’ . . ■ ■ f 'I ■ ■ . .'j, . * m ■ ■ . t ' • ■ - . T J NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES Proceedings OF THE SEVENTIETH ANNUAL MEETING HELD AT ATLANTIC CITY, NEW JERSEY JUNE 25 -JULY 1, 1932 VOLUME 70 Contents of previous issues of the volume of Addresses and Proceedings can be found by consulting the Edu¬ cation index in your library The National Education Association 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W. Washington, D. C. _> ' . FOREWORD The National Education Association takes unusual pride in pre¬ senting this, the Diamond Jubilee Volume of Addresses and Proceed¬ ings. It records the distinct achievements of the Association in its seventy-fifth year. It records the work of a year crowded with many pressing problems met with courage and sacrifice by the teaching profession. It is the official account of the Atlantic City convention, the addresses and reports of which constitute a wealth of material on all the more important phases of presentday education. This volume includes also the proceedings of the Department of Superin¬ tendence convention held in Washington. These sessions constituted an im¬ portant part of the George Washington Bicentennial celebration in the capital city. Leading features of the program were a pilgrimage to Mount Vernon where the delegates were addressed by the President of the United States and the bicentennial pageant, “Wakefield.” Because of the large number of speeches and the increase in departmental material, coupled with the economic necessity of producing a smaller volume this year, we have been obliged to shorten all of the speeches. Owing to the nature of the various subjects treated, it has been impossible to reduce them in proportion to original length. We have endeavored to abstract them in such a way as to present best the most essential material in minimum space. The volume is released with the confident hope that it will be utilized extensively for general reference purposes and also for careful study of educational trends and developments. Joy Elmer Morgan, Director, Ernest R. Bryan, Division of Publications. Assistant Director. 131 CONTENTS GENERAL SESSIONS Address of Welcome — Boyer . 17 Response to Address of Welcome — Adair . 17 The Future of Radio in Education — Cooper . 19 A Forward Look in Education — Smith . 22 To Have or To Be — Van Loon . 29 Memorial — “They Softly Walk” — Woodruff . 31 The Great Teacher — Hughes . 33 Living for the Ages — Gray . 39 Character Education of Tomorrow — Sockman . 44 America’s New Opportunity and Responsibility — Winship . 48 The Place of Education in Solving Social Problems — Butterfield . 49 Illiteracy as a Factor in the Crime Situation — Stewart . 52 The Challenge to the School — Lawes . 57 Firm Foundations — Hale . 60 Meeting the Emergency in Education — Bogan . 66 Is Education the Jonah of the Industrial Crisis? — Sapiro . 70 How Professional Organizations Help in Solving the Present Emergency — Rosier . 73 Managed Money and Unmanaged Men — Foster . 78 You and Your Government — Reed . 83 Teaching Local History — Packard . 88 Modern Methods and Current Practise in Reading — Cordts . 91 Among New Books Helpful to Teachers — MacGregor . 97 The Present Emergency and Enrichment of Adult Life — Moyer . 104 Forward Looking Movements in International Relations — Woodward . 106 Objectives and Methods in the New Health Education — Small . 110 Building Personality in the Classroom — Myers . 113 Possibilities of Visual-Sensory Aids in Education — Hohan . 118 Safeguarding Our Rural Schools — Lewis . 122 Hostages to the Future — Cook . 124 Seth Parker and Radio — Lord . 126 The Most for Your Money — Rogers . 129 The Fight for the Rights of Children in the Period of Depression — Strayer. . . . 132 The Teacher’s Code in the Present Crisis — Joynes . . 135 Research and Ability Grouping — Mort . 137 Some Vital Considerations in Homogeneous Grouping — McGaughy . 139 Ability Grouping from a Teacher’s Standpoint — Aiken . 141 Research and the Best Class Size — Carr . 143 Size of the Class from the Teacher’s Standpoint — Holt . 145 Education and Future Planning — Engelhardt . 147 How Milwaukee Has Held the Line — Potter . 149 The Illinois Problem and Its Solution — Moore . 151 How We Are Meeting the Emergency in Kentucky — Richmond . . . 153 How Virginia Is Meeting the Emergency — Heatwole . 155 Meeting the Present Emergency in Education in Iowa — Samuelson . 157 How California Is Meeting the Emergency — Hanna . 159 The Office of Education in the Present Emergency — Goodykoontz . 160 The Cause and Cure of Human Stupidity — Pitkin . 163 A Survey of the National Education Association — Norton . 165 The New Department of Secondary Education — Lewis . . 169 Helping Pupils To Choose a Vocation — Melchior . 170 [5] 6 National Education Association The New Day and the New Physical Education — Rogers . 173 The Practical Side of the New Education — Cooley . 174 Vocational Education and the Present Crisis — Sutton . 176 Definite Benefits of National, State, and Local Teacher Organizations — Cloud . . 177 The Duty of Associations toward Unemployed and Aged Teachers — Pyrtle . . . . 180 Building an Effective Program — Kelley . 181 What a Modern School Should Do for a Modern Child — Reynolds . 182 Character Education in the New Schools — McGuire . 184 Education and the World Viewpoint — Thomas . 186 The National Survey of Secondary Education — Edmonson . 190 REPORTS OF COMMITTEES Report of the Committee on the Economic Status of the Teacher — Buckingham . . 197 Report of the Joint Committee of the National Education Association and the National Congress of Parents and Teachers — Langworthy . 199 Report of the Legislative Commission — Finegan . 200 Report of Findings of the National Advisory Committee on Education — Mann. . 203 Report of the Committee of One Hundred on Retirement Allowances — Force. . . 207 Report of the Committee on Social-Economic Objectives — Kelly . 208 Report of the Committee to Cooperate with the National Association of Teach¬ ers in Colored Schools — Newbold . 210 Report of the Committee on Resolutions — Saunders . 212 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION Historical Note . 222 Educational Progress — Crabtree . 223 How Education Can Assume Its Responsibility for Social Betterment — Kelly 225 Plan for a National Education Institute — Evans . 235 Report of Progress of the National Survey of the Education of Teachers — Evenden . 238 Progress of the National Survey of Secondary Education — Koos . 241 Freedom in Teaching — Linville . 242 Freedom in Teaching — Baldwin . 244 Freedom, Culture, Social Planning, and Leadership — Horne . 246 Secretary’s Minutes . 246 THE DEPARTMENT OF ADMINISTRATIVE WOMEN IN EDUCATION Historical Note . 262 DEPARTMENT OF ADULT EDUCATION Historical Note . 264 New Phases of Adult Education To Meet the Present Economic Situation — Siegel . 265 The Importance of Adult Education — Campbell . 265 Adult Education for Training and Enlightenment — Broome . 267 What Is Ahead for the Individual? — Castle . 268 Some Expensive Fallacies in American Education — Grace . 270 Report of the Committee on Resolutions . 272 National Commission on the Enrichment of Adult Life . 273 What the National Congress of Parents and Teachers Is Doing to Enrich Adult Life — Reeve . 273 Contents 7 A Survey of What Massachusetts Is Doing in Adult Education — Stearns . 276 The Utilization of Trained and Untrained Talent in the Recreation of Music— Fisher . 280 DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION Historical Note . 284 What Each and Every Citizen Should Know about Business — G alloway . 285 Business Positions and High-School Graduates — Nicol . 286 Looking Ahead in Bookkeeping and Accounting Instruction — Bowman . 287 Looking Ahead in Shorthand and Secretarial Subjects — Reynolds . 288 Looking Ahead in Office Practise Instruction — Goodfeltow . 290 Looking Ahead in Business Education — Stevenson . 291 Looking Ahead in Junior Business Training Instruction — Nichols . 292 Looking Ahead in Social-Business Instruction in Secondary Schools — Tonne... 294 Possible Services of the Department of Business Education to Business Teach¬ ers — Bullock . 295 Report of the Constitution Committee — Reynolds . 297 Secretary’s Minutes . 301 DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS Historical Note . 304 Kindergarten Experiences, the Beginning of Social Relationship — Jones . 305 The Activity Program, Its Significance in Enlarging Human Sympathies — Allard . 306 Social Studies Interpreted for a Radio Generation — Plunkett . 307 Utilfeing Individual Differences for a New Age — Barnes . 308 Teacher Personality, the Integrating Force in the New Education — Gray . 309 Character Building in Our High School thru the Literature of Our Times — Law 310 Character Building thru the History of Our Times — O’Connor . 312 The Development of Character thru Extracurriculum Activities — Tarbell . 313 Character Education thru Nature Study and Recreation — Kerstetter . 315 Character Building in Our High Schools — Hubbard . 316 Vital Needs in Progressive Rural Education — Blair . 317 The Child-Centered School — Goldberg . 318 The Need for Progressive Ideas in Our Rural Schools — Metzgar . 319 The Value of Social Science in Education — Hurley . 320 An Activity Program in a Rural School — Lippincott . 321 Are the Rural Schools Keeping Pace with the Times? — Epston . 323 Salvaging for Citizenship — Bailey . 324 Auditorium Values in Character Building — T atman . . 325 The Social Responsibility of Sub-Normal Children in Development Rooms Stevens . 327 Mental Hygiene in the Classroom — Zachry . 328 Factors Outside the Classroom Wffiich Affect the Child’s Success in School ft ay 329 The Community Looks at the School — Boardman . 330 Secretary’s Minutes . 332 DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN Historical Note . 338 Advice to Advisers on Meeting the Requirements of our Changing Order Gilson . 339 Resume of Discussion of the Problems of a Differentiated Curriculum for Women — Goodsell . 348 What Is Our Relationship to the High-School Personnel Service? — Strang . 351 8 National Education Association DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Historical Note . The Interview as a Research Devic e— Hartmann . Studies in Reducing the Variability of Marks Given on Essay Examinations- Sims . Improving the True-False Examination — Barton . The Measurement of Word Meanings— Gifford . . Some Methods and Results in Occupational Clinics for Adults — Trabue A General Educational Method Suggested by Recent Research— Gates' ' Equating College Scores— Otis . National Survey of School Finance — Mort . The Teacher Supply and Demand Situation— Anderson. ...... \ \ ... .... \ ’ ’ . * The Effect of Total Teaching-Load on the Efficiency of Instruction in High- School English — Holy . A Statewide Plan for the Administrative Organization of the Public School System — Dawson . The Present Status of Ability Grouping in the Elementary Grades — Ayer . The Ideal Director of Research — Buckingham . A Survey of Present Training Courses for Research Workers— Tyler ...... A Critical Survey of Public-School Courses of Study Published 1929-1931 _ Harap . An Objective Analysis of Children’s Books— Washburne . ‘ ’ Child Reactions as a Basis for Teaching Picture Appreciation— Pechstein . Practical School Economies — Miller . Needed Researches in Public-School Finance— Simpson . A Study of the Most Serious Problem Teachers — Kyte . A Method of Evaluating the Effectiveness of a Teacher-Training Program— Coxe . Gains Made in Tool Subjects by Normal School Students during a Two-Year Course — Masters . 358 359 359 360 361 362 362 363 364 364 365 366 367 367 368 369 370 371 371 372 373 374 375 DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Historical Note . Why Do We Chase Panaceas in Education Hubbard . . Geography with Meaning — Odhner . Looking Ahead for Teachers — Mossman . Interesting the Community in Character Building— Bradford . Making a Metropolis Health Conscious — Bildersee . Mental Hygiene’s Challenge to Our Schools— Zorbaugh . Secretary’s Minutes . 378 379 386 393 396 397 399 401 DEPARTMENT OF KlNDERGARTEN-PRIMARY EDUCATION Historical Note . Demonstration of Superior Children Followed by a Discussion of the Problem of Their Kindergarten-Primary Education— Witmer . Art in Early Childhood — Blai . DEPARTMENT OF LIP READING Historical Note . Rochester’s Program for the Hard-of-Hearing Child — Ball. Conservation of Hearing — Peck . 416 417 418 Contents 9 Working for Stable Profit Growth in the Education of the Hard of Hearing— Bryant . 420 DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION Historical Note . 424 Rural Education in 1960 — A Prophecy — Snedden . 425 Agencies Contributing to Rural Areas — Presentation of the Problem — Pierce. . . 425 Agencies Contributing to Education in Rural Areas — The Church — Wilson. . . . 428 Agencies Contributing to Education in Rural Areas — The Library — Lathrop.. 429 Agencies Contributing to Education in Rural Areas — Health Organizations — Truss ell . 43 \ Agencies Contributing to Education in Rural Areas — Boys and Girls Clubs — Nefflen . 433 The Responsibility of Teacher-Training Institutions during the Depression — Palmer . 435 Classroom Procedures in the Elementary School — Hicks . 438 Classroom Procedures in the High School — Daniel . 440 Significance of Modern Trends in Education for the Future of Rural Schools — Manahan . 443 Pre-Service Training of Rural Teachers — Carney . 443 An Experiment in the In-Service Preparation of Rural Teachers— Russell . 446 Teacher Preparation as Seen by the Supervisor of Rural Children — Jamison.. 449 Secretary’s Minutes . 45 j DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION Historical Note . 455 Health as a Total Concept — Lloyd . 457 Creative Activities in Physical Education — Shelly . 457 Progress in Health Education during the Past Year — Perrin . 459 Adjusting Health Education to the Newer Trends in Educational Philosophy — Haisley . 461 Mental Health and Play — Richards . 462 The New Day and the New Physical Education — Rogers . 464 Secretary’s Minutes . 465 DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION Historical Note . 46g The Philosophy Underlying Nature Education — Schmucker . 469 What Shall Be the Science Program for the Junior and Senior High School? — Haworth . 470 The Cultural Value of Biology in Secondary Education — Benedict . 471 The Most Important Phase of Nature Study in the Schools of Pittsburgh— Hollinger . 473 Nature Education at the Brooklyn Botanic Garden — Shaw . 474 The Supervision of Elementary Science — Persing . 475 The School Garden — The Laboratory of Nature — Pyrtle . 477 Plants in the School Garden Laboratory — Hottes . 477 The School Garden as a Nature Laboratory — Mueller . 478 Secretary’s Minutes . • . 479 10 National Education Association DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Historical Note . 482 Vocational Guidance in the High School of Tomorrow — Ginn . 483 Charting Individual Aptitudes and Achievements — Packard . 484 The Importance of Character Education in the High School of Tomorrow — Rosier . 485 Making Social Adjustments in the High School of Tomorrow — Steinhausen . . . . 486 Providing for Individual Differences in the High School of Tomorrow — Wilson 487 Charting the Future of Secondary Education in the Large Urban Centers of the United States — Campbell . 488 Charting the Future of Secondary Education in Rural Commmunities of the United States — Ferriss . 490 Articulation of the Junior and Senior High Schools — Bosshart . 491 Secretary’s Minutes . 491 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Historical Note . 494 A Program for Secondary Education — Briggs . 495 Educational Interpretation for the Secondary School — Farley . 496 Aims and Activities of Supervisors — Billett . 498 A Plan for Cooperative Supervision — Seybold . 499 Guidance Programs in Secondary Schools — Reavis . 500 An Organized Guidance Program in Secondary Schools — Allen . 502 Tests for a Club Sponsor — Johnston . 503 Study Habits of Excellent and of Deficient Pupils — Bacon . 505 Obstacles to Pupil Adjustment in the Secondary Schools — Boardman . 507 Class Size — Ewan . 509 The Adequacy of the Maximum Salary for Secondary School Teachers in a City System — Ewing . 510 The Requirements of Mental Hygiene in the Secondary School — Freeman . 512 Relative Merits of the 6-4-4 Plan of Organization — Zook . 516 Relative Merits of the 6-3-3-2 Plan of Organization — Eells . 518 The Place of Technical and Vocational Education in Secondary Schools — Wilson . 520 Secondary Education during the Next Decade from the Point of View of the Principal — Eversull . 521 Secondary Education during the Next Decade from the Point of View of the Professor of Education — Long . 522 Extracurriculum Activities during the Next Decade — Rowland . 523 The High-School Teacher Surplus during Next Decade — Bristow . 523 DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL STUDIES Historical Note . 526 Looking Ahead in the Teaching of Civics — Skinner . 527 Fact and Philosophy — Morehouse . 527 The Teaching of Controversial Issues in the Social Studies — Hamm . 528 Teaching of Controversial Issues in the Social Studies — Ammarell . 529 The Obligation of Social Studies to the Reconstruction of Our Educational Program — Morrisett . 530 The Teaching of Controversial Issues in the Social Studies A driance . 531 Secretary’s Minutes . 532 Contents 11 DEPARTMENT OF SPECIAL EDUCATION Historical Note . 534 Training Teachers for Handicapped Children — Elliott . 535 Centralization Versus De-Centralization in the Education of Exceptional Chil¬ dren — Coburn . 536 Centralization Versus De-Centralization in One School for Exceptional Chil¬ dren — Anderson . 537 The Curriculum and Exceptional Children — The Gifted Child — Ball . 538 The Department of Lip Reading of the National Education Association — Clark 539 Curriculum Problems in Sight-Saving Classes — Hathaway . 541 DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE Historical Note . 544 Introducing the Report of the Character Education Commission — Threlkeld. ... 545 Character Education from the Point of View of Psychology — Freeman . 547 Character Education and the Life of the School — Norton . 552 Commemorating the Birth of George Washington . 557 The Yearbook as a Workbook — Glenn . 557 Education, the Nation’s Safeguard — Judd . 560 Pilgrimage to Mount Vernon . 568 Welcome to Virginia — Lecky . 568 Welcome to Mount Vernon — Towner . 569 Greetings from a Patriotic Shrine — Broome . 569 A Message to Boys and Girls from Mount Vernon — Bogan . 570 Greetings — Hoover . 572 Education for Leisure — Jacks . 573 Leisure and National Security — Russell . 575 The Saving Power of Leisure — Cutten . 579 The Crisis Defined — Broome . 584 Adequate Support of Education, the Condition of an Effective Service — Strayer 588 How Shall the Crisis Be Met by School Officials? — IV eglein . 591 Tax Reform in Relation to the Financing of Education — Haig . 596 How One State Has Met the Problem of Financing Education — Dearmont . 602 From Past to Present — Blair . 609 American Education Today — Graves . 615 A Program for Tomorrow — Suzzallo . 619 Intangible Values — Hale . 628 Literature in Education — Finley . 632 Art in Education — Taft . 636 Music in Education — Damrosch . 640 Education for a Changing Social World — Sncdden . 641 Education for a Changing Economic World — LaFollette . 648 The Interdependence of Educational Institutions — Hutchins . 650 Making Democracy Safe — IVilbur . 653 The National Advisory Committee and the Office of Education — Cooper . 655 Economic Legislation and the Schools — Fess . 659 An Organized Recreational Program — Maroney . 662 Closing Ceremonies . 667 Secretary’s Minutes . 668 Report of the Committee on Resolutions . 671 Report of the Committee on Lay Relations . 677 12 National Education Association DEPARTMENT OF SUPERVISORS AND DIRECTORS OF INSTRUCTION Historical Note . ggQ A Prospectus of the Fifth Yearbook of the Department — Neal . 681 Principles of Stimulating, Releasing, and Capitalizing the Creative Energies of Teachers — Cox . gg2 Supervisory Procedures for Releasing the Creative Energy of Teachers— Ayer 683 Supervisory Problems Involved in Changing from the Traditional to the New Elementary School — Porter . 534 The Supervision of Practise Teaching for the New School — Steele . 685 Supervision in the Progressive Secondary School — Fowler . 686 The Responsibility of Supervision for the Use of the Silent and Sound Motion Picture — Finegan . The Responsibility of Supervision for the Use of Other Visual Aids to Instruc¬ tion— Abrams . 688 The Responsibility of Supervision for the Use of the Radio — Koon . 690 Supervisory Problems in the School Organized on the Cooperative Group In¬ struction Plan — Chase . 691 Creative Aspects of Supervision — Heyl . 692 DEPARTMENT OF SUPERVISORS AND TEACHERS OF HOME ECONOMICS Historical Note . Home Economics and Life Attitudes — Wile . Teaching Family Relationships in the Present Crisis — Edson . Plans for Nutrition Instruction in the Public Schools — Greer . Opportunities for Individual Self-Expression and Satisfactions in Home Life Today — Miller . Satisfactions of Solvency — Bigelow . Home Activities for General Education in An Integrated School Program — W inchell . Secondary Education during the Next Decade — Long . First Things First in Education — Adams . 696 697 699 701 702 703 704 706 708 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHERS COLLEGES Historical Note . 714 President’s Annual Address — Whitley . 715 What Constitutes an Efficient State Program in Teacher Training from the Viewpoint of the State? — Meredith . 719 What Constitutes an Efficient State Program in Teacher Training from the Viewpoint of the Teacher-Training Institutions? — West . 724 What Constitutes an Efficient State Program in Teacher Training from the Viewpoint of the Public? — Adams . 728 What May Teacher-Training Institutions in the United States Learn from Sim¬ ilar Institutions in Other Countries? — Alexander . 736 What Should Be the Attitude of Teachers Colleges toward Regional Rating Agencies? — Fair . . 741 What Services May Be Expected of the American Association of Teachers Col¬ leges as a Rating Agency? — Morgan . 744 Our Standards of Accrediting — Alger . 