about the essential nature of the meaning of the terms used to express their thoughts. Socrates possessed the rare virtue of true humility. He was greatly perplexed by a statement of the Oracle of Delphi that he was the wisest of men, because he keenly felt his own ignorance. It is said his mind really encompassed the whole of knowledge extant at that time. Socrates surrendered all claims to interest in material things, even sacri¬ ficing domestic tranquillity. He burned with a desire to pursue truth and suffered the rewards of heresy. He drank the hemlock, true to his ideals to the very end. During the Italian Rennaissance, the ruling princes of the city-states 'supported court schools for boys. They were rivals of the universities which Petrarch styled “nests of gloomy ignorance.” In such a school Vittorino de Feltre worked. It was established by the Lord of Mantua and numbered about sixty boys. He was a humanist. He led the boys to love the fineness and loveliness of the Italian countryside where the school was located. Like Plato he would have youth dwell “amid fair sights and sounds, where beauty may visit the eye and ear like a healthful breeze, and insensibly draw the soul even in childhood into harmony with the beauty of reason.” Vittorino de Feltre was a man of extraordinary beauty of character, gentle and un¬ selfish. His earnest vision impressed all ’who met him. “I remember,” wrote one of his old scholars, “that Vittorino, now well advanced in years, would, of a winter’s morning, come early, candle in one hand and book in the other, and rouse a pupil in whose progress he was especially interested ; he would leave him time to dress, waiting patiently until he was ready, then he would hand him the book and encourage him with grave and earnest words to higher endeavor.” Vittorino’s was a life of consecration and sacrifice to and for an ideal. His method was Roman history thru Livy; Greek history thru Thucydides, Xenophon, or Plutarch ; geography thru Strabo, Ptolemy, or Dionysius ; and science thru Aristotle and Pliny. The art of expression, the systematic pursuit of rational thought in mathematics, logic and philosophy, the study of music and drawing, and the grace of abundant physical health were a part of the humanist education of the fifteenth century of which Vittorino was the leading teacher of his day. Frank Pierrepont Graves writes of Pestalozzi that he was of thick, in¬ distinct speech and of bad writing. He was ignorant of drawing and scorn¬ ful of grammatical usage. We all think of him as a failure in any practical sense, his work at Stantz and Yverdon being conspicuous examples of his ineptitude in organization and administration. Yet Pestalozzi was a great teacher. Children loved him. He lived with them, inspired them, and left indelibly upon them the stamp of his serious and gentle nature. Fie under- Department of Teachers Colleges 729 stood them and because he was a student of child development, he formulated principles that are proclaimed by modern and progressive educational associa¬ tions today as the new philosophy. A. O. Norton says of Huxley, . . a passionate seeker of truth, fearless in its defense against all odds, and at any cost to himself — a man ruggedly honest and straightforward, big of mind, broad of vision, the soul of sim¬ plicity, sincerity, and honor.” Huxley’s name is included in almost every list of great teachers. One of the greatest of American schoolmasters was Josiah Royce. He was the glory of three universities — California, Johns Hopkins, and Harvard. Despite his renown, no less a personage than William James said that he possessed an “indecent exposure of forehead.” His voice was “merciless and harsh” and he usually took a circuitous route to make his point, frequently starting with a story. Mark Hopkins, unlike Royce, is reputed as going at once to the substance of his topic. He was formidable in the classroom but not dogmatic. Blessed with an acute mind, he was at the same time able to awaken the minds of his students. His chief interest was in the student, not in a system of ethics or metaphysics. He is one of the immortals. Another great American teacher was William Rainey Harper. He was filled with an enthusiasm, writes Thwing, to invigorate the ambitions of young men, to draw out their strong qualities, and to surround his subject with living interest. It is said he taught Hebrew as tho it were a series of exciting adventures. He organized his material in a “lucid and rational” way. Harper was an inspiration in his classroom and his classroom in turn inspired him. He was cordial, companionable, and democratic. He was un¬ doubtedly a great teacher and he “always wore his glasses at night.” In speaking of William G. Sumner, Nicholas Murray Butler once said in effect that great teachers are born, not made ; that only once in a million times would you find a Sumner. He exhibited great intellectual power and rugged character. He looked the part and acted it superbly, withal naturally. Life was his textbook and teaching his chief business. Sumner was in close touch with commercial and industrial leaders of his day. He had convictions and expressed them convincingly and fearlessly ; he was master of lucid ex¬ position and terse epigrams ; and he was openly and emphatically for a new day. Honest, learned, vigorous — Sumner rates as a great teacher, beloved by all Yale students and others who knew him. Some would add to this short list the names of Jesus, Confucius, Quin¬ tilian, Comenius, Froebel, Herbart, Fellenberg, Edward Austin Sheldon, Charles W. Eliot, William James, William T. Harris, Garman, Palmer, Cook, Parker, Maxwell, Wentworth, Comstock, Taylor, and doubtless many others. There are scores of great teachers, not forgotten, but unknown. To all of them we pay tribute; it is an honor to do them homage. My pur¬ pose is served in this paper by the few references made and to their brief treatment. These men possessed some qualities in common. They differed in many respects. They were all great teachers. 730 National Education Association R. B. Perry wrote, “A book does not become a man’s ‘bible’ unless it has been the principal quickening influence in his spiritual life and the source of his illumination. ...” 1 his might be paraphrased as follows: A teacher does not become great unless he has quickened the spiritual and intellectual life of his students. My concluding thought is that we may learn a great deal from a perusal of the personal qualities of great teachers. The subjective and general analyses may not merit the enthusiastic approbation of the science-bent but they make a good balance for all of us in our thinking about the personal and social qualities of teachers. I submit that many of them are forgotten by you and me today and by the students in the schools and colleges we represent. AVe may not comprehend all the qualities of great teachers; we may not be able to synthesize any favorable combination of these qualities in ourselves ; and we may not find the elements of greatness in too many of our teachers of today and tomorrow. But we can ponder these imponderables perhaps to our everlasting benefit. On this last point, and finally, let me quote from Henry Fielding’s Hearts of Men: “I would have you go and kneel beside the Mohammedan as he prays at the sunset hour, and put your heart to his and wait for the echo that will surely come.” PERSONALITY ADJUSTMENT OF THE SCHOOL TEACHER CAROLINE B. ZACHRY, DIRECTOR, MENTAL HYGIENE INSTITUTE, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, UPPER MONTCLAIR, N. J. We use the term personality” so freely, so gliblv. Whenever we speak of the requisites of a good teacher one of the first things that we think of is that the teacher should be a person of fine personality. What do we mean by that? When that definite question is asked, the answer usually becomes vague and involves such items as attractiveness in personal appearance, ability to use English correctly, pleasant voice, poise, good manners, and good taste in dress. True, these are some of the symptoms of personality, but for the most part they are deceiving because to a large extent they can be achieved on the surface and leave much to be desired when it comes to the deep significances of personality adjustment. Why is it important that a teacher s personality adjustment should be good? If she knows her subject- matter, is relatively attractive in appearance, can speak the English language and has good manners, why should we go more deeply into her personality? What, after all, do wTe know about personality? AV e have said a great deal about it and know very little. AVe have conducted schools for generations with little awareness of the personality needs of the children committed to our care. We have talked vaguely about the whole question and have as¬ sumed that personality was somehow a heredita^ factor over which we, as Department of Teachers Colleges 731 teachers, have no control. Subjectmatter, method, administration, the hygiene of the classroom, standardized tests have been our major concern. Char¬ acter education has received some attention recently, but that attention has been based on the training of character traits to too great an extent, losing sight of the fact that character traits are symptoms of a more fundamental adjustment. For the most part our educational psychologists have concerned them¬ selves with how intellectual learning takes place and with the measurement of the intelligence. To an astounding degree their studies have been carried on with little reference to the emotional life of the child. Until very re¬ cently, education has been afraid of the so-called new psychology. By the new psychology I mean those analytical schools of psychology as repre¬ sented by Freud, Jung, and Adler. It has been felt by educators that these psychologists were treading on dangerous ground. They were further accused of lacking in objectivity in their approach to psychological study since they have never yet reduced their findings to statistical treatment. They, there¬ fore, according to many educators, cannot be good psychologists. However, this group of psychologists has pointed out to us some very startling facts about personality, and if we follow them closely their findings carry con¬ viction. They have shown us that personality is learned and that its learning takes place in the effort that the individual makes to adjust his biological inheritance, i.e., his physical make-up and his intelligence, to the environ¬ ment in which he finds himself. They further point out that the individual has fundamental emotional drives that must be satisfied, and that his be¬ havior patterns are the result of the effort that he makes to satisfy these drives. They have shown us in the words of William A. White that “the child picks up the emotional flavor of the environment as effectively as a glass of milk in the ice-chest acquires the flavor of the onions that might be lying nearby.” The child guidance group have gone deeply into this new psychology and while they admit that the child takes over most of his emotional habit patterns from his parents and that the early years of his training are by far the most important, they also point out to us that the child uses the other adults in his environment as parent-substitutes, and that his emotional reactions are also determined by his teachers and those other adults who come close to him during the educational process. They point out to us, too, that to develop successfully on the emotional side the child definitely needs close contacts with adults other than his parents. He needs to be weaned away from taking his habit patterns from his parents to basing his habit patterns on the behavior of other adults around him. During the pre-adolescent and adolescent periods the child takes over one or more of the adults in his environment as a super-ego, namely, as the type of person he would like to become and from that point on, consciously or uncon¬ sciously, tries to become like the adult he has chosen. All of the more recent psychologists, even John B. Watson and other behaviorists who are not in accord with the analytic group, point out to us that fear and timidity are 732 National Education Association learned traits. 1 he child becomes fearful and anxious because of the fear and anxiety exhibited around him. In short the child takes over the emotional patterns or the personality symptoms of the adults who surround him. Probably most of you would agree that the goal of emotional education is the development of the mature adult. John Dewey has emphasized the fact that maturity is not a fixed point. It is never static. From birth to senility there is always the opportunity to become more mature. No descrip¬ tion of the mature adult can be entirely acceptable, but for the sake of this discussion we will attempt one. The mature adult is that individual who can face life squarely, who sees its issues and is willing to attack them. He does not find it necessary to flee from reality by making excuses, becoming ill, or imagining that life is the way he would like to have it. The mature individual is able to evaluate his assets and liabilities. He feels reasonably sure of himself. He knows that he can put himself across in achievement. Pie knows that he can do things reasonably well and that there are a few things in which he is an outstanding success. The mature adult has adjusted to his fellow men. He is intelligently and sympathetically interested in those around him. He is not afraid of his own feelings, affections, and interest in other people. At least psychologically he has made a heterosexual adjust¬ ment. By that we mean he accepts as desirable a normal relation between the sexes, family life, children. He forms good friendships with his own sex. He is able to w^ork and take his recreation both with his own sex and with the opposite sex. He is tolerant and sympathetic in his dealings with people and is free from prejudice. None of these characteristics of maturity can be arrived at by attacking them directly, or by teaching traits. They are symptoms of that deeper adjustment that has been taking place from birth. They cannot be super-imposed in the sense that superficial politeness, ability to dress well, intonation of the voice, and the proper use of English can be attained. Personality adjustment develops gradually thruout childhood and can only be attained thru daily living in an environment in which the funda¬ mental emotional needs are being met. Normal personality adjustment of childhood is contingent on the stability and maturity of adults who determine the environment in which the child grows up. Now we have our answer as to why the personality adjustment of the teacher is important. If we are right in our assumption that personality adjustment is a slow piocess built up from infancy it is obvious that the first step of the teacher¬ training institution in this regard should be that of adequate selection of students to be trained. This is a difficult matter and one with which many attempts but little progress has been made. 1 he problem lies in the fact that there are no adequate ways of measuring personality adjustment. T1 here are a few measures such as the Bernreuter Personality Inventory and Thurstone’s test on emotional make-up that are excellent aids but are not in themselves an adequate basis of selection. Why not face the fact that we aie dealing with a pioblem that at least at present wTe do not know how to measure? Whv not also face the fact that there are psychiatrists, psychiatric Department of Teachers Colleges 733 social workers, psychoanalysts and psychologists who have studied problems of personality, and who thru their interview technic have a definite contri¬ bution to make to the selection of mature individuals. There are a few more facts to face. We cannot get the product we need thru mass production. With our present tools of selection we have to work slowly. With our oversupply, isn’t this the time to cut down on mass pro¬ duction? We need to go back to high schools and junior colleges to pick our material for teacher training. True, we should use all the test material available in making our selection but we also need to use the case study and interview technic, and both of these are slow and painstaking. There is also the further problem that these technics are safe only in the hands of trained workers and those trained in the field are few and far between. I here wish to make a definite plea for more training for those who are going to select the people who are to deal daily and intimately with the children of our country. Even after the most careful selection the teacher needs help with her own personality problems, and in this connection the worn out phrase, “Fools rush in where angels fear to tread,” is most applicable. Anybody dubbed by the name “personnel worker” seems to feel qualified, regardless of past training, to handle these delicate situations. I am convinced that the findings of the Bernreuter Personality Inventory are sound. In my own work I find that its findings coincide very closely with those of the trained interviewer. But how many members of the teachers college faculty can understand the significance of that data when it is revealed? More important still, how many of them would know how to help a student to deal with his problems as revealed by the test? Yet it is not an uncommon practise to assign these tasks to faculty advisers who have had no previous training or experience in dealing with them. I am not here belittling those people who have a fine, intuitive, sympathetic understanding of individuals, and who, as mem¬ bers of a faculty, contribute something of immeasurable value to the indi¬ vidual student. But I am condemning the practise of assigning work with personal problems of students to faculty members regardless of their emo¬ tional fitness for the work or previous training in it. I should like to take a moment to tell you how our own department in Montclair has attempted to deal with the problems of student teachers after these students have been admitted to our college for training. Our first approach is made to the students in the freshman year thru the hygiene course. This course is taught by a member of the Mental Hygiene De¬ partment and is based on the questions handed in by freshmen. The ques¬ tions involve problems of personal hygiene as well as questions of social adjustment, and thru their objective discussion in the class the individual student makes contacts with the instructor and turns to the Department for personal help. In the sophomore year the work is approached thru the classes in educational psychology and mental hygiene. All the work in psychology is based on actual classroom situations and the real problems 734 National Education Association of the children referred to our child guidance clinic. No amount of training in mental hygiene can offset maladjustment on the part of the student- teacher. 4 herefore, any training along this line should seek to increase the student-teacher’s awareness of his responsibility for well rounded develop¬ ment on his own part. Thru the discussions of the problems of the children who are later to come under their care, we are able to develop in student-teachers an objec¬ tive attitude toward personality problems. We are able to show them the enormous importance of pupil-teacher relationships and, growing out of this, the responsibility on the part of the teacher for the adjustment of his own personality. If the discussion has been carried on in an objective way, and if the rapport between instructor and students has been good, we find that student-teachers turn to us with their personality problems, asking for help and specific guidance. We hold before the student-teacher the concept that it is the whole child who goes to school. He can easily see the next step; it is the whole teacher who is guiding him. I oward what is he guiding the pupil? Toward ma¬ turity. What is maturity? Am I mature? The answer can only be found by examining his habitual reactions to situations, and seeing in what ways he can face them more squarely. After all the student-teacher is an adolescent and, therefore, often needs a guide in the process of consciously seeking maturity. One of the problems confronting him is the age-old problem of every adolescent the difficulty of freeing himself from over-dependence on his family. Parents tend to keep adolescents young, when it suits their needs to have them young. The student-teacher is no exception. At a period when he feels that he should be learning to stand alone and to assume the responsi¬ bilities of an adult, he finds dependence on home very tempting. At other times, he finds it very irksome and feels rebellious. If he is to take his proper place in the classroom and in the community, he must grow up and attain relative independence. 4 he conflicts of adolescence must be explained to him oy some one who will provide him with a sense of security, and stand b\ yy isely thru this growing-up period. In the concrete situation of college, the Young person is trying to practise maturity. Do we set up an environment in which satisfaction attends growing up? Or do Yve attempt to keep him dependent by making too many of his decisions for him? In contrast to the problem just stated, one finds students shouldering tremendous family responsibilities, often far too great to be carried if the student is to do justice to a college course. It is often possible for us to give advice to students so that these situations may be changed ; in other instances, more objective insight into the family burden makes it easier to bear. Among our teachers college groups we find all too many students who have not succeeded in making a social adjustment. Education has no place for the individual who is maladjusted socially, for the social adjustment of Department of Teachers Colleges 735 the child should be an accepted part of the task of the teacher. Careful studies should be made of the underlying causes of this lack of social adjustment, and the most intelligent individual help should be given to students so handicapped. Their problems are often tied up with social striving, because college and the teaching profession are a step up in the social scale for many prospective teachers. In many instances, the teachers college has to provide the background that the home cannot give. And again, it often has to help the student to gain a clearer sense of social values. The student-teacher has reached the stage of heterosexual social adjust¬ ment. In the well-balanced student it has been reached successfully, and we make a serious mistake if we fail to provide an opportunity for boy- and-girl relationships at this time. The faculty should place proper value on friendship with the opposite sex, and should assist young people who have not attained this adjustment. The young men and women who are to become our future teachers should be able to look forward to marriage with the same assurance which young people planning other careers feel. This is a very real problem. The man student-teacher has to face the problem of marriage on an inadequate salary, the girl has to face the prejudice against married teachers. The situation tends to make the man look upon classroom teaching, not as a career, but as a stepping stone to administration, or even to another profession. Educators have long been aware of the fact that girls often look upon teaching as a temporary phase of life, not as a life purpose. Under such conditions, teaching becomes a disintegrating factor in personality development rather than an integrating one. Success in education depends on the integration of the personality of the teacher. What opportunities does the college provide for the student to work out his own purposes, to set all his capabilities working toward a definite end ? Is the teachers college making the same mistake that the ele¬ mentary and secondary schools have made — the mistake of building a cur¬ riculum of a number of isolated facts and activities, or is it building its curriculum on a concept of life as a whole, with science, language, mathe¬ matics, social studies, art, and music making their relative contributions? Does the social studies student with ability in art or music see where all his interests may be utilized toward a definite end, or does he feel that his art or music are things apart from his life as a teacher of social studies? Does he think of his adjustment to his home, his school, and his community as an integral part of his equipment as a teacher? In other words, is he a unified or a divided self? The answer rests to a large degree on the breadth of vision of those who are planning the curriculum. Then let us consider what happens when our student-teacher graduates and takes his place in the school. Are the schools really looking for mature integrated people ready to assume responsibility and show initiative or are they looking for a dependent person who can be managed by rule of thumb ? A great deal depends on the answer to this question. It is all very well for superintendents and principals to criticize the product we send them, but 736 National Education Association many of them need to examine their own attitudes and decide whether or not they are ready to accept the more mature individual who is capable of making plans and showing initiative. I think that the millennium in education will come when the atmosphere of the classroom is free from that unreasonable nagging and criticism of children that comes as a result of the maladjusted teacher; when the class¬ room is free from fear, anxiety, pressure, and undue competition, all of them the result of the fearful, anxious, ego-driven school teacher; when it is free from prejudice and pettiness; when there is no longer the unhealthy favorit¬ ism resulting from the teacher who is starved for affection and for healthy social outlets. In this millennium we will see a classroom in which the atmos¬ phere is conducive to wholesome adjustment, where the teacher is able objectively to recognize personality problems and deal with them intelli¬ gently rather than by a trial and error method ; a classroom in which the teacher recognizes the more serious mental health problems and is able to cooperate intelligently with those experts who have been trained to deal with such problems. In closing I wish to emphasize two things. First, among educators much has been said and little is really known about emotional adjustment which is the foundation of personality. We need to go to rock bottom on this ques¬ tion even if it involves scrapping all that we have done in the past. Second, I wish to make a plea for greater humbleness on the part of educators and a greater willingness to examine carefully the findings of other fields, willing¬ ness to consider without prejudice what social psychiatry and analysis have to contribute to this very important problem. TRAINING IN DESIRABLE PERSONAL AND SOCIAL TRAITS IN PROSPECTIVE TEACHERS GEORGE A. SELKE, PRESIDENT, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, ST. CLOUD, MINN. In the opening sentence of that excellent book, Supervised Student Teach¬ ing , A. R. Mead states that “the making of a teacher is a costly process in money, in mistakes, and in human energy.” The following quotations are excerpts from the first page or two of the same volume: “We labor un¬ ceasingly to prepare teachers so that they may not injure but help the chil¬ dren committed to them. . . . While the cost of making a teacher is great, the need for a well-prepared profession is greater. . . . We must have teachers who are scholarly, scientific, humane, energetic, industrious, and able in the science and arts of education, and who are, in some measure, capable of leading others.” Then very wisely, Dr. Mead adds: “Such work¬ ers cannot be recruited and trained in a few months. The task requires years of patient study, toil, preparation, criticism, readaptation, and cooperation with others.” Department of Teachers Colleges 737 Many sincere efforts have resulted in attempts to make this “costly proc¬ ess” less wasteful of human and material resources and more effective in its results. Our literature includes descriptions of many plans whereby only “promising” students are selected for admission to teacher-training institu¬ tions. Adherence to high standards of achievement and an insistence upon proper attitude and conduct have aided in the elimination of the profes¬ sionally unacceptable and undesirable young men and women who hurdled the obstacles of selective admission and later were found wanting. It is far more economical to let such students suffer the loss of the time spent in training than to risk the social cost of incompetent and ineffective teaching. From the group of students who complete their training for the important service of teaching, further selection is made as recommendations for specific positions are submitted to employing agencies. Despite the fact that teacher training can rightly be designated as a “costly process,” it can also be said with increasing accuracy, as stated in the Eighth Yearbook of the Department of Classroom Teachers, that “the teaching ranks are being filled with men and women of the highest type, selected because of outstanding ability, trained in special professional schools, licensed by state authority, and appointed on the basis of merit according to definite local standards.” But the bitter cost in teacher training is not in the unwise expenditure of money, in the disappointments of those who are not permitted to begin or complete their training, and not in the wasted energy of a conscientious, skilful, and self-sacrificing faculty. It comes from those graduates of our teachers colleges and colleges of education who are admitted to the field of teaching and who fail in their efforts to instruct, direct, and influence, properly and sufficiently, the children who are assigned to their charge. The failing teacher who wishes to succeed and who honestly tries, is entitled to our sympathy only less than the children who are his victims. Small wonder that so many studies have been made to determine the causes of failure and to determine the factors that make teaching activity successful. Barr, in his effort to determine the characteristic differences of good and poor teachers, found that there were four major categories of weakness among poor teachers: “(1) lack of mastery of subjectmatter ; (2) inferior technic or procedure ; (3) personal characteristics ; (4) inability to discipline. The chief sources of weaknesses were defective characteristics of personality, or personal qualities.” Clapp and Rish concluded from their studies that “aside from the mastery of subjectmatter and the methods of teaching, there are many factors that determine the quality of the teacher’s work. These factors may be classified under three heads, as follows: (1) personal characteristics; (2) social and professional characteristics; (3) school management. These three groups are not entirely distinct. Rather they overlap and the possession of the fac¬ tors in one group depends in part upon the possession of those in another.” C. O. Davis in an article published in the July 1931 number of Nation s Schools , asks how the administrator should choose his teachers. He holds 738 National Education Association that personal qualities demanded for teaching may be classified under four headings: physical, mental, moral, and social. Under physical qualities he lists a sound body, good posture and carriage, cleanliness, a pleasing and vibrant voice, abundant energy, health-giving habits, and modishness in dress. In the division for mental qualities are included mental alertness and responsiveness, broad outlooks upon numerous fields of knowledge and life, a mastery of subjectmatter to be taught, an intellectual curiosity, tolerance, and the habit of analyzing and evaluating data before forming permanent judgments. The moral qualities submitted are such traits as self-confidence, self-control, self-respect, force, initiative, integrity, balanced temperament, and ability to carry responsibilities. The group of social qualities given are sympathy and friendliness to pupils, co¬ operation with associates, loyalty to superiors, interest in community problems and activities, gracious manners and courteous consideration for all persons. Charters and Waples in the Commonwealth study present a master list of teacher traits common to teachers thruout the public-school system. These traits, alphabetically arranged, are adaptability, attractiveness, breadth of interest, carefulness, considerateness, cooperation, dependability, enthusiasm, fluency, forcefulness, good judgment, health, honesty, industry, leadership, magnetism, neatness, open-mindedness, originality, progressiveness, prompt¬ ness, refinement, scholarship, self-control, and thrift. Permit just one more reference to the importance of personal qualities. In the June 1918 number of Pedagogical Seminary is a significant statement based on a study made in 1903 by Hall and Gulich: “Positive dispositional traits, especially of the social kind, are an even greater factor in the growth of the teacher than professional interests and activities outside the classroom.” Is there need for further evidence about the importance of favorable per¬ sonal traits in successful teaching? It is granted without argument that there is no substitute for scholarship and that professional training which provides for technic and procedure based upon scientific knowledge and approved practise, is vital to successful teaching. The fact must be pointed out, how¬ ever, that at one teachers college, and very likely at many, the chief single cause for failure, among its graduates, is, according to the employing agencies, the inability of the young teacher to make the social adjustments to his new environment. With Mead we exclaim, “The successful teacher must be a composite of many of the numerous traits of human beings plus many traits acquired specifically to be used in his career. The successful teacher has traits that are complex, variable, constant, and interdependent.” To what extent these traits are specific or general, inherent or acquired, is beside the point. The important fact is that they exist. It is our responsibility to identify and to improve them in the young people who prepare for teaching. Even if desirable personal traits come as a byproduct of doing other things, and are, to use a Bagley expression, “bootlegged” to the individual, we can try to create situations for the doing of those “other things” which produce the byproduct we desire. Department of Teachers Colleges 739 Most certainly we cannot abdicate and deny our responsibility. To turn a youth loose without guidance and the opportunity to participate in situa¬ tions that develop or exercise desirable personal traits, is to surrender that youth to his own random situations and responses, out of which he will develop random personal traits and a random character. The Repoit of the School and College Relations Committee of the Edu¬ cational Records Bureau, makes this significant and comprehensive statement (quoted from page 91, January 1934 Educational Record) : “Information regaiding the personality development of pupils is of the greatest importance to schools and colleges because 1. Assuming adequate intellectual capacity, habits and attitudes outweigh any other factors in determining success or failure in schooling as well as in life. 2. As complete knowledge of personal characteristics as can be obtained is es¬ sential in any plan of guidance. 3. Failure to emphasize habits and attitudes, results in unwise overstress on sub¬ jects and academic success.” The teachers colleges are equally alert to the need for greater considera¬ tion of the personal characteristics of their students. In the January 1931 Indiana State Teachers College Journal , Bogardus reports interestingly on the Terre Haute procedure. In response to the question, “How are you going to get at this problem?,” a personality rating sheet, listing the seven qualities of personal appearance, enthusiasm, trustworthiness, judgment, re¬ sourcefulness, speech and social adaptability, was prepared. The plan is based on the judgment of the instructor because he is considered to be in a strategic position. The plan makes it possible to get the individual and the combined judgment of many instructors on any student and enables the dean to trace the progress of any student thruout his college training. Bogardus believes they will find that a number of these persons are lacking in desirable qualities to such a degree or possess undesirable qualities to such a degree that the situation seems to be beyond remedy. If those students are beyond the possibility of raising themselves to the desired level, the duty of the college is perfectly clear. The more infoimation about an individual that can be accumulated, the more the individual can be helped. Dr. Morrison of Chicago University is quoted as saying “that teachers of the future would spend half time study¬ ing the pupils and the other half doing the things the study showed to be necessary.” Mai k May in the January 1934 Scientific Monthly names some of the usable methods of measuring different aspects of personality. In answer to the series of queiies, How may we discover what sort of a person John Doe really is? Is he strong, magnetic, reliable, talented, courageous, honest, and kind? Or is he weak, repulsive, cruel, cowardly, dull, and deceitful?”— he suggests six ways of finding out something about John Doe. First of all, study his record. 740 National Education Association John, like every one of us, has left behind him footprints on the sands of time. These are his letters and other writings, his school grades, written applications for a gas meter or automobile license, registration for voting, and so on. His photograph will also tell you something about him, but just what it tells has not been scientifically determined. It is quite possible, and in fact easy, to find out a great deal about John Doe without ever seeing him or consulting others about him. Second, ask those who know him. Members of his family, his teachers, his employer or his employees, his creditors, his pastor or his lawyer (if he has one), his neighbors and friends, all have very definite impressions concerning what kind of a fellow he is. Furthermore, most of them are willing to talk about him. If you approach them right, they will go so far as to rate him high, low, or average on many character and personality traits. The rating method is one of the most common devices for the scientific study of personality. Thousands of rating scales and technics have been devised and there are now on record ratings of hundreds of thousands of individuals. But ratings are not true measures, they are at best only carefully and systematically recorded im¬ pressions and opinions. What they really measure, if anything, is John Doe’s reputa¬ tion, which is only one part of his personality. Third, observe him. Three kinds of observations will be useful. First note his physical appearance, second, his expressive movements, and third, his actual conduct. The fourth way of studying John Doe’s personality is to interview him. If you can establish friendly relations with him, he will submit to direct question¬ ing and will tell you a great many things about himself. Your task is to select the questions that will bring out the aspects of his personality in which you are for the moment interested. The fifth method is psychological tests. A test is essentially a measuring device. There are a great many different kinds of tests, each intended to measure a different phase or aspect of personality. The best are known as intelligence tests. There are also tests of special abilities, talents, and aptitudes. There are tests of instincts and emotions, of social adjustments, of educational achievement, of moral knowledge and conduct, including such types of conduct as honesty, cooperation, generosity, courage, will-power, self-control, and the like. There are also tests of appreciation of art, music and literature, tests of likes and dislikes; tests of social attitudes, opinions and beliefs; tests of interests in occupations, games, and sports. There is in addition a special kind of a test known as a general personality test. This test, which exists in various forms, is really a questionnaire which inquires into symptoms of personal adjustment or maladjustment. It is a sampler of symptoms. The sixth and final method of studying personality is by experiment. Since the laboratory is the workshop of the scientist, personality must eventually come under instruments of precise measurement. Laboratories are now equipped with instruments for measuring not only the physical characteristics of human sub¬ jects but also their mental and physical functions as well. Many of these functions, if not all, are definitely related to personality. For example, the fluids of the body, including the blood, the saliva, the urine, the spinal fluids, and others, are so chemi¬ cally constituted that changes in their compositions are frequently accompanied by changes in behavior. In fact, some scientists hold that in the electrical and chemical Department of Teachers Colleges 741 phenomena of the body lies the solution of the problem of the prediction and con¬ trol of conduct. In connection with observation as a method for obtaining information, permit me to suggest that a brief record of the situation or activity be made rather than the employment of a descriptive word. For example, Student A was responsible for a certain activity that involved the handling of a certain amount of money. The day after the activity he submitted a com¬ plete report. Student B had a similar responsibility. It was necessary for the accountant to request the statement several times. Two weeks after the activity, he submitted his statement. A record as brief as that submitted for Student “A” gives far more definite and accurate information than the designation “prompt or responsi¬ ble.” It eliminates the need of definition. The illustration also points the way for the remedial work that should succeed the analysis. I am positive that a fairly accurate diagnosis is pos¬ sible for all of our prospective teachers and that sound remedial practises which will test the operation of personal and social traits can be provided. Required participation in extracurriculum activities in the recreational, the social, the cultural programs found in so many of our colleges, which practise really curricularizes, is a step in the right direction. Let me quote again from the Eighth Yearbook of the Department of Classroom Teachers: No less important than the fields of training mentioned above is training in health, recreation, and the social graces. Not only should the student in training keep physically and mentally fit by a program of physical education, but he should establish, also, correct habits of eating, sleeping, and exercising that are as customary as personal cleanliness. Closely allied with health training is that in recreation, for the things that refresh and invigorate make for mental health and frequently for physical well-being too. Generally speaking, recreation is chosen because of the relaxation and entertainment it affords rather than for any intrinsic value. Fortunately, however, the form of recreation that provides the fullest measure of relaxation and entertainment is usually the type that results in greatest benefit to the individual. Consequently, both objectives are frequently achieved, especially by those who have trained themselves to participate in the sports and social diversions of the community. A great many teachers neglect recreation because they lack training in the social graces, a small thing in itself perhaps, but one that often looms large in the lives of individuals. Formerly it was assumed all too frequently that intelligent students would develop satisfactory social habits while acquiring academic skill. As a mat¬ ter of fact, they did not, for social proficiency is attained only thru practise the same as any other skill. College and university authorities have recognized this fact for some time, and now a majority of the teachers colleges make definite provision for at least a limited amount of training in correct social conduct. However, still greater emphasis would be warranted in many institutions. Moreover, special consideration should be given to men students. Many of them will become administrators, where the ability to meet strangers pleasantly and to do and say the right thing on every occasion will be not only' an immense satisfaction but a determining factor in their success. 742 National Education Association In the future we shall be much more concerned than at present with the life the student lives while attending the teachers college. We shall consider a check of his leisure time as important as a test of his scholastic ability. We shall be interested in the student as a person and shall provide oppor¬ tunities for the development of personal and social traits as we do now for the acquisition of knowledge and of classroom skill. We shall be concerned in him as an integrated being who is capable of adjustment to his associates, to his pupils, and to his community. DISCUSSION ROBERT D. BALDWIN, WEST VIRGINIA UNIVERSITY, MORGANTOWN, W. VA. There remains now the pleasant task of attempting to synthesize the care¬ ful analyses of our topic, whereby the preceding speakers have stimulated our thinking, into a tentative working philosophy of the teacher’s challenge in these stirring days and into a tentative working program of preparation with which we may hope to meet that challenge. The philosophy implied in the deathless words of Jesus, “Ye shall find the truth, and the truth shall make you free,” and of Abraham Lincoln, “gov¬ ernment of the people, by the people, and for the people” constitutes the challenge to the teacher, of a dynamic society which contains within itself the desire and the means for its progressive liberation and control. The most conscious and conspicuous expression to date of society’s desire and means toward this end is the American public school. And the teacher is the pilot, searcher for, and interpreter of the truth ; himself a product of the people, commissioned by the people, for dynamic service for the people in their hope¬ ful climb to successively higher levels of freedom. In the presence of such responsibility, where coalesce so completely personal and social qualities, what traits are needful in a successful teacher? 1. Maturity — intellectual, social, emotional — by which is meant, not crystallization, or even stability, certainly not “normalcy” ; but rather the steady mobility and purposive flexibility of a growing, integrating per¬ sonality, understanding and tentatively at home with itself, its fellows, and the institutions of society. Such maturity depends upon 2. Social intelligence, that priceless composite of practical psychology and common sense and love for just folks which results in the ability to associate with and handle people to the ultimate benefit of all concerned and with a minimum of friction, so well exemplified in that delightful down-east char¬ acter, Jen, in Gladys Carroll’s As The Earth Turns. 3. Faith in folks, and that, given the chance to find and ponder truth, and sympathetic suggestion as to its application, they will use it to promote per¬ sonal and social freedom thru self-control. 4. Courage to face facts realistically, and to build the school integrally into life. Courage to keep the school dynamic, even in the face of the brake Department of Teachers Colleges 743 of tiadition and the heavy hand of athe god-of-things-as-they-are,” facing * resolutely the problems of the present and their implications for the future. How most of us lacked such courage in those smug, complacent years from 1917 to 1929, when the economic facts of glutting profits for the few and mounting debts for the many so clearly pointed to the condition in which now we strive to right the tottering structure of civilization. Courage to unite faith, as fact projected; reason, as fact prophesied; and science, as fact proved, into purposive realities, steadily expanding life by enabling us to glimpse new truths about its processes. Courage to stand firm by these realities, with the calm confidence one naturally feels in the ultimate triumph of truth over falsehood, even when the latter is blazoned forth by all the arts of modern propaganda. 5. Tolerance, or human sympathy, to balance courage. Tolerance active, not passive; positive, not negative; patient, disarming, broad enough to in¬ spire reciprocal impulses in others, frank, dauntless, irresistible. Tolerance that can take it on the chin” and retaliate confidently with a blow delivered to the head from a heart full of genuine human sympathy. Give me these qualities, if you please, in my candidate for teacher prepara¬ tion. I have not mentioned scholarship or mentality. Normal intelligence is assumed. If it be granted, scholarship will strike its stride in view of the other qualities specified, and in line with the training program, which I herewith briefly outline. First, an administrative set-up essentially in the spirit and of the quali¬ ties as specified for the teachers in preparation. Second, a staff possessed of the self-same aforesaid traits, with thoro and comprehensive liberal and professional preparation, and with a background of experience in the teaching of children. Third, a state requirement of five years of preparation after entering the teachers college, the last year to be an internship in a teachers college- controlled laboratory public school. Fourth, a budget sufficient to carry the program, to attract and hold a superior staff. Fifth, a plant adapted to house comfortably and functionally the program contemplated. Sixth, the curriculum, in broad outline, about as follows: The first three years are given over to learning how to study, to studying society, the economic order, public health, the subjectmatter of the various academic fields which may be determined of worth to society in general to know about, such material to be covered in a way to bring into clear relief its human bearings and significance, and especially its meaning to and for chil¬ dren. During the third year the student’s major special interests should begin to receive special attention. The fourth and fifth years would embrace what I should like to call the integrated professional experience of the student. I should pick my master teachers, those having the traits, already covered in some detail, in marked degree, for special pilot-counselors. To each 744 National Education Association * of these not more than twelve students of each of these last two years would be assigned. The fourth-year students would spend one-half day in the laboratory school, observing, helping both students and teacher, assum¬ ing gradually routine and teaching responsibility, under the cooperative guidance of the counselor and the room teacher. The other half day would be spent in studying out the problems which arose in the classroom observa¬ tion and participation, and in group and individual conferences with the counselor. The child psychology, methods, educational sociology, manage¬ ment, and administration of the standard professional curriculum of the present time would thus be covered in functioning, practical sequence. I should expect the student to get the parental contacts and educational sociology first hand at this time, also, under the direction of the counselor. The fifth year would be a carefully supervised and sympathetically directed internship, full responsibility for a class for one-half day being the load carried under the counselor’s guidance. This pilot is the coordinator of experiences of a professional sort by means of which the student builds an integrated professional consciousness, sensitiveness, confidence and, of course, skill. I hear objections, and sympathize with them. I shall voice them, and try to answer them briefly, and in order: 1. Such an administration and such a staff are pretty scarce. Are you quite sure of that? That kind of administra¬ tion can find and build such a staff. Leadership of that sort, with financial backing, can draw out of the profession many just such teachers. How about it? 2. It costs too much to inaugurate and maintain. Yes, it does cost plenty, but wouldn’t it be better to pay for it and have its benefits than to have to pay for it and not have anything to show for it? That’s just wffiat we as states and as a nation are doing now. We are paying for the fact that we have in the past failed to support a dynamic school and prepare dynamic teachers. A dynamic school pays its way every time. 3. I doubt whether young people of such traits could be attracted to teaching in sufficient numbers. Maybe not to teaching as a means of maintaining status quo. But make it an adventure in human reconstruction and advancement, and see what happens. Youth today isn’t afraid of the challenge to constructive endeavor. Why not give it a trial ? EDUCATION FOR A CHANGING SOCIAL ORDER JOHN DEWEY, PROFESSOR EMERITUS OF PHILOSOPHY, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. Education for a changing social order means fundamentally education that introduces students into the realities of the present order — or disorder, order being a courtesy name for the present chaos. As Andy replied when Amos asked him the meaning of statu quo, “It’s a name for the mess we are in.” Nobody knows what the future is going to be. The only sure thing is Department of Teachers Colleges 745 that it will change as the present is changing ; changing so rapidly that we could almost say it is change. Probably there were a few people ten years ago or so who thought they knew what the future was going to be. Ten years is a short time and yet the wisest did not know what the intervening years were going to bring forth. Certainly no one knew what the year of grace 1934 was going to be politically, economically, and internationally. If we cannot see ten years ahead, the prospects are surely poor for our predicting what social affairs are going to be like a generation from now, or eyen by the time the younger pupils in the school will be going out into active life. People dissatisfied with the present are only too apt to flee, according to their respective temperaments, either to the past or to the future. It is easier to look backward and pleasanter to imagine what may be ahead than it is to face the present. Yet it is out of the present with all its cross cur¬ rents that the future will be born. We can and should project our hopes and aspirations. But it is the way we treat present social forces that will deter¬ mine how far our hopes are realized in the future. And we cannot administer these forces unless we first of all know what they are and how they are working. In other words, there are three choices that education can take. It can go on dwelling in the past ; it can set up ideal pictures for the future and strive to educate on the basis of that picture; or we can strive thru our schools to make pupils vividly and deeply aware of the kind of social world in which they are living. For these reasons I am glad that the assigned subject is “education for a changing social order” rather than education for a new social order — not that we do not need a new social order, but that the fundamental condition of attaining it is to begin where we are, with the present, and having found out something about that, learn where edu¬ cation is to throw its weight ; learn what existing forces are to be weakened and replaced, and what are to be supported and reinforced. In the first place, let me say that it would be almost an educational revolu¬ tion if we were to recognize that we live in a changing social order and proceed to act upon that recognition in our schools. For, speaking in the broad way which time alone permits, our educational system has been an education for a static, a relatively fixed, social order. One evidence of that fact is the emphasis put upon getting what are called the right answers to problems that are laid down by text and teacher, instead of putting the emphasis upon finding out what the problems are, finding out by having the boys and girls themselves take an active part in studying the conditions that set the problem. The idolizing of correct knowledge and correct views is not confined of course to social matters. It is bad there, as I shall try to show in a few minutes. But the mental set is given in almost all subjects. Whether or not there is transfer of the external effects of learning, there is no doubt that an attitude that is formed persists and waits ready to be applied to all subjects. 746 National Education Association Unconsciously students form the habit of supposing that things in general, aside from a few details, are all settled ; that some one has the right solution and that it only remains for the student to learn it. The result is that many young people leave school with the attitude of wanting and expecting to be told , rather than with the attitude of realizing that they must look into things, must inquire and examine. There is com¬ plaint, and rightly, that the population is too amenable, on the whole, to the influence of propaganda. But why is it? Why are so many people so ready to swallow what is persistently told them, told them with an air of authority? Why is there so much gullibility? I do not believe that it is mainly from lack of native intelligence. It is because they have acquired the habit of listening and of accepting, instead of that of inquiry, and, if you please, of intelligent scepticism. There are other causes for this mental passivity. Men and women working mechanically all day, tending machines, are not likely to be especially alert. But I think the schools have to accept some responsibility for the prevalence of this habit of mind. While methods of teaching in arithmetic, history, geography, in fact, in almost all the school subjects, aid in establishing the mental habit of passive acceptance, while docility at the expense of an inquiring disposition is too generally cultivated, the evil culminates in the attitudes that are formed in political, social, and economic matters. I give one particular illustration, not perhaps important in itself, but as typical. I saw the other day a little pamphlet designed for high-school teachers and students. The idea behind it was an excellent one. It was devoted to the National Recovery Act and the activities carried on under its administration. Here surely is a topic related to the world in which we are living. Acquaintance on the part of students with this present line of governmental activity is valuable in itself as a preparation of students for the duties of citizenship. More important is the fact that this study could easily be made a doorway thru which students could be led to a study of almost any phase of present industrial and business life, including the position of the consumer and the wage earner. So far, so good. But the central theme of the pamphlet was whether the N.R.A. should be continued indefinitely, and not only that but the pamphlet took a definite position on the matter. It was calculated to lead students to a certain view as the correct one. Now I do not suppose there was anything wrong about this desire in the intention of the writer. But I do think it was educationally wrong. I think the fact is an illustration of the prevailing ten¬ dency to have everything settled, to have students arrive at correct views on every topic that comes up lest their minds be left hanging in uncertainty. Since, however, events themselves are hanging in the air, since the world itself is in a state of uncertainty as to what is impending, the point that is most important educationally was omitted. The»tendency to develop closed minds was strengthened. Can anyone believe that the educational result would not have been much better if the facts had been presented, even the arguments pro and con, so that the nature of the problem stood out clearly, Department of Teachers Colleges 747 and then the matter left there for the students’ own continuous inquiry? Was it better to have the matter settled as far as the minds of the boys and girls were concerned or to arouse curiosity and an abiding interest in the question for the future? I have taken this particular illustration not because it is especially bad. On the contrary, it is an example of something much better than what has often gone on in the schools. It is an attempt to bring instruction into rela¬ tion with the changing social scene. Upon the whole I do not think it is too much to say that when the schools have touched upon political and eco¬ nomic affairs they have been at arm’s length in comparison to the hand-to- hand grapple in the instance just cited. School contacts have been too large, remote, and highly general. But they have often been so much in the way of laudation of what was done in the past as to give students a highly unreal idea of actual conditions. It is recog¬ nized that our forefathers a century and a half ago had real problems to deal with both in revolutionary days and the years that followed till the Constitution was adopted. It is recognized that Civil War days were times of real stress and strain. But comparatively little has been done to make students aware that we live in the midst of new problems that are as urgent and in many ways even more complex. It has even been regarded as unpatriotic to say or teach anything that would give pupils the idea that our Constitution and the system under which we live are not so perfect that any serious problems remain. Those who call attention to the fact that a system adopted in the era of the stage-coach and candle-light are not perfectly adapted to the era of the railway, electricity, and airplane have been stigmatized as disturbers and wilful agitators, if not actual revolutionaries bent on overthrowing our system. Patriotism has been identified with complacency. I might say, speaking broadly, that not only have we paid more attention to the past than to the present, but that we have educated on the basis of a fixed or static social order instead of one that is dynamic, changing more rapidly than at any time in the entire past. Well-educated people have been wont to think with pity of the efforts of states like Tennessee and Arkansas to forbid the teaching of biological evolution in the public schools. But the fact is that when it comes to economic and political matters we have all of us lived in an atmosphere of fundamentalism, and that the atmosphere has penetrated the schools. After all, the evolution of institutions is of much greater concern to the average person than is the evolution of plant and animal life. But those who feel enlightened because they are willing to admit that the latter has been a constant scene of change have felt that it was necessary to hold firmly to fixity of economic and political institutions, beliefs and loyalties. Or if they have accepted the idea of evolution in social affairs they have regarded it as a very slow gradual process that takes place automatically without the intervention of purpose and directed action on the part of human beings. 748 National Education Association So I come back to my main theme. Education for a changing social order must be based on an understanding of the facts of the changes that are going on, and especially on insight into the causes that are producing these changes — the forces that are at work. Take, for example, the eclipse of democratic government in so many European countries. Many countries are living under dictatorships that have abolished all forms of representative government and that mention democracy only as a term of contempt. There are many influential persons in this country who uniformly speak with scorn of Congress and tell us how the business world breathes freely only when it is not in session. I do not suppose that all of them want a dictatorship, per¬ haps only a few do. But their attitude involves, whether they are aware of it or not, profound disrespect for representative government and democratic institutions. There is no need here to go into the causes that have brought about the European situation. Let us stay close to home affairs. The country was founded upon faith in democracy with its ideals of liberty. Not many stu¬ dents in our high schools and only a comparatively few in the colleges are made aware of the fact that the Constitution was adopted in a time of dis¬ trust of the people and that many measures designed to curb the political power of the masses were embedded in it — a fact that was the cause of the adoption of all the earlier amendments at a time when popular sentiment was less under the influence of the reactionaries. But nevertheless Thomas Jefferson and Abraham Lincoln, the sturdiest defenders of democratic ideas, have always been the great national heroes. Why has the faith grown dim¬ mer? And why is there so little interest in politics that hardly more than half of those entitled to vote go to the polls in a hotly contested election where parties have immense campaign funds at their disposal ? The question of course is a complicated one. But there is one fact so outstanding and so plain that it must be reckoned with. Economic condi¬ tions now are entangled at every point with politics, and economic forces decide political activity. Nevertheless, the determining economic conditions operate in ways that are not open and clear to the mass of the citizens. In theory, and to a large degree, practically, in the mind of the average citizen, politics and economics are kept apart. In spite of the fact that every important political issue arises out of industry, business, and finance, we are constantly led to suppose that political and legal institutions work on independent and separate lines, lines that were laid down long ago and that are thoroly democratic. The simple fact is that power rules and that the real government is car¬ ried on not in Washington and our state capitals but wherever power re¬ sides. We live in a time when money not talks but acts. There is an accu¬ mulation and concentration of wealth. Our industrial and commercial system is carried only by means of capital that is amassed and organized. I do not complain of this fact. I only say that it is an outstanding fact. When our country was in process of creation, the men who transported goods carried them with horses and wagons which they owned themselves. Department of Teachers Colleges 749 The men who made the goods made them in their own neighborhoods "with tools which they worked with their own hands, and even when they did not own the raw materials upon which they used their tools, they at least mostly owned the tools and they worked with a few neighbors whom they knew per¬ sonally and who had a common stake in their local community. This was the time when rugged individualism had a meaning and it was the time when democratic institutions were born. You cannot imagine the railway system by which the great mass of raw mateiials and manufactured goods are transported today being owned and managed in that personal way. It takes a large amount of capital to build and run a i ail way system. Corporations, with issuance of bonds and stocks that biing about the accumulation of large capital drawn from a great va- riety of individuals, were necessities if we were to use steam and electricity instead of depending upon horses and wagons. Compare the old forge and blacksmith shop in which ironwares were produced with the mills and factories of the United States Steel or Bethle¬ hem Corporations of today and you have at least a symbol of the correspond¬ ing change that has taken place in productive industry. Or, compare the old-fashioned wagon-works with the big automobile factories in Detroit and you see why it is that the capital has been gathered together and organized on a vast scale. We could not have our present type of civilization without the change from personally managed production and transportation depen¬ dent, comparatively speaking, upon personal means, without the aggregation of impersonal capital. For this reason I said I was not complaining of the mere fact. The real point concerns the question of how the aggregated capital is controlled and how it is used — what is the social effect of the way it is used. And since I am not making a political speech I am not mentioning even this fact to complain of it at this time. 4 he point is the bearing upon education for citizenship in our present order. I he point is that our youth cannot possibly understand the problems and forces of political life unless they understand its back¬ ground in industry, trade, and finance. If we contrast the actual situation with instruction in civics as that is given in most of our schools, we see how pathetically meager the latter is. I he latter is almost shoved into a corner. But the nature of the usual instruction given is still more serious. While there has been great improve¬ ment in recent years, and while there is not so much merely formal study of the legal anatomy of government as there once was, it is still true that an understanding of the situation cannot be had by a single course set apart from others. What is required is something fundamental in the way of a pretty complete overhauling of the curriculum from the fifth grade onwards thru the high school. The whole course of study should be oriented toward the world of the present, not toward the past, and its great aim should be to make those who go out from the school conscious of the forces that are changing the conditions of life for everybody. 750 National Education Association Of course such a reorganization is not easy and cannot be performed over night. There must be preparation. There are none in such a strategic position to make the preparation as the training schools for teachers, and in this group the colleges and schools for teachers connected with the uni¬ versities of the country hold a central place. For this reason, in what I have said so far I have spoken of the education that is needed in the schools. For the kind of instruction they are to receive and the methods that are to be used should decide what is to be done in the training of teachers. The constant temptation of such training schools is either to prepare in a cut and dried way for the details of the schoolroom, or else to develop under the name of science and philosophy ideas that are too far away from school life and action. I do not think that I am overbold in saying that at the present time the institutions that train teachers have a unique opportunity. It is a few of the larger features of this opportunity that I should like to outline. If teachers are to be trained to educate the young for a changing social order, the institutions that train them cannot, in the first place, accept the present curriculum as setting the standard for their work. Those who give instruc¬ tion in them must inquire critically and cooperatively into the relationship of this curriculum to a changing order. They must start on the development of plans of study for the schools generally that are organized about the idea of social life as indeed a life, a moving, changing thing. I do not think, in the next place, that the method of approach can be too bold or too challenging. The execution of the plans in actual practise will be a much slower thing, and there will be plenty of obstacles to slow down its execution. But the method of approach is an intellectual matter, and, while conservatism will affect practise, the intellectual approach cannot be too radical — radical in the sense of trying to get at the root of the matter. We have never had in this country centralized governmental departments of education such as exist in the cabinets of European countries. Progress has been by voluntary efforts and by a process of permeation and osmosis. In the long run I believe this method is better than dictation from above. But the method imposes a peculiar responsibility on teacher-training institutions. In the absence of official leadership it is for them to be leaders. There is a strong tendency for them to be followers. I do not mean by this statement that they are consciously servile in their attitude. I mean rather that a great many forces converge to make the readiest and simplest course for them the acceptance of the existing system, to prepare students for taking an efficient part in it, improving it of course, but improving it within the limits set by its existing framework. Teachers must find positions and their fitness is likely to be judged by their preparation as it enables them to fit in. The eyes of those who direct these institutions are unconsciously kept upon existing practises, and their ideal is to carry on the investigations and instil the ideals that will improve those practises without attempting to change the general framework. Department of Teachers Colleges 751 Under ordinary conditions such policies are all that can be expected, and there is no doubt of the good work that has been done in these directions. But we are now living in a time to which the mildest word that can be applied is emergency, that most of us do not hesitate to call a crisis, and which may well prove to be one of the turning points in history that occur every century or two. Everybody knows that ideas and proposals that would have been hooted at a few years ago are now promulgated and listened to. It is only in emergencies that far-reaching changes can be initiated. The opportunity for serious educational changes, that I referred to a few moments ago, is determined in a large measure by the state of the public mind at the present time. No one knows how long this particular situation will con¬ tinue; if and when it disappears educational changes that could be accom¬ plished with comparative ease during the crisis will be almost impossible to accomplish. But now the idea of a New Deal is not only on everybody’s lips but in everybody’s mind. There are critics of course, but unless I misjudge the state of public opinion the mass of the people are hoping that it will go much further; they are waiting for an onward movement to take place. If educa¬ tors hold back, the public will be indifferent to the schools, more indifferent than in the past. If the public sees that educators are awake to the situa¬ tion and are trying to do their part to meet the new situation, there will be hearty support for changes that would have aroused an opposition im¬ possible to overcome a few years ago. The opportunity is such as comes not once in a generation but once in a century. It was indeed in the thirties of the nineteenth century that there was a great ferment in education and that the foundations of free public education were laid, and that the movement for special education of teachers was set on foot. It was in the thirties, a century ago, that Horace Mann and Henry Barnard began the publication of their educational journals. It would be interesting to know whether it is a mere coincidence that the thirties of a century ago were also a period of extreme depression. At all events, there was an opportunity and it was taken advantage of by educa¬ tors. How far can we rise to the present opportunity? It would be absurd for me to attempt to lay down even in outline a program for an education for teachers that would put them in a position where they would in turn enable students to do their part in directing the changes that are going on, so that we would move to a more just, more humane, and more secure social order. But it is pertinent to point out cer¬ tain facts. In the first place, the material for developing such a program is at hand in more abundant measure than at any previous time. There is much material conservatively presented in reports of the Commission on Social Trends. The National Education Association has a Committee on Social and Economic Goals of America. An American Committee on Eco¬ nomic Policy has been formed as a clearing-house and distributing center of information. While aimed more directly at adult education, the material will be significant for any educational reorganization. A committee for the 752 National Education Association reorganization of secondary education has been formed and is at work. The Commission on Social Studies will soon make a report and it is under¬ stood that it will contain an analysis of present social conditions and forces. These are a few of the high spots with reference to available material. In the second place, there is no cause for fear of fixed inculcation — which according to the dictionary originally signified a mere stamping in. We have a great deal of that in the interest of striving to maintain the order of the past that has so completely broken down. What we need to substitute for this fixed indoctrination, which has exercised an oppressive and coercive influence in the past, is an intelligent understanding of actual conditions that will stimulate individual inquiry and enable the minds of students and teachers alike to think in a straightforward and competent way and reach their own conclusions. In the third place, the entire curriculum should be organized about a social center and oriented toward social ends. At present, the curriculums of the schools are so centrifugal, so dispersed and overloaded, so lacking in intellectual organization and unity of purpose, that unification is needed on every ground. For the sake of educational coherence as well as for educating a generation that can deal intelligently with our social troubles, a center of unity is imperatively needed. We have gone for a long time on the policy of piecemeal additions of courses and studies. What we need is a thorogoing reorganization about a center which will include within its circumference whatever is relevant to present needs. Will our educators rise to the opportunity? THE EDUCATION OF TEACHERS FOR A CHANGING SOCIAL ORDER GEORGE F. ZOOK, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. We live in a period when people talk quite freely about social planning. Every effort of this nature by the states or the federal government has called forth generous applause from everybody, including the educators. We join with others in generous appreciation of ail evidences of statesman¬ like vision on the part of those who are attempting to lead us out of the difficulties which descended on us a few years ago. Whatever responsibility for social planning rests on federal or state officials, members of Congress or state legislatures and local administrators, rests with equal if not greater weight on the shoulders of school and college executives and teachers. Especially is this true relative to the development of policy and organization in the field of education itself. We cannot cast off responsibility for undesirable conditions in education onto our fellow public officials. If any group of citizens is in a position to influence elected Department of Teachers Colleges 753 and appointed officials it ought to be those of us who are engaged in educa¬ tion. I plead, therefore, for a full acceptance of our responsibilities and for that vision and courage which are necessary to a successful solution of our problems in education, including the training of teachers. In fact, I am definitely conscious of what amounts to a challenge which is being thrown down by those in authority today to those of us who are engaged in educational administration, to supply the country with a vision of what the schools ought to be in the new era, together with practical and economical means of attaining our objectives. We are told in effect that if we will but study our problem and agree upon an intelligent, comprehensive and courageous program that the public will be glad to follow our leader¬ ship, just as it is always not only willing but anxious so to do. At the risk, therefore, of seeming to be presumptuous, I propose to dis¬ cuss with you a few familiar matters in the field of teacher training which, if they could be accomplished, would appeal strongly, I am convinced, to the common sense of the great American public. For it should be remem¬ bered that a social policy must not only be fundamentally sound but it must be put in such a way as to catch the imagination of our fellow citizens who support the schools. 1. We should know how many teachers should be trained. As one looks back over the history of teacher training in this country it is amazing how little attention has been given to this elemental consideration. From the very beginning teacher training has been recognized more definitely as a function of the state’s educational institutions than any other aspect of higher education. Yet studies of teacher demand and supply are a development largely of the last ten years. Even now we are told that comprehensive studies of this kind have been made in only about eight states, California, Colorado, Louisiana, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, and Vermont, while similar but less extensive surveys have been made in only nine other states, Arkansas, Iowa, Kentucky, Michigan, New Jersey, Oregon, South Dakota, Tennessee, and West Virginia. As a result of this haphazard policy Professor Earl W. Anderson tells us that “at present the number of new teachers demanded annually is probably less than half the number graduated from teacher-training courses each year.” To whatever extent this statement is true, it is a very sad comment upon the social planning of our teacher-training institutions. If we would protect the good name and fame of our profession we must take measures in each state in the Union to ascertain the trend of demand and supply of teachers thru careful, comprehensive studies of census figures, enrolment in schools, teacher turnover and every other factor which affects the situation. An ounce of consideration along this line is far better than a pound of some more violent readjustment later on. In fact, I feel confident that in the future the public will expect us to be intelligent about the number of persons needed in our profession. 2. Each state should establish or arrange for only those facilities in teacher training which will provide the necessary supply of teachers. Here 754 National Education Association at once we come to a question about which there is wide difference of opin¬ ion. The whole question of adopting a quota seems to be involved. Many people feel that such a policy outrages our democratic traditions in education and places an unjust limitation on the ambitions of aspiring young people. I am convinced that in the present somewhat undeveloped status of our personnel work there is something to be said for this opinion. Nevertheless I am confident that if we would only practise all that we know about select¬ ing people for training in the various walks of life there would be a great many less disappointments in life than is true at present. burthermore, it is to be remembered that we are constantly drifting toward the adoption of the quota idea in other professions. No one would now think of increasing much if any the expensive facilities for the educa¬ tion of doctors or dentists. There is a general recognition of the fact that there are too many lawyers and, altho the attempts to restrict the number admitted to the bar have so far not proved very effective, nevertheless the trend in legal education is all in that direction. Both public and private agencies are wise enough not to go on establishing unnecessary facilities in mining engineering or forestry. Indeed, even if we hold to the necessity of increasing the facilities in general education on the higher levels, there is every reason to restrict the amount of professional education along any line including teacher training to the number reasonably necessary to meet the needs of society. 3* Thru cooperative action we should set a national quality standard for the preparation of teachers. By this statement I mean that the teacher¬ training institutions of this country should pool their wisdom in formulat¬ ing and announcing what they believe to be desirable and necessary in the way of subjectmatter content, methods, practise school facilities and the like as a preparation for a first-class teacher in the elementary and secondary schools respectively. If this means four years of preparation for teaching in the elementary schools and at least five in the secondary schools, with ap¬ propriate facilities in plant and equipment and especially with reference to the quality of students admitted and graduated, let us say so frankly and label those persons who complete such courses and meet such standards accordingly. Again, if we compare the situation in teacher training with that for the education of persons to enter other professions we should be able to learn a valuable lesson. We are past the time when a medical school will put any kind of a stamp of approval on an individual who has spent less than four years in training. People are no longer allowed to take examinations to practise dentistry unless they have spent three years in a medical school. Even the lowly pharmacist must have at least two years of training. In teacher training we have state by state made notable progress from time to time. But I fear that we have submitted all too easily to the pressure brought to bear on us to offer any kind of a compromise in the way of short courses which meet legal and popular requirements. I realize that we cannot leave off the habits of several decades suddenly but I do think that we can Department of Teachers Colleges 755 emphasize more our conception of what is an adequately prepared teacher by coming to some agreement on the subject and by rewarding those per¬ sons who attain this standard in some more definite and appropriate way. Here is a type of social planning which can only be made effective with the consent of the people whom we serve. Our plans must be wise enough to be convincing. 4. We should locate teacher-training institutions so as to be easily accessible to students. Our history on this point has been most reprehensible. All types of higher institutions including the teachers colleges and normal schools have been bartered in exchange for prisons or asylums. Whether they were located in areas with adequate student constituency has been as much a matter of accident as forethought. Indeed if one examines the situation across the country it would seem as if the medieval conception of avoiding centers of population had been carefully followed. Illinois has a number of state teacher-training institutions but Chicago with all of its population was not fortunate enough to be remembered. The same situation obtains in Missouri, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Michigan, Nebraska, and a number of other states. Verily it would seem as if great care had been exercised to see that these institutions were placed where the people are not rather than where they are. Society will pay the expense of these mistakes for generations in the way of increased travel expense, necessity of incurring the expense of living away from home, selection of students primarily from rural sections, and inaccessibility to adequate practise school facilities. We cannot lay the blame for mistakes of this kind altogether onto the politicians. The location of teacher-training institutions is a form of social planning which concerns our field of interest and responsibility. We must be wise enough not only to advise well on a matter of this kind but to exert sufficient influence to obtain the right kind of action. Wise procedures in this realm are favorable comments on our social leadership. 5. There should be an organized plan of teacher training in each state. This plan should comprehend institutions of all types both public and private. T he present situation in many of our states is most regrettable. The relation of the state board of education to the state university and the privately controlled institutions and often even to the state teachers colleges is a tenuous one. Frequently there is no coordination of teacher training between the state university and the land grant colleges and the teachers colleges. Occasionally even the teachers colleges within a single state have individual governing boards. One can be quite certain that in the present state of the public mind this kind of chaos and lack of planning in carrying on a social enterprise does not meet with popular favor. The public has a vague realization that it is expensive and that it reduces the standard of accomplishment when each institution tends, as is often the case, to include the whole range and all the levels of teacher training in its program. 756 National Education Association 1 believe that the history of the centralizing movement which has been developing rapidly in the administration of higher education in this country during the last two decades shows clearly that we cannot leave this matter wholly to the good intentions of state legislatures. I remember very well some years ago a law combining the administration of all the higher insti¬ tutions with the prisons and asylums in one of our great middlewestern states. The law was replete with references to wardens, guards, janitors, nurses, attendants, and patients, but there was never a word about presidents, deans, or professors in the whole document. I here must be an organization in each state responsible for drawing up and putting into effect a comprehensive plan of teacher training with appro¬ priate responsibilities for each institution. We ought to be wise enough to recommend and secure the adoption of such a plan before some well-meaning but unintelligent legislature hands us one that is not at all suitable. 