743 What Criteria, If Any, for Selecting Students for Teacher-Training Institu¬ tions Should Be Set Up? — Townsend . 753 What Can Be Accomplished during the Period of Training in Eliminating Those Unfit for the Teaching Profession? — Swain . 755 Contents 13 How May Teacher-Training Institutions Best Serve the Public in Teacher Placement Service? — Royce . 760 What May Be Done by Teachers Colleges and Normal Schools in Followup Work with Their Graduates To Insure the Best Type of Service to the Public? — Diemer . 763 What Extra-Mural Relationships of Teachers Colleges and Normal Schools Should be Developed ? — Gammage . 771 Standards for Accrediting Teachers Colleges and Normal Schools . . . 778 List of Accredited Institutions . 783 DEPARTMENT OF VISUAL INSTRUCTION Historical Note . 788 The Value of Visual-Sensory Aids in the Social Studies as a Means of Pro¬ moting International Understanding — JVinchell . 789 Core Course of a Visual-Sensory Aids Program — Emmert . 790 Teaching Arithmetic Combinations with Stillfilm — Zyve . 793 The Value of Visual-Sensory Aids in Industrial Education — Williams . 793 Report on Teacher-Training Work in Museums — Ramsey . 79+ Report of Resolutions Committee — Balcom . 796 Secretary’s Minutes . 797 DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Historical Note . 802 Trends in Vocational Education — Blackwell . 803 Social Trends in American Life — Manny . 805 Significant Trends and Developments in the Field of Home Economics — Baylor 806 Changing Problems in Vocational Education — O’Leary . 808 Our Job — Standing at the Crossroads — Cooley . 808 Measuring Effectiveness of Instruction in Vocational Agriculture — Smith . 810 What Constitutes a Sane Program of Vocational Education for Rural Amer¬ ica? — Holloway . 812 Hotel Service Training — Caley . 814 ASSOCIATION AL RECORDS AND INFORMATION Act of Incorporation . 819 Bylaws . ^2^ Calendar of Meetings . 83 5 Officers for 1931-32 . ^87 Officers for 1932-33 . 843 Committees for 1931-32 . 850 Minutes of the Twelfth Representative Assembly . 865 Minutes of the Board of Directors . 895 Minutes of the Executive Committee . Minutes of the Board of Trustees . 910 Report of the Auditors . 912 Report of the Treasurer . Report of the Budget Committee . 926 The Secretary’s Report . 9^ Report of the Necrology Committee . 952 The Twelfth Representative Assembly . 956 N. E. A. Membership — 1931 . Index . 981 I . - . ' , • ■> ■ General Sessions The Attentie City convention marked the seventy- htth anniversary of the founding of the National ii-ducation Association and appropriate recomi- tion was accorded this “diamond jubilee” in the strong program presented by President Florence •if f he convention, however, was concerned more with the future than with the past as is shown by the theme, “Looking Ahead in Education.” The general sessions and the impressive George Washington pageant took place in the magnificent Atlantic City auditorium which housed also the vari¬ ous educational exhibits. Nearby hotels along the boardwalk were utilized for group and department meetings. The city was most hospitable to its guests and some of its famous recreational facilities were made available for the delegates. In addition to the general sessions and the depart¬ mental meetings, the following groups met during the time of the convention American Classical League, Columbia Scholastic Press Association, Con¬ ference on Art Education, Conference of Members of Boards of Education, National Association of Jour¬ nalism Advisers, National Association of State Secre¬ taries, National Association of Student Government ^cers National Commission on the Enrichment of Adult Life, National Conference on Student Par- ticipation, National Congress of Parents and Teach¬ ers, National Council of Administrative Women in Education (now an N. E. A. Department), National Council of Geography Teachers, National Council of Teachers of English, National Federation of Modern Language Teachers, National Geographic Society, Rational League of Teachers Associations, National Safety Council, National Vocational Guidance Asso¬ ciation, and the School Garden Association of America. / [ 16 1 ADDRESS OF WELCOME CHARLES B. BOYER, SUPERINTENDENT EMERITUS, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, ATLANTIC CITY, N. J. It is a pleasure for me to say a word of welcome to the teachers of this nation. Your meeting is for the purpose of discussing many of the funda¬ mentals, many of the pressing needs of education of the present day. I am sure that we all realize that whatever we wish to put into the nation we must put into the nation’s schools. Whether this nation shall be intelligent or ignorant, whether it shall be decent or criminal, whether it shall be tolerant or bigoted, whether it shall be charitable or selfish, whether it shall be cultured or boorish, depends upon the educational program of the nation. You as teachers and officials in all lines of school work of this nation are assembled here this coming week for the purpose of formulating, in these trying times, a program of national education. I hope that that program will be so constructive, so inspiring, so full of all that which is necessary that the childhood, the man¬ hood, and womanhood of tomorrow may not be robbed of that which is essen¬ tially due them as children grown to be the men and women of this nation in the years to come. The public schools are the schools of this nation. Make them put into the schools that which this nation should have in the future. I wish for you, one and all, working in your lines of work, courage — courage to stand by and defend the school system of this country for the sake of the boys and girls, the men and women of tomorrow. Madam President, I present to you, at the request of the Mayor of this city, this key which is symbolic of hospitality, and I hope that the hospitality shown you and all your workers this week will be of such a type that you will leave Atlantic City filled with the spirit of going forth and doing that part of the work essentially necessary to the carrying on and building up of the school systems of this nation. RESPONSE TO ADDRESS OF WELCOME CORNELIA ADAIR, PAST PRESIDENT OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIA¬ TION ; AND PRINCIPAL, FRANKLIN SCHOOL, RICHMOND, VA. We are not only glad to come to Atlantic City because it is a beautiful place, with its lovely beach, its enticing Boardwalk, its comfortable accom¬ modations, but all of us have known of New Jersey and Atlantic City as an educational center. People who come from some of the other states can have it in their hearts sometimes to envy New Jersey with its splendid educational- legislation, its tenure laws, its salary scales, and its retirement measures. We have studied them with profit for a number of years. Atlantic City and New Jersey as a whole have led us professionally. We are glad to come to Atlantic City for all these reasons. It is good for us to come together at this time. We are on the eve of many phanges, social and economic ; so we need to come to confer, to pool our knowl- [ 17] 18 National Education Association edge, so that we teachers may do our part. We have heard it said very often, even by our friend, Dr. Dewey, that when anything goes wrong you can blame the public schools. Well, perhaps that is true. When we stop and think, don’t we touch every home in America? Is there anyone who is not touched in some way by the public schools ? We teachers have two big tasks — we are citi¬ zens, we must do our part, we must help to see our way clear thru this emer¬ gency; then we have to prepare the people who are going to lead us ten, twenty, thirty years from now. I am glad that Mr. Bo3^er gave us that message of greeting. It is wonderful to have the record that he has, of forty-one years of service. Think what that has meant to Atlantic City. Think what it has meant to New Jersey and to all of us that we can have that example. The National Education Association has been growing wonderfully in the last twenty years. In 1907 our membership was not quite 5,000; in 1927 it was 181,000; in 1931 it was 220,000. It is interesting to see what New Jersey has been doing in the years our organization has been growing. I found that New Jersey membership in 1907 was 198; in 1927, 7,173; in 1931, 10,359. New Jersey is eleventh in percentage of N. E. A. membership of the states in the Union. This growth means that teachers are thinking professionally, and that they believe that cooperation is the keynote of success. But there is another reason for the growth. W e believe in cooperation, but the Association has also been growing in service. I don’t know how many of you have grown up in the Association as I have done, because I have been more or less an officer now for twelve — oh, it will be fifteen years soon — and so I have watched it grow. I have also watched the service of the Association grow from one or two departments at headquarters until now we have that great organization with its many departments studying just as all groups that are helping to build up this country are studying. Every business organization does its research work. We, too, have our research department. Every business organization has its official organ ; we have our Journal ; we have our bulletins ; we have our heads of departments, specialists in their line ; we have committees that are studying all the work of all the professional interests. We come together twice a year, many of us to the winter meeting, many more to the summer meeting, and study the problems of the Association. We have learned that we can get together and by pooling our strength can accomplish more. I want to thank Mr. Boyer again not only personally but in the name of the 220,000 teachers of the organization for that cordial welcome. I want to thank the teachers of Atlantic City and vicinity for the hard work that they have done in preparing for this organization. We educators know that we have a big job, but we also know what that means, and I am going to give you my favorite quotation — I don’t know what I would do without it. It is this: “A task without vision is drudgery and a vision without a task is a dream, but a task and a vision is joy unspeakable.” General Sessions 19 THE FUTURE OF RADIO IN EDUCATION WILLIAM JOHN COOPER, U. S. COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. There are times when I wish I could see ahead and pick out the things which are coming. This is one of them. It would be a great thing to be a real prophet on an occasion of this kind. Inasmuch as that is not possible, the best I can do is to guess at what the future may bring forth. I think your guess, or anybody else’s, is as good as mine as to what the future holds. We are told that in Russia everyone between the ages of eight and twelve is in the first class of the labor school, and that they are taught by a “complex” method, that is a kind of “project” method. I wonder whether or not the radio will not eventually bring to pass something similar in this country. If we could learn our reading and writing and arithmetic by studying about real things in the actual world, it seems to me that we could do them better. And, later on, in our junior high-school course, perhaps, if we could bring into the classroom radio advertising, let us say, advertising upon bread, and could subject that advertising to real tests of accuracy that would take into con¬ sideration the matter of nourishment and the healthfulness of the product, what a great thing it would be for the school as well as for the use of the product. Perhaps after a time this would result in one particular brand of bread having the lead of all the others. Or if we could handle the advertising of toothpaste in this fashion and subject that advertising to verification of the various claims made ; if we could also check the facts which were not stated, perhaps we would find after all that there is little more to toothpaste than the mere soap, and that anyone who was willing to have the taste of soap in his mouth would be saved all this outlay. It is this intermediate step which is hard for a school which exists at the expense of all the people to take, for it seems to favor some persons above others and therefore appears to be unfair. If radio advertising is actually treated to such methods, the “ballyhoo” and exaggera¬ tions would be shown up. One of the first things, then, which I think will come to pass will be that the radio will bring into the classroom the actual outside world. At the pres¬ ent time we are afraid to let this happen. There are men who are interested in what goes on in a classroom and who are interested in classroom advertis¬ ing. They would advertise their own goods in school if they could do it with¬ out getting caught. But a man who has nothing to gain from the use of a classroom does not want someone else to gain. Accordingly, teachers must be careful. Another thing which I think radio may bring to pass is to make teachers more expert. At the present time there are a great many teachers in the schools who are not adapted to broadcasting. Radio demands experts experts in the sense of personalities and experts in the sense of people who have good voices. Those who have these qualities are said to possess radio personalities. At the present time not enough people are required for broadcasting to use more than a small portion of all who teach. From a great many teachers it is possible 20 National Education Association to make selections for broadcasting. It seems to me that as radio develops it will compel teachers to be better prepared for this work. Nowadays we have Mi. Walter Damrosch teaching music and music happens to be one of the subjects which lends itself best to teaching over the radio. I can see no reason why we should not have in each important city in this country one Walter Damrosch who will teach all the children by radio, and then there will be a number of other teachers only slightly inferior to him who will do the check¬ up work. I can also see where there can be one individual in each city to teach the history and another to teach the geography and another the arith¬ metic, etc. I can see a great place for the radio at the junior high-school level of in¬ struction. Here is a school which is new and is as yet without tradition. It is not yet twenty-five years old in cities where it has existed longest. One of the fields which is at the present time crying for recruits is the guidance field. he American School of the Air has made some experiments in this field with a moderate degree of success. I believe, however, that much more can be done and will be done. This field is admirably adapted to treatment by states. I can see no reason at all why there may not come a time when there may be in each state someone who may speak intelligently and interestingly upon the law, the ministry, medicine, teaching, business, and the various trades, until all of the professions and vocations have been covered. Let us consider law for example. If someone can set forth the advantages and the disadvantages of this profession somewhat after this fashion : The legal profession is very old. It has long had a big following because it seemed to open up paths to political opportunity and business management. At the present time it may be said to be overcrowded. There are more than 122,000 practising it at the present time, of which over 17,000 are women. This means about one lawyer to every five hundred adults, which is clearly too many if they were all practising law. In the past generations there have been places for men who have finished a high- school course, entered a law office and worked, attending law school in the afternoon and evening. The figures which we have been able to gather lately, however, show that there is a strong tendency for the new lawyers to be college graduates. In gen¬ eral, this means six years of work, three years being in a way preparatory and three years strictly legal study, leading generally to the degree of LL.B. Some nineteen institutions now grant graduate degrees of LL.M. and J.D. There is a strong tendency today toward a special doctor’s degree in law in the best institutions. Tuition at law school will vary greatly from almost nothing in some of the state law schools to $400 per year at Harvard, Cornell, and Pennsylvania., and $450 at 1 ale. The average is about $212. If one considers that he will go to an average law school he will have for tuition, $212; for board, at $1 per day, $270; for room, at 50 cents per day, $135; for laundry, at $1 per week, $36; and for books approxi¬ mately $47, making $700 the cost of his education for the year. After he has graduated from the law school he still has the bar examination to pass. In 1930, 19,830 candidates took the state bar examination. Only 48 percent of these passed. If you are interested in this particular subject, I would suggest that you obtain a fourteen-page leaflet from the U. S. Office of Education giving you a list of the law schools in the various states of the Union together with the length of their course and their charge for tuition. General Sessions 21 If this is done and carefully selected references are given for pupils to read, I can see where boys and girls will be much more intelligent than they are at the present time. When all the fields of guidance have been covered, some attention can be given to English and to the great masterpieces of literature, to history and the significant movements in history, and even to the teaching of foreign language. In the fourth place, one may use the radio as a supplement to the corre¬ spondence school lesson. In some of the provinces of Australia the correspond¬ ence school lesson has been rather highly developed, and it is possible there to teach a child if two lessons have been given with a teacher. From that time on it is possible for the child to carry himself. I do not know of any reason why a great many of our children located in sparsely settled areas and in the passes of the mountains may not be taught by correspondence supple¬ mented by radio. There could be a teacher located in the state capital, in the state superintendent’s office, with the number of pupils that she would have if she were stationed in a school district, teaching these children very well by mechanical devices. I think in this way every child will in time be brought under the instruction of some teacher and that all children capable of becom¬ ing literate will be made literate. Likewise, there are some children whose parents are in the employ of the federal government and are located either where there is no school at all, as at lighthouses, or in the missionary field in foreign countries, who can be served by the radio. It may be that out of this will come a unifying force in some of our subjects of instruction. Instead of forty-eight state points of view there may come to these children a national point of view. This in itself may not be wholly an unmixed evil. Among the facts to be kept in mind is that education is something to be achieved and not something that can be given. “Accordingly, it requires activ¬ ity rather than passivity, and radio tends to passivity. No one has stated it more forcefully and epigrammatically than Elbert Hubbard. ‘Education, said he, ‘is a conquest, not a bequest — it cannot be given, it must be achieved. The value of an education lies not in its possession, but in the struggle to •mi secure it. This will make it desirable for us to divide subjects into those which espe¬ cially require ear training and those which especially require eye training. I have in mind the distinction which we can see at once between music and the other fine arts. In music much attention must be given to proper development of the ear, while in such a matter as painting much of the attention must be given to training the eye. If we will keep this distinction in mind I believe a great deal will be gained. Consequently, much success should be had in the teaching of music, history, geography, literature, and the languages generally. Less success may be had with painting, sculpturing, drawing, engineering, mathematics, and in general, the natural sciences. How much time will we want for the work that we have to do ? This is a field as yet in which there is no definite conclusion. The last time it was dis- 1 " Education on the Air.” Second Yearbook of the Institute for Education by Radio. Ed. By Josephine H. MacLatchy, Ohio State University, Columbus, 1931. p. 142. 22 National Education Association cussed I think was in October, 1930. At that time there were called together in Chicago about sixty representatives of the radio world. Most of those stations represented then were giving their time exclusively, or nearly exclu¬ sively, to education. At that time a motion was made to ask for 25 percent of all the possible radio time for education. This motion was defeated without apparent effort. A motion to ask for 10 percent of the time was carried and then reconsidered. A motion asking for 15 percent of the time was, as I remember, unanimously passed. So far then the educational people who are interested in radio have asked for 15 percent of the radio time. Undoubtedly they cannot use it at the present time. Whether they can or cannot in the immediate future remains to be seen. There is no doubt, however, that this much of the time ought to be kept from falling into hands which will not return it and for this purpose a committee is at work. It is attempting to get Congress to act in the matter. A bill has been before Congress during the present session but it seems that nothing will be done. Whether one may count on a bill passing at the next session remains to be seen. At the present time, therefore, we must say that so far as progress in education is concerned there has been little during the past two years, and so far as the time on the air is concerned it appears that in its present state education has enough time. Insofar as the future is con¬ cerned it appears that the educators themselves desire 15 percent, but no case has been made to show that they are or are not entitled to this much. Probably during this period of depression work in radio is still going on. It is doubtful, however, whether much work in radio education is in progress. If ways and means are found of using radio for the better education of people, doubtless they will go into effect as soon as the depression is passed. At least it will probably be five or ten years before we can tell exactly what we want. A FORWARD LOOK IN EDUCATION HENRY LESTER SMITH, TREASURER OF THE N.E.A. ) AND DEAN, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF INDIANA, BLOOMINGTON, IND. A progressing social order and a changing school must join hands and keep in step. The purpose of the school is to plow out the roots in the path of social progress and to lay and maintain an adequate road bed. The school of yester- dav that can be recognized today is a dving school. The main struggle in all civilizations has been a struggle to determine where to promote freedom and where to establish restraints or how to get and maintain the proper balance between freedom and restraint. This struggle has gone on in every institution of society. To what extent shall there be coercion? To what extent liberty? Control is essential for a degree of stability that will prevent disintegration and a possible ultimate destruction. Individual initiative and freedom are essential to growth, devel¬ opment, advancement. What are the kinds of control to draw upon in an attempt to check unde¬ sirable freedom? First we have those external controls. Laws are representa- General Sessions 23 tive of them. Indoctrination is another kind of control. Indoctrination ma\ result from the presentation of facts or theories, or it may come in the form of the development of method and angles of approach. When the control has shifted from laws to attitudes it has shifted from external to internal con¬ trols. On a still higher level of control inner reorganization of the activity pattern occurs — initiative emerges — traditional pressure weakens to the point of exerting just enough influence to create caution and lead to contem¬ plation, weighing, thinking. Final action then is individual urge or initiative tempered by a gesture of control. I have chosen to call this degree of contro “anchored freedom.” An anchor exerts restraint while permitting flexibility, and the length of the anchor chain must vary with the depth of the water. What to control and what to leave to individual initiative or what to care for thru anchored freedom, the balance between control and initiative, con¬ stitute the goals to be sought in the necessary modification of our social insti¬ tutions. More generally the balance rather than either extreme has proved to be the best in the end. .. Our age is no different from other ages in respect to the need for realign- ment of these pressures. It is only different in the changing conditions that make a rebalancing of control and freedom a necessity, but in the degree of each that is to be established, and in the organization for the stimulation and outlet of each in the changing conditions. Modern pessimism is justified, therefore, if justified at all, not on the grounds that any more insurmountable problems are confronting us now than have confronted past civilizations, but on the ground of lack of confidence in our ability and foresight to sense the new pressures earlv enough and to resist them only to the extent of gn mg ourselves the chance to study, to adjust, to use imagination and initiative in creating a new’ harmony. e . ... We find this same fundamental problem of readjustment facing all the institutions of modern society. The problem varies within the institutions only in the form and degree of its manifestations. Each institution, each pro¬ fession or occupation, each social group feels the problem and meets t e problem somewhat in its own way. But no one element in civilization can successfully meet in entire isolation its own problem of adjustment, bociett is a unit. The parts are inter-related. Each group must see its problem and the solution in the light of the larger problem and solution. Regional an national conferences are necessary for this insight. Continuous cooperative activity is essential in putting into life s practise the outgrow t o t is insite . A government, therefore, is to be commended for calling together in times of prosperity and in times of distress these various groups, one at a time, for a serious effort to determine what the group can suggest for its own continued welfare and for its contribution to the welfare of the whole. But such con¬ ferences will not suffice within themselves. Their deliberations must be fol¬ lowed into assured practise. There should come a time, moreover, when the leadership of all these groups could be brought together to furnish stimuli to one another and checks upon one another— to guarantee in other words, that group advantage, conscious or unconscious, may not be uppeimost in National Education Association t e minds of the various sections of society, but that the welfare of the whole may be held up as the central object to strive for. Only by so doing, as a matter of fact, can the welfare of the isolated groups themselves be safe- f vc 1 ' / T l trUth 1S n0t easy for the seParate groups to see. Especially is it difficult for them to feel if any visible, even tho temporary, sacrifice is in¬ volved. Nevertheless, it is true that national and world conferences on isolated problems, child health for instance, and conferences on business conditions law enforcement, or lack of it, cannot of themselves suffice. When the true concept of the relation of all of these phases of life to one another and of education to each is firmly lodged in the consciousness of statesmen in all lines, serious nationwide and worldwide conferences on education will be called by executives themselves who are officially responsible for the stability adjustment, and progress of the nation. These conferences must be of two tyP,e*— Conferences of educators alone to study special professional problems and joint conferences with representatives of all other groups to study inter- re ationships and responsibilities. The question our profession faces is: “Do we have the vision and are we adequately organized for this responsibility in the present emergency ?” The increasing stability of our profession, as par¬ tially represented in this organization of more than 200,000 members, gives us at least the beginnings of a feeling of responsibility and growing adequacy in this respect. For the adequate performance of this duty, however, we should welcome and search out the strongest leadership in the profession; we should seek for our association more general representation of all sections of our profession than we enjoy even now; and we should seek on the part of the membership a more comprehensive view of our problems than we now possess. The schools have their place in any task either of original construction or o rehabilitation. The teaching profession, for the sake of its own existence and, therefore, for the sake of the welfare of each member of the profession, must become and remain concerned with this large problem of contemporary re-emphasis, rebalancing, modification of traditional breaks in order to per¬ mit creative progress. But the schools should face this problem not primarily from the selfish point of view, tho self-preservation, recognition, and integrity are necessarily involved. The schools must maintain their place as an integral part of the whole social spirit, machinery, and organization, grappling with the problem of new situations to be met by new measures. The educational leaders, then, must increasingly shoulder the responsibility of making a continuously thoro and sympathetic study of the whole of human society and face modern problems in the same spirit, with the same degree of concentration and insight that the highest type of philosopher or statesman is called upon to possess in facing them. Their knowledge should be measured b\ bieadth in all of these various fields and by depth in as many of them as possible. It must not be limited to a refined training in the professional phases of the school task. A renewed impetus has recently been given in this direction. The common task of unemployment relief has brought together the leadership in all the General Sessions 25 elements of society. Each group of our social organization has been enlight¬ ened as to the responsible part the other plays in this total organization and as to the strength of insight, consecration, and leadership available in each. The business man has been surprised in rubbing elbows with the teacher to see such intelligent, energetic, consecrated men and women with such deep appreciation of the intricacy of the total problem and such a keen realiza¬ tion of the methods that must be employed in pulling society out of the present emergency. The teachers, on the other hand, have discovered in these business groups, men and women of insight, of humanitarian instincts, of ideals, vision, as well as practical capacity. Each needs and must have the help that the other can and will give. No longer, therefore, can any one group safely ignore the other. Intensified development, in isolation, of one arm of the social service does not guarantee or even promise a healthy civilization. A leaky boat, altho equipped with a strong oar, constitutes an inadequate instrument with which to encounter treacherous waters and strong adverse winds and billows. In our present emergency a backward look over history encourages a confident forward look into the future. How, then, shall this task be met? First, as we have said, it must be met in a spirit of unselfishness, coopera¬ tion, and confidence — a confidence that the means of solution are within reach of this generation as they have been in the reach of past generations ; a con¬ fidence that we have today, and right in our own midst, the insight, the con¬ secration, altruism to work faithfully to an ultimate solution. Education has its part to do and education has its own equipment, discipline, vision to do that part. Education, too, is imbued with the conviction that its part is only a part and that its part must synchronize with the other parts. Education, therefore, is a servant cooperating with other servants. In its part of the task there must be extended to the school a degree of liberty, a tempered restraint, anchored freedom. The school in its turn must adopt the policy of extending this same kind of freedom to its staff and pupils. We are confronted today with the problem of the rehabilitation of the world in change and flux, a state of flexibility that menaces the stability of our institutions and threatens disintegration at the same moment that it holds out prospects of leaping strides towards the obliteration of traditional handicaps that have been threatening our very existence. Life is stirring within our institutional shells. Unenlightened resistance must mean a break. On the other hand, sensitiveness to the urges of this new life will result either in discarding the old shell or in rebuilding the institutional structure to meet the demands of a new development of the encased life. These two forces must create an integration — that rhythm of everyday existence with the institutions ordering it. A wholesome dissipation of fears, suspicions, doubts, must represent a com¬ bined advance upon the framework of entrenched individual and group privileges and denied individual and group rights. Enlightened workers must become more respectable, and selfish leeches more despicable in the eyes of the makers and preservers of our institutions. There must be sought 26 National Education Association a fusion and an integration of all of the people and of all their hopes, attitudes, and activities. The current depression has augmented the appreciation of this eternal need that has been growing but which was for a while concealed from view by the tropical growth of external prosperity — the necessity of all institutions being supplements to one another. The exact way out of this depression is not yet assured. One established assurance is that education has its part to play whatever the stream bed of future civilization is to be. Society must see to it, therefore, that educational power is protected from the impotency that follows poverty of support. In this task of fusion we should profit from the past and from contem¬ poraries, but we cannot safely appropriate without caution, wisdom, and adaptation. Action in the light of immediate pressure, political, economic, moral, or otherwise, may break loose a stampede as crushing to the public welfare as the trampling of the buffalo over the work of our stalwart pioneers. Blind resistance, too, must cost its price. The struggle, then, is to preserve the good in the past, anchor the good of the present, and guarantee an increas¬ ing good for the future. The school represents one of the important lines of defense against rever¬ sion in periods of stress to the earlier and lower levels of society. Education, therefore, is as essential as are the elemental needs of food, clothing, shelter. The school is the link between one generation and the succeeding one. At all times, and especially in times of distress, it should represent a general recon¬ struction program. For this task and in this process it should lend itself to necessary overhauling. It must recognize that always there is need for creative spirits, because the past does not have for us the complete solution of all the problems in any current dilemma. Since youth represents the greatest national resource in connection with the solution of all future dilemmas, education for the youth represents the safeguard of a nation’s resources. The older generation faces the present emergency with a knowledge of the past and of the present. On this foundation it does what it can to prepare for present and future. The rising generation sees the present but it faces the future without the aid of the vision and experience of the past. A break in the continuity of education, which alone can supply this lack, would be an irreparable loss, for it would constitute a gap in the preparation of a generation of children maturing during this time of crisis and missing, therefore, what they were entitled to and what was essential for social progress during their leader¬ ship. The future demands a generation trained beyond the necessity of its own time and as nearly as possible up to the demands of the times when that generation is to take the reins of responsibility. Unless there is sober evalua¬ tion of the necessity of the school, we may be threatened with this gap. Let civilization remember that the development of children cannot wait a revival of prosperity. It must precede and usher in that period. What is the educational outlook of the future? Education faces an increas¬ ing need for its services, a threatening decrease in the funds with which to General Sessions 27 do its increasing work, increasing difficulties connected with the responsibility of knowing what and how to teach to the best advantage the succeeding generations of youth facing a more and more complex civilization fraught with the possibilities of increasing good or increasing bad. The problem of what education is of most worth has always been with us. The ancient philosophical and trial and error method of approach to the correct solution can now and in the future be supplemented by the saner, safer, and surer scientific approach. That community is recreant to its duty that consciously or unconsciously strikes at the foundations of social and civic stability and progress by pruning back to death, or serious retardation, the life-giving sprout of education. True economy involves not only a vision as to how to limit expenditures but an evaluation of the effects of those limitations. It is true that the present economic depression has carried deficits not only into the national treasury but into the treasuries also of the smallest school district in the country. Let us hope that this condition will not develop to the point of creating an educa¬ tional depression. The inevitable result of such would be inaction in thought, in aspiration, in hope, and a mental and moral deprivation. This means, finally, traveling in the dark without headlights, or it means practically no material, intellectual, or moral movement at all. Under the guise of economic necessity the enemies of general educational opportunities for the masses may be able to strike a telling blow against free¬ dom. Europe struggled a long time and is not yet free from an educational system designed to create and perpetuate a caste system — a system that con¬ demned to his original social and economic status anyone so unfortunate as to be born in an underprivileged group. It meant helplessness for the masses, for the workers in production, deprivation of all but the classes from the pleasures and benefits of leisure hours. It made the enjoyment of the creative arts available to the ruling classes, but it enjoined the masses from those privileges and from the privileges of that greatest of all arts — the art of satisfactory living. May there not be in our own country a more formidable group than we suspect who, under the guise of economic stress, desire to re¬ duce the educational opportunities for the masses, knowing at the same time that the privileged classes will not permit this denial to their own children. There is no question but that the cost of education now rests too heavily on certain groups of people. The solution is not necessarily curtailment of appropriations. A part of the solution is a more equitable distribution of the burden of the cost of education. Our unjust system of taxation so works out that certain types of business pay in taxes many times as much of their net income as do other types of business. The present injustice is not in that com¬ merce and industry pay a large share in the cost of schools, but that the bur¬ dens are unequal. A case can be made for the justice of business share in the cost of education. Education creates tastes which in turn create demands and these demands are supplied by commerce and industry. Anything that raises the standard of living, creates a desire to have the new experiences and 28 National Education Association it creates a desire to have them made permanent and enlarged. Since the schools provide the future workers for industry and business, and since edu¬ cation also instils in these workers a desire for better living conditions, they create a demand for what industry provides. Education therefore stands at the basis of industrial and economic development. Just as the management of a business that had been built up to the point of proficiency would invariably be concerned about the matter of bringing a succeeding management to the same point of proficiency, so a nation that has built up a business, an enlight¬ ened citizenship and administration, should desire and determine to train for a worthy continuance of its success. It is important that we maintain a fire department to protect us from property loss. It is important, also, that we maintain a police force to prevent a bandit’s taking a dollar from our pockets, but it is more important to keep an enlightened public so that we shall not be robbed of our richness of blood-bought privileges— riches purchased thru centuries of struggle and miserable suffering. Stifle general education and these privileges are lost. Stifle reseaich in higher education and dried up become the streams that support growth and progress. What is the place of our educational leadership at the present time? Our leaders should be envisioning the educational implications of our changing social conditions. They should be marshalling all their forces for the protec¬ tion of the things of vital and general human interest. Never has education had a greater stimulus and opportunity to assume leadership out of any social dilemma than it now has, but this leadership must be of a constructive nature, and worthy of the high calling of which we are a part. One of the educational implications in the present situation demanding action by leaders in the profession is that, if individual freedom and initiative are to be safe for a society, they must be anchored by righteousness. Future education must strive for the goal of “spiritual regeneration.” The mastery of material forces must be supplemented by a mastery of the human forces. Machinery has released mechanical powers. “Human engineering” must do a comparable thing before the results of the machine age can safely be accepted and perpetuated. We must value training not alone for its economic value but we should accompany this aim with that of spiritual excellence, an interest in a culture both secular and spiritual. Training for character and appreciation should be the educational em¬ phasis in the immediate future. A new spirit of cooperation and service should embed the old virtues of honesty, consideration of the rights of others, indus¬ try — all of which are essential to the perpetuation of a worthy citizenship. The longer life ideal and the life of comfort and convenience ideal should be accompanied by the better life ideal. Let us supplant the struggle of indi¬ vidual bickerings ; the struggle, too, of domestic and devasting international wars, that literally take the life’s blood of the flower of the land. May this struggle be supplanted by a struggle of thought, affection, devo¬ tion, diluting the after-war misery that turns up a furrow of unemployment, General Sessions 2Q starving helpless masses of humanity, desperate in their choking blindness as to the meaning and the outcome of it all. A struggle of this kind could become wholesome and sweet with the heart of every man an open book inviting inspection, correction, guidance, encouragement. We must ask of any educa¬ tion and of the civilization of which it is a part, “Does it prepare for jobs?” But we must ask, also, “Does it make people more considerate, and honest, less stubborn, less envious? Does it pass on the cultural achievements of the past? Does it make more possible the highest of all ideals — the ideal of right living?” The education of the future must face the task of contributing still more largely to all of these tasks. The flag planted at the apex of this monu¬ ment of duties, however, must be righteous, spiritual character. TO HAVE OR TO BE HENDRIK WILLEM