6. The teacher-training institutions should begin to prepare teachers for adult classes as well as for teaching children. I believe that one of the most significant developments in education during the next decade will be in the field of adult education. This is not the time and the occasion for enlarging upon this topic but it seems clear with the rapid changes in the character of vocations that men and women will find it necessary within the space of a single lifetime to learn two or more vocations or at least important modifications of existing ones. It seems clear enough also that if we are to keep abreast with the problems arising out of these social and economic changes there must be some method by which adults can be given an oppor¬ tunity to study these problems and perhaps enter actively into the work of discussion groups. Otherwise we need not suppose that democracy as a form of government will be any more successful in the United States than it has been abroad. All of these considerations and many more have entered into the enthusi¬ astic reception accorded to the emergency educational program now being carried on thru the use of federal relief funds. Approximately 30,000 teachers have been employed in various types of adult classes and it is esti¬ mated that attendance has now reached the striking figure of 840,000 per¬ sons, the majority of whom are unemployed adults who are attempting to improve themselves during their enforced leisure. But we have very few teachers who know much about the special prob¬ lem of teaching adults. It was necessary to select the teachers for this emergency program from the unemployed, many of whom had never had a day’s teaching experience of any kind. It is remarkable that the program has gone as well as it has. We are now faced, however, with a serious prob¬ lem of offering facilities for the training of people for this work, particu¬ larly of the in-service type. The teacher-training institutions in each state should do everything they can to help solve this troublesome problem in the speediest manner possible. In doing so I am convinced that you will be contributing to a phase of social planning that may have exceedingly impor¬ tant national results. Department of Teachers Colleges 757 7. I am tempted to say one further thing on a very hackneyed subject. We must all put our shoulders to the wheel on the matter of improving the type of teachers that we place in the service of the public schools. After all, the public judges the schools and education largely by the types of individuals who are actually engaged in classroom service. While I believe that we have made remarkable progress in this area we still have much to do. The present seems to be our golden opportunity to improve the quality of those whom we prepare for the greatest of all professions. Let us therefore realize our responsibilities to society as well as to individuals by selecting more carefully those to whom we will offer teacher-training facilities. Let us improve as rapidly as we can their study of the nature of children and the best methods of reaching them. But above all I believe that we should now resolve to offer our prospective teachers that broad cultural training which will enable them to take their rightful places as leaders of thought and action in the several communities which they serve. Teachers, like any other citizens, not only have useful and important duties to per¬ form in their regular tasks but they should be persons with sufficient per¬ sonality, education, leadership, and practical experience to command the respect and confidence of other citizens in the solution of common prob¬ lems. Unless we can produce this kind of an individual the influence of the schools in molding public opinion and in serving the needs of a new society will be far less than it should be for the welfare of the country. It is very evident that I have been able to touch on only a few things on the general theme of the education of teachers for a new social order. W ith some of the suggestions you may disagree. There are certainly many other suggestions equally if not more appropriate. I am not really concerned that we should all agree as to the steps that we should take for the improvement of our profession. I am, however, mightily concerned that we should cease to blame members of state legislatures and others for unsatisfactory condi¬ tions in teacher training either now or in the future. What ought to be done in the field of teacher training is always primarily our responsibility. If there is a new social order it is up to us to catch a vision as to the part which education should play in it and more particularly how to plan the training of teachers to participate in it most effectively. We may be sure that we shall be judged, and we should be judged, not only by the degree of our wisdom but by our energy and courage in presenting our cause to the public. We hold all the cards for the New Deal but we must learn to play them. 758 National Education Association THE EDUCATION OF TEACHERS IN TEACHERS COLLEGES AND IN UNIVERSITIES AND LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES: A COMPARATIVE STUDY W. E. PEIK, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. It becomes apparent to anyone who has contacted the faculties of liberal arts colleges and of teachers colleges that each is more or less critical of the other. In the Survey of the Education of Teachers it became apparent as the study progressed, however, that really outstanding differences were difficult to locate, particularly in four-year curriculums, and that variations of stand¬ ards and practises within each group of institutions were greater than the differences between groups. We shall, however, indicate the most charac¬ teristic dissimilarities. Scope of teacher education in these institutions — The last report of the Office of Education listed 154 teachers colleges and 90 normal schools, a total of 244 institutions; there were 105 colleges or schools of education, largely in universities, and 485 departments of education, largely in liberal arts colleges — a total of 590 such institutions. Not including the junior col¬ leges, about three-fourths of which participate in the education of teachers, the two groups are to each other in number as 12:5. Teachers colleges in 1931-32 supplied 49 percent of all public-school teachers; colleges and universities supplied 40 percent. Studies show that about 45 percent of the graduates of liberal arts colleges have met state re¬ quirements for teaching. Studies would likewise show an increasing number of graduates from teachers colleges who are not planning to teach but who have pursued liberal education programs for the degree in teachers colleges which are in some cases becoming state colleges as well. In aims and practises these institutions are moving toward one another. The prime factors in this approachment are local pressure, competition for students, the necessity for self-maintenance, the desire for larger numbers to offer differentiation in curriculums, the effect of regional accreditation associations, and the fact that the graduate training of the faculties has been obtained in the same insti¬ tutions. Both groups, but particularly the university school of education and the teachers college, are setting about, increasingly, to prepare teachers of all types. It is still true that a majority of teachers colleges graduate more ele¬ mentary teachers with two years of preparation than any other type, that liberal arts colleges are graduating preponderantly secondary teachers of the academic type. Many universities with schools of education like the teachers colleges are more and more covering the entire field of teacher training. They have as yet virtually a monopoly on graduate work. The preparation of sec¬ ondary teachers in teachers colleges is growing rapidly in volume, in the face of tremendous overproduction. Graduate work will no doubt be the next objective. Universities are adding four-year curriculums for the preparation Department of Teachers Colleges 759 of elementary teachers. Liberal arts colleges are supplying a surprisingly large number of elementary teachers. At present there are no controls, and little coordination of state programs, to regulate these developments. In the end the teachers colleges will evolve as schools of education and some, perhaps many of them, as state colleges also ; the university school of education, formerly a department, is a teachers college in the community of colleges called a university. Many of each group with a graduate faculty will come to resemble those of the other group, while the liberal arts college may in part yield to the necessity of supplying real professional education for teachers as an institution which was the first to educate teachers in our land but which has held rather tenaciously to the purpose of doing so with as little of a vocational differential in the curricu¬ lum as possible. The liberal arts college is the institution which, from the growing public junior college, the increasing prestige of large universities, the developing state colleges and four-year teachers colleges, is to experience a keener competition than any other and in the end may resolve into several types of institutions including one type which will recognize the education of teachers with better programs. These it seems to me, are movements now going on with reference to the education of teachers. They may eventuate in more similarities among all these institutions than in differences. They will go on unless state coordina¬ tion of higher education gains in momentum and effectiveness. Of this I am not certain. Whatever the issue of these developments, the present wholesale over¬ production and certification, good and poor, of teachers should stop, what¬ ever the effect on institutions of any type, for the child and the profession suffer the harmful consequences. There are now too many institutions educating teachers to make possible an effective program in every such institution without excessive cost to society. It would help to have teachers colleges shift to a three- and four-year program for elementary teachers and for all institutions to provide five-year curriculums for secondary teachers or to articulate with institutions which can. For this there is much approval in colleges, universities, and teachers colleges. Where adequate programs cannot be maintained, accreditation to do teacher training should be withheld. Let us continue with some further comparisons. Formal degrees held — On the total percentage of doctor’s and master’s degrees that are held, the two groups of faculties are much alike in the dis¬ tributions, particularly at the upper end. However, in the percentages of doctor’s degrees alone, teachers colleges have not nearly caught up with the others, altho individual institutions stand on a par with colleges and univer¬ sities, and some colleges have very low percentages. In a recent, as yet unpub¬ lished, study made by Grannis of Duluth State Teachers College on the distribution of degrees held by institutions represented in the National 760 National Education Association Survey of the Education of Teachers, the percentages were found to be as follows : Universities .... Colleges . Teachers Colleges Master’s Doctor’s Both % Range % Range % Range 28 16-43 45 22-78 73 54-94 33 9-67 38 6-83 71 52-86 50 13-76 15 0-34 65 17-88 A move of teachers colleges should be a drive for younger members of the faculties to attain the doctorate, and to fill the new vacancies with doctors without sacrificing the present advantage of educational experience of the faculty in public-school work. Advance findings of the North Central Survey indicate the percentage of doctors on a faculty to have five times as much weight in correlations between the criterion of institutional excellency and various factors than did the percentage of master’s degrees. In striving for more doctors, other advantages must not and need not be sacrificed, but other things being equal, a doctoral faculty will add to effectiveness and certainly to prestige of this relatively young group of higher education. Public-school experience on the faculties — If the assumption is valid that elementary- or secondary-school experience is an asset to instructors, or if in the future the professional treatment of subjectmatter courses becomes more universal than it is now, then the better teachers colleges have already attained a substantial advantage. The percentages were as follows : Item Colleges and universities . Teachers colleges . Difference in favor of teachers colleges . Number of Having public-school experience instructors included Elementary Secondary Either None 809 22% 47% 58% 42% 793 40 58 86 14 + 18 + 11 + 28 -28 The majority of both groups have had public-school experience; the advan¬ tage of the teachers college was one of 28 percent more of such experience ; for only 14 percent of its instructors had no such experience while 42 percent of the colleges and universities group had none. Insights gained thru public- school teaching experience are, however, not lacking for 58 percent of college and university instructors. Wdth the exception of secondary education in teachers colleges, only a minority have had teaching experience at the levels of teaching for which the institution prepares students. This is true for elementary teaching even in teachers colleges and for secondary teaching even in colleges and universities. Furthermore, about one-third of teachers-college instructors have not had from one to eight of the leading courses in education. Whether or not all, a majority, or only a minority of the faculty needs to have teaching experience below the college level or preparation in formal education courses are open questions. In such positions where experience and formal training in education are proved assets it should be insisted upon. Whether this should apply to all or part of the positions, it seems to me, is yet a matter of point of view and not of evidence. If subjectmatter is to be generally professionalized I am certain that teaching experience and formal education in education are essential for all instructors. Department of Teachers Colleges 761 Curriculum proposals — The survey staff formulated sixty-three proposals on issues relating to the curriculum. These were submitted to instructors of representative courses in various departments. Replies were received from about 800 teachers-college and 700 college and university instructors, not quite all voting on every issue. They reacted to each proposal in one of five ways — “yes,” “yes with reservations,” “no with reservations,” and “no,” or no answer. The surprising finding was the remarkably close similarity of reactions in all groups, indicating similarity of points of view on matters of the curriculum. The majority of both groups were either positive or negative together on 59 of the 63 issues, and where they were divided one group was merely slightly more opposed when the other was slightly more favorable except on one issue where lines were drawn. The results are found in two tabulations which are in your hands. I shall here call attention to those eleven issues on which both groups were farthest apart altho majority trends were in the same direction in all but two of these. The differences were in degree of approval or disapproval but not on majority trends. The numbers responding, however, were large enough so that the returns possess high reliability. The proposal rating the most decided differences of opinion was that practically all subjectmatter courses should be professionalized. The outstanding clashes, in addition to certain items of the professionaliza¬ tion of subjectmatter courses, occurred on prescription, to which colleges and universities were more opposed than were the teachers colleges, and on cer¬ tain items relating to the professional work in education. In general, on the matter of standards, content values, criteria of curriculum making, differ¬ entiation of curriculums, the pattern of general and specialized education, and on additional issues related to educational courses and to the professional treatment of subjectmatter, there was remarkable parallel thinking. As noted on 59 of 63 proposals the majority trend of both groups was either positive or negative. In 49 of these 59 cases the teachers colleges were more decided in the direction that both favored and in ten cases the college and university group was the more decided in the direction that both favored. It is my opinion that all institutions are gradually approaching one another on four-year curriculums and I am not certain which is changing most. The fact that the instructors of teachers colleges have received their last degrees in universities and colleges may account for the teachers college trend toward the college, while state prescriptions and the increasing tho not entire re¬ spectability of education in universities and colleges are factors which are causing colleges to supply professional training that is following the lines set by teachers colleges and schools of education. The pattern of four-year curriculums — By “pattern” is meant the rela¬ tive amount of the various constituents which enter into the curriculum, such as: (1) general educational contacts, (2) major and minor sequences, (3) work in education, and (4) electives. If unlabeled figures representing typical patterns of work completed by students were presented to you, it would probably make little difference which one you assigned to either group, 762 National Education Association they would look so nearly alike. Some of the outstanding differences as well as the similarities may be studied with the help of Table VII. The entries show that the college and university students had 6 percent more of the pro¬ gram in languages, 2.3 percent more in psychology, 2.1 percent more in English, 2 percent more in science, and a fraction of a percent more of the program in social studies and mathematics, respectively. The teachers college graduates had taken 4 percent more of the program in education, 2 percent more in fine arts, 2.1 percent more in such special subjects as agriculture, commercial education, home economics, and industrial arts. In the teachers colleges the extra amount of education was mostly devoted to more observa¬ tion and practise teaching, which was 7.8 percent of the curriculum in the teachers colleges and 5.4 percent in universities and colleges. In this partic¬ ular tabulation special methods in a subject were counted as part of the majors for teachers colleges but as education in colleges and universities. In both groups of institutions there were too many students without high- school or college contacts in music, art, sociology, political science, economics, and biology, which are deficiencies, to think about in relation to the crucial problems of today. Differences of practises, however, need further explana¬ tions. In colleges and universities general psychology is a separate course and a prerequisite to educational psychology. It is not usually called education. In teachers colleges general psychology is often integrated with educational psychology as one course and is often classified as education. Now if we include general psychology as education in both groups, the total percentages devoted to education become 20.9 and 19.3 respectively, a difference of only 1.6 percent more of education in the teachers college. Another shift, how¬ ever, should be made to make comparisons valid. In teachers colleges a special methods course is most often included in the major field to which it is related ; in the college and university it is usually classed as education and not included in the major. Now if we include special methods consistently in the education series, the teachers-college percentage is increased to 23.6 percent. This represents about five more semester credits out of 125 in teach¬ ers colleges than in colleges and universities. These differences are surpris¬ ingly small and not what the usual liberal arts college instructor holds to be characteristic of teachers-college curriculums for secondary teachers, i.e., an unduly larger assignment to education, particularly to methods. Teaching fields — A course by course analysis of the work completed by over 3000 representative students in different subject fields revealed that after the special methods courses are eliminated from majors in teachers colleges, the number of semester credits of content for all fields averaged 5.1 credits less, and in the eleven parallel fields 4.1 semester credits less in teachers colleges than it did in colleges and universities. The average num¬ ber of credits were : Colleges and Teachers colleges universities 26.4 31.5 26.6 ' 30.8 All fields . Eleven common fields Department of Teachers Colleges 763 In all institutions the amount of work completed in the major fields varied according to subject. These amounts were not appreciably larger than the actual prescriptions which for seventeen parallel fields were 31.5 and 25.9 respectively, a difference of 5.6 more semester credits of specialization in colleges and universities than in teachers colleges. N u 7?i ber of teaching fields prescribed — Possible need for a second field of concentration for secondary teachers is indicated by the finding that of 1 17,000 junior and senior high-school teachers, about two-thirds were teach¬ ing in two of fifteen broad secondary teaching fields. The teachers college is recognizing this situation much more universally by prescribing a second or third field of concentration. Of academic majors, first or second minors were prescribed in only 50 percent of the colleges and universities but in from 80 to 90 percent of the teachers colleges. In special subjects the practise was less common in all institutions associated with a tendency toward larger majors. The analysis of students’ transcripts showed that actually 80 per¬ cent of the college and university students had fifteen or more semester hours in a second, third, or more fields ; but this was a result of election and chance and not of prescription. Whether or not more or less specialization is better and whether training in each teaching field to be taught is essential can be debated. Average schol- aiship and scholarly methods of study in whatever amount is taken may be more essential than merely taking more courses; integration of knowledge may be more important than high specialization. On the other hand, some¬ thing very vital may be gained in general education even for elementary teach¬ ers and for teaching scholarship in secondary education by deeper penetration of at least one area to appreciate the extent of all knowledge by exploring it close to its limits in that one area. Personally I do believe that we are too complacent and uninformed about the scholarship defects of our secondary teachers, but I do not know whether more college specialization or better selection of ability, or the development of study habits, and of accuracy standards, or all of these are keys to the situation. Ad77iission and selection of students — There is a tendency for a less select social and ability group to enter teaching than enter some other professions. A study of testing programs reveals this. There was normally (i.e., in 1930) a considerable and rising overproduction of teachers and now there is a threefold overproduction which is abnormal. It behooves institutions to cease enrolment expansions and to settle down in the next decade on a stable basis of a four- or five-year production with more careful recruiting of the best selective freshmen or junior admission, and elimination of the weak pros¬ pects from the teaching profession. The evidence shows that, on the whole, liberal arts colleges get more selected students, that in liberal arts colleges and universities a poorer sort try to enter teaching than other professions, and that teachers colleges get the least selected but an improving group. However, these are matters determined by individual institutional policy, 764 National Education Association whatever the type of institution, as can be proved. It is time to up-grade this situation. We must take the initiative and have the courage to do so. Could one-half or more of the institutions be eliminated and the strong ones built up on a program of selective admission and elimination the problem would be easier of solution. This is what the medical profession did to save its standards and status. Student teaching — Apparently not all prospective teachers are getting pre-service practise teaching. In liberal arts colleges and universities 38 per¬ cent of the academic majors and 21 percent of the special subject majors had had none of it; in teachers colleges 18 percent of the academic and 7 percent of the special subject majors had had none. How many of these were excused because of previous teaching experience we did not determine, but the number is large. However, so long as many states do not yet require student teaching, there will be institutions and students evading it for one reason or another. The amount of student teaching required in teachers colleges is 33 per¬ cent larger than the amount required in colleges and universities. Instructors in all types of institutions believed strongly in the value of student teaching. The median judgment, even of the college academic in¬ structors, was considerably larger than that which practise actually pro¬ vided. The evidence, I think, shows that student teaching practises are more satisfactory in teachers colleges and in the schools or colleges of education than in the liberal arts college in the provision of facilities and in the quality of administration. Student teaching is a phase of teacher education that can be strengthened much in institutions of all types. Liberal arts colleges are at present tending strongly to make some provisions which are typically the utilization of off campus, local or remote, centers. The supervision is too often very indirect and inadequate. Correlation with courses is lacking. Teachers colleges typi¬ cally provide a campus training school with direct supervision. Correlation is also but less often lacking. Some excellent provisions are found in leading state universities. The teachers college has attained the position of advantage but not yet of optimum practises. The improvements needed in weak situa¬ tions of all types are (1) ample provisions to supply enough practise for all in the application of principles and insights to actual teaching situations in order to develop an initial ability for attacking the first job safely; (2) more direct supervision; (3) more competent supervisory teachers; (4) closer articulation with other courses in education; (5) earlier observation; (6) distributed practise; (7) closer tie-up of the training school with the entire curriculum and its wider and earlier use ; and (8) the use of student teaching for the final definite easing out of poor and weak teaching prospects. The professional treatment of subjectmatter — By this is meant the simul¬ taneous development of subjectmatter and its application to teaching thru all, most all, or part of the courses of the curriculum for teachers, with or without the final use of separate special methods courses in teaching fields. Department of Teachers Colleges 765 An alternate plan is the professional treatment of a teaching field in separate courses only. The separate course, incorrectly named special methods since it should include much more than methods, predominates in colleges and universities, where 64 percent of academic majors and 87 percent of special subject majors had taken it according to transcript analysis. In teachers colleges 61 percent of academic majors and 53 percent of special subject majors had completed such a course. It was more prominent in the liberal arts colleges and universities than it is in teachers colleges. On the basis of returns to questions, it is apparent that the partial or complete professionali¬ zation of subjectmatter courses is practised only by a minority, but that the central tendency of judgment at present favors a partial professionalization of subjectmatter fields in all types of institutions. The teachers-college group approved 36 percent of the curriculum for professionalization as its central tendency while the liberal arts college and university group approved 29 percent as its central tendency. They were not so far apart. In practise, however, they were farther apart, for an average of only 4 percent of college and university instructors used eleven ways of professionalization while 23 percent of teachers-college groups said they did so. An uncertain element on this return was that only 43 percent of the teachers-college group answered the question while most of the college and university group did. Just what the unanswered return meant is not clear. Perhaps one group knew too much or the other too little about it. If there is something vital to this matter of the professionalization of subjectmatter, it is the peculiar opportunity of the teachers college unless the teachers colleges branch into giving other than teachers college work. It would be a much more difficult and imprac¬ tical matter in the liberal arts college. Thus far the teachers college has not capitalized on the decided advantage it could have. It is the best talking point that the teachers college has, and steps should be taken to prove its value, if any, over the alternate plan of professional treatment of a field in separate courses. Aims of instruction — In a study of thirty-four aims of higher education, the instructors of nearly 3500 courses supplied reactions. In general the teachers-college instructors and the junior-college instructors stressed a broader average range of aims per course than did the university or college. This may be due to less course specialization and differentiation. The average percent of courses stressing each of the thirty-four aims were: Teachers colleges, 39 percent; junior colleges, 37 percent; colleges, 31 percent; and universities, 30 percent. This did not refer to institutional aims but rather to aims conscious to the instructors in those courses only which were most used for the education of teachers. The ranking aims for all the instructors were the acquisition of facts and principles of a subject. Functional aims such as breadth of view, home life, social leadership, preparation for leisure, moral education, civic social obligations were least stressed. They are either relatively more forgotten or assigned and ascribed to fewer and more spe¬ cialized courses or departments. It is my opinion after our study that content 766 National Education Association in all fields must be studied in great detail for relative value and functional contribution to the education of teachers and that it would benefit higher education if instructors were made more conscious of objectives in higher education. Instructional and administrative practises — WEat evidence was there of differences of instructional practises between these two groups of institu¬ tions? Term plan — The semester plan (typically eighteen weeks) was followed in 82 percent of the universities and colleges and in 51 percent of the teachers colleges. The quarter session was, therefore, used by a minority of all insti¬ tutions since less than one-half of the teachers colleges, 28 percent of the universities, and only 16 percent of the colleges used it. Summer session — The modal length of summer session was the six-week plan used by 47 percent of the teachers colleges, 41 percent of the univer¬ sities and 37 percent of the liberal arts colleges, less than one-half in each case. The rest ranged from four to fifteen weeks with a secondary mode at twelve weeks. Extension work — The returns showed a hesitation to credit much exten¬ sion work of the correspondence and group class types. Sixty-one percent of the junior colleges, 47 percent of the colleges, 31 percent of the univer¬ sities and onfy 18 percent of the teachers colleges allowed no extension work credit. The median amount accepted toward graduation was one year in the teachers colleges and twenty-two semester credits in colleges and univer¬ sities. Scholarship — Scholarship standards according to average grade require¬ ments were about parallel. Among colleges and universities, 25 percent re¬ quired a higher average in the major teaching field; in teachers colleges, it is 16 percent. Off-level registration — In general the teachers colleges restricted course registrations to the year level or to junior- or senior-college level, about as much as did the colleges and universities. The universities were by far the most liberal and the colleges the most restrictive. Graduate work — Only one-tenth of the teachers colleges offered gradu¬ ate work, mostly of the master’s degree level. Ninety-eight percent of the universities and one-third of the colleges actually conferred master’s degrees. Forty-four percent of the universities and 14 percent of the colleges actually conferred doctor’s degrees. It is assumed that graduate work is conditioned by the scholarly attainments of faculty groups. Consequently, the scholarly quality of graduate work for teaching must be guarded by the profession thru accrediting associations or other means. Legal sanction to do graduate work may be easily obtained politically by state institutions from legislatures. However, the percentage of the faculty which has at¬ tained formal doctor’s degrees, and the productive effort of faculty memDers should be criteria that are given consideration professionally in evaluating and accrediting institutions for graduate work. Department of Teachers Colleges 767 Instructional innovations of recent type — The survey or orientation course was found in practically one-half of all types of institutions, the uni¬ versity using and probably needing it most. The comprehensive examination was reported as used more or less in 66 percent of the universities, in 30 percent of the liberal arts colleges, in 1 1 percent of the junior colleges, and in 1 1 percent of the teachers colleges. The honors course was checked as used by 28 percent of the universities, by 10 percent of the teachers colleges, and by 7 percent of the liberal arts colleges; the tutorial plan by 21 percent of the liberal arts colleges, 17 percent of the universities, and 16 percent of the teachers colleges. In ability grouping the university, as a typically larger institution, was leading off rather decidedly, the percentages of claimed practise being university, 64 percent ; liberal arts college, 52 percent ; and teachers college, 39 percent. In these efforts to integrate knowledge, to broaden general education, to check scholarship, to emphasize student ini¬ tiative in achieving rather than in receiving an education, the university in particular and the college were apparently more active as a group in trying • out new plans than was the teachers college. The same was true of the separation into upper and lower divisions, that is, junior colleges and senior colleges respectively, with emphasis upon general education in the junior colleges and upon advanced, specialized, and professional education in the senior college. With the spread of junior colleges, now numbering nearly 500, the teachers college and the four-year liberal arts college will no doubt have to make adjustments of curriculum organization or fall out of step with a movement which means the continued democratization of education, a new emphasis on general education, and the upgrading of standards in the senior college and graduate schools. Other perhaps less outstanding comparisons might be made but within the limits of one paper I have presented enough. Let me reiterate that each type of institution has present advantages and that each has weaknesses and disadvantages to overcome. Out of the several types there may emerge a common single type of a larger teacher-educating institution, some inde¬ pendent and some within the university and many more with graduate schools, ultimately. The present is a period of flux and adjustment as well as of financial difficulty. Just what we should do in the face of overproduction and of too many in¬ stitutions which educate teachers is a real problem which I cannot attack here. My purpose was to show present differences between the two major types of situations, i. e., the exclusive teacher-training institution and the institution where teacher training has to be differentiated from other pur¬ poses. This I have tried to do. Summary for the Teachers College Teachers colleges, altho fewer in number, supply nine percent more teach¬ ers than do the colleges and universities. They still graduate many two-year teachers of the elementary level but are extending their activities to pre- 768 National Education Association paring four-year secondary and four-year elementary teachers. Graduate work also is begun in one-tenth of them. The larger teachers colleges plan — and ultimately many others will — to prepare for practically all types of educational positions including those which require graduate work. In the percentages of doctor’s and master’s degrees held by the faculty it is ap¬ proaching, in its better institutions, the status of the better colleges and universities. In the percentages of doctor’s degrees alone, however, it is quite far behind. In public-school teaching experience as well as in formal educa¬ tion courses, the professional background of its faculty is superior to that of the liberal arts college and the university. On matters of the curriculum all institutions think much alike. The greatest differences of attitude on the part of the teachers colleges are: more general belief in greater prescription, somewhat more professional treatment of subjectmatter, and somewhat more work in education. The four-year curriculum patterns do not differ much from those of the university and colleges, the principal differences being: less specialization in a principal teaching sequence and five more credits in psychology, education, and special methods, the two about balancing each other. More universally a second or even a third field of concentration for teaching is prescribed. The teachers college gets and allows to be admitted a less select group as a whole but its selection is improving. It has developed more student teaching and more direct supervision of it. It uses campus training schools for this purpose more universally. It has not capitalized on its opportunity to professionalize its subjectmatter altho it does that more than the college or university, which uses more the alternate plan of professionalizing teaching fields in separate courses. It appears that the functional aims of education are some¬ what more conscious to instructors. They are more educationally and, I believe, less scholastically minded. The teachers college is doing less with innovations such as the orientation course, the comprehensive examination, honors courses, tutorial plans, ability grouping and junior-college organiza¬ tion, than the university, in particular, but also than the liberal arts college There is, no doubt, a trend for some, more or less unadvertised, to go into being state liberal arts colleges as well. This movement has advantages for self-preservation and differentiation but also dangers for teacher educa¬ tion. It needs to be studied and brought out into the open. It will make of teachers colleges less and less a distinct type of professional school. The greatest need of the teachers college is a combination of institutions within states to produce proved, stronger institutions, unless it can with¬ out proved danger to teacher training assume also the state college function. The truth is we need fewer but better teachers and because of the number of institutions most teachers colleges need more enrolments. Progress can be made by increasing the percentage of doctors on the faculty without sacrifice of other advantages. The recruiting and selection of better students for admission and final recommendation for certification Department of Teachers Colleges 769 should be much more carefully done, both as to scholastic ability and, par¬ ticularly, to teaching personality. Teaching is an intellectual and a social act. Both types of intelligence are needed. The teachers college needs to settle the question of the value of the professional treatment of subject- matter and if proved superior, capitalize to its advantage on this opportunity. The Liberal Arts College and the University The liberal arts colleges and the universities with their schools of educa¬ tion and departments of education out-number teachers colleges more than two to one. Some have exceptionally good programs, others are weak ; as a group, teacher education is improving. They produce 40 percent of the teachers and 9 percent less than do the teachers colleges. They graduate preponderantly academic teachers of the secondary level particularly in the liberal arts colleges. The university, especially the state university, is be¬ ginning to cover the entire field including an extension into elementary teaching and has a practical monopoly as yet in graduate work. A majority of their faculty have had public-school teaching experience or formal courses in education but in this respect they lag behind teachers-college status. In the percentage of doctors on the faculty they possess an advantage, probably affecting favorably their contribution to productive scholarship and to prestige. On matters of curriculum attitudes majorities agree with those prevalent in teachers colleges except that agreement is not usually as uni¬ versal. They do not accept as much the professionalization of subjectmatter, or quite as much high prescription and amount of work in education. They would increase, however, above present practise the amount of student teaching. Off-campus student-teaching facilities are becoming common pro¬ visions. Except in state universities, campus training schools are much less used than in the teachers college. The use of local schools predominates. The greatest weakness probably lies in failure to develop the amount of student teaching, in the directness and quality of its supervision, and in the lack of coordination of the training school and certain courses. In this respect they are improving and some institutions, particularly some state universities, are outstanding. As a group they have a long row to hoe as yet. One half of them do not prescribe preparation in more than one teaching field and higher departmentalization makes this subject specialization rather than teaching field specialization. Actually most students have second and third concentrations. The instructors, per average course aims, seem less widely conscious of as many educational aims than the teachers-college faculties, but may have stronger scholastic aims. I say this in retrospect of many contacts with professors of both types of institution before and during the survey. They are now more active in experimentations with new organi¬ zations such as the junior college within the college and with innovations and devices to raise the scholarship level, to promote integration of learning, and to further student self-education and initiative. In the selection of its university and college students, many institutions in this group are attaining 770 National Education Association advantage in personalities. They probably cannot attain the ideal of some to give professional treatment to most subjectmatter courses, but will have to use the alternate plan of professionalizing teaching fields in part and to rely mostly on separate courses. The greatest need of liberal arts colleges is the development of student teaching along the lines mentioned, improve¬ ment of the separate professional courses in each teaching field, the broaden¬ ing of fields of major concentration and the silencing of a remnant group of “die hards” who prejudice students against teaching in their propaganda against specialized professional training. Their numbers are decreasing. Many of the weak institutions need to be removed from accredited lists. Higher standards of teacher education and teacher-education facilities should apply to all institutions preparing teachers. Department of Teachers Colleges 771 LIST OF ACCREDITED INSTITUTIONS— 1934-35 Longest curriculum indicated in number of years before each institution. G indi¬ cates graduate work offered. The Roman numerals refer to Standards not fully met by the institution. Location Institution President Alabama Florence . -//State Teachers College . H. J. Willingham Jacksonville . 4/State Teachers College . C. W. Daugette Livingston . 4/State Teachers College, IV . G. W. Brock Troy . 4/ State Teachers College . E. M. Shackelford Arizona Flagstaff . -//Arizona State Teachers College, V T. J. Tormey Tempe . 4/Arizona State Teachers College, IV, V . Grady Gammage Arkansas Arkadelphia . -//Henderson State Teachers College. . J. P. Womack Conway . “//Arkansas State Teachers College. . . H. L. McAlister California Fresno . 4/State Teachers College . Frank W. Thomas San Diego . 4/ State Teachers College . Edward L. Hardy San Francisco... 4/State Teachers College, IV . A. C. Roberts Colorado Greeley . G/C olorado State Teachers College. . . George W. Frasier Gunnison . G/Western State College of Colorado. . C. C. Casey District of Columbia Washington . -//Miner Teachers College . E. A. Clark Washington . 4/Wilson Teachers College . E. C. Higbie Georgia Milledgeville .... -//Georgia State College for Women, IV . J. L. Beeson Statesboro . ■//South Georgia Teachers College, IX Guy H. Wells Illinois Carbondale . 4/Southern Illinois State Normal Uni- versify . H. W. Shryock Charleston . 4/Eastern Illinois State Teachers Col- lege, IV . R. G. Buzzard Chicago . .?/Chicago Normal College, IV, VI... Butler Laughlin DeKalb . -//Northern Illinois State Teachers College . Karl L. Adams Macomb . 4/Western Illinois State Teachers Col- lege . . . W. P. Morgan Normal . 4/Illinois State Normal University, IV R. W. Fairchild Indiana Indianapolis .... G/College of Education, Butler Uni- versify, IV . W. L. Richardson, Dean Muncie . G/ Ball State Teachers College . L. A. Pittenger Terre Haute .... G/Indiana State Teachers College. . . . Ralph N. Tirey 772 National Education Association Location Institution Iowa Cedar Falls . ^/Iowa State Teachers College . Kansas Emporia . G/Kansas State Teachers College . Hays . G/Fort Hays Kansas State College... Pittsburg . G/Kansas State Teachers College.... Wichita . G/College of Education, University of Wichita . Kentucky Bowling Green. ^/Bowling Green College of Com¬ merce, XI . Bowling Green.. G/Western Kentucky State Teachers College . Morehead . ^/Morehead State Teachers College, IX . Murray . ^/Murray State Teachers College, IV, V . Richmond . ^/Eastern Kentucky State Teachers College . Louisiana Lafayette . ^/College of Education, Southwestern Louisiana Institute . Natchitoches . ^/Louisiana State Normal College.... Maryland Towson . J/Maryland State Normal School, IV. . Michigan Detroit . G/Teachers College, Wayne University Kalamazoo . ^/Western State Teachers College. . . . Marquette . ^/Northern State Teachers College... Mt. Pleasant. . . . ^/Central State Teachers College . Ypsilanti . •//Michigan State Normal College.... Minnesota Bemidji . //State Teachers College, IX . Duluth . //State Teachers College . Mankato . //State Teachers College, IV, IX . Moorhead . //State Teachers College, IV . St. Cloud . //State Teachers College . Winona . // State Teachers College, IV . Mississippi Cleveland . 41 Delta State Teachers College . Hattiesburg . 4/ State Teachers College . President O. R. Latham Thomas W. Butcher C. E. Rarick, Acting W. A. Brandenburg Leslie B. Sipple, Dean J. L. Harman H. H. Cherry J. Howard Payne J. W. Carr H. L. Donovan W. S. Dearmont, Dean W. W. Tison Lida Lee Tall, Principal W. E. Lessenger, Dean D. B. Waldo W. H. Pearce E. C. Warriner J. M. Munson M. W. Deputy E. W. Bohannon Frank D. McElroy R. B. MacLean Geo. A. Selke G. E. Maxwell W. M. Kethley J. B. George Department of Teachers Colleges 773 Location Institution President Missouri Cape Girardeau //Southeast Missouri State Teachers College, IV, V . W. W. Parker Kansas City.... //Teachers College of Kansas City.. G. W. Diemer Kirksville . //Northeast Missouri State Teachers College . Eugene Fair Maryville . //Northwest Missouri State Teachers College . Uel W. Lamkin St. Louis . //Harris Teachers College . C. G. Vannest, St. Louis . // Stowe Teachers College, IV . Chairman W. H. Huffman, Springfield . //Southwest Missouri State Teachers Acting Principal College . Roy Ellis Warrensburg. . . . //Central Missouri State Teachers College . E. L. Hendricks Montana Dillon . //State Normal College . Sheldon E. Davis Nebraska Chadron . //Nebraska State Normal College.... Robert I. Elliott Kearney . //Nebraska State Teachers College, V George E. Martin Peru . //Nebraska State Teachers College... W. R. Pate Wayne . //Nebraska State Teachers College, IV U. S. Conn New Hampshire Keene . •//State Normal School, IV . Wallace E. Mason Plymouth . •//State Normal School, IV . Ernest L. Silver New Jersey Jersey City . J/State Normal School, IV, V . Roy L. Shaffer, * Principal Newark . //State Normal School, IV . M. Ernest Townsend Trenton . //State Teachers College, IV . Principal Roscoe L. West Upper Montclair G/State Teachers College . H. A. Sprague New Mexico *Las Vegas . //New Mexico Normal University... H. C. Gossard ^Silver City . //New Mexico State Teachers College Floyt C. Graham New York Albany . G/State College for Teachers . A. R. Brubacher Buffalo . //State Teachers College, IV . Harry W. Rockwell Fredonia . //State Normal School, IV . L. R. Gregory, Geneseo . J/State Normal School, IV . Principal W. A. Holcomb, New Paltz . J/State Normal School, IV, V . Principal L. H. van den Berg, Principal * Suspended for one year. 774 National Education Association Location Institution President New York Oswego . . . Potsdam G/School of Education, College of the City of New York, VI . Paul Klapper, Dean 2/State Normal and Training School, IV, VI . R. W. Swetman, Principal //State Normal and Training School, IV . R. T. Congdon, Principal North Carolina Asheville . //Asheville Normal and Teachers College . Cullowhee . //Western Carolina Teachers Col¬ lege, V, IX . Greenville . G/ East Carolina Teachers College... John E. Calfee H. T. Hunter Robert H. Wright North Dakota Dickinson. . . Ellendale. . . . Mayville Minot . // State Teachers College, VIII . C. L. Kjerstad “//State Normal and Industrial School, IX . R. M. Black //State Teachers College, IV . C. C. Swain //State Teachers College, IV, IX.... George A. McFarland Valley City . 4-! State Teachers College C. E. Allen Oklahoma Athens. . Bowling Green. . Cleveland . Kent . Oxford . Wilberforce . G/College of Education, Ohio Univer¬ sity . ■//Bowling Green State College . ■//School of Education, Western Re¬ serve University, IV . //Kent State College, V . G/School of Education, Miami Uni¬ versity . , . //Combined Normal and Industrial Department, Wilberforce Univer¬ sity, IV, IX . T. C. McCracken Dean H. B. Williams H. N. Irwin, Dean J. O. Engleman E. J. Ashbaugh, Dean Howard D. Gregg, Superintendent Ohio Ada . Alva . Durant . Edmond . T ahlequah . Weatherford //East Central State Teachers College //Northwestern State Teachers Col¬ lege, IV, VI . //Southeastern State Teachers College //Central State Teachers College . //Northeastern State Teachers College //Southwestern State Teachers College A. Linscheid O. E. Hatcher W. H. Shumate M. A. Beeson M. P. Hammond C. W. Richards \ Oregon Monmouth 2/Oregon Normal School, IV . J. A. Churchill Department of Teachers Colleges 775 Location Pennsylvania Bloomsburg . California . Clarion . East Stroudsburg Edinboro . Indiana . Kutztown . Lock Haven . Mansfield . Millersville . Shippensburg. . . . Slippery Rock . . . West Chester . . . South Dakota Aberdeen . Madison . Spearfish . Springfield . Tennessee Johnson City. . . . Memphis . Murfreesboro. . . . Nashville . Texas Alpine . Canyon . Commerce . Denton . Huntsville . Nacogdoches. . . . San Marcos . Utah Salt Lake City. . Virginia East Radford . . . Farmville . Fredericksburg. . Harrisonburg. . . . Institution //State Teachers College . // State Teachers College . 4/ State Teachers College, IV... 4/ State Teachers College, IX... 4/ State Teachers College, IX... 4/ State Teachers College, IV... 4/ State Teachers College, V, IX 4/ State Teachers College . //State Teachers College, IV, V. //State Teachers College . 4/ State Teachers College . 4/ State Teachers College . 4/ State Teachers College, IV... //Northern Normal and Industrial School . 2/Eastern State Normal School, IV... 2/State Normal School, IV . 2/Southern State Normal School, IV.. ■//State Teachers College . //State Teachers College . //State Teachers College . //Tennessee Agricultural & Industrial State College., . //Sul Ross State Teachers College, IV, V . //West Texas State Teachers College. //East Texas State Teachers College, VI . //North Texas State Teachers Col¬ lege, V . //Sam Houston State Teachers Col¬ lege, IV . //Stephen F. Austin State Teachers College . //Southwest Texas State Teachers College . G/School of Education, University of Utah, IV . //State Teachers College //State Teachers College //State Teachers College //State Teachers College President Francis B. Haas Robert M. Steele G. C. L. Riemer T. T. Allen C. C. Crawford C. R. Foster A. C. Rothermel Dallas W. Armstrong W. R. Straughn Landis Tanger A. L. Rowland J. L. Eisenberg Norman W. Cameron C. G. Lawrence 'V. A. Lowry E. C. Woodburn T. A. Harmon C. C. Sherrod J. W. Brister P. A. Lyon W. J. Hale H. W. Morelock J. A. Hill S. H. Whitley R. L. Marquis H. F. Estill A. W. Birdwell C. E. Evans Milton Bennion, Dean J. P. McConnell J. L. Jarman M. L. Combs S. P. Duke / 776 National Education Association Location Institution President Washington Bellingham . 7/ State Normal School, IV . C. H. Fisher Cheney . 7/State Normal School, IV . R. T. Hargreaves Ellensburg . 7/State Normal School, IV . R. E. McConnell West Virginia Athens . 7/Concord State Teachers College. . . . J. F. Marsh Fairmont . 7/Fairmont State Teachers College. . . Joseph Rosier Huntington . 7/Marshall College, IV . M. P. Shawkey Shepherdstown . . 7/Shepherd State Teachers College.. W. H. S. White Wisconsin Eau Claire . 7/State Teachers College, IV . H. A. Schofield La Crosse . 7/State Teachers College . G. M. Snodgrass Menomonie . 7/The Stout Institute, IV . B. E. Nelson Milwaukee . 7/State Teachers College, IV . Frank E. Baker Oshkosh . 7/State Teachers College, IV, VIII... Forrest R. Polk Platteville . 7/State Teachers College, IV . A. M. Royce River Falls . 7/State Teachers College, IV . J. H. Ames Stevens Point . . . . 7/Central State Teachers College, IV. F. S. Hyer Superior . 7/State Teachers College, IV . J. D. Hill Whitewater . 7/State Teachers College, IV . C. M. Yoder DEPARTMENT OF Visual Instruction HISTORICAL NOTE The department of visual instruction was organised at the Oakland- San Francisco meeting in July, 1923. The officers of the Department for the year 1934-35 are: president, Wither Emmert, Director of Visual Education, State Teachers College, Indiana, Pa.; first vicepresident, Mrs. Grace Fisher Ramsey, American Museum of Natural History, 77th Street and Central Park West , New Y ork , N. Y .; second vicepresident, Rupert Peters, Director of Visual Instruction, Public Schools, Kansas City, Mo.; secretary-treasurer, Ellsworth C. Dent, 1201 Sixteenth Street, Washington D. C.; executive committee: Daniel C. Knowlton, Associate Professor of Education, New York University, New York, N . Y . ( term expires 1935) ; John A. Hollinger, Director of Nature Study and Visualization, Public Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. (term expires 1936) ; William H. Dudley, 736 South Wabash Avenue, Chicago, III. (term ex¬ pires 1937 ) ; Mrs. Grace Fisher Ramsey, American Museum of Natural History, 77th Street and Central Park West, New York, N. Y. (term expires 1938) ; Robert Collier, Jr., Director of Visual Instruction, South High School, Denver, Colo. ( term expires 1939) ; Cline M. Koon, Senior Specialist in Education by Radio, U. S. Office of Education, Department of Interior, Washington, D. C. ( term expires 1940.) This Department meets once each year, in July. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 192 3:85 -A 1927 '.951-970 1931:947-963 1924:963-983 1928:949-970 1932:787-800 1923:864-871 1929:937-944 1933:779-795 1926 :9 49-963 1930 :9 11-930 [ 778 ] CLASS DEMONSTRATION— FIFTH-YEAR GEOGRAPHY GRACE A. COURTNEY, PRINCIPAL, HALLS GROVE SCHOOL, PITTSBURGH, PA. Visual aids should become integral parts of lesson procedures and should be used where they will effectively challenge attention and vitalize instruction. A current subject, “A Vacation Trip,” is made attractive and real by supplementing the text with visual materials — prints, stereo¬ graphs, maps, lantern slides, and motion pictures. The theme is introduced by discussion and lantern slides to give a mental set and to stimulate interest. The aims — to plan a vacation trip, to know and appreciate the beauty and wonders of Yellowstone National Park are furthered by the presentation of content material and the motion picture, “Yellowstone National Park.” The children are held responsible for read¬ ing and interpreting the picture by discussion and a test presented on slides. The outcomes may be summed up as : 1. A desire to visit Yellowstone National Park 2. An appreciation of the pleasures in which each of us may take part while visiting Yellowstone National Park. 3. An appreciation of the opportunities that our national parks afford to the people 4. An interest in and an appreciation of the natural beauty of our country. In using visual materials the following guiding principles have been observed : 1. Visual aids should supplement the course of study 2. Visual aids should be grouped around a central theme 3. Each type of visual aid has its place in the teaching procedure and may supple¬ ment it 4. Too much illustrative material may cloud rather than clarify 5. The use of visual materials should not be allowed to over-develop passive receptivity 6. Pupils should be held responsible for definite reactions. DEMONSTRATION OF TECHNICS FOR MAKING LANTERN SLIDES IN COLOR W. T. R. PRICE, SCARBOROUGH SCHOOL, SCARBOROUGH-ON-HUDSON, N. Y. An analysis of the lasting impression made on the speaker by the quaint German pictures in a toy magic lantern show, seems to indicate that color was the feature instrumental in making that impression. The psychology of color is far-reaching and its influence must not be overlooked in visual instruction where everything depends on making an impression on the mind thru the eye. Apart from the psychological consideration, color is also definitely essential where correct description of an object depends on show¬ ing it in its actual colors, and where it is necessary to emphasize certain divisions in maps or charts. [ 779 ] 780 National Education Association The use of handmade lantern slides for this type of work has been hand¬ icapped by lack of suitable materials. Comparatively recent experiments in this field, however, have resulted in the discovery and production of vari¬ ous colors and other materials which place the technic of handmade slides within easy reach of pupils and teachers in the elementary school, while high- school students and artists are provided with a new medium of expression which has already resulted in the production of several hundred handmade lantern slides and other transparencies which may well be classed as works of art. Examples of this work exhibited at the convention illustrate various technics from simple pencil drawings on etched glass to elaborate reproduc¬ tions of brilliant butterflies and stained glass windows in full color. Noteworthy among the various materials mentioned in connection with the exhibit is a new liquid color specially prepared for coloring handmade lantern slides. These brilliant transparent colors are easily applied to glass, cellophane, or practically any surface and are practical for use by children in fifth grade or older. Other new materials specifically mentioned include an improved colored crayon specially made for work on etched glass, and a cellulose acetate material which, tho not new in itself, is newly applied as a basic material on which to make lantern slides. In conclusion it is suggested that the cause of visual instruction could be greatly furthered if all new discoveries of materials and technics were written up and made available to all who are interested in this work. STANDARDS AND TECHNICS FOR MAKING POSTERS AND BOOKLETS WILBER EMMERT, DIRECTOR OF VISUAL EDUCATION, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, INDIANA, PA. In considering the problem of technics and standards for making posters and booklets, the discussion will be divided into three main parts. There will be given first, some principles underlying the use of these two visual aids and some outcomes to be achieved by their use ; second, some detailed directions for the construction of posters; third, some standards for the construction and evaluation of booklets. Specimens will be presented to show what has been done in one school along these lines. The school is an organization devised by society to fulfil its obligations to the child and to present the environment of persons and things to the child in such form that he can learn to adapt himself to it. National groups have set up broad, general objectives of education, and specific outcomes to be attained by the school in dealing with the children entrusted to its care and guidance. Those methods and materials which will lead to the acquisition of knowledge; develop desirable habits, abilities, and skills; effect an economy of time ; develop correct initial concepts ; and lead to wholesome interest, should be used. Active participation under wise supervision is necessary for the accomplishment of the objectives of education. Department of Visual Instruction 781 1 he school is a unit in its effect upon the child. Creative educational lead¬ ers are insisting that children be taught to solve problems ; and that these problems be large, meaningful, worthwhile, major problems of daily com¬ munity and civic life. T here must be a reorganization of the school from that stressing the various school subjects as such, to one in which problem solving is the keynote. In this new type school visual and other sensory aids will have a major place, because of their significant influence upon the child. Turning now to the consideration of the poster and the booklet. Both the poster and the booklet can be made effective teaching tools provided the teacher is skilled in sensing the appropriate place and time to use them to achieve specific problem-solving results. In addition, the teacher must know the technics of construction and the standards by which the results will be judged. There is the possibility of the use of the poster or the booklet in every school subject, and in nearly every project undertaken. However, some units lend themselves more readily to one teaching aid than to the other. There are a number of specific outcomes to be derived from the making of the poster, and by booklet construction. Both provide splendid opportuni¬ ties for correlating the work in one subject with that of another. In con¬ structing a poster or a booklet on health, or science, or geography, those art principles, and English fundamentals learned elsewhere must be stressed and practised. Each finished product must demonstrate a thoro understanding of the project under consideration, plus the mastery of certain fundamental principles, habits, abilities, and skills. In the poster the major idea is epitomized and vividly portrayed. The idea must be so arranged that it will be sold at one glance. This calls for creative work on the part of the child. Hence, fundamental principles must be mastered, and then expressed in a terse, forceful manner. Accuracy, neatness, cleverness, and mastery stand permanently portrayed in the finished prod¬ uct — the poster. High standards of excellence should be the goal toward which each pupil should strive. The booklet can be used to bring out principles, develop habits, attitudes, and skills. The booklet can be a source of satisfaction, pride, and joy. Beauti¬ ful booklets can be made by children in all grades of school work. One booklet can tell the teacher many things about the pupil, e.g., does he really understand his problem? Can he select from the mass of materials those significant items which tell the story effectively? Can he organize materials well? Is he neat in his work? Can he use his art, his English, his mathematics to advantage? Can he follow directions? Is he creative in his work? Does he pride himself in the work done? Does he strive for accuracy, beauty, and high standards of excellence? Are these attitudes, habits, and skills reflected in other phases of school work? These and many other questions might arise in the minds of persons viewing the finished booklet. The answers to the questions would be found by a study of the booklet itself. The outline which follows, entitled “Poster Making” contains a list of directions for making posters, together with some suggestions concerning the use of posters. If teachers and pupils have these standards clearly in 782 National Education Association mind before the construction work is started the finished product will be more satisfactory and more effective. Poster Making • Posters are used to sell an idea or a thing. A poster differs from an illustration or a cartoon in that whereas they are meant to be looked at, at close range in a book, paper, or magazine the poster must be seen in its entirety, from a distance and at one glance. It is evident that if a poster is to sell its idea or commodity it first must be read. Hence we say a good poster must 1. First attract attention 2. Attract attention suddenly 3. Have its reading matter concentrated and understandable. Posters can attract attention 1. By a snappy slogan, or caption, — e.g., “Stop, Look, Listen!” If when the poster is finished the questions how, when, where, or by whom arise, it is not com¬ plete and will not sell the idea. E.g., “Drink Milk!” The questions why, when, how, and by whom can be asked. It is not a good slogan. 2. By color - to attract attention a. Use strong contrasts Black and white are not colors, but they form the strongest contrasts obtainable Yellow and purple Orange and blue Red and green. b. Strong contrasts are gained by using one dull and one bright color Examples : Black, gray, or white may be used with any color or colors to intensify them. c. Colors should be applied flat. 3. By readable lettering a. Use large, simple, easy to read at a glance lettering b. It is not advisable to print the words diagonally, or up and down. The pictures used should fill the space 1. Arrangement of printing should lead the eye to the picture, or from the picture to the printing 2. Margins should always be used. Bottom margins should always be the largest 3. Framing the picture is often very effective. In selling the idea or thing, it is necessary to keep in mind the following: 1. Have a definite plan 2. Why do you wish to use the poster? Advantages, limitations 3. Who should see the poster? Selecting, classifying the audience 4. What will you do with your poster? Use in hall, classroom, train, store 5. What do you wish to say in poster form? 6. What poster form will best express your facts and ideas? 7. How will you get the posters made? How much may you spend on poster work ? 8. How will you follow up the results of your poster work? The construction of the booklet involves a clear understanding of the problem to be solved, the objectives to be attained, collecting materials, selecting representative specimens, organizing the materials, displaying and Department of Visual Instruction 783 presenting them, binding the materials into the finished volume. The follow¬ ing outline, entitled “Standards for Making Booklets,” has proved to be a very helpful guide to both students and teachers. The specimens presented herewith demonstrate what has been done when the standards and directions were before both the students and the teacher. Standards for Making Booklets A. Standards for selection of materials for booklets I. Materials must 1. Create an atmosphere 2. Bring out principles V 3. Excite interest 4. Bring before the pupil definite facts. II. Pictures must 1. Show clearly the point desired 2. Be simple (Complicated pictures confuse the reader) 3. Have one object rather than many 4. Show actual conditions 5. Be selected to tell a connected story 6. (Colored pictures are preferred in the lower grades.) B. Standards for organizing the materials in booklets 1. Materials should be arranged in unit sets 2. There should be a title page descriptive of the unit 3. Subjectmatter should not be on the same page as the pictures and other illustrative materials 4. Pictures and illustrative materials should be mounted on one side of the paper only 5. Fly-leaves, table of contents, and a preface should be included. C. Making the cover 1. Title should be simple 2. Lettering used should be large and plain 3. Cover should contain a. Title only, or b. Title and design, or c. Title and picture, or d. (a), (b), or (c), plus maker’s name. D. Arrangement of illustrative materials 1. A page should contain only a few, well-selected pictures or objects 2. Use simple descriptive titles only. Place titles under picture or materials, or at bottom of the page 3. Illustrative materials should be placed in logical sequence 4. Materials should be mounted parallel with the sides of the page upon which they are mounted. (Never diagonally) E. Types of illustrative materials suitable for booklets 1. Pictorial materials (Photographs, prints, ads, pictures, diagrams, graphs, cartoons, maps, blue prints, photostats, cut-outs) 2. Specimens (Must be thin and flat) 3. Newspaper and magazine clippings. F. Sources of illustrative materials Daily newspapers, rotogravure sections of Sunday papers, trade maga¬ zines, popular monthly magazines, picture dealers, steamship companies, railroad companies, chambers of commerce, industrial institutions, travel bureaus, catalogs, photographs, textile samples. 784 National Education Association THE RELATION OF MOTION PICTURES TO STANDARDS OF MORALITY ROBERT P. WRAY, PENNSYLVANIA STATE COLLEGE, STATE COLLEGE, PA. Society’s moral code is simply its system of mores — those patterns of con¬ duct to which practise for some time by groups of people attaches certain welfare elements and ethical values. Morality is conformity to the mores. What are the standards of morality possessed by various groups of people ? Do motion pictures conflict with these standards? An investigation at Penn State under the sponsorship of the Motion Picture Research Council and the subsidization of the Payne Fund sought answers to the above queries. The investigation was confined to four phases of the moral code: aggres¬ siveness of a girl in love-making; kissing and caressing; democratic attitudes and practises; and treatment of children by parents. Descriptive scenes were written covering a wide range of conduct on each of the four phases. Mem¬ bers of eighteen social groups helped in an evaluation of the scenes by placing each of them in one of three categories according to whether he admired it, disapproved it, or just felt neutral toward it. From the per¬ centages of people placing any individual scene in these categories a resultant “badness” value was derived for the item. “Approval indexes” were de¬ termined for each of the social groups. Using the hypothesis that specific patterns of conduct tend to be accepted as “the thing to do,” the problem was to ascertain in which direction from present standards (approval indexes) do these patterns (motion picture scenes) lie? In general it was found that the movies are in marked conflict with society’s moral code in respect to aggressiveness of a girl in love-mak¬ ing, that they are almost parallel with it in respect to kissing, above in regard to democracy, and distinctly above in the treatment of children by parents. THE OLD ORDER CHANGETH JOHN A. HOLLINGER, DIRECTOR, DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, PITTSBURGH, PA. Education, especially on the lower levels, deals more and more with real life situations. Realia of various sorts are being used extensively in addition to the printed page. Both the community museum and the local school museum are playing a very effective part in educational procedures. Expeditions in the field of natural history with resulting specimens are now a part of the procedure of the progressive school. The community museum has its staff of experts to contribute to education in general. Upon this, as a type, is built the local school museum. Pictorial and graphic presentation and representation are increasingly prominent. Had the camera been invented before the printing press, would the record of our civilization have been more or less impressive? Individual Department of Visual Instruction 785 teachers handicraft and collections are enriching the school program. Mate¬ rials from commercial concerns are improving. For further improvement, suggestions from the school people are in order. There will be better motion pictures when the schools give courses in this field dealing with standards of selection rather than censorship. Short subjects for use in the schools will become more numerous. Sound motion picture projection and radio receiving will find a place in every school auditorium and in other general assembly rooms. Research in the use of the museum and pictorial presentation are fostered by school people and by producers and distributors. Teacher training must include the use of primary sources as well as the printed word. THE RELATION OF FILMS AND THE RADIO TO CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION CLINE M. KOON, SENIOR SPECIALIST IN RADIO AND VISUAL EDUCATION, U. S. OFFICE OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. • For years visual instructionists conducted experiments and wrote articles to prove the advantages of sight over sound as a means of instruction. Just about the time they felt their case was won and went home, they discovered that the most promising member of their visual family — the motion pic¬ ture — had learned how to talk. Even unto this day some visual instructionists argue that the film should be seen and not heard, but the majority have come to realize that by combining sight and sound the talking picture com¬ mands a concentrated attention difficult to achieve by any other media. It can bring selected slices of life from the four corners of the world and pre¬ sent them in such a way that the pupil can recreate the experiences almost as vividly as if he had actually lived them. The film can preserve the model lesson of the master teacher treating subjectmatter of permanent value and make it generally available for future generations. The radio also has some distinct advantages. It is a timely medium. The outside world can be brought into the classroom and pupils made actual par¬ ticipants in important public occasions and last-minute happenings. Its general availability enables it to overcome time and isolation and it thereby becomes a powerful cementing force in national life. At present, of course, radio can only be heard, not seen; but, with the perfection of television, it will become visual-auditory just as the talking picture has. This is the principal reason I want you to consider radio and motion pic¬ tures jointly. Like the arms of a capital Y each has its distinct functions and like the body of the Y they have many functions in common. As entertainers they are vital forces having a lasting effect upon the attitudes of our young people. The teacher should recognize this and teach radio and motion picture appreciation, utilizing their offerings in his own teaching. As class¬ room teaching devices they are tools in the hands of the teacher, Their 786 National Education Association value depends upon their content, its organization, and the way in which it is integrated in the teaching-learning situation. In these days of reduced budgets and increased responsibilities, the teacher should consider the pos¬ sibility of using motion pictures and the radio as aids in instruction. If their use actually improves the efficiency of learning to a greater degree than is possible by other means without increasing the cost, they should be admitted to the classroom. It is not a part of a real teacher’s business to provide his pupils with the common, ordinary stuff that they could pick up anywhere. The teacher’s duty, as a real teacher, is to give his pupils the best, and only the best ; and if that is impossible, he must still aim at it with what means he has and with what light God has given him, as best he may. In this connection I predict that the use of radio and the motion picture will cause a revitalization of learning comparable to the revival of learning which followed the intro¬ duction of printing. Let me close with the suggestion that you who are supervisors of visual instruction consider the advisability of becoming supervisors of radio and visual instruction, and you who teach visual instruction consider the inclu¬ sion of radio in your courses. SCHOOL FILMS, THEIR SOURCES AND EVALUATION RITA HOCHHEIMER, ASSISTANT DIRECTOR VISUAL INSTRUCTION, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, NEW YORK, N. Y. There are four main types of sources of teaching films: theatrical films revised and edited ; films produced by motion picture concerns solely to be sold to schools ; propaganda films ; and industrial films. The schools need them all and should encourage their production. No presentation in bad taste and no excessive exploitation should be allowed in school films. It is our business to prevent this. But at present this is not a serious menace in the school field. We need more and more good teaching films in order to cover fully the school curriculum and to integrate the school as a social agency in our changing world. Films should be selected by visual instruction supervisors solely on their value to the children and to school work. The source from which they may be secured is not significant. The production of valuable school films must be continuously stimulated by school people and their intelligent cooperation. Utilizing their expert knowledge with the expert knowledge and experience of the motion picture producers will secure for us an ever increasing volume of satisfactory film material. Department of Visual Instruction 787 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SOUND MOTION PICTURES AND ORAL CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION HILDA MARIE DILLER, STAFF MEMBER, DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, WASHINGTON, D. C. This is the report of an investigation of the effectiveness of sound motion pictures as a means of teaching, as compared to oral classroom instruction, illustrated with stereopticon slides and classroom wall maps and supple¬ mented by as much student participation, in the form of informal discussion, as the large size of the group would allow. In July 1931 nationwide interest was aroused in an experiment which the Fox Film Corporation was conducting in Washington, D. C. The purpose of this experiment was to demonstrate the effectiveness of sound motion pictures as a means of teaching and at the same time to call public attention to their educational films. The experiment consisted in measuring the amount learned by a group of children thru seeing educational sound motion pic¬ tures. In order that the interest aroused might be nationwide the Fox Film Corporation brought boys and girls from all over the United States to par¬ ticipate in this experiment. Five educational films were selected to be used. Tests were given the chil¬ dren on each of the five subjects treated in the films. The films were then shown, and the same tests given again. An intelligence test was also given to all of the children. The amount learned by seeing the pictures was shown by the difference in the scores made on the same tests before and after seeing the pictures. This difference, of course, was in score points. It could be reduced to a percentage basis but even so, its meaning was very limited since no similar data on other methods of teaching these same facts were available for comparison. The Research Department of the Washington, D. C., public schools undertook to obtain such data in the fall of the same year. The method of teaching adopted for their purpose may be described as oral classroom instruc¬ tion, illustrated with stereopticon slides and classroom wall maps and supple¬ mented by as much student participation, in the form of informal discussion, as the large size of the group would allow. Hereafter, in this report, the children who participated in the Fox Film experiment will be referred to as the summer group, while those children who participated in the Research Department experiment will be referred to as the fall group. In order that any difference in the gains made by the sum¬ mer group and by the fall group might be fairly attributed to the difference in the method of teaching used, it was necessary to hold all other factors as nearly constant as was feasible. In selecting the children for the fall group the principal factors in which comparability was sought were grade level, sex, and intelligence. This group was made slightly larger than the summer group. The order and the time allowed for testing and teaching was the same as that followed in the summer. 788 National Education Association Considerable thought was given to the selection of a statistical method for comparing the results of the summer and fall experiments. It was finally decided that “Students’ Method” 1 was suitable. This method is applicable in comparing results when the groups involved possess a high degree of com¬ parability in intelligence and initial knowledge. In order to obtain the requisite degree of comparability a case for case matching of the summer and fall groups was made. It was possible to match, within the limits set, in only 63 cases, 30 boys and 33 girls from each group, or 126 children in all. After having matched each individual in one group with a corresponding individual in the other, having practically identical intelligence and initial knowledge, it was possible to compare the results obtained in the summer, with those obtained in the fall, by “Students’ Method.” This method is based on the assumption that any difference in the retest scores (that is, the scores made on tests given after the teaching methods have been applied) for two matched individuals indicates a difference in the amount learned by those individuals. An average of all such differences for the sixty-three matched cases, then, would indicate the difference in amount learned by the two groups. When this average was taken it was found to be so small as to be negligible, thus indicating that there was no difference in the effectiveness of the two teaching methods. While no superiority in the effectiveness of sound motion pictures was found, yet it is interesting to remember that such advantages as the large number of persons to whom sound motion pictures can be shown at one time, the accuracy of factual detail that can reasonably be expected in such films, etc., indicate an important future for sound motion pictures in the field of education. The same conclusion (that neither method of teaching was more effective than the other) was reached when a comparison was made between the retest scores for girls only, and for boys only. 1 Ezekiel, Mordecai. “Students’ Method for Measuring the Significance of a Difference between Matched Groups.” Journal of Educational Psychology 23: 446-50; September 1932. DEPARTMENT OF Vocational Education HISTORICAL NOTE The department of vocational education was organized as the in¬ dustrial section at Minneapolis , Minnesota , 1875. See proceedings, 1875:100. The name was changed in 1890 to the Department of Indus¬ trial and Manual Training. See proceedings 1890:758. In 1899 the name was changed to the Department of Manual Training. See proceedings, 1899:556. In 1914 the name was changed to the Department of Voca¬ tional Training and Practical Arts. Since 1919 it has been known as the Department of Vocational Education. This Department cooperates with the National Vocational Guidance Association and with the National Society for Vocational Education. The officers of the Department for the year 1934-35 are: president, Howard L. Briggs, Supervisor , Trades Training, Tennessee Valley Authority, Norris, Tenn.; secretary, Charles W. Sylvester , Director, Vocational Education, Public Schools, Baltimore, Md. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are to be found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 1914 \565-624 1915:815-846 1916 ‘.461-516 1911:431-473 1918 :249-269 1919:271-279 1920:269-270 1921: 851-858 1922:1465-1483 192 3:1025-1043 1924: 987-1015 1925: 872-912 1926: 964-996 1927: 971-1006 1928 ’.971-1003 1929:945-972 1930 :931-954 1931:965-994 1932 : 801-815 1933:797-806 [ 790 ] MODERN TRENDS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION HOWARD L. BRIGGS, SUPERVISOR TRADES TRAINING, TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY, NORRIS, TENN. Thru modern technological developments in industry there is an ever-increasing ratio of unemployment. The federal relief adminis¬ trator, in a recent speech, predicted 5,000,000 unemployed under a complete return to normal conditions. This is a 66 percent increase over 1929. Is the answer an ever-increasing charity roll at the expense of the tax¬ payer or a decentralization of industry resulting in unemployed workers augmenting their savings during unemployment periods, by raising some of their own food products and living in comfortable homes in rural areas rather than in crowded city tenements? Certainly the maximum utilization of available water power in this coun¬ try will encourage industrial decentralization and result in a new era of comfortable living all of which involves a new scheme of vocational educa¬ tion thru which workers are prepared for a program of work involving both trade and agricultural skills. A PROGRAM OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION TO MEET THE NEEDS OF THE DIFFERENT GROUPS OF PUPILS CHARLES F. BAUDER, DIRECTOR OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS, BOARD OF PUBLIC EDUCATION, PHILADELPHIA, PA. A wide range of abilities and interests is represented in secondary schools. The tremendous growth of enrolment is due to social demand for secondary education and to current national developments that require young people to stay in school. The schools are not prepared to care adequately for their clients, either in housing accommodations or variety of offerings. This paper discusses some criteria by which to approach the problem of an adequate program of secondary education. It pertains particularly to industrial preparatory education for boys. It considers four major groups of pupils, classified by abilities, and suggests types of secondary schools and curriculums to meet their needs: 1. Superior group: potential leaders in industry, (a) as engineers, designers, superintendents, managers; (b) as technicians or minor executives — foremen or assistant superintendents. 2. High normal group: potential skilled mechanics, foremen, squad leaders. 3. Middle normal group: prospective skilled mechanics; foremanship improbable. Will work most effectively under close supervision. 4. Low normal group: all-round skills in a trade improbable. Best adapted to repetitive processes. Must work under direction. [791] 792 National Education Association Group 1 best served in senior high schools of comprehensive type, for democratic mingling of pupils of all occupational aspirations. Mechanic arts curriculum for the engineering or technical aspirant, with college entrance subjects together with variety of shop experiences. Industrial curriculum for the boys who plan to go to work rather than to college. Program of studies different from Smith-Hughes unit-trade set-up, conforming to standards of high-school organization; 60 to 70 percent of time devoted to technical studies, including shop group, related drawing, applied mathematics and science ; 30 to 40 percent in non-technical, broadening courses, motivated by the occupational interest. Group 2, the boys of high normal ability, may be absorbed in either the industrial department of a comprehensive high school or a two-year voca¬ tional school, depending upon whether home circumstances permit the longer courses or require quick preparation for employment. The vocational school is a two-year institution organized according to Smith-Hughes unit-trade requirements. It offers more intensive shop practise, with less emphasis upon trade technology and less attention to breadth of occupational instruction than in the industrial curriculum of the senior high schools. Group 3, middle normal or average boys of mechanical bent, find the vocational school best adapted to their interests. They learn to be steady, reliable, routine workers. Industry needs more of this type of mechanic than any other in its complex division of labor processes. Group 4, the low normal boys, have not been properly cared for. They have hitherto left the elementary school or early grades of the junior high school, to go to work as soon as state laws have permitted. They made up the bulk of the former continuation group of fourteen- to sixteen-year-olds. They must now be cared for in full-time courses. New facilities to meet their indifferent abilities must be organized. A new curriculum in junior high school should be set up for them, prior to actual occupational training. A large number will enter mediocre grades of employment after three years in the junior high school. A considerable number should go on into voca¬ tional schools, where special provision, now lacking, should be made for them as to types of industrial courses. They respond best to repetitive proc¬ esses in shop construction. Academic and related subjects should be modi¬ fied greatly in content and methods of instruction to be adapted to low reading ability and limited range of attention. Interesting experiments with this type of pupil have recently been organized in Massachusetts and New Jersey. To carry out the suggestions of this paper, more schools, more teachers, more curriculums, more money, will be required. But increased facilities must be provided to meet the increased social and economic demands upon secondary schools. Vocational education has the opportunity to provide lead¬ ership toward the solution of the problem of adapting the schools to the needs of pupils. Department of Vocational Education 793 PROBLEMS OF THE AMERICAN VOCATIONAL ASSOCIATION IN MEETING THE PRESENT EMERGENCY IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION RAY FIFE, STATE SUPERVISOR OF VOCATIONAL AGRICULTURE, COLUMBUS, OHIO; AND PRESIDENT, AMERICAN VOCATIONAL ASSOCIATION The discussion and promotion of leisure-time training is the educational hobby of the hour. No educational leader considers that he is abreast of the times unless he places special and, often, total emphasis on leisure-time train¬ ing. Care will be needed to integrate the vocational and leisure-time training programs of the nation. A temporary overproduction of the nation’s agricultural and industrial goods has not eliminated the need for productive efficiency in our economic life and the consequent training for it. What we need is not a philosophy which will array training for making a living against training for living a life, or training for work against training for leisure, but rather a philosophy which deals with a complete life. Educa¬ tion must see life in its entirety with making a living and living, work and leisure, as necessary but varying complements in each individual. Education for a complete life must meet at least three fundamental re¬ quirements: First, there must be a continuance, on a redirected basis, of the nation’s program of vocational education in order that the economic effi¬ ciency of a highly civilized people may be maintained. Second, there must be a new appraisal of work itself and such appraisal must be incorporated in our systems of education. To the mechanical skill of our present age there must be added that mechanical vision and understanding which will give a new meaning to industrial occupations. The enrichment of occupational life, thru which productive work may be made more meaningful and therefore more enjoyable, should banish much of the monotony of the machine age. The third educational requirement for a complete life must deal directly with adequate training for our new margin of leisure. Leaders in vocational education must assume their share of responsibility in integrating the pro¬ gram of training for leisure with the program of training for work. As the nation enters on a new year, one hundred twenty million people comprising its population are inspired by the hope of a new day. That hope is based on faith. It is the responsibility and the opportunity of education to add to that faith a basis of understanding. Vocational education need not apologize for its prospective part in this wonderful opportunity which is offered to the schools of America. Vocational education is a fundamental requirement in the training or re¬ training of millions of adults if they are to assume their rightful places as self-supporting, self-respecting members of society. There are other millions of young people in the nation who must be trained to earn a living thru vocational education or they will be trained to get a living thru gangster education and the school of the street. 794 National Education Association THE EMERGENCY IN EDUCATION AND THE FUTURE OF VOCATIONAL AND PRACTICAL ARTS EDUCATION EDWIN A. LEE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF. From the viewpoint of a city school superintendent I desire to discuss this topic with three questions in mind: (1) What is the emergency? (2) How shall the emergency be met? (3) What should be our expectation if it is met adequately? What is the emergency f — The first fact that faces us in answer to the question is the inescapable and tragic one of widespread unemployment. No one knows exactly its proportions, but no city of which I have any knowl¬ edge is without it, and no city superintendent I know but has had to face the question which grows out of it — “With so many out of work, why train more workers to swell the army? Wouldn’t it be better to eliminate all vocational courses until there is again need for them?” It seems quite a logical way to save some money and at the same time attack unemploy¬ ment. Why not? The first and irrefutable answer is that every youth has an inalienable right to that self-respect which comes from the knowledge that he is trained in something that needs to be done so well as to be worthy of hire. It makes no difference at which end you swell the army of the unemployed if you, in the final analysis, swell it, and that is exactly what you do if you allow youth to leave the purview of the public school unequipped to earn a living at some decent level of employment. The interesting fact still holds true that in the ranks of the highly skilled, all-round craftsman there is no unemployment and that in the newer vocations there is always a scarcity of well-trained workers. What is the emergency? In the second place it is all tied up with the phenomena of modern technology. We have invented machines and devised methods so fast that apparently it has been impossible to absorb into our homes and offices and factories all that modern technology can easily pro¬ vide. And so the city superintendent is asked — “Why train more workers when we are already surfeited with goods ? Let demand catch up with supply, then we will take up again vocational education in our schools.” The answer given above applies here, too, but a far more significant answer should be given. What is it to be surfeited with goods ? In my city there are children who come to school inadequately clothed, insufficiently fed, culturally so undernourished as to be emaciated. There are unimaginable numbers of families in this land of the free for whom bare existence is a struggle. And we prate of overproduction! Modern technology is not a monster which would destroy, it is a saviour which would deliver us from want and eco¬ nomic bondage. All that stands between us and such fulfilment is the intel¬ ligence and the unselfishness to attack the problem and fight it clear thru. The third question which the emergency causes men to ask is implicit in the rapidly changing picture of modern industrial and commercial life. I Department of Vocational Education 795 have heard it raised by men high in educational and political circles. “Occu¬ pations, they say, ‘ change so rapidly that a boy trained in a vocation will find that vocation completely different when he is ready to enter it. Why train for specific vocations when they may shortly be non-existent?” A good question and one not so easily answered without careful examination. Such examination discloses quickly that the premise of the question is only in part coirect. It is true that occupations do change and are changing rapidly, but not so rapidly as the question would imply. W^hat is more important is that such changes can be and are anticipated by students of trends. Our trouble in vocational education and practical arts education has been that we have been too careless as to the future. Another phase of the problem which is not truly an emergency but which I choose to include at this point has to do with the age both of entering and retiring from active work life. It is only a few )^ears since fourteen was the legal school-leaving age. We have seen that age advance to sixteen and in some places to seventeen. In actual practise it may soon reach twenty. Such a trend cannot be left out of any discussion or thinking of a superintendent con¬ cerning his vocational problem. On the other end of life I see clearly the trend toward a shortei total work life with men ceasing to carry on their occupations at increasingly earlier ages. Old age pensions and unemploy¬ ment insurance just around the corner, whether you like it or not, will accentuate this trend rather than retard it. We cannot leave these phenomena or their implications from our thinking. Of course, the whole attack upon education finds one of its most violent centers in the vocational program. “Why,” say the critics, “should the public pay the cost of training a man for his own economic welfare?” for¬ getting that increasingly the economic welfare of the whole body politic is dependent upon individual welfare. “Why,” say they, “should the holy (in this case) cause of education be stained with the materialistic aim of self-support? Education is for the spirit,” forgetting that the ancients placed man s soul in his abdomen and that only the rare spirit soars when the mortal body aches with hunger or shivers with cold. Yet in the name of economy and purity some would purge modern education of all vestige of training for occupational proficiency. They are just as blind as those who would eliminate everything but that which is practical. Possibly our real emergency lies in reconciling these two points of view in reality not divergent but supplementary each to the other. How shall the emergency he met f — The answer to the second question resides first of all in scientific inquiry. I, in San Francisco, must face facts. Following such leads as even a superficial study already gives me, I can see in my city the need first of all for a comprehensive program of vocational guidance, a program that will give to each boy and girl the information con¬ cerning his community and himself by which he may make an intelligent choice of the work to which he will devote his life. In this program the piactical arts assume a major role, for therein exists the opportunity for almost unlimited experiences in the work representative 796 National Education Association of my city. Somewhere in my system there should be provision for trying out every major occupational activity in San Francisco. Then, too, the practical arts face most exciting possibilities for them¬ selves alone. Nowhere else in the school program exist such opportunities for making technology real instead of bookish. Nowhere else can a boy or a girl gain that exquisite concomitant of real education which we call skill, or craftsmanship. Nowhere else does he learn the universal language of mechani¬ cal drawing. And in no other department are there richer possibilities for interpreting this engineering civilization thru which we are wending our bewildered but fascinated way. Yes, I shall expect to meet the emergency by advancing on all fronts in industrial arts education. Similarily I shall want to meet the emergency by a well-thought-out, care¬ fully-devised program of vocational education in terms of the facts I have discovered and the trends they indicate. If it is clear that blacksmithing is a non-existent occupation, then regretfully I shall have to discontinue my blacksmith shop, at least as a vocational program. If it is clear that other vocations are emerging, then for them I shall need to make provision. With all I shall expect to have as teachers highly-skilled, broadly educated crafts¬ men — men interested in their trades and possessed with an uncontrollable desire to grow on their job both as craftsmen and teachers. And I shall expect to measure the effectiveness of my program in terms of placements in actual positions for wages or salary of those whom we have trained. All that has just been said must be interpreted in terms of adults as well as youth, for if there is anything the emergency is showing us it is that vocational and practical arts education must be keyed to all ages and all levels. What should be the expectation? — Let me answer in five simple state¬ ments : 1. We should have a right to expect very soon a generation of youth facing adult life with understanding of current civilization and equipped to carry their own economic weight in that civilization. 2. We should have an adult population more completely aware of the implications of current life as they relate to economic, political, and sociological trends and problems. 3. We should have a school system, at least in part, dealing with the era in which it exists. We should be facing forward not backward. 4. As a consequence we should witness a lifting of the school to a place of high influence in society and government. 5. There would be the development of a feeling on the part of teachers that their work is second to none — in a word, morale. In the final analysis our greatest need in an emergency is morale. Voca¬ tional and practical arts education can permeate the whole teaching staff with new spirit if they will follow the vision. As a city superintendent I hope they do it. Department of Vocational Education 797 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR LEISURE FRANKLIN J. KELLER, DIRECTOR, NATIONAL OCCUPATIONAL CONFERENCE, NEW YORK, N. Y. The job of vocational education is to educate for vocations and thru no hocus pocus of the depression can it become a finishing school for the polite amenities or a preparation for leisurely time-killing. In other words, it is not training for leisure. For the boy and girl who wish to become self-sustaining adults, every situation presents a crisis, for they must go on and on. Society may get so sick that it will fundamentally change its nature, even die, but as long as it lives, it must go on, and men and women must work for the goods that they want and must have. They must have paying jobs. They must be adapted to the fundamental tasks of the world and they must be trained for therm Each individual, as his life goes on, must make a better and better adjustment to occupational life, and the vocational educator must help him to make it. # W^at is it that gets the worker his job? His personality, his culture, or his skill ? What is meant by the employer when he says, “Give the boy a good fundamental education and I will take care of the rest”? What is meant by the schoolman when he says, “Give the boy a good sound cultural education and he will be able to do anything” ? The employer and the school¬ man mean precisely nothing or else they mean, “Give him good vocational education.” All this does not mean to say that every person must be trained in school for every job that exists. It does mean to say that there are no born actors, in the sense of “doers,” and that this training must come somehow. In this day and age, not of the depression but of general technical development, it must come thru socially planned, pedagogically devised, and industrially, commercially, and agriculturally authenticated vocational education. What on earth is the use of time on your hands if all you can do with it is to kill it? Millions of unemployed are finding no leisure, only time in which to bemoan their failure to find jobs and their inability to enjoy life. Leisure is something you have to buy, it does not just come, nor can it be trained for apart from training for the rest of life. A remunerative occupa¬ tion enables one to buy the means of leisure and to maintain the peaceful state of mind requisite for its enjoyment. Moreover, what have the schools been doing these past hundred years if they have not been training for leisure? Beyond mere reading, writing, and figuring for elementary communication purposes, haven’t all the school subjects been designed to give “culture,” that something which enables one to appreciate the finer things in life, literature, history, travel, art, music, good clean sport? The vast majority of them, up thru the college, have professedly and boastfully not been vocational. Then what could they have been doing but teaching the good, the beautiful, and the true? And can it 798 National Education Association be that the adults of today, in their leisure moments, do not know what to do with the good, the beautiful, and the true? I believe that the small minority who, by intelligence and temperament, were capable of absorbing this kind of schooling, do know what to do with it. The others do not, and never will. The school must — and we have heard much and seen little of this — build its curriculum out of the realities of life, both vocational and avocational. But when the schoolmasters talk about beginning now to train for leisure, they must confess that they have made a miserable failure of what they have been doing in the past, or that they do not know what they are talking about. Neither alternative can make them very happy. When the school, or the employer, or the community, talks about the essential nature of training for character, he, or they, are on solid ground, but when they talk about getting the school to do the training, they are just whistling down the wind. What the school can do is to discover, select, and classify those personalities the essential ingredients of which have been inherited and have been trained for at least six years before the school gets hold of them (this is a weak attempt to satisfy both the nature and nurture people) and to adapt the school work to the ways of the world. In so-called abnormal cases, it will try to modify the personality. In other words, the school will begin to concentrate upon the individual in terms of an operating social mechanism. It will think of boys and girls in terms of occupational life. It will be a guidance institution. It will do all of this without in any way abdicating its right to work for a better society, one in which there will be no unemployed, where all the work will be done by all the people. It seems probable that vocational efficiency involves a combination of some things that are called personality, some that are called knowledge, and some that are called skills. It calls for a nice balance of mentality, emotionality, and physique. It is the task of the school to help the individual to discover the extent of his native endowment in each of these respects and to help him to make the most of it in relation to the demands of the world. In acquainting him with himself and with the world it is not too much to hope that the school will arouse in him such thought and stimulate him to such action as will in the end bring about a better world. In any case, a better method is still to be revealed. And all this must go on in spite of as well as because of the depression, and with the assurance that the least of the worries of him who leads the good life, will be the use of his leisure time. World Federation of Education t Associations HISTORICAL NOTE The world federation of education associations was the outgrowth of a World Conference on Education which was called by the Committee on Foreign Relations of the National Education Association to meet at San Francisco in July 1923. The first biennial meeting of the World Federation of Education Associations was held in Edinburgh , Scotland, in July 1925. The Second Biennial Conference was held in Toronto, Canada, in August 1927. The third conference was held in Geneva, Switzerland, August 1929 ; the fourth conference took place in August 1931 at Denver, Colorado ; and the fifth conference took place in August 1933, in Dublin, Ireland. The officers for the years 1933-35 are: presi¬ dent, Fred Mander, London, England; vicepresidents: Paul Monroe, Istanbul, Turkey; Thomas Henderson, Edinburgh, Scotland; Hidejiro Nagata, Tokio, Japan; secretary-generae, Augustus O. Thomas; Washington, D. C., U. S. A.; secretary, Charles H. Williams; treas¬ urer, E. A. Hardy, Ontario, Canada. Facts relating to the establishment of the World Federation of Edu¬ cation Associations and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of proceedings as follows: 1925: 913- 927 1929:975-988 1926: 996-1003 1931:985-994 1921:1007-1016 1933:807-814 1928:1005-1012 1921 :176-182 1922:312-317 1923:106, 402-424 1924 :272-274 [ 800 ] ^Associational Records and Information . . ' Associational Records and Information 1857—1870 The National Teachers Association Organized August 26, 1857, at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Purpose — 1 o elevate the character and advance the interests of the profes¬ sion of teaching and to promote the cause of popular education in the United States. The name of the Association was changed at Cleveland, Ohio, on August 15, 1870, to the “National Educational Association.” 