VAN LOON, AUTHOR OF The Story of Mankind , NEW YORK, N. Y. At this present moment we all of us have a great duty before us. We will have to get hold of the facts, unless the facts get hold of us, and we are in a dangerous point where they may appear. Unless we get hold of the facts and hold them firmly, the facts may overtake us and get hold of us — then God help us all, because we will be without a rudder. I am going to make an appeal to you, not for money but for something which comes even harder than money in the year 1932. I have sometimes been told by timid souls that what I said was all very well but it sounded a little too radical. I will tell you here and now that the only salvation of the world lies in this fact, that teachers — the people who still have some influence on the younger generation because the younger generation is unbelievably polite and tolerant and kind to those strange grown-ups all around them — will all of us have to turn radicals if we want to avert the chaos that threatens us. The old platitude that at the pres¬ ent time it is an affray between Education and Chaos is perfectly true. Hamilton Fish says that the word “radical” does not mean a man who eats radishes — yet it almost does — it means a man who goes down to the roots. Unless my Latin, which I have tried to forget in the last thirty years, is entirely wrong, a radical is a man who digs down deep to the roots. You will immediately see for yourself that every man who practises a profession and practises it well is bound to be a radical, for he is bound to go down to the roots. If you go to the doctor he asks you about yourself, about your child¬ hood, about your papa, about your grandpapa, and about your great grand¬ papa. He is a radical ; he goes down to the roots. If an engineer builds himself a building seventy stories, he is a radical because he digs thirty stories down below that building. The superstructure is easy enough — anybody can do that — but what goes down below is the thing of importance. Sometimes we accuse our friends who practice religion that they haven’t kept up with the times, but they have. They are radicals. You can’t be a minister nowadays without 30 National Education Association digging deep down to the roots, going to the Talmud, to the origins, in order to have a deep feeling of what Jesus said. Why, every man, even the college coaches — the gridiron teaching profes¬ sion — even the men who teach athletics have to be radicals if they are any good. As Coach Mopeley used to say about the marathon race, the first five miles anybody can run ; the next five miles almost anybody can run ; the third five miles a man runs on his own legs ; the fourth five miles a man runs on his father’s legs ; the fifth five miles a man runs on the legs of his great grand¬ father ; and the last five miles he runs on the legs of his original ancestors. So even college coaches, who are not supposed to care very much for scientific investigation, are radicals. At the present time unless we are radicals we will never any of us be able to accomplish anything at all. We will have to dig deep. This is not one man’s job, or even one woman’s job, or one engineer’s job, or any one person’s job. It is a job even too large for the 220,000 members of the National Education Association. It is a job for the one hundred and twenty million men, women, and children who make up this country. The world goes on a different tempo from that to which we are accustomed. To the next generation it doesn’t matter. They are perfectly accustomed to it. Here we are in the midst of this revolution, and this revolution calls for some¬ thing which I have not yet heard mentioned. Not for leadership, because, as I have said, the leadership is just as likely to go backward as forward. The courage we ask for at the present time is a different kind of courage. It is the courage of taking individual responsibility. It is the courage that is willing to say, Here I stand and that is my opinion. I will take the responsibility for it, and if you don’t like it, go ahead and hang me.” We are in a change and I think I know very well the general direction in which that change will lead us. If you talk to everybody as everybody is doing at the present time because misery loves company, you will hear that almost every man — except the professional politician — is convinced that the present machine is out of gear, and nobody knows it more than the younger genera¬ tion. Now I am not going to advocate another system. I would like to draw your attention to something which Oswald Spengler mentions in a book of his. Incidentally — a curious fact that amused me and will amuse you all the more after what you have heard from my lips — Maxim Gorky, that great upholder of radicalism, in a magazine violently denounces Spengler and me as the two most dangerous leaders of the capitalistic school of history. Any¬ way, to refer to Mr. Spengler, he draws attention to the fact that circum¬ stances alter cases, and climate and locality alter conditions, and he talks about wine. They took the grapevine and brought it wherever they conquered a world in order to bring law and order, and Roman taxpayers. In Germany it became sour Rhinish and Muscatel wine, and in France it became Bur¬ gundy and Bordeaux and other vintages, and in England it did not become anything except ale and whisky and other sour beverages. A wise moral can be drawn from that. No doctrine, no matter how good it may be, may be good on another soil. I feel sorry for the young generation General Sessions 31 going around groping when they don’t get the leadership. They are going to get leadership somewhere because they can’t go around without it. So they are looking to Fascism and to Bolshevism. I for one want one just as little as the other. They are both the same thing on both sides of the line — they are figuring the individual for the benefit of the state. I don’t say it doesn’t suit the Italians, I will not say it cannot suit the Russians, but their ways are not our ways and probably never can be. If they have anything to teach us which is of any value to us, let us take it ; but the idea, and many of our younger men have it, that that may be the solution is, so far as I can see, entirely wrong. I believe that we shall have to have a new deal and a new ideal. I believe that we cannot hope to come successfully out on the other side of this com¬ plete upheaval unless we once more work for a very definite philosophy of life, a philosophy of life for which the younger generation is looking eagerly, and which the older generation has not yet had the courage to give it — a philosophy of life which shall entrust the rule of this country to reach, whether we like it or not, for better or for worse, for social democracy, even if it may not be successful as a political democracy ; a philosophy of life which shall say : “Let the man rule who is truly radical, who has gone deep down to the roots, who has drawn his own conclusions, who has had the splendid courage to assume responsibility” ; a philosophy of life which with only slight modification upon a philosophy which worked all right sixty years ago but no longer today, is formulating a new outlook upon life, doing away with that nefarious, obstructible, and abominable philosophy that having is better than being and mere possession means happiness, that we can entrust anything to luck, to smart-alecky brightness, the tendency and ability to take little short cuts and get by and then smile around after you have stolen a million dollars, and do a little song and dance. These are my final words — that the only way out of it will be to recognize that we shall have to modify our philosophy of life in such a way that we shall get a government of the people, for the people, and by those among the people who, thru intelligent, honest, and willing courage assume the respon¬ sibility and are best qualified for that task. MEMORIAL— “THEY SOFTLY WALK” CAROLINE S. WOODRUFF, CHAIRMAN, N. E. A. COMMITTEE ON NECROLOGY ; AND PRINCIPAL, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, CASTLETON, VT. There are great moments in the lives of men and women — in the lives of institutions and of nations — moments when littlenesses fade away and things of the spirit rise supreme. Such a time is this, when for a little while the representatives of an army of 220,000 teachers in America turn aside from the things that seem of paramount importance — those professional interests that have brought them together — to bring to attention those of our number who since last we met have passed beyond the veil. Hundreds of those who sat beside us at Los Angeles one year ago, who sang our songs, who gave the 32 National Education Association friendly hand, who spoke the inspiring word, are no longer with us. Some of these were among America’s most outstanding, most distinguished men and women in the educational world, who had carried the banners of leader¬ ship out into all this land, to the memory of each of whom we might devote a distinct part of this program. Their faces and their words are familiar to us all: Dr. Randall Condon, recent president of the Department of Superin¬ tendence, genial, ardent, loving soul typifying the spiritual in all his ways, yet militant leader in every righteous cause, who spent a lifetime in pro¬ moting the interests of the children of America and whose last work was in a cause dear to his heart— helping to make America free from illiteracy. Dr. Jeremiah Burke, whose very name, to those who have followed his most cherished dream, spells nobility of character and upright citizenship brought about thru the children of the public schools. Henry Turner Bailey, apostle of beauty and the eternal youth of life,” whose words come back to us with great {^mgnancy today— “when I cease to cast a shadow upon the green earth which I have loved so long, I would be content if any were to say of me ‘he opened my eyes to see one of the gates of pearl in the shining ramparts of the city of our God.’ ” David Starr Jordan , former president of this Asso¬ ciation, whose name will be known thruout all time as the great peace lover, the peace advocate, who strove to bring about ultimate peace and under¬ standing among all nations thru the little children of the world. Dr. S. M. N. Marrs of Texas, virile champion of all that makes for child betterment thru home and school. These, with Dr. William J. Bickett} beloved superintend¬ ent of Trenton, New Jersey; Superintendent John Dietrich of Helena, Montana, Edith Lelean Groves of Toronto, Canada, long-time member of this Association, bringing to us the gospel of brotherhood between neighbor¬ ing educational organizations ; Superintendent W. W. McConnell of Win¬ field, Kansas; Dean Sara C. Lovejoy, Hood College, Frederick, Maryland —these and others come to mind today, from every held of educational serv¬ ice and with them hundreds more whose lives touched perhaps a lesser num¬ ber but who none the less radiated in their various spheres all the strength and courage for which they strove. To the memory of all of these we bow today in reverence. It is an honored custom in this great organization that we set apart this hour, a solemn hour, an hour made hallowed by precious memories not too far remote. It is supremely fitting that for a little while we pause in the strenuous program of the week in tribute to those who have walked beside us year after year in pursuit of the same great objectives that we this week are pursuing in this city by the sea. In doing this we shall the better keep alive the spirit of those among us who have battled for great principles, for ideals, who, many in the midst of their careers of usefulness, have been called beyond. In these days of uncertainty — days when men and women question — when America faces a great challenge, when education itself is being weighed in the balance, when great American ideals and institutions are being threat¬ ened, when democracy itself is being assailed — comes the question, Shall General Sessions 33 these survive? The response is to be found in the great institution for which they gave their highest service — the public schools of America, who make answer in no uncertain terms, They shall survive. It is for us who today are directing the educational forces in this country, it is for us to follow the superb leadership of those who have gone ; it is for us — the living — to make secure in America these ideals. In the name of those whose lives and teachings we commemorate today what better tribute can we offer, what better monument can we erect than to pledge anew our faith in the great fundamental principles on which our democracy was built, and to carry that faith into action in our homes, in our schools, in our public life. And now standing in the presence of the Eternal Mystery which lies only a little beyond the thinning veil which must forever hide it — this moment we hold communion with those souls with thoughts of affection, reverence, of gratitude, of devotion to the memory of those from all ranks of the teach¬ ing profession who have gone beyond the portals, but “whose souls” in the immortal words of one of them — Henry Turner Bailey — “whose souls should live forever at the flush of dawn.” THE GREAT TEACHER EDWIN HOLT HUGHES, BISHOP, METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH, WASHINGTON, D. C. If we are going to study men by the bent of their power, God given, to the stream of human history, then nobody, whatever his religion may be, can possibly fail to be interested in the teaching example of Jesus of Nazareth. When we begin to look into the records we have about Him we find them strangely sprinkled with pedagogical vocabulary, and if we are not a little bit thoughtful in our study derivatives can easily escape us. The word disciple , of course, is a direct transfer of the Latin word into our English speech. If we were translating it now somewhat after the order of Godspeed or Demosthenes we should probably not say “disciples,” but rather “scholars” or “pupils.” There is a pedagogical terminology which strikes us almost everywhere in the New Testament. Even the posture of the Teacher is the posture that is ordinarily taken by a rather quiet instructor. We preachers are in the habit of standing when we talk, but if you will study the prolog to what is called the Sermon on the Mount, or might rather be called the “Lesson on the Mount,” you will find its beginning words these: “And seeing the multitudes, he went up into a mountain: and when he was set, his disciples (or his pupils) came unto him: and he opened his mouth, and taught them, saying. . . .” It is a rather singular and suggestive thing that whereas Christ’s name is coupled only four times in the New Testament with the word “preach,” it is coupled forty-two different times with the word “teach.” Even down unto our day, I think I am right in saying that we seldom refer to Him as the Preacher of Galilee but rather as the Teacher of Galilee. 34 National Education Association Here was a Man who founded no school of a technical sort, who never went away to a university, who left behind him no manuscripts. The only time in the New Testament He is referred to as writing was on that day when they brought to Him the sinning woman and He, with His forefinger, wrote the sentence upon the forgetful sands of the earth. This Man who left behind Him no manuscripts, has invoked millions of manuscripts. With all the records of His life I do not even have to call in the aid of hyperbole when I say that if all the books that have been inspired by this Man who Himself wrote no book and left no manuscript, were to be brought into this room, there would be no space left for a human audience. Going to no college, He founded hundreds of colleges; visiting no libraries, He inspired thousands of libraries; writing no books, He Himself inspired, first and last, countless authors. It would, therefore, seem an inconceivable thing that a man whose teachings have had such tremendous influence should be left out of even the formal curriculums that are supposed to teach men how to teach. May I not, therefore, bring that example down within the imitable areas of all our life, not attempting to interpret them from any theological or sec¬ tarian standpoint but simply from the human standpoint, and mention four characteristics that are human and easily followed in the method of Christ as a teacher. Gather these four around any one, the first being naturalness, the second clearness, the third personalness, and the fourth vitalness. By naturalness, I refer in the beginning to something that is confessedly superficial. Many of you will remember when you were studying Dickens you came upon Bradley Headstone, that teacher who became so much the victim of technic that he marched thru life with lock-step. Dickens’s description makes him a rather formal person, with a decent coat, decent trousers, decent waistcoat, decent black tie, decent watch chain of precisely the right length. He himself being a machine trained likewise a feminine machine as his co¬ adjutor in Miss Peters until, when he comes to the end of the description of these two machinelike persons, Mr. Dickens declares that if Bradley Head¬ stone had proposed marriage to Miss Peters, she would have replied with a letter, precisely and splendidly long, beginning one inch from the border of the upper left-hand corner and proceeding precisely down to the left-hand corner one inch from the space, and that all of it would have been strictly according to rule. I presume it is always possible for people who are more or less on exhibition in a public or semi-public way to come in due season to certain affectations, whether they be affectations in voice or affectations in gesture. We may build between ourselves and those whom we teach a certain wall of self- consciousness. Sometimes the wall of self-consciousness grows out of a shrinking timidity ; sometimes the wall of self-consciousness grows out of an overdone self-confidence. Can you imagine for a moment anyone having real power in life who would become the victim of either type of self-consciousness? Or, to person¬ alize my question, can you imagine for a single moment that the great General Sessions 35 Teacher of Galilee was touched by any unnatural self-consciousness? If I may speak of it so, I will say He had very much poise; He had no pose. If you are not natural you will be flat. I think the rule runs thru all the lines of our profession ; and if that demon of unnaturalness can lay hold upon us in the beginning of any working day, I think he has won a real, a very considerable victory, and has turned what might well be excellence into real defeat. The naturalness of the great Teacher went even more deeply than that. Within the past twenty-five years we have had in the curriculum not only of our colleges but of all our schools, even down into the grammar schools, a tremendous extension of what we call nature study. I do not pretend, of course, to present the New T estament as any particular work of pedagogy. I will only say that directly, if I may use a word somewhat inaccurately, the world in which the people who heard the great Teacher lived became popu¬ lated with memories of what He had to say. Sheep on the hill suggested some things, the vine bearing its luscious burden of ripe grapes in the autumn time, suggested something, the man building a house on a rock suggested something rather unforgettable. There were five foolish girls and there were five wise girls ; there were two sons, one of whom showed fair sense and the other did not ; and so, as you see this man teaching, you will find a pro¬ cession of human beings, everything concrete and everything picturesque and that world in which people lived somehow hummed with reminders of what He had to say. The very world demands a study of it to see how the homeliest things became dignified. Most of us would approach, with a good deal of trepidation, a figure of speech based on a clucking hen scratching the earth in order that she might get food for her baby chicks, but listen to this: “O, Jerusalem, Jerusalem, thou that killest the prophets, and stonest them which are sent unto thee, how often would I have gathered thy children together, even as a hen gathereth her brood under her wings, and ye would not !” From that time on somehow^ a strange glory goes out into the modest scenery of the earth because there has been a touch of nature study that has brought dignity even into the transactions of God’s lowly creatures. The second characteristic I have called clearness. I have no doubt what¬ ever but that one of the most serious limitations in teaching, whether that teaching be of the kind I myself have mainly represented on the religious platform or that I have secondarily represented on the pedagogical platform, lies usually in the lack of simplicity. We become so complicated and so in¬ volved in the way in which we state things that in due season we fail to know that those simple Saxon words that go unweighed with their gold are very apt to carry our message better than those immense Latin and Greek derivatives that have without question added a great deal of richness to our vocabulary. Many years ago one of the greatest teachers in this country, whose name would be immediately recognized if I were now to pronounce it, a man who at the time was president of one of the then greatest universities in this land, delivered a sermon on a Sunday morning in the city of Chicago, a sermon that I myself have read word for word. That sermon was on the personality 36 National Education Association of Jesus, a discussion of Christ in his nature. I am going to give you an out¬ line of the sermon. I am not going to ask any of you, your president or for¬ mer presidents of this Association, to define the terms. I don’t want to embarrass anybody. I would rather not be asked myself. But I will give you precisely the outline : 1. Claromatic humanity 2. Claromatic divinity 3. Hypostatic union. Now that was the outline of that teacher’s religious discourse. I do not intend to discuss whether it is quite an ethical transaction for a man to speak in that language to men and women who are jaded and weary of the work of the week and who come to find rest and simplicity. That is a ques¬ tion in ethics that I will leave to the teachers causerie. I will only say that the great Teacher of Galilee never did anything of the sort. If you wTant to know how He taught, well, I will tell you. If you will forget you ever heard what I am going to repeat, just let it come to you now like the breath of a spring morning, fresh as a new revelation, and you will see what I have in mind. A certain man had two sons and the younger of them said unto his father, “Father, give me the portion of goods that is coming to me.” And he divided unto them a liv¬ ing. Not many days after, the younger son gathered all together and took his journey into a far country and there wasted his substance in riotous living; and when he had spent all, there arose a mighty famine in that land and he began to be in want and he went and joined himself to a citizen of that country and he sent him into the fields to feed swine and he did fill his belly with the husks that the swine did eat. And no man gave unto him. And when he came to himself he said, “How many hired servants of my father have bread enough and to spare and1 I perish with hunger! I will arise and go unto my father and I will say unto him, ‘Father, I have sinned against heaven and before thee and no more am worthy to be called thy son. Make me as one of thy servants.’ ” And he arose and came to his father and when he was yet a long way off, his father saw him and had compassion and ran and fell on his neck and kissed him. There is no claromatic humanity about that and no claromatic divinity and likewise no hypostatic union, and yet I say it represents the method of the great Teacher. The simplest men are always the strongest men and the simplest utter¬ ances are likewise always the strongest utterances. As we move on toward one of the great ideals as teachers, we come to the conclusion that it is the province of the teacher not only to speak so that he may be understood, but so that he must be understood, and more and more approach that simplicity that marked the teaching of the great Instructor of Galilee. The third was the quality of personalness. I approach this somewhat hesi¬ tantly because in the presentation of it, it is easy for us to be misunderstood. We will notice this, that the great Teacher never lost himself in mere masses of people. He specialized even down to the very end of His teaching career, indeed it was the very essence of His method somehow to take Him- General Sessions 37 self and pour Himself into the most hopeful of His pupils until truly His life was strangely manifold. Now the fourth characteristic I call the characteristic of vitalness. More and more I find myself wondering what one rather peculiar quality of pub¬ lic speakers is, which for lack of a better name we call magnetism. For forty years I have been going up and down this country asking men what mag¬ netism was. I never yet have had a satisfactory answer. I know that it doesn’t depend upon character. I am quite well acquainted with a man who is one of the most magnetic men in the United States and who if he were speaking here and in my place wouldn’t be talking five minutes until the eyes of everybody in this assembly would be fastened upon him eagerly, and yet I know very well that frequently he does not tell the truth, and he has got so in the habit of falsifying that he actually does it when, so far as I can see, it doesn’t serve him a bit. Yet he has this strange magnetism. Sometimes I have inquired within myself if magnetism was not more or less the power to take yourself and put yourself into the thing that you say so that your word is not an abstract thing out here somewhere in the social mid-air but a living, breathing thing, having your own quality in it. Now oddly enough the great Teacher said a singular thing about his own words. I wonder if you noticed it. He said, “The words I speak unto you are spirit and they are life” — and someone picked up His figure of speech and said that the words of the great Teacher were vascular — if you cut them, they would bleed. Let me take another illustration of what I am thinking of, a rather deli¬ cate illustration, but inasmuch as my ancestors on one side were southerners and slaveholders, and my ancestors on the other side were people that were in the army of the Blue, I am not to be misunderstood and can speak from an unprejudiced standpoint. When Jesus began to teach, more than half of the people into whose faces he looked were slaves. One day he uttered a thing that we quote perhaps as much as any other principle he gave his classes, what we call the Golden Rule — “Whatsoever ye would that men should do unto you, do ye even so to them.” When I began to prepare an address on the Golden Rule a great many years ago, I really began with the idea that it was original with Christ ; that when he spoke it, he spoke it as a new thing that people had always felt but that nobody had ever before expressed. I confess I was much confused when I discovered that Confucius had given a Golden Rule very much in the language ascribed to Christ, only in negative form; that Plato, the great philosopher among the Greeks, had likewise given a Golden Rule, moving it a little more toward a positive character than Christ did; and Hillel, the great Jewish teacher just before our Lord’s time, had actually given a Golden Rule in a form I think could be construed as positive. There you have it. I was all mixed up. Then I found a little refuge for my thinking when I read somewhere that the glory of the truth lies not so much with the man who first utters it as with the man who first gives the truth power. 38 National Education Association Before Christopher Columbus discovered America, the Norsemen dis¬ covered it. That statue to Leif Ericson, which stands in the midst of Com¬ monwealth Avenue, Boston, is not an artistic falsehood. Long before Christopher Columbus came, Leif Ericson came. And yet when we had the celebration in 1893 of the Quadro-Centennial of the Discovery of America, we called it the Columbian Exposition. We did not call it the Ericsonian. Why? Leif Ericson discovered America and left it sleeping on the bosom of the sea ; Christopher Columbus discovered America and his footprints were not the only footprints that came. The discovery in the one case was not efficient and in the other case was efficient. I wonder if that principle does not hold good with reference to the Golden Rule. I wonder how many of you knew Confucius gave the Golden Rule almost exactly in its New Testament form, only negatively; I wonder how many of you knew Plato did it, I wonder how many of you knew Hillel, the great Jewish teacher, did it. Confucius uttered the Golden Rule and it stayed in his maxims in one country ; Plato uttered the Golden Rule and it nestled down very quietly in his writings; Hillel uttered the Golden Rule and it remained in his lovely maxims. And then somehow the great Teacher in Galilee uttered the Golden Rule and it began to walk and praise God and became a very wonderful truth and had something to do with slavery. By the end of the first century under the impetus of the Golden Rule the freeing of slaves came under the province of the church ; by the end of the second century certain of the public in the church were not allowed to hold slaves. This feeling slowly and powerfully went on and at last the Golden Rule crossed the English Channel and by the end of the third century there was not a slave to be found across the English Channel. Then across the seas that same rule lodged in the hearts of the great people over here — I need not personalize them — and finally found itself in the heart of the great lowly man, Abraham Lincoln. By the time it did its work, there were four million faces here glowing with the light of freedom and four million negro voices chanting freedom. Whatever we may be, semi-southerner, as I am, northern or southern, I suppose we are all glad they are free today ; and the thing that did it was precisely that strange vitalness that the great Teacher managed, in some fashion I will not interpret, to put into the very things He said. Now those are the four characteristics of the great Teacher and to them I need add in closing simply this — if anybody were to ask me to give the climax of world literature with reference to childhood, I should he absolutely com¬ pelled to refer him to the same Teacher. Picture the Master when his dis¬ ciples came one day and said to Him, “Who is the greatest in the kingdom of heaven ?” Then he did a singular thing, which I think must make a peculiar appeal to you teachers. He did not select an old man with white hair, or an old lady with heavenly wrinkles and say, “This is the symbol of the king¬ dom.” He set a little child in the midst, an anonymous child whose name is unknown to this day and said, “Except ye be converted and become as a little child, ye cannot enter the kingdom of God.” Then he proceeded to say wonderful things about childhood, “Whoever shall receive the kingdom General Sessions 39 of God as this little child, the same shall be great in the kingdom of heaven” — “Whomsoever receiveth one such little child in my name receiveth me” ; “Whomsoever shall cause to suffer one of these little ones that believeth in me, it were better for him a millstone were hanged around his neck and he were drowned in the midst of the sea.” “Take heed ye despise not one of these little ones, for I say that in heaven their angels do always behold the face of my father.” And then finally, “Even so, it is not the will of your father which is in heaven that one of these little ones should perish.” And the glori¬ fied child stands always in the midst where any real teachers come. In the old days when I had the honor and still greater responsibility and difficulty of being college president, at the end of two years there was one absolute rule I followed in the selection of a teacher. I still believe it is as near infallible as any one rule. Namely, I never put anyone on the faculty of my institution, who did not have the parental instinct. Anybody in the teach¬ ing line who does not have the parental instinct is always a failure and I have never known any exception to it. And the great Teacher became our example there when everything became humanized and personalized strictly thru the great heart, that vital element that He Himself gave in His example for us. * You may not have much personality but you can at any rate be natural and if you want to, you can be clear, if you will make the effort for it and get the humility for it. And where children may throng, every once in a while you will find it possible to take the little halting one and somehow bring him up a little better in the line of the procession and there may not be much of you, but what there is of you, you can put into the thing you say and do until it will be humanized, clothed in flesh and blood. LIVING FOR THE AGES CLIFTON D. GRAY, PRESIDENT, BATES COLLEGE, LEWISTON, MAINE “ Good Teacher , What shall I do that I may inherit eternal life?” — Mark 10:17 In the midst of world depression, this question of the rich young ruler is not so hopelessly outmoded today as it might have seemed in the hectic period preceding October, 1929, when all America, from bankers to bootblacks, were riding jubilantly on the crest of a wave of paper values which mounted higher and higher and to which there was apparently no limit. Nobody was interested then in any sort of inheritance that was not expressed in bonds or stocks or some other material equivalent. Now, after nearly three years of disillusion¬ ment, with western civilization tottering, as some think, on the brink of total financial and industrial collapse, the immaterial inheritance this youth was seeking does not appear so utterly absurd as it once did. The theme which I am taking, “Living for the Ages,” is a paraphrase of this young man’s objective and, in view of world conditions, possesses a time¬ liness it otherwise might not have. What, then, is meant by “living for the 40 National Education Association ages?” The formula that suggests itself to me I have found in the dedication of a book written by a friend of mine, now at the head of the English Depart¬ ment of the University of Rochester. This dedication is in honor of a man to whom both the author and I owe much by way of inspiring instruction — the late William Rainey Harper. It read as follows: “To a great teacher who loved the past, labored for the present, and lived for the future.” A more fitting eulogy for this outstanding figure in American education would be difficult to find, but it is more than the comprehensive summary of the achieve¬ ment of a single individual. It sets forth in easily remembered phrases the three outstanding objectives to be sought for by anyone who wishes to live the kind of life which our text suggests. The first objective, if one is to learn the secret of living for the ages is to love the past. Just what is involved in this? To love the past is one thing; to live in it, quite another. We are all acquainted with the type of mind so absorbed in the “dear, dead days beyond recall” that it tends to antagonize almost everything that is contemporary. Now and then, in the midst of the crowded automobile traffic on Fifth Avenue, one may observe a pair of splen¬ didly groomed horses drawing an open carriage, with liveried coachman and footman on the front seat, and in the rear one or two white-haired dowagers dressed in black silk — obviously survivals of an aristocracy of other days. The aged Franz Joseph of Austria, almost the last of the Hapsburgs, never did succumb to the motor car and yielded to the telephone only a few years before his death during the World War. Such examples of living in the past could be multiplied indefinitely, but where there is one whose regard for old customs and habits leads to refusal to adopt innovations of a practical and scientific nature, there are hundreds, if not thousands, who, while gladly exchanging the Mazda lamp for the tallow candle and accepting as a matter of course all that modern invention has to offer, are strangely averse to anything that savors of change in the realm of the things of the spirit. These good folks not only love the past; they live in it. For them creeds and constitutions are sacrosanct. The letter of the law of church or state must not be tampered with. The ipssissima verka , the very language itself, of the original documents, whether ecclesiastical or political, become sacred symbols of unchanging truth and any attempt to alter them is to incur the fate of Uzzah who put forth his hand to steady the ark of Jehovah ! This blind and uncritical worship of the past fails to take into account that in almost every instance these very documents, now held so sacred, recorded marked and even radical changes in what had previously been thought and practised by mankind. In other words, they were for their own time and age nothing less than revolutionary, and were recorded in more than one quarter familiar epithets which are often applied today to anything that is new and strange, and therefore dangerous to the standing order! This blind devotion to what has been rests upon a philosophy of history that is wholly false and is virtually a denial of the possibility of change and General Sessions 41 consequently of progress. It would be difficult to conceive of a more para¬ doxical position — this naive and somewhat emotional loyalty to a document or record of other days on the assumption that its statements are valid for all subsequent ages when as a matter of fact in relation to what men have previously thought these very statements are often subversive and radical in the extreme. We see, therefore, that it is possible to love the past in such a way as to shut of! all possibility of development and growth. This reactionary attitude is quite as pernicious as its opposite — the tendency to reject everything simply because it is old and to accept everything because it is new. It would be hard to say which does the most harm — reactionary or radical. We shall doubtless agree that both ought to be anathema. But there is a right way to love the past. Without a due appreciation of the accumulated wisdom of the ages, there is nothing upon which either the individual or society can build. Well did Josiah Royce once say: “The study of history is the beginning of creative wisdom.” There is no enduring achievement of the human race but what has rested upon that which has gone before! We study the past not to imitate or to reproduce it, but to gain a sympathetic understanding of the way in which our predeces¬ sors faced their problems, solved or failed to solve them, and with the knowl¬ edge thus gained we are enabled to meet the issues of our own day. Living for the ages obviously cannot ignore the past. To do so would be like learning to read without the alphabet or studying calculus without first having had arithmetic. No more can we understand modern democracy with¬ out the background of the decline of feudalism, the meaning of that fateful year 1789, and the industrial revolution, to mention only a few of the impor¬ tant factors which have had their share in molding the prevailing mode of political and social organization of the twentieth century. “Modern writers,” declares Everett Dean Martin, “all seem to desire to express the movements of the day. But it is difficult to see how one’s judgment of the present can be very sound, if one has no background of the cultural traditions of the race.” The human mind that is not enriched by the experiences of the past in the long, slow, upward struggle toward the light is indeed arid and parched soil. From such a soil can come nothing much better than thorns and thistles. As Professor John Erskine has put it: “No college is liberal which trains its students to identify the excellent or the important exclusively with the con¬ temporary.” This is why love of the past is the best way of preparing for today. The second objective in living for the ages is to labor for the present. The most obvious implication of these words is that “life is more than meat, and the body than raiment.” To live for one’s self alone is to adopt the philosophy of the jungle. Whether a majority of our fellows have consciously taken up this way of living or not, is a problem that lies outside the purpose of this message. Youth at any rate has impulses of a higher and nobler nature. Idealism at its best is far more attractive to young people in their twenties than it sometimes is to those of maturer years. But the difficulty to be faced is how to labor for the present most intelligently. 42 National Education Association “The time is out of joint.” These words which the great dramatist put into the mouth of the Prince of Denmark might well apply to 1932; but unlike Hamlet, we are not willing to curse the fate that ever we were “born to set it right.” Rather are we disposed to face the herculean task and do our bit, just as we did fifteen years ago when we entered the World War. Then we were called upon to reverse the political philosophy of a century; and, be¬ cause of an intolerable situation, take part in a conflict, for which we were not in the slightest way responsible. Today the situation is no less critical and in many ways it is even more confused. In the midst of such a welter of confusion, living for the present is no easy task. Certainly we cannot live for the present unless we come to grips with its outstanding problems. Some understanding of what these are must precede any intelligent participation in the contemporary scene. I can do no more than briefly outline what seem to me to be the three oustanding problems of the day and indicate something as to the direction in which we are going. The first is in the field of government. Thoughtful Americans for the first time in more than a century are beginning to raise serious questions about the democratic ideal in the political sense. Before the war this ideal had been all but unchallenged, at least in this country. During war, obviously, democratic methods simply do not function. One of our first acts in 1917 was to grant to the chief executive powers which virtually made him a dictator not in name but in fact. Today, a decade and a half after the close of a war to make democracy safe for the world, the curious paradox forces itself upon us that the democratic ideal in government has given place to other ideals or has actually broken down in the face of successive crises. The trend the world over has been away from democracy and in the direction of dictatorship. I present this problem to you with no thought of solving it, but to remind you that the questions it raises are among the most important of the hour and that it is one which every intelligent citizen must face. It is often said that the cure for democracy is more democracy, but like most slogans this does not go very far below the surface. If one means political equality in the matter of the franchise, we have reached the limit, unless we extend the vote to minors and imbeciles. Too many of the latter have it already! Ideal po¬ litical democracy assumes both interest and intelligence. The second outstanding problem of the day is in the field of economics. The only thing about which the doctors are agreed seems to be that unlim¬ ited competition, aided and abetted by unprecedented technological advance, has brought on an overproduction of goods altogether out of line with normal possibilities of consumption. The remedies proposed are as numerous as the doctors. For one social diagnostician, the cure is thrift and economy; for another, it is enlarged spending for everybody, and for the government, al¬ ready burdened with a current indebtedness of two and one-half billions, an ambitious program of public works. Some eclectic physicians prescribe bi- metalism and even fiat money. Others tell us that the only way out is for the government to take over the heavy industries. While these and a score of other palliatives are being offered, the patient seems to be getting no better. It is not General Sessions 43 much comfort to a man without bread or work to be told that the panic of 1873 was even worse than this and that, anyway, the business cycle is inescap¬ able. The apparent, but by no means proved, success of the Russian experi¬ ment deceives a small minority into thinking that communism is the way out. From all this welter and confusion is beginning to emerge a conviction that some method must be found whereby both industry and government can co¬ operate for the promotion of economic planning. The complexity of the problem is extraordinary and there is quite as much danger from misguided idealism as from selfish materialism. The third outstanding problem of the day is in the field of international relations. The paradox in the economic field of warehouses overflowing with goods and hordes of workless people unable to buy is paralleled in the case of war and peace. The plain people of every civilized nation have given repeated and increasing evidence of their hatred of armed conflict, and yet there seems little immediate prospect of a material reduction of the five billion dollars annually spent for the upkeep of the machinery of war. For weary weeks the disarmament conference at Geneva has sought, apparently without success, a formula wThich would release western civilization, on the verge of what may become almost total economic collapse, from at least a part of this intolerable burden. All three of these outstanding problems are inter-related and they arise out of certain conditions common to them all. How better can we labor for the present than to face these challenging problems and give the best of our mind and heart to their solution ? To live for the future is the third objective of what might well be termed the cosmic way of life, that is, living for the ages. After all, the past, from the point of view of the human race, is insignificant compared with the long stretch that lies ahead. Place a silver dollar upon the top of the Empire State Building and you have in the height of the building the age of the earth and in the thickness of the dollar the time that man has existed upon its surface. Place a postage stamp on the silver dollar and you have in its thickness a picture of the approximate duration of civilization — five thousand years. Then add to your single stamp others until you have a pile of postage stamps reaching to the top of the Matterhorn, and this represents the probable future of the human race. With some slight adaptation, this is the model of the universe in respect to time set forth by Sir James Jeans. His comment is so significant that I must give it to you in his own words: A day of almost unthinkable length stretches before us with unimaginable oppor¬ tunities for accomplishment. Our descendants of far-off ages, looking down this vista of time from the other end, will see our present age as the misty morning of the world’s history; our contemporaries of today will appear as dim, heroic figures who fought their way thru jungles of ignorance, error, and superstition to discover truth, to learn how to harness the forces of nature, and to make a- world worthy for mankind to live in. We are still too much engulfed in the greyness of the morning mists to be able to imagine, however vaguely, how this world will appear to those who will come after us and see it in the full light of day. But by what light we have, we seem to discern that the main message of astronomy is one of hope to the race' and of 44 National Education Association responsibility to the individual — of responsibility because we are drawing plans and laying foundations for a longer future than we can well imagine. “What shall I do that I may inherit eternal life?” Thus spoke the rich young ruler to the great Teacher. Today, after nineteen hundred years, one sometimes wonders whether our generation is not making the same mistake as did this youth of old, and is turning away from the Master because it is unwilling to give up its “great possession.” Will Mary Antin’s dream of America come true? Will this nation of ours continue to become a land of opportunity for the humble and the oppressed, or will a new slavery emerge — a slavery in which the economic destinies of the many will be more and more determined by the few. Will the captain of industry be only a modern edition of the man on horseback and the feudal lord of the middle ages, and will the factory hand replace the serf ? If we look only at the contemporary scene, the answer to these questions contains much that is doubtful and even sinister. If, on the other hand, we have learned the secret of living for the ages, we shall be more inclined to answer in the spirit of John Masefield, the Poet Laureate of England : By unexpected ways despaired-of things Come into being after hope has ceast. Over our fainting shoulders there are wings, By unseen hands our harvest is increast. Here in our darkness now the powers of light Stir us to change this land that we have filled With squalor and with nightmare and with night, To Beauty’s self; they summon to rebuild. Rebuild in beauty on the burnt-out coals, Nor to the heart’s desire, but the soul’s. CHARACTER EDUCATION OF TOMORROW REV. RALPH W. SOCKMAN, PASTOR, MADISON AVENUE M. E. CHURCH, NEW YORK, N. Y. It would be beyond the bounds of this brief address to give an adequate survey of all character education for tomorrow. Let me, with you, just look in two or three directions which I think need the most emphasis. Can we train characters for tomorrow which will be strong enough to control the inner forces of individual personality? — Whatever social controls we may evolve, we shall always have the problem of self-control, and we demand the right of self-control. We may not control ourselves but at least we want the right of it. Dr. Gray has talked about the trend toward a dic¬ tatorship. That may be true in some realms, but in the youth, we know the trend is still toward democracy. Take it in the schoolroom. The youth in the schoolroom, as I see it, are not willing to tolerate the old schoolmaster attitude of hands down, either for moral conduct or facts information. On most campuses I visit I should say the trend was toward Socialism rather than Fascism. We want self-control in the church. There are still some old-fash- General Sessions 45 ioned people who want ministers to dictate the rules of life but most of us want to think for ourselves. I was born in a small town in Ohio. I remember that when I walked down the main street of that little city in Ohio I had certain purposes of character. I was known to the people around me. Now when I walk down the streets of New York, and there are no neighborhood newspapers to keep track of my virtues and no neighborhood gossips to keep track of my vices, I can live and die in New York unwept, unheralded, and unsung. Nobody knows me. Therefore, if you and I are to live under modern conditions we have to have the kind of character that can stand up in the dark. Dwight L. Moody was about right when he said, “Character is what a man is in the dark.” John R. Mott says that whenever he is asked about certain schools or colleges as to whether they are safe places to put the people’s children, he is always reminded of a certain orphan lad who was reared by an uncle, and that uncle took such painstaking care in the development of that boy that when it came time for him to go to college, he simply laid his hands on the young man’s shoulders, looked him in the eye and said, “David, do what you have a mind to do.” There was a character that could be trusted with its liberty. It is one thing to say to a disciplined mind, “Do what you have a mind to do” ; but it is another thing to say that to an undisciplined person. For him it is to do what he has an impulse to do. Unless we can coordinate these coltish and chaotic impulses into what we might call a disciplined mind we are not meeting the first task of preparing for self-control and that coordination comes not from conference but comes from discipline and drill. We need the Christian character, the home, the school, the church, and the personal guidance to coordinate those chaotic impulses and keep on drill¬ ing until they get a graceful expression. I think you can stand before any group of young people and present those noble ideals Dr. Gray did on internationalism and racial justice and find an emotional response in youth today beyond what their forefathers had, but the difficulty is we haven’t translated those impulses into graceful action. The Master Teacher, after he had finished the course with His pupils, said to them that last night, “No longer do I call you servants. I have called you friends.” No longer were they servants of His curriculum ; they had become the friends of His ideals. Only when we have taken youth and made them friends of virtue, so that they like it for its own sake, have we met that first question of a character strong enough to handle the inner forces of individual personality. Can we develop a character for tomorrow strong enough to manage our work? — A few years ago that would have seemed like an unnecessary ques¬ tion. We had so much work to do; we had so much raw material, so many things crying to be produced that our problem thereafter was just to teach people to work. And we had in America the gospel of hard woik. We thought it would save society, we thought it would save the individual and keep him 46 National Education Association out of mischief. We had an old adage, “The devil finds work for idle hands to do.” But in the light of recent experience I think we might revise that adage and make it read, “The devil finds work for busy hands to do,” for part of the deviltry of modern times is that we have been working too hard at the wrong things. Our undirected doing has proved our undoing. The old ideals of America up to 1919, size, speed, and power, led to a type of thinking which someone said was like this, “That whatever is small ought to be large, whatever is slow ought to be fast, whatever is poor ought to be rich, whatever is, ought to be more so.” We had a kind of an education complex whereby we thought we would solve all of the ills by just more of the same thing and the tragedy was we got too much of the same thing and then we stopped. I think you might take a mechanical figure to illustrate the industrial system of America. I should say it might be likened unto a motor car that had a Lincoln engine, a Ford set of brakes, bicycle lamps, a tremendous drive, weak controls, dim vision. Then came the crash. Now all of us, from the financiers down, are humble enough to admit that that old conveyance of industry needs some decided overhauling. We are looking, first of all, at those lamps, those head¬ lights, for we must have foresight, not only for tomorrow but for those long days after tomorrow; we must have not only individual foresight but social foresight, social planning. The old emphasis on education in its attitude toward labor was how to produce and acquire; the new emphasis must be on how to evaluate and distribute. We need more headlights. Then we need better controls. It takes a far stronger character to manage a motor age than to manage the old horse and buggy era. I sometimes think of a youth caught in evil and crooked¬ ness that if he had lived in a simpler time, a few years ago, he might have lived and died a respected citizen but he couldn’t stand the pressure of the bigness of opportunity. It is one thing to teach youth to stand up against vice and its monsters of such frightful mien as need but to be seen to be hated — burglary, adultery, things of that kind ; it is another thing to develop the character that can stand up to those subtle differences which the business world has made. The long reach and large scale dishonesty has a far different moral esteem in most people’s minds than small dishonesty. To corner a man and take his pocketbook sends the one who does it to prison as a thief; to corner the market and steal a lot of money sends one to Congress as a states¬ man. Our estimates are different. Can we stand up at the controls? It is necessary that women have new controls. Under the old days women were kept in the domestic life where their controls were those intimate ones. When you spoke of the virtue of woman you spoke of her purity; when you spoke of her as a good woman you meant one who was kind and gentle to those around her in a small group. Now women are out in the thick of things, where they belong. They are caught in the speed of things just as man is. In fact they sometimes seem to be caught even more than man. Therefore, wo¬ men today are subjected to ethical tests and when you speak of a good woman General Sessions 47 today you mean one who has those virtues of f airmindedness and justice, and social insight along with those domestic virtues. It takes better control. It takes better driving power, too, to handle ourselves. I don t think w’e are going to impede the driving power of American life. ^ ou aie not going to check the inventive genius of man. We will have better machines to¬ morrow than we have today. I don’t believe we are going to check or should check individual initiative. It is the mainspring of life. The question is how to christianize that inventive genius and that individual initiative. There is kind of a chain store mentality running thru our people today and you and I, by the very laws of our occupations, are very subtly caught in it. We are movable. And so we are looking ahead, no matter how much we like one place. Unless we and our pupils learn to build ourselves into those localities as the old pioneers and settlers did, we are going to destroy those rural communities which have been the breeding ground of America s best leadership. We are going to destroy those civic communities which are the laboratory for so much of our social formula, for heie is the fact of the matter — we do not really come to grips with racial, sectarian, and eco¬ nomical differences until we get them down in the close relations of a com¬ munity. We in New York were not very much disturbed about race as long as the white race was in the north and the black race in the south. When the black race got into Harlem we got nervous. Men are not much disturbed about sectarian differences as long as they never have seen the other sect, but when both get in the same political machine they get disturbed. I am not much disturbed when I read in the paper about a man who has a hun¬ dred million dollars when I have one — one dollar of course. But when I get close enough to see his yacht, then my inferiority complex gets to working. The closer we get together the closer become our differences, and it is in those close contacts we solve sooner or later our great front line of social approaches, and we solve them only if we learn to cooperate. You recall how Abraham Lincoln solved the antipathy of Stanton. Stanton in the campaign days called Lincoln the “low talking innuendo. Lincoln might have left him alone and kept that reviling in his mind. He didn’t do that. He did more. He appointed Stanton to his cabinet. He worked with him. Then when Lincoln lay dead, it is Stanton we are told who said, “There lies the greatest ruler of all men the world has ever seen.” We have the genius to take great differences, bring them to close com¬ munity solution only if we have the character to master that baffling problem. I hope I have not seemed too pessimistic. I am not pessimistic but I believe the raw material of life is just as good today as it ever was. Perhaps some of you have heard me or others tell that incident of the Titanic when it was speeding across the Atlantic on its maiden voyage and was struck by an ice¬ berg, ripped open, and sunk. One of our American publications carried two illustrations of that tragedy— one was the drowning of the ship, the striking and sinking, the very symbol of weakness. Underneath that picture were these words, “The weakness of Man, the supremacy of Nature. 48 National Education Association I he other illustration was that of one of the passengers on the boat, Mr. W. r. Steelman, stepping back to give his place in the last life boat to a woman, I think a woman with a child. Underneath that drawing was this caption, I he weakness of Nature — the supremacy of Man.” I he same chivalry, the same honor, the same raw material are present today as when the Master taught. It is for us with Him to make American character able to manage the technical forces of tomorrow’s machinery. AMERICA’S NEW OPPORTUNITY AND RESPONSIBILITY ALBERT E. WINSHIP, EDITOR, JOURNAL OF EDUCATION, BOSTON, MASS. This is a great opportunity and a great responsibility for the school people of Ameiica. Theie are a thousand times more opportunities and responsibili¬ ties for education today than there ever were three years ago. That is because the microscopes and telescopes and spectroscopes and stethoscopes are a thou¬ sand times more poweiful than they were three years ago. 4 hree years ago it had never dawned upon anybody that the microscope would achieve what it has already achieved. It will look into the hardest substance in the world and see the particles in their motions crossing and recrossing their tracks, and it will measuie those particles to the seven millionth of an inch. That wasn’t thinkable three years ago. I hink for a minute, three years ago we will say, or five years ago, of the telescope ; it had never dawned upon anybody that there could be more than one universe. Now Harvard University is spending a fortune just to catalog the thousands of universes there are. Two weeks ago today Colby College gave Miss Florence Hale a doctorate, and the same day it was announced that animals had pernicious anemia two thousand million years ago. We cannot by any possibility realize how the "world is moving, and this makes opportunities, opportunities never dreamed of. Think for a minute, if you can, what this means for education, what it means in responsibility for education. And we are doing for education as great things as are being done with the microscope and the telescope. It is pretty hard for us to realize it. Birmingham, Alabama, is doing more for character and social culture than "was ever thought of five years ago. Louisiana is doing more for education of all the people. It had never dawned upon anybody three years ago that the time could ever come that a city like Birmingham should have all the children, all the boys of the city respectful, courteous, and as easy and simple a matter as you can dream of. T here isn’t a boy in Birmingham that will keep his seat in any public conveyance or in any public audience if there is a woman or girl or an aged man, or a cripple, or anybody else standing anywhere in his vicinity, and all because Superintendent Glenn says that social culture is the basis of character; that it is absolutely necessary that everybody should think of and estimate his own responsibility. Louisiana is the first state, the first legislative body in the world, to pass a law that there should be no distinction in the educational opportunities General Sessions 49 between anybody whose skin is white, or brown, or yellow, or black ; to say that everybody should have opportunities; to say that no child should be responsible for the politics of his father, or the religion of his mother any more than he was responsible for the color of his skin. For the first time in the world’s history is it legally proclaimed the children of the parochial schools should have the same privileges, the same free textbooks, free notebooks, free pencils, and free pens as the public-school children have. It takes your breath away to see how fast the world is moving. We need to realize that everything that makes opportunity makes responsibility. We all worship Plato and Socrates- and Aristotle. We all today say that those three famous men did the greatest thinking that was ever done. That was a long time ago — twenty-three hundred years — but more has been achieved in the last three years than in twenty-three hundred years. Three years ago no one had ever suspected that the microscope could make the opportunities -that it has made, or the telescope. The microscope and tele¬ scope have enabled the boys and girls of today to know things which nobody ever thought three years ago anybody could know. That is what we must all bring our minds to. An eight-year-old girl in Chicago knows more than Plato and Socrates and Aristotle, and William T. Harris, Charles W. Eliot, and every president of the National Education Association, and every president of the American Union ever thought of knowing three years ago. And that means responsibility for education. We are facing, this meeting this week is facing, responsibility. Pretty hard to make people realize, but I want to say to you, looking back as I do over a good many years, that I thank the Lord reverently that I am alive, that I am able to be here with you, and above all that I am able to know what the opportunities are and what the responsibilities are in education. THE PLACE OF EDUCATION IN SOLVING SOCIAL PROBLEMS ERNEST W. BUTTERFIELD, STATE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, HARTFORD, CONN. The American home still stands — I have four friends who recently have given public expression to their views. The first is head of a school great in history, in resources, and in tradition ; a school which prepares boys for col¬ lege. This educator, speaking to a theater full of teachers — most of them unmarried but looking upon marriage with entire complacency — declared in clear words, “The American home has indubitably broken down.” Why indubitably? Because in his intimate talks with the boys of his school he had been told depressing or harrowing tales of the homes which they had left. The second is commissioner in charge of a school which also admits by a strict, selective process, but a school which caters to a different social group as it is a state reformatory for boys. This educator also is on intimate terms with his boys. He knows their terms of commitment and the nature of the 50 National Education Association homes from which they came. He, too, is certain that the American home has broken down. The Commissioner lives in his institution and the Principal has a home which by necessity is an adjunct to his school; but each, recalling his child¬ hood, remembers the home, the complete home, which his present position denies him. The Principal does not realize that the normal American home is sending its children to the nearby public high school, while to his school