1870—1907 National Educational Association Incorporated under the laws of the District of Columbia, February 24, 1886, under the name, National Education Association,” which was changed to National Educational Association,” by certificate filed November 6, 1886. 1907- National Education Association of the United States Incorporated under a special act of Congress, approved June 30, 1906, to succeed the “National Educational Association.” The charter was accepted and bylaws were adopted at the Fiftieth Anniversary Conven¬ tion held July 10, 1907, at Los Angeles, California. ACT OF INCORPORATION AN ACT 10 INCORPORATE THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES Be it enacted, by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled: Section 1. That the following-named persons, who are now officers and direc¬ tors and trustees of the National Educational Association, a corporation organized in the year eighteen hundred and eighty-six, under the Act of General Incorpora¬ tion of the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, viz: Nathan C. Schaeffer, Eliphalet Oram Lyte, John W. Lansinger, of List of Pennsylvania; Isaac W. Hill, of Alabama; Arthur J. Matthews, Incorporators of Arizona; John H. Hinemon, George B. Cook, of Arkansas; Joseph O’Connor, Josiah L. Pickard, Arthur H. Chamberlain, of California; Aaron Gove, Ezekiel H. Cook, Lewis C. Greenlee, of Colorado; Charles H. Keyes, of Connecticut; George W. Twitmyer, of Delaware; J. Ormond Wilson, William T. Harris, Alexander T. Stuart, of the District of Columbia; Clem Hampton, of Florida; William M. Slaton, of Georgia; Frances Mann, of Idaho; J. Stanley Brown, Albert G. Lane, Charles I. Parker, John W. Cook, Joshua Pike, Albert R. Taylor, Joseph A. Mercer, of Illinois; Nebraska Cropsey, Thomas A. Mott, of Indiana; John D. Benedict, of Indian Territory; John F. Riggs, Ashley V. Storm, of Iowa; John W. Spindler, Jasper N. Wilkinson, A. V. Jewett, Luther D. Whitte- more, of Kansas; William Henry Bartholomew, of Kentucky; Warren Easton, of [ 803 ] 804 National Education Association Louisiana; John S. Locke, of Maine; M. Bates Stephens, of Maryland; Charles W. Eliot, Mary H. Hunt, Henry T. Bailey, of Massachusetts; Hugh A. Graham, Charles G. White, William H. Elson, of Michigan; William F. Phelps, Irwin Shepard, John A. Cranston, of Minnesota; Robert B. Fulton, of Mississippi; F. Louis Soldan, James M. Greenwood, William J. Hawkins, of Missouri; Oscar J. Craig, of Montana; George L. Towne, of Nebraska; Joseph E. Stubbs, of Ne¬ vada; James E. Klock, of New Hampshire; James M. Green, John Enright, of New Jersey; Charles M. Light, of New Mexico; James H. Canfield, Nicholas Murray Butler, William H. Maxwell, Charles R. Skinner, Albert P. Marble, James C. Byrnes, of New York; James Y. Joyner, Julius Isaac Foust, of North Carolina; Pitt Gordon Knowlton, of North Dakota; Oscar T. Corson, Jacob A. Shawan, Wells L. Griswold, of Ohio; Edgar S. Vaught, Andrew R. Hickham, of Oklahoma; Charles Carroll Stratton, Edwin D. Ressler, of Oregon; Thomas W. Bicknell, Walter Ballou Jacobs, of Rhode Island; David B. Johnson, Robert P. Pell, of South] Carolina; Moritz Adelbert Langer, of South Dakota; Eugene F. Turner, of Tennessee; Lloyd E. Wolf, of Texas; David H. Christensen, of Utah; Henry O. Wheeler, Isaac Thomas, of Vermont; Joseph L. Jarman, of Virginia; Edward T. Mathes, of Washington; T. Marcellus Marshall, Lucy Robinson, of West Virginia; Lorenzo D. Harvey, of Wisconsin; Thomas T. Tynan, of Wyoming; Cassia Patton, of Alaska; Frank H. Ball, of Porto Rico; Arthur F. Griffiths, of Hawaii; C. H. Maxson, of the Philippine Islands; and such other persons as now are or may hereafter be associated with them as officers or members of said Association, are hereby incorporated and declared to be a body corporate of the District of Co¬ lumbia by the name of the “National Education Association of the United States,” and by that name shall be known and have a perpetual succession with the powers, limitations, and restrictions herein contained. Sec. 2. That the purpose and objects of the said corporation shall be to elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching and to pro¬ mote the cause of education in the United States. This corporation shall include the National Council of Education and the following depart- Purpose and ments, and such others as may hereafter be created by organi- Departments zation or consolidation, to wit: The Departments, first, of Su¬ perintendence; second, of Normal Schools; third, of Elemen¬ tary Education; fourth, of Higher Education; fifth, of Manual Training; sixth, of Art Education; seventh, of Kindergarten Education; eighth, of Music Education; ninth, of Secondary Education; tenth, of Business Education; eleventh, of Child Study; twelfth, of Physical Education; thirteenth, of Natural Science Instruction; fourteenth, of,. School Administration; fifteenth, the Library Department; sixteenth, of Special Education; seventeenth, of Indian Education; the powers and duties and the numbers and names of these departments and of the National Council of Education may be changed or abolished at the pleasure of the corporation, as provided in its bylaws. Sec. 3. That the said corporation shall further have power to have and to use a common seal, and to alter and change the same at its pleasure; to sue or to be sued in any court of the United States, or other court of competent jurisdiction; to make bylaws not inconsistent with the provisions of this act Powers of or of the Constitution of the United States; to take or receive, Corporation whether by gift, grant, devise, bequest, or purchase, any real or personal estate, and to hold, grant, convey, hire or lease the same for the purpose of its incorporation; and to accept and administer any trust of real or personal estate for any educational purpose within the objects of the corporation. Association al Records and Information 805 Sec. 4. That all real property of the corporation within the District of Columbia which shall be used by the corporation for the educational or other purposes of the corporation as aforesaid other than the purposes of producing income, and all per¬ sonal property and funds of the corporation held, used, or invested for educational purposes aforesaid, or to produce Property to be income to be used for such purposes, shall be exempt from Tax-Exempt taxation; provided, however, that this exemption shall not apply to any property of the corporation which shall not be used for, or the income of which shall not be applied to, the educational purposes of the corpora¬ tion; and, provided further, That the corporation shall annually file, with the Commissioner of Education of the United States, a report in writing, stating in detail the property, real and personal, held by the corporation, and the expenditure or other use or disposition of the same, or the income thereof, during the preceding year. Sec. 5. That the membership of the said corporation shall consist of three classes of members — viz, active, associate, and corresponding — whose qualifications, terms of membership, rights, and obligations shall be prescribed by the bylaws of the Sec. 6. That the officers of the said corporation shall be a President, twelve Vicepresidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, a Board of Directors, an Executive Committee, and a Board of Trustees. The Board of Directors shall consist of the President, the First Vicepresident, the Secretary, the Treasurer, the Chairman of the Board of Trustees, and one additional member from each state, territory, or district, to be elected by the active members for the term of one year, or until their successors are chosen, and of all Life Directors of the National Educational Association. Board of The United States Commissioner of Education, and all former Directors Presidents of the said Association now living, and all future Presidents of the Association hereby incorporated, at the close of their respec¬ tive terms of office, shall be members of the Board of Directors for life. The Board of Directors shall have power to fill all vacancies in their own body; shall have in charge the general interests of the corporation, excepting those herein intrusted to the Board of Trustees; and shall possess such other powers as shall be conferred upon them by the bylaws of the corporation. The Executive Committee shall consist of five members, as follows: the President of the Association, the First Vicepresident, the Treasurer, the Chairman of the Board of Trustees, and a member of the Association, to be chosen annually by the Board of Directors, to serve one year. Executive The said committee shall have authority to represent and to Committee act for the Board of Directors in the intervals between the meetings of that body, to the extent of carrying out the legislation adopted by the Board of Directors under general directions as may be given by said board. The Board of Trustees shall consist of four members elected by the Board of .Directors for the term of four years, and the President of the Association, who shall be a member ex officio during his term of office. At the first meeting of the Board of Directors, held during the annual meeting of the Association at which they were elected, they shall elect one Board of trustee for the term of four years. All vacancies occurring in Trustees said Board of Trustees, whether by resignation or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unexpired term; and the absence of a trustee from two successive annual meetings of the board shall forfeit his membership. Members corporation. Officers 806 National Education Association Sec. 7. That the invested fund now known as the “Permanent Fund of the National Educational Association,” when transferred to the corporation hereby created, shall be held by such corporation as a Permanent Fund and shall be in charge of the Board of Trustees, who shall provide for the Permanent safekeeping and investment of such fund, and of all other Fund funds which the corporation may receive by donation, bequest, or devise. No part of the principal of such Permanent Fund or its accretions shall be expended, except by a two thirds vote of the active members of the Association present at any annual meeting, upon the recommenda¬ tion of the Board of Trustees, after such recommendation has been approved by vote of the Board of Directors, and after printed notice of the proposed expendi¬ ture has been mailed to all active members of the Association. The income of the Permanent Fund shall be used only to meet the cost of maintaining the organi¬ zation of the Association and of publishing its annual volume of Proceedings, unless the terms of the donation, bequest, or devise shall otherwise specify, or the Board of Directors shall otherwise order. It shall also be the duty of the Board of Trustees to issue orders on the Treasurer for the payment Duties of of all bills approved by the Board of Directors, or by the Trustees President and Secretary of the Association acting under the authority of the Board of Directors. When practicable, the Board of Trustees shall invest, as part of the Permanent Fund, all surplus funds exceeding $500 that shall remain in the hands of the Treasurer after paying the expenses of the Association for the previous year, and providing for the fixed expenses and for all appropriations made by the Board of Directors for the ensuing year. The Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the Asso¬ ciation, who shall be Secretary of the Executive Committee, and shall fix the compensation and the term of his office for a period not to exceed four years. Election of Secretary Sec. 8. That the principal office of the said corporation shall be in the city of Washington, D. C. ; provided, That the meeting of the corpora- Membership tion, its officers, committees, and departments, may be held, and Obligations that its business may be transacted, and an office or offices may be maintained, elsewhere, within the United States, as may be determined by the Board of Directors, or otherwise in accordance with the bylaws. Sec. 9. That the charter, constitution, and bylaws of the National Educational Association shall continue in full force and effect until the charter granted by this act shall be accepted by such Association at the next annual meeting of the Association, and until new bylaws shall be adopted; and Acceptance of that the present officers, directors, and trustees of said Associa- This Charter tion shall continue to hold office and perform their respective duties as such until the expiration of terms for which they were severally elected or appointed, and until their successors are elected. That at such annual meeting the active members of the National Educational Association, then present, may organize and proceed to accept the charter granted by this act and adopt bylaws, to elect officers to succeed those whose terms have expired or are about to expire, and generally to organize the “National Education Associa¬ tion of the United States”; and that the Board of Trustees of the corporation hereby incorporated shall thereupon, if the charter granted by this act be accepted, receive, take over, and enter into possession, custody, and management of all property, real and personal, of the corporation heretofore known as the National Educational Association incorporated as aforesaid, under the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, and all its rights, contracts, claims, and property of every kind and nature whatsoever, and the several officers, directors, and trustees of such Association al Records and Information 807 Ust-namcd Association, or any other person having charge of any of the securities funds, books or property thereof, real or personal, shall on demand deliver the same Z°‘j j P™per officers, directors, or trustees of the corporation hereby created. Pro¬ vided, That a verified certificate executed by the presiding officer and secretary of such annual meeting, showing the acceptance of the charter granted bv this act by the National Educational Association, shall be legal evidence of the fact, when filed with the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia; and, provided further , hat in the event of the failure of the Association to accept the charter granted by this act at said annual meeting then the charter of the National Educational Asso¬ ciation and its incorporate existence shall be and are hereby extended until the thirty-first day of July, nineteen hundred and eight, and at any time before said date its charter may be extended in the manner and form provided by the general corporation of the District of Columbia. lC' m n?h'S °f creditors of said existing corporation, known as the National Educational Association, shall not in any manner be impaired by the passage of this act or the transfer of the property heretofore mentioned, nor shall any liability or obligation, or payment of any sum due or to become due, or any claim or demand, in any manner, or for Rights of any cause existing against the said existing corporation, be Creditors released or impaired; and the corporation hereby incorporated is declared to succeed to the obligations and liabilities, and to be held liable to pay and discharge all of its debts, liabilities and contracts of the said corporation so existing, to the same effect as if such new corporation had itself incurred the obligation or liability to pay such debts or damages, and no action or proceeding before any court or tribunal shall be deemed to have abated or been discontinued by reason of this act. Sec. 11. That Congress may from time to time alter, repeal, or modify this act of incorporation, but no contract or individual Amendments right made or acquired shall thereby be divested or impaired. Charter Sec. 12. That said corporation may provide, by amendment the powers of the active members exercised at the annual meet¬ ing in the election of officers and the transaction of business shall be vested in and exercised by a representative assembly composed of delegates apportioned, elected, and governed in accordance with the provisions of the bylaws adopted by said corporation. to its bylaws, that Creation of Representative Assembly Sections 1-11 were passed by Congress and approved by the President, June 30, 1906. They were accepted and adopted as the constitution of the National Educa¬ tion Association of the United States by the active members of the National Educa¬ tional Association in annual session at Los Angeles, California, July 10, 1907. Section 12 was passed by Congress and approved by the President of the United States, May 13, 1920, as an amendment to the original act of incorporation. It was accepted and adopted as an amendment to the constitution of the National Education Association of the United States by the active members thereof in annual session at Salt Lake City, Utah, July 9, 1920. 808 National Education Association BYLAWS AS AMENDED AT THE ANNUAL BUSINESS MEET¬ ING OF THE REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY, WASHINGTON, D. C., July 5, 1934 ARTICLE I— MEMBERSHIP Wherever the word “State” appears in the proposed amendments to these by¬ laws it will be understood that State, Territory, or District of the United States is meant. Membership Defined Section 1. The membership of the National Education Asso¬ ciation of the United States shall consist of three classes: Active, Associate, and Corresponding, whose qualifications, rights, and obligations shall be as hereinafter prescribed. Sec. 2. Active members of the Association shall be those actively engaged in the profession of teaching or other educational work. Sec. 3. The annual dues of an active member shall be $2, which shall entitle him to attend all meetings of the Association and its several’ Departments ; to receive The Journal free and on application, to secure all publications of the As¬ sociation at a price fixed by the Executive Committee, which shall be the approximate cost. By the payment of annual dues of $5 an active member shall receive in addition to The Jour¬ nal, without application or other condition, the volume of Pro¬ ceedings and all other regular publications of the Association, of Committees and all special bulletins and announcements Obligations and Privileges including reports when issued. Life Members and Life Directors Sec. 4. All life members and life directors shall have all the rights and privileges of active members without the pay¬ ment of annual dues, and shall receive free without applica¬ tion or condition the publications of the Association. Sec. 5. Associate members of the Association shall be persons who are not ac¬ tively engaged in the profession of teaching or other educa- Associate tional work, but who are otherwise interested in the promotion Members of education. The annual dues of an associate member shall be the same as the dues of an active member and he shall have the same rights and privileges, except the right to vote, to serve as a delegate in the Representative Assembly, and to hold office. Sec. 6. Eminent educators not residing in America may be Corresponding elected by the Board of Directors as corresponding members. Members The number of corresponding members shall not at any time exceed fifty. They shall pay no dues and may receive free the publications of the Association. Sec. 7. The membership year shall be from September 1 to August 31. All membership dues paid during the mem¬ bership year shall be credited to that year unless otherwise requested. Sec. 8. The annual dues of members shall be sent to the Secretary on or before November 1. An active member fail¬ ing to pay his dues as herein provided shall forfeit the privi¬ leges of membership and after being in arrears one half year be dropped from the list of members. Membership Year Payment of Dues Associational Records and Information 809 Sec. 9. The Secretary of the Association shall furnish each member of the Association a Membership Card, declaring him Membership to be a member of the National Education Association for the Card year for which his dues are paid, and as such entitled to all the rights and privileges granted by the charter and bylaws of the Association. Sec. 10. The right to vote, to serve as a delegate in the Representative As¬ sembly and to hold office in the Association or in any depart¬ ment thereof, shall be limited to active members whose dues -p. are paid. The right to vote and to hold office in the Council Klght t0 V°te shall be limited to members of the Council whose dues are paid. Sec. 11. The Representative Assembly shall be composed of the President, Twelve Vicepresidents, the Secretary, and Treasurer of the National Education Association, the United States Commissioner of Edu- Representative cation, and the delegates elected from the various affiliated state Assembly and local associations as provided in the bylaws. ARTICLE II— ELECTION OF OFFICERS, REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY, AND AFFILIATED ASSOCIATIONS Section 1. The election of officers and transaction of business at the annual business meeting shall be by a Representative Election of Assembly composed of delegates apportioned, elected, and gov- Officers erned as hereinafter provided. Sec. 2. At the first business meeting of the Representative Assembly on the second day of the annual meeting of the Association nominations for the follow¬ ing offices shall be made: President, Vicepresident, and Treasurer. Candidates for said offices shall be nominated from the floor upon roll call of the states. On the first day of the annual meeting of the Association the delegates of each state, territory, and district of the United States shall nominate one person for member of the Board of Directors and the name of such person shall be reported to the Representative Assembly at the first business meeting upon roll call of the states. On the fourth day of the annual meeting officers shall be elected from the candi¬ dates by the delegates to the Representative Assembly by ballot. Said ballots shall be printed and shall contain the names of all nominees as provided above. Polls for voting shall be open from 8 a. m. to 6 p. m., at such place or places as the President of the Association shall designate. The candidates for President, Treasurer, member of Board of Directors from each state, territory, or district, respectively, and the eleven candidates for the office of Vicepresident receiving the highest number of votes shall be declared elected. The President of the Association shall appoint tellers and complete all arrangements for carrying out the election. The results of the election herein provided shall be announced at the final business session of the Representative Assembly. The officers thus chosen shall continue in office until the close of the annual meeting subsequent to their election, and until their successors are chosen, except as herein provided. The Secretary and the Treasurer shall enter upon their duties at a date which shall be determined by the Board of Trustees and which shall not be later than the first of October and shall continue in office during the term for which they are separately chosen and until their successors are duly elected. Sec. 3. The State Teachers Association or Educational Association of a state, territory, or district, may become affiliated with the National Education Associa¬ tion and shall be designated an Affiliated State Association. Each Affiliated State Association shall be a state unit in the organization of the National Education Association and as such shall be entitled Affiliated State to representation in the Representative Assembly as herein- Associations after provided. The annual dues of an Affiliated State Asso- 810 National Education Association ciation shall be $10 for each delegate to which said state shall be entitled, with a maximum of $100. Said Association shall receive without application, or other condition, all regular publications of the National Education Association, includ¬ ing the volume of Proceedings, reports of committees, and all special bulletins and announcements when issued. Sec. 4. A Local Educational Association or Teachers Organization within a state, territory, or district, may affiliate with the National Education Association and shall be designated an Affiliated Local Association. Each Affiliated Local Asso¬ ciation shall be a local unit in the organization of the National Affiliated Local Education Association and as such shall be entitled to rep- Associations resentation in the Representative Assembly as hereinafter pro¬ vided. The annual dues of an Affiliated Local Association shall be $5, which shall entitle said Association to receive without application, or other condition, all regular publications of the National Education Association, in¬ cluding the volume of Proceedings, reports of committees, and all bulletins and announcements when issued. Sec. 5. Each Affiliated Association, both state and local, shall be furnished a certificate of membership and shall be entitled to the active assistance and sup¬ port of the National Education Association in promoting the interest of such Affiliated Association and its members insofar as such interest Relationship: comes within the purpose and object of the National Educa- National, State, tion Association as set forth in its charter. The Secretary of and Local the National Education Association shall, with the advice and approval of the Executive Committee, make such arrangements for mutual cooperation between the National Education Association and the State and Local Affiliated Associations as will promote the welfare of all and advance the interests of the teaching profession. Sec. 6. Each Affiliated State Association shall be entitled to elect one delegate and one alternate to the Representative Assembly for each one hundred of its members, or major fraction thereof, who are active members of the National Edu¬ cation Association, up to five hundred such active members, and State Delegates thereafter one delegate and one alternate for each five hundred of its members, or major fraction thereof, who are active mem¬ bers of the National Education Association. Such delegates shall be designated State Delegates. Sec. 7. Each Affiliated Local Association shall be entitled to elect one dele¬ gate and one alternate to the Representative Assembly for Local each one hundred of its members, or major fraction thereof, Delegates who are active members of the National Education Association. Such delegates shall be designated Local Delegates. Sec. 8. Only active members of the National Education Association shall be eligible to be delegates to the Representative Assembly, and to vote in the elec¬ tion of delegates in a State or Local Affiliated Association. An active member shall be permitted to vote for the election of delegates in but one affiliated Local Association. For determining the appor¬ tionment of delegates, an active member may be counted in two Affiliated Associations, and no more; and that one of these shall be the State Association. Sec. 9. The President, the Twelve Vicepresidents, the Secretary, and Treasurer of the National Education Association and the United States Commissioner of Education, shall be ex-officio delegates to the Representative Assembly. The President of the Association shall preside at the annual meeting of the Representative Assembly, and the Secretary of the Association shall keep the records thereof. In case of a tie the President shall cast the deciding vote. Selection of Delegates Ex Officio Delegates Associational Records and Information 811 . ^c. delegates shall file their credentials with the Secretary of the Asso¬ ciation on blanks furnished by him for that purpose not later than ten days be¬ fore the beginning of the annual meeting. The Secretary shall turn over such credentials to the Credential Committee, when appointed, with such information thereon as may be obtained from the records of the Association. The Representative Assembly shall be the final judge of the qualifications of delegates. The delegates shall have equal rights and each shall have one vote. Meet¬ ings of the Representative Assembly shall be open to the active members of the Association who shall be privileged to address the Assembly on subjects pertaining to the Association. The Representative As¬ sembly shall adopt rules of procedure which shall not conflict with the charter and bylaws of the Association. It shall recommend an equitable plan for pay¬ ing the expenses of delegates to the annual business meeting of the Association. Sec. 11. The officers shall be permitted to hold meetings other than for busi¬ ness purposes and expenses therefor shall be provided. ARTICLE III— DUTIES OF OFFICERS Section 1. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association and shall perform the duties prescribed by the Act of Incorporation and these Bylaws, and in addition such duties as usually devolve upon the Chief Executive of such an Association. In the absence of the President, the ranking Vicepresident, who is present, shall preside and in the absence Duties of the of the President and all Vicepresidents a Chairman pro tempore President shall be elected under the direction of the Secretary of the Association. The President shall prepare the program for the general sessions of the annual meeting of the Association and shall have power to confer with the President of the Council and the heads of the several Departments and to make such recommendations in regard to the program of the Council and the several Departments as will, in his opinion, promote the interest of the annual meeting. The President shall be a member ex officio of the Board of Trustees and Chairman of the Board of Directors and of the Executive Committee. He shall sign all bills approved for payment by the Board of Directors and all bills ap¬ proved or authorized by the Executive Committee acting for and under the in¬ struction of the Board of Directors. On the expiration of his term of office as President, he shall become first Vicepresident for the ensuing year. Sec. 2. The Secretary shall keep a full and accurate record of the proceedings of the general meetings of the Association and all meetings of the Board of Directors and of the Executive Committee, shall conduct the business of the As¬ sociation as provided in the Act of Incorporation and these Bylaws and, in all matters not definitely prescribed therein, Duties of the shall be under the direction of the Board of Directors or of the Secretary Executive Committee acting for the Board of Directors, and, in the absence of instructions from the Board of Directors or the Executive Com¬ mittee, shall be under the direction of the President. He shall receive or collect all moneys due the Association and pay the same each month to the Treasurer. He shall countersign all bills approved for payment by the Board of Directors, or by the Executive Committee acting under the authority of the Board of Directors or by the President acting under authority of the Board of Directors or of the Executive Committee. The Secretary shall have his records present at all meet¬ ings of the Association, of the Board of Directors, and of the Executive Commit¬ tee. He shall keep a list of members and shall revise said list annually. He shall be Secretary of the Board of Directors. He shall be the custodian of all the property of the Association not in charge of the Treasurer and the Board of Trustees. He shall give such bond for the faithful performance of his duties Delegates; Credentials ; Voting; Freedom of Floor 812 National Education Association as may be required by the Board of Trustees. He shall submit his annual report co the Executive Committee not later than fifteen days before the annual meeting of the Association, which report shall be transmitted to the Board of Directors at its annual meeting. At the expiration of his term of office, he shall transfer to his successor all money, books, and other property in his possession belonging to the Association. The Secretary shall not print, publish or distribute any official report or other document without the approval of the Board of Directors or of the Executive Committee acting under the general instruction of the Board of Diiec- tors. Sec. 3. The Treasurer shall perform the duties prescribed by the Act of In¬ corporation and these Bylaws. He shall receive from the Secretary and, under the direction of the Board of Trustees, shall hold in safe-keeping all moneys paid to the Association; shall pay the same only upon the order of Duties of the the Board of Trustees, shall notify the President of the Asso- Treasurer ciation and the Chairman of the Board of T rustees whenever the surplus funds in his possession exceed $500; shall keep an exact account of his receipts and expenditures with vouchers for the latter; and said accounts, ending on the thirty-first day of May each year, he shall render to the Executive Committee not later than ten days before the annual meeting of the Association, and when approved by said Committee, these ac¬ counts shall be transmitted by this Committee to the Board of Directors at its meeting held in connection with the annual meeting of the Association and a copy of the report shall be transmitted to the Representative Assembly for its informa¬ tion. The Treasurer shall give such bond for the faithful performance of his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees. At the expiration of his term of office, he shall transfer to his successor all moneys, books, and other property in his possession belonging to the Association. Sec. 4. The Board of Directors shall have such powers and perform such duties as are prescribed by the Act of Incorporation and by these Bylaws, shall elect corresponding members as prescribed in Section 6 of Article I of these Bylaws; shall elect members of the National Council of Education as Duties of the provided in Section 3 of Article IV of these Bylaws; shall Board of fill all vacancies in its own body and in the Board of Trustees. Directors The Board of Directors shall approve all bills incurred by itself or by the Executive Committee, or the President or the Secretary acting under the authority of the Board of Directors; shall appropriate from the current funds of the year the amounts of money ordered by the Representative Assembly at the annual business meeting of the same for the work of all special committees of research and investigation authorized and provided for at the annual business meeting, and for all other needs of the Association; shall make a full report of the financial condition of the Association including the reports of the Secretary, the Treasurer and the Board of Trustees to the Representative Assembly at its annual business meeting, and shall do all in its power to make the Association a useful and honorable institution. The Board of Directors shall appoint at its annual meeting a budget committee for the ensuing year, whose duty it shall be to prepare and present a budget to the Board of Directors at its next meeting. The budget committee shall have authority to secure the support of the auditing committee in preparing this budget. The Board of Directors shall meet in connection with the annual meeting of the Representative Assembly, and may meet in connection with the annual meet¬ ing of the Department of Superintendence and at such other times and places as may be determined by the President or requested in writing by a majority of the elective members of the Board of Directors. Associational Records and Information 813 Sec. 5. The Executive Committee may recommend to the Representative As¬ sembly at the annual business meeting the appointment of special committees for investigation or research, the subjects for which may have been suggested by the National Council or by the active members of the National Education Association or by any of its Departments; it shall Duties of recommend the amount of money to be appropriated for such Executive investigations. When such special committees are provided Committee for and duly authorized by the Representative Assembly and appropriations for them have been authorized by the Board of Directors, the Executive Committee shall, under the instructions of the Board of Directors, have general supervision of them. The Executive Committee shall receive and con¬ sider all reports made by the special committees and shall print these reports and present them, together with the reports of the Secretary, the Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees, and the recommendations of the Executive Committee thereon, to the Board of Directors, which shall transmit the same with recommendations to the Representative Assembly at its annual business meeting. All such special committees shall be appointed by the President of the Association. The Executive Committee shall fill all vacancies occurring in the body of officers of the Association, except as otherwise provided for in the Act of Incorporation or in these Bylaws. Sec. 6. The Board of Trustees shall have such powers and perform such duties as are prescribed by the Act of Incorporation, shall require of the Secretary and Treasurer bonds in such amounts as may be determined by said Board for the faithful performance of their duties; shall make a full report of the finances of the Association to the Executive Committee Further Duties not later than ten days prior to the annual meeting of the of Trustees Association, which report shall be transmitted by the Executive Committee to the Board of Directors at the first regular meeting of the Board held in connection with the annual meeting of the Association. It shall annually choose its own chairman and secretary. ARTICLE IV— THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION Section 1. The National Council of Education shall discuss educational ques¬ tions of public and professional interest; propose to the Executive Committee, from time to time, suitable subjects for investigation and re¬ search; have a report made at its annual meeting on “Edu- Function of cational Progress during the Past Year”; and in other ways National use its best efforts to further the objects of the Association and Council to promote the cause of education in general. Sec. 2. The National Council of Education shall consist of one hundred twenty regular members, selected from the active membership of the National Education Association. Any active member of the Association is eligible to membership in the Council and each member shall be elected for six years and until his successor is elected. In addition to the 120 mem- Membership bers thus selected from the active membership the National in Council Council may in its bylaws provide for the admission to mem¬ bership of representatives from the several departments of the Association on the basis of equal representation from each department. Sec. 3. The annual election of members of the Council shall be held at the time of the annual meeting of the Association. The Board of Directors of the Association shall annually elect ten members and the Council ten members, and each body shall fill all vacancies in its quota of members. Election of No state, territory or district in the United States shall have Committee at one time more than seven regular members in the Council. Members 814 National Education Association Time of Sec. 4. The annual meeting of the Council shall be held dur- Meeting ing the week of the annual meeting of the Association. Sec. 5. The absence of a regular member from two successive annual meetings of the Council shall be considered equivalent to his resignation of membership. Persons whose regular membership in the Council has expired shall be denomi¬ nated honorary members of the Council during the time of Loss of their active membership in the Association with the privilege Membership of attending the regular sessions of the Council and partici¬ pating in its discussions. A member who discontinues or for¬ feits his active membership in the Association forfeits his membership in the Council. Sec. 6. The officers of the Council shall consist of a President, a Vicepresident, a Secretary, and such standing committees as may be prescribed by its bylaws, all of whom shall be regular members of the Council. The Secre¬ tary of the Council shall, in addition to performing the duties pertaining to his office, furnish the Secretary of the Association a copy of the proceedings of the Council for publication. National Council of Education is hereby authorized to adopt by¬ laws for its government not inconsistent with the act of incor¬ poration or the bylaws of the Association; provided, That such bylaws be submitted to, and approved by, the Board of Directors of the Association before they shall become operative. powers and duties of the Council may be changed or the Council abolished upon a two thirds vote of the Representative Assembly taken at the annual meeting of the Association; provided, That notice of the proposed action has been given at the preceding annual business meeting of the Association. ARTICLE V— DEPARTMENTS Section 1. The following Departments are now (1934) in existence, to wit: The Departments, first, of Superintendence; second, of Vocational Education; third, of Kindergarten-Primary Education; fourth, of Music Education; fifth of Secondary Education; sixth, of Business Education; seventh, of School Health and Physical Edu¬ cation; eighth, of Science Instruction; ninth, of Rural Education; tenth, of Classroom Teachers; eleventh, of Deans of Women; twelfth, of Adult Education; thirteenth, of Elementary School Principals; fourteenth, of Visual Instruction; fifteenth, of Social Studies; sixteenth, of Teachers Colleges; seventeenth, of Lip Reading; eighteenth, of Secondary School Principals; nineteenth, of Supervisors and Directors of Instruc¬ tion; twentieth, of Educational Research; twenty-first, of Special Education; twenty- second, of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics; twenty-third, of Admin¬ istrative Women in Education; twenty-fourth, of Art Education. There is also the National Council of Education. Sec. 2. Each Department shall have the right to fix the qualifications of its members for the purpose of electing officers and transacting the other business of the Department; provided, active members of the Associa¬ tion, and no others, shall be eligible to such Department mem¬ bership, and provided also that all active members of the Association shall be permitted to attend the professional pro¬ grams and discussions of any Department. Department shall hold an annual meeting at the time and place of the meeting of the Association except as otherwise provided in these bylaws or as directed by the Board of Directors, or by the Executive Committee acting under the general instruc¬ tions of the Board of Directors. Members of Departments Sec. 3. Each Department Meetings Council Officers Sec. 7. The Bylaws and Powers of Council Sec. 8. The ASSOC I AT JON AL RECORDS AND INFORMATION 815 Sec. 4. The object of the meetings of the Departments shall be the discussion of questions pertaining to their respective fields of educational work. The pro¬ grams of these meetings shall be prepared by the respective presidents in conference with, and under the general direction of, the President of the Association. Each Department shall be Object of limited to two sessions, with formal programs, unless otherwise Department ordered by the President of the Association, except that a third Meetings session of business or informal round-table conference may be held at the discretion of the Department officers. Sec. 5. The officers of each Department shall consist of a President, a Vice- president, a Secretary, and such other officers as may be deemed necessary by the Department, who shall be elected at the last formal session of the Department to serve one year and until their successors are duly elected; and who shall, at the time of their election, be active mem- Officers of bers of the Association. Each Department shall provide for Departments the creation of an Executive Committee, and assign to it any duties consistent with the purposes of the Department and the Act of Incorpora¬ tion and Bylaws of the Association. In case there is a vacancy in the office of President of any Department, it shall be filled by appointment made by the Execu¬ tive Committee of the Department. Any other Departmental vacancy shall be filled by appointment made by the President of the Department. Sec. 6. The Secretary of each Department shall, in addition to performing the duties usually pertaining to his office, furnish to the Secretary of the Association a copy of the proceedings of the meetings of the Department for publication. No Department shall establish an office outside of Department the general headquarters of the Association without the con- Headquarters sent of the Board of Directors. Sec. 7. All Departments shall have equal rights and privileges, with the ex¬ ception stated in Section 3 of this article. They shall be named in Section 1 of this article in the order of their establishment and shall be dropped from the list when discontinued. Each Department Rights of may be governed by its own regulations in so far as they are Departments not inconsistent with the act of incorporation or these bylaws. Sec. 8. Upon the recommendation of the Board of Directors a new department may be established by vote of two-thirds of the delegates to the Representative Assembly present at any annual meeting; provided, that a written application for said Department with title and purpose of the same shall have been made at the regular meeting of the Assembly next pre- How ceding the one at which action is taken by at least 250 mem- Established bers engaged or interested in the field in the interest of which the Department is proposed to be established ; provided, that no group shall be admitted to Departmental status until it shall have held constructive meetings for at least three successive years. A Department already established may be discontinued upon a two-thirds vote of the Representative Assembly at any business meeting provided that announce¬ ment of the purpose to discontinue has been made at the preceding annual busi¬ ness meeting. The Board of Directors may recommend to the Representative As¬ sembly the discontinuance of any Department. Upon the recommendation of the Board of Directors a Department which has failed to hold a regular meeting for two successive years may be discontinued by a vote of two-thirds of the delegates to the Representative Assembly present at any annual meeting. 816 National Education Association Sec. 9. Any Department, by a two-thirds vote of those voting at any regular business meeting, may levy a membership fee to supplement its allowance from the Association. Such membership fees shall be paid to the Secretary of the De¬ partment who shall transmit them monthly to the Secretary of the Association. Such funds shall be added to the Department’s allowance from the Association and shall be used for the work of said Department only, and shall be disbursed upon the rec¬ ommendation of the executive officers of the Department in the same manner as other funds of the Association are disbursed. Fees for Department Members ARTICLE VI— COMMITTEES Section 1. Not later than five months before the end of the fiscal year, the Presi¬ dent shall appoint an Auditing Committee, consisting of three active members of the Association, no one of whom shall be either a Trustee or a Director; to this Committee shall be referred the report and audit of the expert Auditing accountant or accountants, together with the communication of Committee the President transmitting the same as provided in Section 5 of this Article; and the Committee shall report its findings to the Board of Directors. Sec. 2. On the first day of the annual meeting of the Association, at such time and place as shall be designated on the annual program by the President of the Association, the accredited delegates to the Representative Assembly from each state shall elect one member and one alternate who are active Delegates Meet members of the Association for each of the following commit- by States tees, to serve for the ensuing year: Credentials, Resolutions, and Necrology. The Committee on Credentials shall receive the official list of delegates from the Secretary and report thereon to the Representa¬ tive Assembly. Sec. 3. The Committee on Resolutions shall report at the annual business meeting of the Representative Assembly, and except by unanimous consent, all resolutions shall be referred to said committee without discussion. This committee shall receive and consider all resolutions proposed by active members, or referred Resolutions t0 it by the President; some time during the second day of the annual meeting of the Association the committee shall hold a meeting, at a place and time to be announced in the printed program, for the pur¬ pose of receiving proposed resolutions and hearing those who may wish to advo¬ cate them. Sec. 4. The Committee on Necrology may prepare for the published Proceedings brief memorial tributes to members who have died during the year. Sec. 5. Within thirty (30) days prior to the time of the annual meeting of the Association, the President shall appoint a competent person, firm or corporation, licensed to do business as expert accountants; the accountant or accountants s q appointed shall examine the accounts, papers, and vouchers of Examination the Secretary, the Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees and Of Accounts compare the same, shall also examine the securities of the permanent fund held by the Board of Trustees. The repoit of said accountant or accountants shall be filed with the President not less than ten days before the opening day of the annual meeting of the Association, and shall be by him submitted to the Auditing Committee with such comments as he may think proper. Necrology Associational Records and Information 817 ARTICLE VII— MEETINGS Section 1. Stated meeting of the Association, of the National Council of Education, and of all Departments, except as other¬ wise provided, shall be held at such time and place as shall be determined by the Board of Directors or by the Executive Com¬ mittee acting under the instructions of the Board of Directors. Meetings to be Held Annually Meetings of Assembly, Directors, and Trustees Sec. 2. The annual business meeting of the Representative Assembly shall begin at 9 oclock a. m., on the second day of the annual meeting of the Association. A regular meeting of the Board of Directors shall be held in connection with the annual meeting of the Association. The time and place of such meeting shall be designated in the program. The Secre¬ tary shall notify the members of the Board of Directors of the time and place of meeting, not less than thirty (30) days before the meeting. The first regular meeting of the new Board of Directors shall be held as soon as practicable and within twenty-four hours after the close of the last session of the annual meeting. The place and time of this meeting shall be announced in the printed program. The Board of Trustees shall hold its annual meeting at some convenient time and immediately following the meeting of the new Board of Directors. Special meetings of the Trustees may be called by the Chairman and shall be called on request of a majority of the Board of Trustees. Due notice of all meetings of the Board of Trustees shall be given to every member of the Board by the Secretary thereof. ARTICLE VIII— PROCEEDINGS Section 1. The proceedings of the Association, of the Council, of the Depart¬ ments, and of all commissions and committees, shall be published at the discretion of and under the direction of the Executive Publication of Committee provided that such publication has been approved Proceedings and the money therefor appropriated by the Board of Directors. Sec. 2. No paper, lecture or address shall be read before the Association or any of the Departments in the absence of the author, without the approval of the President of the Association, or of the President of the Depart¬ ment interested; nor shall any such paper, lecture or address be published in the Proceedings without the approval of the Execu¬ tive Committee. Absence of Author ARTICLE IX— QUORUM Formation of Quorum Section 1. Elected directors from twenty-five states shall con¬ stitute a quorum of the Board of Directors. A majority of all the accredited delegates, representatives of not less than twenty- five states, shall constitute a quorum of the Representative Assembly. ARTICLE X— AMENDMENTS Section 1. These bylaws may be altered or amended at the annual meeting of the Representative Assembly by unanimous vote, or by a two-thirds vote of the Rep¬ resentative Assembly if the alteration or amendment shall have been proposed in writing at the annual business meeting next preceding the one at which action is taken, and due announce¬ ment of the proposed action shall have been made in the official publication of the Association. Amendments to Bylaws 818 National Education Association NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION NOW KNOWN AS THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES CERTIFICATE of Acceptance of Charter and Adoption of Bylaws under the Act of Congress approved June 30, 1906. We, the undersigned, Nathan C. Schaeffer, the presiding officer, and Irwin Shepard, the Secretary of the meeting of the National Educational Association held at Los Angeles, California, on the 10th day of July, 1907, said meeting being the annual meeting of the Association held next after the passage of an act of Congress entitled “An Act To Incorporate the National Education Association of the United States,” Do hereby certify, that at said meeting held pursuant to due notice, a quorum being present, the said Association adopted resolutions of which true copies are hereto attached, and accepted the charter of the National Education Association of the United States, granted by said act of Congress, and adopted bylaws as provided in said act and selected officers; and the undersigned pursuant to said resolutions, Do hereby certify that the National Education Association of the United States has duly accepted said charter granted by said act of Congress, and adopted by¬ laws, and is the lawful successor to the National Educational Association. In witness whereof, we have hereunto signed our names this 20th day of August, 1907. Nathan C. Schaeffer, Presiding Officer Irwin Shepard, Secretary VERIFICATION RESOLUTIONS ADOPTED BY THE ACTIVE MEMBERS, JULY 10, 1907 1. Resolved, That the National Educational Association hereby accepts the char¬ ter granted by an act of Congress entitled “An Act To Incorporate the National Education Association of the United States,” passed June 30, 1906, and that the President and Secretary of this meeting be authorized and directed to execute and file with the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia a verified certifi¬ cate showing the acceptance by the Association of the charter granted by said act. 2. Resolved, That the proposed bylaws of which notice was given at the annual meeting of the Association held on July 6, 1905, which are printed in full in the Journal of said meeting, be and the same are hereby adopted to take effect im¬ mediately. 3. Resolved, That the Association adopt as its corporate seal a circle containing the title “National Education Association of the United States,” and the dates “1857-1907.” 4. Resolved, That the Association do now proceed to elect officers, and to or¬ ganize under the charter granted by the act of Congress. Filed in the office of the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia, Septem¬ ber 4, 1907. Associational Records and Information 819 CALENDAR OF MEETINGS NATIONAL TEACHERS 1857— PHILADELPHIA, PA. (Organized) James L. Enos, Chairman. W. E. Sheedon, Secretary. 1858— CINCINNATI, OHIO Z. Richards, President. J. W. Buckeey, Secretary. A. J. Rickoff, Treasurer. 1859— WASHINGTON, D. C. A. J. Rickoff, President. J. W. Buckeey, Secretary. C. S. PennEEE, Treasurer. 1860— BUFFALO, N. Y. J. W. Buckley, President. Z. Richards, Secretary. O. C. Wight, Treasurer. . 1861, 1862— No session. 1863— CHICAGO, ILL. John D. Philbrick, President. James Cruickshank, Secretary. O. C. Wight, Treasurer. 1864— OGDENSBURG, N. Y. W. H. Wells, President. David N. Camp, Secretary. Z. Richards, Treasurer. ASSOCIATION, 1857-1870 1865— HARRISBURG, PA. S. S. Greene, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. Z. Richards, Treasurer. 1866— INDIANAPOLIS, IND. J. P. Wickersham, President. S. H. White, Secretary. S. P. Bates, Treasurer. 1867 — No session. 1868— NASHVILLE, TENN. J. M. Gregory, President. L. Van Bokkelen, Secretary. James Cruickshank, Treasurer. 1869— TRENTON, N. J. L. Van Bokkelen, President. W. E. Crosby, Secretary. A. L. Barber, Treasurer. 1870— CLEVELAND, OHIO Daniel B. Hagar, President. A. P. Marble, Secretary. W. E. Crosby, Treasurer. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, 1871-1907 1871— ST. LOUIS, MO. J. L. Pickard, President. W. E. Crosby, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1872— BOSTON, MASS. E. E. White, President. S. H. White, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1873— ELMIRA, N. Y. B. G. Northrup, President. S. H. White, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1874— DETROIT, MICH. S. H. White, President. A. P. Marble, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1875— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. W. T. Harris, President. M. R. Abbott, Secretary. A. P. Marble, Treasurer. 1876— BALTIMORE, MD. W. F. Phelps, President. W. D. HenklE, Secretary. A. P. Marble, Treasurer. 1877— LOUISVILLE, KY. M. A. Newall, President. W. D. HenklE, Secretary. J. Ormond Wilson, Treasurer. 1878 — No session. 1879— PHILADELPHIA, PA. John Hancock, President. W. D. HenklE, Secretary. J. Ormond Wilson, Treasurer. 1880— CHAUTAUQUA, N. Y. J. Ormond Wilson, President. W. D. HenklE, Secretary. E. T. Tappan, Treasurer. 1881— ATLANTA, GA. James H. Smart, President. W. D. HenklE, Secretary. E. T. Tappan, Treasurer. 1882— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. G. J. Orr, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. H. S. TarbEll, Treasurer. 1883— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. E. T. Tappan, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. N. A. Calkins, Treasurer. 1884— MADISON, WIS. Thomas^ W. Bicknell, President. H. S. TarbELL, Secretary. N. A. Calkins, Treasurer. 1885— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. F. Louis Soldan, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. N. A. Calkins, Treasurer. 1886— TOPEKA, KANS. N. A. Calkins, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1887— CHICAGO, ILL. W. E. Sheldon, President. L. H. Canfield, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1888— SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF. Aaron GovE, President. J. H. Canfield, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1889— NASHVILLE, TENN. Albert P. Marble, President. J. H. Canfield, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1890— ST. PAUL, MINN. J. H. Canfield, President. W. R. Garrett, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1891— TORONTO, ONT. W. R. Garrett, President. E. H. Cook, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 1892— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. E. H. Cook, President. R. W. Stevenson, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 1893— CHICAGO, ILL. (International Congress of Education.) Albert G. Lane, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 1894— ASBURY PARK, N. J. Albert G. Lane, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 1895— DENVER, COLO. Nicholas Murray Butler, Pres. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. 1896— BUFFALO, N. Y. Newton C. Dougherty, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. 820 National Education Association 1897— MILWAUKEE, WIS. Charles R. Skinner, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeile, Treasurer. 1898— WASHINGTON, D. C. J. M. Greenwood, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. 1899— LOS ANGELES, CALIF. E. Oram Lyte, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. 1900— CHARLESTON, S. C. Oscar T. Corson, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Carroll G. Pearse, Treasurer. 1901— DETROIT, MICH. James M. Green, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. L. C. Greenlee, Treasurer. 1902— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. William M. Beardshear, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Charles H. Keyes, Treasurer. 1903— BOSTON, MASS. Charles W. Eliot, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. W. M. Davidson, Treasurer. 1904— ST. LOUIS, MO. John W. Cook, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. McHenry Rhodes, Treasurer. 1905— ASBURY PARK and OCEAN GROVE, N. J. William H. Maxwell, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. JAM*s W- Crabtree, Treasurer. 1906 — No session. 1907— LOS ANGELES, CALIF. Nathan C. Schaefeer, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. J. N. Wilkinson, Treasurer. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES, 1908 — 1908- 1909- 1910— 1911 — 1912 — 1913 — 1914- 1915—1 191 6 — 1917 — 191 8 — 191 9 — 1920- 1921 — CLEVELAND, OHIO Edwin G. Cooley, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Arthur H. Chamberlain, Treas. DENVER, COLO. Lorenzo D. Harvey, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Arthur H. Chamberlain, Treas. BOSTON, MASS. James Y. Joyner, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Arthur H. Chamberlain, Treas. SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF. Ella Flagg Young, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Durand W. Springer, Treasurer. CHICAGO, ILL. Carroll C. Pearse, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Katherine D. Blake, Treasurer. SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH. Edward T. Fairchild, President. Durand W. Springer, Secretary. Grace M. Shepherd, Treasurer. ST. PAUL, MINN. Joseph Swain, President. Durand W. Springer, Secretary. Grace M. Shepherd, Treasurer. OAKLAND, CALIF. David Starr Jordan, President. Durand W. Springer, Secretary. Grace M. Shepherd, Treasurer. NEW YORK, N. Y. David B. Johnson, President. Durand W. Springer, Secretary. Grace M. Shepherd, Treasurer. PORTLAND, ORE. Robert J. Aley, President. Durand W. Springer, Secretary. Thomas E. FinEGan, Treasurer. PITTSBURGH, PA. Mary C. C. Bradford, President. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. A. J. Matthews, Treasurer. MILWAUKEE, WIS. George D. Strayer, President. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. A. J. Matthews, Treasurer. SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH. Josephine Corliss Preston, Pres. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. A. J. Matthews, Treasurer. DES MOINES, IOWA. Fred M. Hunter, President. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. Cornelia S. Adair, Treasurer. 1922— BOSTON, MASS. Charl Ormond Williams, Pres. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. Cornelia S. Adair, Treasurer 1923— OAKLAND-SAN FRANCISCO William B. Owen, President. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. Cornelia S. Adair, Treasurer 1924— WASHINGTON, D. C. Olive M. Jones, President. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. Cornelia S. Adair, Treasurer 1925— INDIANAPOLIS, IND. Jesse H. Newlon, President. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. Cornelia S. Adair, Treasurer 1926— PHILADELPHIA, PA. Mary McSkimmon, President. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer. 1927— SEATTLE, WASH. Francis G. Blair, President. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer 1928— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. Cornelia S. Adair, President. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer. 1929— ATLANTA, GA. Uel W. Lamkin, President. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer. 1930— COLUMBUS, OHIO. E. Ruth PyrtlE, President. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer. 1931 — LOS ANGELES, CALIF. Willis A. Sutton, President. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer. 1932— ATLANTIC CITY, N. J Florence Hale, President. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer. 1933— CHICAGO, ILL. Joseph Rosier, President. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer. 1934— WASHINGTON, D. C. Jessie Gray, President. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer. Association al Records and Information 821 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OFFICERS— 1933-34 Jessie Gray . President . 1210 Fillmore Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania J. W. Crabtree . . Secretary . 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, Dis¬ trict of Columbia Henry Lester Smith . Treasurer . Dean, School of Education, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana Honorary John Dewey . Honorary President, and Associate Chairman of Committee on Social Economic Goals, Columbia University, New York, New York Susan M. Dorsey . Honorary President, and Associate Chairman of Committee on Resolutions, 1506 Arapahoe Street, Eos Angeles, California Executive Committee Jessie Gray . President . ...1210 Fillmore Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Joseph Rosier . ...First Vicepresident . President, Fairmont State Teachers College, Fairmont, West Virginia. Joseph H. Saunders . Chairman, Board of Trustees, Superintendent, Newport News Public Schools, Newport News, Virginia Henry Eester Smith . Treasurer . Dean, School of Education, Indiana University, v Bloomington, Indiana Thomas W. Gosling . Member by Election . Superintendent, Akron Public Schools, Akron, Ohio Board of Trustees Joseph II. Saunders . Chairman . Superintendent, Newport News Public Schools, Newport News, Virginia Jessie Gray . President . 1210 Fillmore Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania J. M. Gwinn . Superintendent, San Francisco Public Schools, San Francisco, California Kate V. WoEEord . Secretary . 509 West 121st Street, New York, New York Edgar G. Doudna . Secretary Board of Normal School Regents, Madison, Wisconsin Vicepresidents Frederick F. Martin . Superintendent of Schools, Redondo Beach, California Noah M. Mason . Superintendent of Schools, Oglesby, Illinois Orville C. Pratt . Superintendent of Schools, Spokane, Washington Ernest W. Butterfield. ... Commissioner of Education, Hartford, Connecticut A. F. Harman . State Superintendent of Education, Montgomery, Alabama Henry J. Gerling . Superintendent of Schools, St. Louis, Missouri Mattie S. Doremus . 614 East 29th Street, Paterson, New Jersey Samuel M. Stouffer . Superintendent of Schools, Wilmington, Delaware Henry W. Stilwell . Superintendent of Schools, Texarkana, Texas Caroline S. Woodruff . Principal, Castleton State Normal School, Castleton, Vermont Selden M. Ely . Supervising Principal, Fifth District, Public Schools, Washington, District of Columbia Board of Directors Jessie Gray . President . 1210 Fillmore Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Joseph Rosier . Vicepresident . President, Fairmont State Teachers College, Fairmont, West Virginia Henry Lester Smith . Treasurer . Dean, School of Education, Indiana University, Bloomington. Indiana Joseph II. Saunders . Chairman . Board of Trustees, Superintendent Newport News Public Schools, Newport News, Virginia J. W. Crabtree . Secretary . 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, District of Columbia Life Directors Cornelia S. Adair. 2121 Park Avenue . Richmond, Virginia Robert J Ai.ey, Butler College, . . Indianapolis. Indiana r ran cis G. Blair, State Superintendent of Public Instruction . Springfield, Illinois 822 National Education Association Board of Kdu cation . ■•••• ••••••• . Nashville, Tennessee Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford, 1420 Josephine Street . Denver, Colorado Ulmer Ellsworth Brown, Gramercy Park Hotel, 52 Gramercy Park.... New York, New York Nicholas Murray Butler, President, Columbia University . New York, New York P. P. Claxton, President, Austin Peay Normal School . Clarksville, Tennessee William John Cooper, 6504 Maple Avenue . Chevy Chase, Maryland Hugh A. Graham, South Main Street . Mount Pleasant, Michigan Florence Hale, Editor, The Grade Teacher, 425 Fourth Avenue . New York, New York Frederick M. Hunter, Chancellor, University of Denver . Denver Colorado Illinois State Teachers Associaton, Robert C. Moore, Secretary . Carlinville. Illinois Olive M. Jones, Director, Calvary House, 61 Gramercy Park . New York, New York James Y. Joyner, Assistant Manager, Prudential Insurance Company, 304 East Jones Street. • • • * . . . . Raleigh, Ndrth Carolina W Lamkin, President, Northwest Missouri State Teachers College _ Maryville, Missouri Mary McSkimmon, 205 lappan Street . Brookline, Massachusetts Jesse H. Newlon, Uincoln School, Teachers College, Columbia University .. New York, New York Carroll G. PearsE, 1721 Uudington Avenue, Wauwatosa Branch . Milwaukee, Wisconsin Mrs. Josephine Corliss Preston, Burton, Vashon Island . King County, Washington E. Ruth PyrtlE, Principal, Bancroft School . Lincoln, Nebraska Joseph Rosier, President, Fairmont State Teachers College . Fairmont, West Virginia George D. Strayer, Teachers College, Columbia University . New York, New York Yy illis A. Sutton, Superintendent, Atlanta Public Schools . Atlanta, Georgia Teachers Institute. . . . Philadelphia, Pennsylvania John J. TigerT, President, University of Florida . Gainesville. Florida Chari, O. Williams, Director, Division of Field Service, National Education Association, „ 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W. .... ... . . Washington, District of Columbia George F. Zook, United States Commissioner of Education .... Washington, District of Columbia State Directors Alabama . Alaska . Arizona . Arkansas . California . Colorado . Connecticut . Delaware . District of Columbia Florida . Georgia . Hawaii . Idaho . Illinois . Indiana . Iowa . Kansas . Kentucky . . Louisiana . Maine . Maryland . Massachusetts . Michigan . Minnesota . . . . Mississippi Missouri . Montana . Nebraska . Nevada . New Hampshire New Jersev . . . . New Mexico . . New York . J. D. Williams, Principal, Avondale School . Birmingham E. J. Beck, Superintendent, Nome Public Schools . Nome W. T. Machan, Principal, Creighton School . Phoenix C. M. Hirst, State Commissioner of Education . Little Rock J. Russell Croad, Principal, Sierra School . Sacramento W. B. Mooney, Secretary, Colorado Education Association, 530 Commonwealth Building . Denver Helen T. Collins, 41 Fifth Street . New Haven II. V. Holloway, State Supt. of Public Instruction . Dover Edith Louise Grosvenor, .73 The Iowa . Washington James S. Rickards, Executive Secretary, Florida Education Association . . . . Tallahassee George W. Wannamaker, Superintendent, Griffin Public Schools . Griffin . OrEn E. Long, Deputy Superintendent of Public Instruc- ti°n . Honolulu . Raymond H. Snyder, President, Albion State Normal School . Albion . A. L. WhittEnberg, Secretary, Illinois State Examining Board for Teachers’ Certificates, Room 403 Centennial Building . Springfield . Charles O. Williams, Secretary-Treasurer, Indiana State Teachers Association, Room 205, Hotel Lincoln .. Indianapolis . Fred D. Cram, Extension Department, Iowa State Teachers College . . . . Cedar Falls . F. L. SchlaglE, Superintendent, Kansas City Public Schools . . . Kansas City . R. E. Williams, Executive Secretary, Kentucky Education Association, 1317-18 ITeyburn Building . Louisville . P. H. Griffith, Director of General Extension, Louisiana „r £taie University . Baton Rouge ■ W. B. Jack, Superintendent. Portland Public Schools .... Portland .William Burdick, State Director of Physical Education, 7 East Mulberry Street . Baltimore .Annie C. Woodward, 100 Highland Avenue . Somerville , E. T. Cameron, Executive Secretary, Michigan Education Association, Michigan Education Building . Lansing .Harry L. Wahi.STrand, 824 Third. Street East . Willmar . H. V. Cooper, Superintendent. Vicksburg Public Schools . Vicksburg .Thomas J. Walker, Editor, School and Community .... Columbia . Martin P. Moe, Executive Secretary, Montana Education Association, 7 Kohrs Block . Helena .George F. Knipprath, Omaha Technical High School . Omaha .M. J. Clarke, Superintendent, Ely Public Schools . Ely .Dana S. Jordan, Superintendent, Littleton Public Schools . Littleton Raymond B. Gurley, Principal, Barringer High School ... Newark Vernon O. TollE, Executive Secretary, New Mexico Educational Association, Suite 18, Sena Plaza . Santa Fe Frederick Houk Law, 130 West Forty-second Street... New York Associational Records and Information 823 North Carolina . T. W.^ Andrews, Superintendent, High Point Public Ohiroh Dakota . ^ White, Superintendent', MiAot Public Schools HlR.h Minot Oklahoma . r', ^ff®nhauER, Superintendent, Tima Public Schools _ Lima o a . Ci.ay W. Kerr, Assistant Superintendent of Public Oregon r> J ‘ V: • • . . . Oklahoma City . Rdine Merrill President, Portland Grade Teachers p i • Association, 331 Commerce Building PnrtlanH ennsylvama . J. Herbert Kelley, Executive Secretary, Pennsylvania' State Philinnine ~ ^ducation Association, 400 North Third Street. ... Harrisburg hihppme Islands . Camilo Osias Resident Commissioner from the Phiiippfne ® Puerto Rico . F Rodr^guez^o^z0 nCe Bfuildi^v VS"'--- ‘ • Washington, D. C. Rh°d' ^ . • vi^sr Jua" isa %ssr . £ i.v.,aass Ota . b- B- Nissen, Editor, South Dakota Education Association Texas SSfG . '. '. *. *. *. *. *. ‘ *£^8*’ ln/'^iT'TK PTd ^ 'S’C*h°°i ' — Memphii u,ah . : vy ^ pS, s* uu St- Joseph, Roack' J^argaret> Principal. Roach School, 439 West Wood St., Decatur, Ill. Roberts, _ Edward D., Superintendent, Cin¬ cinnati Public Schools, Cincinnati, Ohio Rvln ’w 3ryS’ Boxt 869. Miles City, Mont. Ryan, W. Carson, Jr., Director of Educa- *‘on’ Gffice of Indian Affairs, United States Department of the Interior, Wash¬ ington, D. C. Sa^on Agnes, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Des Moines, Iowa Saunders, Joseph H., Superintendent, New¬ port News Public Schools, Newport News, V a . Sexton J. W., Superintendent, Lansing Pub¬ lic Schools, Lansing, Mich. Shepherd, Grace M„ 803 North Mulberry St., Maryville, Mo. Shibles, Marietta, 5 North Ninth Ave., Mount Vernon, N. Y. Shinn, Alida Visscher, Mills College, Mills College, Calif. Shcwalter, N. D., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Olympia, Wash. Sigler, Mrs. Lou I., Assistant Principal, Ottowa Hills High School, Grand Rapids, Mich. Simpson, Janet C., State Teachers College Florence, Ala. Smith, Henry Lester, Dean, School of Educa¬ tion, Indiana University, Bloomington Ind. Smith, Jessica, Head, Social Studies De- partment, Wichita High School North, Wichita, Kans. Smith, Mrs. Margaret Mendenhall, Princi¬ pal, Ebert School, Twenty-third and Glenarm Place, Denver, Colo. Spaulding, Frederick H., Principal, Hills¬ borough High School, 5000 Central Ave., Tampa, Fla. Steele, N. E., Secretary, South Dakota Edu¬ cation Association, Room 3, Perry Bldg.. Sioux Falls, S. D. ephens, E L., President, Southwestern ?na I!lstltute of Liberal and Tech- meal Learning, Lafayette, La. Stewart, Mrs. Cora Wilson, Director, Na- ^nnaiiJlllteTX7Cyu-Crusade’ Inc., Washing¬ ton Bldg., Washington, D. C. Stratton, Mason, Principal, Brighton Ave School, Atlantic City, N. J. St-g.sVera. Board of Education, Houston, Sykes, Mrs. Dorothy Eidson, Superintendent G la County Schools, Globe, Ariz. Taylor, William S„ Dean, College of Edu- ten KyUniVefSlty °f Kentucky> Lexing- Twm^’ _A“gust.us °- Secretary-General, Woidd Federation of Education Associa¬ tion D cSlxteenth St" N- W., Wash- Thompson, Anna M., Carlton Hotel, Kan¬ sas City, Mo. Tone, car°line E., 1814 Ingleside Terrace, Washington, D. C. Tr£nt:’ i^del^ude R;» 519 Larsom Lane, Lee Heights, Cherrydale, Va. Tuttle, Chester C., Kennebunk, Me. Vaughan, J. P., Superintendent, Independent School District Number Forty, Chisholm, iviinn. ^?gek, pBa 7 Oakland Square, Pitts¬ burgh, Pa. von KleinSmid, Rufus B., President, Uni- S,' Cahf S°U,hern California- L- A"- Walker, Thomas J., Editor, School and Community, Columbia, Mo Walton George A., Principal, George School, George School, Pa. WDruV D|V[d A’ Superintendent, Chester Public Schools, Chester, Pa. Webber George Harris, Head, Department of Education and Psychology, Georgia State College for Women, Milledgeville, Wellemeyer J. Fletcher, Dean, Junior Col- lege, Ninth and Minnesota Ave., Kansas City, Kans. Wellner, Philip, Chancellor, University of Georgia, Athens, Ga. West, Ruth, West 202Q Pacific> s kane V/ ash. Wilson, Mrs. Alice, Director, World League of International Education Associations Room 521, Phelan Bldg., San Francisco, Calif. Wirt, Lulu E., Nebraska State Teachers Col¬ lege, Kearney, Nebr. Withers, JohnW., Dean, School of Education, New York University, New York, N. Y. Woodruff, Caroline S., Principal, State Nor¬ mal School, Castleton, Vt. JOINT COMMISSION ON THE EMERGENCY IN EDUCATION OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION AND THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE (Special Committee) Norton, John K„ Chairman; Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Coffman, Lotus. President. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. Edmonson, J. B., Dean of Education, Uni¬ versity of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Hall, Sidney B., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Richmond, Va. McCarthy, Blanche, 116 North Charter St., Madison, Wis. Preble, Mrs. F. Blanche, 10855 Vernon Ave. Chicago, Ill. Stoddard, A. J., Superintendent, Providence, Public Schools, Providence, R. I. Threlkeld, A. L., Superintendent, Denver Public Schools, Denver, Colo. Weet, Herbert S., Education Building, Rochester, N. Y. Weglein. David E., Superintendent, Balti¬ more Public Schools, Baltimore, Md. 840 National Education Association TOINT COMMITTEE OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION AND THE AMERICAN LIBRARY ASSOCIATION (Special Liveright, Ada F., Chairman; Librarian, Pedagogical Library, Board of Educa¬ tion, Philadelphia, Pa. Bristow, W. H., Education Bureau, De¬ partment of Public Instruction, Harris¬ burg, Pa. Hollis, E. V., Head, Education Depart¬ ment, .Morehead State Teachers College, Morehead, Ky. Kennedy, Anna Clarke, Supervisor of School Libraries, Education Department, The Uni¬ versity of the State of New York, Albany, N. Y. Lathrop, Edith A., Assistant Specialist in School Libraries, United States Office of Education, Washington, D. C. Roberts, Bertha E., Deputy Superintendent for Elementary School, San Francisco, Calif. Scripture, Elizabeth, Supervisor of School Libraries, State Department of Educa¬ tion, Denver, Colo. Vought, Sabra W., Chief, Library Division, United States Office of Education, Wash¬ ington, D. C. Witmer, Eleanor M., Librarian, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. TOINT COMMITTEE OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION AND THE NATIONAL CONGRESS OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Bradford, Mrs. Hugh, Chairman; President, Child Welfare Magazine , 1215 Thirty- ninth St., Sacramento, Calif. Arlitt, Ada Hart, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio Baylor, Adelaide S., Chief, Home Economics Education Service, United States Office of Education, Washington, D. C. Bowler, Alida C., National Chairman, Com¬ mittee o,n Juvenile Protection. National Congress of Parents and Teachers; Chil¬ dren’s Bureau, United States Department of Labor, Washington, D. C. Ed son, Newell W., National Chairman, Com¬ mittee on Social Hygiene of the National Congress of Parents and Teachers, 450 Seventh Ave., New York, N. Y. English, Mildred, Assistant Superintendent, Raleigh Public Schools, Raleigh, N. C. Hammond, L. Daisy, Principal, John H. Patterson School, Dayton, Ohio Hosmer, Mrs. Frederick, Hunter Ave., Au¬ burn, N. Y. Langworthy, Mrs. Mary L., President, Na¬ tional Congress of Parents and Teachers, 832 Bryant Ave., Winnetka, Ill. Lay, Isobel, Editor, Journal of Education, 6 Beacon St., Boston, Mass. Lombard, Ellen C., Associate Specialist in Parent Education, United States Office of Education, Washington, D. C. Michaels, Veronica, Pennypacker School, Lane & Thouron Sts.., Philadelphia, Pa. O’Hare, Elizabeth, Principal, Takoma Park School, Washington, D. C. Read, Faye, 131 Vernon Place, Pueblo, Colo. Robinson, William McKinley, Director, De¬ partment of Rural Education, Western State Teachers College, Kalamazoo, Mich. Roys, Cassie F., Principal, Walnut Hill School, Omaha, Nebr. Studebaker, J. W., Superintendent, Des Moines Public Schools, Des Moines, Iowa White, Zada A., 107 West Fifty-second St., Minneapolis, Minn. Zook, George F., United States Commis¬ sioner of Education, United States Office of Education, Washington, D. C. LEGISLATIVE COMMISSION (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Executive Committee Hall-, Sidney B., Chairman; State Superin¬ tendent of Public Instruction, Richmond, Va. Graham, Ben G., Superintendent, Pittsburgh Public Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. Gray, Jessie, President, National Education Association, 1210 Fillmore St., Philadel¬ phia, Pa, Joynes, Mrs, Edith B., Principal, George Washington and Robert Gatewood Schools, Berkley, Norfolk, Va. Kirkpatrick, Lee, Superintendent, Paris Public Schools, Paris, Ky. Mann, C. R., American Council on Educa¬ tion, 744 Jackson Place, N. W., Washing¬ ton, D. C. Norton, John K., Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Richmond, James H., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Frankf&rt, Ky. Weglein, David, Superintendent, Baltimore Public Schools, Baltimore, Md. Aiken, Georgia Whelan, President, National League of Teachers’ Associations, Alms Hotel, Walnut Hills, Cincinnati, Ohio Allen, A. T., State Superintendent of Pub¬ lic Instruction, Raleigh, N. C. Allman, H. B., School of Education, In¬ diana University, Bloomington, Ind. Armbruster, Mrs. Bertha S., 214 Gale Ave., River Forest, Ill. Bennison, Olive, Field Director, Washing¬ ton Education Association, 707 Lowman Bldg., Seattle, Wash. Bogan, William J.. Superintendent, Chicago Public Schools, Chicago, Ill. Bond, W. F., State Superintendent of Edu¬ cation, Jackson, Miss. Associational Records and Information 841 Bowers, Charles A., Secretary, Nebraska State Teachers’ Association, 605 South Fourteenth St.. Lincoln, Nebr. Boyce, Thomas W., Principal, Cass Street Rotary School, Milwaukee, Wis. Bradford, Mrs. Mary C. C., 917 East Eleventh Ave., Denver, Colo. Brister, J. W., President, West Tennessee State Teachers College, Memphis, Tenn. Bryan, J. E., Superintendent, Bessemer Pub¬ lic Schools, Bessemer, Ala. Burleson, D. S.. Dean, East Tennessee State Teachers College, Johnson City, Tenn. Butterfield, Ernest W., Commissioner of Education, Hartford, Conn. Byrnes, Mary R., 922 West Thirty-eighth St., Minneapolis, Minn. Callahan, John, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Madison, Wis. Capen, S. P. Chancellor, University of Buf¬ falo, Buffalo, N. Y. Carroll, Charles, Director, Rhode Island State Board for Vocational Education, 122 State House, Providence, R. I. Cocking, Walter D., Commissioner of Ed¬ ucation, Nashville, Tenn. Collins, M. D., State Superintendent of Schools, Atlanta, Ga. Connor, William L., Chief, Bureau of E^ ucational Research, Board of Education, Cleveland, Ohio Davis. Charles S., Superintendent, Steelton Public Schools, Steelton, Pa. Deneen, Florence, 457 West Sixty-first Place, Chicago, Ill. Dyke, Charles Bartlett, Superintendent, Short Hills Public Schools, Short Hills, N. J. Eckles, Isabel Lancaster, Superintendent, Santa Fe Public Schools, Santa Fe, N. M. Ely, Selden M., Supervising Principal. Fifth Division Public Schools, Emery School Washington, D. C. Fife, Ray, Supervisor. Agricultural Educa¬ tion Service, State Department of Educa¬ tion, Columbus, Ohio Fisher, Charles M., Superintendent, Da.de County Schools, Miami, Fla. Fraser, Anna Graeme, Principal, Woodrow Wilson Junior High School, Oakland, Calif. Fulp. J. D., President, Bailey Military In¬ stitute, Box 532, Greenwood, S. C. Galpin (Miss), Lloy, 2354 Addison Way, Los Angeles, Calif. Gibson, Joseph E., Superintendent, McComb Public Schools, McComb, Miss. Gordon, Adelbert W., Secretary, Maine Teachers’ Association, 185 State St., Au¬ gusta, Me. Griffey, Annie G., 2110 Battery, Little Rock, Ark. Grove. Frank L.. Secretary, Alabama Edu¬ cation Association, 21 Adams Ave., Mont¬ gomery, Ala. Hammond, Vida, 331 Chamber of Commerce Bldg., Portland, Ore. Harman, A. F., State Superintendent of Ed¬ ucation, Montgomery, Ala. Howell. C. M.. Secretary, Oklahoma Edu¬ cation Association, 326 Key Bldg., Okla¬ homa City, Okla. Ja£°b' .Walter, Jr., Principal, Emerson School, Plainfield, N. J. Jahnke, Clara. L., 1930 Eighth Ave., Spo¬ kane, Wash. ! • James. William Alonzo. Principal, Ball High School. Galveston. Texas Judd, Charles H,, Dean. School of Educa¬ tion, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. Keating, J. F., Superintendent, Pueblo Pub¬ lic Schools, District Number Twenty, Pueblo, Colo. Kersey, Vierling, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Sacramento, Calif. Keyworth, M. R., Superintendent, Hara- tramck Public Schools, Hamtramck,. Mich. Lamkin, Uel W., President, Northwest Mis¬ souri State Teachers College, Maryville, Mo. Lasher, William R., Principal, James Mad¬ ison School, Brooklyn, N. Y. Lee, Charles A., State Superintendent of Public Schools, Jefferson City, Mo. Lefler, Millard C., Superintendent, Lincoln Public Schools, Lincoln, Nebr. Lewis, Charles E., Principal, Alameda School, Portland, Ore. Lewis, Mrs. Inez Johnson, State Superin¬ tendent of Public Instruction, Denver, Colo. Libbee, Freda, 1117 Twenty-sixth Ave., Se¬ attle, Wash. Libby, Herschel S., Superintendent, South¬ ington Public Schools, Southington, Conn. Lindsey, John C., Superintendent, Mitchell Public Schools, Mitchell, S. D. Longshore, W. T., Principal, Greenwood School, Kansas City, Mo. Loper, . John D., Superintendent, Phoenix Public Schools, Phoenix, Ariz. Lord, Charles E., Superintendent, School Union Number Sixty-nine, Camden, Me. MacDonald, A. A., Superintendent, Sioux Falls Public Schools, Sioux Falls, S. D. MacGregor, Effie, Principal, John Burroughs School, 2003 Aldrich Ave. South, Minne¬ apolis, Minn. McClure, Worth, Superintendent, Seattle Public Schools, Seattle, Wash. McIntosh, B. H., Commissioner of Educa¬ tion, Cheyenne, Wyo. Mallory, Gertrude, President, High School Teachers’ Association, 305 Trinity Audi¬ torium Bldg., 847 South Grand Ave., Los Angeles, Calif. Milne. _ John^ Superintendent, Albuquerque Public Schools, Albuquerque, N. M. Neiison, Minnie J., 901 Fifth Ave., Valley CUy, N. D. ‘ * Peixotto, Mrs. B. C., 55 John St., New York N. Y. Pesta, Rose, Principal, Kelvyn Park High School, Chicago, Ill. Pfaff, Caroline S., District Superintendent, New Orleans Public Schools, Public School Administration Building, 703 Ca- rondelet Sf., New Orleans, La. Pinet, F. L., Secretary, Kansas State Teach¬ ers Association, 315 West Tenth St., Topeka, Kans. Potts, D. Walter, Superintendent, East St. Louis Public Schools, East St. Louis, Ill. Powers, Sue M., Superintendent, Shelby County Schools, Memphis, Tenn. Priest, Charles H., Superintendent, Carson City Public Schools, Carson City. Nev. Prunty. Merle, Superintendent, Tulsa Pub¬ lic Schools, Tulsa. Okla. Pye, Charles F., Secretary, Iowa State Teachers Association, 415 Shops Bldg., Des Moines, Iowa Rule, James N., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa. Russell. Charlotte, 448 West Sixty-second St., Chicago, Ill. Saunders., Joseph H., Superintendent, New¬ port News Public Schools, Newport News Va. Scully, John F., Superintendent, Brockton Public Schools, Brockton, Mass. 842 National Education Association Showalter, N. D., State Superintendent of Public instruction, Olympia, Wash. Smith, Harry P., Professor of Education, Teachers College, Syracuse University, Syracuse, N. Y. Smith, W. B., Superintendent, Twin Falls Public Schools, Twin Falls, Idaho Snodgrass, G. M., President, State Teachers College, La Crosse, Wis. Stahl, H. E., Superintendent, Claymont Pub¬ lic Schools, Claymont, Del. Stanton, B. F., Superintendent, Alliance Public Schools, Alliance, Ohio Stetson, Paul, Superintendent, Indianapolis Public Schools, Indianapolis, Ind. Stilwell, H. W., President, Texas State Teachers Association, 410 East Weather¬ ford St.. Fort Worth, Texas Strayer, George D., Director, Institute of Educational Research, Division of Field Studies, Teachers College, Columbia Uni¬ versity, New York, N. Y. Studebaker, J. W., Superintendent, Des Moines Public Schools, Des Moines, Iowa Sutton, Willis A., Superintendent, Atlanta Public Schools, Atlanta, Ga. Taylor, Annie Kate, 4807 Gaston Ave., Dal¬ las, Texas Trent, W. W., State Superintendent of Free Schools, Charleston, W. Va. Turnbull, L. W., Superintendent, North Bend Public Schools, North Bend, Ore. Upham, Mrs. Margaret S., 211 Washington St., Cumberland, Md. Vincent, Wilbur D., Commissioner of Edu¬ cation, Boise, Idaho Voelker, Paul F., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Lansing, Mich. Wahlstrand, Harry L., 823 Third St., East, Willmar, Minn. Waldo, D. B., President, Western State Teachers College, Kalamazoo, Mich. Watson, Bruce M., Managing Director, The Public Education and Child Labor Asso¬ ciation of Pennsylvania, 1505 Race St., Philadelphia, Pa. White, L. A., Superintendent, Minot Public Schools, Minot, N. D. Williams, Chari Ormond, Director, Division of Field Service, National Education As¬ sociation, 1201 Sixteenth St., N. W., Washington, D. C. Wilson, S. C., Director, Division of Teacher- Training in Vocational Agriculture, Sam Houston State Teachers College, Hunts¬ ville, Texas. Wist, Benjamin O., President, Normal and Training School, Honolulu, Hawaii Wofford, Kate V., Buffalo State Teachers College, Buffalo, N. Y. Woodward, Annie Carleton, 100 Highland Ave., Somerville, Mass. Wright, Robert H., President, East Caro¬ lina Teachers College, Greenville, N. C. York, Ada, Superintendent, San Diego County Schools, Room 2, Court House, San Diego, Calif. NATIONAL COMMISSION ON THE ENRICHMENT OF ADULT LIFE (Special Committee) Moyer, James A., President, State Director of University Extension, State House, Boston. Mass. Reeve, Mrs. A. H., First Vicepresident, President, International Federation of Home and School, 1520 Spruce St., Phila¬ delphia, Pa. Russell, James E., Second Vicepresident, R. F. D., No. 4, Trenton, N. J. Dorsey, Mrs. Susan M., Third Vicepresi¬ dent, 1506 Arapahoe St., Los Angeles, Calif. Rogers, James E., Secretary, 315 Fourth Ave., New York, N. Y. Abbott, Grace, Chief, Children’s Bureau United States Department of Labor, Washington, D. C. Addams, Jane, Hull House, 800 South Hal- sted St., Chicago, Ill. Alderman, L. R., Chief, Service Division, United States Office of Education, Wash¬ ington, D. C. Bestor, Arthur E., Principal, Chautauqua Institution, 1819 Broadway, New York, N. Y. Bittner, W. S., Extension Division, In¬ diana University, Bloomington, Ind. Bogan, William J., Superintendent, Chi¬ cago Public Schools, Chicago, Ill. Bradford. Mrs. Hugh, President, Child Wel¬ fare Magazine, 1215 Thirty-ninth St., Sacramento, Calif. Broome, Edwin C., Superintendent, Phila¬ delphia Public Schools, Philadelphia, Pa. Bumpus, H. C., Brown University, Provi¬ dence, R. I. Burnett, Marguerite H., Director of Adult Education, State Department of Public Instruction, Eleventh and Washington Sts., Wilmington, Del, Capper, Honorable Arthur, Senate Office Building, Washington, D. C. Cartwright, Morse A., Director, American Association for Adult Education, 60 East Forty-second St., New York, N. Y. Castle, A. W., Director, Extension Educa¬ tion Division, State Department of Pub¬ lic Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa. Clark, E. Everett, State Supervisor of Adult Education, State Department of Educa¬ tion, 217 State House, Boston, Mass. Cody, Frank, Superintendent, Detroit Public Schools, Detroit, Mich. Coleman, Laurence Vail, Director, The American Association of Museums, Smith¬ sonian Institution, Washington, D. C. Cutten, Geoige Barton, President, Colgate University. Hamilton, N. Y. Deming, Robert C., State Supervisor of Adult Education, State Department of Education, Hartford, Conn. Finley, John H., The New York Times, New York, N. Y. Folsom, Ernest C., President, Teachers Cas¬ ualty Underwriters, 1407 O St., Lincoln, Nebr. Fosdick, Harry E., Riverside Church, River¬ side Drive at 122nd St., New York, N. Y. Frysinger, Grace E., Senior Home Econo¬ mist, Central States, Extension Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Grace, Alonzo G., Assistant Professor of Education, University of Rochester, Roch¬ ester, N. Y. Groves, Ernest R., Institute for Research in Social Science, The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C. Grumman, R. M., Director, University Ex¬ tension Division, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C. Associat ional Records and Information 843 Gwinn, J. M., 144 Paloma Ave., San Fran¬ cisco, Calif. HAoec £IorcTceA’ Editor> Th* Grade Teacher, 425 Fourth Ave., New York, N Y HurreH Arthur S., Director, Teacher Train- ing Extension, The Pennsylvania State College, State College, Pa. Jones R G., Superintendent, Cleveland Public Schools, Cleveland, Ohio Kohler Katherine, Director of Extension and Summer Schools, Board of Educa- t*1.?0’ City Hall, Minneapolis, Minn. MaHery, Otto T., 1427 Spruce St., Phila¬ delphia, Pa. Mors£’ , C1aTrence. University of Buffalo, Buffalo, N. Y. Mengel. Levi W., Director, Visual Educa¬ tion and Museum, Reading Museum, Read¬ ing. Pa. Milam, Carl H., Secretary, American Li¬ brary Association, 520 North Michigan Ave., Chicago. Ill. Miller, N. C., Director, University Exten¬ sion Division, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, N. J. Morse, Sidney, Vicepresident and General Manager, The Grade Teacher, 425 Fourth Ave., New York, N. Y. Odum, Howard W., Chief of Social Sci¬ ence Division A Century of Progress In- tDrMaJt-10nal Exposition, Administration Building. Burnham Park, Chicago, Ill. Packard, Bertram E., State Commissioner of Education, Augusta, Me. Patterson, Mrs. Edith McClure, Home Eco¬ nomics Division of the General Federa¬ tion of Women’s Clubs, 1019 North Main St., Dayton, Ohio Poole Mrs. Grace Morrison, President, Gen- erai Federation of Women’s Clubs, 1734 N St., N. W., Washington, D. C. PyrtJe, E. Ruth, Principal, Bancroft School Lincoln, Nebr. ’ Robertson, Elizabeth Wells, 1250 Judson Ave., Ravinia, Ill. Smith, W. C Chief, State Adult Education Bureau, Albany, N. Y. Stearns, William F., Director, Prospect Union Educational Exchange, 678 Massa¬ chusetts Ave., Cambridge, Mass. Stoddard, A J Superintendent, Providence Pubhc Schools, Providence, R. I. Taft Lorado, The Midway Studios, 6016 Ingleside Ave., Chicago, Ill. Wardlaw J. C., Director of Adult Educa¬ tion, University System of Georgia, Divi- ATufrSeneral Extension, Department of Adult Education, Atlanta, Ga. Weisiger, Kendall, Assistant to the Presi- ?74n’ Southern Bel! 7'elephone Company, Bldg-> Atlanta, Ga. Woll, Matthew, Third Vicepresident, Amer¬ ican Federation of Labor, 901 Massachu¬ setts Ave., N. W.. Washington, D? C Zook, George F., United States Ccmmis- sioner of Education. United States Office of Education, Washington, D. C. COMMITTEE ON NECROLOGY (Authorized James, William Alonzo, Chairman; Prin¬ cipal, Ball High School, Galveston, Texas Barnett, Jane, President, Oregon State ^teachers Association, Jennings Lodge, Bates. H L., Superintendent, Jackson Pub¬ lic Schools, Jackson, Ohio Bell, Annie T., Louisiana State University, University Branch, Baton Rouge, La. Bentz, M. S.f Superintendent, Cambria County Schools, Ebensburg, Pa. Bohnenberg, Rebecca, Hilo Union School, Hilo, Hawaii Brooks, Paul E., Crane Junior High School, Topeka, Kans. Campbell, Cleo, Grade Teacher, Ketchikan, Alaska Carlton, Mrs. Ada Nash, 411 North Boule¬ vard, Apt. No. 8, Richmond, Va. Caufield, Emma M., Superintendent, Cum¬ berland Public Schools, Cumberland, R. I. Colyer, Ruth, Public School. Beaufort, S. C. Daigle, Edward J., 344 West Brundage, Sheridan, Wyo. DeBerry, Nena, Principal, Frank B. John School, Salisbury, N. C. Dempsey, T. J., Jr., State High School Supervisor, State Department of Educa¬ tion, Atlanta, Ga. Ewing, Lyle W., Public School, Claremont, N. H. Finnegan, Rose, Dean of Women, John Rogers High School, Spokane, Wash. Fowler, Lotta B., Boyd Street School, Mil- waukee, Wis. Gibbs, Edna, Superintendent, Adair County Schools, Greenfield, Iowa Gibson, A. J., Supervisor of High Schools, Charleston, W. Va. Goldsmith, Anna, Superintendent, Hyde County Schools, Highmore, S. D. Harper, J. R., Superintendent, Wilmette Public Schools, Wilmette, Ill. by Bylaws) Hougham, ^ Robert B., Secretary, State Teachers Retirement Fund, Indianapolis, Howard VioU Pearl, Principal, The How¬ ard School, Birmingham, Ala. Huckins, Leroy S., Superintendent. Win- throp Public Schools, Winthrop, Me. °’p ,T‘ S’’ SuPerintendent, Lajoya Public Schools, Lajoya, N. M. Keephart, Arline, Morris County helping eacher, , Court House, Morristown, N. T Iean Armour, 121 Highland Ave., Highland Park, Mich. McClurken, Mrs. Eva G. T., Principal, Ele¬ mentary School, Cato, Ark. McCormick, Mrs. Pearl Logan, Elemen¬ tary School, Missoula, Mont. McCurdy, M. E., Secretary, North Dakota Education Association, 11 Magill Block Fargo, N. D. McNicoll, Mrs. Frances E., 1449 Madison St., Hollywood, Fla. McSkimmon, Mary, 205 Tappan St., Brook¬ line, Mass. Mendal, Augusta, 2408 Park Ave., Bridge¬ port, Conn. North, _ Francis D., 3401 North Carlin St., Baltimore, Md. Ott, Eva, 61 Agnes Ave., Oakland, Calif. Rice, Elizabeth G., Head Assistant, Central High School, St. Louis, Mo. Russell, Martha C., Leamington Hotel, Minneapolis, Minn. Shepherd, Rulon T., Principal, Public School, Overton, Nev. Smith, Harriet, High School, New Ply¬ mouth, Idaho Snider, E. Q., Superintendent, Yuma Pub¬ lic Schools, Yuma, Ariz. Srygley, H. F., Superintendent, Nashville Public Schools, Nashville, Tenn. 844 National Education Association Stahl H. E., Superintendent, Claymont Public Schools, Claymont, Del. Stokes. W. H. Jr., Soc*alM^enCe Jum°r High School, Greenwood, Miss. Tarbell, Emily, 235 Glenwood Ave., Syra- Tavlor L* N*., Rural School Agent, State T Department of Education, Frankfort, Ky. Tennyson, J. Anna, 1938 Biltmore St., N. W., Washington, D. C Walker, Louise, Instructor of History, Fair Haven High School, Fair Haven, Vt. Waters, E. A., Principal, High School, ba- Wmeyt’ CL^S., 2140 South Clayton, Denver, W?i°so°n, Melvin, Superintendent, Payson Public Schools Payson, Utah Wirt, Lula E., Nebraska State Teachers College, Kearney, Nebr. COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS (Authorized by Bylaws) Dahl, Mrs. Myrtle Hooper Chairman; 3527 Pillsbury Ave., Minneapolis, Minn. Alfriend, Kyle T., Secretary Georgia Edu¬ cation Association, 9o4 \ine\iue a.ve., A^ry,01GeSrge, Colorado Agricultural Col- Be^^Ad^e1 Ma^Box 307* Delray Fla. Branegan Gladys, Dean, College of House¬ hold and Industrial Arts, Montana State College. Bozeman, Mont. Chase, Lawrence S., Principal, Hillside a Spaulding Schools, Montclair, N. J- Christian, Nina, 1500 Broadway, Little Rock, Coates, J. P., Secretary, South CaroBna Teachers Association, 1218 senate at., n;^?ilittbl L SivtC* High School Supervisor, D,StSe Department of Education, Olym- DuSha^Donald, Superintendent Columbus Public Schools, Columbus, lnd. . . Flv Selden M., Supervising Principal, Fifth Division Public Schools, Emery School. Washington, D. C. Evans William W., Superintendent, Colum- bia County Schools. Bloomsburg. Pa. Ewing^Lyle W., Public School, Claremont, Fish, ^Seymour P., Principal, Public School, For d n W^ Vl ^ President,. Portland Elementary Principals’ Association, Glencoe School, F rwith a musical P™gram by the United States Navy Band, under the direction of Lieutenant Charles Benter Following the conclusion of the musical program Vermont' put on a stunt an- ouncing to the National Education Association that in the year 1935 Vermont would have a candidate for the presidency of the Association in Caroline S. Woodruff Colorado put on a stunt inviting the N. E. A. for its 1935 convention to Denver! j rj3 p*111 °jn a S^unt Presenting its candidate for the presidency for 1934-3 5 Joseph H. Saunders of Newport News. ’ At 10 o clock President Gray called the meeting to order. . Mr' Fred D • Cr*m (Iowa) : As state director for Iowa I am presenting one who is to present to the National Education Association a copy of the picture which hangs at the head of the grand stairway in the state capitol of Des Moines This picture is presented to the National Education Association by the teachers of' Iowa and the presentation will be made by our state superintendent of public instruc¬ tion, Agnes Samuelson. Miss Samuelson : “Westward the course of empire takes its way.” A beautiful picture, exemplifying these prophetic words written by Bishop Berkeley in the eighteenth century, is painted at the head of the grand staircase in the Iowa State Capitol Building in Des Moines. This print is a reproduction of this painting which the teachers of Iowa have secured for the schoolrooms of the state. . Th,5 l0TuStlTe Tea<;hers Association takes pleasure in presenting this copy to the office of the National Education Association. It glorifies the march of civilization westward. Notice that the adventurous youth drives the oxen toward the setting sun. His inspiration is the four celestial beings, ambition, confidence, and the twins forethought and reflection sowing seeds for flowers and fruits. Appreciation reli¬ gion, education, and the prophetic symbols of the steam engine and communication are in the picture. The spotlight is on the mother who is the culture of the East By her side is the daughter, the culture of the West and the little sister turning to education. The mother and the teacher will make any place the cradle of a finer civilization. The birds reflect the Higher Power that guides “our steps aright.” We give this picture with all its beautiful symbolism to the teachers of the land, e teachers are the pioneers of this age as they push ahead new frontiers for the next generation in the schoolrooms. It is ours to carry on in the same spirit as those sturdy pioneers who blazed the trail of civilization westward in times even more precarious than these. President Gray: On behalf of the National Education Association, of which I have the honor to be president, we accept this beautiful picture and will see to it that at headquarters it reminds us of your devotion to organization work and it 856 National Education Association reminds us also of that service we have from each state. Thank you and your association very much, Miss Samuelson. This morning we begin the second business session of the Representative As¬ sembly by being led in prayer by W alter H. Moling, reader, First Church of Christ Scientist, Washington, D. C. (The invocation was then pronounced by Dr. Moling.) President Gray: The next speaker is Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, principal of the George Washington and Robert Gatewood Schools, Berkley, Noifolk, Virginia, who will speak on “The Principal’s Responsibility for Leadership and Interpretation.” (The address is printed elsewhere in this volume. See index.) President Gray: Mrs. Joynes’ interpretation of the duties of principals is a classic because that vision is for the good of the children in our midst. They are learning from us to .tell black from white and from us also will they gain their proper inter¬ pretation of and relationship to international situations. The next speaker is Mrs. Georgia Parsons, teacher, Vine Street School, Holly¬ wood, California, who will address us on “Child Labor.” (The address is printed elsewhere in this volume. See index.) President Gray: We thank you, Mrs. Parsons. I know that this Delegate As¬ sembly has enjoyed your comments. I wish to tell you now that in the preparation of this program we had in mind the two great human institutions, the home and the school. The first of this multiple is the mother, father, and child ; and in the second there is the multiple of child, teacher, and principal, and because of that these three contribute and minister one to the other. We have had discussed the child in its relation to child labor, we have had a discussion on the principal’s responsibility for leadership and inter¬ pretation. We will now have the third of that trinity, namely, a discussion of “The Classroom Teacher’s Responsibility for Leadership and Interpretation,” which will be given by Faye Read, president of the Department of Classroom Teachers of the National Education Association. (The address is printed elsewhere in this volume. See index.) President Gray: Thank you, Miss Read. We very much appreciate that fine report. You may recall that one of the greatest weeks in the year is American Education Week which is celebrated once a year from Saturday to the following. Saturday. You may recall that there are four groups sponsoring American Education Week. The National Education Association; the American Legion; the National Congress of Parent and Teachers; and the United States Office of Education. Those four groups expect from their activities to have one blaze of information and enthusiasm about education in that week. The Director of the National Americanism Commis¬ sion of the American Legion, Russell Cook, has an announcement to make and I will give him the floor, with your permission, at this time. Mr. Cook: I want to take this opportunity to recognize your leaders for the past year. I know this has been a year of unusual and difficult hardship and it has brought to light many things. It has brought to light the character of leadership of some of your leaders. The American Legion recognizes this and wishes to express their appreciation in the form of a citation: Resolved, That the National Americanism Commission of the American Legion express to Jessie Gray, president of the National Education Association of the United States, its appreciation of her splendid cooperation, which has made it possible for the American Legion to support, with its membership and organiza¬ tion, the public schools of this country and that we do further commend her for the high character of leadership which she has in a trying year devoted to her responsibility, and that we further, thru this resolution, express to the National Education Association the desire of the National Americanism Commission of the American Legion to continue in the future the active cooperation which has brought success to our mutual endeavors during the past yeai. Associational Records and Information 857 T his citation and resolution appear over the signature of our national com¬ mander, Edward A. Hayes, also over the signature of our national president, Frank t. Sanderson. Miss, Gray, it is with the greatest privilege and honor I recognize you in this form this morning. I will not read the other citation but assure you people we of the Legion recog¬ nize the leadership, the fine character and standing of your secretary, J. IV. Crabtree, and it is my pleasure to present to him a citation similar to the one presented to Miss Gray. President Gray: We are going to continue with a discussion on rural education by Richard E. J aggers, director of teacher training, State Department of Educa- tion, of Frankfort, Kentucky, who will talk to you on “Rural Interpretation.” (The address will be found elsewhere in this volume. See index.) President Gray: Thank you, Mr. J aggers, for that report. It has many good ideas contained therein. . We Wl11 now cal1 uP°n A- L- Whittenberg, secretary of the Illinois State Examin¬ ing Board for Teachers’ Certificates, Springfield, Illinois, to give us a composite report of the state reports of the various members of the Board of Directors. (The report is printed elsewhere in this volume. See index.) In connection with his address Mr. Whittenberg paid a high tribute to Miss Gray. President Gray: I have not done more than my duty and I am glad that service is a crowning virtue. Where the schools have been closed the salary of the teacher has been the variant, going down to half and less than half and even less in many cases. I believe in the value of service. My mother taught me that, you have taught me that, and I have learned the lesson but I do not believe in service being sacrificed to budgets. So next year I am going to ask anybody who has any power at all to make salaries the constant factor and as a principle of equity, justice, and fair play to make the length of the term the variant accordingly as the people have in all honesty dedicated money to pay for service. That is only fair to the teachers of America. I am so glad that Mr. Whittenberg said that it shall be settled in the legislatures and you know now why the keynote of this convention has been “inter¬ pretation to the public.” There is very little yet to be finished at the second business session but what is left is very important. We will have the report of the secretary, Mr. Crabtree. (After reviewing the report the secretary moved that it be printed in this volume. See index.) President Gray: The next item on our program will be the report of our treasurer, Henry Lester Smith. Mr. Smith (Indiana) : The report of the treasurer is in the envelope that you received when you first registered as delegates. It is a part of that official finan¬ cial report prepared by Wayne Kendrick & Company, Certified Public Accountants in Washington, D. C. Inasmuch as the audit report will follow this and inasmuch as you have had an opportunity to read this official report, I think it unnecessary to refer to any of the items there or to read the report. I, therefore, move the adoption of this report. (Motion seconded and carried.) President Gray: I will ask at this time that the chairman of the Auditing Com¬ mittee, Esther M. Smith, of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, give the report of the Auditing Committee. Miss Smith: The members of the Auditing Committee appointed by the president, in accordance with the requirements of the constitution, have examined and audited the accounts of the Board of Trustees, the secretary and treasurer of the National Education Association as presented by Wayne Kendrick & Company, Certified Public Accountants of Washington, D. C., and we find them in fine financial condition. Splendid management is reflected in the actual expenditures, which are $6,925.83 under the budget allowances appropriated for the current year by the Representative 858 National Education Association Assembly, despite the fact that a greater volume of service yvas rendered during the crisis. We note with gratification the increase in value of the Permanent Fund assets of over $12,000, the reduction of the mortgage on headquarters building in the sum of $30,500, and the fact that there is a net income of $2,686.01 (as opposed to a loss in 1933), making a net increase of $11,078.45 in addition to $37,055.70 representing 50 percent of the balance on deposit in the Commercial National Bank, Washington, D. C., at the time of the bank holiday in March, 1933. I move the adoption of this report of the Auditing Committee. (Motion seconded and carried.) President Gray: So far as I know there is no unfinished business. If there is, will you suggest it? If not, I will go right on with the new business. Is there any new business to be brought before the Delegate Assembly? Mrs. Rueben (Illinois) : Madam President, I have a motion I would like to state. President Gray: Mrs. Rueben of Chicago. Mrs. Rueben: I have a motion to present before the Delegate Assembly. I move that the Representative Assembly instruct the officers of the National Education Association to call upon all parents, teachers, and children to organize mass meet¬ ings and other demonstrations on Thursday of American Education Week, which is devoted to the subject of our schools, the purpose of which demonstration shall be to impress upon the entrenched interests now attacking the public schools the determination of the public to secure sufficient financial support to insure for the public schools at least the educational efficiency of the pre-depression level. Mr. Robert C. Moore (Illinois) : Madam Chairman, I would like to speak for a minute or two to the motion. President Gray: Will you come to the platform, Mr. Moore, please? Mr. Moore: Madam Chairman, Delegates of the Convention: A few moments ago you very properly applauded Mr. W hittenb erg when he stated that not so much may depend upon the size of the dog in the fight as the size of the fight in the dog. I think, and several of us from our Illinois delegation believe, that it is not only necessary to have a big dog in the fight or a big fight in the dog, but it is also neces¬ sary to understand quite clearly what and where the other dog is that we must fight and direct our fighting in the proper direction. Consequently we have heard related at this meeting and in the subsidiary meetings the fact that it is time for us to be more aggressive and militant for the schools and against the powerful en¬ trenched interests that we know are attacking the schools. The statements of the delegate from Illinois are really very mild when we consider the powers and influence of the enemies of the public schools, but they constitute a step in the right direction and, if their purpose is carried out with enthusiasm all over the United States, may give our enemies an idea that we are capable of more direct attack and action if necessary. Some of us feel that more direct action against the enemies of our public schools is necessary and that up to this time little attention has been given to our meek attitude. Almost none has been given by the press. It is perfectly evident to us that we should be given recognition as a power in public affairs, and a little notice should be given to our public meetings. The next statement I think I shall take entire responsibility for — no one instructed me to say it — but I cannot resist the impulse to call your attention to the present situation. When it was indicated that we might meet in Washington in the very heat of the summer season, I asked why we should come here. I was informed that it was very probable that the President of the United States would like to address this great National Education Association, and I concluded that would be well. And so we are here. We have endured several days of intense heat; we have sweated and we have suffered, but we have not had one single official or personal word to date from the President, who has gone off on a vacation. He appointed Mr. Johnson to speak for him, and he became ill and has also left the city, and we are here. Associational Records and Information 859 rhLh? 'iy- beI'eVe th/t 3 great national organization fighting for the rights of ch Idhood m a time of crisis deserves its share of attention from the New Deal and ^Administration trylng t0 Put over that New Deal to very Htde and't'h^noTt^F'1''5-’ °f-' ^ 'hat 1 St3ted that we s«"> <° a™»nt We shall not obtain ■ ^ 10n I.S Pven us> and tbat our force is not recognized, e shall not obtain recognition or help for the schools until we definitely recognize and point out the opposition and make a direct attack upon it recognize I.et us consider for a moment what the opposition is and its character. and K ■’ -SeemS ,'° me’ 18 a laboratory in which the American brand of Fascism a few yeaTs'L? Aftfr°Ut “S P'an *° the Public Scho°' system a* « existed tew years ago After our experience of the last few years in Illinois we ran prove we are under the domination of the big business Fascism or of Nazi m of the entrenched interests, as they are called in this motion, that control ou poHtica! parties, our state government; and they have adopted the most ruthless methods ;ointTur;“e;TfinnftfLVmPTeastf°n ^ M*y 1 3 a"d A few years ago we had a great war. In Illinois we had at that time what was almost a supreme dictator, at whose feet we knelt and learned lessons of patriotism and justice and loyalty to government and righteousness, and I don’t know how greM m™ thie™S glibly from his tongue. I could tell you more about this g .at man, this super-patriot, who ruled our state, himself declaring he was the uncrowned king of Illinois. His influence reached into many states! yea v r ly thruout the nation to quite a large extent. But he made the error of even exploiting h,s own kind, and went so far that when his downfall finally came and he fled to Europe for lefuge there, it took a year to get him back. I was in Chicago a few days ago and again this super-patriot’s name appeared in two inch headlines in h th'S ?re,a! d'C'a‘?r’ thls man who had shaped the policies of our state who had been the Mussolini, the Hitler, if you please, of Illinois. But this time the actaionnHe finger-printing him and hi, being cast into jail for criminal action. He is now awaiting trial. I want you to know that the system established CO, ,nr0Tbratr y , man Sti" prevails in Illinois and k is eroding thruout the school's ^ 18 Wha‘ We mCan ^ ‘he entrenched interests who are opposing ,L''me.“e ,onet otbfr. example. We have in Chicago a man who was at one time president of the Citizens Committee on Public Expenditures, the most noted o t e organizations that are now operating to wreck the schools. He is also the president of a great railway company. This railway company paid him $60,000 a year, or over $60,000 as salary. He had as assistant vicepresidents in his office seventeen or eighteen men, any one of whom drew a higher salary than the superin- endent of schools ,n the city of Chicago; and still they are trying to do everything they can to reduce the salaries and the teachers’ salary budget in the city of Chi¬ cago. The railroad of which this man was president obtained large loans from the government to keep it running and still I believe that committee has done much to stop any loan coming from the government to pay the teachers’ salaries. In Illinois we have a big banker, a part of this movement, a former vicepresident and a very active official of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, who got a loan of $90,000,000 from the federal government to prop up his tottering financial throne. But when the teachers went to him to get him to purchase some of the tax warrants and to use his influence to get the banks to purchase tax warrants the most emphatic expression they could get from him was, “To hell with the trouble¬ makers!” I hope you will excuse the expression; I am simply quoting a noted and cultured gentleman. Another very active influence, and I am speaking facts now that are very readily proved— another very powerful influence in this Fascist move¬ ment in Illinois is the investment bankers, who ought to be ashamed of themselves because years ago they took millions of dollars from the savings of teachers and 860 National Education Association hundreds and hundreds of millions from other people for real estate bonds, and most of these bonds are worth only a few dollars on the thousand at the present time, many of their properties are in receivership, are being looted by the receivers, and are a total loss to the honest bondholders who wanted to invest their savings in a safe loan and followed the advice of these eminent investment bankers. I could tell you facts that would really make you fiercely angry at a system that permits the robbery of the people as these bankers are doing; but I do want to say to you that these same people are extremely active in this Fascist movement to take con¬ trol — I believe they have control quite largely — of the government of our state, and to do everything they can to throttle any bills the State Teachers Association of Illinois introduces for the relief of education. These are only three or four that I might name of those who are controlling af¬ fairs in Illinois and who have no fear of mere resolutions and principles unless supported by real action. If you in your state have not gone as far in this crisis as we have, I hope you will not; but I fear that it is coming to all of you in all of your states. This is a time of crisis in America and strange things are happening. We have heard much here at this meeting about changes likely to take place or changes taking place in our government. It seems to me that the grave danger facing the government of this country and of the states is this European brand of Nazism, Hitlerism, Fascism, and Mussolinism. We realize that we are facing that situation in Illinois. Therefore, if we are to avoid the final victory of this much dreaded system of government, I believe we ought to do something as well as merely say something. These instructions read by the delegate from Illinois offer a very mild but rather positive form of direct action against the powerful, entrenched enemies and the motion should be unanimously supported. If you permit me I will again read the motion and the instructions that we are asking be given the officers of the N. E. A. to support and back them up, a movement which at least some of the officers have indicated should take place. The motion is: That we, the Representative Assembly, instruct the officers of the National Education Association to call upon all parents, teachers, and children to organize mass meetings or other demonstrations on Thursday of Education Week, which is devoted to the subject of financing the schools, the purpose of which demonstra¬ tion shall be to impress upon the entrenched interests now attacking the schools the determination of the public to secure sufficient financial support to insure for the public schools at least the educational efficiency of the pre-depression level. The delegate moved that this be the instruction of the Representative Assembly to the officers of the National Education Association. I thank you sincerely. President Gray : Is there any further discussion? Mrs . Johanna Lindlof (New York) : Madam Chairman. President Gray: Mrs. Lindlof. Mrs. Lindlof: I am in thoro sympathy with the purpose of the motion. I believe, however, that the date set is not the most opportune time on which to pass this demonstration. It has been pointed out this morning that the legislatures of the several states thruout this nation have the power to give and provide adequate support for education. I think that we should, therefore, have these demonstrations before election day takes place. I would like to ask the mover of the motion if she would be willing to change the date to sometime in October at a better time to create public sentiment for the thing we have at heart. October 27 has been suggested. Mr. Moore: What day of the week is that? Mrs. Lindlof: I do not know. Delegate: It is on Monday. Associai ioxal Records and Information 861 Mr Moore: I would be glad to agree with the lady from New York if she would be willing to change the date to the last Thursday in October. Mrs. Lindlof : No. Delegate: No! Conventions are coming in a great many places on that Thursday and Saturday of that week. y Mr. Moore: Shall we say then the last Monday in October? Delegate: Why so late? Mr Moore: In order to carry out the plan that the lady mentions, or the pur¬ pose that the lady desires to achieve, I believe it would be most effective to have these demonstrations by the people as late before the election as possible. May say a word now why this was put in connection with American Education Week? he lady who framed this, thought it would be well to have it during that week w en the attention and the minds of the members of the N. E. A. were reallv engaged in interesting the public. Another thing I might say in this connection is that this is not to impress mem- ers o t e legislatures so much as it is to impress the really dangerous element that controls legislation m a great many states. However, we have no objection to placing it on some day— it really should be the same day all over the United States— immediately or a few days before the fall election. I would suggest then that we say the last Monday in October. Mr. Brown (Connecticut): I am heartily in sympathy with the motion but I can see no object whatever in delaying until October, the latter part of October or November. We want to impress not only the entrenched interests but we want to impress the members of our various state legislatures. We of Connecticut have a lot of entrenched interests as well as in Illinois. All of our meetings and elections come the first Monday in October. It seems to me that the earlier in the school year we can demonstrate not only our interest but our power— and we have plenty of it if we will use it— and let some of these men know that we not only are interested but we are mihtantly interested, then we will get some attention. I suggest that we ^ thl^ day,°f demonstration early in the school year, preferably in September. Miss Cornelia S. Adair (Chairman pro tem) : Do you make that as a motion? ^1 you hold that amendment, please, Mr. Brown, for just a few minutes? Miss Gray wishes to speak to the motion. President Gray: In planning a great cooperative movement like this with your final demonstration, no matter in what form it should take place prior to the e ection, you put it in the abstract. When in the primaries these people have been interviewed and they sign up and say so with regard to education, then you go on and elect your legislators. No matter who is elected you are making your legis¬ lative plans and they know what those plans are and they know the momentum you are going to get to back those plans and it seems to me that during this great week, which has been set aside and which has been established as a custom, if we get these things all focused at that point, with the work we are going to do, not legisla¬ tion as the ultimate factor, it seems to me it is a very safe procedure. I would rather doubt the wisdom but I rather think if you have too great a concentration of one possibly it will lack balance and maybe both will be a little weak, whereas we want this strong presentation and I think it will not affect what you are doing in securing the signatures of candidates for the legislature to uphold the educa¬ tional program. The Chair: Now does that close the discussion? I recognize Mrs. Lindlof. Mrs. Johanna Lindlof (New York) : It has been called to my attention that voting for the members of the legislatures in the different states takes place during those months. I think it is most important that we have demonstrations in every state before the members of the legislature are elected. I think it is about time that we expect and demand that the promises made before election shall be carried out and proper means provided for the financing of the schools when our legislatures 862 National Education Association meet. I wish that these two thoughts could be incorporated in the motion that I hope will be passed. The Chair: I recognize Mr. Brown. Mr. Brown (Connecticut) : I agree with the lady who just spoke. My only object in suggesting that this demonstration come early in the school year is to impress all of the men who are running for office. It has been our experience that once they are elected they are very independent. The average politician does not understand a single thing except votes. That is as deep as his intelligence goes outside of his own selfish interests. Now if we can demonstrate to these men before election, we will get. results. I would like to see this week early in September for our own state and whether the National Education Association puts it on or not we are going to have one. The Chair: Mr. Moore. Mr. Moore: Since conferring with several others, I shall insist that the motion be voted upon as it was read originally. The fundamental purpose of this move¬ ment is really not political. If you put it before the campaign in the fall, the real purpose of this motion would probably be lost and it would be made a part of the political campaign. I beg leave to call your attention to the fact that this is a move¬ ment to impress upon the enemies of public education that the people are deter¬ mined that the schools shall be properly supported, and I want to tell you we happen to know, at least in Illinois, that if we are able to throw a little fear of God into these people it will be very, very highly reflected in our Illinois legis¬ lature — it does not make much difference who is elected. Another reason for holding it during American Education Week is that other dates have been set. Educational meetings of various kinds will precede it. They will be at different times in different states and will not havfi the force of a great national day to make this impressive movement and, therefore, it seems to me it fits better into American Education Week than any other possible time. We shall have with us at that time the American Legion, the National Congress of Parents and Teachers, the Office of Education, and the entire National Education Asso¬ ciation. Let us have this on Thursday of American Education Week and put it over and make it impressive to the Fascists of America. Delegates : Question! Question! The Chair: There is one gentleman who was coming up a moment ago. I want you to let him speak and then I shall call for the question. Mr. Abraham. Lefkowitz. Mr. Abraham Lefkowitz (New York) : I would like to offer a substitute and, if seconded, state my reason. My substitute is as follows: That the officers of the N. E. A. be empowered to instruct their affiliated groups to hold a nationwide demonstration during American Education Week and that in addition all the states and city and local groups have other demonstrations between primary day and election in order to influence the voting of the nation. If that is seconded I will state my reason. Mrs. Lindlof: I would like to second that motion. The Chair: State your reasons. Mr. Lefkowitz: It is very nice to have a nationwide demonstration for the en¬ lightenment of the public but one demonstration is not sufficient to enlighten a calloused public. Also, if anyone for a moment assumes that members of a legislature will be influenced by that one demonstration they are greatly mistaken. I have been a legis¬ lative representative for eighteen years. I live at Albany for four months. I know the impressions of persons who are selected and that they fear demonstrations of political power. I see no reason why we cannot achieve the ends desired by all those who participated in the discussion, namely, first the nationwide dramatic calling of the attention of the people of the country to the danger education now faces thruout the nation unless we restore the financial support adequate to the Associational Records and Information 863 grave emergency which now confronts the nation; and, secondly, I see no reason why we should not at the same time in every locality show clearly to the men who aie running for office that they must stand by education after election as well as before or we will know the reason why. May I say to you, regardless of all the theories of government that the one thing that legislators do respect and do obey is an exhibition of political power and pressure. (Mr. Lefkowitz continued in an • ressc.for a vlgorous program. He condemned teachers for inaction.) me Lhair: Since this is an amendment to the motion it is necessary I ask for dl-ussl- Mr Moore has indicated he would like to discuss the amendment. . /r. Moore: I understand this is a substitute motion? 1 he C,lalr: The Chair is corrected; it is a substitute motion. Mr. Moore: Mr. Lefkowitz made a very admirable speech. I really believe he is raising two separate issues and emphasizing the one that we have tried time after time and that you may try in your own state any time you get ready. Almost all of the states in fact are doing something to impress the members of the legisla- ture. I think he is slightly in error concerning the legislatures of a good many states We have made demonstrations in Illinois to the legislators. We have literally had them buried there under telegrams and letters when bills were pending. They always find some way of killing those bills or letting them die. What we want to do is to impress the entrenched interests , the governors of our legislators, and that !S an entirely separate issue. We believe it could be done best in American Educa¬ tion Week and grant the privileges and right to Mr. Lefkowitz and everybody else to make some sort of a demonstration before the legislature. What we want done in American Education Week is to impress those who control the governors and legisla- tUr*l' 1 r-S,, /0U t0 V°te down the substitute motion and pass the original motion. Mrs. Lindlof: Madam Chairman! Delegates: Question! Question! The Chair: The question has been called for. (The question being called for, the substitute motion was put and lost.) The Chair: We will proceed to vote upon the original motion. (The vote was taken and carried.) The Chair: I will now return the Chair to the president. Miss Gray: You please keep the Chair. The Chair: Mr. Shaw of Philadelphia has asked for the floor. Mr. Shaw: I do not intend to burden the meeting with a speech at all or even to argue in favor of the motion that I presume might be made a year from now. I understand the amendment to the constitution is merely presented, put in print and you have one year now in which to discuss the proposition and consider the amend¬ ment and then perhaps we will have more time at the next convention to discuss it more fully. I will simply read it now very quickly: In order that the elections by the Representative Assembly may be made more certain of reflecting a majority opinion of the assembly, I propose the following amendment to Article II, Section 2. Strike out the following sentence: “The candidates for president, treasurer, member of Board of Directors from each state, territory, or district, respectively, and the eleven candidates for the office of vicepresident receiving the highest number of votes shall be declared elected.” And in lieu thereof insert the following: “The elections shall be by the method of preferential voting and the rules of the Proportional Representation League shall govern. ” The Chair: You have heard the notice given of an amendment to be offered to the constitution at our next meeting. There are organizations set up for the amendment to the consitution thru which channels an amendment has to go. I do not believe we have to vote on it, do we? 864 National Education Association ✓ Mr. Shavu: No. The Chair: Is there any other new business? Mr. Sturgill (Kentucky) : The mountains of Kentucky greet you, members of the National Education Association. I want to say at this time that everything I shall say is entirely my own. Nobody told me to say it and if they had I probably would not have said it. That is the way we are in Kentucky. I never was happier in my life than I am now because I am in the midst of a fight and if there is anything a Kentuckian loves it is a fight, but it must be a fair fight. I want to congratulate the gentleman who just left the floor on his splendid motion, which has been pro¬ posed and which duly carried. With that in mind and in view of the fact that many things that should have been in our papers in this city and in other parts of the country, the newspapers, have not got into print, I presume because they are to the advantage of the school people of America, I move you, Madam Chairman, that we go on record unanimously in making a transcript of everything that has happened here during the last hour and that special emphasis be made upon its publicity in every newspaper in Washington this day as far as possible. I make that as a motion at this time. Delegate: Second the motion. (Motion put and carried. The transcript was made and placed into the hands of the reporters.) The Chair: Is there any other new business? If not, a motion to adjourn is in order. (Motion made and carried.) J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Jessie Gray, President Third Business Session, Friday Morning, July 6, 1934 The third business session of the Representative Assembly of the National Educa¬ tion Association was opened at 8:30 a.m., in the Washington Auditorium, with a musical program rendered by the United States Navy Band under the direction of Lieutenant Charles Benter. At 9 :20 a.m. the president called the meeting to order. President Gray: This is our last business session and the invocation this morning will be given by the Rev. Gove Griffith Johnson, of the National Baptist Memorial Church, Washington, D. C. {Dr. Johnson then pronounced the invocation.) President Gray: I think at this closing session of the Representative Assembly we are very fortunate to have these two topics, “Democracy in Education” and “Culture for Democracy,” side by side. It is with a great deal of pleasure I present to you at this time Thomas E. Benner, dean of the College of Education, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, to discuss with us, “Democracy in Education.” (The address is printed elsewhere in this volume. See index.) President Gray: It is with peculiar pleasure that I announce the next speaker who will talk to you on “Culture for Democracy.” Armand J. Gerson, as the associate superintendent of the city of Philadelphia, many times has lighted our vision with the torch of his own inspiration and I have been blessed by that, as have many of the other teachers of Philadelphia, over and over again. That is the reason I am so particularly glad to present to you this morning Armand J. Gerson. (The address is printed elsewhere in this volume. See index.) President Gray: Your state committees have worked during the year and that long work on your behalf you should know about, so I am asking Anna Laura Force, faithful chairman of the Committee on Retirement Allowances, to tell you what it has done this year. (The report is printed elsewhere in this volume. See index.) {Miss Force moved the adoption of this report; seconded and carried.) President Gray: At this time there is another report of a committee that has worked long and hard and I want to tell you just one thing about the name of that Association' al Records and Information 865 “TbuneaLhesonare :‘T/nure”.implies certain things in our state that is a red flag to a bull and so I asked permission of the Executive Committee to call this com ™Oo*MC2?r 0,lCiVil Se7iCne f0r Teachers- N°" 1 retract°that nanYand the wrllfOT Char,lr"lan of the Committee on Tenure, to make a report of tne work of the Tenure Committee during the year. Thank you very much (The report is printed elsewhere in this volume. See index ) 1 ,h “f RoH ‘r (vicepresident, presiding pro Urn) : It has been moved and seconded that the report presented by Mr. DuShane be accepted. (Carried.) Is th. eh • 6 nm reP°rt is that of a sPecial “mmittee of which Carroll Pearse on he mat1, ^o?, * Board of Directors to make a report The Chair Th7„ek (T S* rlPOrt 18 printed e,sewhere in ‘his volume. See index.) . C ‘aU • Tkhank you- Tt has been moved and seconded that the report presented by Mr. Pearse be accepted. (Motion carried.) presented Bolrd o/' Dire«ors‘S “me ^ ^ Craitm‘ haS 3 report “ make £» ‘he Secretaiy Crabtree.' 1 he Board of Directors considered the matter of having; a Department of Music Education. The list of names on the petition the previous invention ’ aI>d *“ °f tha‘ haS bee" complied with- A meeting was held at this heTtea,BHarrd .°J D(ireCt0rs recommends that this Department of Music Education ment nf m' ^ p^ef°r.e’ m°ve that the Representative Assembly create the Depart- nent of Music Education. (Seconded and carried.) This year the president arranged for all the departments to make their reports to the Boaid of Directors. The following committees reported to the Board of Direc¬ tors . The Committee on the Economic Status of the Teacher; the Legislative Com- mission, Committee on Social-Economic Goals; Joint Committee of the N. E. A and the A L_ A. ; Joint Committee of the N. E. A. and the National Congress of arents and Teachers; Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education; Com- lttee To Cooperate with the National Association of Teachers in Colored Schools' ommittec on International Relations; National Commission on the Enrichment of Adult Life. AH of these reports were presented by the chairmen to the Board of Directors and -f* ^ aT0^! °f thC B°ard °f Dire.ctors and are recommended to you for approval. I he Board of Directors passed a motion recommending that each report be presented to the assembly. Since there is not time enough for that and since you have these reports in printed form I move approval by the assembly. The Chair: Do I hear a second? Mr. IV. H. Holmes (New York) : I second the motion. (Carried.) The Chair: Quite a long time ago we sent out letters asking that all resolutions that are of importance that have been passed by the various states should come to the national office. They were then transferred to the chairman of the Committee on Resolutions, Mrs. Myrtle Hooper Dahl, and she has been working on them with her committee until now she will report to you as the final report of the Committee on Resolutions. Mrs. Myrtle Hooper Dahl (Minnesota) : Your Committee on Resolutions has been working very hard during this convention. We realized that education has a challenge to meet and so we tried to make the resolutions very brief but to the point, to meet during this coming year this challenge that has been thrown to us. I would like to say that every resolution that was presented to our committee was read to the committee as a whole. Some of them were passed at once or rejected just as it seemed best, and others were referred to a drafting committee, rewritten, and referred back to the large committee. So the report I am submitting to you today is a report of the entire committee. Many of the resolutions were along the same lines. Some were very, very long. These we condensed and reworded and attempted to state as brieflv as possible the purport of those resolutions. 866 National Education Association I think you have a copy of our report in your hands. We divided it into two parts. (She then read the report.) Mrs. Dahl: I should like to move the adoption of this report. President Gray (Resuming the Chair) : The adoption of the report has been moved. Mr. Carroll (Rhode Island) : Madam President, on Page 2, “Teacher Welfare” - President Gray (Interrupting) : The question before the house is do you wish to adopt the resolutions as a whole or do you wish to adopt them and discuss them as separate resolutions? Mr. W. H. Holmes (New York) : Madam Chairman, I move that they be adopted as a whole with this exception that those who want to discuss any one in particular so state and then we will speed up the thing. President Gray : Then the motion is practically to select the ones that need dis¬ cussion and discuss those and then adopt them as a whole. Mr. Holmes: Yes, but you should ask is there any objection to Section 1, Section 2, Section 3 and if not let it stand as adopted. Delegate: Second the motion. (The president thereupon restated the motion.) President Gray: Is there then objection to Resolution 1? Well, we will go right along on that one. That will provide for discussion as you come along and at the end move the adoption of the report as a whole. That is the motion before the house. Is it correctly stated, Mr. Holmes ? Mrs. Johanna Lindlof (New York) : I believe we will save time and understand more clearly what we are doing if we consider each resolution separately and adopt it as we go along. President Gray: May I interrupt, Mrs. Lindlof ? That was the motion. Mrs. Lindlof: I understood you to say that you would discuss the motion and then when you had finished adopt them all at the end. President Gray: The motion was to consider and discuss each resolution and then at the end they be adopted as a whole. Mrs. Lindlof: Just so long as it is understood we adopt each resolution separately I am satisfied. President Gray: Is that understood, Mr. Holmes ? Mr. Holmes (Having come to platform) : I think we can save a great deal of time and arrive at our purpose if the president will say, “Is there any objection to Resolution No. 1? Resolution 2, Resolution 3,” and so on under this particular item. President Gray: Is that very clear now? (Motion put and carried.) President Gray: Is there any objection to Part I, “The Child?” Is there any objec¬ tion to the second one? Miss Cornelia S. Adair: Turn to the first page. President Gray: Do you wish to discuss No. 1? Page 1 where the resolutions are numbered. I am going to ask Miss Adair to take the chair for a moment. Miss Cornelia S. Adair (Chairman pro tern) : The resolutions are divided into two parts, the platform and resolutions. Miss Gray wishes to ask you to discuss the resolutions first that appear on the first page. The first resolution for discussion is No. 1. Mrs. Johanna Lindlof: I move, Madam Chairman, we act upon them by groups under topics. (Motion seconded and carried.) The Chair: Now what will you do with No. 1? Mr. J. M. Gwinn (California): Madam Chairman, I move the adoption of this “Welfare of Childhood and Youth” appearing on page 1. The Chair: Then there will be no discussion of No. 1 on page 1, under Child¬ hood and Youth. The second page “Teacher Welfare.” Charles Carroll of Rhode Island wishes to make a suggestion. Mr. Carroll: Page 2 “Teacher Welfare” paragraph 1, the last sentence. Instead of the language used in the last sentence I move to substitute, “The Board of Associational Records and Information 867 Directors of the Association is instructed to provide from the current funds the sum of three thousand dollars to be used, or as much thereof as may be necessary, for the purpose of the Committee on Tenure.” Mr. Carroll Pearse: Second the motion. T he C/iah . The chairman of the Resolutions Committee has agreed to accept the word provide ’ instead of “set aside,” so no motion to amend will be necessary. Do you wish to discuss that further? Mrs. Johanna Lindlof (New York) : It has been pointed out this morning that the National Education Association must devise means of getting more funds. At the Classroom Teachers Department meeting yesterday the question of providing money for the Tenure Committee was discussed and a resolution was adopted that a sum of not less than ten thousand dollars be provided for the use of the Tenure Committee. I would like to say that if the National Education Association really wants the support of the classroom teachers of the nation there is no one thing which the Association can do which will be of greater benefit, not only to the teachers of the nation but to the whole citizenship of this nation, than to give the teachers the freedom that tenure of position would insure. Therefore, I believe that so inadequate a sum as three thousand dollars is just like throwing a grain of sand to the teachers. Therefore, Madam Chairman, I move that the sum of three thou¬ sand dollars be changed to “not less than ten thousand dollars be provided” as the amount named in this report. The Chair: Mrs. Lindlof from New York moves that ten thousand dollars be sub¬ stituted for three thousand dollars. Is that seconded? Delegate: Second the motion. The Chair: Is there any discussion? Delegates: Question! Question! The Chair: Are you ready for the question that ten thousand dollars be sub¬ stituted for three thousand dollars? Delegate: Not less than ten thousand dollars. The Chair: Not less than ten thousand dollars. All in favor of substituting _ Mr. Joseph Saunders: Madam Chairman - The Chair: Mr. Saunders wishes to discuss the motion. Mr. Joseph Saunders: I have no objection to spending all the money that is necessary to promote this particular proposition as I am heartily and always have been heartily in favor of it, but I have been handling the finances of this Associa¬ tion as chairman of the Board of Trustees and I do not believe it a proper thing for us to tie up funds unless they are going to be needed. We have to borrow 1 dJon,t know that Wu know that, but last year we were forced to borrow *20,000 and pay 6 percent interest on it during the interim from this meeting to the time the teachers begin to draw their salaries in the fall and to pay money. There- ore, I hope that you will adopt the motion as set up here with the change accepted by the chairman of the committee. Mrs. Johanna Lindlof (New York) : Madam Chairman - The Chair: I will have to ask if others wish to speak. Is there anyone else who wishes to speak? Mrs. Lindlof wishes to speak a second time. Mus Sara Fahey (New York): While I recognize the difficulties in financing the many activities of the Association at present, I have in mind that if we have some very active movement on this question of tenure we could get membership t ruout the country in a way which we cannot at the present time. I think the De- partment of Classroom Teachers had no thought of tying up any sum but I think at they placed it at ten thousand dollars as a conservative estimate if a great live movement were started immediately on this question. The Chair: Is there anyone else who wishes to speak to this point? If not I will present Mrs. Lindlof of New York. ’ . Mrs' Ll”dlof: Madam Chairman, I believe that we are agreed upon this, if we just get the right words. If we say that a sum of not less than ten thousand dol¬ lars be provided when and as needed. 868 National Education Association Mr. Joseph H. Saunders: May I make a suggestion? My objection is not that. My objection is to the statement of “not less than ten thousand dollars,” which ties up the ten thousand dollars. If you strike out the “not less” and say “ten thousand dollars or so much thereof as may be necessary, which the Tenure Committee may determine, be provided” and just strike out the “not less” I will have no objection in the world as submitted by the lady on my right. Mrs. Lindlof: Of course I am not a lawyer but I believe that the saying “not less than ten thousand dollars when and as needed shall be provided” would mean the same thing, but if the legal minds say it would be better to do it the other way, why, for the time being I will forego the “not less.” The Chair: It is stated that the sum of “ten thousand dollars” be substituted for the sum of “three thousand dollars.” The question is on the amendment. (Motion car¬ ried.) The Chair: Is there any other discussion under “Teacher Welfare”? All right, we will go on with the next “Social Legislation,” any discussion? Mr. Carroll G. Pearse (Wisconsin) I have one point here I should like to sug¬ gest. The last resolution or the last section of No. 2 “It also endorses the payment by the state of pensions to widowed mothers of children of school age.” It seems to me that we go a little further than we need to go when we approve widows’ pen¬ sions only for those who have children of school age. I know of a good many who have children of school age and have independent funds and do not need any widow’s pension. Therefore, I wish to move that the last five words of the second section under “Social Legislation” be stricken out. In other words, strike out the words “of children of school age” and add “to widowed mothers of children who need such aid.” I move the adoption of the amendment. Mr. Abraham Lefkowitz (New York) : Second the motion. (Motion put and carried.) The Chair: Is there any further discussion on “Social Legislation”? Then that is adopted. “School Support and Administration”? Mr. Abraham Lefkoivitz (New York) : (After producing arguments) I suggest in order that we may be true to these “forgotten children,” these unfortunate children who are penalized because they are accidentally born in areas where tax resources have been depleted and because the bottom has dropped out of the bond market should be taken care of by the additional statement in addition to the daily attendance that we also include “the available tax resources of the respective communities.” The Chair: The suggestion was that it be distributed to all public school dis¬ tricts according to average daily attendance and needs as determined by resources. You have three things, according to daily average attendance, needs and tax re¬ sources, omitting the “to re-establish education at the 1930 level.” Mrs. Myrtle Hooper Dahl: According to needs, did it say? The Chair: According to needs and tax resources. The Chairman of this Com¬ mittee wishes to speak to the point of needs. Mrs. Dahl: I do not think we ought to include in our consideration the word “needs.” That makes it very necessary for us to establish a need — therefore, gives that back to the political group to decide whether or not it is a need. I think we know the need. The educators of the country, who are submitting their budgets and re¬ quests, are better able to judge whether or not there is a need than any committee outside their district and I think we are playing into the hands of people who can cut any request quite easily if they are allowed to establish the need. I think that is a dangerous word to put in. Mr. Joseph H. Saunders: I would like to say one word on that. The Chair: Mr. Saunders of Virginia. Mr. Saunders: I don’t want to prolong the discussion but I think I have some information which might help you in arriving at the decision and leave the word¬ ing as is in the resolution as proposed by the Resolutions Committee. I am not on that committee so I am not speaking for the committee. Now five hundred million dollars means twenty dollars per year for each child. A rural schoolroom then with Associational Records and Information 869 thirty children would get under this proposition six hundred dollars supplemental to tha provided by the district and the state and I think we are on safe ground and think your committee was on safe ground when it inserted in here this objective basis of average daily attendance for the distribution. The minute you put an in- eterminate proposition in there such as need, you open the way for political manipulation and transfer of funds to that district whose congressman has the greatest influence, and I hope it will be your pleasure to support your Resolutions committee and leave the proposition as now stated. The Chair: Which would you like to vote on, the “not less than” first and then the other? Mr. Lefkoivitz (New York) : Yes. (The Chair thereupon put the substitute motion to a vote to substitute “not less than five hundred million dollars” instead of “a direct grant of five hundred million dollars, and the question being called for, the motion was carried.) The Chair: It is my understanding that the amendment is, “according to average daily attendance and available tax resources of the community.” Is there any further discussion? Mr. Fred D. Cram (Iowa) : In “average daily attendance” we are making a posi¬ tive statement I believe. The amount involved would be “according to the average daily attendance,” the larger the daily average attendance, the larger the amount. I hen we go on and say “according to tax resources.” If we use some logic in that wording, the more tax resources, the more money. Cannot that be remedied some¬ what ? The Chair: Can the gentleman suggest what we should do? Mr. Cram: I have been asked to make a suggestion. My suggestion would be we insert the word “lack,”— “average daily attendance and the lack of adequate tax resources.” Mr. Lefkoivitz: I accept that. The Chair: It has been suggested that we make it read, “average daily attendance and lack of adequate tax resources.” (Motion put and carried.) The Chair: Now is there any other discussion? Then we include that section to be voted on at the end. Mr. Sturgill: Madam Chairman, I should like to make a remark on this. The Chair: All right, you come up and tell us which one. Mr. Sturgill (Kentucky) : Madam Chairman, I refer to this particular motion on “School Support and Administration.” I should like to call the attention of the body to the last sentence which reads as follows: “The National Education Associa¬ tion maintains that a government that can appropriate nearly two billion dollars for military and naval purposes should make adequate provision for the support of public education.” As one who served in the forces of the United States during the World War, one who has been a classroom teacher for sixteen years in four different states of the Union, and one who is fully cognizant of the serious situation facing us in the United States at this time, socially, economically, and otherwise, I believe it would be very unwise to allow this sentence to stand as it reads in view of the fact that the American Legion is not a militaristic organization, in view of the fact that we who went thru the World War and saw some sights which God forbid you ever see, we want peace but not a dishonorable peace, at any time or under any circumstances. Instead of the last sentence as it now stands, strike out the words “nearly two billion dollars for military and naval purposes,” and insert the words “large sums of money for other government and private activities” and then we should “make adequate provision, and so forth.” The, Chair: I understand the motion is to strike out the words “two billion dollars for military and naval purposes” and insert “large sums of money for government and private activities.” Is there a second to that? Delegate: Second the motion. Mr. IV. H. Holmes (New York) : Madam Chairman, I hope this motion will not prevail. We should be honest with ourselves. We know the government is spending 870 National Education Association all this amount for war. It may be necessary but it is also necessary to spend greater amounts for education. Let us be true to our colors and state the fact. Mr. Fred D. Cram (Iowa) : Madam Chairman, it has been my experience that nobody ever gets anywhere by criticizing somebody else. I would move to amend the suggested amendment by the gentleman from Kentucky that wre strike out the entire last sentence. Delegate: Second the motion. The Chair: The amendment is to strike out the entire last sentence. Mrs. Lindlof: I quite agree with the gentleman who spoke here whom I believe is seated on the platform, who said we should not be afraid to come out and say what we really believe. If we are worthy members of the teaching profession there is no cause on which we should take a more definite stand than on the question of money appropriated for military training and naval equipment. Mr. Sturgill: Madam Chairman - Delegates: Question! Question! Question! The Chair: The Chair would like to hear one statement and then let us have the whole question stated. You have asked for the question. There is a comprehensive paragraph on page 3 about the prevention of war. Do you wish to continue this discussion? Delegates : No! No! Question! Question! The Chair: The question has been called for but the Chair has recognized the gentleman from Kentucky who has spoken once. Is it your pleasure to hear him? Delegates: No! No! Question! Question! The Chair: The question has been called for. You will have to talk later (addressing Mr. Sturgill ). Are you ready to act on the amendment to the amendment which was to strike out the last sentence of that paragraph? All in favor of the amendment to the amendment please say “Aye.” The Chair is in doubt. I trust it is delegates speaking now, not just people at the convention. All in favor of striking out the last sentence say “Aye.” All opposed “No.” The Chair thinks the “Ayes” have it. Delegates: No! No! Delegates: Call for a division then. The Chair: The Chair will call for a division. We will have this thing done properly. All those in favor of striking out will please stand. (The “Ayes” arose and Secretary Crabtree counted the vote.) All right, be seated. Now all those who are opposed please stand. (The “Noes” arose and Secretary Crabtree and others counted the vote.) The “Ayes” have it. Do you wish to have a count or are you satisfied? I think conclusively the “Ayes” have it. Very well now we will go back to the original motion. Are there any other amend¬ ments you would like to put into that section? Mr. Lefkowitz: I move its approval. The Chair: It has been moved that it be placed with others for approval. Now page 3, “Prevention of War.” Is there any discussion of that section? I hear none. We go to “National Education Association Administration.” Is there any discussion of that? I hear none. We proceed to “Appreciation.” Is there any discussion of that? Anybody want to talk? Well now, shall we proceed then to the adoption of this part of the resolutions as a whole as amended? Delegates: Question! Question! (Motion to adopt the resolutions as a whole and as amended put and carried.) The Chair: Now we have another part, the Platform of the National Education Association. I will have to get the chairman of the committee on this, if there are any sections here you would like to discuss. Mrs. Myrtle Hooper Dahl (Minnesota) : Yes, I would like to, Madam Chairman, please. When I was reading this Platform I hesitated over the one on “Labor” because it did not look at all familiar to me and I just thought somewhere between Associational Records and Information 871 the c°mmittee and the printer and the proof reader we had put in the paragraph °u ■Lab°,r. JVSt a? lt. was in the other PJatform, in the original Platform. We feel that at this time it is quite necessary in the protection of childhood to make that a little more emphatic. The paragraph that was recommended by your committee to take the place of this one on “Labor” I would like to substitute, and it reads this way: In order that every child, no matter what his economic status, shall fully enjoy the right to free education from nursery thru university, the educational pro¬ fession will actively work for the passage of the Child Labor Amendment by states. That should be substituted for “Labor.” Mr. W. B. Mooney (Colorado) : Madam Chairman, I move that the Platform be adopted as presented by the committee. The Chair: And amended by it recently? Mr. Mooney: Yes. (Motion put and carried.) The Chair: Is there anything more you want to do with these resolutions? If not die Chair will State that the resolutions as amended have been adopted. The Chair: The next order of business is the report of the chairman of the Board of Trustees. Joseph H. Saunders will now give that report as chairman. (The report is printed elsewhere in this volume. See index.) Mr. Saunders: I recommend the adoption of this report and the re-adoption of the Auditor’s Report carrying this report. Mr. IV. B. Mooney: I second the motion. (Motion put and carried.) Chair: 1 wiH ask for the report of the Budget Committe. Charles Carroll of Rhode Island will make it. (The report is printed elsewhere in this volume. See index.) Mr. Carroll: Madam President, I move the adoption of the report of the Budget Committee. (The motion was seconded and Miss Adair, as chairman, stated the motion.) The Chair: Are you ready for discussion? The question has been called for but Mrs. Preble was on her feet and certainly you want her to speak. Will you come to the platform, Mrs. Preble? Mrs. Preble is a former president of the Department of Classroom Teachers. Mi s. F. Blanche Preble (Illinois) : As to the paragraph on page 8, read by the gentleman reporting for the Budget Committee, I wish to ask the gentleman who made the report to answer some questions about this paragraph on page 8, numbered B, entitled Committees and Commissions” as I do not think it is clear. The Chair: Will you state your questions? Mrs. Preble: I notice you say in the first sentence, “It is recommended that all committees authorized by the Representative Assembly and appointed by the presi¬ dent be automatically discharged with the acceptance of their respective reports by the Board of Directors and the Representative Assembly.” Below the column of figures is a paragraph referring to a number of different committees and com¬ missions. Are we assured if we adopt this paragraph “B,” as it stands, the whole thing, that all those committees named in the second paragraph are in existence or does it mean that paragraph 1 wipes out all those committees and the Board of Directors has within its power to fail to appoint those that are named in the second paragraph ? The Chair: It will be answered by the chairman of the committee. Mr. Carroll: The answer to that question is of course the paragraph is not retro¬ active and if a report by a committee made to this session, would not discontinue that committee, but that this rule would apply hereafter. Mrs. Preble: I would like to ask the gentleman to point out where that safe¬ guard comes in this printed report? Mr. Carroll: This printed report and the adoption of it follows chronologically what has gone before and the common rule of law is that unless it is specifically 872 National Education Association provided in the resolution or in the law, if a law or resolution, neither one are retroactive; they all look toward the future. Mrs. Preble: Then one more question to follow that up. At present the Tenure Committee is composed I think of somewhere between fifty and one hundred mem¬ bers but as I understand our procedure in N. E. A., the personnel of that committee can be changed entirely by the new president. When we change the personnel then of the Tenure Committee, for instance, is it understood that we do not change the number and we do not set up the Executive Committee in this old Tenure Committee that now exists and have that an advisory committee? Does it mean that the Tenure Committee, for example, and these others would go on with the number that they have now even tho the personnel may be changed if we proceed as we have in the past? Mr. Carroll: My understanding is that the number would go on, subject of course to the change the new president undoubtedly will make in the membership of that committee. We recommend, however, and in order to make the Tenure Committee more effective it should include two classes of members, an executive committee of five active members and a larger committee of advisory members which would serve with the active committee. Mrs. Preble: That leads to another question. If the Tenure Committee, as an example, was set up under these provisions would it be the executive committee or the whole committee, including the advisory committee, that would be able to decide on the final report of the Tenure Committee? Mr. Carroll: That I take it would be a matter for the Tenure Committee to settle. Mrs. Preble: In view of the answers to my questions I believe I am right in saying that it seems to me there is a great deal taken for granted in this section B entitled “Committees and Commissions” on page 8. Therefore, I move that this section be stricken from the report of the Budget Committee. Mr. Abraham Lefko therefore, on behalf of the officers newly elected our deep apprecia¬ tion of the confidence you have placed in us. May I express also for them our eep and sincere appreciation of the generous expressions of goodwill from those who shared with us your consideration yesterday. And I wish also to express to our worthy president, gracious as she has been all the year, our appreciation for the strenuous and efficient efforts which she has made to lead this organization on a spiritual basis, from level to level, and may I say, therefore, that your new officers accept the trust that you have placed within our hands and asked us to share with you. And what is this trust? It is the welfare of the children and of the youth of our land. And what are the means to be used? The means we long for and will battle for is an unblemished, virile, free public school system, manned by worthy men and women, free to think, feel, and work in an unhampered exercise of their full possibilities, and backed by an appreciative and supporting society. With your continued support and guidance the officers who now take up their new responsibilities will hope and strive to have this Association move forward along the lines of its high destination— a clarity of purpose, a consolidation, and a dedication of the machinery of our Association behind that purpose and the con¬ sequent broadening and deepening of the service we are privileged, obligated and destined to render. Miss Cornelia S. Adair: Your Chairman has been asked to give two rulings, which she would like to announce. First, that the two amendments which Mr. Shaw read will legally serve as notice for next year. Second, that the two amendments that the Chair made when she used the ex¬ pression “he” in referring to the president’s office is in strict accordance with English usages, but he” also means “she” in those amendments. Delegate (Coming to the platform) : I have no motion to make, but I had hoped to express to the convention, and in doing so I know I express the opinion of many delegates, for I have heard them in conversation about the room, that in future meetings of the convention we have the business part of the organization work moved forward more emphatically, more business sessions given over to business procedure. Chairman Gray: I declare the Seventy-second Annual Convention closed. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary , Jessie Gray, President. MINUTES OF THE MEETINGS OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS Washington, D. C. Friday Evening, June 29, 1934 The meeting of the Board of Directors of the National Education Association, as scheduled in the official program, convened at 8 p. m., in the Board of Directors room of the headquarters building, Jessie Gray , president, presiding. {Secretary Crabtree called the roll showing the following present:) State Directors: Alabama— 7. D. Williams, Arizona— W. T. Machan, Arkansas— C. M. Hirst, Colorado — W. B. Mooney, Connecticut —Helen T. Collins, Delaware— H. V. Holloway, District of Columbia — Edith L. Grosvenor, Florida — James S. Rickards, Georgia — George W. Wannamaker, Idaho — Raymond H. Snyder, Illi¬ nois—^. L. Whittenberg, Iowa— Fred D. Cram, Kentucky— JF. S. Taylor, Louisiana— P. H. Gt iffith, Maine /F . B. Jack, Maryland — William Burdick, Massachusetts — • 882 National Education Association Annie C. Woodward, Mississippi — H. V. Cooper, Montana — Martin P. Moe, Ne¬ braska— George F. Knipprath, Nevada— M. J. Clark, New Hampshire— L. W. Ewing (substituting for Dana S. Jordan ), New Jersey — Raymond B. Gurley, New Mexico — Vernon 0. Tolle, New York- — Frederick Houk Law, North Dakota — L. A. White, Ohio — R. E. Offenhauer, Oregon— Birdine Merrill, Pennsylvania— J. Herbert Kelley, Rhode Island — Charles Carroll, South Carolina — A. C. Flora, South Da¬ kota — S. B. Nissen, Tennessee — S. L. Ragsdale, Texas — L. W. Rogers, Utah — James T. Worlton, Vermont — Caroline S. Woodruff, Virginia — Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, Washington — Emery Asbury, West Virginia — W. W. Trent, Wisconsin — Blanche M. McCarthy, Wyoming — H. H. Moyer. Life Directors: Georgia — Willis A. Sutton, Indiana — Henry Lester Smith, Massa¬ chusetts — Mary McSkimmon, Virginia — Joseph H. Saunders, Virginia — Cornelia S. Adair, West Virginia — Joseph Rosier, Wisconsin — Carroll G. Pearse. Secretary Crabtree: I want to say this is a mighty fine attendance. President Gray: I am pleased to have so many of you here for the initial meeting i and personally I appreciate it tremendously because it meant you had to start off in this great heat, but then you naturally had a very responsible position and a call to respond to in this the first meeting of the Board of Directors. The next item on the agenda is the report of the informal meeting at Cleveland. Mr. Carroll G. Pearse (Wisconsin) : I move that the resignation of absentee state directors be accepted and those present here as their substitutes be elected. (Motion seconded and carried.) Secretary Crabtree: These programs that have been distributed contain not only the program but some other information that you will be glad to have during the week. The minutes of the last Board of Directors are printed in the minutes of the Proceedings and also in the Manual. I move that they be approved. (Motion seconded and carried.) Secretary Crabtree: The meeting held at Cleveland was entirely informal. It con¬ sisted mainly of a discussion of conditions in the various states. There were only a few directors present but each one reported conditions in his state. No business was transacted. President Gray: The next item on the agenda is discussion of appropriations for expenses of directors and delegates. I am going to ask Mr. Allan of the headquarters staff to make that discussion, please. {Mr. Allan thereupon made explanations and distributed the blanks for expenses. He explained that the appropriations for these expenses would need to be made at that time in order that expenses could be paid at the meeting. He gave rules for making out bills. President Gray: Now I see Fred Kelly, the able chairman of the Committee on Social-Economic Goals, has come in and we would be very glad, Mr. Kelly, if you would come to the front and give us your report. (The report is printed else¬ where in this volume. See index.) President Gray: Thank you, Mr. Kelly. I think the report of this committee has had a terrific appeal not only because of the authoritative statement of the original committee, but because of the attractive way in which the commitee has made its report. Mr. Charles Carroll (Rhode Island) : Madam President, may we return to the earlier item of business? I move that we appropriate a sum not exceeding $9000 for the mileage of delegates attending the convention and a sum not exceeding $8000 to cover expenses of directors to the convention. President Gray: Before taking action on Mr. Carroll’s motion, I would like some cognizance taken of Mr. Kelly’s report, please. Mr. Martin P. Moe (Montana) : Madam President, I move that the report of progress made by Mr. Kelly be accepted and that we extend words of thanks to the committee for their splendid work. Associational Records and Information 883 . (Txhe motion was seconded by Willis A. Sutton and Caroline Woodruff and car¬ ried.) President Gray: Now we are ready for Mr. Carroll. . Mr' Carroll: This is a motion to appropriate a sum not exceeding $9000 for appor- tionment to delegates for mileage and an appropriation of $8000 to cover the expenses of directors to this meeting. (The motion was seconded by Mr. W annamaker and carried.) President Gray: We have had a most interesting year and a most interesting egislative year. We had hoped to have Sidney B. Hall, chairman of the Legislative Commission, here tonight but he is not here and fortunately Chari Williams of the headquarters staff is here, so we will ask Miss Williams to give that report. (The report is printed elsewhere in this volume. See index.) President Gray: Thank you very much, Miss Williams. I can see from that report the general background of interest you yourself have had this year in state and national educational legislation. Every department of our Association has worked to help every other department in asking the government to help and that is the reason the seivice has been so strong and so well done this year. I am going to ask for as many of the state reports as I can have in the next thirty minutes and I think I will call for them in alphabetical order. I call first for the report from Alabama. Miss Helen T. Collins (Connecticut): Before going on with this, may I make a suggestion? It seemed to me as I listened to Miss Williams, particularly the part of her talk referring to her book, prepared for the National Congress of Parents and Teachers, that we would lose a very great opportunity at this convention if we did not in some way provide for that book being presented to the Assembly. I move there¬ fore that this Board of Directors provide for that book being presented before the Delegate Assembly so that the teachers at large may go home knowing there is such a thing and it is at their hand and they may have the material they need. President Gray: I think the finest thing we can do is to put in the hands of the teachers themselves this book which more or less interprets the schools to the people. (Motion seconded and carried.) (The president then called on the following state directors who made brief reports of conditions in their respective states: J. D. Williams, Alabama; W. T. Machan, Arizona; C. M. Hirst, Arkansas; W. B. Mooney, Colorado; Helen T. Collins, Con¬ necticut; H. V. Holloway, Delaware; James S. Rickards, Florida; George W. W an¬ namaker, Georgia; Raymond H. Snyder, Idaho; and A. L. Whittenberg, Illinois. The reports were most interesting. All were handed to Mr. Whittenberg which with the reports presented later are to be summarized and presented to the Representative Assembly.) Mr. W. B. Mooney: Madam Chairman, I move that inasmuch as it is approach¬ ing 10 o’clock that we adjourn and continue this later. President Gray: All right. Those of you who have written reports, would you kindly give them to me now so I may give them to Mr. W hittenberg and be sure your name is on them. (Motion seconded and carried.) J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Jessie Gray, President Saturday Morning, June 30, 1934 The second meeting of the Board of Directors convened at 9 a.m. in the Board of Directors room, National Education Building, President Jessie Gray presiding. President Gray: Last night part of our agenda was the report for the Committee on the Economic Status of the Teacher. Mr. Buckingham was the chairman and the informal report was to be given by Air. Carr of the headquarters staff. Mr. Carr 884 National Education Association and Mr. Foster are both here and if Mr. Carr will present himself and Mr. Foster and the report, we shall be glad to see them and hear them at this time. Mr. IV. G. Carr: With the approval of B. R. Buckingham, chairman of the Com¬ mittee on the Economic Status of the Teacher, and because of his absence in Europe, I am glad to submit the following statement concerning the work which has been carried on under the direction of this Committee during the past year. This Committee is at present engaged in a study of particular interest to teachers. It is endeavoring to ascertain as accurately as possible the standard of living which teachers in certain representative American cities are able to maintain. The Com¬ mittee recognized that mere collections of figures on salaries received by teachers are not sufficient by themselves to give an accurate picture of the economic status of members of the teaching profession. It is necessary to have in addition a picture of the expenditures of teachers. After careful consideration the Committee decided to prepare a booklet providing for twelve monthly reports to be submitted by teach¬ ers, showing in considerable detail the source and amount of their incomes, the nature and distribution of their expenditures, and certain other data on borrowings, savings, and other financial transactions. These twelve monthly reports, covering one full calendar year, were supplemented by inquiries concerning the marital status of the teacher, the number of dependents, and other important related information. Complete returns have been received from approximatly 2500 teachers in some thirty cities thruout the United States. This means that the Committee has on hand some 30,000 individual reports. These reports have been checked and totaled in the Research Division. Correspondence has been conducted in a large number of cases with the individual teachers concerned in order to clarify the reports submitted. Every effort has been made to insure the reliability and to check the accuracy of the responses. The returns thus received have been transferred to cards and have been elec¬ trically tabulated by the Hollerith equipment. At present these tabulations are being analyzed and a report describing the findings is being drafted. The Committee ex¬ pects to hold a meeting early in the fall of 1934 to go over these returns and to make final decisions concerning the manuscript of the report. The Committee is requesting an appropriation which will make this meeting possible, and which will provide funds for printing this report and thus bringing the investigation to a conclusion. In conducting this investigation the Committee faced many difficulties. The com¬ plexities of the problem are many. Many difficulties and adjustments which could not be foreseen at the outset of the study have arisen. Filing of the elaborate reports involved a considerable amount of work with and by the cooperating teachers. There have been few precedents to guide the Committee since no national studv of this type as applied to the teaching profession has previously been conducted. The publication of this study will come at an opportune time because of the prob¬ able readjustment in the teacher salary situation which will be occurring thruout the country within the next year or two. The Committee’s investigation will provide an important, indeed an essential, link in the chain of evidence concerning the economic position of the teacher which the National Education Association has been collecting for many years. President Gray: Thank you, Mr. Carr. Are there any questions you think of you would like to ask Mr. Carr? Would you like to take any action on this report of progress ? Miss Anna Laura Force: I move the report be accepted. (Seconded and carried.) President Gray: Last night we had many reports from the directors and since so many of you have definite things to do this morning, instead of going on in the alphabetical order which I had begun, I am going to do this: I am going to say if there is someone here who knows he or she must go at a stated time, I shall be glad, with your consent, to give that person priority. Associational Records and Information 885 (The following presented reports: Blanche McCarthy, Wisconsin; H. H. Moyer, Wyoming; IV. IV. Trent, West Virginia; and Emery Asbury, Washington. These reports were of value and interest to all. They were handed to Mr. Whittenberg to be summarized with other reports.) President Gray: I am glad that Mr. Asbury stressed that the officers of education should be appointive rather than elective because that makes for long planning and greater possibility and it fixes responsibility of course. In the meantime we have omitted the roll call and now that you have had a chance to gather I think I will ask the secretary to call the roll. Secretary Crabtree: The quickest way, and perhaps the best, is to call the roll as we did yesterday so that the reporter can have very definite results. So as we call the names of the states will those report from the state, whether they are state directors or life directors. (The following responded to the roll call:) State Directors: Alabama— J. D. Williams, Arizona— IV. T. Machan, Arkansas— C. M. Hirst, Colorado — IV. B. Mooney, Connecticut— H el en T. Collins, Delaware— H. V. Holloway, District of Columbia — Edith L. Grosvenor, Florida — James S. Rickards, Georgia— George IV. Wannamaker, Idaho— Raymond H. Snyder, Illi¬ nois — A. L. Whittenberg, Indiana — Charles O. Williams, Iowa — Fred D. Cram, Kansas — Helen Finch (substituting for F. L. Schlagle ), Kentucky — W. S. Tay¬ lor, Louisiana— P. H. Griffith, Maine— W. B. Jack, Maryland— William Burdick, Massachusetts — Annie C. Woodward, Mississippi — H. V. Cooper, Missouri — Thomas J. Walker, Montana — Martin P. Moe, Nebraska — George F. Knipprath, Nevada — M. J. Clark, New Hampshire— L. W. Ewing (substituting for Dana S. Jordan ), New Jersey — Raymond B. Gurley, New Mexico — Vernon 0. Tolle, New York Frederick Houk Law, North Dakota — L. A. White, Ohio — R. E. Offenhauer, Oregon — Birdine Merrill, Pennsylvania — J. Herbert Kelley, Rhode Island — Charles Carroll, South Carolina — A . C. Flora, South Dakota— S. B. Nissen, Tennessee— S. L. Rags¬ dale, Texas — L. W. Rogers, Utah — James T. Worlton, Vermont — Caroline S. Wood¬ ruff, Virginia — Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, Washington— Emery Asbury, West Virginia— W. W. Trent, Wisconsin — Blanche M. McCarthy, Wyoming — H. H. Moyer. Life Directors: Colorado— Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford, Georgia — Willis A. Sutton, Illinois — Robert C. Moore, Indiana — Flenry Lester Smith, Massachusetts — Mary Mc- Skimmon, New York — George D. Strayer, Virginia — Cornelia S. Adair, Virginia — Joseph H. Saunders, Wisconsin — Carroll G. Pearse. President Gray: We are going to stop the reports from directors of states just now and I will remind you that Mr. W hittenberg would like your written report as soon as possible so he may epitomize these reports, and it might be well for you to under¬ line the things you want taken from jmur report before you hand it to the secretary. Then continuing with the agenda the next report is of the Joint Committee of the National Education Association and the American Library Association by the chair¬ man, Miss Liveright. (The report was presented and aroused interest. It is printed elsewhere in this volume. See index.) President Gray: Thank you, Miss Liveright. Mr. Fred D. Cram (Iowa) : I move the adoption of the report. (Motion seconded by Edith L. Grosvenor and carried.) President Gray: The next report we shall have the privilege of listening to will be the report of the Joint Committee of the National Education Association and the National Congress of Parents and Teachers, by Mrs. Langworthy , the president of that organization. {Mrs. Langworthy then presented the report which appears elsewhere in this volume. See index.) President Gray: Mrs. Langworthy , I think we can bid you a great year of success to follow the fine success Mrs. Bradford has had and because of the fine attitude of the teachers as to their responsibility for helping an Association of which there is a fifty-fifty cooperative indication in the title. 886 National Education Association Next is the report of the Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education. Dr. Wood is not here. He is the chairman of the Committee but Dr. Burdick will give that report. (I he report was presented by Dr. Burdick. It is printed elsewhere in this volume. See index.) President Gray: That was interesting. The next report will be the Report of the Committee on Retirement Allowances and it will be given by Miss Force, chairman of the committee. (The report was read by Miss Force. Miss Force answered questions and made explanations. The report is printed elsewhere in this volume. See index.) Miss Caroline S. W oodruff (Vermont) : If it is in order, may I say this word in regard to Miss Force. I think we all realize that all these people who work on these committees are due an expression of appreciation from us for the hard work they do, but it does seem to me the work Anna Laura Force and her committee have been putting into the work of the Committee on Retirement is an outstanding accomplish¬ ment. She has moved, lived, and breathed for this Retirement Report, and. I want to move an especial appreciation from this group to that committee at this time. Mr. Carroll G. Pearse: Second the motion. (The motion carried.) Miss Cornelia S. Adair (Virginia) : I think we forgot to move to adopt the Joint Report of the Health Committee. May I move its adoption? (Motion seconded and carried.) President Gray: Thank you, Miss Adair, for checking us on that. Miss Annie C. Woodward: I move the adoption of Miss Force’s report at this time. (Motion seconded and carried.) Mr. Carroll G. Pearse: I should like a minute or two for a matter that I think pertains to the good of the order. I understand that this is the period for new busi¬ ness, so announced on the program. My personal business kept me here in Washing¬ ton for quite a good many weeks this winter and I saw a good deal of what went on in this tremendous effort that was being made by the Emergency Commission and by the splendid committee of the state superintendents in attempting to wrest from sometimes rather unwilling clutches enough funds to keep the schools open in the different states of the Union. The effort was successful and I know with what agonizing a lot of this work was done. I know it took money to bring men in here, it took money to send telegrams and other communications out to the people thruout the United States in order that they might respond at the proper time and with the proper degree of determination to get done the things that were needed to be done, and I know the strain it was upon those organizations and upon the National Education Association to procure the necessary funds. I know that over and over again the work would have stopped dead if it had not been for the fact that in some way or another the National Education Association stepped into the breach and in some way or another got the funds necessary to carry on this work. Now in this National Education Association of ours we have been running for fifty years, how much longer I won’t attempt to suggest, on a $2 membership fee and I have come to the con¬ clusion personally that the profession of teachers are pikers in trying to get along on a $2 fee for doing all the work that this Association is attempting to do and needs to do. I know if we go downtown and interview the elevator men in some of the business buildings we will find that man pays from $5 to perhaps $10 a quarter to his union. I know a group of teachers in my state who pay into their local associa¬ tion $10 every year as a membership fee. It seems to me that the time has come when this organization ought to take some steps toward increasing its revenues thru membership. (After making other points) I move a committee be appointed by the Chair to consider this matter and report to the directors later during this meeting as to whether something ought to be done, and if so what they suggest. Voice: Second the motion. Associational Records and Information 887 Mr. Joseph Rosier (West Virginia) : Madam Chairman. President Gray: Mr. Rosier. (Mr. Rosier and others spoke on the question.) Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford (Colorado) : Madam Chairman, may I state the motion has not been stated. Then it would be open for discussion. President Gray: He is discussing the motion. Mrs. Bradford: It has not been stated by the Chair. It is not before the Chair. President Gray: The motion made by Mr. Pearse was that a committee be ap¬ pointed to study the subject of the increase of budget or money for the use of this great Association and that they make a report as to the ways and means that that might be done, before the convention closed. Mr. W. T. Machan (Arizona): Madam President, to continue in this particular vein, it seems to me there is one opportunity which we are not developing to the extent that we should I do not want to imply we should not increase the membership fee — but we still have thousands of teachers in the nation who are not members of the National Education Association and in most of our states we have thousands who are not members of our state association. (He urged increasing membership.) I think if we could center some effort on that, perhaps something would be opened in the way of building up a rather careful program, state by state, among school administrators, and doing that one thing I believe would do more good than perhaps we realize. President Gray: During the year I have been convinced that everybody is three times, ten times, a hundred times a better member than he or she was last year. You see the need for service and that is the reason that the spirit of this convention is going to be a living spirit because you have worked this year as you have never worked before and you have seen the need of it. (The question was called for, motion put and carried.) President Gray: Was that committee to be appointed by the Chair? Mr. Pearse: That was in the motion. President Gray: Is there a motion to adjourn? (It was thereupon duly moved, seconded, and upon a vote unanimously carried that the session adjourn.) J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Jessie Gray, President Monday Morning, July 2, 1934 The third meeting of the Board of Directors convened at 9 a. m. in the Board of Directors room of the headquarters building, Joseph Rosier, first vicepresident, presiding. Secretary Crabtree: I am going to call upon Mr. Ashby of the headquarters staff to explain the report which he has just placed in your hands. Mr. Ashby: I think most of you are familiar with these blanks which you will use at the state meetings this noon. You will fill out one for your own records and one to be turned in. We will try to have somebody at the meeting to pick it up but if we do not, please follow the instruction on the first paragraph here and be sure it gets turned in today because we need this report before tomorrow morning’s forenoon session. Is there anyone who hasn’t these blanks now? Mr. Rosier: The Board of Directors will please be in order. The Secretary will call the roll. Secretary Crabtree: Let us call the roll the same as we have been doing. It is the shortest method and will answer our purpose better than any other. Stand and give your names as the name of your state is called. State Directors: Alabama — J. D. Williams, Alaska — Cleo Campbell (substituting for E. J. Beck), Arizona — W. T. Machan, Arkansas — C. M. Hirst, California — J. Russell Croad, Colorado — W. B. Mooney, Connecticut — Helen T. Collins, Delaware — H. V. Holloway, Dist. of Columbia — Edith L. Grosvenor, Florida — James S. Rickards, 888 National Education Association Georgia — George IV. Wannamaker, Hawaii — Thomas Vance (substituting for Oren E. Long), Idaho — Raymond H. Snyder, Illinois — A. L. Whittenberg , Iowa — Fred D. Cram, Kansas — Helen Finch (substituting for F. L. Schlagle), Kentucky — W. S. Taylor, Louisiana— P. H. Griffith, Maine — IV. B. Jack, Maryland— William Burdick, Massachusetts — Annie C. Woodward, Minnesota — Harry L. IV ahlstrand, Missis¬ sippi—//. V. Cooper, Missouri — Thomas J. Walker, Nebraska— George F. Knipp- rath, Nevada M. J. Clark, New Hampshire — L. W. Ewing (substituting for Dana S. Jordan ), New Jersey — Raymond B. Gurley, New Mexico — Vernon 0. Tolle, New York — Frederick Houk Law, North Carolina — T. IV. Andrews, Ohio — R. E. Offen- hauer, Oklahoma— Paul R. Taylor (substituting for Clay IV. Kerr), Oregon— Birdine Merrill, Rhode Island— Charles Carroll, South Carolina —A. C. Flora, South Dakota — S. B. Nissen, Tennessee — S. L. Ragsdale, Texas— L. IV. Rogers, Utah— James T. Worlton, Virginia— Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, Washington— Emery Asbury, West Virginia — W . W. Trent, Wisconsin— Blanche M. McCarthy, Wyoming—//. H. Moyer. Life Members: Colorado— Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford, Georgia— Willis A. Sutton, Illinois — Robert C. Moore, Indiana — Henry Lester Smith, Massachusetts — Mary McSkimmon, Missouri — JJ el W. Lamkin, Nebraska— E. Ruth Pyrtle, Tennessee— P. P. Claxton, Virginia —Cornelia S. Adair, Virginia— Joseph H. Saunders, West Virginia — Joseph Rosier, Wisconsin — Carroll G. Pearse. Mr. Rosier: Miss Gray, the president of the Association, asked me to express her regrets and to explain that she is presiding over the general session at this hour and she has designated me to preside over this Directors’ meeting this forenoon. In this connection and on my own account, I want to extend greetings to all of the directors. As those who have been serving the last two or three years know, I have always been very strong for the directors. I have thought that the directors, the office of director, ought to be magnified in this Association. I had occasion in a little group of past presidents yesterday morning, in reviewing the events of the past, to say that among all my associates in the Association in the last few years those that I treasured as much as any other was my contact with the state directors. And I want to express my appreciation to the men and women who have been serving for years past, to compliment you on the fine service you have rendered as state directors, and also to extend cordial greeting and welcome to the young men and women I see here. Quite a number of younger men and women have come in in the last year and I want to extend a cordial welcome to you. I approve very thoroly of the program worked out for the directors at this convention. Now if there are no further announcements we will proceed with the order of business. The first is the report of the Committee on Rural Education of which Willis A. Sutton is chairman. {Mr. Sutton presented the report on Rural Education which is printed elsewhere in this volume. See index.) Mr. Rosier: The next is the report of the Committee To Cooperate with the National Association of Teachers in Colored Schools, N. C. Newbold, chairman. Is Mr. Newbold present? We will pass that report then for the present. Mr. Newbold may come in later. The Report of the Committee on International Relations, Annie C. Woodward, chairman. - {Miss W oodward then presented the Report on International Relations which is printed elsewhere in this volume. See index.) Mr. H. V . Holloway (Delaware) : In order to conform to the usual procedure, I move both of these reports be accepted. (Motion seconded by Mr. Sutton and carried.) Mr. W . B. Jack (Maine) : Has this last report been distributed? Miss W oodward: It has and if you haven’t a copy, Mr. Ewing of New Hamp¬ shire will be glad to give you one. Associational Records and Information 889 Mr. Robert C. Moore (Illinois) : I observe one of the reports to be given to this body this morning is the report of the Committee on Civil Service for Teachers, which was formerly called the Committee on Tenure. I say with all respect of course to the Board of Directors, on which I have had the honor of serving for sometime, that I happen to know that quite a number of the members of the Repre¬ sentative Assembly are beginning to feel that possibly too many reports are made to the Board of Directors and excluded from a hearing or statement on the floor of the Representative Assembly. I happen to know that quite a large number of teachers are very vitally interested this year in the report of this Committee on Tenure or Civil Service and I would beg leave to suggest that this report be given here this morning but that it also be given to the Representative Assembly if ten or fifteen minutes can be found for that purpose sometime before the close of the meeting. I believe it would help the National Education Association. It would establish, renew, and strengthen confidence of the teachers in the work of the Association if this report were given ten or fifteen minutes or at least five minutes before the Representative Assembly. I am not making that as a motion but I hope somebody will. The Chair: Mr. Moore, will you hold that in abeyance until the report is presented and then make a motion? Mr. Moore: I am due at another meeting. I have been for sometime. If it is presented at once I will wait. The Chair: Well, we will keep your suggestion in mind and somebody will carry it out. Mr. Moore: I thank you. Miss Cornelia S. Adair: As a matter of information, aren’t all these reports going to the Delegate Assembly? Mr. Rosier: I think that is a matter for this Board to decide. I presume that the most of these reports are scheduled on the program of the Representative Assembly, are they not? Miss Adair: I think they will all go. At least it has been the custom. Mr. Rosier: It has been customary in the past. Miss Adair: I certainly would like to see that report go. I would like to see them all go because I think the delegates have a right to them. Mr. Rosier: Mr. Crabtree, these various reports are scheduled to appear on the regular program, are they not? Secretary Crabtree: Some of them are, others will be as brought forward with whatever recommendations are made. Mr. Rosier: I think such reports will be presented to the Representative Assembly as the Board of Directors direct. This probably is a preliminary meeting where we go over preliminary reports and carry on those that we think the Representative Assembly ought to have. Miss Adair: Mr. President, a matter of information, I was not aware of the fact that the Directors had the authority to decide whether or not a report be presented to the General Assembly. I was under the impression that all reports went to the General Assembly and we simply accepted them. I wondered if the secretary would be willing to let us know what reports are scheduled in order that we may express an opinion on others which are not scheduled? Mr. Rosier: May I say now before we conclude the discussions this morning and the actions of this Board of Directors, that we will go into the matter of recom¬ mendations by the Board to the Representative Assembly in the passage of such resolutions and the making of such suggestions as this Board may deem wise for the Representative Assembly. That will be made the order of business later. Now the next report is the one to which Mr. Moore has referred, that is the report of the Committee on Civil Service for Teachers. May I explain so that we may all understand that part, after considerable investigation and study and sending out of questionnaires, that the name of the old Committee on Tenure 890 National Education Association was changed to the Committee on Civil Service for Teachers. There seemed to be a very strong sentiment in favor of that change, such a sentiment that the Executive Committee felt justified in making the change. It is the Committee on Tenure under a new name and a more inclusive name we think and the report of that Committee will be made at this time by Donald DuShane of Indiana, the chairman. (Mr. DuShane then presented the report on Tenure which is presented elsewhere in this volume. See index.) Mr. Frederick Houk Law (New York) : Mr. Chairman, in moving to accept this report, I take pleasure in saying that I consider this report one of the most valuable reports we have received. I hope sincerely that this will be put before the general body, strongly, emphatically. There is nothing that the National Association can do to make the dignity of the teachers stronger than to promote tenure of office. This report of course will be published and it should be emphasized and the whole force of the National Education Association should be back of the protection and dignity of the teaching profession and set us free from the realm of political power which has had such a bad effect upon the schools. I move the adoption of this report. (The motion was seconded by Edith L. Grosvenor and carried.) Mr. Rosier: I want especially to join Mr. Law in complimenting the work of Mr. DuShane and his committee. I agree that there is no more vital question con¬ fronting the teaching profession of the United States today than the problems which this committee is studying. They certainly have done a fine piece of work and it should be carried on. I hope the directors and state associations will take up this work along the same lines and push it in every part of the country. Mr. Offenhauer. Mr. R. E. Offenhauer (Ohio): Do I understand that this will definitely be pre¬ sented then to the Representative Assembly? Mr. Rosier: That is the recommendation of the Board of Direcors. In adopting the report we included in it a recommendation that it be presented to the General Assembly. Mr. Offenhauer: No further motion then is necessary? Mr. Rosier: No. Mr. Offenhauer: I would just like to say this, this may clutter up the business quite a bit, but the two reports we have just had, the one on rural education and the one on international relations, if we could have those also presented before the Representative Assembly briefly, I think it would be well. Sometimes I think the value of our work dies within the organization and if we could get these presented to the larger group it would be a very fine thing. Now that may take time beyond which we can go but if it could be done in this organization we need to think of rural schools, we need to think of international affairs and these reports ought to find their way to the Representative Assembly if that is possible, and if it is in order I would like to make a motion also that these reports be given briefly to the Representative Assembly. Mr. IV . B. Mooney (Colorado) : Mr. Chairman, I realize what Mr. Offenhauer — Mr. Rosier (interrupting): Are you seconding the motion? Mr. Mooney: I would like to amend it. Miss Adair: I want to second the motion then. Mr. Rosier. The motion is seconded and now you can make your remarks and your motion. Mr. Mooney: I realize the report and the type of service just listened to — unfor¬ tunately I did not hear the one to which Mr. Off enhauer referred — but the teachers are interested in tenure at this time, also intensely interested in retirement. Now I do not want to prolong the sessions of the Representative Assembly but it does seem to me that the report which Miss Force gave last Saturday might be included in the reports that we would ask be given to the Representative Assembly, and I would move to amend this to include that report. Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford: I second that motion. Associational Records and Information 891 Miss Adair: I second that. It does not need to even be an amendment. Mr. Rosier: That is accepted as an addition to the motion without passing on the amendment. (Carried.) Secretary Crabtree: Another thing — all these important reports will be printed in the volume of Proceedings. Mr. Rosier: I think before coming to the last report that I will now go back to the report of the Committee To Cooperate with the National Association of Teachers in Colored Schools. I understand Mr. Ncwbold is now here. Will you please make your report? (Mr. Nenvbold then presented the report on colored schools which is printed else¬ where in this volume. See index.) Mr. Carroll G. Pearse: Mr. Chairman, I wish to move in accepting this very interesting report that either a summary or the full form of it be presented to the Delegate Assembly. (Seconded and carried.) Mr. Rosier: We now come to the last report of the National Commission on the Enrichment of Adult Life and Miss Gray asked me particularly to express her appreciation of the work which has been done by that committee. As you all knowr, adult education in the last year has taken on proportions we had not dreamed of a few years ago and probably next to the problem of tenure and retirement there is no educational movement that is of greater interest than that of the enrichment of adult life. It is my pleasure now to present James A. Moyer , chairman of the Commission, who will make the report. (The report is printed elsewhere in this volume. See index.) Mr. Rosier: What is your desire with reference to this report? Miss Edith L. Grosvcnor (District of Columbia) : I move the report be received. (Seconded and carried.) Miss Cornelia S. Adair: I want to speak to that a minute if I may. There is just one point in that report as a matter of practical business I would hate to see published in our reports. That is the matter of securing funds from the Road Fund. Mr. Moyer: The report stated the funds might be better used for the schools than making new roads, but the Commission can remove that. Miss Adair: Yes, I move it be done, so that they do not know what we are going to do. Mr. Rosier: That is the suggestion which the committee will heed in making its final draft of the report. Now there are a few matters of unfinished business before us. You will recall at the meeting Saturday afternoon Mr. Pearse made a motion which was passed and there was some discussion of that motion concerning the matter of increasing the revenues of the Association and the resolutions provided for the appointment of a committee to discuss this problem and to make recommendations. Miss Gray has appointed the following committee: Birdine Merrill, Caroline S. Woodruff, William B. Jack, Cornelia Adair, J. H. Kelley, and Carroll G. Pearse, chairman. It is suggested they might meet together after the conclusion of this meeting. I think they should make a report by Friday afternoon. May I ask all those who were not present at the roll call at th'e opening of the meeting to stand and report. Mr. U el Lamkiji (Missouri) : May I suggest there may be some members of this Board of Directors who would like to meet the past presidents of the Association at this meeting and I would ask Dr. Joyner, who was elected president in 1909 and served in 1909-10 be asked to speak a moment to the Board of Directors. Mr. Rosier: With unanimous consent, we will invite Dr. Joyner to come to the platform so we may all see one of the finest and grandest gentlemen in the United States. Dr. James Y. Joyner (North Carolina) : Mr. Chairman and ladies and gentlemen: You notice my blushes. I am almost overcome with this fine recognition of your 892 National Education Association friendships and while I recognize the exaggeration of it I am like the young woman who, no matter how ugly she may be, loves to be told she is pretty. I have been greatly interested in the attendance here at this meeting. It has been an occasion of joy touched with sorrow. It has been a joy to see so many old faces and a sorrow to miss so many old faces. As I stand here in this meeting looking over this body something touches the electric chord of memory and the happy past rises like a sweet dream before me. They have passed on but it behooves us who are carrying on so well to take up the banner of universal education falling from their hands and, under God, to bear it to higher heights in honor and glory. I have been greatly encouraged by the evidences of progress toward this end that I heard a few minutes ago by the reports and by the fine attendance I have noticed at this Association. I must not detain you with longer remarks. I shall be here to shake hands with all my old friends and to make friends with all the new ones. Mr. Rosier: I will ask Secretary Crabtree now to make all the announcements he has in mind. Secretary Crabtree: I shall make them very brief indeed. (Secretary Crabtree thereupon suggested that if expense blanks had not been procured by each member that they secure them at the chairman’s table.) . Secretary Crabtree: A Department of Music Education is requested and recogni¬ tion has to come from the Board of Directors to the Representative Assembly. We do not have a Department of Music Education at this time. We had one and it was very good for a long time but owing to the failure to attend meetings it fell down and now some four or five thousand names signed to petitions have come in and they have the feeling they will not lose out again. Recommendations have been coming in, everything has been fine, the group is holding a meeting at this time and every rule has been complied with. I recommend that the Board of Directors authorize the secretary to carry the recommendation of the Board of Directors to the Representative Assembly that a Department of Music be created. Mr. Carroll G. Pearse (Wisconsin): Mr. Chairman, I would make a motion that the recommendation of the secretary be accepted. (Seconded and carried.) Mr. Roner: I have a motion submitted here with the approval of Miss Gray. ow this resolution was prepared by a very distinguished head of a department of education in one of our larger universities and is submitted to you for your consideration. I think myself it is a matter of considerable importance and I will read it. It is just two paragraphs: Resolved, first, That a committee of seven be appointed to be known as the Committee on Educational Cooperation, which will be authorized to determine the attitude of other organizations and agencies having a national following toward cooperating with the National Education Association in the discussion of national educational problems and in the formation and furtherance of what is jointly agreed upon. t Second, that the said committee report to the Executive Committee of the N. E. A. as early as possible upon the advisability of such cooperation and upon the form which such contacts with organizations indicated that cooperation should take. Now that resolution is presented by Mr. Yokum of the University of Pennsylvania and I am not sure just what action the Board of Directors should take about it but it is an idea which was a favorite of mine all last year and which I think we ought to consider and that is the idea of getting an alliance or an affiliation with other organizations who have an interest in the promotion of education. We have done some very effective things. Last year we established a very effective cooperation with the American Legion. There has been more or less cooperation Associational Records and Information 893 with other national organizations. I am sure that both in the state and in the nation a great deal of effective work might be done for education by working in coopera¬ tion with these other national organizations. But here is a resolution. It is endorsed by Miss Gray , presented by Mr. Yokum, and submitted to you. Do you wish to take action on it? Mr. Carroll G. Pearse: Mr. Chairman, I move that the resolution be referred to a committee of three persons, of whom Mr. Rosier shall be chairman, and two other members, to be selected by him, to report to this body when we meet again Tuesday. (Motion seconded and carried.) Mr. Rosier: I will name the other two members of that committee in a few minutes. Now are there any other matters of unfinished business or new business that ought to come before this Board of Directors at this time? Mr. Carroll G. Pearse: Mr. Chairman, one matter of information that perhaps might be germane at this time. I notice in the business meeting scheduled for Tuesday morning there is an item which says, “Amendment to the bylaws.” We have a rather important amendment to the bylaws pending and I should like to inquire whether this indicates that that matter is to be taken up at that time instead of being acted on on Friday morning as has been the custom in the past. Most of the members will expect the amendments to come up on Friday if they do not read their programs carefully, and I wondered whether this indicates that those bylaw amendments are to be taken up and settled at that time. Perhaps the chairman or the secretary can tell us. Secretary Crabtree: I understand that a motion is likely to be made at the meeting on Tuesday morning that the vote on the amendment be made by ballot at the usual time of balloting, and I presume that a motion will be made at that time. The plan would be for the vote on the amendment to be announced at the same time the officers are elected. Mr. Pearse: Mr. Chairman, in that case will the ballots be distributed to the persons who are entitled to vote at the time they get their ballots for officers, and will those ballots be put in the ballot box with the vote for officers, or will they be brought to the meeting on Friday morning where the matter could be taken up and discussed pro and con? Secretary Crabtree: That is yet to be decided, but it is the idea of those who are thinking of having the vote by ballot of voting at the time of the other voting by ballot and to use the same ballot boxes. Mr. Pearse: I understood, Mr. Chairman, that there was a year ago a motion made that the pro and con arguments for this proposed amendment should be prepared and submitted to the members at this meeting. Am I correct about that? Mr. Rosier: Mr. Saunders, was such a resolution passed in Chicago? Mr. Joseph Ii. Saunders (Virginia) : I think it was, altho I am not absolutely certain about it. I think Mr. Crabtree could tell you whether that resolution passed or not. Secretary Crabtree: That resolution failed to pass. Mr. Saunders: A committee was appointed to prepare arguments for and against. Such a committee was appointed and afterwards discharged, so I do not know any more than that. Why the committee should have been appointed and discharged I do not know. I have not inquired. Mr. Rosier: Now the question has come up about whether the Board of Directors should make suggestions or propose regulations for the Representative Assembly. I have been rather doubtful in my mind and rather lean to the notion that the Representative Assembly should enact its own regulations. For example, this matter you are talking about, the balloting, which is quite an acute question seemingly, what is the opinion of the Board of Directors about that? 894 National Education Association Mr. George tV . tV annamaker (Georgia) : Mr. Chairman, do we not have copies of the minutes of that particular session? We might refer to them to know definitely what happened. Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford: Mr. Chairman, it seems to me very unwise and that we are transcending absolutely our powers to suggest to the Representative Assembly, which is the governing body, what it shall do with its own nominations. Mr. W annamaker: Mr. Chairman, members of the Board of Directors: I wish to read just two statements here from the minutes of the particular session we have been discussing: " President Rosier recognized Mr. Saunders. Mr. Saunders followed with arguments against the amendment. President Rosier: ‘Is it the desire of the Assembly to continue this discussion?’ Voices: 'No! No!’ Voices: ‘Question »’ Mr Charles Carroll (Rhode Island): ‘Ask for roll call by states on the question.’ Mr. George JV. IVannamaker (Georgia): ‘Second the motion.’ Motion put and carried. This is the minutes of what happened, if you want to know what happened. Mr. Carroll G. Pearse: Mr. Chairman, we are wandering a little from the point which is immediately under discussion. I was interested in the statement of the secretary that this committee which was to be appointed or which was proposed failed of approval by the body, therefore there was no committee and no authorized persons to make a statement one way or another. May I ask then how this rather extraordinary statement in favor of this amendment appears in the material which is supplied to all of the delegates? There is a letter in there from a proponent of this amendment which contains some rather extraordinary statements and there is nothing on the other side. I would like to inquire by whose authority, what way or how this happened to be included in the material given out to us? Mr. IV annamaker : Mr. Chairman, I rise to make a motion in regard to this matter. I concur absolutely in the statement made that the Board of Directors not dictate to the General Assembly on what is to be done. I make a motion we leave this matter entirely in the hands of the General Assembly and discontinue the discussion thereof. Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford: I second the motion. Mr. Rosier: I do not know whether that motion is necessary or not but if you want to pass it, all right. (Motion carried.) Mr. Rosier: Are there any other items of business to come before the Board of Directors at this time? Mr. Pearse: Mr. Chairman, I tvould like to have the information I asked for. The question is how and by whose authority this extraordinary statement in favor of this amendment appears in the envelopes of all delegates? Mr. Rosier. So far as the chairman is concerned, Mr. Pearse, I have not seen it. In fact I have been so busy I haven’t found time to register in this Association yet and haven’t seen the letter you refer to. Is there anybody here who can explain how that communication happens to be there? Mr. Fred D. Ciam (Iowa): Mr. Chairman, the statement is made in connection with it that both sides were asked to make some explanation of their attitude and only one side responded. That is stated in Miss Gray’s statement in the letter. Miss Cornelia S. Adair: You recall before this meeting the president of the Virginia association was asked to make a statement. It happened that our director from Virginia had been asked to head the committee until Miss Gray found that a committee was not necessary. Therefore, we did not understand why the president of the Virginia association was asked to make a statement that the director of the Virginia association had been asked to prepare previously. For that reason Virginia felt that she had no part to play in this particular matter. Mr. Rosier: I am sorry that Miss Gray is not here to make any explanation but Mr. Crabtree will make it for her. Secretary Crabtree: Miss Gray, in the first place, was of the impression and those she talked with in the office were of the impression that a motion had been Associational Records and Information 895 passed to have a committee appointed and so a committee was appointed. But then after looking the matter up and calling attention to the fact that the motion had failed to carry, the action appointing a committee was rescinded. Miss Gray , thinking all would appreciate information on both sides of the question, selected two people, one on each side of the question. While one of the statements was made the other was not made. At the last moment Miss Gray let the one she did receive go into the envelope. Her desire in all of this was to get definite information before you. I am sure she did not mean to take advantage of anyone. I just make that explana¬ tion for her. I am sure that is the same explanation she would make if she were here. Mr. Rosier: Any further questions or remarks? Mr. Pearse: It is done and I simply wish to express my surprise that that sort of thing should have been done. Mr. Rosier: Are there any further remarks? If not, a motion to adjourn until 2 o’clock tomorrow afternoon will be received. (Motion made, seconded and carried.) J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Joseph Rosier, Acting President Tuesday Afternoon, July 3, 1934 The meeting of the Board of Directors scheduled for 2 p. m. in the Board of Diiectors room, headquarters building, was called to order at that hour by Secretary Crabtree. ■' Secretary Crabtree: A motion has been made and seconded that Mr. Sutton preside until the piesident arrives. (Carried. Mr. Sutton took the chair.) Mr. Sutton: I do not know who made that motion but I never heard it. Secretary Crabtree will call the roll. (The roll call showed the following delegates present.) State Directors: Alabama — J. D. Williams , Alaska — Cleo Campbell (Substituting for E. J. Beck), Arizona — W. T. Machan, Arkansas — C. M. Hirst, California J. Russell Croad, Colorado — W . B. Mooney, Connecticut — Helen T. Collins, Delaware _ H. V. Holloway, District of Columbia— Edith L. Grosvenor, Florida— James S. Rickards, Georgia— George W. Wannamaker, Hawaii — Thomas Vance (Substi¬ tuting for Oren E. Long), Idaho — Raymond H. Snyder, Illinois — A. L. W hittenberg , Indiana Charles O. Williams, Iowa — Fred D. Cram, Kansas — Helen Finch (Sub¬ stituting for F. L. Schlagle), Kentucky — W. S. Taylor, Louisiana — P. H. Griffith, Maine W. B. Jack, Maryland— William Burdick, Michigan — E. T. Cameron Min- nesota— Harry L. Wahlstrand, Mississippi —H. V. Cooper, Missouri —Thomas J. Walker, Montana — Martin P. Moe, Nebraska — George F. Knipprath, Nevada _ M. J. Clark, New Hampshire — L. W. Ewing (Substituting for Dana S. Jordan) New Jersey— Raymond B. Gurley, New Mexico— Vernon O. Tolle, Ohio — R. E. Offenhauer, Oklahoma — Paul R. Taylor (Substituting for Clay W. Kerr), Penn¬ sylvania — J. Herbert Kelley, Rhode Island — Charles Carroll, South Carolina— yL C. Flora, South Dakota — S. B. Nissen, Tennessee — S. L. Ragsdale, Texas — L. W. Rogers, Utah— James T. Worlton, Virginia— Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, Washington— Emery Asbury, Wisconsin— Blanche M. McCarthy, Wyoming —H. H. Moyer. Life Directors: Colorado — Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford, Georgia — Willis A. Sutton, Illinois — Robert C. Moore, Indiana — Henry Lester Smith, Missouri — JJ el W. Lam kin, Virginia— Joseph H. Saunders, Virginia— Cornelia S. Adair, Wisconsin— Carroll G. Pearse, Tennessee — P. P. Claxton. Mr. Sutton: The first matter of business, Mr. Allan of the headquarters staff wants to make an announcement. Mr. Allan: This is an announcement regarding the expenses, please. Will all 896 National Education Association who have not turned in your expenses please make an effort to do so this afternoon before you leave the building? (He answered questions.) Mr. Sutton: Our next order is unfinished business. Is there anything to bring for¬ ward under that heading? Mr. Emery Asbury (Washington) : Mr. President, we were to have a report of the Committee on Proposed Additional Revenues to the Association, or was that Friday? Mr. Sutton: Friday it seems to be. The main item for this session is the report of the Budget Committee. Mr. Rogers, we are ready to hear from you. Mr. C. G. Pears e (Wisconsin) : It is the intention of the committee on revenue to present its report this afternoon so that the Board of Directors may know about it and if it is thought best it can be presented to the Representative Assembly. Mr. Sutton: All right. Mr. Rogers. Mr. L. W. Rogers (Texas) : I think you will all agree it is too hot for a man to wear a bullet proof vest on an afternoon like this, so I haven’t on any protection. I will be very glad for you to ask any question as I go thru the report, in the same way I have done heretofore, and I shall be very glad to answer it if I can or have some of the other members of the committee answer for your satisfaction. I will just say one word before I begin the report and that is that following the customary procedure of the Budget Committee, the Committee met here in Washing¬ ton in April for a preliminary study of the financial situation with a view to prepar¬ ing a budget at this meeting and then the Committee met here with all the members present on Thursday, and has been in almost continuous session since that time. We have endeavored, and I think successfully, to give every person, every department, every committee an opportunity to come before the Committee and present his or its request. It has been a wide-open procedure so far as the Committee has been concerned in giving an opportunity to all concerned to present any requests they might have. Certainly you will understand we haven’t been able to do everything that we were asked to do. (Mr. Rogers went over the report which is printed elsewhere in this volume ex¬ plaining increases and decreases and answering questions. He insisted on each di¬ rector’s giving attention to each item so that all could vote intelligently on the budget. He stopped to pay the following compliment to the staff:) Mr. Rogers: All of you are familiar with the very splendid attitude the staff has taken here during the last two or three years, taking leaves of absence without pay and going on and doing the job just the same. The fact of the business is we would not have been able to have gotten thru the last two years if the staff had not adopted that attitude and this is as good a place as any to state that I am authorized by Mr. Crabtree, the secretary of the Association, to say that if after we have proceeded a few months on this budget with the restoration of the increment and with the restoration of the part of the salary cuts, it is seen that we cannot carry out the full measure of this budget that he and his staff stand ready to do just what they have done before and to waive that 5 percent and return to the original 10 percent reduction. That is a pledge on the part of the secretary to see us safely thru on that score. (After answering many questions he proceeded.) In addition to that we have made this recommendation: It is recommended that all committees authorized by the Representative Assembly and appointed by the president be automatically discharged with the acceptance of their respective reports by the Board of Directors and the Representative Assembly; that the president acting with the Executive Committee be authorized to continue such of the existing Committees as seem necessary and desirable and to appoint such additional committees for the current year as the Executive Committee may deem necessary; that the membership of each committee so appointed shall consist of (a) active members and (b) advisory members; that the active membership of each committee shall not exceed five in number and that the advisory membership of each committee shall consist of as many members as the president thinks ad- Associational Records and Information 897 visable ; that the appropriation for committee activities shall be apportioned by the xecutive Committee to the committees according to their respective needs. You will recall that up to about five years ago it was our custom, and I do not now how long it has been the custom, to recommend appropriations against antici¬ pated revenues. In other words, we had no money to appropriate; we were simply appropriating money we hoped to get during the next year. The Budget Committee came before this Board in one of its reports and recommended definitely that the oard adopt a policy of setting up a cash reserve each year to the end that within a limited period, or within a reasonable period, we wrould be in a position to appro¬ priate cash, not anticipated revenue. That policy was adopted by this Board to build up a reserve fund looking toward an emergency that might arise and when the emergency arose— I guess you are cognizant of the fact it has arisen — we had accumulated by that means approximately $150,000. Now that $150,000, which is now down to about $45,000, has been the big item in enabling us to go forward during the past two years without seriously crippling the institutions of the Association. The Committee comes to you today in this report and wishes again to recommend the adoption of the policy setting up a reserve annually, at least 10 percent of the annua* revenues, for the purpose of again building up a cash reserve that should enable us within a reasonable time to operate on the basis of at least 50 percent cash and 50 percent anticipated revenue and I am going to include that as a part of the report, that that policy be adopted with this report when you see fit to adopt it. Mr. Chairman, I move the adoption of the report filed. Mr. Sutton: The report is before you. A motion has been made to adopt and a second has been made to that motion. Are you now ready for discussion of the question ? . Mr. Asbury: Speaking of course largely from inexperience rather than from expe¬ rience or adding to anyone’s knowledge on the subject, there has been some dis¬ appointment expressed from some of our delegates that the amount apportioned for delegate expenses has been so small and has been less than heretofore obtained. Mr. Sutton: That is a question, Mr. Rogers, would you care to answer? {Mr. Rogers then explained the reasons in detail why the Association cannot on a $2 fee pay very much on expenses.) Mr. Rogers: (When asked about the increase in the appropriation for the Board of Trustees) . As all of you know, Mr. Crabtree’s term of office has expired, a matter of limitation under the bylaws of this organization. It will devolve upon the Board of Trustees to find his successor. Now all of us who know Mr. Crabtree and value his services and I do not think any of us can place too high a value on his services feel that the Board of Trustees ought to exercise very great care, should be very careful, should take all the time that is necessary to do the job that devolves upon them, and we as a Committee felt that if the Board of Trustees should find it necessary to do a little traveling around and looking into various local bailiwicks they ought to be able to do it. In other words, it is a proposition of relieving the Board of Trustees of any pressure to hasten the action, or ill-advised action, or acting without all the facts they should have. . Mr. Sutton: Is there any further discussion? Any question with reference to any item in the budget? While we do not want to take any unnecessary time, I am sure I am expressing the opinion of Miss Gray, if she were here, and of Mr. Crabtree and Mr. Rogers and this Committee that we want people informed before voting. Mr. H. V. Holloway (Delaware) : I wonder if the motion, Mr. Chairman, carries with it the adoption of the recommendation on page 8? Mr. Sutton: Yes, the motion carries with it the adoption of the recommendation with reference to the committees. Mr. Uel IV. Lamkin (Missouri): Mr. Chairman, may I ask a question? At the meeting of the Legislative Commission the other day, Superintendent Richmond of Kentucky made a statement that the estimate for his Committee was $7500. Now if 898 National Education Association I understand it, that can be appropriated out of this $13,000, can be appropriated by the Executive Committee, that part of it, or such part as is necessary. Mr. Sutton: Yes, sir. Mr. Lamkin: And in the judgment of the Budget Committee is the appropriation of $13,400 sufficient to take care of that $7500 item also? Mr. Rogers: In our judgment that was all that was available. Mr. Lamkin: But the entire $7500 or even more of it can be appropriated by the Executive Committee? Mr. Rogers: That would be up to the Executive Committee to, decide, even resort to a part of the emergency fund if they saw necessary to do it. Mr. Lamkin: That appropriation then will take care of that amount that Superin¬ tendent Richmond expected for relief? Mr. Rogers: Mr. Lamkin, not only that, but we have felt all the way thru in a case of that kind, if an emergency arose of sufficient gravity, the group would be justified in going in the red a little and putting it up to the Board of Directors. I do not think there would be any question about that because when in the battle nobody is going to question that. I think that $4500 comes in that, the Legislative Commission budget. Mr. Lamkin: I was interested to see if the entire amount of Mr. Richmond’s esti¬ mate could be available if necessary and you state it can, and that is the only thing I am interested in. Mr. J. Herbert Kelley (Pennsylvania) : Mr. Chairman, may I ask a question about one item and that is on page 8? The Association Membership Fees, for my own information and perhaps for that of the other Directors, will you tell us just the actual financial arrangement between the N. E. A. and the W. F. E. A.? Mr. Rogers: Will you do that, Mr. Crabtree? Mr. Crabtree: In the World Federation, our membership fee is $1000 a year and this is to cover that fee of $1000. And we also pay a membership fee of $100 to the American Council on Education and a $100 membership fee to the United States Chamber of Commerce. That makes up the $1200. Mr. Sutton: Any further question? If there is no further discussion, I will put the motion on the adoption of the budget and with the recommendation with reference to committees. Mr. Kelley: And also with reference to the matter of further reserves which Mr. Rogers mentioned. Mr. Sutton: Yes, the two recommendations, one that we should begin now to set aside 10 percent. Mr. Mooney (Interrupting) : Not 10 percent but some amount. Mr. Sutton: Yes, not 10 percent but some amount that would build up a fund, and that a committee is automatically suspended, goes out of business when its report is in, to be reappointed and established as an active committee or advisory. Mr. Rogers: That is in the body of the report too. (Question being called for, motion put and carried, and the report declared adopted with the recommendations therein contained.) Mr. Rogers: I want to take this occasion to express my sincere appreciation of the treatment the Board of Directors has accorded me as chairman of the Budget Committee. It has been a most pleasant experience and I do not know of anything of which I shall be prouder than the fact that in practically every case the report which the Committee has brought to you, like this, has been adopted as you have adopted this one today. I appreciate it more than I can express and I will say it has only been by the very hearty cooperation of all. Mr. George IV. W annamaker (Georgia) : Mr. Chairman, having served on the Budget Committee for three years myself and being familiar with it, I rise to offer this motion that we record a special vote of thanks of the Board of Directors to the Budget Committee for the very special service which they have rendered. Associational Records and Information 899 Mr. A. L. Whittenberg (Illinois): Second the motion. (Question called for, motion put and carried.) Mr. Sutton: Mr. Whittenberg. ,.|5 ll'hltlenher9-' Mr. Chairman, as a member of the Budget Committee I should ,S “ >:ou 3 m^sage from the entire Committee. It just happens at this at ,hU e °Ur ch3l™an" A' W- ^‘rs of Texas, retires from the Board of Directors session of the N. E. A. and therefore retires from the Budget Committee In our last meeting of the Committee yesterday I was delegated to express the very excellent feeling in the minds of each member of this Committee for our friend Mr. Rogers , who has been our efficient chairman. The Budget Committee has taken very seriously the duties that you have imposed upon it. It has gone definitely into every detail of your finances. It has undertaken to be faithful to the Association in M re“mmendatIons- In al> Aose matters of inquiry and in all of our deliberations - r. Rogers has been courteous in his dealings with the members of the Committee and with all people concerned in this matter. The other members of the Budget Committee would like to have you know our kindly feeling toward our retiring chairman, Mr. Rogers. Mr. Lamkin: It is my understanding that Mr. Whittenberg is not returning as a member of the Board of Directors and Mr. Rogers is not returning as a member °f Thf^°ard of D;rect°rs. I do not believe in not telling what you have in your mind, so I believe in telling what I have in my mind and that is that on Friday, unless somebody else does it, I am going to move the third member who goes off this year Mr. Mooney , that the rules be suspended as to him and that Mr. Mooney be elected to serve the unexpired term of Mr. Whittenberg so that we may still continue three members of this Budget Committee and I am merely serving notice at this time that u ™0tlT W1 be made and recluest we consider the suspension of the rules so that Mr. Mooney may serve the unexpired time of Mr. Whittenberg and so that three members may be continued from year to year. Mr. Sutton: All right. Now Mr. Pearse. (Report of Special Committee on Increased Revenue for the Association is printed elsewhere in this volume. See index.) Mr. Pearse: Mr. Chairman, if the report meets the approval of the Board of Di¬ rectors, your Committee believes it is advisable to have it presented to the Repre¬ sentative Assembly for their approval and if possible for wider dissemination than the matter gets thru this mere reading here. (Motion made, seconded, and carried for the adoption of the report.) (At this point President Jessie Gray entered the meeting.) President Gray (presiding) : What was your pleasure about putting that on the program Friday? Mr. W. B. Mooney: I move it be put on the program Friday for discussion at the Representative Assembly. Mr. J. D. Williams (Alabama) : Second the motion. (Motion carried.) President Gray: Is there anything to be brought before the Board of Directors for new business? Miss Adair. Miss Cornelia S. Adair (Virginia) : Madam President, I have had it in my mind to propose an amendment to the constitution. I cannot do it now because it would be construed as a campaign speech for two of our candidates for the presidency. I have heard that there may be in the resolutions something that will cover the point I was going to bring up. So if I may have your permission to wait until I can get a copy of the resolutions and if the matter I wish to bring to your attention is in the resolutions, there will be no need for my discussion in this committee. President Gray: I think you have covered it. Mr. Sutton: I would like to bring to the attention of the Board of Directors one thing that has been brought to my attention by the various department heads with reference to membership. Those people have very wisely said that they thought 900 National Education Association their membership ought really to become a working and functioning membership and that if, in the letters sent out from headquarters, we could indicate to the people as they come in — thru the Classroom Department, thru the Primary-Kindergarten Department, thru the Rural Education Department, thru the Adult Education Depart¬ ment, thru the Department of Superintendence, and thru other departments — that there is a particular phase of the National Education Association’s work for practi¬ cally everybody who is engaged in teaching. (He continued and outlined plans for cooperation which would mean a larger and better informed Association.) Miss Helen T. Collins (Connecticut) : Madam Chairman, I would like to bring up a matter now I am not sure whether it belongs to this Board but since this is the only Board I am a member of I am going to take the liberty of bringing it up and having it referred, if necessary, to the proper people. Sometime ago I was approached and asked if I would present to this Board an insurance plan for health and accident insurance which might become a national policy of this Association. At the time I was not willing to do it and said so but in this talk about need for increased membership, it has occurred to me this might be another type of service the Association might offer as an inducement to member¬ ship in this Association. With your permission, Miss Gray, I will give you this program. President Gray: Thank you, Miss Collins . That report might be referred to the Executive Committee for consideration. Miss Collins: That is what I thought. President Gray: Instead of making it a national plan, which is so difficult as you have to divide it into state groups anyhow, it would seem to me it might be a better thing to refer that to the executive secretaries of state associations. But I am quite willing to refer it to the Executive Committee of the National Education Association for consideration. Miss Collins: I would feel as if I had done my duty at least if you do it. Miss Adair: If she will move it be referred to the Executive Committee I will second it. Miss Collins: I so move. (Motion seconded by Miss Adair, question called for, motion put and carried.) President Gray: Mr. IFhittcnberg will you tell us something about what Illinois does for membership? Mr. W hittenberg : At the annual meeting of the State Teachers Association in Illi¬ nois we devote a period to the discussion of the N. E. A., its value to the profession. Our state meeting is composed of representatives of each of the nineteen divisions of the State Teachers Association. These representatives go to division meetings and there present the value of the N. E. A. At those division meetings, each county in Illinois is represented. Someone who has attended the N. E. A., who reads our literature, who understands the spirit of this great organization, and who possesses the ability to present our Association to the teachers, has a place on the program for a discussion of the N. E. A. at the meeting of the County Association of each of the 102 counties in Illinois. Hence every teacher in Illinois is made to understand the value of the N. E. A. It is because of the plan in our Illinois organizations that our membership has been kept thru the depression at about 12,000. Now while I am on my feet, I should like to present to this body my very special appreciation of the privilege of being a member of the Board of Directors. Thru my eight years’ membership on the Board of Directors every one of you has accorded to me every courtesy to which I was entitled. I am this year retiring voluntarily from the Board of Directors. While I shall no longer be a member of this body, my interest in your deliberations will continue thru the years. I regret very much to sever my connection with this Board. President Gray: Is there any other new business you would like to consider at this time? Associational Records and Information 901 Mr. Thomas J. IT alker: I move we adjourn. Mr. Charles Carroll' I second the motion. . Presl^enl Gray: Mr. Sutton, I wish you would do something for me before we ad¬ journ I wish you would say a word to us with regard to the service Mr. Whitten- berg has rendered and also with regard to the fine service and attitude and inspira¬ tion that Mr. Claxton has always given to the great group of educators. Mr. Claxton is here and I would be glad to have you make a testimony of our appreciation for that service. MS' Sutton: Madam Chairman, that is a great order. I have not been notified that I was to express appreciation to my good friend Mr. Whittenherg or my ormer teacher, Mr. Claxton. I accept tho, with very great pleasure and say to Mr. Whittenherg that I am sure that no member of this body regrets more than I to see him go off this Board, whether voluntarily or involuntarily— -and I would rather see him go voluntarily than involuntarily. But we are most happy to have had vour valuable services Mr. Whittenherg, and they have been most valuable— not on y to your state but to the nation at large. The very splendid way in which Mr. Whittenherg has always greeted everybody connected with the N. E. A. in his state has been one of the outstanding things, and I guess that is maybe the reason Miss Gray asked me to express our appreciation. I have never gone into Illinois and registered at a hotel I don’t know how he knew about it but somehow there was a note in my box telling me that Mr. Whittenherg and the people of Illinois were glad to have me in that state. I think it has been a very, very fine courtesy that I deeply appreciate and I am sure it is that fine spirit that has made him render this valuable service. Miss Gray asked me if I wouldn’t say just a word, because she has heard me talk so much about Mr. Claxton. We were so happy the other day to have Mr. Claxton join us here. A good many years ago I had been going hunting and fishing for the most part in the summertime but I got a little pamphlet one day that talked about summer school that was being held at Knoxville, Tennessee, and I decided to stop lazying so much and go and see if anybody could do anything in the summertime going to school because nobody in the world at that time believed that you could. So I went to Knoxville to the Summer School of the South on the beautiful hill over¬ looking the river and under the influence of a great group of people that Mr. Claxton had gathered from all parts of this country, and I had the wonderful pleasure of being in his classes and hearing him inspire the teachers of this nation. I have often said while Mr. Claxton was Commissioner of Education, and of him as an educator, that he had more accurate information about education on the end of his tongue than any man I knew in all this country and that his interpretation of it had been clearer to me and more comprehensive, and that the inspiration that he gave thru that information and interpretation certainly was a kindling light for what little I have tried to do in the world of education. Mr. Claxton, we do appreciate your being here with us at this session. We would like to have just a word of ex¬ pression from you, just a word if you will. Mr. P. P. Claxton: I appreciate what has been said by my good friend, Mr. Sutton I appreciate your suggesting that a word be said about it. I had not expected any¬ thing of the kind. That is all right for older people but not for youne people who are still doing the work of the world, hoping to be for sometime helping you in your Association. I do remember when Mr. Sutton first came up to the University of Tennessee to what we call the Summer School of the South. It was kind of a way-shower place. It was for some years the largest summer school for teachers in the world. It was helped to be made so, however, by Mr. Sutton and certain other Georgia people who came up the first day of school with a special train of two hundred and forty Georgia people and we have always had a very fine appreciation of Georgia and the work Georgia teachers are doing. 902 National Education Association It has been a great pleasure for me to be associated, directly and indirectly, with this National Education Association now for something like fifty-two years. (He continued, pointing out high spots in the work of the Association.) It is our task now to bring into the minds of the people of the United States and the world better ideals of a cooperative democracy, recognizing the fact that the welfare of any one depends upon the welfare of all ; nothing of good or ill can come to any individual or any country that does not finally affect us all. That is the great task of the educators of the United States. President Gray: I think as one goes into the sunset of life invincible, carrying the caravel of precious things, there is nothing more triumphant in the world. Youth is inevitable but when old age is invincible it is triumphant, it is victorious and it is beautiful. Mr. Claxton, I congratulate you that you are carrying your cargo safely into some harbor of happiness and I know that all of the Board of Directors will join me in that pronouncement. If you will just stand. (The Board of Directors arose.) Thank you so much. Mr. Lamkin: I move we adjourn. (The motion was seconded.) Miss Caroline Woodruff (Vermont) : First let me bring up one item. I have heard from one end of the country to the other of the splendid work President Gray has done, and of the program she has promised for this week, and for the way she has handled the desperate situation this morning. I think it was masterful the way she handled that program this morning, and for the whole thing I want to move an expression of appreciation of this body this morning. Mr. Sutton: Second the motion. I will put that motion. All in favor, please stand. (The Board arose with applause.) We want to express our very great appreciation, Miss Gray. President Gray: May I tell you a story? I know I won’t have you much longer. There was a difficult situation once upon a time and a general I know and love very much set the whole situation before the men, and he said, “This is a thing that is going to cost you your life. I cannot give the command to go. You must volunteer. I will turn my back so that if anybody finds it difficult in the presence of the general to make his decision you may be making it while my back is turned.” And he turned his back, and after a moment again faced them. There wasn’t a break in the line, and he said, “Men, I am disappointed.” And one of the captains stepped out and said, “General, the whole line moved forward.” And that is what I am challenging you to do — the whole line move forward, because we can do it. Mr. W hittenb erg : All the line goes forward ! (The motion to adjourn carried and the session adjourned.) J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Jessie Gray, President Friday Afternoon, July 6, 1934 The newly elected Board of Directors of the National Education Association was duly convened, according to the Official Program, at 2:10 p. m., in the Board of Di¬ rectors room, headquarters building. President Henry Lester Smith presiding. President Smith: Shall we come to order? I know there are several of you who would like to get away just as soon as possible. So we will start out with the roll call, and I will call upon the secretary to read the names of the states and will you respond readily? (The secretary thereupon called the roll, showing the following in attendance:) State Directors: Alabama — J. D. Williams , Alaska — C. H. Forman, Cleo Campbell (substitute), Arizona — W. T. Machan, Arkansas — W. F. Hall (substitute for W. E. Phipp ), Connecticut — Helen T. Collins, Delaware — H. V. Holloway, District of Co¬ lumbia — Edith L. Grosvenor , Florida — James S. Rickards, Georgia — M. D. Collins, \ Associational Records and Information 903 Hawaii —Thomas lance (substitute for Oren E. Long), Idaho— Raymond H. Snyder, Illinois John IV. Thalman, Indiana— Charles O. Williams, Iowa —Fred D. Cram, Kansas —F. L. Schlagle ( Helen Finch, substitute), Louisiana— P. H. Griffith, Maine— JV B. Jack, Maryland— William Burdick, Massachusetts— Annie C. Woodward, Michigan— E. T. Cameron, Minnesota — Harry L. W ahlstrand, Mississippi — H. V. Cooper, Missouri —Thomas J. Walker, Nebraska— George F. Knipprath, Nevada— Maud Frazier (substitute for M. J. Clark), New Hampshire— L. W. Ewing, New Jersey— Raymond B. Gurley, New Mexico— Vernon O. Tolle, New York—. Frederick Houk Law (substitute for H. Claude Hardy), North Dakota— L. A. White, Ohio— William A. Evans, Oklahoma — M. E. Hurst, Oregon — Birdine Merrill, Pennsyl¬ vania— 7. Herbert Kelley, Rhode Island— Charles Carroll, South Carolina— A. C. *1°™* South Dakota — S. B. Nissen, Tennessee— S. L. Ragsdale, Texas— Rush M. Caldwell, Utah —James T. Worlton, Vermont —Caroline S. Woodruff, Virginia— JIrs' Edith B. Joynes, Washington — Emery Asbury (substituting for S. E. Fleming) West Virginia W. W. Trent, Wisconsin— Blanche M. McCarthy, Wyoming— H. H. Moyer. 6 DileCt°rs: C°l°racl° Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford, Georgia — Willis A. Sutton, Illinois Robert C. Moore, Missouri— U el W. Lamkin, Nebraska— E. Ruth Pyrtle, lrginia Cornelia S. Adair, Joseph H. Saunders, Wisconsin — Carroll G. Pearse Pennsylvania — Jessie Gray. President Smith: It is customary for us to have a motion to install those who are substitutes here in place of the regular members for the purposes of this meeting and then later they would resign in favor of the regular member chosen by the representatives. Mr. J. D. Williams (Alabama) : I so move. (Motion seconded and carried.) President Smith: Now the question in connection with the order of business A request has been made that we take up discussion first of the place of the next meet¬ ing. Does that meet with your approval? Have you any suggestion as to whether there should or should not be any time limitation on invitations? Mr. Charles Carroll: Mr. President, I move they be given not more than two minutes each. (Motion seconded.) (After some discussion Mr. Carroll, maker of the motion, and Mr. Holloway agreed to five minutes in place of two.) President Smith: The motion now is to take up the invitations in their alphabetical order and that each delegation be allowed five minutes in which to present the invitation. Is there discussion of this motion? Mr. Thomas J . Walker (Missouri) : I wish you would expressly state they will be given the privilege of talking less than five minutes. President Smith: Yes, we will take that for granted. The privilege is extended for the shortening of this period of five minutes. Are you ready for the question? (Motion made and carried.) President Smith: We have here the first invitation from Cincinnati. That would be the order in which these would come, alphabetically. Will the representatives of Cincinnati please come forward? Mr. Evans of Cincinnati. Air. Evans: Cincinnati is the Queen City of the West, a modern city with a south¬ ern exposure, and I am quite sure that all which that implies you will find there. I bear this invitation from the civic organizations, the board of education, the superin¬ tendent, and all other dignitaries who are listed in such invitations. I am quite sure that we are not stressing it too strongly when we say that Cincinnati is adequately prepared to take care of the convention — the hotel facilities, the schools, the loca¬ tion, the natural surroundings, and I might get out a pamphlet which would conserve the time that is allotted to me and enumerate all these decided advantages which the city of Cincinnati represents. (He then pointed out the advantages in coming to Cincinnati). Wc feel that we are entitled to your consideration and we are going to 904 National Education Association press this invitation upon you until the time comes when you are ready to say “yes.” We hope that is in no distant future. President Smith: I recognize the Denver invitation next. IV. B. Mooney. Mr. Mooney: Mr. Chairman, I want to introduce to the Board of Directors, Super¬ intendent A. L. Threlkeld of Denver, who will extend the invitation. Mr. Threlkeld: I just want to add to the written invitation which you have already received from Denver, a personal word and to assure you our invitation is whole¬ hearted, and that it comes not only from the people of Denver and Colorado but from all of the surrounding states and the Rocky Mountain region. If you come to Denver next summer, we expect to give you the best entertainment the school people and the lay citizens of that whole region can organize for the pur¬ pose. We have not had the privilege of entertaining the N. E. A. since 1909. We look forward with a great deal of pleasure to entertaining the meeting next summer. Mr. Mooney: Mr. Chairman, I would like for Mr. Casey to speak a word for the state. President Smith: We shall be very happy. Mr. Casey. Mr. Casey: Mr. Chairman, I think in the light of the discussion before you put the motion, you would appreciate the time more than anything I could say. May I just add on behalf of the Colorado Education Association, I want to add that and extend the invitation from them, because Mr. Threlkeld has told you it includes not only Colorado but the teachers of that whole midwestern section. It is a very cordial invitation. We are very anxious to have you, and you know too much about our mountain scenery and moderate climate for it to be necessary to say anything further at this time. President Smith: The representatives of Detroit. Mr. E. T. Cameron: Mr. Chairman, the invitation will be presented by Carl Sedan. Mr. Sedan: It is my pleasure to represent the director from the Virgin Islands to¬ day, who unfortunately had to leave late last night, and I assure you I am not going to read you all these letters, but this will give to your committee an idea that Detroit and Michigan are sincerely behind this particular invitation. (After mention¬ ing the outstanding advantages of Detroit he made an earnest plea for that city as the next meeting place.) We do hope that when we appear before you next year, for the fifth time, that we will meet with a little more success. President Smith: Are the representatives from Milwaukee ready to extend their invitation? Mr. Callahan. Mr. John Callahan: I am representing all of the organizations that ever get in on a thing of this kind in both Milwaukee and the state of Wisconsin. I am extend¬ ing an invitation for you to meet in Milwaukee next year. I think it would be per¬ fectly safe to say to you we would have better weather than we have had this last week, because in that section of Wisconsin, it is usually cooled by a lake breeze. I would like to introduce Mr. Bromherger, who is representing the Milwaukee organization, and give him an opportunity to make whatever statement he wants to make. Mr. Bromherger: I am pinch-hitting this afternoon for our well-beloved super¬ intendent, Mr. Potter. I want to assure you a warm welcome. That means from the heart. The weather will be air-conditioned. We have the Lake there and it was said by one of the other cities, our hotels are air-conditioned, and our auditorium is partially so. So you may be assured if you come to Milwaukee you will have a very pleasant, enjoyable meeting. President Smith: St. Paul has an invitation to extend. Mr. Harry L. W ahlstrand: I would like to present Mr. Hartwell of the St. Paul schools, who will extend the invitation for the St. Paul schools and the city of St. Paul. Mr. Hartwell: The city of St. Paul and the state of Minnesota are cordially inviting you to hold your next meeting in St. Paul. The formal invitation has been Associational Records and Information 905 placed in the hands of Secretary Crabtree, signed by the governor. Our mayor and the city council has also endorsed it and guaranteed the free use of the auditorium, which incidentally is air-cooled. We have as fine facilities for the actual housing of people and of the convention as any well-situated city and with this word of cordial support of the invitation from the educational forces of the state — the State Education Executive Committee has seconded it — I am going to ask Mr. Turner of the St. Paul Chamber of Com¬ merce to speak more definitely in regard to the auditorium and housing facilities. Mr. Turner: There is offered to the National Education Association for next year’s meeting the newest auditorium in America and one that is recognized as one of the three finest. It is an air-cooled building, and we can control the temperature down to 20 in any kind of wreather. I am just as anxious to leave here and make this as short as possible as you people are. I have been here five days waiting for these few minutes and I am going to make them few. There are more separate halls and sectional meeting halls in the St. Paul Audi¬ torium than in any other in the country today, and it would not be necessary for you to have any of your sectional or division meetings under any but the one roof of the Auditorium. President Smith: Are there any other invitations to be extended? Miss Birdine Merrill: Mr. Chairman, may Oregon be heard? I want to ask C. A. Rice to speak. Mr. C. A. Rice (Oregon) : Portland, Oregon, is extending an invitation to the N. E. A. to come there next year, provided you do not meet in Colorado. We are not competing with Denver. It is rather amusing to any one from our section of the country to hear about these air-conditioned auditoriums and assembly halls. They are not air-conditioned in Portland. They don’t have to be. Our air is conditioned the year round — in winter and in summer. I have been in Portland now twenty-seven years and in all that time I think I have seen possibly a dozen electric fans. We have the ideal tempera¬ ture there and if you come to Portland, Oregon, you will enjoy your visit. Mr. Evans (Ohio) : Without minimizing a single one of the claims of Cincinnati, the Queen City of the West yields to the Queen City of the Mountains, and without withdrawing our invitation in any sense with any other city in the United States, we would also be glad to have you come to Denver. President Smith: Is there any other suggestion then in regard to the place of meeting? If not we are ready for an expression of opinion on the part pf this group. The vote we will take here will be only a preferential vote. So you will be leaving the decision up to the Executive Committee, the final decision, on the basis of the information they are able to obtain as to the facilities which are offered. We will understand then this will be a preferential vote. In what form do you care to vote? Shall this be by ballot? (Those present indicated affirmatively.) I would ask Mr. Cram of Iowa and Mr. Holloway of Delaware to pass the ballots out, collect them, and report. (Portland and Cincinnati withdrew their invitations in favor of Denver.) President Smith: There are one or two rather routine matters of business that might be taken up in the absence of this committee, I think. One of them is the question of our appropriating funds that were voted by the Assembly for the work of our Association this coming year. I think we are expected to make the formal appropriation of those funds to those purposes. Mr. Mooney: I move that the appropriations be approved by the Board of Direc¬ tors at this time which were approved and voted by the Representative Assembly. Mr. S. B. Nissen (South Dakota) : Second the motion. Mr. Joseph H. Saunders: There was an additional item voted on the floor of some $10,000, or so much thereof as may be necessary, and that ought to be included in this motion. 906 National Education Association Mr. Mooney: That was included, Mr. Saunders, as the motion was “as approved by the Representative Assembly.” (Motion read by the reporter.) President Smith: The motion is then that appropriations be made for the funds voted by the Representative Assembly this session. That is the essence of it. You heard it read as it was a moment ago. Is there any further discussion of the motion? All in favor of the motion say aye. (Carried.) The motion is carried and that carries with it the appropriation of the funds covering those things voted by the Assembly. I think our committee is not yet ready to report. Is there any other matter of routine business? Mr. Charles Carroll (Rhode Island) : Our report on location for the next conven¬ tion is ready. There were 59 votes cast, of which St. Paul received 3, Milwaukee 3, and Denver 53. Mr. JV. B. Mooney: The entire West thanks you. Mr. Harry L. IV ahl strand (Minnesota) : If it is in order, I would like to move that the selection of Denver be made unanimous. (Agreed to informally.) President Smith: I understand then that in giving the result of this vote that the preferential vote was in favor of Denver and by motion that preferential vote was made unanimous, but that the Executive Committee then will have the final power for definitely deciding on the place of meeting. The next item of business, according to the suggestion here, would be the election of a member of the Executive Committee. Thomas IV. Gosling has been a member of the Executive Committee and his term expires at the present time. Miss Florence Hale: I would like to propose the name of Agnes Samuelson of Iowa. Miss Helen Finch (Kansas) : Second the nomination. Mr. Charles Carroll: I nominate L. IV. Rogers of Texas. Mr. Willis A. Sutton: I would like to second the nomination of Miss Samuelson. President Smith: Are there other nominations? Mr. Thomas J. Walker: I move the nominations close. Mr. Charles 0. Williams (Indiana) : I second the motion. (Motion carried.) Mr. J. Herbert Kelley (Pennsylvania) : It is likely we wrill also be electing a member of the Board of Trustees. I understand that the possibility is we might elect a man. If we should elect a man in place of a woman on the Board of Trustees, we would in a way destroy the balance of power between the men and women on these twTo committees. If that were done first, then my remarks would be more in order than now for then I should certainly say we should elect a woman on the Executive Committee. Miss Hale: There is no way of determining that. I do not believe we could hinge one election on the other that way. President Smith: Will you pass the ballots then for the member of the Executive Committee? The two candidates that have been nominated are Agnes Samuelson of Iowa and L. W. Rogers of Texas. When the ballots are counted Mr. Cram will announce the vote. Mr. Fred D. Cram (Iowa) : There were 60 votes cast, of which Mr. Rogers received 15, Miss Samuelson 45. President Smith: We declare Miss Samuelson elected as a member of the Execu¬ tive Committee for the coming year. We will pass next then to the business of the election of a member to the Board of Trustees. Mr. Moore. ( Robert C. Moore of Illinois placed in nomination A. L. Whittenberg, and in a brief speech stated the qualifications of Mr. W hittenbcrg for this position.) Mr. Frederick Houk Law (New York) : Mr. President, I am serving in place of the newly elected director, H. Claude Hardy, who has written me as follows: I especially wish to have you place in nomination as Trustee, Emery Asbury of the state of Washington. He is one of the finest men I have met during the Associational Records and Information 907 meeting. He is vigorous, high-minded, dynamic — he is the right sort of material with which to build the structure of a national organization. Therefore, speaking in the name of the newly-elected state director of New York, H. Claude Hardy, I nominate for trustee, Emery Asbury of the state of Washington. (It was moved by Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, duly seconded, that the nominations close. Carried.) (The committee thereupon distributed the ballots, the president again announcing the names of the two nominees, and the meeting awaited the return of the committee.) President Smith: Please come to order while we hear the report of the committee canvassing the ballots. Mr. Cram: There were 60 votes cast, of which Mr. Asbury received 18, Mr. Whittcnberg 42. President Smith: In accordance with this report, I declare Mr. W hittenberg elected as a member of the Board of Trustees. Now we come to the election of members of the Budget Committee, a committee of five. The terms of three expire, as I understand it, at this time. Those three are Mr. Rogers, Mr. Whittcnberg , and Mr. Mooney, and the two that remain on the committee are Mr. Carroll and Miss Collins. Mr. Uel W. Lamkin (Missouri) : If I understand the situation, I want to make a motion, which I said yesterday I would make; if I am wrong, please correct me. It is my understanding that the terms of Mr. Mooney and Mr. Rogers expire this year. Mr. W hittenberg had one more year to serve, but he automatically goes off the Budget Committee because he goes off the Board of Directors, of his own election and choice, and therefore serves no longer. Two years ago I made a motion by which a Budget Committee of five was to be appointed, and those persons to serve, one for one year, two for two years, two for three years. The Budget Committee was elected; they went out and cast lots. Mr. Mooney was not elected for three years, or for two years, or for one year. He was elected as were the other members of the committee. After the lots were cast, Miss Woodward was to serve one year, Mr. Mooney and Mr. Rogers two years, Mr. Carroll and Mr. W hittenberg for three years. Now we have a situation of three going off. It certainly was not my intention, and I do not believe the desire of the majority of the Board of Directors, to change the majority of the committee in any one year. I think it is our intention to keep a majority any one year, so the most that can go off will be two. (After further explanation Mr. Lamkin moved that the rules be suspended and that the secretary be instructed to cast the ballot of the Association for Mr. Mooney to continue Mr. W hittenberg’ s term for the other year, as was provided two years ago.) Mrs. Edith B. Joynes (Virginia) : Second the motion. President Smith: The motion has been seconded that the rules be suspended and that Mr. Mooney be elected to serve for another year in the place of Mr. W hittenberg who is resigning. Mr. Lamkin: Yes, and I would like Mr. Mooney to be denied the privilege of the floor. Mr. W. B. Mooney: I rise to a question of personal privilege, Mr. President. President Smith: It is granted, sir. Mr. Mooney: I feel that you have honored Colorado as much as you ought to in granting to her the honor of being your host for next year. I feel that in justice to these other fifty-nine people who are here now, and wThile I do not want to dodge any responsibility, I trust you will elect some one else in my place. Miss Florence Hale: I believe at this time, where the meeting is going to Denver next year, it is logical to pick Mr. Mooney. Mr. Mooney would be the logical one to fill the position any way, but this is a duty he cannot escape. We are not honoring you, Mr. Mooney, but we are delivering to you a service you cannot escape. Mr. J. Herbert Kelley: I was very much in favor of the plan Mr. Lamkin pro¬ posed at the time I resigned from the Budget Committee. I will not attempt to 908 National Education Association give the details of all the fracas which preceded my resignation, but I was very glad to separate myself from the honor of being on that committee in order that we might break up what I shall call the “apostolic succession.” That committee had been composed of members who were just continued, continued, continued, until at the present time the three members whose terms expire, two automatically and one because he is no longer on the Board — and I refer to Mr. Rogers, Mr. Mooney, and Mr. W hittenberg — those three men by the system set up originally and by the method adopted have served seven years consecutively. And we set up the scheme on Mr. Lamkin’ s motion two years ago that no one could serve or could be elected for more than three years, and then he could not succeed himself. Now that rule is a good rule and I am for it and I think you ought not to suspend it. (He continued with arguments against waiving the rule, pointing out dangers.) I honor you, Mr. Mooney, for the statement you have made. You have served seven years and you now ask to be excused from serving again. ( Miss Hale and Mr. Lamkin each spoke in favor of the motion, and Mr. Knipp- rath spoke against it.) (The question again being called for, motion put and the vote stood 39 for the suspension of the rules, as called for in the motion, and 13 opposed, the motion declared carried, the rules suspended and Mr. Mooney elected a member of the Budget Committee for another year.) President Smith: Now there are two other vacancies to be filled on this committee, that of Mr. Rogers and that of Mr. W hittenberg. Mr. H. V. Holloway: I rise to nominate a son of South Carolina — a man who has received all of the educational honors except that of state superintendent in his own state, and has been chosen by the governor of his state to act as a chairman of a commission for the revision of school laws in that commonwealth. I take pleasure in putting in nomination the name of A. C. Flora of South Carolina. A Director: Mr. Chairman, I nominate T. J. Walker of Missouri. Mr. John W. Thalman (Illinois) : I move the nominations be closed and that the secretary cast the ballot. Mr. Willis A. Sutton: Second the motion. President Smith: It has been moved and seconded that the nominations close and that the secretary be authorized to cast the ballot of this Board of Directors for these two gentlemen for membership on the Budget Committee for next year. (Motion carried.) (A number of the members of the Board of Directors at this point participated in a general discussion which the president declared would not be listed as business but which continued for some time. The president then advised that the time for adjournment had arrived.) Mr. Nissen: I move you then, Mr. Chairman, this may be discontinued and our session of the Board of Directors be adjourned. President Smith: Will you wait until we have one other motion which is necessary to reinstate the old officers for which there are substitutes? Mr. Willis A. Sutton: I make that motion. (Motion seconded and carried.) Pi esident Smith: May I say then I wish you a pleasant and safe journey home¬ ward this hot day, and I extend to you an urgent request if you have any suggestions at all that you think might be for the good of our whole Association, kindly write those to me, and I will do the very best I can to work them out to your satisfaction. Before we adjourn, may I say will the members of the Executive Committee and the members of the Board of Trustees kindly gather up here for the meetings that are to follow. (The Chair thereupon entertained Mr. Nissen’s motion to adjourn, which was duly seconded and unanimously carried, and the meeting stood adjourned.) J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Henry Lester Smith, President Associational Records and Information 909 MINUTES OF THE MEETINGS OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE Washington, D. C. Saturday Morning, December 16, 1933 ( (In Brief) A meeting of the Executive Committee was held at the headquarters of the National Education Association, on call of the president. It was called to order at 9:45 a. m. with all members present: Joseph Rosier, Henry Lester Smith, Joseph H. Saunders, Thomas IV. Gosling, and Jessie Gray, president. After calling attention to the purpose of the meeting and to the need of the Association being abreast of the times, President Gray called upon the following directors of the headquarters staff to give the high spots of the work under way in their respective divisions: Harriett M. Chase, T. D. Martin, Mary J. IVinfree, Harold A. Allan, Eva G. Pinkston, S. D. Shankland, Joy Elmer Morgan, William G. Carr, Agnes Winn, Gvuladys W. Jones, and Chari Ormond Williams. Mary Leeper, secretary of the Association for Childhood Education, was also called upon for information about her organization. Each answered questions at the conclusion of his report. At 1:15 p.m. the committee adjourned for lunch. At 3 :45 p.m. the afternoon session was called to order with all members present. Mr. Saunders of the Board of Trustees presented a verbal report on the “code” prepared for schools but which was not adopted by the NRA, on the attention given to federal aid by our committees and cooperating agencies, and on the condition of the funds of the Association and investments. The Executive Committee commended Mr. Saunders for his unselfish, untiring efforts for the Association. After a discussion of the services of W alter R. Siders as chairman of the Board of Trustees and in other capacities in the Association for many years, a motion was passed by a unanimous vote to make him an honorary life member of the Association, and to refund payments already made by him. The motion was made by Mr. Saunders and seconded by Mr. Rosier. After explanation by Mr. Saunders of the work of Attorney Quinter for the Asso¬ ciation, a motion was made by Mr. Smith, seconded by Mr. Gosling, to approve of paying Mr. Quinter $250 for six months’ service. Carried. The service was for the Board of Trustees. The following amendments to the retirement regulations were adopted: 1. To permit the payment of death benefit from the Group Life Insurance Policy in cases of persons who have retired. 2. To permit payments of the combined cash values of both the Member’s and the Association’s Retirement Annuity Policies in the case of the death of an employee while in the service of the Association. Motion to adopt was made by Mr. Saunders, seconded by Mr. Gosling. Carried. The secretary was authorized, in cooperation with a committee, appointed by the Association of State Secretaries, to work out a plan for a closer cooperation between the National and the state associations, and to present the same for the consideration of the Executive Committee at the Cleveland meeting. The motion was made by Mr. Rosier and seconded by Mr. Gosling. After discussing the additional needs for the Joint Commission, a motion was made by Mr. Rosier and seconded by Mr. Saunders to reallocate $400 of the emer¬ gency fund, placing it with the appropriation for the Joint Commission to be used exclusively for clerical assistance for the Research Division. Carried. 910 National Education Association The secretary was instructed to ask for additional funds, if needed, but urged to avoid it if possible by getting other divisions to provide help in Research or in any other divisions where an emergency might occur the same as Mr. Shankland is now providing for the Research Division from his own division. President Gray explained the policies of her administration and asked for advice. She presented what she considered the outstanding problems and what was being done under her direction to meet the situation. She urged members of the committee to make suggestions. Her change in the name of the Tenure Committee to that of the Committee on Civil Service for Teachers met the approval of the Executive Committee. Attention was given to the report of the National Council of Education at the Chicago meeting and the president was directed to ask that the editor of the Journal give special attention in the Journal to social-economic developments as requested in item 6, page 220, of the volume of Proceedings for 1933. A motion was made by Mr. Gosling, seconded by Mr. Saunders, and carried. A motion was made by Mr. Gosling, seconded by Mr. Smith, to appropriate from the emergency fund $100 for the use of the Department of Business Education. Carried. The secretary asked authority to give any other department in need an appro¬ priation not to exceed $100. After discussion the same was granted. The secretary presented reports from the following committees: The Committee on Retirement by Anna Laura Force, chairman; the Joint Committee of the N. E. A. and National Congress of Parents and Teachers by Mrs. Hugh Bradford; the Department of Business Education by Benjamin R. Haynes, president; the National Commission on the Enrichment of Adult Life by J. A. Moyer, chairman; the Committee on the Economic Status of the Teacher by B. R. Buckingham, chairman; the Committee To Cooperate with the National Association of Teachers in Colored Schools by N. C. Newbold, chairman; the Committee on Resolutions by Donald DuShane ; the Legislative Commission by Sidney B. Hall, chairman; and the Joint Commission on the Emergency in Education by John K. Norton, chairman. The committee approved of the action of the Committee on Credentials, not to accept as delegates of the Representative Assembly representatives of branches of departments whose members pay department dues. The question of recommending a retirement plan for the secretary was postponed to be taken up at the meeting of the Executive Committee in Cleveland at the time of the convention of the Department of Superintendence. On motion of Mr. Rosier, seconded by Mr. Gosling, the meeting adjourned. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Jessie Gray, President Cleveland, Ohio Monday Morning, February 26, 1934 The Executive Committee meeting convened in Room 816 of the Hotel Hollenden, at 11 a.m., Jessie Gray, president of the National Education Association, presiding. All members of both the Executive Committee and the Board of Trustees were present: Jessie Gray, president; Joseph Rosier, first vicepresident; Joseph H. Saun¬ ders, chairman, Board of Trustees; Henry Lester Smith, treasurer; Thomas IV. Gosling, Executive Committee; Kate V. Wofford, secretary, Board of Trustees; J. W. Gwinn, Board of Trustees; Edgar G. Doudna, Board of Trustees; J. W. Crabtree, secretary. President Gray: The first order of business is the minutes of the last meeting. After passing each member a folder with information and matters to be con¬ sidered, the secretary called attention to the minutes and recommended their adoption as given in the folder. Associational Records and Information 911 Mr. Gosling then moved that the minutes be approved. The motion was seconded by Mr. Smith, put to vote and carried. The president, Jessie Gray, then presented her plans for the program for the Washington meeting. She called attention to matters she considered of greatest importance and mentioned the names of speakers that she had in mind. Among the names mentioned were Robert Hutchins of Chicago, Judge Florence Allen of Cleveland, General Hugh Johnson, President Roosevelt, the Secretary of Labor, Miss Perkins, Glenn Frank of Wisconsin, W alter D amrosch of New York, and a number of other men and women equally prominent. She called attention to the arrangements for holding the vesper services in the Cathedral of Saint Peter and Saint Paul. She had already made arrangements with the Cathedral and with the choir. She explained what this would mean to the Association. Miss Gray mentioned the points she meant to bring into the program and asked for the reaction of each member of the Board of Trustees and of the Executive Committee and for suggestions. She explained her arrangements for the program of the Representative Assembly and asked for suggestions and advice. All of those present took part in the discussions and made suggestions. All were pleased with the plans. The attention given to the program led to a discussion of academic freedom. A motion was made by Mr. Rosier to approve of Miss Gray’s program and plans for the Washington convention. Seconded by Mr. Smith and carried. The members of the Committee voiced approval of Miss Gray’s arranging to use the emergency fund in the promotion of federal aid and for the use of the Joint Commission on the Emergency in Education. On Miss Gray’s recommendation, full authority was given by motion of Mr. Smith for the president and secretary to decide questions concerning the organiza¬ tion of the Joint Commission for next year’s work. The majority of the Committee were not convinced that the Joint Commission should change its name as had been recommended. Still there was a desire to comply with the wishes of the Commission. Action on the question was postponed. A motion was then made by Mr. Smith and seconded by Mr. Rosier to ask the Joint Commission to go ahead vigorously promoting its work during the year 1934-35. Carried. The Committee expressed satisfaction concerning the work of the Joint Commission for the year 1933. Mr. Saunders explained that the Board of Trustees had reelected the secretary for a year and until his successor should be elected. He said that before any other action of any kind be taken the Board of Trustees hoped that a retirement allowance be provided for, and that the Board had requested the Executive Committee to make a recommendation. He said that altho the secretary will shortly have reached the retirement age he might be wanted for a year or two years owing to the emergency before filling the place. He stated that Secretary Crabtree had offered to hand in his resignation at any time the Board wishes to consider it. Mr. Saunders then explained that when the retirement plan was adopted it made no provision for the older members of the staff who had been in the seivice for many years. They were guaranteed an allowance of fifty dollars a month. Our mem¬ bership is unwilling to retire Mr. Crabtree on that allowance. After discussing the question at some length and after answering questions he proposed that when retired the secretary be continued as Secretary Emeritus at $4000 a year together with the retirement allowance already provided, making about $4500 in all. The secretary was asked whether Mr. Saunders’ suggestion would be satisfactory to him. He stated that it would be. He said it was very generous. Such a plan would be appreciated. Mr. Smith then moved and Mr . Rosier seconded the motion to recommend the plan suggested by Mr. Saunders. Carried by a unanimous \ otc. The meeting of the Committee adjourned at 12:30. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Jessie Gray, President 912 National Education Association Washington, D. C. Saturday Afternoon, June 30, 1934 The meeting of the Executive Committee was called to order by President Jessie Gray at 3 :30 p.m. in the Board of Directors room, headquarters building. All mem¬ bers were present: Jessie Gray, president, Joseph Rosier, Joseph H. Saunders, Henry Lester Smith, Thomas IV. Gosling. There were also present, on invitation, the following members of the Board of Trustees: J. M. Gwinn, Edgar G. Doudna. The agenda for the meeting listed for first consideration “Remarks by the President” growing out of her year at headquarters and in the field. Owing to the fact that most other items on the agenda could be acted on to better advantage after the Budget Committee and the Board of Directors had completed their reports, this became the chief business of the session. Miss Gray’s Board of Education had given her the year off with pay, so that she could spend her entire time at head¬ quarters and in the field in the service of the Association. President Gray greeted the members of the Executive Committee and the Board of Trustees, giving an informal resume of the high points that stood out in her mind as a result of her year’s work. Among other things she mentioned was the value and the necessity of having news of the work of the National Education Association put into condensed and usable form that it might be available to teacher members all over the United States in their efforts to secure additional members for the N. E. A., and also that it might be available for distribution to members of lay organizations who were intensely interested in the work which the National Education Association was doing. Prior to the annual meeting, she had sent to each state organization and to people of prominence in educational work over the country, a request for resolutions that would be of value to the Association. As a result, the Resolutions Committee received a large stack to go thru and make the combined resolutions therefrom. One of the resolutions which was received from many sources had to do with the revision of taxes. In this connection she called attention to the valuable work that the Research Division was doing in legislative service, in making available information to the several states for purposes of comparison and to be of aid to them in arriving at the proper revision of taxes. She called attention to the fact that over the country teachers had done a great piece of sacrificial work in keeping the schools open where the proper financial recompense had not been provided, and asked whether the time had not come when the Association should take a nationwide stand against the continuance of free service. She urged the necessity of a fair median salary for teachers, and cited her experiences in North Carolina, where, when she mentioned a median salary of $2000 as reasonable, it brought forth the information that theirs in that state was less than $750, for which a master’s degree was requisite. She referred to the work of the Joint Commission on Education, and also called attention to the resume of the discussion of federal aid as given by Chari Williams. She called attention to the huge sums of money that had been spent thru the various departments of the government in the erection of buildings, the employment of teachers who were without jobs and funds, and so forth. She cited the fact that there was to be a substantial additional appropriation by the government to insure normal operation of schools during 1934-35, but to what extent this money would be forthcoming and for what length of time the guaranty would extend no one knew. She referred to the Secretary’s Annual Report, and commented on the fineness of his vision and the splendid way in which the continuity of effort of the entire organization was brought forth. Then, she likened the organization to a human being, with the executive secretary serving as its pulse thru whom was felt the harmony and coordinated efforts of the whole group. Associational Records and Information 913 Miss Gray did not refer to her own work in increasing membership, which the secretary stated had much to do in showing the upturn during the last half of the year. The members of the committee commented favorably on the points brought out by Miss Gray. The next item in the agenda was the Treasurer’s Report, which was printed in satisfactory form, together with the Financial Report of the Secretary and that of the Board of Trustees. No action was considered necessary at this time. Miss Gray then referred to the question of restoring the salaries of members of the staff and asked the secretary to speak, who explained the request which he had made to the Budget Committee for funds to do away with or lessen the discounts on the salaries of members of the staff. He explained that he had agreed with the Budget Committee to recommend to the Executive Committee to do away with half the 10 percent discount and to begin adding increments to salaries as provided in the salary schedule. That would be satisfactory to the staff, and it seemed to be about as far as we could go at present. No formal action was taken. The discussion, however, showed full approval of the plan. Mr. Saunders asked permission at this point to move that the Executive Committee approve the expenditure for the Emergency Commission of $1500 that was trans¬ ferred and given to the Commission, and the further sum of $400, which was in part payment of the expenses of the president in going to the World Federation meeting in Ireland last year. Motion duly seconded by Mr. Gosling, there being no discussion, the question called for, motion carried. Some time was spent on what should be the policy of the N. E. A. in dealing with other groups of similar nature, but no action was taken. President Gray then suggested that at the next meeting of the committee the members come prepared with any new items of business for discussion that seemed desirable to be considered by the Executive Committee. It was moved by Mr. Smith, duly seconded, that the meeting adjourn to the call of the president. There being no discussion, motion carried. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Jessie Gray, President Friday Afternoon, July 6, 1934 The meeting of the newly-elected Executive Committee, as scheduled in the program of official meetings and business sessions, was called to order at 4 p.m., Board of Directors room, headquarters building, President Smith presiding. There were present: Henry Lester Smith, president, Jessie Gray, R. E. Offenhauer, Joseph H. Saunders, and J. IV . Crabtree, secretary. Absent: Agnes Samuelson. (The secretary stated he had failed to find Miss Samuelson after her election to notify her of the meeting.) Present on invitation: Edgar Doudna and A. L. W hittenberg , of the Board of Trustees. President Smith, after the roll was called, mentioned that the secretary had a number of important items to present, whereupon Mr. Saunders stated that before other business was taken up he wished to make a motion looking forward to arrange¬ ments for the next convention. Fie then made the following motion: That the president of the Association and our business director, Mr. Allan, be empowered to make the necessary inquiry concerning the ability of Denver to accommodate our convention and, if they are satisfied with the arrangements that Denver furnishes, to make the necessary provisions with the Denver authorities to hold the convention in that city during the week of June 29 to July 5, the corre¬ sponding week to this year, and that further, if the arrangements in Denver are not satisfactory, that the president and the business manager be empowered and authorized to select such other city of those offering invitations as, in their judg¬ ment, meets the requirements of the Association. 914 National Education Association Motion duly seconded by Mr. Offenhauer and carried. On the secretary’s recommendation it was moved by Mr. Saunders, seconded by Mr. Offenhauer, that the annual increases in the 1934-35 salary schedule, as recom¬ mended by the Budget Committee, be allowed, and there being no discussion, the motion carried. It was then moved by Mr. Saunders, seconded by Mr. Offenhauer, that the recom¬ mendation of the Budget Committee to pay the regular scheduled salaries less 5 percent instead of 10 percent be adopted, with the understanding that in the event the income should fall below the estimated sum, there should be a 10 percent reduction in salaries the latter half of the year. There being no discussion, question being called for, motion carried. It was also recommended that Mrs. Robbins, who is a retired worker, be allowed an additional sum of $10 per month to be added to her pension and that Mrs. Hixson be allowed the sum of $20 additional a month over and above the pension sum which she received. He stated that both of these women had been in the employ of the Association for a long period of time but that the period of time prior to their retire¬ ment and following the installation of the annuity system was not sufficient to care for them in their declining years. Mrs. Hixson served the Association twenty-four years and Mrs. Robbins fourteen years. After discussion and further explanations, Mr. Saunders moved to adopt the recommendation and Mr. Offenhauer seconded the motion. The motion carried. After explaining why a reduction in rent for the National Congress of Parents and Teachers was necessary, a reduction of 5 percent was recommended. It was moved by Mr. Saunders that the rental charge to the National Congress of Parents and Teachers be reduced 5 percent, which motion was seconded by Mr. Offenhauer. After discussion and further explanations the motion carried. The secretary then called attention to the need of readjustment in classification and salary in a few instances. In the Division of Publications it was recommended that Mildred Sandison, who had been promoted to an important place in the division, be moved from class 3B to class 3A with double increment; that Eleanor Craven, whose work would place her in a higher class, be moved from class 3AA to 2B ; that Flazel A. Brown be moved from class 3A to 3AA with double incre¬ ment as promised in order to retain her services; that the following now on the temporary roll be placed on the permanent roll, class 3B — Margaret Vail, Louise Murray, and Nettie Rice. After discussion it was decided to ask the secretary to go on thru with his list of recommendations so that action could be taken on all at the same time. He then recommended that the following changes in the Research Division be made: That the following be changed from the temporary roll to the permanent roll, class 3B, with increments: Elizabeth Beach, Ruth Gasteiger, Nora Collins, and Louise Clark; that Elsie King be placed on the permanent roll in class 3A; that Mr. Carr receive a double increment, his salary at present being low; that Louise Sease be changed from class 3AA to 2B ; that Ada Boyd be moved from class 2B to 2A. The recommendations of Director Morgan and Director Carr were referred to and explanations were made. A question concerning the increments for those in Research going on the permanent roll led the secretary to state that he would only give it to the two already near the basic salary. It was decided to vote on these and to take up other items separately. After discussion it was moved by Mr. Offen¬ hauer and seconded by Mr. Saunders that the changes recommended be approved. The motion carried. The resignation of Ernest Bryan was then presented. Mr. Offenhauer moved the acceptance. Mr. Saunders seconded the motion. It was put and carried. The sec¬ retary said he would express due appreciation to Mr. Bryan. Mr. Morgan’s recommendation for F. Erie Prior for Mr. Bryan’s place in the division at a salary of $2400 which is $90 less than that of Mr. Bryan was pre- ASSOC IATIONAL RECORDS AND INFORMATION 915 sented. After explanation and discussion, Mr. Offenhauer moved and Mr. Saunders seconded that Mr. Prior be elected. The motion carried. The secretary then explained why a change in classification is necessary to meet the needs of Harriett M. Chase, Belmont Farley, and Richard Foster, who had reached the maximum in their classification IB and yet they could hardly be promoted just now to the restricted Class 1A prepared only for the first asso¬ ciate in the major divisions. He proposed class IBB to be between IB and 1A and to place these three in the new class. (The following list shows the proposed class in the schedule of salaries.) PERSONNEL CLASSIFICATION 1. Directors of Divisions AA. Directors of business, administrative, and creative divisions Basic . Per year $5000 Maximum . Per year $7500 Annual Increase . 