come boys from homes where great wealth, fame, clashing artistic temperaments, extensive and absorbing interests, or impressive public service make normal home life intermittent or impossible. Neither does the Commissioner keep in steadfast mind the fact that his boys come from homes where poverty, ignorance, disease, or mental incapacity make normal home life an unknown condition. My third friend is superintendent of schools in an industrial city of 100,000 — a city which combines equally colonial and modern mid-European cultures. He knows personally thousands of children and hundreds of homes. He realizes at least in part that his problems are somewhat simplified by the withdrawal from the public schools to finishing or preparatory schools or to repressive and reformatory institutions of many children from the non¬ normal homes, which are broken by great wealth or capacity on the one hand, or by great poverty and incapacity on the other. The superintendent says that the American home indubitably stands. His home is an orderly one. So are the homes of his neighbors and associates. Each week he sees with what sacrifices the parents of his city are leading their children forward on the Way of Learning. He knows and has publicly de¬ clared with great positiveness the love and devotion of children as they share with parents what the past has held dear and what the present judges of increased worth. The fourth of these men is Cameron Beck, personnel director of the New York Stock Exchange. In his official capacity he directs the educational prog¬ ress of hundreds of boys and young men. He makes his selections from all states and all social classes and economic grades. Directly, or thru his office, he advises each year a very large number of young people in their vocational problems. He knows the American home and he, too, is an optimist. The Commissioner knows the home of despair. The Principal knows the home where parents hope that children may be equal to the enjoyment and use of the wealth, fame, and leisure which they, the parents, have gained. The Superintendent and the Director know the homes where dwells the American ambition: that children may have advantages which the parents could not gain. The Principal and the Commissioner believe that the precession of the equinoxes, the Gulf Stream, the order of seed time and harvest, the relation of cause and effect, human traits, the Republican Party, the Episcopal Church, the need and use of food and shelter all change very slowly ; while the home and the family in their one brief period as spectators have faded from view. I cannot stand with them at the Wailing AVall which they have General Sessions 51 erected and declare, as they, “The Glory has departed from Israel.” Instead I wish to commend the thousands of parents who, in the face of thoughtless criticism, with intelligent care and with unmeasured devotion, rear their children and make the homes of America. Similarly, I wish to honor the vibrant young people of today, worthy of the love which parents lavish upon them and which the state has in them. What has America done in our time f (1) It has made women citizens and by raising the education of women and chil¬ dren it has made the father a member of his family. (2) It has made Satan a comic figure and Hell not a place of torment but a mild expletive, but it has no bankrupt hospitals and it fills the Community Chest to over¬ flowing. (3) It received art, a poorly taught school subject, but today the mansard roof has gone and we are landscaping our lawns. (4) It received music, a poorly taught school subject, and today oratorios are heard in farm cottages and in city tenements. (5) It received physiology, a poorly taught school subject, and today much hideous and useless clothing has disappeared and the expectancy of life has been lengthened by ten years. (6) It has decided that in the marriage service the words love and cherish are more binding than “death us do part.” (7) If it has made it possible for young housekeepers to estimate with a fair degree of accuracy the number of chairs needed for the family dining room, it has also decreed that all these chairs shall be filled with high-school graduates. (8) It has reduced the family from twelve to four children but it rears all four. (9) It has lost family prayers at a few firesides, but at many it listens in silent devotion to Harry Emerson Fosdick and Rabbi Wise. (10) It produced a generation which rose in unity to win the war of the ages, and similarly it is producing a generation which in its own time and way will make order out of worldwide confusion and will bring us all back to sanity. As we note these things we may well take courage. It is true that the nation in humility is praying with the Quaker poet : Forgive our foolish ways Reclothe us in our rightful mind. It is true that this is a topsy-turvy world and clouds and deep darkness are around us. It is time that we teachers declare and affirm our belief that the foundations of American society still stand and stand unbroken. The old-time discipline — My contribution to this program is to proclaim that we must re-establish in the schools the disciplines which the fathers held essential and to assert that these disciplines must be restated until they express modern social changes. I shall name six disciplines which I find are now being re-established in our schools and I shall call these disciplines by proper names which have been little used during the last decade. I call for the restoration to our schools and the enhancement of Chores, Drudgery, Meekness, Sobriety, Charity, and Faith. Ch ores — In the days when families lived in isolation and had few mechani¬ cal servants, each older girl had her definite share of home duties and also National Education Association 52 had charge of one or two of her smaller brothers and sisters. Each boy was responsible for the care of cattle and for other vocational tasks. From these activities came more than certain skills. I would emphasize again the value of drudgery as one of the old-time disciplines. Meekness — To us virtuous Victorians of the Empress of India type and to our junior megalocephalic Mussolinians no word is so distasteful as meek¬ ness.” Yet astronomers are meek for they see creation as an accomplishment; mothers and teachers are meek for they see creation as an eternal process. All others are meek only when American Telephone drops to 85. Yet meekness is an old-time virtue. Moses was meek tho neither the Egyptians nor the Hittites realized it. For meekness does not only mean humility but it also means orderly propriety. Sobriety — Worthy behavior and good citizenship arise from imitation rather than as the result of instruction, and the teacher’s example is remem¬ bered longer than her words. Charity — In the modern world “Charity that suffers long and is kind ; that envieth not ; is not puffed up is a high essential. When Saint Paul spoke of charity he meant the same manifestation that John Adams had in mind when he used his treasured phrase, “social affections.” Faith — The revered pastor of the Pilgrims before a part of his congre¬ gation set out from Leyden for a settlement in the new world gave them as a last message these words, “Since God has much more light to fall from his Holy Word do not stick where Luther and Calvin left you but receive any truth which God shall reveal.” Around this precept our nation has grown. It has never been willing to regard the words of any philosopher or statesman of any political party or association of savants as binding beyond the time and circumstances which made them effective. In educa¬ tion and in society each new inspiration in part nullifies and in part re¬ states with emphasis all previous inspirations. In politics we may not stick where Washington and Lincoln left us. In education we may not stick where Henry Barnard, Colonel Parker, or G. Stanley Hall left us, but rather we must receive truths as they are revealed to us. Education will aid to solve and resolve our social problems when we emphasize in our schools both at the desks and on the playground, even above reading, writing, and arithmetic, even above culture and college preparation, even above intelligence scores and athletic teams, six old-time fundamentals: Chores, Drudgery, Sobriety, Meekness, Charity, and Faith. ILLITERACY AS A FACTOR IN THE CRIME SITUATION MRS. CORA WILSON STEWART, DIRECTOR, NATIONAL ILLITERACY CRUSADE, WASHINGTON, D. C. Most convicted criminals have an alibi that they would tell you as their story either false or true. Illiterates are no exception to the rule. They have their alibi, and it is always true. It is: “I never had a chance. The Gover- General Sessions 53 nor of Kentucky presented certificates to 150 such men one evening and they were given an opportunity to write or to speak some sentence in regard to their life’s history. In every case, without exception, their stories were epitomized by this very sentence: “I never had a chance.” Among these men was Curt Jett, a Kentucky feudalist, who was notori¬ ous for two things — for the deadly accuracy of his aim with the gun, and for the fact he had two life sentences to serve altho he had only one life to live. He added to his story, “I was a child eight years old in knowledge when I was sentenced to this prison.” Curt Jett had never heard of educa¬ tional measurements or tests, but he spoke better than he knew. He put his finger on the reason why most illiterates commit crime, and that is their mental immaturity. Years afterward when a test was made in the same institution of nearly twenty-five hundred prisoners, a test made by experts, this was the report : sixty-two percent of the population are rated at third grade and lower ; the mental age ranges from that of a five and a half year old child to seventeen, an average of eight and a half years. Now just what have we a right to expect of a child of eight and a half years — of course excepting the prodigy mentioned by Dr. Winship. Are we not taught that the age of accountability is twelve years ; that that is the time when children are supposed to be responsible for their acts? It is not my intention to declare that illiterates are responsible for all of the crime of this or any other era. The facts would not justify such a statement — and if it were true, I should hesitate to be the one to make it. But there is no question that illiterates in their bewilderment, in their ignorance, are more liable to violate laws and to commit crimes and offenses against society than the educated. There are not many statistics on this subject, no complete investigation has been made, but some partial investi¬ gations have clearly revealed what the conditions are. A former United States Commissioner of Education made an investigation and revealed the fact that illiterates are seven times as liable to commit crimes as the educated. We can readily understand why this is true. The illiterates have not the benefit of our public schools, with their training and their discipline, which develops restraint ; with their training for the development of sound judgment, strong character, and high ideals and loyalty to our institutions. I say that is the purpose of our public schools, and I do not propose to stop with saying that it is merely the purpose. I believe that purpose is being admirably achieved. An institution that has produced Richard Byrd, Bobby Jones, Helen Wills, Charles Lindbergh, and Amelia Earhart has nothing for which it need apologize. It is a rather common practise to charge that the schools are not perform¬ ing their mission, and that the teachers are failing in their task. We at least cannot charge all illiterates or all criminals to the public schools. This is one place where we shall have to exonerate those institutions. We are told by criminal authorities there are more young people in the prisons today than there were in the years past, but shall we credit this or charge this to our public schools? Perhaps there was never the time in history 54 National Education Association when the school had to wrestle with and combat the evil influences that were attacking the character of the children such as exists today. The school has to contest with a modern Faust, a modern Faust of several, not one — the cinema with its immoral, suggestive and crime-breeding pictures; the newsstands with their cheap and trashy magazines ; the commercial interests who parade vice in the pages of the newspapers under the form of advertis¬ ing and carry it over the radio, dramatize it and sing it as a lullaby into the homes and ears of the children, morning, noon, and night. Naturally we expect stronger resistance to evil in the educated than in the illiterates. The pitiful incompleteness of the illiterates, the lack of understanding of the motives of others, their ignorance of the workings of justice; may lead them into many wrong conclusions and into harsh and unreasonable opinions. Jack Ellis of my own state tells the story of an illiterate man who used to pretend to read the newspaper. Jack Ellis, a boy of fifteen, watched the man practise this deception and resolved he would expose him. So one morning he came up to the old man with the newspaper in his hand, and pointing to one of Dewitt Talmadge’s beautiful sermons said, in a tone of assumed indignation, “Now, Uncle John, what do you think of that?” And the old man, peering at the headlines, or where the finger was point¬ ing, for a moment, assumed the same tone of indignation and said, “I think they ought to hang the darned scoundrel.” This sort of thing must have been what Tennyson meant in those lines, “Naked Ignorance delivers puerile judgments all day long.” W e little realize the helplessness of illiterates to distinguish good from evil, the false from the true. We cannot conceive the depth and breadth of their ignorance. A friend of mine who taught a man thirty-one years of age said to me, “I didn’t know that such colossal ignorance could exist. I could teach the man just anything and it would be something he didn’t know. He didn’t even know how many months there were in the year.” Is it any wonder such people are often misled and sent on strange errands? During the war the soldiers sometimes amused themselves by sending illiterates after the key to the parade ground. In the law books of Idaho there is recorded the story of some workmen who amused them¬ selves by pretending to read a story, or what purported to be a story about one of' their number, a slanderous story, in a Spokane newspaper. This man couldn’t read, and taking their hoax for a fact, he, with burning indignation, went into the city the next morning, into the office of the editor, and shot him thru the heart. I have known some illiterate murderers, too. One of them was Steve McQueeny, a tall, seventeen-year old blond lad of the mountains, the Anglo-Saxon type of which the mountains boast. In his anger and his ignorance he snuffed out a human life with as little thought as he would have blown out a candle. His crime was so shocking he was given a change of venue and he found himself in Danville, in jail, bewildered and shaken, and feeling as far from home as you would feel if you were in Russia. General Sessions 55 This boy was given a death sentence. A protest went up from all over the nation. Mothers made appeals for him, mothers who had boys of this same age. Teachers were indignant that one so young and so irresponsible should be condemned to die. There was enough sentiment in his own state to save this boy from the electric chair, and there was also an awakened consciousness on the subject of illiteracy. While he was waiting in jail for the final day, the wise jailer in Danville taught him to read and write. Two years ago when I visited the prison in Frankfort, Steve McQueeny was teaching a class in the prison. Now he is free and his sponsors believe he is on the high road to constructive citizenship. There are other reasons than ignorance that cause illiterates to com¬ mit crimes. One of these is unemployment — difficult today for the edu¬ cated ; but more and more difficult for illiterates. Even in normal times the captains of industry everywhere are ruling, and very naturally, that men who cannot read and write are at a disadvantage ; that they waste time ; and that they damage and sometimes destroy machinery thru igno¬ rance, awkwardness, and carelessness. No illiterate can begin to define or analyze the feelings which lead him to commit a crime, and we who are educated can only glimpse and partially interpret his impulses in that direction. Some of the reasons, we can but think, indicate that he commits crime to break the deadly monotony of his life, to exchange stagnation for action, to announce himself by forcible entry into that human society from which he feels he has been shut out, and the desire that he, as well as the educated man, has to occupy the center of the stage, to have an audience who will observe his act, whether it be good or bad. These reasons we will consider for a brief moment. The educated have resources within themselves for bringing a variety into their lives when needed, while illiterates, when left without companionship, lack the trained intellect and imagination which will help them to dispel loneliness and break the deadly monotony of their lives. Having nothing within themselves for recreation, they may turn to some destructive act. There is no more satisfying feeling that comes to a human being than to feel that he is one with his kind ; that he belongs within the human circle. The chief pleasure of a convention like this is its fellowship. It is not in hearing speeches always — and I can assure you that it is not in making them — but it is the association with the group to which we feel beyond doubt that we belong. Illiterates have no such feeling of oneness with any group. They do not have it with their local parent-teacher association or with any gathering in the community, even church or Sunday school. It must be indeed galling to feel that you do not belong to any constructive forces of society. I am not attempting to say that they fully realize this loss, this vacancy in their lives, but that they can sense it and feel somehow resentful and hurt about it is true beyond any doubt. Some illiterates make crime the stage in which they are enacting drama. “All the world is a stage,” said the poet, “and all men and women merely players. They have their entrances and their exits, and one man in his time 56 National Education* Association plays many parts. Thru desperate acts, thru horrible performances, some people who cannot otherwise apparently secure an audience will seek to secure the center of the stage. If they cannot be good actors they will be bad ones. Without attempting to analyze some of the reasons why illiterates more than educated men are inclined to resort to evil, let us see what we can do to give them an even chance and protect both them and ourselves from danger. We can help prevent many from becoming criminals by establishing night schools for adults all over the land, gathering in by every sort of popular appeal those who need instruction. Woodrow Wilson once said, “You know I used to be a school-master, and the interesting thing about the schools of the United States is that the people of the United States make so little use of them.” The opportunity to rehabilitate wrecked lives, illiterates not in the prisons, is one which is receiving, and deserves to receive, considerable attention. Educational authorities and educational institutions are coming to regard this and other phases of education among prisoners as a definite part of the school program rather than leaving it to the politicians, or ignoring them altogether. A complete program of prison education, in both state and federal prisons, is now in the making. It has been slow, tortuously slow, in some places but it is now rapidly evolving. It is a program that is immensely worthwhile, one that is valuable to the state, to society, and to the individual. One student of prison education recently wrote : Since ignorance is responsible for most crimes, consequently to reduce crime, we must reduce ignorance; and since it costs the state not less than two hundred dollars to arrest, convict, and confine a prisoner in the penitentiary for one year, it may safely be assumed that such training would save the state more than it costs. If such training prevents fifty men merely from becoming repeaters of crime for a period of ten years, it would mean a saving to the state of not less than one million dollars, and would be worth infinitely more than it cost to the unfortunate individual and his family. If there is ever a time when my enthusiasm flags or my optimism fails, I can rekindle them by calling up a scene in front of a prison in Walla Walla, Washington, where the men were lined up one morning for medical inspec¬ tion. The evening before night schools had been opened for the first time in the prison, and were confined to men twenty-five years of age and under. On this morning when the prison physician came out, it was the signal for the prisoners who needed medical attention to step forward from the line. When the physician came out, he gasped. He thought an epidemic had struck the prison. Every man over twenty-five had stepped forward. When he had a chance to be heard, each one said, “Doctor, won’t you use your influence to see that we have a chance to get into the school ?” Whatever may be his excuse or his inclinations when on the outside, the illiterate when in prison walls is eager for educational advantages. There is General Sessions 57 no problem securing attendance there, but rather it is more of a stampede to the classes. We should capitalize this eagerness to our advantage and to the welfare of our state. Prison classes in federal, state, county, and municipal prisons are not only a favored educational work but form the machinery of a charitable work that commends itself to all who love their fellowmen. THE CHALLENGE TO THE SCHOOL LEWIS E. LAWES, WARDEN, SING SING PRISON, OSSINING, N. Y. The genius of Charles Dickens jolted eighteenth century England with disclosures of petty thievery among the juveniles of that country. \ et the pictures and imagery of Dickens fades into insignificance in the face of the startling