250 A. Chief Associate Director in major divisions Basic . Per year $4500 Maximum . Per year $7000 Annual Increase . 250 BB. Associate Directors in major divisions ( The Proposed Class) Basic . Per year $3000 Maximum . Per year $5500 Annual Increase . 200 B. Directors of other divisions Basic . Per year $2500 Maximum . Per year $4500 Annual Increase . 200 2. Head Division Assistants and Section Chiefs A. Assistants to Directors in 1AA and chiefs of major sections with ad¬ ministrative responsibilities Basic . Per year $1800 Maximum . Per year $3000 Annual Increase . 120 B. Chief clerks and section heads with groups responsibility Basic . Per year $1250 Maximum . Per year $2250 Annual Increase . 100 3. Clerks, Stenographers, Technical Assistants AA. Clerks, stenographers, technical assistants expert in their work Basic . Per year $1400 Maximum . Per year $2000 Annual Increase . 60 A. Clerks, stenographers, and technical assistants Basic . Per year $1300 Maximum . Per year $1800 Annual Increase . 50 B. Clerks, stenographers, and other assistants Basic . Per year $1200 Maximum . Per year $1700 Annual Increase . 50 4. Unclassified Service — Temporary Roll A. Clerks, stenographers, typists, and other temporary help. Salary . Per week $15 and up. 916 National Education Association The members felt the new classification was advisable but there was not ample time at this meeting for its consideration. There developed the sentiment for allow¬ ing the increments as if the new classification had been made and of taking action on the question of the new class at a future meeting. The secretary withdrew Miss Chase’s name, stating it could be taken up later and recommended the additional increment for Mr. Farley and Mr. Foster. It was moved by Mr. Saunders and seconded by Mr. Ojfenhauer that Mr. Farley and Mr. Foster each be allowed an increment of $200. Carried. Miss Gray expressed the view that each member should receive a copy of the minutes of the meeting. There being no further business a motion was made to adjourn. Seconded and carried. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Henry Lester Smith, President Saturday Morning, August 18, 1934 The Executive Committee meeting convened in the Board of Directors room at N. E. A. headquarters, at 10:05 a. m. Henry Lester Smith, president of the Asso¬ ciation, presided. All members were present: Henry Lester Smith, president; Jessie Gray, first vicepresident; Joseph H. Saunders, chairman of the Board of Trustees; R. E. Ojfenhauer, treasurer; Agnes Samuelson, member-elect, J. W. Crabtree, sec¬ retary. The minutes of the meeting of June 30 were read by the secretary. Miss Samuel¬ son suggested the clarification of the wording of that part referring to the type of work done by unemployed teachers who were paid by federal government appropriation. Miss Gray asked for a verification of the data referring to a median salary in North Carolina. A few other suggestions were made. It was moved by Mr. Ojfenhauer that the minutes for the meeting of June 30 be approved with these corrections. Seconded by Miss Samuelson. Carried. The minutes of the meeting of July 6 were then read by the secretary. There was discussion on the inclusion of the salary schedule of N. E. A. employees in the volume of Proceedings. It was the consensus of opinion that this be done. It was moved by Mr. Ojfenhauer that the minutes be approved. Seconded by Miss Samuelson. Carried. President Smith expressed great satisfaction in holding a meeting early to make plans for the year, suggesting two items on which he wants suggestions: (1) things the Association should do, (2) things the Association should not do. He then read his letter of August 10 to Mr. Crabtree in which he outlined some of the plans he had in mind. This outline, which was discussed informally, will be published as soon as completed. Miss Samuelson made a motion approving of the plans. Seconded by Miss Gray. Carried. President Smith then asked for the policy of the Committee regarding the accept¬ ance of funds from foundations or other sources. Miss Gray made a motion, seconded by Miss Samuelson,, that no funds may be accepted by any committee, commission, or joint commission of the N. E. A. unless first presented and approved by the Executive Committee. Carried. The next item presented by the president was the question of a parliamentarian for the business sessions of the N. E. A. at annual conventions. Miss Gray made a motion that the president be given authority to secure a lay parliamentarian. Seconded by Mr. Ojfenhauer. Carried. Mr. Off enhauer made a motion that the amount of compensation for a parlia¬ mentarian be left to the discretion of the president and secretary. Seconded by Miss Gray. Carried. Associational Records and Information 917 President Smith called attention to the action of the Representative Assembly authorizing the appointment of (1) a Committee of Seven on Amending the Charter and (2) a Committee to Harmonize the Charter with the Bylaws. The Executive Committee approved the plan to appoint these committees. A letter from an attorney giving an opinion on the legality or necessity of amending the Charter was read. The president was of the opinion that a Committee on Changes in the Charter could legally function and he approved of its going forward with the work. It was suggested that the letter be given the chairman of the committee at the proper time. Miss Samuclson made a motion that Florence Hale be appointed Director of Radio for the ensuing year and that a letter be sent from the Committee expressing appreciation of her past services. Seconded by Mr. Saunders. Carried. The president recalled that the Board of Directors appointed a Committee for Increasing Funds of the N. E. A. which reported at the Washington convention and asked permission to continue it. Mr. Offenhauer made a motion that the com¬ mittee be continued with the same personnel and that they report at the next convention. Seconded by Miss Samuelson. Carried. The president asked for an expression of opinion on the idea to have committee chairmen report several times during the year on the progress of their work (1) with a view to helping push the work forward and (2) helping to know how the Association is involved financially. Miss Gray made a motion that chairmen of the two new charter committees be requested to make periodical reports to the Executive Committee. Seconded by Miss Samuelson. Carried. The next item considered was the National Committee for Federal Emergency Aid for Education. Mr. Offenhauer made a motion approving of Mr. Richmond’s committee being asked to continue its work. Seconded by Miss Samuelson. Carried. President Smith asked for the opinion of the committee as to whether the plan of last year of having committee reports made to the Board of Directors and then to the Representative Assembly should be continued. Miss Samuelson made a motion that this plan be left to the discretion of the president but that reports be more in summary form. Seconded by Mr. Offenhauer. Carried. The meeting recessed at 12:30 for lunch, reconvening at 2 p. m. in the Board of Directors room, N. E. A. headquarters. John K. Norton appeared before the committee outlining in a general way the plan of work of the Joint Commission on the Emergency in Education for the coming year. In his discussion, he pointed out that it would be impossible to carry out a plan of rehabilitation and reconstruction without a large sum of money — more than the N. E. A. could supply, and asked permission to go to foundations or other sources for additional funds. He made it clear that he would be opposed to accepting funds to which “strings were attached.” The Committee was in hearty accord with the program as outlined by Mr. Norton and discussed the matter of funds at length. Mr. Saunders moved that in view of the peculiar emergency existing in this nation and particularly the emergency in education that the Joint Commission be given the wholehearted support of the Executive Committee in the program as out¬ lined by its chairman and that it be authorized to secure, if possible, the necessary funds. Seconded by Mr. Offenhauer and unanimously carried. President Smith told of a plan worked out with E. E. Oberholtzer, president of the Department of Superintendence, to visit the drought stricken areas to learn of the actual needs regarding (1) the opening and continuing of schools this fall, and (2) to urge upon educators in those sections the need of bringing pressure to bear on the federal governmment thru their senators and congressmen. Miss Samuelson made a motion that a vote of approval be given President Smith for his plan to visit the drought stricken area. Seconded by Mr. Saunders. Carried. The question of allotments to committees from the committee appropriation fund was next discussed. Because the requests far exceed the funds the secretary pointed out the very difficult situation. The following appropriations were listed by the 918 National Education Association Budget Committee but later were given as a total for the Executive Committee to distribute. Commission on the Enrichment of Adult Life . $300.00 Committee on Economic Status of the Teacher . 500.00 Committee on Retirement . 100.00 Committee on Social-Economic Goals . 2,000.00 Committee on Tenure . 50.00 Joint Committee on Health Problems . 200.00 Legislative Commission (regular) . 200.00 Legislative Commission (Federal Emergency Aid) . 5,000.00 Joint Emergency Commission . 5,000.00 Committee on Resolutions . 50.00 $13,400.00 Mr. Saunders made a motion that 25 percent of the amount listed (see above) be made available now except that the Tenure Committee be allowed $500; the Legislative Commission (Federal Emergency Aid) $2500, and the Joint Emer¬ gency Commission, $5000; or such part of these amounts as is necessary. Seconded by Mr. Off enhauer. Carried. The motion was made on the suppostion that further allowances could be made later. Mr. Saunders moved that the sum of $200, or such part thereof as is necessary, be appropriated to each of the following de¬ partments from the emergency fund: Home Economics, Kindergarten-Primary, and Science Instruction. Seconded by Mr. Off enhauer. Carried. Miss Gray moved that requests for appropriations to the Budget Committee shall hereafter be made by the Committee requesting the appropriation at least thirty days previous to the annual meeting. Seconded by Mr. Off enhauer. Carried. President Smith called attention to the resolution that the Association work for an appropriation of $500,000,000 from the federal government for school relief. Air. Off enhauer made a motion that in order to carry out the wishes of the Representative Assembly we make every effort to secure an appropriation of $500,000,000 for the schools and that we continue our cooperation with the Legis¬ lative Commission thru the planning of the Federal Emergency Aid Committee. Seconded by Mr. Saunders. Carried. The secretary brought up the question of listing the membership drive with group health and accident policy for members. Miss Gray made a motion that the secretary investigate this and make a recommendation at the next meeting of the Committee. Seconded by Mr. Offenhauer. Carried. It was agreed that the provision in the resolution for registering delegates and members each day of the convention shoud be carried out. Pt esident Smith asked members of the Committee to send him suggestions for (1) a theme for his summer program, (2) committee personnel, and (3) program of work. Saturday, November 3, was tentatively fixed for the next meeting of the Executive Committee and there being no further business the meeting adjourned. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Henry Lester Smith, President Associational Records and Information 919 MINUTES OF THE MEETINGS OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES Cleveland, Ohio Monday Morning, February 26, 1934 (In Brief) The Board of Trustees’ meeting convened at the Hotel Hollenden at 10 a.m., Joseph IJ. Saunders, chairman, presiding. The following members of the Board were present: Joseph H. Saunders, chairman; Jessie Gray, J. M. Givinn, Kate V. Wofford, and Edgar G. Doudna. Present by invitation: Henry Lester Smith, treas¬ urer; Joseph Rosier, first vicepresident; and J. W. Crabtree, secretary of the National Education Association. The chairman called the meeting to order and stated: “I have here some state¬ ments of condition of the Permanent Fund up to the present time. This is a state¬ ment from May 31 to January 31, 1934. We have, first, our receipts from life memberships during that period, $15,826, and a refund on paving, $191.06, together with the cash on hand that we had on May 31 of $15,170.89 and receipts of $337.98, making the total receipts $31,525.93. Our disbursements since that time, consisting of payments to the Penn Mutual in reduction of our mortgages, amount to ^20,510. After answering questions Chairman Saunders continued: “On March 5, oui indebtedness on the building is due and I have been allowing this life membership to accumulate in order to make a curtailment under our agreement with the Penn Mutual. We agreed to curtail it $5000 at the interest period, besides the payment of interest, and we may curtail as much in excess of that as we see fit in lots of $500. My recommendation to the Board is that we curtail it $10,000 at this next interest payment in March, which will bring our debt on the building down to $125,000. Mr. Doudna moved that the curtailments be made. Seconded by Miss Gray. Carried. The chairman explained that the securities reserve for depreciation on the build¬ ing is $8039.44; and the par value of other securities is $99,643.74. There has been no change, practically, in the status of our securities since the report at the last meeting. The newspapers report that the state of Arkansas is making arrangements now to meet the interest obligation on the Toll Bridge bonds that we hold of that state. He expected the bonds to be cared for in due time and explained the matter in detail. He stated that there were two other sets of bonds not in very satisfactory condi¬ tion, altho the interest on one of them has been promptly paid, that is, the Man¬ hattan Railway Company bonds. There is some litigation going on in connection with these, and an effort to throw that company into receivership which the bond¬ holders have resisted, or are resisting. However, the interest in the meantime has been paid promptly on these bonds. What is going to be the outcome we do not know, but we are still getting interest on these bonds promptly at the dates when due. Then other bonds in default are the bonds of the St. Louis and San Francisco Railroad Company, $5250. That railroad went into the hands of receivers and there was a committee appointed and a reorganization proposed. It now finds that the reorganization will not work, because the estimated receipts were not sufficient to carry out the reorganization plan which we had agreed to, along with other bondholders. All of our other bonds are A-l, with interest promptly met. On the request of Miss Gray, Mr. Saunders read the list of railroad and munici¬ pal bonds, giving value, etc. Miss Gray stated that she was particularly interested in the railroad bonds, because not being a financier she would like to know whether the railioads are paying their bonds and as to the future of the bonds. 920 National Education Association Mr. Saunders then explained that this was questionable. Our railroad bonds were purchased a long time ago by our predecessors when railroad bonds were considered almost like government bonds. He said: “When I came on the Board, with some others of you, I offered a motion which was adopted by the Board and which has been our policy since, to invest only in government securities, either state, national, municipal, or county government bonds of one sort or another. We have not invested in any bonds since that time except in government and municipal securities. We are not taking industrials any more.” Gewinn asked whether our best investment would not be to reduce our note. Would we not get more interest that way? les, Mr. Saunders said, “we get more interest by reducing our note, just as we voted a moment ago to do. We get more interest in two ways. We are paying 6 percent on our note. So we get 6 percent when we invest this money. Under our con¬ tract with the Penn Mutual, when our debt reaches $100,000, the interest rate is reduced to 5 percent. .So when we pay another $25,000 we will save 1 percent on the total of $100,000, in addition to the 6 percent that we are paying now. So you see the very best investment we can make is to purchase our own building.” A discussion of railroad and other commercial bonds followed. All seemed to be pleased with the policy of investing in government and municipal bonds. In answer to questions asked by Miss W offord, Mr. Doudna, and Miss Gray , Mr. Saunders said: “We ought not to sell any more bonds than we have sold. We sold $125,000 worth to pay on this building when we built it. The reason we ought not to sell any more, the reason we ought to keep approximately $100,000 in securities is this, that in the summer and fall, after the schools are closed, our revenues go down practically to nothing and before payments begin to come in again we have to borrow to carry on our headquarters activities. We borrow * anywhere from $20,000 to $40,000. When we want to borrow that money we go to the banks and say, ‘Here are $100,000 worth of securities that we can pledge for this loan.’ We never have any question about the loan as a result of that. If we did not have that reserve of $100,000 in securities the banks might question whether or not they should loan an institution of our kind, depending upon annual memberships for its revenue, this operating money. So for that reason we ought not to sell any of those bonds. It may be wise to do as you suggest, and whenever conditions in the market seem favorable, . I think we ought to take these industrials, get rid of them and replace them with government securities.” Miss Gray said, \ ou see, that is putting your own principal into operation. And moreover, it can be corroborated by our own retirement system (Pennsylvania) that has invested $132,000,000 and there has not been one cent lost because they have adhered to this principle of investing in that type of securities.” After showing what funds would be available, Mr. Saunders said: “Out of that I would like to have you authorize at this time the payment of the interest to the Penn Mutual, which is, approximately, the same or little less than the $4725.17 which was paid on September 5, 1933. That must be paid on March 5 at the time we pay this other $10,000.” Mr. Givinn moved to authorize payment. Miss Wofford seconded the motion. Carried. A copy of the general financial report was presented to each one, and the various items discussed. Among the statements was the following by Mr. Rosier: “I feel like repeating my statement that I have made at various times, that we all appre¬ ciate the fine services of our chairman of the Board of Trustees in looking after the details of these finances.” Miss W offord , Mr. Doudna, and Miss Gray made similar statements. After discussing the question of receiving gifts to promote the work of the Asso¬ ciation, attention went back to the question of the renewal of our loan on the building. In answer to questions asked by Mr. Gwinn, Mr. Saunders explained as follows: “Last March the loan expired and had to be renewed, and at that time we Associational Records and Information 921 renewed it for ten years. Not knowing what the economic situation might be in the next year or two, instead of taking a five-year renewal we took a ten-year renewal. We paid the brokers’ commission at that time for a ten-year renewal, so that we will never have to pay any more brokerage on this loan. “When we negotiated the loan three and one-half years ago we negotiated it at a time when things were very prosperous, and several companies said to us that when this loan expired they would like to renew it for us, but when it did expire and I went to those people they all said: ‘We are not interested in it.’ They said they did not have any money to lend; the depression had come on. These were life insurance companies. They said their policy-holders had borrowed so much money that they would not care for an investment of this size any more. I went to several of the banks and they said it was too large a loan for the banks to make in the conditions then existing. So the only thing to do was to accept the offer of renewal of the Penn Mutual on the terms that it offered, but I held out on them until I got the 1 percent concession. I made the loan for ten years instead of five, as it cost onl\ percent more for the ten-year period and if anything did happen that we did noi pay out in five years and had to re-borrow we would have had to pay another full 2 percent.” After discussing a request for putting a partition in one of the large rooms, the chairman suggested a resolution authorizing action. Mr. Guinn made a motion to that effect, leaving it to the chairman of the Board of Trustees to work out the plan with the secretary and with the limitation that we feel that it would be unwise to cut a special office from the larger room. Seconded by Miss Gray. Carried. It was decided to meet at 11 a. m., Wednesday, February 28, 1934, in Club Room B of the Cleveland Public Auditorium. The meeting adjourned at 11 a.m. Joseph Saunders, Chairman Katie V. Wofford, Secretary Wednesday Morning, February 28, 1934 The meeting convened at 11:45 a. m., Joseph H. Saunders , chairman, presiding. The following members of the Board of Trustees were present: Joseph H. Saunders, chairman; Jessie Gray, J. M. Guinn, Kate V. JVofford, and Edgai G. Doudna. , . , Mr. Saunders called the meeting to order and stated: The meeting was a journed to this morning to take up any matters that might need to come before the Board at this time. Before making a report myself, I would like to ask if any of you have any business you would like to bring up at this time? If there is not, I would like to report that a year ago you passed a resolution asking the Executive Committee to set up an adequate plan for the retirement of the secre¬ tary at a time when he should under regulations or otherwise be retired, and the Executive Committee set up such a plan at its meeting the other day. The principa feature of the plan is that at the expiration of the service of the secretary or at his retirement, I should say, from the office of secretary he will be employed as Secretary Emeritus with an annual salary of $4000, and he will give such counsel and advice and service to the Association as the Association shall call upon him for from time to time. That is the report I have to make in that connection. Is there any discussion of that?” # , Mr. Guinn said: “That does not require any action on the part of the Board of Trustees, does it?” , , . , . . In answer to Mr. Guinn's question, he stated that it required no action. 1 hat means that whenever the Board of Trustees acts, whether it acts now or two years from now, this plan will then become operative. Mr. Smith stated that since coming here he heard from some source that a bill had been introduced into Congress within the last day or two to guarantee all those frozen assets — the government could guarantee that to pay the depositors in full and inquired about the report. 922 National Education Association Mr. Saunders answered as follows: “That action is pending, but the RFC has already done that in a number of these closed banks— has already loaned these banks some money against these frozen assets and the money has already been paid out to depositors. Whether our bank is one that has been treated that way or not, I am not certain. We have received the full amount of the principal and income of the Permanent Fund that were deposited in the bank and we also have received dividends on the checking accounts amounting to 50 percent of the deposits. We paid off all of our past due obligations to our staff, as we agreed to at that time. I wanted you to have that additional information in regard to the financial situation.” There was an informal discussion of secretaryship but no further action for record. It was moved by Mr. Doudna to adjourn. Seconded and carried. Joseph H. Saunders, Chairman Kate V. Wofford, Secretary Washington, D. C. Saturday Afternoon, June 30, 1934 The first meeting of the Board of Trustees, as scheduled in the official program of the Seventy-second Annual Meeting of the National Education Association was convened at 2 p. m., in the Board of Directors room of the headquarters building, Joseph H. Saunders, chairman of the Board, presiding. There were present': Joseph H. Saunders, J. M. Gwinn, Edgar Doudna, Jessie Gray, Kate V. Wofford. On invitation: Henry Lester Smith, Thomas W. Gosling, Joseph Rosier, members of the Executive Committee. The first business was the consideration of the Financial Report signed by Jessie Gray, E. G. Doudna, Kate V . W offord, J. M. Gwinn, and Joseph Saunders. The chairman called attention to the report stating that “Our financial situation is very satisfactory. We have turned the corner and are again marching forward. Our permanent assets on May 31, 1934, were $783,439.92 as compared to $771,329.91 on May 31, 1933, a gain during the year of $12,110.01. At a cost of $1800 in attorney fees we recovered from the closed Commercial National Bank the full amount of our Permanent Fund of $35,944.26 less interest on the account of $1,464.23, and $36,832.63 of the $73,888.33 deposited in our operating account. In other words, we have received approximately 50 percent of the operating money with more dividends to come in the future.” After the chairman had gone over the report making general explanations, he took up special points raised by Mr. D oudna, Mr. Gwinn, and others, explaining the items to which attention had been called. In speaking of the care of trust funds he stated: “Our new plan of handling our trust funds has worked satis¬ factorily and we have saved commissions heretofore paid. You remember a year ago I suggested to you that we experiment, that instead of employing a trust officer, as we had done, and paying him a commission for handling our accounts, we handle our own accounts in the bank; that we put our securities in a safety deposit box in the American Security and that we clip our own coupons and collect them ourselves. We have done that this year. The auditors have checked the business and they find that is a very satisfactory arrangement, and we have saved the commission on the trust fund. Probably I have had to come to Wash¬ ington maybe two, possibly three times at an expense of ten or fifteen dollars to clip the coupons and attend to matters with the bank, but that is small compared to some six or seven hundred dollars which we used to pay. The securities are handled in this way: We rent from the trust company a box — in the name of Mr. Allan and the chairman of the Board. Neither can go to the box without the other being present and signing at the gate. There is a double check. Mr. Allan Associational Records and Information 923 cannot enter the vault without me nor can I enter the vault without him. The assistant treasurer collects the coupons, which gives us an additional check.” After going over the report, answering questions, and making explanations the chairman submitted it for the approval of the board. Mr. Gvjinn moved the adoption of the report and its publication in the present form. Motion seconded by Mr. Doudna. Carried. In regard to the care of funds the Chair said: “You remember I asked the authorization a year ago to distribute our funds. Before we got into difficulty with the Commercial National Bank we had practically all of our money in the one bank. We now have it distributed this way: The principal account, that is the Permanent Fund, is in American Security and Trust Company, the bank in which we have the safety deposit box. The income account is in the Liberty National Bank. That is a smaller institution. The operating funds are in the National- Metropolitan Bank, the bank that took us over and kept us going while all our funds were tied up in the Commercial National. We have today deposits in these banks as follows: In the American Security, $10,353.94; in the Liberty National, $36,155.49, which will be transferred into the operating account; in the Metropolitan, the regular account, $12,941.00 and in the special accounts, $26,941.40. When the question was raised as to whether we should not pay off the $125,000 on the building as soon as possible the Chair said: “This is being paid with life memberships. We paid $30,500 from that source. You agreed with me when I submitted that point to you sometime back that when we were buying securities, we were getting 3 *4, 4, and 4^2 percent and when investing it in the building we were getting 6 percent and that it was to our interest to buy our own debt. So I have been putting all of the Permanent Fund except that belonging to the Depart¬ ment of Elementary School Principals and the Department of Superintendence into the building. We put their funds in securities and we put our own funds in payment of the debt on the building.” After discussing amount of income, rental, and questions pertaining to building and funds, the Chair pointed out the need of the approval of a resolution on the matter of turning over the income from the Permanent Fund, whereupon the following motion was made by Miss Wofford: Resolved , That the chairman of the Board of Trustees of the National Edu¬ cation Association be, and he is hereby, authorized to turn over to the treasutei of the Association the net income for the year 1933-34, amounting to $36,165.49. Motion seconded by Mr. Gwinn. Carried. The Chair stated that there was another resolution which ought to be passed, a resolution authorizing the chairman to deposit the bonds of the state of Arkansas. It was moved by Mr. Doudna, seconded by Miss Wofford, that the resolution approving the action of the chairman of the Board in depositing the $28,000 in bonds of the state of Arkansas be adopted as follows: Be It Resolved, That Joseph H. Saunders, president of the Board of Trustees, be, and he is hereby, authorized to deposit with the Chase National Bank of the City of New York as Escrow Agent bonds of the State of Arkansas as follows: Principal Amount Title of Int. Issue Rate Dated Maturity Earliest Coupon Mat. Att. Bond No. $23,000.00 State of 5% Arkansas 3/1/29 9/1/44 March, 1933 2104-2126 Both Inch $ 5,000.00 5% Toll Br. State of 5% Arkansas 5% Toll Br. 3/1/29 9/1/50 March, 1933 3714-3718 Both Inch 924 National Education Association With full power to the Chase National Bank to exchange these bonds for the refunding bonds of the State of Arkansas as follows: $23,000.00 State of Arkansas Toll Bridge, refunding, Series “A” maturing September 1, 1954 $5,000.00 State of Arkansas Toll Bridge, refunding, Series “A” maturing September 1, 1960 With interest adjustment as set out in circular dated May 3, 1934 There being no discussion, the motion was adopted, and the resolution was declared approved as herein above set forth. It was moved by Mr. Guinn, seconded by Mr. Doudna, that the purchase of $4214 of Water-Works bonds of the city of Portsmouth, for principal and accrued interest, $4310.11, be approved. There was no discussion. Motion carried. The Chair called attention to the chance to purchase the property east of our building at a low figure. After discussion it was decided without motion not to consider the matter of purchasing additional property at this time. The chairman then said: “At our last meeting you authorized me to get some expression, by sending notes and letters to various people of importance and promi¬ nence in the educational world, in regard to the functions of our Association and what should be its future, and you also asked me to have Mr. Carr of our Research Division make a study and send you the results of the study. All of you I think have received from Mr. Carr the report that he has made. Each of you was to write a letter, and from those letters I was to make one which was to go out to the profession. Here is the letter I sent out and you will recognize your own handi¬ work in it because a certain paragraph from each of you was put in with just a slight change made to make it a unit. Now I want to read the letter if you have not already read it. Are there any comments you want to make in connection with this?” In answer to questions, the Chair explained that the letter had been sent out to a number of state superintendents, to a number of city superintendents, to a number of college piofessors and presidents, and to all of the members of the Board of Directors of the Association including all past presidents of the Asso¬ ciation. He mentioned the names of the various people to whom the letter had been sent indicating those who had responded. Miss JV offord asked whether the Chair could not give a brief resume to which the Chair replied that he had many letters that possessed worthy features. He thought he ought to have time for this, whereupon Mr. Doudna interrupted owing to the lateness of the hour to move to adjourn until 7 :30 p. m. Sunday evening, July 1, seconded by Miss JV offord. Carried. Joseph H. Saunders, Chairman Kate V. Wofford, Secretary Sunday Evening, July 1, 1934 The special adjourned meeting of the Board of Trustees was called to order by Joseph H. Saunders, chairman, presiding, at 7:30 p. m. There were present from the Board of Trustees: Joseph H. Saunders, J. JV. Guinn, Edgar G. Doudna, Jessie Gray, and Kate V . JV offord; Members of the Executive Committee on invi¬ tation: Thomas Gosling and Joseph Rosier. After Mr. Guinn, Mr. Doudna, and others had discussed some of the letters before the Board of Trustees on questions connected with the selection of a secre- tary, Mr. Saunders stated that he had been unable to have copies made of the sundry letters for distribution to each of the members of the Board, and at the suggestion of Mr. Doudna he read some of the principal letters. Mr. Saunders read letters also from Commissioner J. JV. Studebaker, John K. Norton, Charles A. Kittrell, superintendent of schools, Waterloo, Iowa, JV or- Associational Records and Information 925 cester Warren of Bridgeport, Connecticut, W. B. Mooney, a director of the N. E. A., Henry Lester Smith, A. C. Flora, state director from South Carolina, William C. Bagley of Teachers College, Columbia University. He read a letter from Willard Givens of Oakland, Calif., and attached to his letter the Mendenhall circular letter, being a direct appeal to teachers to send in their fees to that particular project. Also letters were read from Uel Lamkin, Maryville, Mo., Charles B. Dyke, Millburn, N. J., George W. Frasier, Greeley, Colo., Harold O. Rugg, New York, N. Y., John J. Tigert, Tallahassee, Fla., Albert Cook, Baltimore, Md., H. V. Holloway, Dover, Del., William T. Long¬ shore, Kansas City, Mo., Jesse Newlon, New York, N. Y., Paul C. Stetson, In¬ dianapolis, Ind., P. P. Claxton, Clarksville, Tenn., George D. Strayer, New York, N. Y., Sara Fahey, New York, N. Y., W. H. Holmes, Mt. \ ernon, N. Y ., Chailes E. Green. Miss Gray then took Mr. Carr’s report and gave a brief analysis of her ideas of the suggestions put forth by Mr. Carr in his analysis. Mr. Gwinn stated it was his idea that this analysis had been furnished to the respective members of the Board that they might have from a research stand¬ point the qualifications of the new secretary, in other words a job analysis aqd what they should expect of the secretary; that it was not the thought of the Board at this meeting to attempt to select a secretary. Mr. Saunders suggested that it was his idea that the object of the Board in securing this analysis from Mr. Carr was that they should take the result of this study and these letters read by Mr. Saunders or referred to, and draw their own reasonable conclusions from them and outline the type of service that they as individual members of the Board would expect from the secretary. A lengthy general discussion followed as to the value of the job analysis, the methods of deciding on a secretary, what could be done at this meeting, etc. Some were of the opinion that considerable time was necessary. Miss Gray thought the selection ought to be made now. Mr. Gwinn thought we might make as much progress as possible at this meeting. After further discussion it was moved by Mr. D oudna, that the meeting be adjourned until 2 p. m., July 2, 1934. Seconded and carried. Joseph H. Saunders, Chairman Kate V. Wofford, Secretary Monday Afternoon, July 2, 1934 The special adjourned meeting of the Board of Trustees convened at 2 p. m., in the Board of Directors room, headquarters building, Joseph H. Saunders, chairman, presiding. The following were present: Joseph Saunders , J. M. Gwinn, Kate V. Wofford, Jessie Gray, and Edgar G. D oudna. The meeting was called to order by the chairman. Mr. Gwinn moved that each member of the Board be provided with the principal points in those letters that have a bearing on the work of the secretary, and that this be provided to each member at this convention. (By that is meant before Friday Thursday if possible.) Miss Wofford seconded the motion. Miss Gray thought that this was done at the last meeting, and the reporter’s notes were read to answer the question. A prolonged discussion followed. The minutes of previous meetings were read to determine whether the letters which had been received concerning the secre¬ taryship were to have been passed on to the Research Division for analysis. The minutes of earlier meetings were also read to check up on all actions taken on the question of electing a successor to Secretary Crabtree. Various views were pre¬ sented. There was a difference of opinion on the question of turning the letteis pertaining to the secretary over to the Research Division for analysis. 926 National Education Association All members of the Board of Trustees participated in the discussion, but finally on the suggestion of Mr. Gwinn, his resolution, which was introduced at the begin¬ ning of the meeting, was again taken up, and after further discussion voted upon and carried. Miss Gray then made a motion that Mr. Carr be given the letters in possession of the Board for tabulation, the information to be submitted to the Board by Thurs¬ day. Seconded by Mr. Gwinn and carried. Some time was given over to a discussion of procedure in considering the names of persons for the secretaryship, all members taking part. Mr. Gwinn then moved that each member submit at the next meeting a list of names of those possessing qualities that should be considered in selecting a secretary. Miss Gray seconded the motion. Mr. Gwinn consented to change the motion to read “each member of the board be requested to submit, etc.” The motion carried. It was understood that names in their lists would not be made public. Then followed discussion as to a convenient time for the next meeting, Miss JV offord stating she would be compelled to leave the morning of the following day but would return by plane if her presence was required. Miss Gray moved that the Chairman of the Board of Trustees write Dr. Rockwell to express appreciation for making it possible for Miss Wofford to have been here on the Board during this convention. Seconded by Mr. Gwinn. Carried. It was understood that Mr. Saunders, the chairman, would write Dr. Rockwell. Miss W offord thanked the Board for this action. Upon motion of Mr. Gwinn, duly seconded, the meeting was adjourned to recon¬ vene at 12 noon, in the Board of Directors room, headquarters building, July 4, 1934. Joseph H. Saunders, Chairman Kate V. Wofford, Secretary Wednesday Noon, July 4, 1934 A special adjourned meeting of the Board of Trustees was called at 12 noon, in the Board of Directors room, headquarters building, Joseph H. Saunders, chairman, presiding. There were present: Joseph H. Saunders, Edgar G. Doudna, J. M. Gwinn, and Jessie Gray. Mr. Saunders read the statement prepared by Mr. Carr as follows: July 3, 1934. Dr. Joseph H. Saunders Chairman, Board of Trustees National Education Association Superintendent of Schools Newport News, Virginia Dear Superintendent Saunders: In accordance with your instructions I have examined for the Board of Trus¬ tees, the file of correspondence which you delivered to me, and have extracted from it, and analyzed the comments regarding the qualifications and duties of the secretary of the National Education Association. Few of these comments are highly specific. Of the 25 letters submitted, 9 make no comment whatever regard¬ ing the secretary and 4 others are limited to brief two or three line statements. Only 12 letters, therefore, discuss the matter at any length, and some of these are very general in their statements. In order to separate the various suggestions that are made in these letters from the personality of the writer of the letter, I have numbered the various letters, and refer in this report to each letter by number. I have had copied out excerpts containing the full text of the statements made concerning the secretary in the letters submitted to me. These excerpts are now being typed and will be ready for your use in a short time. Associational Records and Information 927 In the material which follows I have attempted to abbreviate and condense the comments received under three main headings: (a) duties of a secretary; (b) qualities; (c) miscellaneous comments. The following six comments concerning the duties of the secretary were made: 1. To assure continuity of purpose in the Association (Letters 1 and 2) 2. To survey the problems confronting the Association (Letter 5) 3. To formulate policies and present them to the officers for approval (Letters 1 and 16) 4. To carry out policies adopted by the Association and its officers (Letter 1) 5. To serve as a liaison officer between various state, local, and lay organiza¬ tions; to make contacts by travel and otherwise for the integration of American education (Letters 2, 3, 4, 9, 11, and 21) 6. To develop and administer the work of the headquarters staff (Letter 5) The letters mentioning the following qualities desirable in the secretary are indicated. The qualities and combinations of qualities are listed in the order of frequency with which they were mentioned. Educational vision and leadership (Letters 4, 5, 8, 11, 17, and 19) General competence (Letters 3, 4, 11, 13, and 23) Prestige in the teaching profession (Letters 4, 8, 17, and 23) Culture and scholarship (Letters 4, 10, and 17) Executive ability (Letters 4, 8, and 17) Attractive personality (Letters 5 and 4) Educational statesmanship and philosophy (Letters 4 and 19) Aggressiveness and alertness (Letters 11 and 16) Professional training and experience (Letters 5 and 17) Knowledge of the American school system (Letters 17 and 19) Commitment to the purposes of the N. E. A. (Letter 17) Youth (Letter 13) Health (Letter 4) Three letters (Numbers 8, 13, and 23) refer to the salary, mentioning amounts of $25,000; $12,000 to $15,000; and “a good salary” respectively. Letter Number 22 remarks that the present secretary has in a very great measure shown, and has been, what an executive secretary should be. Letter Number 16 has a similar statement. After the report was read, Mr. Gwinn asked whether the excerpts had been received. The Chair explained that he was having them typed. Mr. Gwinn spoke as follows: “As I see it, there are two problems confronting us: one, to establish what the requirements of the office are; and then, as sug¬ gested in these letters, we ought to consider what the requirements of the particular individual are, what qualities we think are important in meeting these objectives that are set up for the office. I have tried to write out a list of the qualities that are important in view of this new vision of the office of secretary. Do you think it would be desirable that we should attempt to make a statement of the qualities of the person and then consider the list of persons that will be submitted in the light of those qualities, and seek to arrive at some names that later would be given final consideration? Just to illustrate what I mean: I was trying to think of that person, and what are the qualities we desire. The first one I put down here is educational vision.’ Now I think that is about the first one here, ‘educational vision and leadership.’ That puts leadership and education together. By educational vision I mean having a knowledge of what education is in its essence and what part it is going to play in the future development of this nation, and to be a prophet as far as one can be a prophet. That is what I mean by educational vision. “I put down the second quality, ‘judicially minded.’ What I mean by ‘judicially minded’ is he settles things on a basis of facts and not on a basis of persons or personal liking. It is the use of the scientific method in arriving at judgments. 928 National Education Association “The third quality I had thought about was his ability to make a good speech. All these letters say he should go out into the field and he ought to have the ability to carry the message to the teachers themselves, then I think he ought to have ability to write. I do not know that that is so important because other people can write, but I have put that down. Then I have put down ‘charm of personality,’ whatever that is. I see they have put down ‘attractive personality,’ which is about the same thing. Then executive ability. “That means to lead and yet to follow when you have got a lot of people that may want to have the spotlight. I do not think a good executive is one like Mr. Hitler, or Mr. Mussolini. I think he just controls by the power of his thought and planning. “Then ‘sociability.’ I think we have to have sociability, a man able to meet people. Then I think he ought to be a person who knows the whole United States; that is, he is national-minded. We do not want a New Englander, or a Californian, or a Southerner. We want a man who is national in his sympathies and his under¬ standings, it seems to me. “That is as far as I got when I had to leave for the meeting. I got this sugges¬ tion over at the meeting. ... I do not know how important it is. . . . That ‘the family of the person ought to be acceptable to Washington society.’ Other things being equal, I think we want a man who could be called to a professorship in a university, or even the presidency of a university. I think a Ph. D. is desirable if other qualities are equal.” Mr. Doudna said, “I suppose under ‘Personality’ you mean physical appearance, health, and all those other attributes?” To which question Mr. Gwinn replied: “Yes. As to the matter of age, I think we ought to weigh that. I do not know how old we ought to go nor how young but I would feel that a person that was in the upper limit of age would have to have a lot of other good qualities to overbalance the fact that he is a little older. That is my theory. Certainly health and physical fitness are important. It is a big and hard job. There is nothing harder than getter about over the country, as Miss Gray must know, making speeches, meeting people. You have to be on a tension all the time and it takes good health and lots of physical reserve. Far be it from me to say that we ought to pick a secretary like this exactly, but I believe these are certain guides to eliminating down to the final three or four; then I think we might say that that would be the method to use. That is the way I feel about it.” Mr. Saunders spoke as follows: “In this connection, I might call your attention to the fact that in setting up the next budget $2000 was allocated to this Board, just twice the sum we have ever had allocated before, namely, for the purpose of giving this Board an opportunity personally to interview any available candidate — I do not mean that they are candidates; I mean any available men we are considering, either by having such persons visit us or we visit that person as we see fit. For example, if we want to see three or four people in one community, it might be better that we should go to that community, but if we want one individual to come before this Board when we are in session, we could invite him to come at our expense. We might prefer to have one individual to go to a community without letting anyone know about it, and talk with people there about a man we had under consideration.” Miss Gray spoke as follows: “You may know some of my experience with degrees, and how many of them are gotten and the fact I haven’t any degree, as to what I think of degrees as credentials. I wouldn’t have a man in this office who is so ideally fitted for it that he would have maybe to rearrange some things in his own life, but this I would expect, that he would have the power of a general, that he would have the wisdom of a diplomat, that he would be fearless and courageous, he would have faith in people, he would be without guile, without a sense of greed, and with all the honor in the world. That he would be one who would make of this position one of supreme service to every group, whether to the teacher group, principal group, or all the way up to the university.” Associational Records and Information 929 Mr. Doudna asked the following question: “What you mean is you would not put what we often do in selecting teachers, technology first?” Miss Gray replied: “Never, never. I think some technicians are most deadly in their influence. He has to have faith in his profession, he has to have faith in people, and if he hasn’t faith in people, he cannot develop people thru service. He has got to have diplomacy of a general because there are departments in this Association in which he has got to be the general and he has to coordinate everything so that there is just one movement of the group. “Well, specific things are self-evident. We would not put a man on the list who did not have good health and we would not put a man on the list who was too old or too young. All these things are so self-evident. Good speech, why, of course you would not think of selecting a man who could not make a good speech or write either. As for charm of personality, I do not know whether that is specific or not. I rather think it is not specific, but charm, in my mind, does not begin to outweigh honesty and honor. I can tell you men I mean that. I just mean it as I have never meant anything in my life.” Mr. Saunders remarked, “Well, I do not think any member of this Board would consider anybody that did not have honor and honesty in his makeup. Surely no one without honor would have any consideration in the mind of any person here.” Mr. Gwinn again expressed a desire to make progress, and continued as follows: “I think we should have some qualities of individuals — I find unless you list those qualities, when you just meet the person, a lot of things escape you. It is just a guide. It is just like planning for a lesson. You have got to have some architectural drawing for what you are going to do, or else you will leave out the background, or something like that. I think that we should list these various qualities that come to mind, includ¬ ing what Miss Gray has said, what I have said, what any of the rest of you may suggest, and have a copy of them made and given to us.” In answer to the question as to salary, the Chair said: “You would not get such a man at any price as far as that is concerned, not even $100,000. Price is not a factor in it. It seems to me so far as that is concerned, we have listed a sufficient number of qualifications to measure a man by. I just hope that in getting a successor to Mr. Crabtree we will get a man who has the wisdom which he has displayed thru all these years in the development of the Association.” All members took an active part in the discussion in the attempt to get together on the type of person to be elected. Questions were asked and answered. Chairman Saunders thereupon summarized the various qualities that had been mentioned as qualifications to be considered in the selection of a secretary. Mr. Gwinn moved that each member of the Board and the president be provided with a copy of Mr. Carr’s report on the letters, together with the excerpts from the letters which he is having made. The motion was seconded by Mr. Doudna. Carried. Mr. Gzvinn moved that each member of the Board and the president be provided with a copy of the suggestions that have been made as to the qualities of the person that should be selected as secretary. Motion seconded by Mr. Doudna. Carried. It was decided that each member of the Board should submit to each other member a tentative list of names and it was agreed that the first list of names compiled by the various members of the Board should be a very large list of names in an attempt to include men worthy of consideration from the entire country. The Chair then stated that as he understood it we have a ladies’ and gentlemen’s agreement that no names that are presented here at this time or at any future time will be reported as having been before this Board. Is that it? Is that a correct state¬ ment of it? Each expressed approval. Mr. Doudna moved that whatever names have been submitted, and will be sub¬ mitted, be sent to the members of the Board of Trustees, including the names that 930 National Education Association have been submitted to the Chairman of the Board of Trustees by groups and organ¬ izations. Seconded by Miss Gray. Carried. It was moved by Mr. Doudna, seconded by Mr. Gvuinn, that the Board meet on a date to be set by the chairman between September 15 and October 1, 1934, for the consideration of the election of a secretary. Upon motion duly made and seconded, the meeting stood adjourned. Joseph H. Saunders, Chairman Friday Afternoon, July 6, 1934 The meeting of the newly elected Board of Trustees convened at 4:45 p.m., in the Board of Directors room, headquarters building, Joseph H. Saunders , chairman of the Board, presiding. There were present: Joseph H. Saunders , A. L. IV hittcnb er g , Edgar G. Doudna, and Henry Lester Smith; absent, J. M. Gnvinn. As soon as the Board was called to order Mr. Doudna moved that Mr. Saunders be elected chairman, Mr. Smith seconded the motion. Mr. Smith put the motion. Carried. It was then moved by Mr. Smith, seconded by Mr. W hittenber g , that Mr. Doudna be elected secretary of the Board. Carried. The Chair stated that there were two items of business he wished to present, one being the following resolution: Resolved, That Joseph H. Saunders , chairman, Board of Trustees, and J. W . Crabtree , secretary, National Education Association, be and they are hereby, authorized to borrow from the National Metropolitan Bank of Washington, D. C., or any other bank or banker, the sum of forty thousand ($40,000) dollars, or as much thereof as may be needed for expenses during the current year, and they aie authorized to execute a note or notes covering said borrowing. The motion was made by Mr. Smith. Seconded by Mr. W hittenber g. Carried. The following resolutions are for each of the banks in which accounts are kept: Resolution No. 1: That R. E. Offenhauer, the treasurer of the National Educa¬ tion Association of the United States, is authorized and instructed to open a deposit account for and in the name of this organization with the National Metropolitan Bank in the city of Washington, D. C., to deposit therein funds of the organiza¬ tion and that said account may be drawn on only by check signed in the name of the organization by its treasurer, R. E. Offenhauer, and countersigned by its secre¬ tary, J. IV. Crabtree, until further notice in writing to said National Metropolitan Bank, and the said National Metropolitan Bank shall not be required, in any case, to make inquiry respecting the application of any instrument executed in virtue of this resolution or of the proceeds therefrom, nor be under any obliga¬ tion to see to the application of such instrument or proceeds. Resolution No. 2: That Joseph H. Saunders, the chairman of the Board of Trustees, National Education Association of the United States, is authorized and instructed to open a deposit account for and in the name of the Permanent bund of this organization with the American Security and Trust Company in the city of Washington, D. C., to deposit therein funds of the organization and that said account may be drawn on only by check signed in the name of this organization by Joseph H. Saunders, chairman, Board of Trustees, and countersigned by Edgar G. Doudna, secretary, Board of Trustees, until further notice in writing to said American Security and Trust Company, and the said American Security and Trust Company shall not be required, in any case, to make inquiry respecting the application of any instrument executed in virtue of this resolution or of the pro¬ ceeds therefrom, nor be under any obligation to see to the application of such instrument or proceeds. Moved by Mr. IV hittenber g , seconded by Mr. Smith. Carried. Associational Records and Information 931 Resolution No. 3: That J. IV. Crabtree, the secretary of the National Education Association of the United States, is authorized and instructed to open a deposit account for and in the name of this organization with the National Metropolitan Bank in the city of Washington, D. C., to deposit therein funds of the organiza¬ tion and that said account may be drawn on only by check signed in the name of the organization by its secretary, J . IV . Crabtree, and countersigned by its treasurer, R. E. Offcnhaucr, until further notice in writing to said National Metropolitan Bank, and the said National Metropolitan Bank shall not be required, in any case, to make inquiry respecting the application of any instrument executed in virtue of this resolution or of the proceeds therefrom, nor be under any obligation to see to the application of such instrument or proceeds. Moved by Mr. W hittenberg , seconded by Mr. Smith. Carried. Resolution No. 4: That Joseph H. Saunders, the chairman of the Board of Trustees of the National Education Association of the United States, is authorized and instructed to open a deposit account for and in the name of this corporation with the Liberty National Bank in the city of Washington, D. C., to deposit therein funds, income from Permanent Fund of this corporation, and that said account may be drawn on only by check signed in the name of this corporation by Joseph H. Saunders, chairman, and countersigned by Edgar G. Doudna, secre¬ tary, Board of Trustees, and until further notice in writing to said Liberty Na¬ tional Bank, and the said bank shall not be required, in any case, to make inquiry respecting the application of any instrument executed in virtue of this resolution or of the proceeds therefrom, nor be under any obligation to see to the applica¬ tion of such instrument or proceeds. Moved by Mr. IV hittenberg , seconded by Mr. Doudna. Carried. Mr. Smith then stated that in our bylaws it says that the secretary and treasurei shall enter upon their duties on a date which shall be determined by the Board of Trustees and which shall not be later than the first of October. He wondered since we are changing treasurers if this Board ought not to take action. It was moved by Mr. Doudna, seconded by Mr. IV hittenberg , that as soon as the audit was completed of the treasurer’s books and records, that the office of treasurer be taken over by the incoming treasurer not later than July 20. Carried. It was moved by Mr. Doudna, seconded by Mr. IV hittenberg , that an audit be made at the time of the transfer of the books to Mr. Offenhauer by the firm of Wayne Kendrick & Company. Carried. It was moved by Mr. Doudna, seconded by Mr. IV hittenberg , that the term of the treasurer, R. E. Offenhauer, begin July 14, 1934. Carried. It had previously been decided to hold the next meeting of the Board of Trustees September 15. It was moved by Mr. Doudna that the Board of Trustees reconsider the motion fixing the date of the next meeting between September 15 and 30, which motion was duly seconded by Mr. W hittenberg . Carried. It was thereupon moved by Mr. Doudna, seconded by Mr. IV hittenberg , that the Board meet between September 15 and October 1 if the president of the Association, Henry Lester Smith, was in the country, and if he was absent from the country at that time, that the chairman of the Board call a meeting as soon as President Smith notified him of his return. Carried. The Chair: “Now is there anything else we should consider? I will say for your information that there are certain lists of material that Mr. Doudna, Mr. Gnvinn, and I have and that the chairman will see you get copies of. Is there any further business ?” Moved by Mr. Doudna, and seconded, that the meeting adjourn. Carried. Joseph H. Saunders, Chairman Edgar G. Doudna, Secretary 932 National Education Association REPORT OF BOARD OF TRUSTEES Financial Our financial situation is very satisfactory. We have turned the corner and are again marching forward. Our Permanent Assets on May 31, 1934, were $783,439.92 as compared to $771,- 329.91 on May 31, 1933, a gain during the year of $12,110.01. We paid on the mortgage on our headquarters building the sum of $30,500, reducing it from $155,500 to $125,000. At a cost of $1800 in attorney fees we recovered from the closed Commercial National Bank the full amount of our Permanent Fund of $35,944.26 less interest on the account of $1464.23, and $36,832.63 of the $73,888.33 deposited in our operating account. Interest coupons on our securities have been promptly paid except on $28,000 State of Arkansas 5 per cent bonds, $5250 St. Louis and San Francisco Railway 4 per cent bonds, and one semi-annual payment of $80 on $4000 Manhattan Rail¬ way 4 per cent bonds. The State of Arkansas is refunding its bonds on the following basis: 3}^ per cent until 1937, 4 per cent until 1939 and 5 per cent thereafter; addi¬ tional bonds at 33^2 per cent to repay the interest due at the 5 per cent rate to prevent loss on these bonds. The St. Louis and San Francisco Railway is in the hands of a receiver and the Manhattan Railway bonds are in litigation. Our new plan of handling our trust funds has worked satisfactorily and we have saved commissions heretofore paid. In our operating department our receipts were $8217.71 more than the preceding year and our expenses $966.76 less than the preceding year which with all adjust¬ ments enabled us to increase our surplus by $2686.01. We spent $6925.83 less than our budget estimates. This excellent showing is due to the good work of J. W. Crabtree and H. A. Allan and the fine cooperation of the entire headquar¬ ters staff. The itemized statements of the permanent funds follow: Permanent Fund — Principal Account — May 31, 1934 Cash Report Cash on Hand May 31, 1933: In National Metropolitan Bank . $337.98 In Commercial National Bank (in Receivership) . 15,170.89 Elementary School Principals . 855.77 Department of Superintendence — Educational Research Fund . 2,025.55 Receipts: From Life Memberships . Refund on Paving . Elementary School Principals Fund . Department of Superintendence — Educational Re¬ search Fund . Teachers Home & Welfare Fund . Income from Parker Fund . Disbursements: Payments to Penn Mutual Life Insurance Co. for Reduction on Principal of Loan . For Protested Checks . Tax . Elementary School Principals— Purchase of Securities Dept, of Supt. — Educational Research Fund — Pur¬ chase of Securities . $18,390.19 24,125.09 191.06 193.00 1,030.00 376.00 1,733.33 - $46,038.67 $30,500.00 21.00 .02 1,077.52 3,232.59 Associational Records and Information Parker Fund: Postage, Insurance . $ 10.02 Isaiah T. Greenacre — Services . 1 , 049 . 37 Cash on Hand, May 31, 1934 $9,304.00 376.00 673.94 $10,353.94 Deduct: Overdraft — Elementary School Prin¬ cipals Fund . $28.75 Department of Superin¬ tendence — Educational Research Fund . 177.04 - 205.79 In American Security & Trust Company, Washington, D. C.: Principal Cash . . Teachers Home & Welfare Fund . Income Parker Fund . Permanent Fund — Income Account — May 31, 1934 Balance in Commercial National Bank, Washington, D. C. (in Receiv¬ ership) May 31, 1933 . Receipts: Interest on Securities, Exhibit “E” . Rent of Headquarters 1201 16th Street, Washington, D.C •f for quarter ending Aug. Nov. Feb. Mar. 31, 1933 $10,750.00 30, 1933 10,750.00 28, 1934 10,750.00 31, 1934 10,750.00 Interest on deposit $3,105.00 43,000.00 282.28 Disbursements: Transferred to N. E. A. Cash . $19,309.14 Interest not allowed by Coml. Natl. Bank . 1,464.23 - $20,773.37 Commercial National Bank, Trustee . 317.50 Interest Paid: Penn Mutual Life Insurance Co. September 5, 1933 . $4,725.17 March 5, 1934 . 4,050.00 Paid National Metropolitan Bank, Interest on $20,000 Note Payable. . . . Ralph Quinter, Attorney, Retainer . Heffron Company — Radiator . Joe High — Plumbing . Insurance and Postage on Securities. . . . 8,775.17 490.00 500.00 48.00 85.50 5.62 933 $35,890.52 $10,148.15 $10,148.15 $20,773.37 46,387.28 $67,160.65 30,995.16 Balance in Liberty National Bank, Washington, D. C., May 31, 1934 . . . $36,165.49 934 National Education Association A full statement of the assets of the Permanent Fund is found in Exhibit “D," page 944. The list of the Permanent Fund securities is found in Exhibit “E,” page 945. The list of properties from the Parker Estate is in Exhibit “F,” page 946. June 2, 1934. Board of Trustees Joseph H. Saunders, Chairman Kate V. Wofford, Secretary • J. M. Gwinn E. G. Doudna Jessie Gray, President REPORT OF AUDITORS WAYNE KENDRICK & COMPANY CERTIFIED PUBLIC ACCOUNTANTS RUST BUILDING, WASHINGTON, D. C. June 16, 1934 Miss Jessie Gray, President National Education Association of the United States 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W. Washington, D. C. Dear Madam: In accordance with instructions received, we have examined the books and records of account of the National Education Association of the United States for the fiscal year ended May 31, 1934, and submit herewith our report consisting of the following exhibits and comments: Exhibit “A” — Statement of assets and liabilities as at May 31, 1934. Exhibit “B” — Condensed comparative statement of income and expenses for the fiscal years ended May 31, 1933 and 1934. Exhibit “C” — Income and expenses for the fiscal year ended May 31, 1934. Exhibit “D” — Assets of permanent funds as at May 31, 1934. Exhibit “E” — Securities of permanent funds on hand as at May 31, 1934. Exhibit “F” — List of properties owned, secured thru adjustment of the Estate of Marilla Z. Parker, as at May 31, 1934. Comments Our examination consisted principally of the verification of assets and liabilities of the Association as at May 31, 1934, but we made sufficient tests of income and expense accounts to substantially determine the accuracy thereof. Cash in banks was verified by a comparison of all checks paid by the banks with the amounts entered in the books of account. We also inspected the checks as to payees and endorsements. All bank accounts were verified by direct correspondence with the depositories, and where statements were furnished by the banks, the balances shown thereon were reconciled to the amounts shown by the books. Cash on hand was verified by actual count. Accounts Receivable amounting to $7,254.92 were verified by inspection of the individual accounts in the ledger. The greater portion of these accounts are for bills recently rendered for current advertising. Such accounts were also verified thru inquiries in the Business Division. After a careful check of these accounts, we believe the Reserve for Doubtful Accounts is sufficient to take care of any loss Associational Records and Information 935 from this source. An amount of $911.47 was charged off during the year as a direct expense. Time Checks Receivable, $521.14 and Warrants, $8,397.12, were verified by in¬ spection of the warrants and checks on hand. Such checks as were returned by the banks unpaid at maturity date are included in the “Protested Checks” account. Stamped Envelopes and Cards, $419.90, and Office Supplies, $863.50 were in¬ ventoried by your staff, and an inspection was subsequently made by us to determine the reasonable accuracy thereof. We also checked the calculations and extensions. Protested Checks, $2,223.32, were examined by us insofar as possible. The ma¬ jority of checks returned unpaid prior to February, 1932, however, had been sent to the makers, and the only evidence available for our inspection was the letter of transmittal to the makers of such checks. We did not increase the Reserve for Loss thereon as the gross amount outstanding has been reduced considerably and it now appears the collections on the balance will exceed the Reserve. Office Furniture and Fixtures, $47,513.76, is as shown by the records. We verified, however, the additions made during the year to this account by inspection of pur¬ chase invoices. A physical inventory was made by your employees, which we ex¬ amined and compared with a similar inventory at May 31, 1933. No depreciation has been charged off at this time, as the inventory, which was priced very conserva¬ tively, is in excess of the net book value thereof. While it is recognized that deprecia¬ tion should be charged on the building, none has been deducted for the fiscal years 1933 and 1934, as it would be necessary to set aside cash or other assets to increase the “Depreciation Fund.” We agree with your Association that it is better to use such funds to pay off the mortgage, thereby reducing the interest charge. After this debt has been paid, the depreciation deduction may then be resumed. Notes Receivable-Life Members, $192,059.50, as shown in Exhibit “D,” were examined by us and found to be in agreement with the books. We found that pay¬ ments aggregating $45,000 on such notes were in arrears. These are non-nego- tiable instalment notes given in payment of Life Memberships. An unascertain- able amount of the above payments has been extended at the request of the makers. Investments in Securities were verified by actual inspection of stock certificates or bonds. It will be noted from Exhibit “E” that a full year’s interest was not re¬ ceived on the following items: State of Arkansas Toll Bridge St. Louis and San Francisco Railroad State of Arkansas interest coupons, which became due March 1, 1933, and subsequent thereto, have not been paid, as the state is attempting to issue refunding bonds bearing a lower rate of interest. The St. Louis and San Francisco Railroad paid interest due July 1, 1932, but defaulted on subsequent payments. Manhattan Rail¬ way Company interest due October 1, 1933 was paid. It is our understanding that the Manhattan Railway Co. has sixty days from due date in which to pay interest, which right was exercised when the April 1, 1934, coupon became due. This right expired May 31, 1934, and the bond interest is still unpaid. It will be noted from Exhibit “A” that the total net equity value of the Per¬ manent Fund Assets was $783,439.92 at May 31, 1934, as compared to $771,329.91 at May 31, 1933. The increase is accounted for as follows: Gross Value at May 31, 1933, as shown by prior audit report . $926,829.91 Less: First Trust Payable — May 31, 1933 . 155,500.00 Net Equity shown above at May 31, 1933 . $771 ,329.91 To Which Add: Increase in Life Memberships . 9,837.07 Increase in Elementary School Principals Account — Net . 193.00 Department of Superintendence — Transferred from National Education Association . . . 1 , 030 . 00 Teachers Home and Welfare Fund . 376.00 Parker Fund Income . 673.94 NET EQUITY MAY 31, 1934 — As shown by Exhibit “A” . $783,439.92 936 National Education Association Vouchers Payable, $29,415.88, were verified by examination of the individual accounts, and checking the payments for the month of May 1934 to make a test as to whether any of such vouchers had been paid. The purchasing department also shows there are no purchases made which were not entered on the books. Amounts due to Associated Departments totaling $25,836.30 were accepted as shown by the books, except the Elementary School Principals, American Educational Research, and Department of Superintendence Funds, which were verified by check¬ ing the records kept by these Departments. The total shown above and on Exhibit “A” consists of the following: Department of Superintendence . $14,359.55 Department of Rural Education . 853 . 82 Department of Lip Reading . 32.28 Department of Elementary School Principals . 3,696.21 Department of Adult Education . 159.33 Department of American Educational Research . 6,648.14 Department of Secondary School Principals . # . 49.98 Department of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics . 36.99 $25,836.30 The first trust mortgage payable, $125,000, against the real estate and building at 16th and M Streets, was verified by direct correspondence with the holder of the mortgage. This note was curtailed $30,500 during the year, reducing it from $155,500 to $125,000 as shown above. Your Association owns certain personal and real property received from the Estate of Marilla Z. Parker, as shown in Exhibit “F” of this report. These assets have not yet been entered on the books, due to the doubtful value of some of the securities. In addition to the property listed in Exhibit “F, ” we also examined the following, which were included in the assets received from this estate: 500 Shares California Pure Food Company. 525 Shares Norwegian American Copper and Smelting Company. 2 Shares New York and St. Louis Mining and Manufacturing Co. We are informed these shares have no value. Budget Comparison The total expenditures allowed in the budget for the fiscal year ended May 31, 1934, was $450,100 as compared to the actual expenditures amounting to $443,- 174.17. A comparative summary of budgeted and actual expenditures, showing the amounts under or over the budgeted figures, is shown below: Over or Actual Budget Under Expenditure Allowance Budget Board of Trustees . Board of Directors . Executive Committee . Contingent Fund for President 1933-4. . General Secretary’s Office and Division of Accounts . Division of Legislation (Field) . Division of Business . Division of Publications . Division of Research . Division of Classroom Service . Division of Administrative Service . Division of Records and Membership. . . Promotion and Maintenance of Mem¬ bership . Physical Plant — Headquarters . Office Furniture and Fixtures . General Office Expense . $601. 16 $900.00 $298.84 7,248, .93 8,000.00 751.07 2,382. 15 2,500.00 117.85 319 .02 700.00 380.98 21,353. 8,631. 80 \ 12/ 30,000.00 15.08 12,020. 26 10,800.00 1,220.26 16,308. 25 16,000.00 308.25 42,324. 67 40,400.00 1,924.67 54 , 900 . 10 55,000.00 99.90 7,313. .85 7,250.00 63.85 8,544. .68 8,550.00 5.32 25,976. 96 26,600.00 623.04 25,702. 69 27,000.00 1,297.31 54,498. 32 54,000.00 498.32 561. 72 1,000.00 438.28 6,591. 58 7,000.00 408.42 Associational Records and Information 937 Annual Conventions . Operation of Exhibits . Payment to Department of Superin¬ tendence . N. E. A. Journal . Volume of Proceedings 1933 . Publications and Reports for General Sale. Research Bulletin . Special Appropriations . Association’s Membership Fees . Retirement Annuities and Insurance. . . . Financing of Delegates . Emergency Fund . Actual Budget Over or Under Expenditure Allowance Budget $3,948.22] 7,485.05 > $21,000.00 $1,278.23 8,288.50 69,182.64 74,000.00 4,817.36 7,264.30 8,500.00 1,235.70 609 . 90 400.00 209 . 90 4,132.94 4,600.00 467.06 27,517.24 26,000.00 1,517.24 1,200. 00 1,200.00 8,913.87 9,200.00 286.13 9,352.25 8,000.00 1,352.25 1,500. 00 1,500.00 $443,174.17 $450,100.00 $6,925.83 From the Emergency Fund shown above amounts totaling $1400 were transferred by authority of the Executive Committee to the credit of several budgeted items under the head of “Special Appropriations,” the expenditures of which are included therein and enumerated in Schedule “ B-6. ” It is noted that no cash value for the retirement annuities insurance policies owned by the Association on the lives of its employees is carried on the books. The cash surrender value of all policies issued under this insurance plan at May 31, 1934, aggregates $94,599.43, of which approximately $62,487.32 belongs to employees and $32,112.11 belongs to your Association. Prepaid subscriptions, membership, income from Washington exhibit, etc., have been treated as income at the time received. Likewise such items as costs of un¬ printed journals, prepaid insurance, prepaid commission on renewal of first trust mortgage, etc., have been treated as expenses at the time the invoices were received. No commission has been provided for trust officer for the handling of trust funds, as no arrangement for trust officer has been in effect during the current year. The following is a summary of the Permanent Fund Income Account for the current year: Income Interest on Deposits . $282.28 Interest on Bonds . 3,105.00 Rent Charged to General Headquarters . 43,000.00 $46,387.28 Deduct: Expenses Attorney’s Fee . $500.00 Trustee Fee — Commercial National Bank . 317.50 Interest on First Trust . 8,775.17 Interest and Discount on Note . 490 . 00 Plumbing . 133.50 Postage, etc . 5.62 - 10,221.79 $36,165.49 Subject to the foregoing comments, we hereby certify that in our opinion, the attached Statement of Assets and Liabilities, marked Exhibit “A,” reflects the true financial position of the National Education Association as at May 31, 1934. Respectfully submitted, Wayne Kendrick & Company, By T. Delos Paxman, Certified Public Accountant. 938 National Education Association Statement of Assets and Liabilities as at May 31, 1934 Assets General Accounts Cash on Hand and on Deposit Petty Cash . Secretary’s Fund — Net . Regular Account . Receiver’s Certificate, Commercial National Bank Less: Reserve for Check Not Presented for Payment . Amount Due from Permanent Fund — On deposit at Liberty National Bank . Accounts Receivable . Less: Reserve for Doubtful Accounts . Time Checks Receivable . State, County and Municipal Warrants.. Stamped Envelopes and Cards. ......... Volumes of Proceedings and Publications Office Furniture and Fixtures . Less: Reserve tor Depreciation . Protested Checks . . Less: Reserve for Uncollectibles . Travel Advances . Office Supplies . Permanent Funds (Exhibit “D”) . EXHIBIT “A ” $400.00 26,941.40 12,263.37 $37,055.70 186.00 $39,604.77 36,869.70 $7,254.92 2,500. 00 $47,513.76 25,386.60 $2,223.32 1,700.00 36,165.49 4,754.92 521.14 8,397.12 419.90 500.00 22,127.16 523.32 380.00 863.50 783,439.92 Total Assets $934,566.94 Liabilities and Net Worth Liabilities Vouchers Payable — Trade Creditors . Due to Associated Departments . First Trust Payable (Deducted from Assets Contra — Ex¬ hibit “D”) . Net Worth — Represented by Permanent Funds General F und . . . $759 , 503 . 69 Elementary School Principals Fund . 6,048.77 Department of Superintendence — Educa¬ tional Research Fund . 16,837.52 Teachers’ Home and Welfare Fund . 376.00 Parker Fund Income . 673.94 Surplus — June 1, 1933 . $93,188.83 Add: Net Income for Fiscal Year Ended May 31, 1934 — From Exhibit “B” . 2,686.01 $29,415.88 25,836.30 783,439.92 95,874.84 $934,566.94 Total Liabilities and Net Worth Associational Records and Information 939 Condensed Comparative Statement of Income and Expenses for the Fiscal Year Ended May 31, 1933 and 1934 EXHIBIT “ B ” 1934 Increase or INCOME Fiscal Year Ended May 31 1933 1934 Decrease Over 1933 Memberships from Secretary’s Office . . N. E. A. Journal — Subscriptions, Advertising, etc . Sales of Proceedings . Sales of Special Reports . Commercial Exhibits . Research Bulletins . Honorariums . Rentals . Interest and Discount Earned. . . Cash Sales — Reports, Pamphlets, etc . . . American Education Week— Ma¬ terial Sales . Permanent Fund — Net Income. . Carnegie Foundation Contribu¬ tion . Sundry Income . . . Contributions — Legislative Com¬ mission for Federal Emergency Aid . TOTAL INCOME $157,515. 28 $163,555. 54 $6,040.26 188,182. 42 182,862. 61 5,319.81 386. 91 331. 54 55.37 3,757 .45 4,272. .45 515.00 32,058. 50 30,372. 45 1,686.05 6,311. 61 4,504. 85 1,806.76 1,647. 04 2,489. 38 842.34 9,153. 00 8,980. .44 172.56 1,045 .44 90 .68 954.76 1,253. .45 3,333. .47 2,080.02 3,311 .62 6,617 .87 3,306.25 34,298 .37 36,165 .49 1,867.12 2,375 .00 2,375.00 173 .86 216 .03 42.17 5,894 .86 5,894.86 $441,469 .95 $449,687 .66 $8,217.71 EXPENSES Board of Trustees . “B-T Board of Directors . Executive Committee . liB-2 ’ General Headquarters . “B-3' Physical Plant . Institutional Expense . l‘B-5’ Special Appropriation. . . . . “ B-6 ’ Association Membership < Fees . ‘‘-B-d’ Financing of Delegates. . . .“B-6' Life Annuities and Insur¬ ance . “B-6' General Secretary’s Office and Division of Ac¬ counts . . . “-5-7' Division of Legislation. . . .“B-8 Division of Business . “B-9 Division of Publications. “B-10 Division of Research . “B-ll Division of Classroom Service . “B-12 $784. 02 $601. 16 $182.86 9,822. 19 7,248. 93 2,573.26 4,882. 24 2,701. 17 2,181.07 7,170. 20 6,591. 58 578.62 54,529. 44 54,498. 32 31.12 109,878. 79 100,911. 55 8,967.24 14 , 664 . 24 27,517. 24 12,853.00 700. 00 1,200. 00 500 . 00 7,101. .75 9,352 .25 2,250.50 9,220 .23 8,913 .87 306.36 30,438 .73 29,984 .92 453.81 12,632 .92 12,020 .26 612.66 16,157 .68 16,308 .25 150.57 39,659 .15 42,324 .67 2,665.52 55,406 .58 54,900 .10 506.48 7,306 .38 7,313 .85 7.47 940 National Education Association 1934 Increase or Fiscal Year Ended May 31 Decrease 1933 1934 Over 1933 Division of Administrative Service . l‘B-13” Division of Records and Memberships . “B-14 ” $8,631.42 54,593.25 $8,544.68 51,679.65 $ 86.74 2,913.60 TOTAL OPERATING EXPENSES. $443,579.21 $442,612.45 $966.76 NET INCOME BEFORE DEDUC¬ TION FOR BAD DEBTS, DE¬ PRECIATION AND PROTEST¬ ED CHECKS . Deduct: Provision for Bad Debts . $2,109.26 $7,075.21 911.47 $9,184.47 911.47 500.00 5,783.19 Provision for Protested Checks. 500.00 Depreciation on Office Furniture and Equipment . 5,783.19 $6,283.19 $911.47 $5,371.72 INCOME OR LOSS FROM OPER¬ ATIONS . . . Deduct: Attorney Fees . $8,392.45 $6,163.74 1,800.00 1,464.23 137.50 76.00 $14,556.19 1,800.00 1,464.23 137.50 76.00 Interest Disallowed on Commer¬ cial Nat’l Bank 1932-33 . Elementary School Principals — Interest Coupons . Transferred to Teachers Home & Welfare Fund . $ $3,477.73 $3,477.73 NET INCOME FOR THE FISCAL YEAR ENDED MAY 31, 1934— Transferred to Exhibit “A" . $8,392.45 $2,686.01 $11,078.46 Income and Expenses for the Fiscal Year Ended May 31, 1934 INCOME EXHIBIT “C" Memberships from Secretary’s Office . $163 , 555 54 N. E. A. Journal Subscriptions (Part of Membership Dues)... $150,723.49 Advertising . 32, 090 . 44 Sales . 48.68 182,862.61 331.54 4,272.45 30,372.45 Sales of Proceedings Sales of Special Reports Commercial Exhibits. . . Associational Records and Information 941 Research Bulletin Subscriptions . $3,388.60 Sales . . ... . 968.52 Special Investigations . 147.73 Honorariums . Rentals . Interest and Discount Earned . Cash Sales — Reports, Pamphlets, etc . American Education Week Material Sales . Permanent Fund Income — Net . Contributions — Legislative Commission for Federal Emergency Aid . Sundry Income . $4,504.85 2,489.38 8,980.44 90.68 3,333.47 6,617.87 36,165.49 5,894.86 216.03 TOTAL INCOME $449,687.66 Schedule “ B-l ” EXPENSES Board of Trustees . $601.16 Board of Directors . 7,248.93 Schedule “ B-2" Executive Committee Expense President 1933-1934 . $1,355.72 President’s Contingent Fund 1933— 1934 . 319.02 President 1932-1933 . 159.39 First Vice-President 1932-1933 . 84.10 First Vice-President 1933-1934 . 226.81 Treasurer . 166.59 Chairman Board of Trustees . 222.25 Member by Election . 167.29 Schedule “B-3” General Headquarters Expense Auditing Association Accounts . $500.00 Express and Freight . 380.01 General Expense . 441.46 • Government Tax on Checks . 140.92 Insurance . 422.15 Interest and Discount Allowed . 679.88 Postage — Miscellaneous Reports . 206.70 Refunds for Overpayments . 101.54 Repairs — Office Furniture and Fixtures . 277.44 Surety Bonds . 242.00 Telephone Service . 3 , 199 . 48 $7,850.09 $2,701.17 $6,591.58 Schedule “ B-4" Physical Plant Expense Rents . Light and Power . Heat . Janitor Service . Maintenance . $43,000.00 1,653.40 1,413.03 6,352.54 2,079.35 $54,498.32 942 National Education Association Schedule “B-5" Institutional Expense Annual Convention Department Expense . $134.61 Registration Bureau . 458.90 Stenographers and Typists . 342.25 Publicity . 403.77 Printing . 1,725.85 Express and Freight . 318.37 Telephone and Telegraph . 39.44 General Program . 172.40 Badges . 66.25 Representative Assembly Expense 286 . 38 Operation of Exhibits Cost of Operation . $7,485.05 Portion of Net Income Paid to Department of Superin¬ tendence . 8,288.50 Printing and Distribution N. E. A. Journal . $69,182.64 Volume of Proceedings . 7 , 264 . 30 Publication and Reports . 609.90 Research Bulletin . 4,132.94 $3,948.22 15,773.55 81,189.78 - $100,911.55 Schedule “B-6" Special Appropriations Commission on Enrichment of Adult Life . $301.74 Committee on Economic Status of Teacher. . . 1,400.00 Committee of 100 on Retirement . 29.70 Committee on Social Economic Objectives of America . . . 1,114.38 Health Education Department of School Health and Physical Education . $68 . 42 Joint Commission on Health Problems in Education . 149 . 46 - - 217.88 Legislative Commission . 209 . 66 Legislative Commission — Federal Emergency Aid 7,334. 15 Department of American Educational Research.. 500.00 Department of Adult Education . 600 . 00 Department of Classroom Teachers . 8,091.46 Department of Rural Education . 300.00 Department of Secondary Education . 1,501.19 National Council on Education . 247.58 J oint Emergency Commission . 5 , 624 . 55 Committee on Resolutions . 44.95 $27,517.24 Association Membership Fees United States Chamber of Commerce. $100.00 World Federation of Education Asso¬ ciations . 1 , 000 . 00 American Council on Education . 100.00 1,200.00 9,352.25 8,913.87 Financing of Delegates . Life Annuities and Insurance $46,983.36 Associational Records and Information 943 Schedule “ B-7 ” General Secretary’s Office and Division of Accounts General Secretary’s Office Salaries and Clerical Services. . . .$19,318.02 Traveling Expense . 546.39 Stationery and Office Supplies. . . 284.47 Postage and Stamped Envelopes. 993.30 Telephone and Telegraph — Toll Charges . 211.62 Division of Accounts Salaries and Clerical Services. ... $7 , 647; 58 Traveling Expense . 143.48 Stationery and Supplies . 398 . 53 Postage and Stamped Envelopes. 435.40 Telegrams . 6.13 $21,353.80 8,631.12 Schedide “ B-8 ” Legislative Field Division Salaries and Clerical Services . $9,931.26 Traveling Expense . 1 . 688 . 86 Stationery and Office Supplies . 99.60 Postage and Stamped Envelopes . 246.33 Telegrams . 54.21 Schedule “ B-9 ” Division of Business Salaries and Clerical Services . $14,224.29 Traveling Expense . 672.31 Stationery and Office Supplies . 232.70 Postage and Stamped Envelopes . 311.52 Advertising Expense . 322.77 Typing Section . ;*.••• 42.18 Mailing Section — Postage and Clerical Service. . . 370.01 Multigraph Section . 98.16 Schedule “ B-10 ” Division of Publications Salaries and Clerical Services . $32,825.18 Traveling Expense . . 1*553 Stationery and Office Supplies . 930.68 Postage and Stamped Envelopes . 1,392.70 Telegrams . > . 1^2.45 American Education Week . 4,242.10 Reprints . . . ^ Photos and Prints . 356.12 Schedule “ B-ll ” Division of Research Salaries and Clerical Services . $50,082. 15 T raveling Expense . 1,150.06 Stationery and Office Supplies . 790.71 Postage and Stamped Envelopes . 913.69 Telegrams . 82.51 Special Charts, Tables, Etc . 1,399.16 Books and Pamphlets — Library . 481.82 $29,984.92 $12,020.26 $16,308.25 $42,324.67 $54,900.10 944 National Education Association $6,897.22 189.56 78.76 145.58 2.73 - $7,313.85 Schedule “ B-13 ” Division of Administrative Service Salaries and Clerical Services . $8,377.33 Traveling Expense . 99.20 Stationery and Office Supplies . 68.15 - 8,544.68 Schedule llB-12 ” Division of Classroom Service Salaries and Clerical Services . . Traveling Expense . Stationery and Office Supplies . Postage and Stamped Envelopes . Telegrams . Schedule “ B-14 ” Division of Records and Memberships Salaries and Clerical Services . $24 , 698 . 49 Traveling Expense . 439.47 Stationery and Office Supplies . 159.28 Postage and Stamped Envelopes . 276.84 Telegrams . 11.67 Addressograph . 391.21 $25,976.96 Promotion and Maintenance of Membership. . . . 25,702.69 51,679.65 TOTAL EXPENSES . $442,612.45 Net Income Before Provision for Bad Debts, Protested - Checks, and Depreciation . $7,075.21 Assets of Permanent Funds as at May 31, 1934 GENERAL FUND Cash at National Metropolitan Bank . Notes Receivable — Life Members . Investment in Securities (Book Value) Exhibit “E” Office Equipment . Real Estate Building and Im¬ provements . $570,313.00 Less: Reserve for Depreci¬ ation . 8 , 000 . 00 EXHIBIT “D” $9,304.00 192,059.50 107,683.18 13,144.01 $562,313.00 Less: First Trust Payable. . . 125,000.00 - — - 437,313.00 - $759,503.69 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS FUND Investment in Securities (Book Value) Exhibit “E” $6,053.49 Accrued Interest Purchased . 24.03 $6,077.52 28.75 Less: Bank Account Overdrawn $6,048.77 Associational Records and Information 945 DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH FUND Investment in Securities (Book Value) Exhibit “E” . $16,942.48 Accrued Interest Purchased . 72.08 $17,014.56 Less: Bank Account Overdrawn . 177.04 - - $16,837.52 TEACHERS’ HOME AND WELFARE FUND PARKER FUND INCOME . 376.00 673.94 TOTAL PERMANENT FUNDS— To Exhibit “A” . $783,439.92 Permanent Fund Securities as at May 31, 1934 EXHIBIT “E" GENERAL FUND Municipal Bonds City of Monessen, Pa., 4)/£% Due August 1, 1951 . State of Arkansas Toll Bridge 5% Due Sept. 1, 1950 . State of Arkansas Toll Bridge 5% Due Sept. 1, 1944 . County of Columbus, N. C., 5% Due Jan. 1, 1954 . City of Aiken, S. C., 4 Yi% Due Feb. 1, 1939 . City of Newport News, 4 Due June 1, 1948 . Railroad Bonds St. Louis and San Francisco R. R. Co., Prior Lien 4% Due July 1, 1950 . . . Atlantic Coast Line R. R. Co., 1st Cons. Mtge. 4% Due July 1, 1952 . Manhattan Railway Co., Cons. Mtge. 4% Due April 1, 1990.. Baltimore and Ohio R. R. Co., (Pittsburgh, Lake Erie, and West Virginia System) Ref. Mtge. 4% Due November 1, 1941. . . . . Chicago, Indiana and Southern Ry. Co., 4% Due January 1, 1956 . . Terminal Railroad Association of St. Louis Gen. Mtge. 4% Due January 1, 1953 . Par Interest Collected for Book Fiscal Year Value Value 1933-1934 $5,000.00 $5,206.39 $225.00 5,000.00 5,166.51 23,000.00 23,558.90 5,000.00 5,470.75 250.00 5,000.00 5,064.38 225.00 1,000.00 892.50 45.00 5,250.00 4,331.25 10,000.00 9,600.00 400.00 4,000.00 3,900.00 160.00 20,000.00 19,942.50 800.00 10,000.00 9,500.00 400.00 15,000.00 15,050.00 600.00 $108,250.00 $107,683.18 Total Cost — To Exhibit “D” $3,105.00 946 National Education Association Par Value ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS FUND Newport News City Street Improve¬ ment and Sewerage Cons. Sl/2% Due Dec. 1, I960. . . . $5,000.00 Portsmouth, Virginia, Waterworks 5’s 1948 . 1,000.00 Interest Collected for Book Fiscal Year Value 1933-1934 $5,000.00 $275.00 1,053.49 . Total cost— To Exhibit “D” . $6,000.00 $6,053.49 $275.00 DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH FUND U. S. Fourth Liberty 4J£% 1933-1938 U. S. Treasury 4 1943-1945 South Carolina Highway Certificate of Indebtedness 4%% Due Decem¬ ber 1, 1946 . Newport News City Street Improve¬ ment and Sewerage Cons. 5/4% Due December 1, 1950 . Portsmouth, Virginia, Waterworks 5’s 1948 . Total Cost — To Exhibit “D” . $350,001 50.00/ $419.69 f$14. 88 \ 1.62 2,000. 00 2,077.28 95.00 11,000.00 11,285.00 605.00 3,000.00 3,160.51 . $16,400.00 $16,942.48 $716.50 List of Properties Owned, Secured Thru Adjustment of the Estate of Marilla Z. Parker, as at May 31, 1934 $1,000. 00(a) 1,000.00 500.00(a) 1,000. 00 (a) 1,000. 00 (a) 1,000. 00(e) 1,000.00 1,000.00 500.00(c) 1,000.00 1,000.00 1,000. 00(b) BONDS EXHIBIT “F” Charles B. Burkhardt, 6%, First Mortgage Note, No. 39, due 1/9/32 Hisgen-Guettrich, 5%, First Mortgage Note, No. 31, due 10/15/35 Vito and Ceresa Marchetti, 6%, First Mortgage Note, No. 3, due 4/26/33 Vito and Ceresa Marchetti, 6%, First Mortgage Note, No. 2, due 4/26/33 Richard and Gisela Rosenheim, 6%, First Mortgage Note, No. 28, due 10/20/32 John J. Duffin, 6%, First Mortgage Note, No. 30, due 2/28/34 208 South LaSalle Street Building, 5J^%, First Mortgage Bond, M-1834, due 11/1/58. Pacific Gas and Electric Company, First Mortgage Bond, M-27816, due 6/1/60 City of Park Ridge Improvement Bond, 6%, M-180, due 12/15/31 Allie M. Anderson, 6%, First Mortgage Note, No. 32, due 5/20/36 B. Markwald, 6%, First Mortgage Note, No. 8, due 10/26/34 Albert Hokanson, Note Holder’s Agreement on 6% Mortgage Note due 6/16/32 5 Shares 20 Shares 5 Shares 10 Shares STOCKS American Can Company Preferred Stock, 7% @ $100.00 International Textbook Company Capital Stock (no par value) International Educational Publishing Company Common Stock @ $50.00 International Educational Publishing Company Preferred Stock 7%, @ $50.00 Associational Records and Information 947 One-half One-half One-half LAND Ownership of 192-8/10 acres land, Burleigh County, North Dakota, Occupied by Elmer Perry, Tenant , . Ownership of Contract of Purchase for 320 acres land, Blaine County, Montana T , i « wt Ownership of 160 acres land, Williams County, North Dakota, W. W. Wirtz, Tenant CASH $50 00 Received from sale of one-half of one $100 share Bank of Brodhead $1 049 37(d) In possession of I. T. Greenacre, Attorney, as amount of one-hall ot cash paid by Trustee to Attorney (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Deposited at Drexel State Bank of Chicago for collection April 26, 1933 Mortgage Bond deposited at Drexel State Bank of Chicago for collection January 6, 1933. 50% payment received. Retained by Attorney for Legal Fees. Deposited at Drexel State Bank of Chicago for collection March 28, 1934. \ report of treasurer WAYNE KENDRICK & COMPANY CERTIFIED PUBLIC ACCOUNTANTS RUST BUILDING, WASHINGTON, D. C. June 19, 1934 Miss Jessie Gray, President National Education Association of the United States Washington, D. C. Dear Madam: We have examined the records of the secretary of your Association for the fiscal vear ended May 31, 1934, and have checked the cash transactions shown therein to the records of the treasurer, and have found them in agreement We hereby certify that the attached Treasurer’s Report correctly reflects the cash transactions for the fiscal year ended, and the cash balance at the close of business May 31, 1934 The attached statement does not include a claim in the form of receiver s certificates against the Commercial National Bank, Washington D. C in the amount of $37 - 055.70, representing 50 per cent of the balance of the reguiar and special accounts on deposit at the time of the bank holiday in March, 1933. Respectfully submitted, Wayne Kendrick & Company By T. Delos Paxman, Certified Public Accountant. 948 National Education Association Report of Treasurer for the Fiscal Year Ended May 31, 1934 Cash on Hand May 31, 1933 Receipts Thru Secretary’s Office Membership ($2.00) . $147,283.74 Membership ($5.00) . 9,113.80 Membership (Affiliation). . 7,158.00 N. E. A. Journal (Subscrip¬ tion) . 150,723.49 Research Bulletin (Sub¬ scription) . 3,388.60 Advertising Income . Exhibits — Chicago . $750.49 Exhibits — Cleveland . 22,326.08 Exhibits — Washington _ 7,295.88 Miscellaneous Income American Education Week $6,617.87 Cash Sales — Reports and Pamphlets . 3,333.47 Honorariums — Field Work 2,489.38 Interest and Discount Earned . 90.68 Rentals Received . 8 , 980 . 44 Sale of Copies — Research Bulletin . 968.52 Sale of Journal, Mats, etc. 48.68 Sale of Proceedings . 331 . 54 Sale of Special Reports. . . 4,272.45 Special Investigations. . . . 147.73 Sundry Income, Exchange, etc . 216.03 . $116,104.83 $317,667.63 32,090.44 30,372.45 27,496.79 $407,627.31 Contributions for Legisla¬ tive Commission — Fed¬ eral Emergency Aid . Cash received from Trus¬ tees 1932-33 . Balance May 31, 1934 $7,254.92 419.90 380.00 2,223.32 Proceeds of Note Payable Discounted . Balance May 31, 1933 Accounts Receivable (Gross) . $11,705.19 Stamped Envelopes . 632.12 Travel Advance . 722.52 Protest Checks . 3,984.55 5,894.86 - 413,522.17 . 20,773.37 $4,450.27 212.22 342.52 1,761.23 - 6,766.24 . 19,600.00 Total Receipts . Disbursements For Associated Departments Superintendence . $21,903.73 $14,359.55 Rural Education . 983 . 49 Lip Reading . 29.08 Elementary School Prin¬ cipals . 3,999.02 Adult Education . 7.69 American Educational Research. . . 853.82 32.28 3,696.21 159.33 5,385.78 6,648.14 $576,766.61 Associational Records and Information 949 Secondary School Prin¬ cipals . $141.29 Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics - 73.84 $32,523.92 Carried Forward . $49 . 98 36.99 $25,836.30 $6,687.62 . $6,687.62 $576,766.61 Brought Forward . . . Disbursements — Continued. Board of Trustees . Board of Directors . Executive Committee . Contingent Fund for President — 1933-34 General Secretary's Office and Division of Accounts . . Division of Field . Division of Business . Division of Publications . Division of Research . . . Division of Classroom Service. . . Division of Administrative Service. . . . . Division of Records and Membership. . . Promotion and Maintenance of Mem¬ bership . Physical Plant — Headquarters . General Office Expense . Annual Conventions . Operation of Exhibits . Payment to Department of Superin¬ tendence . N. E. A. Journal. . . . Volume of Proceedings — 1933 . Publications and Reports for General Sale . . . Research Bulletin. . . . Legislative Commission — Federal Emer¬ gency Aid . . . . Legislative Commission . Special Appropriations . . . Association’s Membership Fees . Financing of Delegates . Retirement Annuities and Insurance... $601.16 7.248.93 2.382.15 319.02 29,984.92 12,020.26 16,308.25 42,324.67 54,900.10 7,313.85 8,544.68 25,976.96 25,702.69 54,498.32 6,591.58 3,948.22 7,485.05 8,288.50 69,182.64 7,264.30 609.90 4.132.94 7.334.15 209 . 66 19,973.43 1,200.00 9,352.25 8,913.87 Furniture and Fixtures . Bad Debts . . . Payment of Note to National Metro¬ politan Bank . Less: Discount Charged as Interest $20,000.00 400.00 Other Disbursements For Increase in Time Checks . Receiver’s Certificates — Commercial National Bank . Stationery and Office Sup¬ plies . Postage . May 31, 1933 May 31, 1934 $3,510.81 $8,918.26 . 36,869.70 382.32 778.59 84.91 $6,687.62 $576,766.61 442,612.45 561.72 911.47 19,600.00 5,407.45 36,869.70 396.27 84.91 $513,131.59 950 National Education Association Decrease in Vouchers Pay¬ able....... . $49,968.40 Reduction in Surplus: Disbursed to Elementary School Prin¬ cipals — Income from Newport News Bonds . Transferred to Permanent Fund — Teach¬ ers Home and Welfare Fund . Interest not allowed on Permanent Fund To Brice Clagett and Challen B. Ellis, Attys . Cash on Hand, May 31, 1934 $29,415.88 $20,552.52 / 137.50 76.00 1,464.23 1,800.00 3,477.73 - - $537,161.84 . $39,604.77 Henry Lester Smith, T reasurer. REPORT OF BUDGET COMMITTEE Appropriations The following is an excerpt from a resolution adopted by the Board of Directo in 1927 : Before making any appropriations for any fiscal year, the Board of Directors shE have in hand and shall have considered all requests for appropriations for the year, ai shall also have in hand an estimate from the secretary and the Board of Trustees < the probable income for the year. Appropriations shall not be made in excess of th estimate. Maximum Expenditures The respective total amounts finally budgeted for the divisions of the headquarte staff and the various departments and special committees shall be in each case tl maximum amounts that may be expended, except that on the written recommendatic of the secretary of the Association and with the formal approval of the Executive Con mittee the Emergency Fund may be drawn upon to provide for the unforeseen needs < a division, department or committee. Budget Recommendations for 1934-1935 Approved by the Board of Directors, July 3, 1934; Amended and Adopted by the Representative Assembly, July 6, 1934 1. Board of Trustees: Actual expenses for last five years : 1929- 30 . $ 798.51 1930- 31 . 1,096.60 1931- 32 . 941.47 1932- 33 . 784.02 1933- 34 . 601.16 Amount recommended for 1934-35 $ 2,000.00 Associational Records and Information 951 Executive Committee: Actual expenses for last five years: 1929- 30 1930- 31 1931- 32 1932- 33 1933- 34 $ 4,137.53 4,242.10 3,261.09 3,246.12 2,382.15 Amount recommended for 1934-35 $ . Board of Directors: Actual expenses for last five years : 1929- 30 . $ 8,347.00 1930- 31 . 8,750.58 1931- 32 . 14,234.68 1932- 33 . 9,822.19 1933- 34 . 7,248.93 Amount recommended for 1934-35 . Contingent Fund for President: Actual expenses for last five years : 1929- 30 . $ 955.45 1930- 31 . 1,575.12 1931- 32 . 654.94 1932- 33 . 1,636.12* 1933- 34 . 319.02 Amount recommended for 1934-35 . $ i. General Secretary’s Office: ♦♦Actual expenses for last five years : 1929- 30 . $ 35,913.75 1930- 31 . 35,853.43 1931- 32 . 36,320.30 1932- 33 . 30,438.73 1933- 34 . 29,984.92 Amount recommended for 1934-35 : Salaries and Clerical Services. Traveling Expense . Stationery and Office Supplies . . Postage and Stamped Envelopes Telegrams . Total . 29,050.00 690.00 685.00 1,425.00 215.00 5. Field Division (Legislative) : Actual expenses for last five years : 1929- 30 1930- 31 1931- 32 1932- 33 1933- 34 17,209.93 15,950.42 16.686.17 12,632.92 12,020.26 ♦Includes also expenses for Joint Emergency Commission. ♦Includes also Division of Accounts. 2,500.00 8,000.00 500.00 $32,065.00 952 National Education Association Amount recommended for 1934-35 : Salaries and Clerical Services . . . ^ _ $ 11,500.00 Traveling Expense . 1,700.00 Stationery and Office Supplies . 100.00 Postage and Stamped Envelopes . 250.00 Telegrams . 50.00 Total $ 13,600.00 7. Division of Business: Actual expenses for last five years : 1929- 30 . $ 17,594.63 1930- 31 . 18,637.91 1931- 32 . 19,086.43 1932- 33 . 16,157.68 1933- 34 . 16,308.25 Amount recommended for 1934-35 : Salaries and Clerical Services . $ 15,295.00 Traveling Expense . 670.00 Stationery and Office Supplies . 230.00 Postage and Stamped Envelopes . 310.00 Telegrams . . 35.00 Typing, Mailing, and Multigraph Sections 1,500.00 Advertising Service . 325.00 Total $ 18,365.00 8. Division of Publications: Actual expenses for last five years : 1929- 30 . $ 40,120.21 1930- 31 . 43,306.66 1931- 32 . 44,613.65 1932- 33 . 39,659.15 1933- 34 . 42,324.67 Amount recommended for 1934-35 : Salaries and Clerical Services . $ 36,295.00 Traveling Expense . 1,500.00 Stationery and Office Supplies . 1,000.00 Postage and Stamped Envelopes . 1,400.00 Telegrams . 175.00 Photographs, Cuts, Reprints, Leaflets, Packets, and American Education Week Material . 4,000.00 Total . $ 44,370.00 9. Division of Research: Actual expenses for last five years : 1929- 30 1930- 31 1931- 32 1932- 33 1933- 34 $ 53,866.02 59.117.58 60,251.27 55.406.58 54,900.10 Associational Records and Information 953 Amount recommended for 1934-35 : Salaries and Clerical Services . $ 53,480.00 Traveling Expense . 1,150.00 Stationery and Office Supplies . 790.00 Postage and Stamped Envelopes . 910.00 Telegrams . . . . . 85.00 Special Charts, Tables, etc . 1,400.00 Books and Pamphlets (Library) . 480.00 State Legislative Service . 4.500.00* Total 10. Division of Classroom Service: Actual expenses for last five years : 1929- 30 . $ 7,751.15 1930- 31 . 8,137.76 1931- 32 . 8,236.80 1932- 33 . 7,306.38 1933- 34 . 7,313.85 Amount recommended for 1934-35 : Salaries and Clerical Services . $ 7,305.00 Traveling Expense . 190.00 Stationery and Office Supplies . 80.00 Postage and Stamped Envelopes . 145.00 Telegrams . 5 .00 Total 11. Division of Administrative Service: Actual expenses for last five years : 1929- 30 . $ 8,447.05 1930- 31 . 9,001.03 1931- 32 . 9,252.90 1932- 33 . 8,631.42 1933- 34 . 8,544.68 Amount recommended for 1934-35 : Salaries and Clerical Services . . . Traveling Expense . Stationery and Office Supplies . . . Postage and Stamped Envelopes . Total . $ 9,010.00 100.00 65.00 10.00 12. Division of Records and Membership: A. Records: Actual expenses for last five years : 1929- 30 . $ 33,752.90 1930- 31 . 34,962.42 1931- 32 . 34,867.70 1932- 33 . 27,093.51 1933- 34 . 25,976.96 p 62,795.00 $ 7,725.00 $ 9,185.00 * To be allocated by the Secretary. 954 National Education Association Amount recommended for 1934-35 : Salaries and Clerical Services . $ 26,560.00 Traveling Expense . 440.00 Stationery and Office Supplies . 160.00 Postage and Stamped Envelopes . 275.00 Telegrams . 10.00 Stock, Supplies, and Machine Upkeep (Addressograph Section) . 390.00 Total . $ 27,835.00 B. Membership : Actual expenses for last five years : 1929- 30 . $ 35,852.19 1930- 31 . 38,015.93 1931- 32 . 37,527.80 1932- 33 . 27,499.74 1933- 34 . 25,702.69 Amount recommended for 1934-35 . $ 27,000.00 TOTAL for Division . $ 54,835.00 13. Physical Plant: Actual expenses for last five years : 1929- 30 1930- 31 1931- 32 1932- 33 1933- 34 $ 22,398.92 23,718.82 58,662.63 54,529.44 54,498.32 Amount recommended for 1934-35 : Bent . $ 43,000.00 Light and Tower . 1,650.00 Heat . 1,400.00 Janitor Service . 6,540.00 Maintenance . 2,075.00 Total . $ 54,665.00 14. General Office Expenses: A. Operating Expenses: Actual expenses for last five years : 1029-30 . $ 6,945.83 1930- 31 . 7,922.32 1931- 32 . 8,357.87 1932- 33 . 7,170.20 1933- 34 . 6,591.58 Amount recommended for 1934-35 : Telephone Service . $ Repairs — Office Furniture and Equip¬ ment . Insurance . General Expense . 3,320.00 275.00 425.00 450.00 ♦ Associational Records and Information 955 Refunds of Overpayments . Express and Freight . Interest and Discount Allowed. . . Surety Bonds . Auditing Accounts of Association Postage — Miscellaneous . Banking Service Expense . Total . B. Office Furniture and Fixtures: Actual expenses for last five years : 1929- 30 . $ 4.000.95 1930- 31 . 4,480.83 1931- 32 . 5,466.07 1932- 33 . 558.95 1933- 34 . 561.72 Amount recommended for 1934-35 . $ 1,500.00 Total . $ 100.00 380.00 680.00 245.00 500.00 205.00 150.00 $ 6,730.00 15. Annual Conventions: Actual expenses for last five years : 1929- 30 . $ 7,764.33 1930- 31 . 6,518.04 1931- 32 . 32,339.88 1932- 33 . 21,363.17 1933- 34 . 19,721.77 Amount recommended for 1934-35 : General Convention Expenses . $ 4,000.00 Operation of Exhibits . 7,500.00* Exhibit Payment to Department of Su- perintendence . 9,000.00 Total 16. Journal of the National Education Association: Actual expenses 1929- 30 . 1930- 31 . 1931- 32 . 1932- 33 . 1933- 34 . for last five years : . $108,538.69 . 106,082.33 . 101,805.67 . 74,844.82 . 69,182.64 Amount recommended for 1934-35 17. Other Publications: Actual expenses 1929- 30 . 1930- 31 . 1931- 32 . 1932- 33 . 1933- 34 . for last five years : . $ 24,583.36 . 26,291.40 . 25,604.33 . 13,670.80 . 12,007.14 8,230.00 $ 20,500.00 $ 75,000.00 * Prior to 1931-32 provided for directly from exhibit receipts. 956 National Education Association Amount recommended for 1934-35: Research Bulletin . $ 4,600.00 Volume of Proceedings . 8,000.00 Publications and Reports for General Sale . 2,500.00* Total . $ 15,100.00 18. Financing Delegates: Actual expenses for last five years : 1929- 30 . $ 8,484.05 1930- 31 . 8,484.50 1931- 32 . 9,122.50 1932- 33 . 7,101.75 1933- 34 . 9,352.25 Amount recommended for 1934-35 . $ 9,000.00 19. Department and Committee Appropriations: A. Departments : 1. Health and Physical Education : Actual expenses for last five years : 1929-30 . 1930- 31 . 1931- 32 . 1932- 33 . ‘ 1*57.34 1933- 34 . 68.42 Amount recommended for 1934-35 . $ 2. American Educational Research : Actual expenses for last five years : 1929- 30 . $ 1930- 31 . 1,000.00 1931- 32 . 1,000.00 1932- 33 . 1,000.00 1933- 34 . 500.00 Amount recommended for 1934-35 . $ 3. Adult Education : Actual expenses for last five years : 1929- 30 . $ 1,000.00 1930- 31 . 1,000.00 1931- 32 . 500.00 1932- 33 . 500.00 1933- 34 . 600.00 Amount recommended for 1934-35 . $ 4. Classroom Teachers : 100.00 500.00 500.00 Actual expenses for last five years : 1929- 30 . $ 7,737.82 1930- 31 . 9,004.40 1931- 32 . 7,819.20 1932- 33 . 7,821.01 1933- 34 . 8,091.46 Amount recommended for 1934-35 . $ 10,100.00 * To cover sales distribution expense of printed material exclusive of the Journal, Vol ume of Proceedings and Research Bulletin. Associational Records and Information 957 5. Rural Education: Actual expenses for last five years : 1929- 30 . $ . 1930- 31 . 1931- 32 . 1932- 33 . 1933- 34 . 300.00 Amount recommended for 1934-35 . $ 300.00 6. Secondary Education : Actual expenses for last five years : 1929- 30 . $ . 1930- 31 . 1931- 32 495.63 1932- 33 1,500.00 1933- 34 1,501.19 Amount recommended for 1934-35 . $ 1,500.00 7. National Council of Education: Actual expenses for last five years : 1929- 30 . $ 320.22 1930- 31 1,025.75 1931- 32 1,359.84 1932- 33 309.30 1933- 34 247.58 Amount recommended for 1934-35 . $ 250.00 8. Business Education : No previous expenditures. Amount recommended for 1934-35 . $ 100.00 9. Art Education : No previous expenditures. Amount recommended for 1934-35 . $ 350.00 10. Music. No previous expenditures. Amount recommended for 1934-35 . $ 200.00 Total for Departments . $ 13,900.00 B. Committees and Commissions : 1929- 30 . $ 4,744.52 1930- 31 . 3,397.08 1931- 32 . 3,216.39 1932- 33 . 2,584.24 1933- 34 . 16,127.55 Amount recommended for 1934-35 . $ 13,400.00 (Amended by adding $10,000 for Tenure.) - Total amount for Departments and Com¬ mittees and Commissions . $ 27,300.00 958 National Education Association 20. Association Membership Fees: Actual expenses for last five years : 1929- 30 1930- 31 1931- 32 1932- 33 1933- 34 $ 1,100.00 1,200.00 700.00 700.00 1,200.00 Amount recommended for 1934-35 .$ 1,200.00* 21. Retirement Annuities and Insurance: Actual expenses for last five years : 1929- 30 . $ 6,865.08 1930- 31 . 11,253.19 1931- 32 . 8,725.16 1932- 33 . 9,220.23 1933- 34 . 8.913.87 Amount recommended for 1934-35 . $ 9,350.00 22. Emergency Fund: Amount recommended for 1934-35 . $ 2,000.00 GRAND TOTAL . $478,285.00 Available for Appropriations for 1934-35 Cash Assets Cash on hand and cash items, May 31, 1934 . $ 40,508.09 Estimated additional receipts from Receiver's Certificate for $36,869.70 — Commercial National Bank . 10,000.00 Due from Permanent Fund income 1933-34 . 36,165.49 Accounts receivable less reserve for bad accounts . 8,918.26 Time checks receivable . 4,754.92 Total Cash Assets Liabilities Vouchers payable — 1933-34 . $ 29,415.88 Due to Associated Departments . 25,836.30 Total Liabilities . NET CASH ASSETS AVAILABLE FOR 1934-35 EXPENDITURES Estimated Income for 1934-35 Memberships from Secretary’s Office . $165,000.00 N.E.A. Journal— Subscription and Advertising . 183,000.00 Sales of Proceedings . 350.00 Sales of Special Reports . 4,300.00 Commercial Exhibits . 30,500.00 * Complete payment for 1934-35. $100,346.76 $ 55,252.18 $ 45,094.58 Associational Records and Information 959 Research Bulletins . $ 4,350.00 Honorariums . 2,500.00 Rentals . 9,000.00 Cash Sales — Reports, Pamphlets, etc . 3,500.00 American Education Week Material — sales . 6,500.00 Income from Permanent Fund . 37,000.00 Sundry Income . 200.00 Total Estimated Income . $446,200.00 TOTAL AVAILABLE FOR APPROPRIATION . $491,294.58 TOTAL RECOMMENDED APPROPRIATIONS . *, . 478,285.00 Excess of available funds over appropriations . $ 13,009.58 THE BUDGET COMMITTEE W. B. Mooney, Denver, Colorado. A. L. Whittenberg, Springfield, Illinois. Charles Carroll, Providence, Rhode Island. Helen T. Collins, New Haven, Connecticut. L. W. Rogers, Chairman, Austin, Texas THE ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 1 GOING FORWARD The annual report of the Secretary for the year 1933-34 covers the period when economic conditions were at their worst. It also marks the date of a definite upturn — the time when edu- AN UPTURN cational recovery actually began. The report will discuss both. I take pride in recognizing at the outset that there is better solidarity in organization and in the work of the profession than at any time during my seventeen years as Secretary. The leadership of our Association in its field has never been more pronounced than at this moment. Nothing can destroy its influence or break its power as long as it con¬ tinues to represent so well its members and its affiliated groups. Let me take pride also in the cordial and better working arrangements that have been established with the National Congress of Parents and Teachers, the American Association of University Women, the League of Women Voters, the General Feder¬ ation of Women’s Clubs, the American Legion, and with many other civic and welfare groups. In all this cooperative work the National Education Association is recognized as the leader in educational matters. Never has the tie been closer or the cooperation more effective. PROUD OF STANDING ITS 1 Because of space limitations the following discussions in the report are omitted: An Inspirational Achievement, A More Dynamic Program, The National Congress of Parents and Teachers, The Joint Commission, Federal Aid, The National Economy League, The American Legion, and Social Economic Goals. The reports of the seven divisions of the headquarters staff were also omitted due to this contingency. 960 National Education Association Purpose of Report The purpose of the report will be to set forth the unusual conditions which faced the schools and the people at the opening of the year 1933-34; to show the increased efforts of the organized profession with the help of cooperative agencies to get the actual facts before the people TO DISCUSS and thus to free the schools from the manipula- VITAL MATTERS tion and the control of selfish interests; to men- . tion in particular the activities of the commissions, committees, officers and staff members during the time when the whole edu¬ cational fabric was near a breakdown; to give due credit to parent-teacher associations, the American Legion, and other agencies for helping to push back destructive forces ; and to show in detail the work of the headquarters staff. A Serious Situation The early months of the year 1933-34 were the darkest of the depres¬ sion, brought on by both the ravages of nature and human frailty. Nearly 2000 rural schools in 24 states failed to open in September, because of lack of funds. The closing of these schools left one hundred thousand children without educational opportunity. Four hundred rural schools in Arkansas alone, enrolling 30,000 pupils, failed to open their doors at all. One-fourth of the teachers in the United States began the THE WORST year at a salary rate of less than $750 per year. The prospect of shortened school terms meant still further reductions of income. In Louisiana there were 450 schools where a term of less than three months was expected ; in the country as a whole there were 18,000 schools, enrolling 900,000 pupils, which could not hope for as much as six months of school. Unpaid salaries amounting to $30,- 000,000 were due to teachers in city school systems. Nearly 2000 rural teachers in Missouri had been paid for only a part of their previous year’s work. School budgets for 1933-34 were estimated at $200,000,000 below the amount available the previous year. This was a reduction of more than 10 percent, in spite of the fact that 200,000 more pupils were to be in¬ structed. New teachers, greatly needed, were not employed; fifty, sixty, and even eighty children were crowded into classrooms designed for thirty or forty. Essential educational services had been DRASTIC BUDGET eliminated in many of the larger school systems. REDUCTIONS Kindergartens had been reduced ; in more than a hundred cities they had been cut out entirely. The newer subjects in the curriculum, introduced to meet the needs of modern civilization, had been curtailed in many school systems. In some cities the problem children, who formerly had been instructed in special classes, were returned to the regular classrooms, thus reducing their chances for a maximum development, and adding to the problems of the regular Associational Records and Information 961 teacher. Obsolete and tattered textbooks were be- VERY BAD ing used in many schools; pupils whose parents CONDITIONS were unable to buy books were facing serious handicaps in getting started in their school work. School building construction had been practically at a standstill for a year; overcrowding and half-day shifts were the rule in many parts of the country. Conditions looked very bad. Educational Recovery Begins During the last half of the year the clouds began to disappear. Such evi¬ dence as we have on educational recovery may be more in terms of hope and renewed activity than in terms of increased financial support, altho there are actual signs of the latter as the school year comes to an end. The microscope definitely reveals improvement in EVIDENCE OF school conditions. The help of the government IMPROVEMENT has counted tremendously. Then the slight up¬ turn in economic conditions helps. Officials of several state education associations have reported that there is a more favor¬ able attitude on the part of the public toward school support, that delinquent taxes are being paid, and that the general situation is improving. Teachers have aided in the collection of taxes. Many editorials and magazine articles by laymen are revealing a constructive attitude toward the schools and an insight into basic educational problems. The enemies of the schools were not able to prevent federal aid to the schools and this is what actually saved the day. The funds of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, estimated at a total of $31,500,000 have been used during the school year 1933-34 for projects of an educational character. These funds prevented the closing of rural schools with over 15,000 teachers and FEDERAL AID 500,000 pupils. Employment has been given to SAVED THE nearly 35,000 additional teachers, thru emer- SCHOOLS gency educational programs for illiterates, unem¬ ployed adults, vocational workers, and pre-school children. Approximately 75,000 young people have been enabled to con¬ tinue their college education during the second semester of 1933-34. Schoolhouse construction projects amounting to $112,662,151 have been approved by the federal Public Works Administration to be financed by loans and grants from federal funds. The Civil Works Service, which ex¬ pended approximately $825,000,000 of federal funds for all purposes, made a contribution to many school systems thru landscaping, plant rehabilita¬ tion, and in other ways. Thru the Reconstruction Finance Corporation Con¬ gress has made available a revolving fund of $75,000,000 for loans to school districts to make possible payment of teachers’ salaries in arrears. Children may well be proud of their country and its government. 962 National Education Association Reports from 122 city school systems show that in 44 of them the school budgets for next year will be larger than in 1933-34. In 33 of these 122 cities a partial or complete restoration of salary IMPROVEMENT cuts has been made or is expected. These cities FOR 1934-35 report renewed interest in curriculum revision, attention to individual needs of students, and the rehabilitation of the school plant. New services and classes are being estab¬ lished in some centers. Several communities report a growing interest in school welfare by the community. Is not this encouraging? Even the wide¬ spread drought does not destroy hope on the part of our people. In a majority of the states, steps have been taken to alleviate the school situation, yet in only a few cases have the states been able to work out a constructive forward looking program. The point MOVING FORWARD I wish to make here is that the states have as a rule stopped moving backward and that they have begun moving forward. We believe that, during the coming year, practi¬ cally every state will improve its plan of taxation and that it will form definite plans to promote the educational opportunity of children. Still it all depends on the activity of teachers and friends of the schools. Some Association Policies Among some of the everyday policies that figure in the success of the Association are the following : ( 1 ) That of granting almost unlimited freedom of action to departments and to affiliated organizations ; (2) that of recognizing as paramount the right of the state to control its own edu¬ cational affairs, and to serve as a clearing-house for the states, assisting each to achieve the maximum results; (3) that SOME EVERY- of arranging for salaries, tenure, and retirement DAY POLICIES allowances of the headquarters staff, such as the association would urge for a city or state; (4) that of recognizing the work of other educational associations and of co¬ operating with them on important measures, rather than that of assuming a fighting attitude against anything different from what we are doing; (5) that of having the Executive Secretary work under the direction of the President as authorized by the Executive Com- KEEPS SECRETARY mittee, giving greater power to the arm of the OUT OF A RUT Secretary and preventing him from getting into a rut in handling Association affairs; (6) that of attaching special importance to the welfare of the classroom teacher, the one who actually does the work and makes the close-up contacts with chil¬ dren; (7) that of treating board of education members and citizens as if they were fair-minded men and women, providing THE TEACHER them with information, trusting them to do the right thing, rather than assuming a hostile at¬ titude towards officers or citizens, however great the difference of opinion. That is why the Association can often patch up differences. Associational Records and Information 963 The Staff Often one who spends some time at headquarters will talk in this way: Why in the world do you not say more about your achievements? W^ere teachers to realize what is being done for them right here they would all be members.” Our folks know how to work. They prefer to let others pass judgment on results. I do not see how it would have been possible for the staff to do more than has been done during the year. Like superintendents, principals, and teachers, our staff members show the strain of the year’s work, altho I do not hear the slightest complaint. As I see the workers cheerfully going thru the halls to and from their work, I cannot help but observe that their load has been over heavy. They do not think so themselves. I just wonder whether any organization ever had a more loyal group of expert workers than we have at the present time. I know we have such groups in the schools. As I meet teachers who are finishing their year, I can see how much they are in need of rest. The hardest is not over for either staff or teachers. The load of our folks here and also of teachers will soon seem to be lighter, whether it is or not, as they witness the real achieve¬ ments of keeping the schools open, of lessening the howls of fault-finders and enemies of the schools, and as they get a glimpse of the better days just ahead. In Appreciation I want to express personal appreciation, if I may, to officers and dele¬ gates. I feel it, but I hardly know how to say it. I think of it especially because we have just passed out of the worst storm we ever had. I was in a responsible position. I tried to do my part. LOAD NOT The load was heavy and the responsibility great SO HEAVY for any one person to carry, but not too great for one whose arm is held up by thousands. I had your inspiration and fullest support during the years of plenty preced¬ ing the depression. Would I have it in the time of greatest need? Yes, and it was literally showered upon me every day and all the time. I have never known of any one who had better support NEVER BETTER than you have given me during this trying year. SUPPORT It has been timely. It has been true blue. Our joint work is undoubtedly helping* to lift the clouds and to insure fairer weather in the years ahead. I am grateful to you for generous support and for the stimulating interest which I have felt coming from you thru it all. National Education Association 964 REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON NECROLOGY WILLIAM ALONZO JAMES, PRINCIPAL, BALL HIGH SCHOOL, GALVESTON, TEXAS In brief and sincere words let us now pay tribute to the memory of our dead. It is quite proper that this Representative Assembly turn aside from its serious professional duties and with hearts of love recall the virtues of those who have gone before. In the archives of our Association will be filed additional names of nearly two thousand valiant and beloved members of our profession who, during the last year, have passed to the Great Beyond. Many of these comrades of ours, we know, have been the heart and soul of our American education, and it is for us to uphold the principles of the superb leadership of these and make secure their ideals. Vast numbers of other teachers, unnamed and un¬ known, too, have fought a good fight and finished the course. Their names will ever be sung by the children whose lives they touched and whose foot¬ steps they guided into paths of truth and righteousness. May their names, too, be written upon tablets of love and memory. ALABAMA Bondy, Sarah Ruffin Bowman, C. P. Bradshaw, Roy Byrum, Lewis Edward Carter, John T. Chitwood, Reuben Cowan, Ora V. Crane, H. M. Dyar, Mrs. Anne Riggs Garrett, Beatrice Hagan, Mrs. Kate G. Hodges, P. W. Johnston, Edith McConnell. C. V. Manley, Mark P. Miller, Arva Ruth Mizell, Josephine Robinson, Laurel Sellers, Melma Stacey, Inez Weatherford, Laura Weatherly, Florence ARIZQNA Bauman, Sylvia Burley, Hypatia Case, Charles Dancer, Mrs. Ruby Dunlap, Florence McClure LaChance, Marie Life, Frank Mann Lynch, Agnes G. Montgomery, Lydia Stuby, Margaret D. Wickman. Mrs. Ora C. Wilson, Mrs. Alberta T. ARKANSAS Paisley, D. L. CALIFORNIA Alexander, Louise Atkins, Marjorie D. Bickley, Mrs. Margaret W. Bishop, Katherine Blackburn, Margaret T. H. Britton, Mrs. Ethel Brown, Mrs. Prudence Butz, Mrs. Florence V. Caffrey, M. L. Casey, Katherine F. Centner, Martin Cerf, Adrienne Clark, Frederick H. Coffer, Mrs. Edith M. Crow, Lucile Dodge Crum, Mabel Currier, Walter Barron David, Eugenia Louise Davis, William Ernest Dornberger, Albert L. Edgecomb, Flora T. Eyre, Eileen G. Ferrell, Mrs. Grace Fortier, Margaret Freas, Inga Halverson Freeburn, Mrs. Julia E. Freeman, Mrs. Gertrude S. Frick, Mrs. Margaret J. Gamble, Mary E. Ganthier, Eugene Gittens, Harriett Ramey Guthrie, Helene A. Hanley, Sara Hart, Pauline Heffelman, Claude R. Hennings, Anna C. Hill, Mrs. Emma J. Hubbard, Helen Jennette Hughes, Mrs. Luverne Humphreys, Evelyn Julia Jencks, Mrs. Anita Kaps, Clara E. Kellog, Adelbert E. Landon, Mary Lee, Robert A. McManus, John Martin, Murray K. Moran, Kathareine M. Murphey, Carobel Nakowitz, Mrs. Theodore Osborn, J. O. Petray. Henry Calvin Plus, Evelyn Raesman, Thomas Jefferson Rice, Julius A. Root, Mrs. Mary V. Abbott Rosseter, Mrs. Minerva C. Rowell, Percy E. Sheets, Kate Smith, Mrs. Dora M. B. Stapp, Melvina Stephenson, Inez Stringfield, Vivian F. Taylor, Mrs. Nettie W. Tenbrook, Adelaide Wells, Robert J. Wight, Elsie F. B. Wright, Nelle Marie Wright, William S. COLORADO Acker, Katherine Alexander, Elizabeth Armitage, Hazel E. Banks, Mrs. Effie Becker, Mrs. Cleo Bliss, Julia Boyles, Sade (retired) Bradley, Charles A. Brenner, Genevieve E. Carpenter, Eva Chorbajian, Esther E. Cully, Toinette Daniels, Mary Dawson, Carolyn E. Associational Records and Information 965 Day, Merrill Dodds, J. H. Eyer, Ethel Field, Clara Gregory, Etta Hamer, Ethel P. Hamilton, Edith M. Hatch, Doris R. Hatch, Helen Holliday, Mary Neppa Hulburt, A. B. Ingraham, Harriett E. Jacobs, Evelyn M. Kendall, Mrs. Gladys Mclnhill, Bee McLeskey, Mrs. Willie Maloney. Mary E. Miller, Elizabeth Moran, Belle H. Ogleton, Mrs. Marie Pearce, Ira Lee Peck, Ruby S. Petros, Mary Powell, Glenn E. Quail, Mrs. Della Raine, Cornelia S. Remley, Mrs. Elizabeth Shakleford, Leo Riley Smiley, W. H. Smith, Rose Lee Stannard, Florence H. Strickland, Irene (retired) Strong, R. W. Stutz, Caroline Thoman, Dorothy Whetzel. Anna B. White, Elvira B. Winton, Mary H. G. Woodsen, Marie CONNECTICUT Banks, Myra Bauer, William Beach, Charles L. Beran, Irene Brown, Lois Bronson Bunnell, Maude A. Conway, Margaret Desmond, Mary Dougherty, Raymond Du Mortier, Jean Fornam, Henry Walcott Gurski. Helen Hall, William H. Lane, John E. Maloy, Mary Olmstead. Alexander H. Phillips. Ulrich B. Ries, Dora Shelton, Katherine Staebner, Frederick Stiles, Edgar Stillman, Florence Villa, Anna Warfield, Alice Wiseltier, Joseph DELAWARE Bicking, Mrs. Clara Butler, Fannie Corsan, Mary Lones, Mrs. Susan Patton, Elizabeth Pugh, Sallie Sipple, Cora D. Taylor, John Tyndall, Samuel FLORIDA Albury, Mrs. Beulah Mae Baker, Ira Hobbs, C. C. Hulley, Lincoln Mathis, Charles C. Mills. H. M. Mosley, Elinor Parsons, Mrs. Mabel Ann Richardson. Mrs. E. W. Tomkies, Kate GEORGIA Ashmore, Otis Butler, George P. Duggan, Mell L. Evans, Lawton Bryan Soule, Andrew M. Stewart, Joseph Spencer Walker, Joseph Henry IDAHO Daniels, John W. Dyer, John R. Millar, Francis Garner ILLINOIS Alsterlund, Mabel Balling, Vivian Barton, Herbert J. Bek, Cornelius F. Booth, Walter S. Boyer, Edwin L. Brinegar, George H. Brown, Glenn Vilven Buckley, Katherine A. Carmichael, Carmeling Chapman, Frank A. Chiera, Edward Cook, Maud I. DeHoux, Claudia F. Dodge, Daniel Kilham Dodson, John M. Faust, Ethel Fisher, H. B. Gannon, Marcella Goodhue, Louise E. Gorton, Louie A. Hancke, Mabel Handley, Mary E. Hornbaker, William R. Hunter, Mrs. Abbie A. Hurley, Margaret B. Hutton, Phillip W. Kealer, Adolph Kennedy Manona Kingsley, H. H. Lane, Frederick Larck, Frank C. Laughlin, James L. Lord, Livingston C. McCormick. Thomas J. McGinnis, Edwin McGinty, Alice MacPherson. Margaret McSherry, Harriet Maroney, Mary T. Melody, Genevieve Middleton, Ruth Belle Milliken, Orris J. Nagle, Antoinette Pease, T. H. Pratt, Alice Prucha, Marie Quinn, Agnes Ransmeier, John C. Rhinesmith. Wilma Schmidt, Regina Shannon, Margaret J. Shepher, Margaret Siebert, Ida M. Smith, Jesse L. Starr, Frederick Stetzler, Emma Stokes, J. R. Timeus, Ida M. Townsend, Robert D. Urbanovit, Helen Wade, Isabel Webb, Lelah Weston, Nathan Austin Wheeler, Virgil G. Whigam, Helen Williams, Mrs. Eula INDIANA Alldredge, Ella Arnold, Merton W. Avery, May Baldwin, L. Paul Bard, Lossen A. Bayne, Susan Beeks, Pearl M. Bramwell, Emma Brewer, Maurice Brothwell, Annie Burnham, Bertha Bush, Wallace Campbell, Henry Chewning, John O. Clark, Owen Collins. Minnie Corn. Edward F. Creviston, Hazrel Crosier, Ada B. Cunningham, Elizabeth David, Ruth Doerter, Julius Ducker, Linnie Vera Duden. Alma Duff, Raymond Eaken, Laura Eckerle, Jennie S. Ellis, Anna M. Farnsley, Ethel Ferguson. Joseph Fitch, Adah Virginia Forney, Edna Funk, Doris Good, B. F. Griffith, Anna J. Hardy, Walter Hawkins, Agnes Henderson, John L. Hinspeter, Anna E. Hodge, Dora Ann Hoover. Mollie Imel, H. G. Johnson, Leta Osborn Kelley, Luther E. Kemp, Jessie Killion, Lucille Kyger, Samuel Lasch. Mary Law, Margaret Porter Leech, Leona Lockwood, Nettie McCarty, James E. McCaughan, J. A. McConnell, Grace McCracken, Sylvester McKee, Della Medaugh, Maud F. Mendell. Emma Miller, Ada Miller, Laverne Moore, W. E. Morrison. Clara Murray, James L. Newton, Frances E. Nickels, Willard E. Osborn. Tennia Paige, Mary F. Jones Parks, Elmer C. Payne, Kirby 966 National Education Association Pearcy, B. A. Pearcy, Lola E. Pickett, Margaret R. Rabette, Mary J. Reddington, Mary F. Sage, Mabel F. Schisley, Julliette Sheets, John M. Shock, William A. Stewart, Milo Stolt, James W. Switzer, Pauline Tiedt, Emma Walker, Cora F. Warfel, W. T. Worstler, Esther Wright, Meda Yingling, Irene Yingling, Joanna IOWA Backus, S. J. Bedford, Agnes Campbell, H. G. Cook, Robert R. Crumrine, lone Davis, Ida Enfield, Helen Frei, Clara Graves, Margaret Halverson, Clara Hightshoe, Luella Holmes, Edmund Hooley, Susie R. Hovland, Bertha E. Hultman, Vivian Hruska, Victoria Johnson, Anna M. Kister, Alice Marie Krebs, Laura E. Leyda, May Long, J. Schuyler Marley, Elizabeth Meek, E. L. Miller, Alonzo A. Miller, Margaret A. Negler, Floyd Noble, Pearl Ogden, Glenn R. Quinn, Adele M. Rees, J. M., Jr. Rommel, Alexander Sallquist, Mrs. Verner G. Sawyers, Mollie Schuneman, Effie Simons, Della Smith, Nellie M. Townsend, Eugene C. Tutton, Velma Ward. Florence Washburn, George G. Welsh, Mary A. Wickham, Henry F. Wickware, Mary White, Eldora KANSAS Andrews. William H. Blume, Ruby Bower, Katherine Claire, Clyde Cowan, Mary Jane Dennis, Hoilis Ecclefield, Roy Eichman, Mattie Funk, Marietta Green, Cecil Hancock. Faye Lewis, W. A. Lynch, Florence McKinney, Sarah Morris, Paul Peacock, C. A. Potter, Alice Senter, A. F. Smith, Thelma Tague, E. L. Yates, J. A. 1 ; KENTUCKY Anderson, F. Paul Burton, A. C. Byington, W. M. Dicker, J. B. Godbey, S. B. Holloway, J. D. McAllister, C. E. Meacham, Reid Philip Thomas, Addison Williams, R. E. LOUISIANA Atkinson, Thomas W. Byrd, O. Carver Cather, John Coco, Ashton Evans, Mrs. Mary Louise Foreman, R. L. Haynes, Pearl Horton, J. W. Jeansoonne, Mrs. Katherine A. McMain, Eleanor McNaspy. Clement J. Morris, Harry Smith, Mrs. Kate H. Thatcher, Mrs. G. O. Williams, Naomi Williamson. J. D. Yawn, M. C. MAINE Allamby, Kate M. Anderson. Ada Brown, Walter J. Chappelle. Ethel Graffam Dufour, Beloni S. Dyer. Martha Burpee Farnum. Annie R. Foss, Mary Maxine Hart, Ethel May Hayes, Alden B. Hereux, Germaine L. Hutchinson. Mrs. D. M. Kelly, _ Nellie L. Kincaid. R. Louise King. Ethel Florence Macdonald. Helen Magoun. H. Emma Mann, Esmerelda Miller, Agnes E. Myers, Eleanor M. Reed, Ralph G. Rumery, Myrtie Sawyer, Susan Small, Mertie Smith, Edna Staples, Mrs. Susie E. Sturke, Mrs. Evelyn Fisher Tayler, Katherine MARYLAND Bell, Eugene H. Berry, Susie T. Broome, Maude V. Chapman, Dorothy Garthe, Martha Gibson, Thomas L. Grooms, Anna B. Hall, Spencer R. Hessey, Sarah N. Hobbs, Ella R. Itzel, John Jackson, Mary B. Keating, Frank W. Klingaman, William K. Lewis, John A. Monroe, Emma O’Neill, Mary E. Phillips, Wooland C. Reindollar, M. Blanche Roache, Sara Search, M. Louise Shriver, Katie M. Smiley, L. G. Smith, Harry E. Stotler, Dora White, Annabelle Lee MICHIGAN Amsburg, Mrs. Seely Ayers, Effie Barnaby, Ella Barr, Louise E. Bayha, Anna Beach, Mrs. Abbie E. Mun- ger Behringer. Flora Bidwell, Lizzie Boardman, Alice Boillotat. Harry N. Broad, Mrs. Florence Smith Brockett, Myrn Broomfield, Mrs. Fred Brown, Mrs. Mary Ann Buchanan, Cecelia M. Burbank, Mrs. Jennie Burd, Jennie Campbell, Mrs. Jeannette B. Canfield, Mrs. Julia Carrett, Eva Chapel, Samuel B. Clark, Eva Mildred Condon, George M. Cooper, Mrs. Donald Cornell, W. T. S. Cotter. Veva Maude Crandell. M. Blanch Crawford, Georgia Crittenden, Albert Culkin, Dorothy Dawe, Irene Dimke, Sophia Drake, Ellis H. Dunnebacke. Mary E. Eaton, Sylvia Eckhart, Carl Eckstein, Frank P. Effinger, John Robert Faulker, Myldred Faunce, Winifred Flower, Emily Foster, Isaac Gebert, Otto C. Gibson. Mrs. Louisa Giles. Mrs. Antonia Goldring, James H. Gray, Gladys Grover, Grace Haislev, Mrs. Harriet G. Hall, Anna Hatcher. Mrs. Helen H. Haubrich, Mary Hazelton. Ransom Holden. Mrs. Martha Iden, Thomas M. Innis, Mildred James, Mrs. Matie Judson Jennings, Charles Jennings, Marian L. Johnson, J. Emily Johnson, Warren Associational Records and Information 967 Johnson, Wilhelmina Jones, George W. Kendrick, William R. Kennedy, Mary Ann Kimes, Olive Knapp, Thad Johnson Leary, .Nellie Lewis, Rosalin Lewis, Walter Lynch, Helen McDonald, Mrs. Lulu S. McEachron, Cora McGinty, Maud McGrath, Anna J. McKenny, Charles McNaughton, Marie McRae, Elizabeth Maddox, William A. Madison, Flora A. Maxwell, Mrs. Carrie Meier, Mrs. Leone Tatroe Mettetal, Eli Meyers, Mary Mierow, Emma Miller, Mrs. Anne Dunham Moe, Fred W. Morovitz, Helen Orcutt, Mary A. Otis, John Calvin Patch, Mary Ruth Phillips, Ulrich B. Prin, Mrs. Mahala M. Prowdley, Flora Quine, Mrs. Bessie H. Rebo, Stella Rice, Emma Riggs, Frances Roach, William Thomas Robinson, Mrs. Beulah Rupp, Mrs. Nelson D. St. John, Mrs. Dalice Sanders, Harriett G. Schnuck, Robert Arbuckle Schurtz, Orr Shea, Bridget Shilling, Mrs. Virginia B. Skinner, Allie C. Smith, Beatrice Smith, Samuel B. Sooy, Frank H. Soper, Hortense Stibgen. Mary L. Stone, Marjorie Taylor, Fannie A. Taylor, Mabel E. Thomas, E. J. Thompson, Elbert Thompson, Mrs. Rachel S. Titus, Winnie Tobey, Mrs. Cyrus A. Towne, Ella I. Tripp, George J. Turnbull, Lovell Van Buskirk, Mrs. Mar¬ garet Van Dusen, Minnie Ward, Margaret E. Webb, Francis J. Wendover, Mrs. Susan A. Wilgeroth. Alfred O. Willert, Mrs. Mildred Wilson, Eugene A. Winenan, Mrs. Catherine Wood, Leslie H. Yeager, Dora Denison MINNESOTA Arithistle, Harry Barup, Sophie Boerner. Ernest Brown-Berkwitz. Genevieve Brown-Conley, Paula Brunner, Francis F. Bullock, Adelle L. Buttrick, Theresa Carrigan, Helen Cashman, Thomas E. Chandler, Mrs. Florence D. Collins, Frances Cullen, Mary E. Deschneau, Mrs. Cora Douglas, Beulah Eckert, Alice Eide, Carl J. Feeley, Elizabeth Firmin, Mrs. Florence Green, Mrs. Nellie H. Hamilton, Mrs. Zelma D. Hoag, Laura A. Irving, Alice M. Johnson, Gertrude V. Jordan, Medora Jorgens, Joseph Kearney, Mrs. Hannah Kellogg, Mrs. Gertrude A. Korb, Beulah F. Larson, Amy U. Layden, Genevieve Leitzke, Arlene Luenberg, Robert H. McCall, Bessie A. McClellan, Mary F. Mead, Ella D. Mead, Mary E. Morse, Anna E. Morton, Flora E. Muth, Mrs. Edna T. Oln, Winifred Pemberton, John Power, Anna C. Powles, William Queneau, Mrs. Jean B. Richards, Mary B. Russell, Sophia E. Scott, Edith Spateo, Anna Spencer, Nellie C. Stewart, R. Dell Tucker, Mrs. Ethel P. West, Alice M. Williams, Grace A. MISSOURI Alexander, Eula C. Alexander, Ruth Baker, Sam A. Barnes, Mrs. Alma J. Behen, Agnes M. Bilderback, A. F. Billmeyer, Mabel Blagg, Albert S. Brannum, Mrs. Helen Burnett, John Casey, Helen R. Charlton, H. H. Clemens, Leona E. Defoe, Luther M. Doling, Mrs. Fannie Douglass, Alexander E. Douglass, Thomas J. Fausset, Mrs. Neva F. Fox, Hazel G. Gardner, Charles R. Gebhard, Caroline George, Edith Gernhardt. Anna Grocott, W. H. Hart, Maynard M. Havden, Myrtle Hefferman, Mary F. Hicks, Fay Hoch, H. F. Holt, Anna Mae Humphery, A. S. Ingram, Opal Joggerst, Lenora Jones, Ada M. Jordan, Leonard Kampmann, Bessie Kelley, Anna J. Kircher, Katherine Lewis, Margaret M. Livingston, Winifred McKay, Virgil Mann, Mollie A. Metcalfe, Mary E. Miller, Alpha Moffett, Mrs. R. M. Moller, Corinne Montgomery, Lydia Moore, Fannie Moss, Fred S. Jr. Naunheim, Susan H. Noell, Bertha S. Operle, Norman R. Peters, Pauline M. Price, Jettie Reynolds, Ernest G. Rowden, Mrs. Glen Salmond, Jane Savage, Mrs. James J. Schall, Ruth Schneider, Irene M. Shriver, Mrs. Mildred Smith, Thomas B. Stock, Oliver W. Storr, Ruth E. Sullivan, Mary E. Taylor, Frances M. Taylor, Margaret Thomas, Mrs. Anna B. Thudium, M. D. Toner, J. V. Tuember, Mary L. Van Mater, Mrs. B. S. Vavra, Minna Vert, Edmund J. Vichroy, W. R. Walker, Carrie Ward, Mary L. Welge, Martha Wentzel, A. Louise Wilson, Nettie M. Wingo, J. M. Yandell, Mrs. Ethel MONTANA Abercrombie. Lillian Baker, A. H. Brown, Lucille Gustafson, Gertrude Hargrave, Rose Jennings, Matilda Laird, Cassie McKentry, Collette Wheeler, Mary Cecelia NEBRASKA Badger, Anna Beaumont. Mrs. Edith Behlers, Wauneta Benson, Clement L. Bernstein, Rose Berry, Mrs. Martha Bishop, W. G. Boots, Ralph Brenizer, Elizabeth Briggs, Mrs. Anna Brown. George Bute, Mrs. Darlien Weekly Carpenter, Paul Chapman, Henry O. Christensen. Olga L. Clarke, Helen Collins, Frederick G. 968 National Education Association Compton, H. W. Cordner, Mrs. Lucile Duffield, Eleanor Dunkle, Luna G. Ellis, Mrs. Lorena Emanuel, Sister Mary E. Gaebler, Gertrude Greusel, Calista Guidinger, Mrs. Florence Hill, Mrs. Ray Hillsabeck, Mrs. Nan Hippie, A. Hugh Hughes, Lulu James, Vera Janouch, Marie K. Jones, Geo. Wm. Kenfield, Edith Knies, Henry J. Kohler, Catherine Ellen Konatopka, Dorothy Lagel, Mrs. Annis M. Lamme, Ruth Large, Jennie M. Lottes, Mother M. Veronica McAra, Margaret McCarthy, Margaret T. McKee, Mrs. Ariel McLucus, Victor R. Mengel, J. Warren Miller, Joseph C. Mitchell, A. R. Mitchem, Paul Morse, Mrs. Eva Mortensen, Gertrude Newman, Bess Noyes, David F. Prai, Irene J. Redfield, Jennie Regan, Mrs. Alice Robbins, C. A. Rymal, Tammie Scherich, Esther Seashore, A. T. Straight, Mrs. Rose Swennery, Gretchen Thomas, Lloyd E. Troxell, M. F. Weber, Albert Wells, E. H. Wheatly, Emma Whitacre, Harlan Williams, L. A. Wilson, Ruth V. Wolcott, R. H. Worley, Henry M. NEVADA # Balzar, Frederick B. Bray, Florence L. NEW HAMPSHIRE Averill, Mr. Chase, H. Lawton Davis, Annie L. Morrison, William Y. Poor, John M. Wellmann, Justin O. NEW JERSEY Allen, Mary A. Barrick, Willina Beheer, Elizabeth Belt, Mrs. Mabel B. Berdan, Mrs. Olive G. Bishop, Mrs. Jeannette V. Brown, Mrs. Sarah M. Burrough, Clara S. Carter, Mrs. Eleanor L. Cartland, Ruth Conover, Ezanna Croley, Irene G. Daggett, James R. Delaney, Alice G. Dilts, J. Spencer Doran, Lillian M. Edwards, Frances Gerhart, Mrs. Mildred K. Gill, Mary L. Gookin, Mary A. Green, Walter J. Gregory, Christopher Hall, Mrs. Helen C. G. Harriman, Jessie P. Harvey, Mrs. Frances P. Hinds, Diana Bowens Humphrey, Lois A. Jemison, Maude P. Johnson, Mrs. Henrietta F. Johnson, Mrs. Isabella Kelley, Katherine A. Krause, Carl Lee, Fred A. Lockwood, Alice M. Marston, John Martin, Mrs. Helen D. Money, Mrs. Mazie Murray, Eleanor J. Myers, Minnie T. Newson, Mrs. Lillian D. Opsahl, Mrs. Lucille C. Payson, Emily Peebles, Jessie Peterson, Julia Phillips, Pauline V. Powell, Grace K. Risley, Fred Sayers, Mrs. Maude G. Shelly, Joseph H. Smith, Blanche Graves Steiker, Maxwell P. Taylor, Louise Thomas, Mrs. Helen T. Tidey, Laura E. Torhan, Miriam Vanaman, George W. Vorms, Lucien Waterbury, Clara E. Webster, Sara Wixted, Edith E. Wolf, Fanny Wright, Olive P. NEW MEXICO Barela, Mrs. J. I. Bell, Fay Foster, Luther Huffman, Lowrence Sanchez, Alex Thomas, Jerome B. NEW YORK Alford, Eunice Anderson, Floyd F. Anderson, Loretta M. Annable, Caroline Bacon, Margaret E. Barnes, Olive R. H. Beecher, Katherine Belden, Arthur E. Bermann, Sadie Blood, Inez Bogart, Bernice R. Bohn, Florence Bremer, Miss Bryan, Jennie B. Burnap, Ella Byrne, Anna I. Calahane. Susannah Carless, Sarah Carroll, Kate M. Chriswell, John F. Clark, Catherine Clem, Isabel G. Cohen, Jennie Cohen, Rachel Colburn, Jessie B. Collins, Clara L. V. Conti, Mrs. Rose J. Cook, Leon J. Cullen, Patrick H. Cunningham, Annie E. Curran, Nora J. Curtice, Mabel I. Cushing, Alice Dailey, Helen T. Davis, Jessica Decker, Helen M. Dempsey, Bridget Denton, Lewis Devlin, Mary A. Devlin, Oneita Dewey, Charlotte Dingfeldt, Ottillie Dowling, Lucy T. Duffy, Florence J. Dumond, William H. Dyslinger, Albert D. Edson, Frank M. Eldredge, Roxie Emblen, T. W. Erwin, Elizabeth Farrell, Elizabeth Felter, William L. Fenning, Catherine E. Fenton, Grace L. Foster, Walter E. Fox, Hannah D. Fox, Hattie May Frazer, Mary Friday, Harriet Gage, Lucy Garritt, Albert W. Gernon, Mary E. Gilson, Channing W. Godfrey, Frances Godine, Mary G. Graveley, Ruth Graves, Helen Mar Green, Mary V. Greenwood, Minerva W. Greiner, Hiram E. Grotecloss, John H. Hahn, Martha E. Hanley, Mary A. Harp, Julia K. Harris, John F. Harris, Julia E. Hathaway, Vernetta Hay, Mary Hazard, Ruth Herman, Milton Hervey, Walter L. Hickey, Kate R. Hobbs, Mary F. Hoyle, Harry French Johnson, Albert A. Jones, Gary M. Karlof, Mrs. B. Louise Katz, Dorothy Keane, Loretta J. Keane, Mary Kearns, Margery C. Kelliher, Anna J. Kelly, Agnes Kelly, Mary R. Kievit, Louis King, Edna Kingsley. Ellen B. Kirkup, Edna G. Koltnow, Fannie Kraus, Regina Laing, Margaret Lamb, James A. Langford, Rebecca Associations Records and Information 969 Lee, Bert E. Leete, George P. Lingo, William R. Link, George Lobdell, Lillie I. Lyon, Charles W. Mabry, Rita M. Mackie, Ena Mann, Minnie T. Markett, Mark Martin, F. Elvira McAllister, Belle McCabe, John P. J. McCarthy, Katherine McCarthy, Vada M. McCarty, Katherine McCormick, Anna M. McGurn, Katherine L. McLaughlin, Mary McMillan, Ida McSharry, Anna B. Mead, Harry W. Membert, Blanche Miles, Julia B. Miller, Mary L. Morgan, Mary L. Mullin, Elizabeth Mulryan, Kathrine Murphy, Helen F. Murray, Elizabeth C. Murtha, John P. Neary, Emma Norr, Henry I. O’Leary, Mabel M. O’Mahoney, Ellen L. Orthey, Wilhelmina F. Osbourne, Wilfrida I. Palmer, Luelle A. Paterno. Jane Peck, Mrs. Mina A. Penhollow, Harry B. Perry, Arthur C. Petelle, Joseph H. Potter, Vera T. Purdy, Caroline Quinlan, Minnie Rafferty, William B. Reese, Annie Collins Roche, James P. Rogers, Catherine Rohrbach, Jacob H. Ryan, Amanda L, Ryder, Sara Schmitt, B. Elizabeth Schumann, Helen E. Seelye, Burt P. Seymour, Blanche C. Sheehan. Catherine Siegel, Michael Sims, Alice M. Smith, Abraham Smith, Bertha Smith, Clara K. (Mrs.) Smith, Elizabeth Smith, Ferdinand E. Smith, Isabel W. Synder, Arthur I. Spencer, Julia A. Sperry, Mary K. Stafford, Helen E. Stapleton, Ellen Stark, Elizabeth C. Stawiarski, Estelle L. Stone, Estella Green Sweeney, Thomas H. Taggart, Ethel Booth Taylor, Marv F. Thompson, Harriet D. Timmerhaus, Elsie M. Van Deusen, Esther I. Van Wagoner, Margaret Veeder, Laura A. Vickers, Margaret Wade, Emily A. Waldron, Alice M. Walker, Ethel Walsh, Florence F. Westberg, Madeline Wheat, Frances L. Wheeler, Ethel Cusick Wickham, Elizabeth F. Williams, Lociski L. Wochian, Laura A. Wormley, Mrs. Frances Wright, Yale, E. Young, Florence F. NORTH CAROLINA Arnold, Maxley Bell, J. M. Blue, Mrs. Claudia M. Braddy, Kanella J. Brotherton, Nola Campbell, J. A. Carmichael, P. S. Carraway, Daphne Clayton, Ossie M. Cook, Mary Ellen Crane, Mrs. H. C. Dana, William Jay Davis, James Franklin Edmunds. (Miss) Willie Fulton, Rearle Haynes, Sarah K. Hoke, Robert Lee Humphrey, Rebecca Jones, Alice E. Jones, Ora E. Long, J. W. Martin. Mrs. W. W. Peel, Roda Perry, W. Y. Price, Mrs. W. H. Richards, Ruth Ross, Wilbur H. Sox, J. E. Swanson, Ethel Teem, Clarence A. Terry. Sara Bennett Toy, W. T. Trent, Grace Warlick, Kathryn Wohlford, Louise OHIO Allen, Jennie Bard, Lossen A. Bates, Mrs. Elva B. Baxter, Louis A. Beckwith, Ruth Bell, Lura Black, David S. Broadstone, Dorothy H. Cherrington, Mrs. Mae Clark, Blanche Clark, M. J. Culp, Hazel Darr, Jean Davis, Catherine Disher, Beatrice Elliott, Mrs. Charlotte E. Elliott, W. C. Evans, Lucy Belle Falkenbach. Lydia Goodrich, Milo Groves, C. D. Hale, Minnie Hill, Philip C. Horton, Mrs. Madelyn L. Humphreys. Eleanor Kennedy. Nan C. Kennel, Edith Kinnison, J. E. Kramer, Walter Clark McCall, E. S. McCartney, Mattie S. McDargh, Charles E. Martin, Mrs. Nina S. Mayfield, Mrs. Mable Merrell, Helen A. Metz, Raymond H. Mickey, Blanche Owen, Mrs. Louise L. Parsell, Oradell Patterson, Charles C. Pratt, Mattie B. Rife, S. T. Roberts, Edith Robertson, Alma Robinowitz, Yetta Robinson, Mary Roling, Grace Root, Alex Ruby, Mildred Sheward, A. R. Sinclair, Mrs. Isabelle P. Smith, Russell Speare, Wilma Speice, Carrie Swigert, Frank Thomas, Lawrence D. Thornburg, Cora M. Thornburg, Mary J. Wagner, Isaac B. Watson, Nellie Welch, Mrs. Margaret Wells, Anne Whinnery, Ray Ellwood Williams, Dora E. Williams. Iva Willoughby, Jessie B. OREGON Ady, Mrs. Leona C. Bowland, John R. Clement, Mrs. Otelia Halley, Maude Peterman, Ethel Y. Watts, Carl Ramsey Wooley, Nellie M. PENNSYLVANIA Allan, Susan A. Ash, Percy Aumiller. E. U. Avery, Mary Thelma Bakeless, O. H. Bear, Mrs. Helen Shoop Beck, Paul E. Bersner, Eleanor R. Blakley, Mrs. Helen Blumer, Emily M. Bowman, Eilzabeth Branson. Carrie E. Brice, Mrs. William Jr. Carroll, John S. Clinedinst, Mai A. Coale, Nealie Cole, Mrs. Reathie Pollock Collins. Mattie M. Cook. D. H. Cowling, Emma Cressman. George L. Davis, Hannah Davis, Louise Deibert, Florence A. Drawbaugh. Nannie Earley, Stella S. Eckert, Mary Horton Eickhoff. Louise W. Faries, Carrie L. Ferson, Mrs. Annabelle C. Fitting, John E. Frank, Susan M. Gabrio, Joseph B. Gallagher, Bridget 970 National Education Association Given, Margaret P. Graham, John Kenneth Gruver, Jacob A. Kali, Harry S. Hartman, Lu M. Hess, Aaron B. Hildebrand, Frank A. Hosick, Thomas G. Hufty, Irene M. Huntzberger, D. W. Isabel, Wilmina V. Jarrett, Anne Lorena Jones, Arthur Scott Jungkurth, Sally J. Kennedy, Charles Kieffer, Hannah A. Kifer, Laura Kinard, Moses C. Knabe, Bertha Knepper, Lillian Laverell, Mrs. Eleanor C. Lecky, Anna C. Lenig, William H. Limber, Elsie A. Lindsay, Alexander M. Long, Irene McCaskey, Edward W. MacIntyre, Florence McIntyre, Sarah J. McKinney, Ella C. Madden, Margaret C. Meisel, Eva Imogene Mellott, D. A. Meyers, Otto Miller, Lulu Miller. T. J. Mitchell, Edna T. Montgomery, Mrs. Lucy Morgan, John E. Murphy, Lenore I. Niemann, Elizabeth C. Paddon, Rose Perry, Anna D. Pomp, William H. Purman. Mary Russell Reed, Martha Reisinger, Austa Reisse, Mary W. Rowen, Wiiliam Santee, Thomas P. Sealey, Nettie Shaffer, Lena B. Shott, John Abram Silsby, Mrs. Jane M. Simmons, Mrs. Harriet M. Snell, Patricia Spigelmyer. John R. Stoddart, Harry T. Suzzallo, Henrv Sweitzer, MacC. Thompson, Mrs. Ada R. Townsend, Jesse K. Unger, Wood Unks, Mary A. Waldron, Addie S. Wallace, William C. Walters, Florence E. Warne, Blanche Weeks, Loraine Wilkinson, Heslop Williams, Mary Allen Wintersteen, Nancy Zeiser, Harry H. Ziegler, Elmer B. RHODE ISLAND Bicknell, Gertrude L. Carroll, Eleanor L. Clark, Gertrude M. Coggeshall, Harriet A, Colton, Margaret M. Dolan, Katherine F. Forbes, Elizabeth L. Gibson, Bertha E. Greene, James Magnus, Elsie T. Matteson, Mrs. Eva T. Monroe, Mary F. Mowry, Lenette Pepper, Julia Pierce, Mrs. Ella M. Stellman, Gertrude Sutherland, Margaret C. Thayer, Isadore G. Truesdale, Anna B. Tucker, Marguerite G. Wilbur, Phoebe SOUTH CAROLINA Buist, George A. Holt, Mrs. Marie N. Looper, A. K. McCall, Elizabeth McGlothin, W. J. Milhouse, Mrs. U. G. Owens, Bessie Pittman, Josie Belle Sweegan, Miss M. A. Taylor, W. R. Trent, R. L. Ware, Mrs. L. L. West, C. F. Whitehead, Richie Lou SOUTH DAKOTA Burns, J. T. F. Daly, Marjorie G. Holbrook, Edward P. King, Charles T. Lubbinge, John Mellinger, Bonnie E. Meredith, E. B. Moore, A. F. Petrick, Mrs. Gertrude Plummer, Mrs. Julia Woods, Jacob Milton TENNESSEE Binnion, Randolph B. Blanton, John D. TEXAS Alford, Pearl Atwood, Amy Maud Bailey, Mrs. Bessie Bondies, Mrs. Josie M. Burton, Sam D. Calder, Mrs. Loretta L. Chambers, J. E. Davis, Minadele Duke, Annie Duke, Katherine Dunn, Mrs. Lilly Gaines, E. P. Gerdine, Lucy Hall, Beulah J. Harris, T. G. Hix, Eddie Hollabaugh, Oscar S. Howard, John Franklin Hunt, J. W. Kelley, W. M. Lawrence. Ida Long, J. L. Loring, Anna C. McKinnie, Mrs. Susie G. Marquis, R. L. Milligan. Gertrude Mills, William Buford Moody, Lee Napier, Nell Newman, Albert Henry Peters, T. E. Quarles, Lucy Richardson, B. Roberts, Charles H. Samuels, Mrs. K. M. Sheffield, Mrs. Jennie L. Smith, S. T. Syers, Mrs. Camille B. Taylor, Henry Kirby Tyndall, John W. Vickers, Carrie Wenzel. W. C. West, Charles Culberson UTAH Arnold, Glynn Brighton, Thomas B. Campbell, Orson D. Cobb,. Mrs. Camilla C. De Rigis, Kathryn Hammer, Ella Harrison, James W. Lewis, Violet S. Peterson, L. A. Peterson, Moglen Stevenson, Parley L. Watts, John A. Weber, Frank J. Williams, Jean VIRGINIA Bain, Belle P. Chamberlain, Mrs. Margaret Cross, Charles E. Dorrance, Lucy Fentress, Maud Hill, Albert H. Hinton, Estelle Painter, E. A. Rucker, Jayne Shelton, Carroll J. Umberger, Anna K. Wilson, Sue Eddie WASHINGTON Attebury, Mrs. O. U. Askew, Mabel B. Bishop, Eugene Carpenter, Richard Edwards, W. L. Francis, C. Marie Fraser, Pearl Hanawalt, C. W. Harris, Blanche Heggem, Olga Hodge, C. W. Johnson, Lillian Layden, Genevieve Melick, Katherine Nason, Letta Palmer, E. S. Patton, Alma C. Schnasse, Edison Shold, Arnolda Smith, Margaret Walter. Fred West, Leoti WEST VIRGINIA Alexander, Anna Ayers, Buena Beem, A. E. Boggs, Brounley Boughter, I. F. Bower, David Cooper, Joe Earlywine, Jesse Associational Records and Information 971 Edwards, Martha Garland, Clarence E. Hanifan, L. J. Hare, A. J. Hill, Mrs. Virginia B. Hoylman, J. N. Lazlar, John H. Marr, Mrs. Thelma Martin, C. H. Patterson, Evangeline Price, Mrs. Helen Rasky Purinton, Daniel B. Reber, Mrs. Mary E. Rodgers, Mrs. Irvin Speary, Wilma C. Van Horn, M. H. Verder, Bessie C. Workman, Geraldine Young, Orville WISCONSIN Alexander, Mrs. Carrie Anderson, Anna E. Angle, Mrs. Rella Arnfield, Mrs. J. D. Balz, G. H. Blackwell, A. T. Booten, Viola Braun, Adolph R. Breckenfeld. Lydia Brockman, Mrs. J. B. Brown, William H. Burke, Joseph P. Burke, Julia Ann Callen, Thomas Casey, Edward Christley, Mrs. Bernice A. Christy. Martha E. Clark, Mrs. Marion Clark, R. L. Clasen, Mrs. Margaret Conway, Florence Cottrell, Mrs. Anna Cox, James L. Davis, Mrs. Cora Eldred Davis, Dora Delano, Ruth A. Donald, John S. Driscoll, Theresa Dumphy. Fanny Eaton, Mrs. Abbie F. Eckstein, Antonia Edwards, Morgan Fitzmaurice, Mrs. Madelen Fletcher, Helen Ford, Mrs. William Fox, Jenny Frank, Julius Frank, Mrs. Marv Lucy Frayer, Mrs. Nellie Gardner Fromader. Mrs. Eva Snyder Gentry, Elizabeth Gifford, Ida Greenfield, Charles Griswold, Frances Gruett, Fred Hamilton, Mrs. J. E. Hanson, Gladys Hargrave, Ruth Hartgerink, Mrs. Lita Hayes, Agnes Mary Haynes, Mrs. Richard Heller, William Higgins, Frank Hobart, Mrs. E. G. Hodge, Mrs. Elizabeth Hoen, Mrs. Anna Hooper, Mrs. Maude S. Hough, Vera Alice Howell, Nellie Huber, Oscar Huebsch, Arthur Hunt, Mrs. Orville Ingram, Evillie Jenkins, Anna M. Jessel, Henry Johnson, Mrs. Frank Johnson, Vesta Joston, Mrs. E. Kamp, Mrs. Cora B. Kaye, Mrs. Alice Kelpe, Charles Kiesow, Mrs. Edna Killing, George V. King, Mrs. Della C. Kittell, Mrs. Laurence Kitzman, Lawrence L. Knue, Florence Kosanda, Lillie Lantry, Mary Layne, Harry E. Lee, David Russell Lenani, Mrs. Emma Lentzner, Norman Lewis, George Loque, J. B. Luellen, Mrs. John Lyman, Helen McDougal, Carabel MacDougal, Claire McGantry, Maude McGilloray, Mrs. C. McHugh, Jeffery McKenny, Charles McKowen, Mrs. Lee McMurphy, Miss Mary Magee, Harriet C. Masen, Mrs. Charles Mays, Mrs. Jessie Meany, Winifred Melaney, Lizzie Meyer, Edwin F. Minor, E. D. Morris, Nellie Morrow, Mrs. Adelaide Mosher, Orville Watson Munkwitz, Richard C. Murphey, Josephine Murphy, Susan Nelson, Alice M. Nelson, Kate S. Neuhaus. Barinka Nevins, Charles Newman, Mrs. Lester O’Connor, Clara O’Connor, Gordon Parker, Nellie Martin Parrosh, Mrs. Roy Parsons, Olive Patterson, Elizabeth Payton, Mrs. Martin Perry, Alice Dunck Phillips, George Ellis Phillips, James E. Phillips, Mrs. Kate S. Phinney, Margaret Rearden, James F. Rood, Hosea Whitford Rooney, Mrs. Margaret Rouiller, Clarence F. Rubens, Joseph Rubey, Mrs. Margaret H. Ryder, Julia Saak, Bertha Sanborn, Mrs. Edward Scholz, Richard Schuler, Katherine Scollard, John Sell, William Serrahn, Louis Shaugnessy, Judge George Smiley, Frank Sogard, Kate Taylor Squiers, Genieve Kurth Stafford, Margaret Swyer, Mrs. Cora Sykes, Maude Tiefenthaler, Pancreatius Tift, Sam Tigh, Angeline Torney, Juliana Tourner, Joseph Upsen, Mrs. Willis Urban, Mrs. William Wald, Orma Walecka, Agnes Warth, Bertha Webster, Emily West, Caroline West, Edna White, James White, Walter Whittaker, Letitia E. Williams, Thomas Williams, W. H. Winkler, Mrs. Theodore Winslow, Katherine Wisdom, Mrs. John Wiston, Nathan Austin Yonk, John C. HAWAII Akimo, James Kim Chun, Mrs. Gladys M. G. Foster, Mrs. Cora D. Gallagher, Mrs. Mabel W. Ikeda, Miss Hisano Kamei, Clarence Kauila, Mrs. Mary K. Lathlean, Cluness Lino, Mrs. Rane F. Moore, Nellie C. Rudin, Mrs. Dorothy McKee Woodd, Mrs. Elizabeth 972 V National Education Association THE FOURTEENTH REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY Delegates who attended the seventy-second annual meeting of the National Education Association in Washington, D. C., June 30-July 6, 1934. The classification of positions in¬ cludes (1) directors and supervisors, (2) superintendents, (3) principals, (4) classroom teach¬ ers, (5) college and normal school presidents, (6) educational editors and secretaries, and (7) ex-officio members. ALABAMA Banks, L. Frazer (Assistant Superintend¬ ent of Schools), Birmingham; Alabama Education Association. Benson, Fannie M. (Teacher), 1117 West Eighth Ave., Birmingham; Birmingham Teachers Association. Bryan, John E. (Superintendent of Schools), Bessemer; Alabama Education Associa¬ tion. Duvall, R. A. (Principal), North Birming¬ ham School, Birmingham; Alabama Edu¬ cation Association. Grove, Frank L. (Secretary), Alabama Edu¬ cation Association, 21 Adams Ave., Mont¬ gomery; Alabama Education Association. Hannon, Beatrice (Teacher), Dulion Apart¬ ment, 2030 Eleventh Ave., South, Birming¬ ham; Birmingham Teachers Association. McGehee, Laura (Teacher), 101 Second Ave., Pratt City. Birmingham; Birmingham Teachers Association. MacKenzie, Mary Lois (Teacher), 804 South Eighty-first St., Birmingham; Alabama Education Association. Norton, Fannie Mae (Supervisor), County Board of Education, Tuscaloosa; Alabama Education Association. Tilman, Rayner (Teacher), 7523 Second Ave., S., Birmingham; Birmingham Teachers As¬ sociation. Vaughan, Joseph T. (Principal), 5521 First Ave., S., Birmingham; Birmingham Teach¬ ers Association. Williams, J. D. (ex officio), Principal, Avon¬ dale School, Birmingham. Young, T. C. (Principal), 1609 Cullom St., Birmingham; Birmingham Teachers Asso¬ ciation. ALASKA Campbell, Cleo (ex officio), Box 1272, Ketchi¬ kan. Erickson, Everett R. (Teacher), Box 517, Juneau; Alaska Educational Association. ARIZONA Clarson, J. W., Jr. (Dean), College of Edu¬ cation, University of Arizona, Tucson; Arizona Education Association. Dodge, Mrs. Ida Flood (Teacher), 721 South Second Ave., Tucson; Tucson Teachers As¬ sociation. Goodman, E. H. (Principal), R. F. D., Tempe; Arizona Education Association. Hendrix, H. E. (ex officio), State Superin¬ tendent of Public Instruction, Phoenix. Johns, Hester Mary (Teacher), Box 2693, Tucson; Tucson Teachers Association. Jones, Evelyn W. (Teacher), Phoenix Public Schools, Phoenix; Phoenix Mutual Bene¬ fit Association. Kessler, R. V. (Principal), 4749 University Station, Tucson; Tucson Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Loper, John D. (Superintendent of Schools), Phoenix; Arizona Education Association. Machan, W. T. (ex officio), Principal, Creighton School, Phoenix. Nicolett, Kathryn (Teacher), Phoenix; Phoenix Mutual Benefit Association. Rogers, Anne E. (Teacher), P. O. Box 242, Tucson; Arizona Education Association. Smith, Harold W. (Superintendent of Schools), Glendale; Arizona Education As¬ sociation. Stevenson, H. L. (Superintendent of Schools), Globe; Arizona Education Association. Stringfellow, Frances (Teacher), Bin D, Flagstaff; Arizona Education Association. Wilson, Elizabeth (Teacher), Phoenix High School, Phoenix; Arizona Education Asso¬ ciation. ARKANSAS Hall, Mrs. Helen (Teacher), 1901 North Arthur St., Little Rock; Arkansas Educa¬ tion Association. Hall, W. F. (Teacher), 1901 North Arthur St., Little Rock; Arkansas Education As¬ sociation. Hirst, C. M. (ex officio), 5412 U St., Little Rock. Phipps, W. E. (ex officio). State Commis¬ sioner of Education, Little Rock. Pipkin, John G. (Teacher). 2204 Schiller St., Little Rock; Arkansas Education Associa¬ tion. Pitts, Gertrude (Teacher), 915 Cumberland St., Little Rock; Little Rock Woman Teachers Associaion. CALIFORNIA Albert, Iris H. (Teacher), 1506 Stratford Ave., Los Angeles; High School Teachers Association of Los Angeles. Allen, Mrs. Rhea E. (Director), 2121 Locust Ave., Long Beach; California Teachers As¬ sociation. Aultman, Mrs. Lela (Principal), 6161 Bar- rows Drive, Los Angeles; Los Angeles Elementary Principals Club. Bailey, Bertha (Teacher), Sonora Inn, Sonora; Classroom Department of the California Teachers Association, Bay Section. Baker, Florence (Librarian), 78 The Up¬ lands, Berkeley; Oakland Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Baldwin, Helen (Teacher), 325 Beverly Ave., San Leandro; Oakland Teachers Associa¬ tion. Barnhill, Ellen Kirkpatrick (Teacher), 8652 Sunland Boulevard, Roscoe; Los Angeles Elementary Teachers Club. Bashor, E. H. (Teacher), 721 Linden Ave., Burlingame; San Mateo County Teachers Association. Batdorf, Lucille (Teacher), 470 Chetwood St., Oakland; Oakland Teachers Associa¬ tion. Beaty, J. J. (Principal), 826 Cleveland St., Oakland; Oakland Teachers Association. Beatty, Vivian (Teacher), 2125 Chestnut Ave., Long Beach; City Teachers Club of Long Beach. Bergstrom, Herbert F. (Counselor). 1240 Ulfinian Way, Martinez; California Teach¬ ers Association. Associational Records and Information 973 Blount, Effine P. (Vice principal), Alham¬ bra City High School, Alhambra City; Alhambra City Teachers Club. Borrowdale, Isabelle (Teacher), 1403 North Grand Oaks St., Pasadena; Pasadena Teachers Association. Brainard, Esther C. (Teacher), 1620 Monroe St., San Diego; California Teachers As¬ sociation. Browne, George E. (Teacher), 1825 Gillespie St., Santa Barbara; California Teachers Association. Browne, Georgianna (Teacher), 1825 Gil¬ lespie St., Santa Barbara; Santa Barbara County Teachers Association. Bryan, Paul C. (Principal) Willets; Califor¬ nia Teachers Association. Bush, George C. (Superintendent of Schools), South Pasadena; South Pasadena Educa¬ tion Association. Butler, Renette (Teacher), 193 Bimini Place, Los Angeles; Los Angeles Elementary Teachers Club. Cave, Elmer L. (Superintendent of Schools), Vallejo; California Teachers Association. Chapman, Ana May (Principal), 1436 Mount Pleasant St., Los Angeles; Los Angeles Elementary Principals Club. Ching, J. Frederic (Director), 1227 Josephine St., Berkeley; Oakland Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Clark, Augustina (Teacher), 184 Thirteenth St., Oakland; Oakland Teachers Associa- tion. Clemmens, Margaret (Teacher), 1417 Mo¬ hawk St., Los Angeles; Los Angeles Elementary Teachers Club. Cocking, Floyd W. (Teacher), 3315 Belle Isle Drive, San Diego; San Diego Teach¬ ers Association. Cook. Edward I. (Teacher), 2676 Sixth Ave., Sacramento; Sacramento City Teachers Association. Cooney, Mary M. (Teacher), 1040 Sutter St., San Francisco; California Teachers Association. _ , _ Crawford, Lynn H. (Teacher), 729 Oak St., Santa Ana; California Teachers Associa¬ tion. _ , Crist, Elsie (Teacher), 249 North Euclid Ave., Pasadena; Pasadena Teachers Asso¬ ciation. i Croad, J. Russell (ex officio), Principal, Sierra School, Sacramento. Curley, Laura (Principal), 1121 Trestle Glen Road, Oakland; Oakland Teachers Asso¬ ciation. „ . Davis, Con A. (Principal), 485 Seventeenth Ave., San Francisco; California Teachers Dawson, Martha S. (Teacher), 620 Santa Rosa Ave., Berkeley; Berkeley Teachers Association. v _r Doolan, Winifred C. (Teacher), 6376 Yucca St., Hollywood; Los Angeles Elementary Teachers Club. Dunn, Bess A. (Teacher), 6022 Franklin Ave., Hollywood; Los Angeles Elementary Teachers Club. Dunn, Lela M. (Teacher), 4306 South Hoover St., Los Angeles; Los Angeles Elementary Teachers Club. Durst, David M. (Superintendent of Schools), Petaluma; California Teachers Association. Ehlers, Martha (Teacher). 5813 Carlton Way, Los Angeles; Los Angeles Elemen¬ tary Teachers Club. Elliott, Essie L. (Teacher), 900 V? West Fortieth Place, Los Angeles; High School Teachers Association of Los Angeles. Elmer, W. E. (Principal), 100 Peyton St., Santa Cruz; California Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Evans, Edith (Teacher), 614 North Poin- settia Place, Hollywood; Los Angeles Kindergarten Club. Farrell, Mrs. Florence M. (Teacher), 3561 Mountain View Drive, San Diego; Cali¬ fornia Teachers Association. Farrell, Mildred (Teacher), 237 Keller St., Petaluma; Classroom Department of the California Teachers Association, Bay Sec¬ tion. Feeney, Mrs. Lutie A. (Teacher), 152 Rivo Alto Canal, Long Beach; City Teachers Club of Long Beach. Ferguson, Clara M. (Teacher), 526 Floral Drive, Whittier; California Teachers As¬ sociation. Ficklin, Mrs. Dorothy M. (Teacher), 3239 Calle Cedro, Santa Barbara; Santa Barbara City Teachers Club. Foley, Louis F. (Principal), 1323 North Las Palmas St., Los Angeles; Los An¬ geles High School Principals Association. Freeman, Jennie Y. (Teacher), 1105 North Louise St., Glendale; California Teachers A eenpi ofinn Freeman, R. (Vice Principal), Route 2, Box 153-B, Stockton; Stockton Elementary Teachers Association. Gault, Mrs. Alma (Teacher), 821 Walnut St., Inglewood; California Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Gillespie, Mrs. Edna (Teacher), 2294 Locust St., San Diego; San Diego Teach¬ ers Association. Gilson, Dan H. (Teacher), 3586 Sixty-sixth Ave., Oakland; Oakland Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Givens, Willard E. (Superintendent of Schools), Oakland; California Teachers A. ssociatio n • Gordon, Jennie (Teacher), 2713 Telegraph Ave., Berkeley; Oakland Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Grabill, Gladys B. (Teacher), 502 South Harvard Boulevard, Los Angeles; Los Angeles Elementary Teachers Club. Green, Edith A. (Teacher), 2135 Kent St.. Los Angeles; Los Angeles Elementary Teachers Club. Gwinn, Joseph M. (ex officio), 144 Paloma Ave.. San Francisco. Hale, George N. (Superintendent of Schools) Azusa; California Elementary School Principals Association, Southern Section. Hall, Henry C., Jr. (District Superintendent), 220 East Ave., San Bruno; California Teachers Association. Hanna, Sadie E. (Teacher), 15 North First St., Alhambra; California Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Harry, Lena (Teacher), 507 Forest St., Oak¬ land; Oakland Teachers Association. Hayes, Maud (Supervisor), 603 Termino Ave., Long Beach; California Teachers A Qt., Baltimore. ^ Ir Ao. Av • J_> . q1‘ ' -iwt tt7” T'Tyv , / y oouu oixteentn St., N. W., Washington, D. C.; Mont- \ir^rJner^ County Teachers Association. McKeever, Mrs. A. D. (Teacher), 9 Wilson Lane, Bethesda; Montgomery County teachers Association. K^jhbun, F. E. (County Superintendent), Oakland ; Maryland State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Young, Dorothy O. (Teacher), Alta Vista, Bethesda; Montgomery County Teachers Association. MASSACHUSETTS Batson Bertha R. (Teacher), 11 Wales Ave. Brockton; Massachusetts Teachers Fed¬ eration. Benson Mrs. Elma (Teacher), 77 Hartford St., Newton Highlands; Massachusetts 1 eachers Federation. Boyffi, Harry A. (Principal), 48 Burncoat terrace, Worcester; Worcester County Teachers Association. ChJirc1?-, ?eulah c- (Teacher), 141 Elm St., Marblehead; Massachusetts Teachers Fed¬ eration. Colesworthy, George B. (Master), 44 Adams Ave Watertown; Cambridge Teachers Club. Costello, Mary D. (Teacher), 30 Crescent St., Rockland; Plymouth County Teachers Association. Co™an; £arold E. (Teacher), 12 Abbott Road, Dedham; Norfolk County Teachers Association. Davoren, John L. (Principal), 4 Prentice Ave., Milford; Massachusetts Teachers federation. Derrah, Mrs. Cecilia A. (Teacher), 26 Sum- mer St. ,_ Andover ; Massachusetts Teachers federation. Griffith Margaret J. (Teacher), 1185 Boyls- , St*> Boston ; High School Women’s Club of Boston. Ha!e, C Ethel (Teacher), 15 Robbins St., Lowell; Massachusetts Teachers Federa¬ tion. HamMett. Marion S. (Teacher), 66 Forest St.. New Bedford; New Bedford Teachers Association. Associational Records and Information 983 Kadecch, J. Stevens (Superintendent of Schools), Medford; Massachusetts Teach¬ ers Federation. Kimball, Reginald S. (Superintendent of Schools), North Brookfield; Massachusetts Teachers Federation. McSkimmon, Mary (ex officio), 205 Tappan St., Brookline. O’Connor, Deborah (Teacher), Wayne Ter¬ race 3, Worcester; Worcester Teachers Association. O’Connor, Martin F. (Principal), 86 Irving St., Cambridge; Massachusetts Teachers Federation. O’Connor, Mary Elizabeth (Supervisor), School Department, Natick; Massachu¬ setts Teachers Federation. O’Neill, Elizabeth L. (Teacher), 10 Copley St., Brookline; Massachusetts Teachers Federation. Sanders, William J. (Teacher), 80 Chestnut St., Haverhill; Massachusetts Teachers Federation. Sherman, Helen (Teacher), 110 Lanark Road, Brookline; Brookline Teachers Club. Snell, Mrs. Bertha A. (Teacher), 39 Depot St., Sharon; Massachusetts Teachers Fed¬ eration. Woodbury, Charles H. (Principal), 4 Lake- croft Court, Melrose; Melrose Teachers Club. Woodbury, Mrs. Grace I. (Teacher), 4 Lake- croft Court, Melrose; Massachusetts Teachers Federation. Woodward, Annie C. (ex officio), 100 School St., Somerville. MICHIGAN Bacon, Meda (Principal), 731 Lafayette Ave., S. E., Grand Rapids; Michigan Education Association. Cameron, E. T. (ex officio), Executive Secre¬ tary, Michigan Education Association, Michigan Education Building, Lansing. Christen, Ralph (Teacher), 8729 Colfax St., Detroit; High School-College Division, Detroit Teachers Association. Cody, Frank (Superintendent of Schools), Detroit; Michigan Education Association. Ebaugh, A. Raymond (Teacher), Starr School, Royal Oak; Royal Oak Teachers Club. Ellsworth, Aletha (Teacher), 5120 Oakman St., Dearborn; Fordson Teachers Club. Grant, Margaret (Teacher), 3290 Clairmont St., Detroit; Michigan Education Asso¬ ciation. Knisely, Von (Teacher), Fordson High School, Dearborn; Michigan Education As¬ sociation. MacKay, Jean Armour (Teacher), 121 High¬ land St., Highland Park; Classroom Teachers Association of Highland Park. Pahl, Mildred (Teacher), Royal Oak; Michi¬ gan Education Association. Phillips, Albert J. (Research Director). Michigan Education Association, Michigan Education Building, Lansing. Powley, Stanley W. (Teacher), Central High School, Flint; Flint Teachers Club. Rice, Arthur H. (Managing Editor), Michi¬ gan Education Journal, Michigan Educa¬ tion Building, Lansing; Michigan Educa¬ tion Association. Ross, George O. (Teacher), Ann Arbor High School, Ann Arbor; Michigan Education Association. Shoup, Catherine M. (Teacher), 143 South Fourteenth St., Saginaw; Michigan Edu¬ cation Association. Sigler, Mrs. Lou I. (Assistant Principal), Ottawa Hills High School, Grand Rapids; Michigan Education Association. Steele, Harold A. (Superintendent of Schools), Jackson; Michigan Education Association. Strough, Ruby M. (Teacher), 1689 Edge- water Beach, Muskegon; Muskegon Teach¬ ers Club. Thompson, Paul (Assistant Superintendent), Department of Public Instruction, Lan¬ sing; Michigan Education Association. . Voelker, Paul F. (ex officio), State Superin¬ tendent of Public Instruction, Lansing. Welsh, E. J. (Principal), W. K. Kellogg High School, Battle Creek; Michigan Edu¬ cation Association. Wiggins, Casey C. (Professor), 105 West College St., Marquette; Michigan Educa¬ tion Association. MINNESOTA Aarnes, Phoebe (Teacher), 4100 Sheridan Ave., Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division, Minnesota Education Association. Andreen, F. B. (Superintendent of Schools), New Ulm; Southwest Division, Minnesota Education Association. Atkins, Maude M. (Teacher), Hampshire Arms, Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division, Minnesota Education Association. Borchardt, Leola H. (Teacher), 2909 West Forty-third St., Minneapolis ; Minneapolis Division, Minnesota Education Associa¬ tion. Boyer, Ethel (Teacher), 2433 Lyndale Ave., South, Minneapolis; Grade Teachers Sec¬ tion, Minneapolis Teachers League. Brown, Daisy (Teacher), 407 South Sixth St., Stillwater; Minnesota Education As¬ sociation. Brown, Rose S. (Teacher), 86 Arthur Ave.,- S. E., Minneapolis; Grade Teachers Sec¬ tion, Minneapolis Teachers League. Bullard, Irma L. (Teacher), 3529 Blaisdell St., Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division, Minnesota Education Association. Byrnes, Mary R. (Teacher). 922 West Thirty- eighth St., Minneapolis; Minneapolis Divi¬ sion, Minnesota Education Association. Chapel, Winnie M. (Teacher), 1834 Irving Ave., North, Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division, Minnesota Education Associa¬ tion. Christoffel, Thomas (Teacher), 952 Lafond St., St. Paul; Minnesota Education Asso¬ ciation. Cox, Harold W. (Teacher), 1949 East River Terrace, Minneapolis; Minneapolis Divi¬ sion, Minnesota Education Association. Cox, Mrs. Harold W. (Teacher), 1949 East River Terrace, Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division, Minnesota Education Associa¬ tion. Dahl, Mrs. Myrtle Hooper (Teacher), 3527 Pillsbury Ave., Minneapolis; Minneapolis Classroom Teachers Association. Doyle, Mary C. (Teacher), 2165 Fairmount Ave., St. Paul; Minnesota Education As¬ sociation, St. Paul Division. Embertson, Emma J. (Teacher), 22 Grant- ville Apartments, Duluth; Duluth Teach¬ ers Association. Freeman, Eva I. (Teacher), 3341 Second A ve., South, Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division, Minnesota Education Association. Hartwell, S. O. (Teacher), 1446 Fairmount Ave., St. Paul; Minnesota Education As¬ sociation, St. Paul Division. Killam. Edith L. (Teacher), 239 East Anoka St., Duluth; Duluth Teachers Association. 984 National Education Association Larkin, Anna E. (Teacher), Curtis Hotel, Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division, Min¬ nesota Education Association. Lewis, Fred D. (Principal). 4836 Harriet St., Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division, Min¬ nesota Education Association. MacGregor, Effie (Principal), 2003 Aldrial Ave., South, Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division, Minnesota Education Associa¬ tion. Me Gough, Mary E. (Teacher), 1701 James Paul; Minnesota Education Asso¬ ciation, St. Paul Division. McIntyre, Alice M. (Teacher), 4424 Upton Aye;I> South. Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division, Minnesota Education Associa¬ tion. O’Connor, Mrs. Agnes (Teacher). 4423 Col¬ fax Ave., South, Minneapolis; Grade Teachers Section, Minneapolis Teachers League. Patrick, Karl H. (Teacher), 1920 Laurel Ave., Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division, Minnesota Education Association. Patrick, Mrs. Karl H. (Teacher). 1920 Laurel Ave., Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division, Minnesota Education Association. Peters, Leone E. (Principal), 2809 Park Ave., Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division, Min¬ nesota Education Association. Ray, Charlotte D. (Teacher), Hampshire Arms, Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division Minnesota Education Association. Ringdahl, Robert N. (Principal), 3220 Tenth Aye., . South, Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division; Minnesota Education Associa¬ tion. Rohde. Henry J. (Teacher). 134 West Forty- eighth St., Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division, Minnesota Education Associa¬ tion. Rugland, G. T. (Superintendent of Schools), Appleton; Central Division, Minnesota Education Association. Russell, Martha C. (Teacher), Leamington Hotel. Minneapolis; Minneapolis Divi¬ sion, Minnesota Education Association. Sanders, F. W. (Superintendent of Schools). Akeley: Northern Division, Minnesota Education Association. Schulte, Henry F. (Superintendent of Schools), Zumbrota; Southeast Division, Minnesota Education Association. Scofield, Harriet (Teacher), 3334 Blaisdell Ave., Minneapolis; Minneapolis Class¬ room Teachers Association. Scofield, R. J. (Principal), Coleraine; Min¬ nesota Education Association. Senzek, Anna M. (Teacher), 181 West Col¬ lege St., St. Paul; Minnesota Education Association, St. Paul Division. Severson, Samuel O. (Principal), Folwell Junior High School. Minneapolis; Min¬ neapolis Division, Minnesota Education Association. Seymour, Helen (Teacher). 1501 East Fourth St., Duluth; Duluth Teachers Associa¬ tion. Shephard. Gertrude (Teacher), 1115 Thomas Ave., Minneapolis: Minneapolis Division, Minnesota Education Association. Shephard. W. H. (Principal), 1115 Thomas Ave., Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division, Minnesota Education Association. Smith. Guy D. (Superintendent of Schools), Stillwater; Minnesota Education Asso¬ ciation. St. Paul Division. Sutton, Miles D. (Teacher), 1308 North Cen¬ tral Ave., Duluth; Duluth Teachers As¬ sociation. Terrell Gertrude (Teacher), 1415 Willow St., Minneapolis; Minneapolis Classroom Teachers Association. Thomas Mary E. (Teacher), 1786 Hennepin Ave., Minneapolis; Grade Teachers Sec- tion, Minneapolis Teachers League. Wahlstrand, Harry L. (ex officio), 824 Third St., East, Willmar. Whittom, Ruth (Teacher), 2139 James Ave North, Minneapolis; Minneapolis Class¬ room Teachers Association. Willner, Agnes (Teacher), 1001 Grand View Ave., Duluth; Duluth Teachers Associa¬ tion. Wilson, Ella (Teacher), 1900 Park Ave., Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division, Min¬ nesota Education Association. MISSISSIPPI Brinson, J. R. (Superintendent of Schools), Kilmichael ; Mississippi Education Asso¬ ciation. H. V. (ex officio), Superintendent of Schools, Vicksburg. Horn, Mrs. Anna (Teacher), Elksville; Mis¬ sissippi Education Association. Houston, Gabriel (Teacher), 111 West Sec¬ ond St., Clarksdale; Mississippi Educa¬ tion Association. Houston, Mattie (Teacher), Greenville; Mis¬ sissippi Education Association. Taylor, W. N. (Secretary), Mississippi Edu¬ cation Association, Box 826, Jackson; Mis¬ sissippi Education Association. MISSOURI Adams,. E. R. (Superintendent of Schools), Chillicothe ; Missouri State Teachers As¬ sociation. Andrew, Mary (Teacher), 3662 Fillmore St.. St. Louis; St. Louis District, Missouri State Teachers Association. Bedell, Ralph C. (Assistant Professor), Northeast Missouri State Teachers Col¬ lege, Kirksville ; Northeast Missouri Teachers Association. Bracken, John L. (Superintendent of Schools), Clayton; Southeast Missouri Teachers Association. Burton, Edith (Teacher). 3001 Forest Ave., Kansas City; Kansas City Teachers Club.’ Carter, E. M. (Secretary), Missouri State Teachers Association, Columbia; Missouri State Teachers Association. Coil, O. T. (Superintendent of Schools), De- Soto; Southeast Missouri Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Ellis, Roy (President), State Teachers Col¬ lege, Springfield; Southwest Missouri Teachers Association. Famum, Frances (Teacher), 6 West Thirty- seventh St., Kansas City; Kansas City Teachers Club. Flahive, Mary (Teacher), 4510 Mill Creek Boulevard, Kansas City; Kansas City Teachers Club. Garman, Catherine (Principal), 1016 East Broadway, Sedalia; Sedalia Community Teachers Association. Ghormley, Margaret (Teacher), 4113 Locust St., Kansas City; Kansas City Teachers Club. Gordon, Hattie H. (Teacher), 5616 Wyan¬ dotte St., Kansas City; Kansas City Teach¬ ers Club. Green. G. H. (Principal), 6189 Kingsbury Boulevard. St. Louis; St. Louis District, Missouri State Teachers Association. Hake, Joseph W. (Professor), State Teach¬ ers College, Maryville; Northwest State Teachers Association. Heberling, Berne (Teacher), Warrensburg; Missouri State Teachers Association. Associational Records and Information 985 Humphreys, Pauline (President), Missouri State Teachers Association, Warrensburg; Missouri State Teachers Association. Keohane, Helen (Teacher), Ambassador Hotel, Kansas City; Missouri State Teach¬ ers Association. Lamkin, Uel W. (ex officio), President, Northwest Missouri State Teachers Col¬ lege, Maryville. Longshore, W. T. (Principal), Greenwood School, Kansas City; Missouri State Teachers Association. McGinnis, Roxie (Teacher), Warrensburg; Central Missouri Teachers Association. Markham, Carrie (Teacher), 5502 Clemens Ave., St. Louis; St. Louis District, Mis¬ souri State Teachers Association. Marshall, Raymond (Teacher), 2010 East Eleventh St., Kansas City; Council of Negro Teachers. Mayo, Charles P. (Teacher), Clifton Hill; President, Northeast Missouri Teachers Association. Norris. Ruth E. (Teacher), Lees Summit; Association of High School Women of Kansas City. _ Pratt, H. F. (Teacher), 823 Clara Ave., St. Louis; St. Louis District, Missouri State Teachers Association. Ralls, Mary C. (Teacher). 6529 Jefferson St., Kansas City; Kansas City Teachers Club. Rennison, A. M. (Vice Principal), 2621 Faraon St., St. Joseph; St. Joseph District Number Eight, Missouri State Teachers Association. Riddle. Anna E. (Teacher), 2 Summit Place, St. Joseph; St. Joseph District Number Eight, Missouri State Teachers Associa- Riefling, B. Jeannette (Teacher), 3907 Con¬ necticut Ave., St. Louis; St. Louis Dis¬ trict, Missouri State Teachers Association. Robeson, J. A. (Principal), 519 South Ma- quire St., Kansas City; Central Missouri Teachers Association. Sammons, Gertrude (Teacher), 2239 Jules St., St. Joseph; St. Joseph District Num¬ ber Eight, Missouri State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. . Shea, Stella (Teacher), 3517 Main St., Kan¬ sas City; Missouri State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Thompson, Anna M. (Teacher), Carlton Hotel, Kansas City; Association of High School Women of Kansas City. Turk, Genevieve M. (Principal), Scarrett School, Kansas City; Missouri State Teachers Association. , _ _ Urban, Fred W. (Associate Professor), 418 North Maguire St., Warrensburg; Commu- nity Teachers Association, State Teachers College. Walker, " Thomas J. (ex officio), Editor, School and Community, Columbia. Webster, Emma (Teacher), 3129 Forest St., Kansas City; Kansas City Teachers Club. Westphaelinger, Caroline (Teacher), 2049 Alfred Ave., St. Louis; St. Louis District, Missouri State Teachers Association. MONTANA Kreiman, Lucy (Teacher), 432 Clarke St., Helena; Montana Education Association. Moe, Martin P. (ex officio), Secretary, Mon¬ tana Education Association, 7 Kohrs Block, Helena. Peterson, A. T. (Superintendent of Schools), Billings; Montana Education Association. Tobias, Edna M. (Teacher), Hardin; Mon¬ tana Education Association. Worthingham, Elma (Teacher), 432 Clarke St., Helena; Montana Education Associa¬ tion. Worthingham, Feme (Teacher), 432 Clarke St., Helena; Montana Education Associa¬ tion. NEBRASKA Anderson, J. T. (Dean), Kearney State Teachers College, Kearney; Kearney State Teachers College, N. E. A. Unit. Bracken, Angeline (Principal), 4913 Chi¬ cago St., Omaha; Omaha Teachers Forum. Bracken, Ora D. (Teacher), 4913 Chicago St., Omaha; Omaha Teachers Forum. Breternitz, Louis A. (Superintendent of Schools), Goshenburg; Nebraska State Teachers Association. Dillow, Verna Ruth (Teacher), 3301 Dewey Ave., Omaha; Omaha Teachers Forum. Folsom, A. E. (Principal), 3044 South St., Lincoln; Lincoln Teachers Association. Harris, Laura (Teacher), 2700 South Four¬ teenth St., Lincoln; Lincoln Teachers As¬ sociation. Jimerson, John A. (Superintendent of Schools), Auburn; Nebraska State Teach¬ ers Association. Keller, Jessie E. (Teacher), 2403 R St., Lin¬ coln; Lincoln Teachers Association. Knipprath, George F. (ex officio), Omaha Technical High School, Omaha. Lefler, M. C. (Superintendent of Schools), Lincoln; Nebraska State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Mann, Mrs. Anna P. (Teacher), Elks’ Club, Omaha; Omaha Teachers Forum. Molseed, Edna (Teacher), 5120 Burt St., Omaha; Omaha Teachers Forum. Pullen, Robert (Superintendent of Schools), Bingham; Nebraska State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Pyrtle, E. Ruth (ex officio), Principal, Ban¬ croft School, Lincoln. Robey, Gertrude (Principal), 2134 Park St., Lincoln; Lincoln Teachers Association. Starn, Bertha (Teacher), 1023 Lincoln St., Beatrice; Nebraska State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. NEVADA Clarke, M. J. (ex officio), Superintendent of Schools, Ely. O’Neill, Mary (Teacher), High School, Ely; Nevada State Education Association. NEW HAMPSHIRE Bacon, Theodore E. (Headmaster), High School, Hanover; New Hampshire State Teachers Association. Benezet, Louis P. (Superintendent of Schools), Manchester; New Hampshire State Teachers Association. Ewing, Lyle W. (ex officio), Claremont. Fuller, Robert J. (Superintendent of Schools), Hanover; New Hampshire State Teachers Association. NEW JERSEY Adams, A. Virginia (Principal), East Ave¬ nue School, Vineland; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Applegate, Stella S. (Clerk), New Jersey State Teachers Association, 307 Stacy- Trent Hotel, Trenton; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Atkinson, Bertha I. (Principal), Summit Avenue School, Pitman; New Jersey State Teachers Association. 986 National Education Association Ayres, Malcolm B. (Teacher), 319 East Dud¬ ley Ave., Westfield; Linden Teachers As¬ sociation. Barnes Mary D. (Teacher), Continental school, Elizabeth; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Bentley, Blanche H. (Teacher), 63 Eigh¬ teenth Ave., Paterson; Paterson Teach¬ ers Association. Booth, Alwilda (Teacher), 818 East Twen¬ ty-second St., Paterson; Classroom Teach¬ ers of the Department of Elementary Edu¬ cation of New Jersey. Breingan, Mrs. Irene S. (Teacher), 18 South Munn Ave., East Orange; Classroom Teachers of the Department of Elementary Education of New Jersey. Brooks, Robert P. (Principal), 347 East Thirty-seventh St., Paterson; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Brown, Lelia O. (Teacher), 525 Clifton Ave., Newark; Classroom Teachers of the De¬ partment of Elementary Education of New Jersey. Cody Nellie G. (Teacher), Nishuane School, Cedar Avenue, Montclair; Montclair Pub- lie School Teachers Association. Crooks, A. Duryee (Teacher), East Side High School, Paterson; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Doremus, Mattie S. (ex officio), 614 East Twenty-ninth St., Paterson. Edwards, Elizabeth A. (Supervising Prin¬ cipal), Euclid Ave., Hackensack; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Elliott, Charles H. (ex officio), Commissioner of Education, Trenton. Feehan, Frances M. (Teacher), School Num¬ ber 8, Bayonne; New Jersey State Teach¬ ers Association. Fredericks, Helen J. (Teacher), 15 Fulton St., Newark; Newark Teachers Associa¬ tion. Gordon, Beulah H. (Teacher), 597 Vernon St., Long Branch; Classroom Teachers of the Department of Elementary Education of New Jersey. Gurley, Raymond B. (ex officio). Principal, Barringer High School, Newark. Hamilton, Ella J. (Supervisor), School Ad¬ ministration Building, Pacific Avenue, At¬ lantic City; Atlantic City Teachers As¬ sociation. Hardester, Mildred V. (Teacher), High School, Salem; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Harrison, Clara L. (Teacher), Rancocas Road, Mount Holly; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Howard, Margarette E. (Principal), 119 Summit Ave., Summit; Summit Teachers Association. Hutchinson, A. Seely (Supervising Prin¬ cipal), Mendham; Morris County Teach¬ ers Association. Johnson, Laurence B. (Editor), 88 Plane St., Newark; Newark Teachers Associa¬ tion. Kelly, Winnifred A. (Teacher), 1105 Green¬ wood Ave., Trenton; Trenton Teachers Association. Kroner, Albert J. (Department Head), Tea- neck High School, Teaneck; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Lee, Ethel (Teacher), 673 Fairview Ave., Camden; Camden Teachers Association. McConnell, Ralph C. (Principal), Texas Avenue School, Atlantic City; Atlantic City Teachers Association. McHugh, Thomas F. (Principal), 317 Greg¬ ory Ave., West Orange; Newark Teachers Association. Mathews, Agnes N. (Teacher), 414 Fifth Ave., Roselle; Classroom Teachers of the Department of Elementary Education of New Jersey. Mathews, Elizabeth (Principal), Newport- ville, Bucks County, Pennsylvania; Cam¬ den Teachers Association. Manship, Helen M. (Teacher), 405 West¬ minster Ave., Elizabeth; Classroom Teachers of the Department of Elementary Education of New Jersey. Mitchell, Helen A. (Teacher), 215 Morris St., Phillipsburg ; Classroom Teachers of the Department of Elementary Education of New Jersey. Neuffer, Gertrude A. (Teacher), 17 Webster Place, East Orange; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Ogden Chester F. (Principal), Public School Number 7, Clifton; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Park, Ruth M. (Teacher), 348 Chapman St., Newark ; Newark Teachers Association. Pickell, Frank G. (Superintendent of Schools), Montclair; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Plotnick, Edythe (Teacher), Cooper School, Camden; New Jersey State Teachers As¬ sociation. Poelstra, Julia (Teacher), 405 East Eigh¬ teenth St., Paterson; Classroom Teachers of the Department of Elementary Educa¬ tion of New Jersey. Porreca, Lena M. (Teacher), 70 Johnson Ave., Hackensack; Hackensack Teachers Association. Price, Florence H. (Teacher), 333 Park Ave., Newark; Classroom Teachers of the De¬ partment of Elementary Education of New Jersey. Putnam, George W. (Vice Principal), Mont¬ clair High School, Montclair; Montclair Public School Teachers Association. Read, Leslie A. (Teacher), 3003 Stevens St., Camden; Camden Teachers Association. Redlus, Mildred (Teacher), Read School, Camden; New Jersey State Teachers As¬ sociation. Rolfe, Stanley H. (Assistant Superintend¬ ent), Newark; New Jersey State Teach¬ ers Association. Shepherd, Homer P. (Supervising Principal), Lyndhurst; New Jersey State Teachers As¬ sociation. Stefanelli, Josephine (Teacher), 213 Mt. Prospect Ave., Newark; Classroom Teach¬ ers of the Department of Elementary Edu¬ cation of New Jersey. Stratton, Mason A. (Principal), 272 Huron Ave., Atlantic City; Atlantic City Teach¬ ers Association. Strong, Solomon C. (Secretary), New Jer¬ sey State Teachers Association, High School, West Orange; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Tew, Derwood J. (Supervisor), Board of Education, Camden; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Tink, Edmund L. (Superintendent of Schools), Kearny; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Wallace, Mrs. Vida P. (Teacher), Rand School, North Fullerton Ave., Montclair; Montclair Public School Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Ward, William R. (Director), Administra¬ tion Building, Trenton; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Warner, Iva L. (Teacher), Woodrow Wilson High School, Camden; Camden Teachers Association. Associational Records and Information 987 Wharton, Agnes (Vice Principal), Cleve¬ land Junior High School, Newark; New Jersey State Teachers Association. White, Marion (Teacher), 308 Aycrigg Ave., Passaic; Passaic Teachers Association. Wood, Edna E. (Teacher), Lincoln School, New Brunswick; New Jersey State Teach¬ ers Association. Zebooker, Minnie (Teacher), 74 North Broad St., Penns Grove; Classroom Teach¬ ers of the Department of Elementary Edu¬ cation. NEW MEXICO Lujan, Manuel (County Superintendent), Santa Fe; New Mexico Educational As¬ sociation. Lusk, Mrs. Georgia L. (ex officio), State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Santa Fe. Pope, D. N. (Superintendent of Schools). Roswell; New Mexico Educational Asso¬ ciation. Rodgers, H. R. (County Superintendent), Carlsbad; New Mexico Educational As¬ sociation. Tolle, Vernon O. (ex officio), Executive Sec¬ retary, New Mexico Educational Associa¬ tion, Suite 18, Sena Plaza, Santa Fe. NEW YORK Anderson, Ida A. (Teacher), 916 Green Ave., Brooklyn; Seventh, Eighth and Ninth Year Women’s Organization. Anderson, Rachel E. (Teacher), Tottenville High School, Staten Island; Staten Island Teachers Association. Andrews, Gregory (Vice Principal), Voca¬ tional High School, Syracuse; New York State Teachers Association. Armitage, Edith (Teacher), 28 Howard St., Auburn; Teachers Welfare League of New York State. Baker, Harold V. (Principal), 774 Pelham- dale Ave., New Rochelle; Teachers Club of New Rochelle. Barrett, Agnes D. (Teacher), Public School 125, Queens, Woodside, New York City; Queensboro Teachers Association. Bean, Nellie S. (Principal), Elementary Schools, Hastings-on-Hudson ; Westches¬ ter County Teachers Association. Bernardi, Elizabeth (Teacher), 719 Plymouth Ave., Schenectady; New York State Teachers Association. Birdsell, Dorothea (Teacher), 232 Prospect Ave., Mount Vernon; Westchester County Teachers Association. Bliss, Grant W. (Teacher), 304 Scottholm Boulevard, Syracuse; New York State Teachers Association. Bostwick, Helen M. (Assistant to Principal), Public School 129, Brooklyn; New York City Teachers Association. Bourne, Mrs. Esther B. (Teacher), 426 South Second Ave., Mount Vernon; New York State School Boards Association. Brooks, Marvin M. (Acting Principal), 121 East Fifty-first St., New York; School Garden Association of New York. Buros, Francis C. (Assistant Superintend¬ ent), 3 Harding Ave., White Plains; White Plains Teachers Association. Chadburne, Evangeline (Teacher), 1640 West Genesee St., Syracuse; Syracuse Teachers Association. Clarke, Regina (Teacher), 72 Elm Ave., Mount Vernon; New York State Teachers Association. Clemency, Anna E. (Principal), 125 Seventy- eighth St., Brooklyn; National Council of Administrative Women. Clifford, W. A. (Executive Secretary), 44 South Third Ave., Mount Vernon; New York State School Boards Association. Cooke, Lot (Teacher), 4 Indian Orchard, Buffalo; Buffalo Teachers Federation. Connell, Kathryn E. (Teacher), 628 James St., Syracuse; Syracuse Women High School Teachers Association. Crowley, Mary (Teacher), 2150 Thirteenth St., Troy; Teachers Welfare League of the State of New York. Davenport, Irene (Teacher), 99 Vista Place, Mount Vernon; New York State Teachers A ssociation. Davison, George Millard (Principal), 1429 Union St., Brooklyn; Junior High School 171, Brooklyn. Deringer, Janice K. (Teacher), 107 Catherine St., Ithaca; Ithaca Teachers Club. Donohue, Mrs. Mary C. (Principal), 150 East Thirty-ninth St., New York; Na¬ tional Council of Administrative Women. Dubrow, Mary (Teacher), 50 South Second Ave., Mount Vernon; New York State Teachers Association. Eldred, Arvie (Executive Secretary), 240 State St., Albany; New York State Teach¬ ers Association. Eldridge, Celia M. (Teacher), Southside High School, Elmira; Elmira Educational AQQnriatinfi Engle, Mrs. ’ Calla L. (Teacher), Avenue “B”, Endwell ; Endicott Teachers Asso¬ ciation. v _ , . Estep, Alice Mary (Teacher), 512 Tompkins Ave,, Mamaroneck; Mamaroneck Teach¬ ers Association. Evans, May (Teacher), 175 West Ninety- third St., New York; Kindergarten 6B Teachers Association, Inc., City of New York. Evernham, Raymond M. (Teacher), 30 Crary Ave., Mount Vernon; Westchester County Teachers Association. Fahey, Sara H. (Teacher), Girls Commercial High School, Brooklyn; High School Teachers Association of New York City, Inc. Fetters, T. V. (Teacher), 6 Boulder Place, Yonkers; Yonkers Teachers Association. Foss, Clara Ritter (Teacher), 49 Elm Ave., Mount Vernon; Mount Vernon Teachers A ccnn nfinn Friend, Constance (Teacher), 127 West Seventy-ninth St., New York; Kindergar¬ ten 6B Teachers Association, Inc., City of New York. Galena, Margaret E. (Teacher), Fifty-fifth St., Woodside; Brooklyn Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Garvey, John J. (Teacher), 3 Jackson St.. Baldwin, Long Island, New York; New York City Teachers Association. Gethins, Anne L. (Teacher), 50 South Sec¬ ond Ave., Mount Vernon; Mount Vernon Teachers Association. Gilbert, Alfred E. (Principal), Washington Irving Intermediate School, Schenectady; Schenectady City Teachers Association. Gillespie, Harold J. (Teacher), West Junior High School, Binghamton; Binghamton Teachers Association. Graham, Minnie S. (Principal), 10 Rich Ave., Mount Vernon; New York State Teachers Association. Hager, Harold (Vice Principal), West Jun¬ ior High School, Binghamton; Bingham¬ ton Teachers Association. Hale, Florence (ex officio), Editor, The Grade Teacher, 425 Fourth Ave., New York. 988 National Education Association Haller, Ralph W. (Teacher), Morris High School, One Hundred Sixty-sixth St., and Boston Road, Bronx; High School Teach¬ ers Association of New York City, Inc. Hardy, H. Claude (Superintendent of Schools), White Plains; Westchester County Teachers Association. Harney, Laura B. (Teacher), 7 North Ninth Ave., Mount Vernon; New York State Teachers Association. Hatch, Lillian A. (Teacher), 299 Hancock St., Brooklyn; Kindergarten 6B Teachers Association, Inc., City of New York. Hayes, Freda L. (Teacher), 156 Tremper Ave., Kingston; Teachers Welfare League of New York State. Heacock, Helen G. (Teacher), 76 North Main St., Gloversville; Gloversville Teachers Association. Hendrie, William E. (Principal), Public School 109, Queens, Queens Village; Queensboro Teachers Association. Holmes, William H. (Superintendent of Schools), Mount Vernon; New York State Teachers Association. Hourigan, Anna M. (Teacher), 1075 Waverly Place, Schenectady; New York State Teachers Association. Hourigan, Helen (Teacher), 1075 Waverly Place, Schenectady; New York State Teachers Association. Kelly, Mary L. (Teacher), 2253 Fifteenth St., Troy; Elementary Teachers Associa¬ tion of Troy. Kidd, Mrs. Breta S. (Teacher), 99 East St., Oneonta; Oneonta Public Schools Teach¬ ers Association. Kline, Ira M. (Principal), Greenburgh Num¬ ber 8 Schools, White Plains; Westchester County Teachers Association. Korhammer, Frances (Head Nurse Teacher), 180 Brookside Ave., Mount Vernon; New York State Teachers Association. Kroner, Frances W. (Teacher), 114 Valen¬ tine St., Mount Vernon; Mount Vernon Teachers Association. Kuhnert, Julius E. (Supervisor), 35 Vernon Parkway, Mount Vernon; Mount Vernon Teachers Association. Landis, Ruth, 128 Cottage Ave., Mount Ver¬ non; New York State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Langham, Olive (Teacher), Onondaga Val¬ ley Academy, Syracuse; New York State Teachers Association. Lasher, William R. (Teacher), 3177 Bed¬ ford Ave., Brooklyn; Joint Committee of Teachers Organizations. Law, Frederick Houk (ex officio), Room 1901, 130 West Forty-second St., New York. Lefkowitz, Abraham (First Assistant), 70 Fifth Ave., New York; Brooklyn Teach¬ ers Association. Leonard, B. A. (Supervising Principal), Elmsford; Second Supervisory District Teachers Association . Levenson, Samuel M. (Principal), Public School 77, Queens, Queens Village; Queensboro Teachers Association. Lewis, Ernest D. (President), Department of Secondary Education, 130 West Forty-sec¬ ond St., New York; High School Teachers Association of New York City, Inc. Lindlof, Mrs. Johanna M. (Teacher), 45 West Eighty-first St., New York; Kinder¬ garten 6B Teachers Association, Inc., City of New York. Lindsey, Morton C. (Principal), Shrub Oak; Westchester County Teachers Associa¬ tion. MacNeil, John P. (Teacher), 616 East Lin¬ coln Ave., Mount Vernon; New York State Teachers Association. Miller, Grace Helene (Teacher), Girls Com¬ mercial High School, Classon Ave. and Union St., Brooklyn; High School Teach¬ ers Association of New York City, Inc. Milligan, Annette W. (Teacher), 616 East Lincoln Ave., Mount Vernon; New York State Teachers Association. Milligan, Grace B. (Principal), 616 East Lincoln Ave., Mount Vernon; New York State Teachers Association. Nash, Earl B. (Teacher), 52 Sylvan Place, New Rochelle; Teachers Club of New Rochelle. Nelson, Bertha I. (Teacher), 1366 Pacific St., Brooklyn; Seventh, Eighth and Ninth Year Women’s Organization. Norton, John K. (Professor), Teachers Col¬ lege, Columbia University, New York • Faculty of Teachers College, Columbia University. Parmalee, Mrs. Mary H. (Teacher), 828 Croton St., Rome; New York State Teach¬ ers Association. Pettebone, Mrs. Anna R. (Teacher), 122 Waverly Place, New York; Seventh, Eighth and Ninth Year Women’s Organi¬ zation. Rockwell, Rena (Teacher), 364 West Clinton St., Elmira; Teachers Welfare League of New York State. Roe, Earle C. (Teacher), 312 Hutchinson Boulevard, Mount Vernon; New York State Teachers Association. Ronan, Mary (Teacher), 413 North George St., Rome; New York State Teachers As¬ sociation. Ross, Burgess B. (Teacher), 37 Otsego Ave., New Rochelle; New Rochelle Teachers Club. Sands, Eugenie C. (Assistant to Principal), 220 Eighty-first St., Brooklyn; National Council of Administrative Women. Saunderson, Mildred P. (Teacher), 101 Elm Avenue, Mount Vernon; Westchester County Teachers Association. Shattuck, Ralph L. (Teacher), 606 Walnut StM> Lockport; Lockport City Teachers As¬ sociation. Shroder, Ruth Barrett (Teacher), 42-20 Kes- seria Boulevard, Flushing; Queensboro Teachers Association. Sick, Adona R. (Librarian), 218r4 Lincoln Ave., Endicott; Endicott Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Slick, Maud M. (Teacher), 16^ Van Dam St., Saratoga Springs; New York State Teachers Association. Smith, Maude (Teacher), 39 West Valley Stream Boulevard, Valley Stream; Brook¬ lyn Teachers Association. Sprague, Harry J. (Teacher), 403 Caroline St., _ Rochester ; Rochester Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Sprague, Mrs. Margaret H. (Teacher), 801 West End Ave., New York; Joint Com¬ mittee of Teachers Associations. Staley, George R. (Superintendent of Schools), Rome; New York State Teachers Association. Staver, Mrs. Edith (Supervisor), 3730 Ninety-first St., Jackson Heights; High School Teachers Associations of New York City, Inc. Steele, Jean (Teacher), 45 Park Ave., Mount Vernon; Westchester County Teachers Association. Steinhausen, Mrs. Meta (Teacher), 40 Hub- bell St., Rochester; Rochester Teachers Association. Associational Records and Information 989 Stewart, Ruth A. (Principal), Chatsworth Avenue School, Larchmont; Westchester County Teachers Association. Stone, Frederick L. (Teacher). 1441 Salina St., Syracuse; Syracuse Teachers Associa¬ tion. Strayer, George D. (ex officio), Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. Sumner, Clayton (Principal), Seymour School, Syracuse; New York State Teach¬ ers Association. Tallman, Florence H. (Teacher), Public School 108, Ozone Park; Queensboro Teachers Association. Tarbell, Emily (Teacher), 235 Glenwood Ave.. Syracuse; Teachers Welfare League of New York State. Taylor, J. Elizabeth (Teacher), 234 Winde- mere Road, Lockport; Lockport City Teachers Association. Traphagen, Martin H. (Principal), 39 Park¬ way East, Mount Vernon; Mount Vernon Teachers Association. Van Hoesen, Katharine F. (Teacher). 28 Nelson Ave., Cooperstown; New York State Teachers Association. Voss, Alice C. (Teacher), 78 Bryant Ave., White Plains; New York State Teachers Association. Wagner, Thomas J. (District Superintend¬ ent), White Plains; Second Supervisory District Teachers Association. Wilber, D. Emma (Assistant Editor), 240 State St., Albany; New York State Teach¬ ers Association. Wofford. Kate V. (ex officio), State Teach¬ ers College. Buffalo. Wolford, Esther (Teacher), 406 Turlin St., Rome; New York State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Wolgast. William (Vice Principal), 90 Deer¬ field Drive. Rochester; Rochester Teachers Association. NORTH CAROLINA Allen, A. T. (ex officio). State Superintend¬ ent of Public Instruction, Raleigh. Lee, Nancy D. (Teacher), 211 East Peace St., Raleigh; North Carolina Education Association. Phillips, G. B. (Superintendent of Schools), Greensboro; North Carolina Education Association. Parrott, Mrs. Hattie (Teacher), Department of Education, Raleigh; North Carolina Education Association. Ranson, Mrs. R. E. (Principal). 503 Colonial Drive, High Point; North Carolina Edu¬ cation Association. Stewart. D. K. (Teacher), Raleigh; North Carolina Education Association. NORTH DAKOTA Andrist, Donald A. (Teacher), 509 Seventh Ave., North, Fargo; North Dakota Educa¬ tion Association. Bricker, J. H. (Teacher). 1005 Ninth Ave.. South. Fargo; North Dakota Education Association. McCurdy. M. E. (Secretary). North Dakota Education Association, 302 de Lendrecie Building. Fargo; North Dakota Education A cQnrijiti on Mason. Effie' (Teacher), Sentinal Butte; North Dakota Education Association. Robertson. Ina Cullon (Teacher), Valley City; North Dakota Education Associa¬ tion. . . Walker. Mrs. Sadie A. (Principal). 701 Tenth St., South, Fargo; North Dakota Education Association. White, L. A. (ex officio), Superintendent of Schools, Minot. OHIO Ammon, Lucy (Teacher), 10825 Orville St., Cleveland; Ohio Education Association. Anderson, Clara Belle (Teacher), Box 296, Fairlawn; Ohio Education Association. Andrews, James G. (Teacher). 3476 Vine St., Cincinnati; Cincinnati Teachers As¬ sociation. Appleman, H. M. (Director), 24 Blenheim Road, Columbus; Ohio Education Asso¬ ciation. Barnes, Charles F. (Superintendent of Schools), Dillonvale; Ohio Education As¬ sociation. Barnhill, Otis J. (Teacher), 215 Y. M. C. A. Building, Akron; Akron Teachers Asso¬ ciation. , _ , , . Bates, H. L. (Superintendent of Schools), Jackson; Ohio Education Association. Beery, George C. (County Superintendent), Court House Annex, Columbus; Ohio Edu¬ cation Association. Benedict, Claude B. (Teacher), 3267 Ormond Road, Cleveland Heights; Cleveland Teachers Federation. Blatt, N. P. (Superintendent of Schools), Manchester; Ohio Education Association. Bowman, M. Eleanore (Teacher), 30 South Walnut St., Akron; Akron Teachers As¬ sociation. Bowman, Mary (Teacher), 211 Gilman St., Cincinnati; Cincinnati Teachers Associa¬ tion. Brown, E. H. (Principal). 242 West Liberty St., Springfield; Ohio Education Associa¬ tion. Burke, Lillian M. (Teacher), 1702 Preyer Road, Cleveland Heights; Ohio Educa¬ tion Association. Cadwallader, R. W. (Assistant Principal), 3631 Brentwood Ave., Cincinnati; Cincin¬ nati Teachers Association. Davison, J. H. (Principal), South High School, Lima; Lima Teachers Associa- Crites,’ V. Lucille ("Teacher), 904 Brice Ave., Lima; Ohio Education Association. Dick, L. C. (County Superintendent), Lon¬ don; Ohio Education Association. Dehn. A. O. (County Superintendent), Port Clinton; Ohio Education Association. Dietrich, E. N. (Superintendent of Schools), Bucyrus; Ohio Education Association. Dieterich, H. C. (Superintendent of Schools), Bexley, Columbus; Ohio Education Asso¬ ciation. Disher, L. L. (Principal), 2364 Glenwood Ave., Toledo; Toledo Teachers Associa¬ tion. Dutton, C. F. (Teacher), 314 Kensington Road, Rocky River; Cleveland Teachers Federation. Eldredge, A. C. (Principal). 1852 Alvason Road, East Cleveland; Ohio Education Association. Ellis. Freda (Teacher), 6121 Woodmont St., Cincinnati; Cincinnati Teachers Associa¬ tion. Emde, John (Teacher), 215 Y. M. C. A. Building, Akron; Akron Teachers Asso¬ ciation. England. Elizabeth (Teacher), 633 Charles St., Zanesville; Zanesville Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Ernst, Viola (Teacher), 1535 Holman Ave., Cincinnati; Cincinnati Teachers Associa¬ tion. 990 National Education Association Evans, Mrs. Eunice M. (Teacher), 130 East Auburn St., Cincinnati; Cincinnati Teach¬ ers Association. Evans, H. R. (Dean), University of Akron, Akron; Ohio Education Association. Evans, William A. (Principal), Madison- ville, Route Number Ten, Cincinnati; Ohio Education Association. Frahm, Olive M. (Teacher), 454 Brevoort Road, Columbus; The Columbus Teachers Federation. Gantz, Ralph M. (Teacher), Doylestown; Ohio Education Association. Gibson, Bess (Teacher), 104 West Lane Ave., Columbus; The Columbus Teachers Fed¬ eration. Gruenefeld, Frieda (Teacher), 4500 Grayton Road, S. W., Cleveland; Cleveland Teach¬ ers Federation. Hall, H. E. (County Superintendent), Bov/ling Green; Ohio Education Associa¬ tion. Hammond, Mae (Teacher), 515 Melish Ave., Cincinnati; Cincinnati Teachers Associa¬ tion. Hardy, Leslie P. (Teacher), 266 Madison Ave., Akron; Ohio Education Association. Hardy, Ruth (Teacher), 701 Sixth St., Lorain; Lorain Teachers Club. Hartung, Marguerite (Teacher), 2440 Sul- livant Ave., Columbus; Ohio Education Association. Hatfield, Mrs. Dora B. (Art Teacher), 822 Roslyn, Akron; Ohio Education Associa¬ tion. Heide, H. S. (Teacher), R. F. D. 8, Spring- field; Springfield Teachers Association. Hawke, Oscar T. (County Superintendent), Springfield; Ohio Education Association. Hirst, Alice (Teacher), 1372 Myrtle Ave., Cincinnati; Cincinnati Teachers Associa¬ tion. Jones, Winifred (Teacher), Mary Dill School, Cincinnati; Cincinnati Teachers Association. Kuenzli, I. R. (Teacher), 964 Pythian Ave., Springfield; Springfield Teachers Associa¬ tion. Layton, C. M. (Superintendent of Schools), Wooster; Ohio Education Association. Lewis, W. A. (President), Rio Grande Col¬ lege, Rio Grande; Ohio Education Asso¬ ciation. McKown, Emilie (Teacher), 1454 Bryson St., Youngstown; Youngstown Education Association. McMyler, H. T. (Teacher), 1908 Janet Ave., Cleveland Heights; Cleveland Teachers Federation. Mathias, A. O. (Teacher), Madisonville, Route Number One, Cincinnati; Ohio Education Association. Matteson, I. F. (Superintendent of Schools), Findlay; Ohio Education Association. Maxon, Clara (Teacher), 2033 Joffre Ave., Toledo; Ohio Education Association. Metcalf, Tom R. (Teacher), 820 Oakwood Ave., Columbus; The Columbus Teachers Federation. Moody, A. E. (Superintendent of Schools), Bedford; Ohio Education Association. Musselman, Fren (Professor), Kent State College, Kent; Ohio Education Associa¬ tion. Offenhauer, R. E. (ex officio), Superintend¬ ent of Schools, Lima. Pierce, John A. (Director), Adult Education, 18593 East Shoreland, Rock River; Ohio Education Association. Quirk, W. A. (Principal), 1641 Clayton St., Cincinnati; Cincinnati Schoolmasters Club. Rauhauser. Pansy K. (President), 319 Linden Place, _ Marion; Marion City Teachers Association. Reynolds, F. E. (Secretary), Ohio Educa¬ tion Association, 428 Chamber of Com¬ merce, Columbus; Ohio Education Asso¬ ciation. . Ricksecker, C. W. (Principal), 488 Norwood Ave., Youngstown; Ohio Education Asso¬ ciation. Robbins, C. A. (Dean), Hancock St., Find¬ lay; Findlay Teachers Association. Roberson, H. C. (Teacher), 754 West Elm St., Lima; Lima Teachers Association. Schramm, Erna A. (Teacher), 3227 West One Hundredth St., Cleveland; Cleveland Teachers Federation. Schulz, Louise (Teacher), 901 Pennsylvania Ave., Columbus; The Columbus Teachers Federation. Seager, Dorothy (Teacher), 130 Halleck St., Youngstown; Youngstown Education Association. Senger, Harry (Assistant Principal), Walnut Hill High School, Cincinnati; Cincinnati Teachers Association. Stanton, B. F. (Superintendent of Schools), Alliance ; Ohio Education Association. Strasser, Carolyn . (Teacher), 5747 Hamilton Ave., Cincinnati; Cincinnati Teachers As¬ sociation. Sutton, Mrs. Frances A. (Teacher), 9805 Baltic Road, Cleveland; Cleveland Teach¬ ers Federation. Swingle, Solomon L. (Teacher), Adamsville; Ohio Education Association. Thomas, Alma (Teacher), 3028 Somerton Road, Cleveland Heights; Cleveland Teachers Federation. Treaster, Orpha (Teacher), 204 Madison Ave., Youngstown; Youngstown Education Association. Thompson, Lois (Teacher), 215 Y. M. C. A. Building, Akron; Akron Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Vance, Lola M. (Teacher), 1086 Bryden Road, Columbus; Ohio Education Associa¬ tion. Walters, Ethel L. (Teacher), 340 Indianoia Road, _ Youngstown; Ohio Education As¬ sociation. Warner, F. E. (Superintendent of Schools), Wayne; Wood County Teachers Associa¬ tion. Waterhouse, Ralph (Superintendent of Schools), Akron; Akron Teachers Associa¬ tion. Whitmer, J. W. (County Superintendent), Toledo; Ohio Education Association. Wildermuth, Mrs. Nelle (Teacher), 418 Oak¬ land Park Ave., Columbus; The Columbus Teachers Federation. Williams. M. L. (Superintendent of Schools). Seven Mile; Ohio Education Association. Wolf, Helen (Teacher), 515 Melish Avenue, Cincinnati; Cincinnati Teachers Associa¬ tion. Wolfe, W. G. (County Superintendent), Cambridge; Ohio Education Association. OKLAHOMA Adams, Roxie J. (Editor), Oklahoma Educa¬ tion Association. Barnum, Lillian (Teacher), 1611 South Quincy St., Tulsa; Department of Class¬ room Teachers of the Oklahoma Education Association. Bell, Josephine (Teacher), Box 135, Black- well; Oklahoma Education Association. Black, E. H. (Superintendent of Schools), Bristow; Oklahoma Education Associa¬ tion. Associational Records and Information 991 Carder, Mrs. Alta (Teacher), Cordell; Okla¬ homa Education Association. Cress, August L. (Teacher), Webster Jun¬ ior High School, Oklahoma City; Okla¬ homa City Classroom Teachers Associa¬ tion. _ , Culp, Ruby Lee (Teacher), 1228 South El- wood St., Tulsa; Northeast District of the Oklahoma Education Association. Eakes, Evelyn (Teacher), 311 West Young St., Tulsa; Department of Classroom Teachers of the Oklahoma Education As¬ sociation. Frank. Anna (Teacher), New Hotel Tulsa. Tulsa; Oklahoma Education Association. Frank, Kate (Teacher), 425 North Fifth St., Muskogee; Department of Classroom Teachers of the Oklahoma Education Association. _ , _ Fryer, Ida M. (Teacher), 1911 South College St., Tulsa; Northeast District of the Oklahoma Education Association. Gaines, Lucy Olive (Teacher), 230 North Twelfth St., Muskogee; Muskogee Teach¬ ers Association. , Gillette, Gladys G. (Director), 1301 North¬ west Twenty-first St., Oklahoma City, Oklahoma City Classroom Teachers Asso- Hodges,nj. H. (Principal), 1142 North Main St Tulsa; Tulsa Education Association. Hurst M. E. (Teacher), 209 East Thirteenth Place. Tulsa; Tulsa Classroom Teachers Knight^ R. W. (Principal). 712 South Knox¬ ville St., Tulsa; Tulsa Education Associa- Le^e^Helen (Teacher), 1607 East Twelfth St., Tulsa; Oklahoma Education Associa- McCluney, Olivia (Teacher), 230 North Twelfth St.. Muskogee; Department of Classroom Teachers of the Oklahoma Education Association. ,, Myhr, Ivar Low (Teacher), 1401 South Nor¬ folk. Tulsa; Northeast District of the Oklahoma Education Association. Needham, Jay (Teacher), 224 Longwood, Aberdeen Place. Pueblo, Colorado; Musko¬ gee Teachers Association. Rakies, Ona C. (Teacher), 1631 East Fourth St., Tulsa; Oklahoma Education Associa- Revnolds R. C. (Teacher), 2305 East Fifth Place, Tulsa; Tulsa Classroom Teachers S cafes! C Martha (Teacher), 609 Dayton St., Muskogee; Department of Classroom Teachers of the Oklahoma Education As- Sca°es? Opal (Teacher), 609 Dayton St.. Muskogee: Department of Classroom Teachers of the Oklahoma Education As- Shirlew^Mary (Teacher), 1114 Freemont St. ^Muskogee ; Department of Classroom Teachers of the Oklahoma Education As- Smith^Marigold (Teacher), 2817 West Twelfth St. Oklahoma City; Department of Classroom Teachers of the Oklahoma Education Association. <5nofford R. R- (Director), 2119 East Twenty-first St., Tulsa; Tulsa Education Stemen. T. R. (Principal), 1205 Northeast Eighteenth St., Oklahoma City; Oklahoma City Classroom Teachers Association. Summers, Mrs. M. M. (Dean of Girls), 309 East Eighth Place, Tulsa; Northeast Dis¬ trict of the Oklahoma Teachers Associa¬ tion. Taylor, Paul R. (ex officio), Superintendent of Schools, Idabel. Temple, D. E. (Teacher), Alvin Hotel, Tulsa; Tulsa Classroom Teachers Asso- Weatherford, Nelle (Teacher), 1601 East Fourteenth St., Tulsa; Northeast District Classroom Teachers Association. West, Frances A. (Guidance Director), 425^2 West Twenty-second, St., Oklahoma City; Oklahoma City Classroom Teachers Association. _ , Wiggins, Loretti (Teacher), 1611 South Main St., Tulsa; Northeast District Class¬ room Teachers Association. OREGON Anderson, Lula R. (Teacher), Forest Grove; Portland Grade Teachers Association. Blaiser, Florence (Teacher), Oregon State College, Corvallis; Oregon State Teachers Br^nerd^ F?ed (Teacher), 2044 Southeast Ellis St., Portland; Portland High School Teachers Association. Euler, Doris M. (Teacher), 3214 Northeast Fifty-ninth St., Portland; Portland High School Teachers Association. Landreth, Austin (Superintendent of Schools), Pendleton; Oregon State teach¬ ers Association. Martin, Elizabeth (Teacher) ,1236 Southwest Hall St., Portland; Portland Grade Teach¬ ers Association. . _ . , Merrill, Birdine (ex officio), 831 Terminal Sales Building. Portland. Nye, Birdine (Teacher), 2306 Northeast Forty-second Ave., Portland; Oregon State Teachers Association. Painter W. C. (Principal), Portsmouth School, Portland; Oregon State Teachers Richardson,°nj ean (Teacher) 2829 Belmont St., Portland; Portland Grade Teachers Schmalz^Paula (Teacher), 916 Southwest Fourteenth St., Portland; Portland Grade Teachers Association. „ Smith. Elphe K. (Teacher), Route B°x 22. Tigard; Portland Grade Teachers As- VeiT^Matliilde (Teacher), 6109 Northwest Seventh Ave., Portland; Portland Grade Teachers Association. _ Wilcox, Mildred (Teacher), Box 174, Drain; Oregon State Teachers Association. Zcok. Alice (Teacher), Route 11, Box 249, Milwaukee; Oregon State Teachers Asso- Zookn°ckrl S. (Principal), Joseph Lane School, Portland; Oregon State Teachers Association. PENNSYLVANIA Abernethy, R. R. (District Superintendent of Schools). Lebanon; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Anderson, John D. (Teacher). 514 North Jefferson St., Kittanning; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Baker, Ira Y. (Teacher), Hanover St., Gettysburg; Pennsylvania State Educa¬ tion Association. ^ _ Barnhart. Robert P. (Assistant County Su¬ perintendent), Mount Jewett; Pennsylvania State Education Association. _ Baugher. R. R. (Teacher), Colonial Park; Pennsylvania State Education Associa¬ tion. . 992 National Education Association Bentz, M. S. (County Superintendent), Ebensburg; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Berman, Samuel (Principal), 5336 North Sydenham St., Philadelphia; Philadelphia Teachers Association. Boyer, Frank P. (County Superintendent), Mifflinburg; Pennsylvania State Educa¬ tion Association. Broome, Edwin C. (Superintendent of Schools), Philadelphia; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Burke, Margaret A. (Teacher), 1114 North Seventeenth St., Harrisburg; Harrisburg Teachers Institute. Burke, Mary L. (Supervisor), 4709 Spring- field Ave., West Philadelphia; Phila¬ delphia Teachers Association. Call, Agnes C. (Supervisor), 706 Sproul St., Chester; Chester Teachers Association. Christman, Paul S. (Supervising Principal), Schuylkill Haven; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Church, W. H. (Principal), 1324 Vine St., McKees Rocks; Pennsylvania State Edu¬ cation Association. Clark, Mrs. Anna M. (Teacher), 1501 West Allegheny St., Philadelphia; Philadelphia Teachers Association. Cobb, Ana Lou (Teacher), Merion; Pennsyl¬ vania State Education Association. Cook, Florence M. (Teacher), 901 Browns¬ ville Ave., Pittsburgh; Pittsburgh Teach¬ ers Association. Davis, Charles S. (District Superintendent of Schools), Steelton; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Dolbear, Frank T. (Supervising Principal), Factory ville; Pennsylvania State Educa¬ tion Association. Douthett, Walter R. (Superintendent of Schools), Darby; Darby Teachers Associa¬ tion. Duffield, Minnie (Teacher), 2446 Perrysville Ave., _ Pittsburgh; Pittsburgh Teachers • Association. Eby, Henry K. (Supervising Principal), New¬ port; Pennsylvania State Education As¬ sociation. Eckard, Elizabeth T. (Principal), 1957 Sixty-ninth Ave., Philadelphia; Pennsyl¬ vania State Education Association. Emmert, Wilber (Teacher), State Teachers College, Indiana; Faculty of the State Teachers College. Eshenower, Grace V. (Teacher), 1416 Verbeke St., Harrisburg; Harrisburg Teachers Institute. Evans, William W. (County Superintend¬ ent), Bloomsburg; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Farrell, Beatrice (Principal), 938 East Twenty-second St., Erie; The Teachers Association of Erie. Ford, Ida R. (Teacher), 1806 Church Lane, Philadelphia; Alumnae Association of the Girls High and Normal Schools. Forsyth, Joseph W. (Teacher), 1424 Comly St., Philadelphia; Philadelphia Teachers Association. Foster, Blanche (Teacher), 178 Franklin St., Woodbury; Pennsylvania State Edu¬ cation Association. Foust, Clement E. (Teacher), 7741 Union St., Elkins Park; Philadelphia Teachers Association. Fretz, Floyd C. (Supervising Principal), Downingtown; Pennsylvania State Educa¬ tion Association. Fritz, F. Herman (District Superintendent of Schools), Chester; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Gaeckle. Eda (Teacher), 710 West Eighth St., Erie; The Teachers Association of Erie. Geist, D. W. (Assistant County Superintend¬ ent), Blue Ball; Pennsylvania State Edu¬ cation Association. Geist, Seiler P. (Supervising Principal), Derry; Pennsylvania State Education As¬ sociation. Gelehrter, Clara (Teacher), 1141 Fairmount Ave.. Philadelphia; Philadelphia Teachers Association. Gilbert, Levi (Principal), Altoona High School, Altoona; Altoona Education Asso¬ ciation. Godon, M. Ethelyn (Teacher), 1021 Edge- mount Ave., Chester; Chester Teachers Association. Gougler, A. May (Teacher), 916 West Marshall St., Norristown; Norristown Teachers Club. Gray, Elsie (Teacher), 1210 Fillmore St., Philadelphia; Philadelphia Teachers As¬ sociation. Gray, Jessie (ex officio), President, National Education Association, 1210 Fillmore St., Philadelphia. Gregor, Elizabeth (Teacher), 4560 Baker St., Philadelphia; Philadelphia Teachers As¬ sociation. Grim, T. H. (Teacher), 2201 East Philadel¬ phia St., York; York City Education As¬ sociation. Haffner, Gertrude (Teacher), 915 Linden St., Bethlehem; Pennsylvania State Edu¬ cation Association. Hagar, R. B. (Teacher), R. D. 1, Charleroi; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Hausser, Lewis G. (Supervising Principal), Ralston; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Hockenberry, Mont (Teacher), Slippery Rock; Pennsylvania State Education Asso¬ ciation. Hoffman, J. H. (County Superintendent). Doylestown; Pennsylvania State Educa¬ tion Association. Hoover, Henry A. (Teacher), 235 Ruby St., Lancaster; Lancaster Branch, Pennsylva¬ nia State Education Association. Hurrell. Arthur S. (Director, Teacher Train¬ ing Extension), Pennsylvania State Col¬ lege, State College; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Jones, Henry (District Superintendent of Schools), 137 West Shawnee St., Ply¬ mouth; Pennsylvania State Education As¬ sociation. Kane, Marie (Teacher), 5931 Howe St., Pittsburgh; Pittsburgh Teachers Associa¬ tion. Kelley, J. Herbert (ex officio), Executive Secretary, Pennsylvania State Education Association, 400 North Third St., Harris¬ burg. King, Elizabeth Y. (Teacher), 415 Hartel Ave., Philadelphia; Philadelphia Teachers Association. Kleefeld, Anna (Teacher), Sulzberger Jun¬ ior High School, Forty-seventh St. and Fairmount Ave., Philadelphia; Pennsyl¬ vania State Education Association. Kleefeld, Regina (Teacher), 600 North Thirty-fourth St., Philadelphia; Philadel¬ phia Teachers Association. Kob, John F. (Principal), 1501 Swatara St., Harrisburg; Harrisburg Teachers Insti¬ tute. Krause, Alverda F. (Teacher), 642 Hams Ave., Norristown; Norristown Teachers Club. Associational Records and Information 993 Lindsay, George L. (Director), Administra¬ tion Building, Philadelphia; Pennsylvania State Education Association. McClure. Frank T. (Teacher), 7 Riverview Ave., Pittsburgh; Pittsburgh Teachers As¬ sociation. McCommons, Russell D. (Supervisor), State Teachers College,, Edinboro; Pennsyl¬ vania State Education Association. McKee, Margaret (Supervising Principal), Oakdale; Pennsylvania State Education A. s s o c 1 3 1 i o n . McLaughlin. J. M. (Principal), South High School, Pittsburgh; Pennsylvania State Education Association. McMaster, Dale (District Superintendent of Schools), 1106 Confer Ave., Johnstown; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Martin, W. Paul (Teacher), 1568 Clarkton St., Pittsburgh; Pittsburgh Teachers As¬ sociation. Marvin, E. E. (County Superintendent), Covington; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Mechling, John A. (County Superintendent), 226 West High St., Kittanning; Pennsyl¬ vania State Education Association. Miller, R. Beatrice (Teacher), 1929 North Sixty-first St., Philadelphia; Philadel¬ phia Teachers Association. Morgan, Mrs. Amy (Teacher), 746 Madison Ave., Scranton; Pennsylvania State Edu¬ cation Association. Morris, M. G. (Supervising Principal), 1221 Freeport Road, Tarentum; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Morrow, Grace M. (Teacher), 1215 Seven¬ teenth Ave., Altoona; Altoona Education A ccofl T tl Oil Norton, Albert Charles (Teacher), 5629 Thomas Ave., Philadelphia; Philadelphia Teachers Association. Nyce, Mary A. (Teacher), 3740 North Bouv- ier St., Philadelphia; Philadelphia Teach¬ ers Association. Parker, Sarah J. (Principal), 706 Sproul St., Chester; Chester Teachers Association. Patterson, Walter G. (Principal), 430 First St., Donora; Pennsylvania State Educa¬ tion Association. Pfeiffer, Elizabeth (Teacher), 615 East Tenth St., Erie; Pennsylvania State Edu¬ cation Association. Pratt Willis E. (Assistant County Superin¬ tendent), 616 Oakmont Ave., Erie; Penn¬ sylvania State Education Association. Prey, Stanley A. (Teacher), 826 Lincoln St., Reading; Reading Teachers Association. Ross. Carmon (President, State Teachers College), Edinboro; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Ruch, H. R. (Teacher), 342 North Fifteenth St.. Allentown; Pennsylvania State Edu¬ cation Association. Rutschky, Charles W. (Teacher), 615 Colo¬ nial Ave., York; York City Education As¬ sociation. , _ . . , Sampson, William C. (District Superintend¬ ent of Schools), Upper Darby; Pennsyl¬ vania State Education Association. Shafer, Morris (Teacher). 1310 Northamp¬ ton St., Easton; Easton Teachers Associa- Shaw!’ Reuben T. (Teacher) 245 South Fifty-first St., Philadelphia; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Shoup, Catharine H. (Teacher),. 1500 Third St., Altoona; Altoona Education Associa¬ tion. , _ Smith. Esther M. (Teacher), 1312 Wood St., Wilkinsburg; Pennsylvania State Educa¬ tion Association. Smull, Earl E. (Supervising Principal), 400 Hillside Ave., Jenkintown; Pennsylvania State Education Association. . Speicher, H. B. (Supervising Principal), Boswell; Pennsylvania State Education ^sso ciation. Springer, Kenneth Leroy (Teacher), 433 East Prospect St., York; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Steele, F. Irene (Teacher), 1534 North Twentieth St., Philadelphia; Alumnae As¬ sociation of Girls High and Normal Schools. „ . , ... Sweeney, J. W. (County Superintendent), St. Marys; Pennsylvania State Education Association. __ , t,t Sweitzer. Trema (Teacher), 243 North New¬ berry St., York; York City Education As¬ sociation. XT , Thomas, Emma G. (Teacher), 1534 North Twentieth St., Philadelphia; Alumnae As¬ sociation of Girls High and Normal Schools. . , . , Tolley, William P. (President, Allegheny College), Meadville; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Traister, Harold W. (Director) 3001 Fourth Ave., Beaver Falls; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Ungemach. Dena D. (Teacher) 5220 Spruce St., Philadelphia; Philadelphia Teachers Association. . . , Wallace, Penrose C. (Principal), 256 Hard¬ ing Court, York; Pennsylvania State Edu¬ cation Association. ,,, _ . , Webster, Thomas P. (Teacher), 166 Orchard Ave., Emsworth; Pittsburgh Teachers As¬ Werner, J. C. (Supervising princlPa1)’ Coraopolis; Pennsylvania State Education Whipple? Carl (Principal), 1108 Twenty- second Ave., Altoona; Pennsylvania State Education Association. . c. Wilkinson, J. W. F. (Professor), State Teachers College, Clarion; Pennsylvania State Education Association. # Worley. William (Teacher), Junior High School, Jacobus; York City Education As¬ sociation. PHILIPPINE ISLANDS Crone, Frank L. (Teacher), 115 South Third St., Richmond, Virginia; Philippine Is¬ lands Education Association. RHODE ISLAND Bacon, Willard H. (Superintendent of Schools), Westerly; Westerly Teachers Betagh', Raymond J. (Teacher), 536 Bernon St., Woonsocket; Rhode Island Institute of Instruction. . % Carroll. Charles (ex officio), Director State Board for Vocational Education, 122 State House, Providence. . , r Caufield, Emma M. (Superintendent of Schools), Valley Falls; Rhode Island In¬ stitute of Instruction. ., Hanley, James L. (Principal), Bridgham Junior High School, Providence; Rhode Island Institute of Instruction. SOUTH CAROLINA Coates, J. P. (Secretary), South Carolina Education Association, 1218 Senate bt., Columbia; South Carolina Education As¬ sociation. _ , Connor, Lila (Teacher), Chester; South Carolina Education Association. 994 National Education Association ’'''Soot Col(umbi®Ci0)' of McCown, J K. (Superintendent of Schools) ciatLT S°Uth CaroIina Education Assi NCa?nli^' pi (PrinciPai). President, South Education Association, Tucapau- South Carolina Education Association Skinner Mozelle (Teacher), 1622 CoUege St., Columbia; Columbia Teachers Coun- V jh i a B& Donald As°srocia“andlSO,1: S°“'h Dakota Elation Caldwell, Hazel K. (Teacherl s-k D« issoci!aUoennn°X; S°Uth Dakota Education TENNESSEE Ccm^^n ^ ^ ^ *C 1 a rk^vi n e”*’ AUStin Conyers, Mrs. Katie Belle (Teacher) T r G fduTaS.io«igAhssSoCc1°^nMe”PhiS; HKToxvlleh;elnoavill)Te3a°h0 AsbTland Ave- HS°ttenMHaZei (PriSCipal)’ ^^North’winett Association!1*8 ’ She'by CoU"*>' T..chS J°M11lSOn'r-Mr!' *£ary E' (Secretary), Room K£u„tyCShe?s°Soci“ShiS '■ Sh'lby Matn^A^8’ i/"Ulu ^PrinciPaO, 804 West e“s "Lelue. K^iU‘- Knoxville tS LoE Association. SSee State Teachers M^9leary- Ida (Teacher), Hollywood Tunior .If AfsCohc?a1,ioi?emPhi8 1 M™phia M^,een: Laura Mae (Teacher), Idlewild Associ_ation.emPhlS ’ Educa.io^ No^; Y1il|S,n (Principal), Rule Junior High era te.dS! '! Tennessee State Teach- PraS Sne M (County Superintendent), Court House, Memphis; Tennessee State I eachers Association. Ragsdale, S. L. (ex officio). Principal L C Humes High School, Memphis P ’ C Sr^lleu'-u' F4, (Superintendent of Schools), Nashville; Tennessee State Teachers As¬ sociation. Tai!eyWLUuCi?f, (Pdncipa1)’ 1904 Fatherland St., Nashville; Tennessee State Teachers Association. Woods Alice (Teacher), Central High School, Memphis; Memphis Education Association. TEXAS Allison, Laura L. (Teacher), 1807 East Ave. ■d Austin; Texas ^tate Teachers Association.’ Bedel£ Winnie (Teacher), Plano; Texas State Teachers Association. Bell, Marion L. (Teacher), 1920 Harold St., Houston; Houston Teachers Association. Bishop, Merrill (Teacher), Board of Educa¬ tion San Antonio; National Council of Teachers of English. CaIdwellA Bush M- (Teacher), 2527 Ross Ave Dallas; Dallas High School Teach¬ ers Association. Cate, Mary Virginia (Teacher), 2605 U Ave. Austin; Austin Teachers Association. Comstock E. B. (Principal), North Dallas High School, Dallas; Texas State Teach¬ ers Association. Cook, Katherine (Teacher), 912 West Twen¬ ty-third St., Austin; Austin Classroom Teachers Association. Crawford, Mrs. Clara (Teacher), 2415 Dun- lavy St.,. Houston; Texas State Teachers Association. Donecker, Frances (Teacher), 226 South Monumental St., San Antonio; Texas State Teachers Association. CJeorge Berta (Teacher), 1618 West Freeh St., San Antonio; San Antonio Teachers Council. Gibson, Margaret (Teacher), 4001 Miramar St., Dallas; Dallas Grade Teachers Coun¬ cil. Gilbow, Cora (Teacher), 551 College St., Fort Worth; Texas State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Guyton, Sue (Teacher), 4907 Bryan St., Dal¬ las; Dallas Grade Teachers Council. Jacobs, R. C. T. (Principal), 915 Parkview Ave., Dallas ; Texas State Teachers As¬ sociation. James, William Alonzo (Principal), Ball High School, Galveston; Galveston City Teachers Association. Loftin, J. O. (Teacher), 927 Hammond Ave., San Antonio; Texas State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Mock, Lula (Teacher), 1921 Park Ave., Dal¬ las; Dallas Grade Teachers Council. Moren, Flora (Teacher), 1350 Morrell St., Dallas; Dallas Grade Teachers Council. Nussbaum, Ida (Teacher), Cotton Hotel, Houston; Houston Teachers Association. Newsom. Amy (Teacher), 920 College St., Fort Worth; Texas State Teachers As¬ sociation. Newsom, Georgia (Teacher), 1643 S. Hender¬ son St., Fort Worth; Fort Worth Grade Teachers Council. Nisbett. Leila (Teacher), 804 West Eighth St., Dallas; Dallas Grade Teachers Coun¬ cil. Rogers, L. W. (ex officio), Educational Ad¬ viser, CCC Camps, Eighth Army Corps Area, Fort Sam Houston. Sanders, Mary Shipp (Teacher), Cleburne; Texas State Teachers Association. Red. H. Lei (Teacher), Sam Houston High School, Houston; Houston Teachers As¬ sociation. Associational Records and Information 995 Schulkey, B. C. (Superintendent of Schools), Borger; Texas State Teachers Association. Speir, Nell Lois (Teacher), 1806 Moser St., Dallas; Dallas Grade Teachers Council. Strong, Vera (Teacher), 2506 Truxillo St., Houston; Houston Teachers Association. Syron, C. L. (Teacher), 3502 Lindenwood St., Dallas; Dallas High School Teachers As¬ sociation. Wickham. Fletcher Ryan (Teacher), 225 South Windemere St., Dallas; Dallas High School Teachers Association. Woods. Quata (Teacher), 4313 Avondale St., Dallas; Dallas Grade Teachers Coun¬ cil. UTAH Allred, Clay (Teacher), 52 Kensington Apartments, Salt Lake City; Utah Edu¬ cation Association. Cowles, LeRoy E. (Dean), 124 University St., Salt Lake City; Utah Education As¬ sociation. Cutler, Virginia (Teacher), 3930 Thirteenth East St., Murray; Utah Education Asso¬ ciation. Ekins, Leah (Teacher), 165 Edith Ave., Salt Lake City; Salt Lake City Teachers As¬ sociation. Farnsworth, C. H. (Principal), Elementary School, Provo; Utah Education Associa¬ tion. Greer, J. H. (Teacher), Sandy, R. D. Num¬ ber Two; Utah Education Association. Hamilton, Norman (Principal), High School Price; Utah Education Association. Hess, Alvin (Principal), Junior High School, Logan; Utah Education Association. Humphreys, L. R. (Supervisor), State De¬ partment of Education, State Capitol Building, Salt Lake City; Utah Educa¬ tion Association. Law, Cerella (Teacher), Brigham; Box Elder Teachers Association. Law, F. Joseph (Teacher), Brigham; Box Elder Teachers Association. Lybbert, Venice (Teacher), 72 Adams St., N. W., Washington. D. C. ; Salt Lake City Teachers Association. Miles, Mrs. Fannie C. (Teacher), 174 H St., Salt Lake City; Utah Education Asso¬ ciation. Parrish, Iris (Teacher), Farmington; Salt Lake City Teachers Association. Robinson, H. H. (Teacher), Farmington; Davis County Teachers Association. Smith, J. R. (Teacher), 1833 South Fifteenth St., East, Salt Lake City; Utah Educa¬ tion Association. Sorenson, Vio (Principal), 716 South Fifth East, Salt Lake City; Salt Lake City Teachers Association. Utter, Floyd (Teacher), 270 Delamar Court, . Salt Lake City; Salt Lake City Teachers Association. Worlton, James T. (ex officio). Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Salt Lake City. VERMONT Bailey, Francis L. (ex officio), Commis¬ sioner of Education, Montpelier. Jenkins, Ralph C. (Principal), Johnson Nor¬ mal School, Johnson; Vermont State Teachers Association. Sanborn, Isranda (Teacher), Proctor; Ver¬ mont State Teachers Association. Walker,' Louise (Teacher), Fair Haven; Vermont State Teachers Association. Wiggin, Joseph A. (Principal), High School, Brattleboro; Vermont State Teachers As¬ sociation. Woodruff, Caroline S. (ex officio), Principal, Castleton State Normal School, Castleton. VIRGINIA Adair, Cornelia S. (ex officio), 3208 Haw¬ thorne St., Richmond. Alexander, Fred M. (Principal), Newport News High School, Newport News ; Vir¬ ginia Education Association. Chrisman, Hallie (Teacher), 1618 Park Ave., Richmond; League of Richmond Teachers. Cox, Nancy B. (Teacher), 522 Spotswood Ave., Norfolk; Norfolk Education Asso¬ ciation. Carmichael, Omer (Superintendent of Schools), 1102 Court St., Lynchburg; Lynchburg Teachers Club. Carlton, Mrs. Ada Nash (Teacher), 411 North Boulevard, Apartment 8, Richmond; League of Richmond Teachers. Devilbiss, Hilda (Teacher), 6 Dinwiddie Apartments, Portsmouth; Portsmouth Edu¬ cation Association. Forbes, Mrs. Margaret H. (Teacher), 1726 Hanover Ave., Richmond; League of Rich¬ mond Teachers. Fox, Leslie (Supervisor), Front Royal; Vir¬ ginia Education Association. Gambill, Gladys (Teacher). High School, Newport News; Virginia Education Asso¬ ciation. Grimes, Charlotte (Teacher), 125 Hardy Ave., Norfolk; Norfolk Education Asso¬ ciation. Hall, Sidney B. (ex officio). State Superin¬ tendent of Public Instruction, Richmond. Heatwole, C. J. (Executive Secretary), Vir¬ ginia Education Association, 401 North Ninth St., Richmond; Virginia Education Association. Hogan, Nell F. (Teacher), 2701 City Point Road, Hopewell; Hopewell Teachers As¬ sociation. Holt, Lucy Mason (Principal), Ocean View School, Norfolk; Virginia Education As¬ sociation. Hoster, Charles E. (Director), 319 Fiftieth St., Newport News; Newport News Teach¬ ers Association. Hurt, Louise (Teacher), 342 Fifty-sixth St., Newport News; Newport News Teachers Association. Johnson, G. L. H, (Teacher), Danville; Vir¬ ginia Education Association. Jcynes, Mrs. Edith B. (ex officio). Principal, George Washington and Robert Gatewood Schools, Norfolk. Moffett, M’Ledge (Dean), State Teachers College, East Radford; Virginia Educa¬ tion Association. Moore, Edith (Teacher), 555 Blenheim Road, Roanoke; Virginia Education Association. Moorman, Kathleen (Teacher), 1624 Ann St., Portsmouth; Norfolk Education Associa¬ tion. Ober, Merrill J. (Principal), 1506 Ashland Circle, Norfolk; Norfolk Education Asso¬ ciation. Payne, Lena C. (Teacher), 103. South Stewart St., Winchester; Winchester Education Association. Rowlett, Mrs. Eleanor P. (Teacher), 4828 West Seminary Ave., Richmond; League of Richmond Teachers. Saunders, Joseph H. (ex officio). Superin¬ tendent of Schools, Newport News. Sydnor, C. A. (Teacher), Wise Street, Lynch¬ burg; Lynchburg Teachers Club. Taurman, Ruth (Teacher), 2006 Floyd Ave., Richmond; League of Richmond Teach¬ ers. Webb. Belle (Teacher), Petersburg; Vir¬ ginia Education Association. Willett, H. I. (Teacher), Churchland; Nor¬ folk County Teachers Association. 996 National Education Association Woolfolk, Algar (Principal), 1215 Laburnum Ave., Richmond; League of Richmond Teachers. WASHINGTON Arnold, Helen (Teacher), 1717 Belmont Ave., Seattle; Seattle Grade Teachers Club. Asbury, Emery (ex officio), Gault Junior High School, Tacoma. Austin, George R. (Principal), Hamilton Junior High School, Seattle; Seattle Prin¬ cipals Association. Baker, Della (Teacher), 1515 Boren Ave., Seattle; Washington Education Associa¬ tion. Bell, Kate (Teacher), Lewis and Clark High School, Spokane; Washington Education Association. Brobeck, Diana H. (Teacher), 1833 Thir¬ teenth Ave., Seattle; Seattle Grade Teach¬ ers Club. Brown. Edith (Teacher), 109 South Wall St., Spokane; Spokane Grade Teachers As¬ sociation. Chastain, Maude (Teacher), 508 North D St. Tacoma; Tacoma Grade Teachers As¬ sociation. Ferguson, Carl H. (Teacher), 2508 Euclid Ave., Spokane; Spokane High School Teachers Association. Fitzpatrick, Frank C. (Superintendent of Schools), Woodland; Washington Educa¬ tion Association. Gordon, Lena A. (Teacher), 109 South Wall St.,. Spokane; Washington Education As¬ sociation. Heath, Mrs. Georgia G. (Teacher), Annobee Apartments, Tacoma; Tacoma Grade Teachers Association. Hibarger, L. Pearle (County Superintend¬ ent), Yakima; Washington Education As¬ sociation. Hunt, Helen E. (Teacher), Satsop; Wash¬ ington Education Association. Hunter, Lila A. (Teacher), Franklin High School, Seattle; Seattle High School Teachers League. Hyslop, Christine (Teacher), Assembly Hotel, Seattle; Seattle Grade Teachers Club. Jahnke, Clara (Teacher), 1930 Eighth Ave., Spokane; Spokane Grade Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Jinnett, E. R. (Vice principal), West 54 Twenty-seventh Ave., Spokane; Washing¬ ton Education Association. Kelley, Florence (Teacher), 318 North J St., Tacoma; Tacoma High School Teachers Association. McCrea, Mary Helen (Teacher), 1023 Sixth Ave., Spokane; Washington Education As¬ sociation. Mohney, Ruth (Principal), Sillman Hotel, Spokane; Spokane Education Association. Nachtmann, Marcella K. (Teacher), 202 Flora St., Bellingham; Bellingham Class¬ room Teachers League. Nogle, F. G. (Teacher), 2927 Sharp Ave., Spokane; Spokane High School Teachers Association. Pennington. Harriet (Teacher), Lowell Apartments, Seattle; Seattle Grade Teach¬ ers Club. Pratt, Orville C. (ex officio), Superintend¬ ent of Schools, Spokane. Purves, Neil (Teacher), 2245 Yale St.. North, Seattle; Seattle Junior High School Teachers Club. Randall, May (Teacher), Garfield High School, Seattle; Seattle Classroom Teach¬ ers Association. Uren, Daisy D. (Teacher), 319 North I St., Tacoma; Tacoma Intermediate Teachers Association. Wardrobe, Mary B. (Teacher), Sillman Hotel, Spokane; Spokane Grade Teachers Association. Wartinbee, Martha (Teacher), San Marco Apartment E, Spokane; Washington Edu¬ cation Association. Wright, Nell (Teacher), Parsons Hotel, Spokane; Washington Education Associa¬ tion. WEST VIRGINIA Allman, C. B. (Teacher), Moundsville; Marshall County Teachers Association. Caudill, C. C. (Assistant County Superin- tendent), East Bank; Kanawha County Teachers Association. Church, E. E. (Principal), 2402 Oak St. Parkersburg; West Virginia State Educa¬ tion Association. Clark, Guy B. (Assistant Superintendent), Clendenin ; Kanawha County Teachers As¬ sociation. Cline, William F. (Assistant Superintend¬ ent). Parkersburg; Wood County Teach¬ ers Association. Dailey, Earl (Teacher), 515 West Virginia Ave., Morgantown; Monongalia County Teachers Association. Digman, B. Cleo (Teacher), Elkins; Tygarts Valley Round Table. Gibson, A. J. (Supervisor), State Depart¬ ment of Education, Charleston; West Vir¬ ginia State Education Association. Goodall, Cecile R. (Teacher), 524 Nancy St.,. Charleston; Charleston Teachers As¬ sociation. Goodall, Chloe (Teacher), 524 Nancy St., Charleston; Kanawha County Teachers Association. Goodall, Elizabeth (Teacher), 524 Nancy St., Charleston; West Virginia State Educa¬ tion Association. Hamilton, H. Cliff (Assistant Supervisor), State Department of Education; Charles¬ ton; Northwestern Teachers Association. Hamrick, Olive (Teacher), Big Chimney; Kanawha County Teachers Association. Harvey. C. C. (Teacher), Montgomery High School, Montgomery; New River Valley Round Table. Hickman, J. H. (Executive Secretary), West Virginia State Education Association, 1816 Washington St., Charleston; West Vir¬ ginia State Education Association. Jacobs, S. S. (Assistant County Superin¬ tendent), Wheeling; Northwestern Teach¬ ers Association of West Virginia. •Kearney. Katharine (Supervisor), 28 Brad¬ ford St.. Charleston; Charleston Teachers Association. King, P. E. (Principal), 141 Center Ave., Wheeling; Ohio County Teachers Associa¬ tion. McCollam, Charles (Teacher), Elkins; Ty¬ garts Valley Round Table. McCollam, Grace (Teacher), Elkins; Ty¬ garts Valley Round Table. McDowell, Luke (County Superintendent), Keyser; West Virginia State Education Association. Marple, Freda (Teacher), Burnsville; Ty¬ garts Valley Round Table. Marsh, J. Frank (Teacher), Concord State Teachers College, Athens; West Virginia State Education Association. Morton, Shirley (County Superintendent), Summersville ; Northwestern Teachers As¬ sociation. Associational Records and Information 997 Musgrave, Ethel (Teacher), 407 Twelfth St. Parkersburg; New River Valley Round Table. Nefflen, Myra M. (Teacher), Potomac Drive, Keyser; Kanawha County Teachers Asso¬ ciation. , Richardson, E. V. (Principal) ; Lumber- port; Monongahela Valley Round Table. Ridinger, Mrs. Lorraine (Teacher), Lowe; West Virginia State Education Assn. Rife, O. J. (Teacher), Kenova; Kanawha County Teachers Association. Rosier, Joseph (ex officio), President, Fair¬ mont State Teachers College, Fairmont. Sanders, J. C. (Teacher), 429 North Mam St., Keyser; Northwestern Teachers As¬ sociation of West Virginia. Trent, W. W. (ex officio). State Superintend¬ ent of Free Schools, Charleston. Upton, Arthur V. G. (Principal), 417 Lin¬ den St., Morgantown; Monongahela Val¬ ley Round Table. Waller, Daisy (Teacher), 1201 George St., Parkersburg; New River Valley Round White, Frank S. (Professor), Fairmont; Monongahela Valley Round Table. Yeater. F. R. (Principal), Matoaka; Mer¬ cer County Teachers Association. Zimmer, Olive M. (Teacher), 1224 Elmwood Ave., Charleston; Southwestern Teachers Round Table. WISCONSIN Batz, Muriel (Teacher), 831 North Ninth St., Manitowoc; Wisconsin Teachers As¬ sociation. _ T Bobo, Mable (Teacher), 715 King St., La Crosse; The Teachers Club of La Crosse. Callahan, John (ex officio), State Superin¬ tendent of Public Instruction, Madison. Doudna, Edgar G. (ex officio), Secretary, Board of Normal School Regents, Madi¬ son, Wisconsin. Feix, Helen (Teacher), 3536 North Downer Ave., Milwaukee; Milwaukee Teachers As¬ sociation. , Fowler, Lotta B. (Teacher), 2153 North Forty-seventh St., Milwaukee ; Milwaukee. Teachers Association. Frank, Olive (Teacher), 522 Sixty-fifth St., Kenosha; Wisconsin Teachers Association. Friese, Dorothy (Teacher), 2925 South Supe¬ rior St., Milwaukee; Milwaukee Teachers Association. T Goetsch, Helen B. (Teacher), 1820 West Wells St., Milwaukee; Milwaukee High School Teachers Association. Healy, Hazel M. (Teacher), 2525 North Sherman Boulevard. Milwaukee; # Mil¬ waukee High School Teachers Association Heinen, Mildred (Teacher), 2914 West Greenfield Ave., Milwaukee; Milwaukee Teachers Association. Hoffman, Ella (Teacher) 1314 South Forty- ninth St., Milwaukee; Milwaukee Teach¬ ers Association. _ „ _ , . Hood, Elizabeth (Teacher), 1715 Park Ave., Racine; Racine Teachers Council. Howell. Anna (Teacher), 2633 South Went¬ worth Ave., Milwaukee; Milwaukee Teach¬ ers Association. . , Hulten, Charles E. (Superintendent of Schools), Sheboygan; Wisconsin Teachers JeHnek^* Frances (Teacher), 150 Hotel Wis- consin, Milwaukee; Wisconsin Teachers Association. _ , .T i Tunexk F. W. (Principal), County Normal School, Menomonie; Wisconsin Teachers Association. Ketterer, Armand (Principal), State Graded School, Butternut; Wisconsin Teachers ^ ssociation. Kleaver, Dorothy (Teacher), 2923 South Herman St., Milwaukee; Milwaukee Teach¬ ers Association. McCarthy, Blanche M. (ex officio). Head, Department of Social Science, Appleton High School, Appleton. # McCormick, Elizabeth (Principal), 2225 East Sixth St., Superior; Wisconsin Teachers Association. Oellerich, Stephen (Teacher), 620 Thornton Ave., Madison; Wisconsin Teachers Assn. Pape, Edna (Teacher), Ladysmith; Wiscon¬ sin Teachers Association. Pearse, Carroll G. (ex officio), 1721 Lud- ington Ave., Wauwatosa Branch, Milwau- • Peterson, Bessie R. (Teacher), 2435 Han¬ sen Ave., Racine; Racine Teachers Coun- Plenzke, O. H. (Secretary), Wisconsin Teachers Association, 716 Insurance Building, Madison; Wisconsin Teachers Association. Price, Winifred (Teacher), 2701 South Shore Drive, Milwaukee; Milwaukee Teachers Association. . Promberger, William (Principal), 1915 North Fifty-ninth St., Milwaukee; Mil¬ waukee Principals Association. Rankin, George R. (Teacher), Room 318, Hotel Martin, Milwaukee; _ Milwaukee High School Teachers Association. Rauh, Joseph T. (Teacher), 2360 North Fifty- second St., Milwaukee; Milwaukee High School Teachers Association Reschke. Alfred W. (Teacher), 1120 West Center St., Milwaukee; Wisconsin Teach¬ ers Association. . . . Reschke. Mrs. Luvella K. (Vice principal), Peckham Junior High School, Milwaukee,. Milwaukee High School Teachers Assn. Schuette, Amanda (Teacher), .220 South Van Buren St., Green Bay; Wisconsin Teach¬ ers Association. . -T Schumacher, Amanda (Teacher), 2129 North Fifty-seventh St., Milwaukee; Milwaukee Teachers Association. Spangenberg, Dorothy (Teacher), 2 North Second St., Milwaukee; Milwau¬ kee Teachers Association. - Stangel, C. G. (Principal), High School, Manitowoc; Wisconsin Teachers Assn. Thompson, T. S. (County Superintendent), Mount Horeb; Wisconsin Teachers Assn. Watters, James M. (Teacher) . 319 West Vir¬ ginia St., Milwaukee; Milwaukee High School Teachers Association. Wood, Mrs. Minnie (Teacher), K. r. U.. Caryville ; Wisconsin Teachers Assn. Zimmerman, Eileen (Teacher), 2661 North Palmer St., Milwaukee; Milwaukee Teach¬ ers Association. WYOMING Allen, Bess Opal (Teacher) 912 South Wol- sat St., Casper; Casper Classroom Teach¬ ers Association. ' . . „ Anderson, Virginia (Teacher), 2121 House Ave., Cheyenne; Laramie County Teachers Carley, Maurine (Teacher), 211 West Nine¬ teenth St., Cheyenne; Laramie County Teachers Association. „ . „ , Carson. Irene (Teacher), 701 South Beech St Casper; Wyoming Education Assn. Carter. Clifford D. (Teacher), Tornngton; Wyoming Education Association. Moyer, H. H. (ex officio), Principal, High School, Rawlins. INDEX1 Academic freedom — from the viewpoint of the classroom teacher (Mrs. F. Blanche Preble), 84; from the viewpoint of the college president (Charles E. Beury), 87; from the viewpoint of the superintendent (Thomas W. Gosling), 79; report of committee on — department of classroom teachers (Karl Guenther), 337 Address of welcome (Frank W. Ballou), 29 Administration of teacher training, The (Edward D. Roberts), 621 Administrative problems in the integration of physical education with the general school pro- gra.m. (A. J. Stoddard), 464 Administrative women in education, depart¬ ment of, 265; historical note, 266; secretary’s minutes, 271 Adult education and the social scene (Ruth Kotinsky), 275 Adult education, department of, 273; historical note, 274; increased interest in, 554; needs of unemployed adults, 377; report of committee on resolutions (Robert C. Deming), 295- secre¬ tary’s minutes, .294. See also 219, 650 Alderman, Lewis R. Problems of federal emer¬ gency relief administration, 290 Allen, Florence E. The challenge in education, American Education Week, development of H4; growth of, 417. See also 203, 668 American Legion (Russell Cook), 113; activi¬ ties of in education, 151; resolutions of, 115 American Library Association, report of commit¬ tee, of on cooperation with the National Edu¬ cation Association (Ada F. Liveright), 171 America s real brain trust — with a code for peace¬ makers (Daniel A. Poling), 47 Analysis of the. types of scientific method used by a e ,OT?nJn typical out-of-school situations, An (Ralph K. Watkins), 473 Anderson, Meta L. The education of the mentally retarded, 534 Announcement — celebration of Mother’s Dav (Anna Jarvis), 157 Announcement— regarding three hundredth anni- Sr/vt3110,” of American high schools (Willard N. Van Slyck), 156 Around the year with the president — department of classroom teachers (Faye Read), 329 Art .ed^tion’ dePartment of, 297; historical note, 298; secretary’s minutes, 299 Ar!i/0lrTrura! children in the newer school (Jennie M. Haver), 456 Associational records and information, 801 Atherton, Grace W. Speech and the hard-of- heanng child, 430 Attainable library program for rural areas. An (Frank L. Tolman), 457 Atypical children, aims and functions of a nro- gram for, 524. See also 629 Audience discrimination as a means of controlling the influence of motion pictures (Edgar Dale), Auditors, report of, 934 Awareness of the problem of rural education on the part of the public (O. H. Plenzke) 445 Awareness of the problem of rural education on 444 Part 01 rural education (Orville G. Brim), Awareness of the problem of rural education on the part of urban education (E. E. Oberholtzer), Ayles worth, Merlin H. Radio as a means of public enlightenment, 99 Bacon, Francis L. What constitutes a good sec¬ ondary school and by what standards should it be evaluated?, 502 Bailey Francis L. A state festival of high- school music, 437 Baker, Newton D- Youth challenges the nation, Balancing and unifying education — rural intemre- tation (Richard E. Jaggers), 141 Baldwin, Robert D. Discussion (of problems in teacher-training), 742 Ballou,. Frank W. Address of welcome, 29- financing public education, 635 Barthelmess, Harriet M. Testing the ability to use the index and dictionary, 380 Bauder, Charles F. A program of industrial edu¬ cation to meet the needs of the different groups of pupils, 791 Bayne, Stephen F. Constructive and preventive aspects of teacher health, 392 Beard, Mrs. Mary R. Women in the citizen- ships of yesterday, today, and tomorrow, 697 Bedell, Ralph C. The relationship between the ability to recall and the ability to infer in spe¬ cific learning situations. 366 Benner, Thomas E. Democracy in education, 158 Bentz, M. S. Report of dynamic activity com¬ mittee, 203 Beury, Charles E. Academic freedom — from the viewpoint of the college president, 87 Bissell, Walter L. What constitutes a good sec¬ ondary school and by what standards should it be evaluated?, 504 B1^nch; Karl H- Nature club activities in East Mauch Chunk, 474 Blanchard, H. H. Teacher tenure in Indiana, 327 Benton, Smiley. The emotional life of the child, Blind and partially-seeing child, place of the in public school system, 531 Boards of education, responsibility of, 654 Bradford, Mrs. Mary D. Some memories of the 1884 meeting of the National Education Asso¬ ciation in Madison, Wis., 237 Brechbill, Henry. Science as the student sees it, 474 Briggs, Howard L. Modern trends in vocational education, 791 Briggs, Thomas H. What constitutes a good secondary school and by what standards should it be evaluated?, 500 Brim, Orville G. Awareness of the problem of rural education on the part of rural education 444 Brownell, William A. The use of objective measures in evaluating instruction, 677 Bryan, William Lowe. Democracy and re¬ ligion, 538 Budget committee, report of, 950 Business education, department of, 301; his¬ torical note, 302; secretary’s minutes, 311 Butler, Leslie A. Public education and public welfare, 655 Butterfield, E. W. The type of instruction de¬ manded by the present educational and social crisis, 683 Bylaws, of National Education Association 808 Byrd, Richard E. Message from Little America, Caldwell,. Otis W. The high school and the community, 472 Calendar of meetings of National Education Association, 819 which, together Vrith authors^ namL^a^set Tn'boldTface1116 b°°k iS alS° indexed by subject headings, [ 998 ] Index 999 Campbell, Harold G. The contribution of the public schools, 546 Carr, Wilbert L. Meeting community needs thru the study of Latin in high schools, 485 Carr, William G. Report of committee on the economic status of the teacher, 884 Carrothers, George E. What constitutes a good secondary school and by what standards should it be evaluated?, 506 Carrying education* to the community (Florence Hale), 483 . Centile status of gifted children at maturity (Leta S. Hollingworth), 377 • Challenge in education, The (Florence E. Allen), 352 Challenge of the new, The (Caroline S. Wood¬ ruff), 411 . , Chandler, Turner C. A functional program in elementary education, 390 Chart showing differential ability pattern for achievement in English literature and mathematics, 368 Charters, W. W. The influence of motion pic¬ tures on children, 382 Cheney, Howell. The outlook for secondary edu¬ cation, 612 Child labor movement and the new deal, The (Mrs. Georgia B. Parsons), 133 Civilian Conservation Corps, adult education in, 275, 293 Civil service for teachers, report of committee on (Donald DuShane), 172 Class demonstration — fifth-year geography (Grace A. Courtney), 779 Classroom teachers, department of, 313; eighth yearbook, cited, 571; historical note, 314; rec¬ ommendations of president, 336; report of committee on academic freedom (Karl Guen¬ ther), 337; report of committee on resolutions, 343; report of president, 329; secretary’s min¬ utes, 339 Classroom teacher’s responsibility for leadership and interpretation, The (Faye Read), 137 Classroom work, evaluation of, 689 Clemency, Anna E. The work of a local branch, 267 Clement, Bess. Report of yearbook committee, 396 Coast and geodetic survey, work and problems of the, 476 Comfort, Benjamin F. Textbooks and lesson outlines in technical high schools, 508 Commission on the social studies of the American Historical Association, implications of (R. O. Hughes), 515; (Kenneth E. Gell), 515 Committees, department. See respective depart¬ ment headings Committees, N. E. A., list of members, . 834; reports of, 169; American Library Association on cooperation with the National Education Association (Ada F. Liveright), 171; civil service for teachers (Donald DuShane), 172; dynamic activity (M. S. Bentz), 203; economic status of the teacher (William G. Carr), 884; federal advisory committee on emergency aid in education (James N. Rule), 43; health prob¬ lems in education (Thomas D. Wood). 209; international relations (Annie C. Woodward), 178; joint commission on the emergency in edu¬ cation (John K. Norton), 206; legislative com¬ mission (Sidney B. Hall). 215; National Asso¬ ciation of Teachers in Colored Schools, report of committee to cooperate with the (N. C. Newbold), 200; national commission on enrich¬ ment of adult life (James A. Moyer), 219; National Education Association and National Congress of Parents and Teachers (Mrs. B. h. Langworthy), 212; resolutions (Mrs. Myrtle Hooper Dahl). 181; retirement allowances (Anna Laura Force), 189; revenue, report of special committee on the increase of (Carroll G. Pearse), 226; rural education (Willis A. Sutton), 197; social-economic goals for America (Fred J. Kelly), 198 Comparative study of sound motion pictures and oral classroom instruction, A (Hilda Marie Diller), 787 . Comprehensive plan for higher education, A (J. B. Edmonson), 616 . Comprehensive program of public education, A (J. Stevens Kadesch), 626 Construction and interpretation of differential ability patterns (David Segel), 367 Constructive and preventive aspects of teacher health (Stephen F. Ba.yne), 892 Consumer in the new citizenship, The (Caroline F. Ware), 695 _ _ Continuous employment for teachers (Esther M. Smith), 323 Contribution of bookkeeping to community needs, The (Elvin S. Eyster), 308 Contribution of the public schools, The (Harold G. Campbell), 546 Contribution of shorthand and typewriting to com¬ munity needs, The (Etta C. Skene), 307 Contribution of the social-business subjects to community needs, The (William R. Odell), 309 Cook, Russell. American Legion, 113 Cooper, William John. Preparation for leisure, 283 Cooperation of federal government in public education, 627 Copeland, Royal S. Crime and a revised national policy in education, 288; education and the prevention of crime, 595 Courtis, S. A. The significance of measurements of control in measuring ability, 370 Courtney, Grace A. Class demonstration fifth- year geography, 779 Cram. Fred D. Leadership of county superin¬ tendent in improving instruction, 450 Crime and a revised national policy in education (Royal S. Copeland), 288 Crippled child, educating the, 532 Critical Problems in School Administration, 1934 yearbook, department of superintendence (Ben G. Graham), 555 Culture for democracy (Armand J. Gerson), 162 Curriculum changes demanded by the industrial crisis (Arthur M. Seybold), 488 Curriculum, department of rural education, 1934 yearbook, 449; evaluation of the, 375; list of cardinal points of curriculum content, 374; major problems of, 653; standard, sug¬ gested form, 499 Cyr, Frank W. Presentation of 1934 yearbook, Economical Enrichment of the Small Secondary- School Curriculum (department of rural educa¬ tion), 449; rural education on the road to re¬ covery — advances made thru interpreting the schools to the people, 454 Dahl, Mrs. Myrtle Hooper. Report of committee on resolutions, 181 Dale, Edgar. Audience discrimination as a means of controlling the influence of motion pictures, 363 r , Danielson, Cora Lee. Education of gifted chil¬ dren — a challenge, 533 Daughters of the American Revolution (Mrs. Russell William Magna), 116; work of, 269 Deans of women, department of, 345; historical note, 346 . Dearborn, Ned H. Some forgotten qualities of teachers, 723 Defending education (Edward A. Hayes), 150. Delegates to the fourteenth representative assembly, 972 Deming, Robert C. A typical state emergency relief program in adult education, 286; report of committee on resolutions (department of adult education), 295 Democracy and religion (William Lowe Bryan) , 538 Democracy in education (Thomas E. Benner), 158 Demonstration of technics for making lantern slides in color (W. T. R. Price), 779 1000 National Education Association Departments of the Association, 263; intro¬ duction, 264; officers of, 1933-34, 823; 1934- 35, 830; administrative women in education, 265; adult education, 273; art education, 297; business education, 301; classroom teachers, 313; deans of women, 345; educational re¬ search, 361; elementary school principals, 387; kindergarten-primary education, 409; lip read¬ ing, 423; music education, 435; rural education, 441; school health and physical education, 461; science instruction, 469; secondary education, 481 ; secondary school principals, 493; social studies, 513; special education, 521; superin¬ tendence, 535; supervisors and directors of instruction, 673; supervisors and teachers of home economics, 693; teachers colleges, 705; visual instruction, 777; vocational education, 789 Development of democratic character as related to the new deal, The (A. Duncan Yocum), 252 Dewey, John. Education for a changing social order, 744 Dickinson, John. Elementary education in a democracy, 397 Diethelm, Oskar. Treatment of speech disorders, Differential functions of examinations (Palmer O. Johnson), 366 Diller, Hilda Marie. A comparative study of sound motion pictures and oral classroom in¬ struction, 787 Directors, board of, members of, 1933-34, 821; 1934-35, 828; minutes of meetings of, 881; re¬ port for (A. L. Whittenberg), 145 Discussion groups and research section (de¬ partment of secondary school principals), refer¬ ence to, 509 Discussion — of problems in teacher training— (Robert D. Baldwin), 742 Dunn, Fannie W. Prospectus of eighth year¬ book — -Materials of Instruction (department of supervisors and directors of instruction), 682 DuShane, Donald. Report of committee on civil service. for teachers, 172 Economic and social importance of education, Economic self-help in the educational crisis (M. Grant Lucas), 75 Economic status of the teacher, report of com¬ mittee on (William G. Carr), 884 Economies in a program of supervision, wise and unwise, 686 Edgeworth.. Clyde B. The place of business edu¬ cation in improving community life — as seen by a director of business education, 303 Edmonson, J. B. A comprehensive plan for higher education, 616; report of special committee of the national council to sponsor a conference with representatives of publishers of instructional ma¬ terials, 234 Educating children for the new deal (Abba Hillel Silver), 558 Educating the crippled child (Harry F. Latshaw), Education and the prevention of crime (Royal S. Copeland), 595 Education at the crossroads (Payson Smith), 573 Education for adults in Civilian Conservation Corps (C. S. Marsh), 275 Education for a changing social order (Tohn Dewey), 744 Education for the new America (Willard E Givens), 647 Education for the new citizenship (John W ^ Withers), 697 *n t^ie Civilian Conservation Corps (L W. Rogers), 293 Education in this new age (Edward A. Filene), 586 Education of gifted children — a challenge (Cora Lee Danielson). 533 Education of teachers for a changing social order (George F. Zook), 752 Education of teachers in teachers colleges and in universities and liberal arts colleges: a com¬ parative study (W. E. Peik), 758 Education of the deaf and hard of hearing in the San Francisco public schools, The (Joseph Marr Gwinn), 427 Education of the mentally retarded, The (Meta L. Anderson), 534 Educational needs of unemployed adults (M R Trabue), 377 « Educational opportunities for applicants for Amer¬ ican citizenship (Marian Schibsby), 280 Educational problem presented bv the Spanish¬ speaking child of the southwest, The (H. T. Manuel), 376 Educational reconstruction and organized study (Karl Guenther), 325 Educational research, department of, 361; his- torical note, 362; secretary’s minutes, 386 Effects of handedness on reversals in reading (Clif¬ ford Woody), 379 Elementary education in a democracy (John Dick¬ inson), 397 Elementary school principals, department of, 387; historical note, 388; report of committee on international relations (A. B. Heacock), 396; report of necrology committee (Elizabeth Mc¬ Cormick), 397; report of committee on profes¬ sional ethics (Mason A. Stratton), 395; report of resolutions committee (Herbert C. Hansen), 394; report of yearbook committee (Bess Clement), 396; report of yearbook for 1934 (John S. Thomas), 391; secretary’s minutes, 402 Elementary-school program of health and physical education, The (Rebecca Stoneroad), 466 Elementary schools, The (Frank G. Picked), 607 Elliott, Mrs. Grace Loucks. How can we aid girls at the college level in solving emotional problems? 347 Emergency in education and the future of voca¬ tional and practical arts education, The (Edwin A. Lee), 794 Emmert, Wilber. Standards and technics for making posters and booklets, 780 Emotional life of the child, The (Smiley Blanton), Evaluating classroom work (Inga Olla Helseth) 689 Evaluation and appraisal of the yearbook — de¬ partment of supervisors and directors of in- ^ struction (Clifford Woody), 679 Evaluation of the integrated curriculum (W. W. Kemmerer), 375 Excellent teacher. The (Irving F. Pearson), 476 Executive committee, members of, 1933-34, 821; 1934-35, 827; minutes of the meetings of, 909 Experimentation in the teaching of physics (A. W. Hurd), 364 Eyster, Elvin S. The contribution of book¬ keeping to community needs, 308 Factors which contribute to difficulty of reading material (William S. Gray), 378 Federal aid — boon or bane? (William F. Russell), Federal aid to education (George F. Zook), 37; (James N. Rule), 43; (James H. Rich¬ mond), 69. See also 97, 207, 217, 220, 577, 585, 644, 663 Federal emergency relief administration, problems of, 290 Federal government, cooperation of in public education, 627 Fife, Ray. Problems of the American Vocational Association in meeting the present emergency in vocational education, 793 Filene, Edward A. Education in this new age, .586 Filer, Henry. Organizing within the state for better schools, 65 Financing public education (Frank W. Ballou). 635 Index 1001 Finley, John H. The new leisure challenges the schools, 542 Force, Anna Laura. Report of committee on retirement allowances, 189 Frank, Glenn. The world for which we must edu- C3.tc 54 Frank', Kate. How shall teachers foster a whole¬ some public attitude toward tenure?, 321 Functional program in elementary education, A (Turner C. Chandler), 390 Functions of secondary schools in the peace of the world, The (Arthur Charles Watkins), 509 Functions of state departments of education, 627 , , Gell, Kenneth E. Implications of the report of the commission on the social studies of the American Historical Association, 515 General Federation of Women’s Clubs (Mrs. Grace Morrison Poole), 121 Generalized attitude scaling technic, A (H. H. Remmers), 369 Gerson, Armand J. Culture for democracy, 162 Gifted children, education of, 533 Gillingham, George O. The Tennessee valley development, 286 Givens, Willard E. Education for the new Amer¬ ica, 647 , , j Goodykoontz, Bess. The scientific method and creative supervision, 675 Gosling, Thomas W. Academic freedom— from the viewpoint of the superintendent, 79; science and opinion, 471 . . Graham, Ben G. The 1934 yearbook on Critical Problems in School Administration (department of superintendence), 555 Granger, Oscar. How the guidance program in secondary schools may function in the new democracy, 512 Gray, Jessie. Greetings to Admiral Byrd, 22; visions and voyages, 91 Gray, William S. Factors which contribute to difficulty of reading material, 378 Green. Elsie E. The service which elementary principals should render at this time. 392 Greetings (Ada Morgan Hill), 42 5; (Mrs. James F. Norris), 425 Greetings to Admiral Byrd (Jessie Gray), 22 Greetings to the convention (Charles E. Merriam), 557 Grosvenor, Gilbert. Message, 25 Guenther, Karl. Educational reconstruction and organized study, 325; report of the committee on academic freedom (department of classroom teachers), 337 Guidance, an adequate program of, 634; in a time of unemployment, 633; need for in present- day education, 688; program of in secondary schools, 512 Gwinn, Joseph Marr. The education of the deaf and hard of hearing in the San Francisco public schools, 427 Hahn, Julia L. Trends in kindergarten-primary education today, 415 Hale, Florence. Carrying education to the com¬ munity, 483; the radio as an agency for en¬ riching rural life, 458 Hall, Sidney B. Report of legislative commis¬ sion, 215 Hansen, Herbert C. Report of resolutions com¬ mittee (department of elementary school prin¬ cipals), 394 Hartwell, E. C. Our national dividends from public education, 603 Hayes, Edward A. Defending education, 150 Haver, Jennie M. Art for rural children in the newer school, 456 Hazard, Henry B. Trends and accomplishments in the field of immigration and naturalization, 276 Heacock. A. B. Report of committee on inter¬ national relations. 396 Headquarters staff, National Education Asso¬ ciation, 823 Health, of teacher, 392; opportunities for kinder¬ garten-primary teachers, 412; problems in edu¬ cation, report of joint committee on, 209 Helseth, Inga Olla. Evaluating classroom work, 689 Heider, Mrs. Grace Moore. Psychological re¬ search in a school for the deaf, 526 Heiss, Elwood D. Some concepts that result from high-school science teaching and implica¬ tions from the standpoint of psychology, 365 High school and the community, The (Otis W. Caldwell), 472 High school and the cultural life of the com¬ munity, The (William Mather Lewis), 484 Higher education, a comprehensive plan for, 616 Hill, Ada Morgan. Greetings, 42 5 Hill, Clyde M. What constitutes a good secondary school and by what standards should it be evaluated?, 507 Historical entertainments and museums for schools and communities (O. W. Mosher, Jr.), 518 Hochheimer, Rita. School films, their sources and evaluation, 786 Hodgkins, George W. Learning exercises for pupils in the social studies, 516 Holaday, P. W. The motion picture as a source ol general information, 363 Hollinger, John A. The old order changeth, 784 Hollingworth, Leta S. The centile status of giited children at maturity, 377 Hoppock, Robert. Occupational adjustment in the new citizenship, 696 Hornstein, Ignus O. What New York City has done and is doing in education for leisure, 291 Hoult, Geneva Frances. Place of business edu¬ cation in improving community life, The — as seen by the classroom teacher, 306 How can we aid girls at the college level in solving emotional problems? (Mrs. Grace Loucks Elliott), 347 How the guidance program in secondary schools may function in the new democracy (Oscar Granger), 512 How shall teachers foster a wholesome public attitude toward tenure? (Kate Frank), 321 How we may support our high schools (Eugene S. Lawler), 490 Hughes, R. O. Implications of the report of the commission on the social studies of the Amer¬ ican Historical Association, 515 Hunkins, R. V. Spokesmen needed for smaller schools, 448 Hurd, A. W. Experimentation in the teaching of physics, 364 Hutchins, Robert M. The teacher, the school, and the national life, 17 Ihlenfeldt, R. S. Some needs and problems of the rural schools. 450 Immigrants, education for, 276, 280 Implications of the report of the commission on the social studies of the American Historical Association (R. O. Hughes), 515; (Kenneth E. Gell), 515 Industrial education, program of, 791 Influence of motion pictures on. children, The (W. W. Charters), 382 International relations, development of in schools, 648; report of committee on (Annie C. Woodward), 178; report of committee on — de¬ partment of elementary school principals (A. B. Heacock), 396 Interpretation, classroom teacher’s responsibility for, 137; instruments in work of, 668; of high schools, 483; of kindergarten-primary educa¬ tion, 416; of rural education, 141, 445, 454; of schools to public, 569, 667; of technics of, 672 Interpreting kindergarten-primary education to the public (Joy Elmer Morgan), 416 Interpreting the schools to the public (Merle Sidener), 569; (Frank A. Jensen), 667 Jaggers, Richard E. Balancing and unifying edu¬ cation — rural interpretation, 141 1002 National Education Association James, William Alonzo. Report of committee on necrology, 964 Jarvis Anna. Announcement — celebration of Mother’s Day, 157 Jason, Simon J. The place of business education in the community— as seen by a high-school administrator, 305 Jensen, Frank A. Interpreting the schools to the public, 667 Johnson, Palmer O. Differential functions of examinations, 366 Joint commission on the emergency in education work of, for 1935 (John K. Norton), 30 ■J°u-reS’ The principal’s responsi¬ bility for leadership and interpretation, 130 Judd, Charles H. What constitutes a good sec¬ ondary school and by what standards should it be evaluated?, 497 Junior college, and college levels, 631; place of in American education, 231 Kadesch J. Stevens. A comprehensive program of public education, 626 Keller, Franklin J. Vocational education for leisure. 797 Kelly, Fred J. Report of committee on social- economic goals for America, 198 Kemmerer, W. W. Evaluation of the integrated curriculum, 375 Kidger, Horace. Stimulating and guiding class¬ room discussion, 518 Kindergarten-primary education, bylaws, 419 - department of, 409; historical note, 410; sec¬ retary’s minutes, 418 Koon, Cline M. The relation of films and the radio to classroom instruction, 785 Koos, Leonard V. The smaller secondary school V1. _^e national survey of secondary education, 445 ’ Kotinsky, Ruth. Adult education and the social scene, 275 Lake, Charles H. Welcome to Cleveland, 537 Langworthy. Mrs. B. F. National Congress of Parents and Teachers, 111; report of joint com- Yt National Education Association and the National Congress of Parents and Teach¬ ers, 212 Latshaw, Harry F. Educating the crippled child, Law, Freaerick Houk. Meeting community needs thru the teaching of English in secondary schools, 485; teacher welfare and educational reconstruction, 315; what constitutes a good secondary school and by what standards should it be evaluated?, 505 La™1uer’ Eugene S. How we may support our high schools, 490 Leadership of county superintendent in improving instruction (Fred D. Cram), 450 Learning exercises for pupils in the social studies (George W. Hodgkins), 516 Le®’ ?dwin A. The emergency in education and the future of vocational and practical arts edu¬ cation, 794 Leisure and recreation, 651; challenge of, to the schools 467, 542; educating for use of, 221, education for in New York City 291 • educational program for, 633; preparation “for’, 283; vocational education for, 797 Lewis, William Mather. The high school and the cultural life of the community, 484 Libraries for civilized living (Carl H. Milam), Libraries, for rural. areas, 457; report of Ameri¬ can Library Association Committee on coopera- ™th, -the. National Education Association (Ada F. Liveright), 171 LsAoolsUg467 T* The neW leisure chalIenges the L1If|33-3r4CIllS;’ wSV-Tsal gf SUCati0" Associalio"’ Lllf68memberShip dinner> 167> historical note, Lip reading, department of. 423; historical 424; secretary’s minutes, 432 note, Littie Mrs. Frances Woodward. The place ot the blind and the partially-seeing child in the public school system, 531 Liveright, Ada F. Report of American Library Association committee on cooperation with the National Education Association, 171 Lucas, M. Grant. Economic self-help in the educational crisis, 75 McCarthy, Blanche. Safeguarding education — state organizations, 122 McClure, Worth. Supervision and the democratic way of living, 687 Me Conn, Max. The Pennsylvania study of the relations of secondary and higher education, 378 McCormick, Elizabeth. Report of necrology committee (department of elementary school principals), 397 ^ Madison. Wis„ 1884 meeting of the National Education Association in, 237, 241 Magna, Mrs. Russell William. Daughters of the American Revolution, 116; what should the administrative women in education do for American citizenship?, 269 Major purposes to be served by the rural high school (O. A. Towns), 447 Mallory, Gertrude. Teacher tenure, 318 Manuel, H. T. The . educational problem pre¬ sented by the Spanish-speaking child of the southwest, 376 Maps use of in teaching of the social studies, 517 Marchant, H. Alfred. Using maps in the teach¬ ing of the social studies, 517 Marsh, C. S. Education for adults in Civilian Conservation Corps, 275 Meeting community needs thru health and physi¬ cal education in the high school (William G Moorhead), 463 Meeting community needs thru the study of Latin in the high schools (Wilbert L. Carr), 485 Meeting community needs thru the teaching of English in secondary schools (Frederick Houk Law), 485 Meeting community needs thru the teaching of mathematics in high schools (W. S. Schlauch), 487 Meeting the emergency in 1935 (James H. Rich¬ mond). 69 Meier, W. H. D. Trained teachers for nature gardens, 475 Melchior, William T. Self-supervision by teach¬ ers, a practical way out. 684 Mental hygiene, contribution of to teacher training, 718; public school opportunities in the field of, 465; training teachers to use, 713 Mental hygiene opportunities of kindergarten- primary teachers (Esther L. Richards), 412 Merriam. Charles E. Greetings to the conven¬ tion, 557 Message from Little America (Richard E. Byrd), Message (Gilbert Grosvenor), 25 Milam, Carl H. Libraries for civilized living 147 Modern trends in vocational education (Howard L. Briggs), 791 Moehlman. Arthur B. Planned teacher pro¬ duction, 563 Moorhead, William G. Meeting community needs thru health and physical education in the hivh school. 463 M°F*an- DeWitt S. The place of the technical high school in modern education, 495 Morgan, Edna. Where are we and where are we going educationally? 389 Morgan, Jov Elmer. Interpreting kindergarten¬ primary education to the public, 416: the task of adult education today, 285: why the public should support its high schools, 489 Morrison. H. C. Sincerity in the present situa¬ tion, 232 Morrison. J. Cayce. The use and abuse of stand¬ ardized tests in the classroom, 385 Mosher, O. W., Jr. Historical entertainments and museums for schools and communities, 518 Index 1003 Mother’s Day, announcement of celebration of, 157 Motion picture as a source of general information, The (P. W. Holaday), 363 Motion pictures, audience discrimination as a means of controlling influence of, 363; com¬ parison of with oral classroom instruction, 787; for school use, sources and evaluation of, 786; influence of. on children, 382; relation of, to classroom instruction, 785; relation of the, to standards of morality, 784 Moyer, James A. Report of national commission on enrichment of adult life, 219 Museums, uses of in visual education, 784 Music education, department of, 435; historical note, 436 National Congress of Parents and Teachers (Mrs. B. F. Langworthy), 111; policies of the, 112 National Council of Education, 229; historical note, 230; reports of committee on resolutions, Cleveland, Ohio (Margaret Kiely), 256; Wash¬ ington, D. C. (Thomas W. Gosling), 260; report of special committee to sponsor a con¬ ference with representatives of publishers of in¬ structional materials (J. B. Edmonson), 234; secretary’s minutes, 255 National Education Association, act of incor¬ poration of, 803; board of directors, members of 1933-34, 821; 1934-35, 828; board of trus¬ tees, members of, 1933-34, 821; 1934-35, 827; bylaws, 808; calendar of meetings, 819; com¬ mittees, members of, 1933-34, 834; delegates to fourteenth representative assembly, 972; executive committee, members of, 1933-34, 821; 1934-35, 827; headquarters staff, 823; life directors, 1933-34, 821; 1934-35, 828; minutes of the fourteenth representative assembly, 849; officers, 1933-34, 821; 1934-35, 827; personnel classification of headquarters staff, 915; state directors, 1933-34, 822; 1934-35, 828 National organizations (Carmon Ross), 126 National outlook on education, A (John K. Nor¬ ton), 661 National survey of secondary education, the smaller secondary school in the, 445 Nature club activities in East Mauch Chunk (Karl H. Blanch), 474 Nature study in everyday life (Paul R. Young), 478 Necrology committee, report of (William Alonzo James), 964 Negro education, work of Columbian Associa¬ tion, 75. See also 200, 664 Newbold, N. C. Report of committee to co¬ operate with the National Association of Teach¬ ers in Colored Schools, 200 New leisure challenges the schools, The (John H. Finley), 542; (Eugene T. Lies), 467 New technic of appraisal covering the content of courses of study (W. J. Osburn), 373 Norris, Mrs. James F. Greetings, 425 Norton, John K. A national outlook on educa¬ tion, 661; report of joint commission on the emergency in education, 206; work of joint commission on the emergency in education for 1935, 30 Oberholtzer, E. E. Awareness of the problem of rural education on the part of urban educa¬ tion, 443; wise and unwise economies in a pro¬ gram of supervision, 686 Occupational adjustment in the new citizenship (Robert Hoppock), 696 Odell, William R. The contribution of the social-business subjects to community needs, 309 Officers, of departments, 1933-34, 823 ; 1934-35, 830; of National Education Association, 1933- 34, 821; 1934-35, 827 Old order changeth, The (John A. Hollinger), 784 Organizing within the state for better schools (Henry Filer), 65 Osburn, W. J. A new technic of appraisal cover¬ ing the content of courses of study, 373 Our national dividends from public education (E. C. Hartwell), 603 Outlook for secondary education, The (Howell Cheney), 612 Outstanding problems involved in the trend to¬ ward universal secondary education in the United States (Mrs. Lucy L. W. Wilson), 250 Parsons, Mrs. Georgia B. The child labor move¬ ment and the new deal. 133 Pathfinding (George Wharton Pepper), 26 Pearse, Carroll G. Report of special committee on the increase of revenue, 2 26; some remi¬ niscences of the Association meeting of 1884, 241 Pearson. Irving F. The excellent teacher, 476 Peik, W. E. The education of teachers in teach¬ ers colleges and in universities and liberal arts colleges: a comparative study, 758; the place of the junior college in American education, 231 Pennsylvania study of the relations of secondary and higher education, The (Max McConn), 378 Pepper. George Wharton. Pathfinding, 26 Personality adjustment of the school teacher (Caroline B. Zachry), 730 Physical care of the handicapped child in the public schools, The (Mrs. Clara Loitman Smith), 523 Physical education, administrative problems in integration of, with the general school program, 464 Pickell, Frank G. The elementary schools, 607 Place of business education in improving com¬ munity life, The — as seen by the classroom teacher (Geneva Frances Hoult), 306; as seen by a college teacher of business (M. E. Stude- baker), 304; as seen by a director of business education (Clyde B. Edgeworth), 303; as seen by a university dean (Lester B. Rogers), 303 Place of business education in the community, The— as seen by a high-school administrator (Simon J. Jason), 305 Place of the blind and the partially-seeing child in the public school system, The (Mrs. Frances Woodward Little), 531 Place of the junior college in American education. The (W. E. Peik), 231 Place of the technical high school in modern education, The (DeWitt S. Morgan), 495 Planned teacher production (Arthur B. Moehl- man), 563 Platform of the National Education Associa¬ tion, 184 Plenzke, O. H. Awareness of the problem of rural education on the part of the public, 445 Poling, Daniel A. America’s real brain trust — with a code for peacemakers, 47 Poole, Mrs. Grace Morrison. General Federa¬ tion of Women’s Clubs, 121 Poster and booklet making, standards for, 782, 783 Preble, Mrs. F. Blanche. Academic freedom — from the viewpoint of the classroom teacher, 84 Preparation for leisure (William John Cooper), 283 Prescott. Daniel B. Realism, purposing, and integration, 707 Present status of the science of education, The (Harold O. Rugg), 235 Presentation of the seventh yearbook: Scientific Method in Supervision — department of super¬ visors and directors of instruction (Paul T. Rankin), 678 Presentation of 1934 yearbook, Economical En¬ richment of the Small Secondary-School Curric¬ ulum — department of rural education (Frank W. Cyr), 449 1004 National Education Association Price, W. T. R. Demonstration of technics for making lantern slides in color, 779 Principal’s responsibility for leadership and inter¬ pretation. The (Mrs. Edith B. Joynes), 130 Problems of federal emergency relief administra¬ tion (Lewis R. Alderman), 290 Problems of the American Vocational Association in meeting the present emergency in vocational education (Ray Fife), 793 Professional ethics, report of committee on — de¬ partment of elementary school principals (Mason A. Stratton), 395 Program of industrial education to meet the needs of the different groups of pupils, A (Charles F. Bauder), 791 Proposed national study of secondary-school stand¬ ards by regional standardizing agencies (Joseph Roemer), 511 Prospectus of eighth yearbook. Materials of In¬ struction — department of supervisors, and direc¬ tors of instruction (Fannie W. Dunn), 682 Providing a more adequate social and recreational life for the rural child (Mattie E. Thomas) 457 Psychological research in a school for the deaf (Mrs. Grace Moore Heider), 526 Public education and national welfare (George F. Zook), 551 Public education and public welfare (Leslie A Butler). 655 Public relations, agents and agencies, 668; prin¬ ciples of, 667 Public school opportunities in the field of mental hygiene (T. A. C. Rennie). 465 Radio., as an agency for enriching rural life, 458; relation, of the, to classroom instruction, 785; use of in schools, 384 Radio as a means of public enlightenment (Mer¬ lin H. Aylesworth), 99 Radio as an agency for enriching rural life. The (Florence Hale), 458 Rankin. Paul T. Presentation of the seventh yearbook, Scientific Method in Supervision (de¬ partment of supervisors and directors of in¬ struction), 678 Read, Faye. Around the year with the president (department of classroom teachers), 329; the classroom teacher’s responsibility for leadership and interpretation, 137 Realism, purposing, and integration (Daniel B Prescott), 707 Relation of films and the radio to classroom in¬ struction (Cline M. Koon), 785 Relation of motion pictures to standards of moral¬ ity, The (Robert P. Wray). 784 Relationship between the ability to recall and the ability to infer in specific learning situations (Ralph C. Bedell), 366 Remmers, H. H. A generalized attitude scaling technic, 369 Rennie T. A. C. Public school opportunities in the field of mental hygiene, 465 °( committees. See Committees, JN. E. A. See also Committees, department Representative assembly, delegates to, 972 * minutes of meetings of, 849 Retarded child, education of the, 534 Reynolds, Rollo G. What a modern school should do for a modern child, 393 Richards, Esther L. Mental hygiene opportuni¬ ties of kindergarten-primary teachers, 412 Richmond, James H. Meeting the emergency in 1935, 69 Roberts. Edward D. The administration of teacher training, 621 Roemer, Joseph. Proposed national study of secondary-school standards by regional stand¬ ardizing agencies, 511 Rogers., Lester B. The place of business educa¬ tion in improving community life — as seen by a university dean, 303 Rogers. L. W. Education in the Civilian Con¬ servation Corps, 293 Ross, Carmon. National organizations, 126 Rugg, Harold O. The present status of the science of education, 235 Rule. James N. Report of the federal advisory committee on emergency aid in education, 43 Rural education, department of, 441; historical note, 442; interpretation of, 141; needs and problems in, 450, 452; opportunities in, 225; presentation of 1934 yearbook, 449; secretary’s minutes, 459 Rural education on the road to recovery — advances made thru interpreting the schools to the people (Frank W. Cyr), 454; advances made thru reorganizing and redirecting county and local school programs (Agnes Samuelson1), 453 Rural school, problem, The (J. W. Whitmer), 452 Russell, William F. Federal aid — boon or bane? 577 Safeguarding education — state organizations (Blanche McCarthy), 122 Samuelson, Agnes. Rural education on the road to recovery — advances made thru reorganizing and redirecting county and local school pro¬ grams. 453 Samuelson, Estelle E. Training teachers of lip reading, 428 Scally, Agatha. The status of the hard-of-hear¬ ing child in special education, 529 Schibsby, Marian. Educational opportunities for applicants for American citizenship, 280 Schlauch, W. S. Meeting community needs thru the teaching of mathematics in high schools, 487 School films, their sources and evaluation (Rita Hochheimer), 786 School health and physical education, depart¬ ment of, 461; historical note, 462 Science and opinion (Thomas W. Gosling), 471 Science as the student sees it (Henry Brechbill), „ 474 Science instruction, department of, 469; his¬ torical note, 470; secretary’s minutes, 478 Scientific method and creative supervision, The (Bess Goodykoontz), 675 Secondary education, department of, 481; his¬ torical note, 482; secretary’s minutes, 491. See also 250, 378, 612 Secondarv school principals, department of, 493 ; discussion groups and research section, reference to, 509; historical note, 494 Secretary. National Education Association, annual report of, 959 Segel, David. The construction and interpreta¬ tion of differential ability patterns, 367 Self-supervision by teachers, a practical way out (William T. Melchior), 684 Selke, George A. Training in desirable personal and social traits in prospective teachers, 736 Service which elementary principals should render at this time. The (Elsie E. Green), 392 Seybold. Arthur M. Curriculum changes de¬ manded by the industrial crisis, 488 Sidener, Merle. Interpreting the schools to the public, 569 Significance of measurements of control in meas¬ uring ability. The (S. A. Courtis), 370 Silver, Abba Hillel. Educating children for the new deal, 558 Sincerity in the present situation (H. C. Morri¬ son), 2 32 Skene, Etta C. The contribution of shorthand and typewriting to community needs, 307 Smaller secondary school in the national survey of secondary education, The (Leonard V. Koos), 445 Smith, Esther M. Continuous employment for teachers, 323 Smith, J. R. Teacher rating, 320 Smith, Mrs. Clara Loitman. The physical care of the handicapped child in the public schools, 523 Index 1005 Smith, Payson. Education at the crossroads, 573 Social service, the school as center of, 631 Social studies, department of, 513; historical note, 514; implications of report of the com¬ mission on the social studies of the American Historical Association, 515 Some concepts that result from high-school science teaching and implications from the standpoint of psychology (Elwood D. Heiss), 365 Some forgotten qualities of teachers (Ned H. Dearborn), 723 Some memories of the 1884 meeting of the Na¬ tional Education Association in Madison, Wis. (Mrs. Mary D. Bradford), 237 Some needs and problems of the rural schools (R. S. Ihlenfeldt), 450 Some reminiscences of the Association meeting of 1884 (Carroll G. Pearse), 241 Special education, department of, 521; his¬ torical note, 522 Speech and the hard-of-hearing child (Grace W. Atherton), 430 Speech disorders, treatment of, 525 Spokesmen needed for smaller schools (R. V. Hunkins), 448 Standards and technics for making posters and booklets (Wilber Emmert), 780 State departments of education, function of, 627 State directors, of National Education Associa¬ tion. 1933-34, 822; 1934-35, 828 State festival of high-school music, A (Francis L. Bailey), 437 State organizations, 122 State responsibility and support of public education, 642 Statewide program of music, A (L. A. Woods), 438 Status of the hard-of-hearing child in special education (Agatha Scally), 529 Stimulating and guiding classroom discussion (Horace Kidger), 518 Stoddard, A. J. Administrative problems in the integration of physical education with the gen¬ eral school program, 464 Stoneroad, Rebecca. The elementary-school program of health and physical education, 466 Stratton, Mason A. Report of committee on professional ethics (department of elementary school principals), 395 Strong, Helen M. The United States coast and geodetic survey — its work and problems, 476 Studebaker, M. E. The place of business educa¬ tion in improving community life — as seen by a college teacher of business, 304 Supervision and the democratic way of living (Worth McClure), 687 Superintendence, department of. 535; historical note, 536; yearbook, discussion of, 555 Supervisors and directors of instruction, de^ partment of, 673; historical note, 674; meeting of board of directors of, 691; presentation and evaluation of seventh yearbook (Paul T. Ran¬ kin), 678; (Clifford Woody), 679; prospectus of eighth yearbook, 682 ; secretary’s minutes, 690 Supervisors and teachers of home economics, department of, 693; historical note, 694; sec¬ retary’s minutes, 703 Sutton, Willis A. Report of committee on rural education, 197 Sweet. William E. What education and eco¬ nomic heritage shall we hand to our children?, 108 Task of adult education today, The (Joy Elmer Morgan), 285 Taxation, a sound system of, 640 Teacher rating (J. R. Smith), 320 Teacher tenure (Gertrude Mallory), 318 Teacher tenure in Indiana (H. H. Blanchard), •m Teacher, the school, and the national life, The (Robert M. Hutchins), 17 Teacher training, administration of, 621; dis¬ cussion of problems in, 742; for a changing social order, 752; in desirable personal and social traits, 736; in teachers colleges and in universities and liberal arts colleges, 758; plan¬ ning in, 563 Teacher welfare and educational reconstruction (Frederick Houk Law), 315 Teachers colleges, department of, 705; his¬ torical note, 706; list of accredited institutions, 771 Tenure of teachers, 172, 316, 318, 321, 323, 327 Tennessee valley development, The (George O. Gillingham), 286 Testing the ability to use the index and dictionary (Harriet M. Barthelmess), 380 Tests and measurements, 365, 366, 367, 369, 370, 373, 377, 378, 379, 380, 385, 677 Textbooks and lesson outlines in technical high schools (Benjamin F. Comfort), 508 Thomas. John S. Report of 1934 yearbook, de¬ partment of elementary school principals, 391 Thomas, Mattie E. Providing a more adequate social and recreational life for the rural child, 457 Three hundredth anniversary celebration of American high schools, announcement re¬ garding, 156 Timberlake, Josephine B. The Volta Bureau, a clearing-house. 426 Tolman Frank L. An attainable library pro¬ gram for rural areas, 457 Towns. O. A. Major purposes to be served by the rural high school, 447 Trabue, M. R. Educational needs of unemployed adults, 377 Trained teachers for nature gardens (W. H. D. Meier), 475 ... Training in desirable personal and social traits in prospective teachers (George A. Selke), 736 Training teachers of lip reading (Estelle E. Sam- uelson), 428 Training teachers to use mental hygiene (Carleton Washburne), 713 Treasurer, report of, 947 Treatment of speech disorders (Oskar Diethelm), 525 Trends and accomplishments in the field of immi¬ gration and naturalization (Henry B. Hazard), 276 Trends in kindergarten-primary education today (Julia L. Hahn), 415 Trustees, board of. financial report, 932 ; min¬ utes of meetings of, 919; members of, 1933-34, 821; 1934-35, 827 Tyler, Tracy F. The use of the radio in the schools, 384- Type of instruction demanded by the present edu¬ cational and social crisis, The (E. W. Butter¬ field), 683 Typical state emergency relief program in adult "education, A (Robert C. Deming), 286 United States coast and geodetic survey. The — its work and problems (Helen M. Strong), 476 Use and abuse of standardized tests in the class¬ room (J. Cayce Morrison), 385 Use of objective measures in evaluating instruc¬ tion, The (William A. Brownell). 677 Use of the radio in the schools, The (Tracy F. Tyler), 384 Using maps in the teaching of the social studies (H. Alfred Marchant), 517 Van Slyck, Willard N. Announcement — re¬ garding three hundredth anniversary celebra¬ tion of American high schools, 156 Visions and voyages (Jessie Gray), 91 Visual instruction, department of, 777; his¬ torical note, 778 Vocational education, department of, 789; his¬ torical note, 790. See also 632, 652 1006 National Education Association Vocational education for leisure (Franklin J. Keller), 797 Volta Bureau, a clearing-house, The (Josephine B. Timberlake), 426 Ware, Caroline F. The consumer in the new citizenship, 695 Washburne, Carleton. Training teachers to use mental hygiene, 713 Watkins, Arthur Charles. The functions of secondary schools in the peace of the world, 509 Watkins, Ralph K. An analysis of the. types of scientific method used by the layman in typical out-of-school situations, 473 Watson, Maud E. What contribution has mental hygiene to make to the training of a teacher?, 718 Welcome to Cleveland (Charles H. Lake), 537 What a modern school should do for a modern child (Rollo G. Reynolds), 393 What constitutes a good secondary school and by what standards should it be evaluated? (Francis L. Bacon), 502; (Walter L. Bissell), 504; (Thomas H. Briggs), 500; (George E. Car- rothppO. 506: (Clvde M. Hill), 507; (Charles H. Judd), 497; (Frederick Houk Law), 505 What contribution has mental hygiene to make to the training of a teacher? (Maud E. Wat¬ son), 718 What education and economic heritage shall we hand to our children? (William E. Sweet), 108 What New York City has done and is doing in education for leisure (Ignus O. Hornstein), 291 What should be the aims, functions, and range of a satisfactory program of special education for atypical children? (Leonard Young), 524 What should the administrative women in educa¬ tion do for American citizenship? (Mrs. Russell William Magna), 269 Where are we and where are we going educa¬ tionally? (Edna Morgan), 389 Whitmer, J. W. The rural school problem, 452 Whittenberg, A. L. Report for board of direc¬ tors, 145 Why the public should support its high schools (Joy Elmer Morgan), 489 Wilson, Mrs. Lucy L. W. Outstanding prob¬ lems involved in the trend toward universal secondary education in the United States, 250 Wise and unwise economies in a program of super¬ vision (E. E. Oberholtzer), 686 Withers, John W. Education for the new citizen¬ ship, 697 Women in the citizenship of yesterday, today, and tomorrow (Mrs. Mary R. Beard), 697 Wood. Thomas D. Report of joint committee on health problems in education, 209 Woodruff, Caroline S. The challenge of the new, 41 1 Woods, L. A. A statewide program of music, 438 Woodward, Annie C. Report of committee on international relations. 178 Woody, Clifford. Effects of handedness on re¬ versals in reading, 379; evaluation and appraisal of the yearbook (department of supervisors and directors of instruction), 679 World Federation of Education Associations, 799; historical note, 800 World for which we must educate, The (Glenn Frank), 54 World peace, functions of secondary schools in, 509 Work of a local branch, The — National Council of Administrative Women (Anna E. Clemency), 267 Work of the joint commission on the emergency in education for 1935 (John K. Norton), 30 Wray, Robert P. The relation of motion pictures to standards of morality, 784 Yocum, A. Duncan. The development of demo¬ cratic character as related to the new deal. 252 Young, Leonard. What should be the aims, func¬ tions, and range of a satisfactory program of special education for atypical children?, 524 Young, Paul R. Nature study in everyday life, 478 Youth challenges the nation (Newton D. Baker), 102 Zachry, Caroline B. Personality adjustment of the school teacher, 730 Zook, George F. Federal aid to education, 37; public education and national welfare, 551 ; the education of teachers for a changing social order, 752 s I