fact that the most desperate of our criminals, the most vicious and unyielding are minors, still in their teens and not far removed from class¬ room days in the neighborhood schoolhouse. Our challenge to education is not with the rank and file of educators, but with the plan and scope under which they are compelled to work out their problems. Of the admissions to Sing Sing Prison, the percentage of robbery cases alone rose from 28.5 percent in January, 1930, to 51.6 in April 1931, and has maintained the latter general average since then. Of the prisoners who left public school in the sixth, seventh, or eighth grades, over 75 percent were convicted and sentenced for robbery. There may be an honest difference of opinion as to whether the youth of our day contribute more to the ranks of criminality than did earlier genera¬ tions ; but there can be no gainsaying the fact that the criminals they do con¬ tribute are more brazen, more vicious and desperate than ever before in the history of our country, or in any other civilized community. A sidelight on this is the gradually decreasing average age of the men in the death house at Sing Sing Prison. It is not my purpose to find fault with teachers or the quality of their accomplishments. Educators, as a whole, are a serious-minded people. The percentage of teachers who go wrong is so small as to compel us to look to other professions, mostly bankers, brokers, and lawyers, to fill the quota of inmate-teachers for our prison school. The fact remains, however, that there is a missing link between education and character, which our public school system has not been able to discover. In our emphasis on intelligence and brains, we often forget or neglect to discover the uses made of both. Among the several thousand prisoners at Sing Sing there are hundreds of men who display inherent and latent abilities along certain lines of work¬ manship and mechanics which, if encouraged in early life or during adoles¬ cence, would have enabled them to pursue the course of honest livelihood. A checkup of the socalled backward pupils will show that while they are less responsive to book learning, they are generally more adept than their more nimble minded fellow-students in ordinary lines of workmanship. Their hands make up for lack of scholarship. And yet most schools have nothing to offer this class of pupils except the low mark of scholarship that means 58 National Education Association disappointment and failure — a state of mind that leads to indifference. It is this indifference that finds expression in truancy and later delinquency. Some of the minor construction work at Sing Sing is done by inmate labor. The larger building projects are required by law to be done by out¬ side, civilian labor on properly regulated bids. I wo buildings were recently constructed on prison grounds. One was the usual contract job by outside labor. The smaller and less pretentious was planned and built entirely by prison labor. It is the opinion of experts, and certainly of laymen with an eye to beauty of structure and quality of workmanship, that the work of the prisoners excels that of the outside and civilian labor on the main building. Somehow, the better mechanics were outlaws, men who couldn’t fit in, who had been unable to find contentment in ordinary rules of life and whom society classes as dangerous and vicious. Is there not something lacking in the stability of a social order that denies expression to a man’s natural talents except within the walls of a prison? America is turning out boys and men who are proficient in figures, yet their proficiency is only too often utilized in figuring out winnings in crap games and in pool parlors. It is graduating pupils who can write, but their ability is too frequently expressed in mounting rates of forgeries and black¬ mail notes. It standardizes high intelligence quotients and mental ratings on the ability to think quickly and hurriedly, which finds expression in trigger crimes and quick getaways in high powered automobiles. It is possible that the jurist was right when he declared that we are “putting multiplication tables ahead of the Sermon on the Mount.” I would not have the school supplant or replace the church. The church, a term which I use in its widest sense, and the home have their respective spheres of influence in the shaping of character and, consequently, on the problem of delinquency. The school must supplement their efforts. The scope of our system of education has been too narrow. It has concerned itself almost exclusively with language as the basis for the melting pot theory of American development. The result is that we understand what the child says, but are unable to grasp his thoughts, his inclinations, his inherent and native prefer¬ ences. To paraphrase an expression of Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, we have sacrificed the individual to the mass. If the school is to really mold the character of America, and that after all is its primary objective, it must mature from mere scholasticism to socialization. It cannot be content with gaging mentalities and measuring brain power, but it must concern itself with the adaptation of each to such purposes in life as shall provide a normal and logical outlet for the peculiar and particular personality involved. Any public institution that fails to meet the social necessities or require¬ ments of the people for whom it is functioning, must weaken and eventually become ineffectual and without influence. That is as true of religion as of government and education. The law itself is not immune from this necessity to conform to the changing modes of life and custom. Even “prohibitioners” are beginning to realize that ; and as the result, we may soon see the end of General Sessions 59 this prohibition problem that has to a larger extent than most of us appreciate, been responsible for our current crime rate. We are living in what is popularly called the Commercial Era. Every modern human objective is influenced by the reaction it may have on trade, on business, on good or bad times. Wars are fought to determine spheres of influence for trade purposes. Peace is made with the same objective. Most of the laws that are turned out in such frenzied and hectic zeal by our legis¬ latures, deal with business and commerce in one phase or another. Education must realize its proper place in the new scheme of things. No education can be complete without adequate training for a vocation that will equip the boy or girl or adolescent to meet the requirements of the new dispensation. Many, perhaps most, of our great army of school children will be able to follow' their natural inclinations. Circumstances, environment, opportunities, will play their part in shaping their lives. But there are those who must be especially trained and guided. They are the ones who generally fall by the wayside and who become our behavior problems. It is with them that educa¬ tion must seriously concern itself. The scope of the school must be widened so as to teach every pupil a vocation, to train him to a specific trade or occu¬ pation commensurate with his individual and intimate abilities. I find that less than 5 percent of the prisoners in Sing Sing have had voca¬ tional or trade training. I find further that colleges contribute a higher per¬ centage of prisoners than trade schools. If these facts mean anything, they certainly indicate the necessity for preparation for definite vocation in life. Academics may be all right for pupils with a natural inclination for schol¬ astics or professions, but public and high schools must remold their scope so as to include practical vocational training for the manual minded. I am inclined to agree with the gentleman who suggested that the “teacher in over¬ alls is equally important as one who is a scholar and moralist. A fact little understood by the student of social service is that the intro¬ duction of the truant school and juvenile reformatory has done more to create professionalism in crime than any other agency in American life. Segregation of the youthful offender in an environment of misfits emphasizes the complex of non-conformity and permits if not encourages undesirable group formations upon which the adult gangster types draw for new recruits. The school should be so well rounded and organized as to obviate the neces¬ sity for special juvenile corrective institutions, except for the seriously mental defective. The truant is generally the little fellow who finds little or no interest in the lessons handed out to him regardless of his peculiar mental and emotional preferences. There may be intimate home conditions that warp the youthful mind. He may have formed an undesirable acquaintance during the long summer vacation or after school hours. I would not delegate the police department to ascertain the facts. I would rather leave the respon¬ sibility with a specially trained personnel of the school. If the boy needs wholesome companionship, I would introduce him to the neighborhood boys club ; if he needs food, perhaps clothing, why not furnish it to him at home 60 National Education Association instead of in an institution ; if he needs more intimate supervision, don’t deprive the parent of all 'responsibility, but supplement it by providing a big bi other especially designated by the school and with authoritative discretion. Truant schools, reformatories, juvenile homes have become a sort of fetish in American life. We discuss seriously the manner of their construction. Shall they be built with walls or without walls ; with or without bars and cells; shall they have dormitories or be built on the cottage plan? Primarily, however, there is the idea of segregation. It is this very segregation that is most harmful. There is hardly a juvenile institution that is not really a crime incubator. We have builded wrong in theory and practise. It has taken us a century to discover the fault. Why not start anew? Let the school step in where police and courts and law have failed. Were I an educator in authority, I would say to judges and lawyers and legislators: “Hands off. Leave our youngsters to us. You’ve made a mess of things. Give us a chance.” To carry out these programs, so essential to the prevention of crime and the wellbeing of our national ideals, is to broaden rather than restrict the scope of our school system. It cannot be accomplished merely by adhering to the traditional and scanty three R formula. The necessity for widening the scope and influence of our public schools may require larger instead of re¬ stricted appropriations. Yet there will be a satisfactory balancing of budgets. For there will be less need for juvenile corrective institutions. Children’s courts will have less to do, and the police will be able to concentrate their efforts on those who have already passed the stage of earlier error and are already headed for lives of delinquency and crime. In the confusion of the hundreds of research bureaus which have under¬ taken to seek the source of crime, much attention has been given to analyzing the criminal: Who and what is he? What are his antecedents? His educa¬ tional background? His religious inclination? As I read the reports that ac¬ company newly admitted prisoners to my prison I see clearly their negative personalities. I see what they are not, and most of them are not adequately trained for life. They received no encouragement to develop their individual and intimate talents. They have no sense of social responsibility. They were not taught the satisfaction, the contentment, and happiness that comes with honest toil. In correcting these faults, the school must play its part. It must find the missing link between education and character. FIRM FOUNDATIONS FLORENCE HALE, PRESIDENT, NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION; AND STATE DIRECTOR OF RURAL EDUCATION, AUGUSTA, MAINE First of all I want to ask the question : Are we making teaching a pro¬ fession in these days? Some people say that we are not making it a pro¬ fession, and there are some very important questions that are closely allied to this question. I think one of them that is going to meet us very 61 General Sessions shortly is whether we are training too many teachers for positions that are not abundant enough to take all of them into consideration. During the war there came into our ranks quite a number of socalled teachers who Were not really teachers. They were those who could pass examinations, they were those who had good character, they were those who got thru a course wTith a passing mark but as for having the personality or real teaching intelligence, a great many of them didn’t have it, and yet we let them by. I would like to weed out of the schools of this country every teacher wdio is not professionally minded. If I could do that, then we and all others who try in associations of this sort to improve the profession, would find it much easier to convince the public of the worth of. our causes. There are comparatively few such teachers; but in every single system there are at least one or two teachers w’ho, perhaps, had better be doing something else. Now the question comes, should we for a time at least make some arrangement in our teachers colleges and in our normal schools \vhereb\ we will weed out those who will never make teachers? They may pass the examinations, but a keen normal school supervisor can soon tell in every class those people who will never be of the right spirit or tempera¬ ment, or personality, whatever you call it, to be successful teacheis in the schools. I think it is wrong to let them go thru believing that they can be teachers, because when one tells them that they can be teacheis, they expect a position, and many times it has been a hard saciifice for that family to give them this opportunity. It would be much kinder to tell this young lady and this young man, when the supervisor is convinced that she or he cannot be a teacher. They may then find a place juslt as honorable and just as fine as that of this particular profession for which they are not suited. I have been very much interested in hearing some of the discussions about what a real teacher is, and I am only going to speak of one thing because it is a very burning question. We are discussing it in our depart¬ ments here all the week. This question is whether we shall add more children to the already large number in the school. I heard a very fine superintendent say, before he thought it over, Why, yes, you could just as well put twenty more children in. You could teach fifty; as well as teach thirty. You could have an inclined plane, have the blackboard up here. The fifty could see the problems and see the maps just as well as the thirty and you would be saving money that way. Now, in connec¬ tion with this idea of what is a teacher and what should the students in normal school possess in order to insure the fact that they will be good teachers, we must stop a moment. Did that man have the right conception of teaching, fine as he is? I say he did not for the time being. He had the idea of a job. I think one of the first things we as principals and classroom teachers, and supervisors must impress upon the public and upon ourselves, if neces¬ sary, is that teaching is knowing every single boy and girl in the school. 62 National Education Association Teaching is going into the homes of those children, teaching is knowing why the boy is dull or why he doesn’t quite fit in. It does not consist of a hungry boy or one whose family is in dissension coming to school and finding a teacher who looks at him coldly when he won’t answer or when he doesn’t obey the law, and who says. “You ought to go out and go to work because you are not good enough for this school.” That is what some boys meet where there are too many pupils in the room and where the teacher just holds a job. But the boy who has a hard time at home and finds when he goes to school a sympathetic teacher who thinks he has always been a good boy and there must be something wrong, and then goes to the home and finds out they are having but one meal a day, or the family’s nerves are on a ten¬ sion because there is no salary coming in from the father, then she says to this boy, “I know why you cannot answer and I will be a little easy with you. I will help you a little more after school because it isn’t your fault just now” — that is real teaching. We must not fill our rooms so full of pupils until it is just a mechanical job to correct papers and put on board work and at the end of the day the teacher’s energy is gone and she might just as well be a mechanic of some sort as far as real inspiration for teaching is concerned. I want you to go home and carry that message because I know that our citizens mean to do the right thing. I have been in a conservative state for over twenty years, and I have never found one school board member, if the superintendent or the teachers really could show them what teaching is and why it was for the benefit of the children, who did not willingly do those things that were best for the children. We must learn to interpret what we know. We musn’t be too bookish, we musn’t be too highbrow; we must consider) that this man paying the taxes has a right to under¬ stand what it is all about, particularly in these times when it is pretty hard to pay that money. We are progressing marvelously in this teaching profession. I think it is shown by the records of the National Education Association. In 1917 we had about 7,000 active workers in this Association. Last year in 1931 we had an active membership of 216,000. This year I am happy to tell you, in spite of all the conditions, we are one body of people that are not “in the red” and we have grown. Our numbers are 4,129 greater than they were last year. There are some, of course, in this great body and some on the outside who maintain that this is unfortunate. They maintain that there are too many people in the N. E. A. They maintain that we are letting in the common people and that 7,000 choice souls should say to the rest of us what we should think and do and teach. Now, I have sympathy with our friends of a bygone day who feel that way, because it is a mark of bygone- day thinking when people believe that ; for in every institution in this country that is forward looking, the very greatest piece of advice given to superintendents is that teachers shall participate in curriculum making, teachers shall participate in textbook selection. General Sessions 63 I can remember when I first began to teach they handed me a course of study and they said, “You get that by May 1st or you are gone” — and I got it. When there was a textbook to be purchased, I don’t quite know how the decision was made ; but I do know I never had anything to say about it, altho I had to teach it when it was handed to me. In this day in all good school systems teacher committees plan the curriculums with their supervisors; teacher committees help to select the textbooks with their supervisors. If these great universities and these leaders in educa¬ tion believe that is the proper thing, then why shouldn’t those same teachers participate in the deliberations of their great National Education Association? I can’t see any more practical democracy than that. I know you will let me talk plainly and know I have the kindest spirit toward anyone who does criticize, but I think they have not looked quite far enough into this matter. Democracy is what we fought for; it is what we are fighting for now in another way. Some of these very fine people who have done so much along that line don’t quite want to see it practised when it comes to the lowest teacher if she is worthy of taking the highest place now and then in the seats that are considered the seats of the mighty — mighty uncomfortable sometimes — in planning these great deliberations. I think the greatest step forward that can be made pro¬ fessionally in this country is when every teacher can stay where she likes to stay, can teach that little group of children if she is a born teacher and loves them and does not have to become a supervisor, or a superintendent, or the head of a department to get her recognition. I present this to you also in just another line. Had you thought that out of a thousand children, our statistics tell us, who go thru school, 974 reach the sixth grade, 610 reach the high school, 260 graduate from high school, about 50 go thru college? Just think of those figures and what that means to our civilization ! It means that the great body of our citizens and our taxpayers, to whom we have to look for our courses in music, for the money to carry on vocational education, get their education in the first six grades. Is it not very important to this country that the class¬ room teachers of the first six grades be the finest people, be those that are capable of holding any position in any organization ? If the teachers that have the majority of the children in this country in their formative years are not smart enough, are not good enough to participate in the delibera¬ tions of any big body, they are pretty poor trainers of future citizens. I believe that the greatest step we have made is that all our teachers are coming into this great organization. While we are talking about what is great and what is small, and who are the choice souls and who are not, I think that a person really never becomes truly great until he forgets all about greatness, until he looks upon every person whom he meets as having something worthwhile to offer. Don’t you think that would be a pretty good test of our I. Q.’s. in greatness? It seems to me that it would. We must remember that the 64 National Education Association gi eat t st people have been the most willing to cn.ll on the le3st of us for the one little contribution that we could make. I was brought up on Horace Mann, being a Massachusetts girl before I adopted Maine, and I remember a story that was often told by Mr:. Kirkpatrick, our psychology teacher whom some of you in the West know. He said to us that Horace Mann thought that all the teachers should pai ticipate in teacher meetings. So he planned a series of teacher meetings in a little Massachusetts town. The leading educators around there thought it was a very bad step that they should be asked to mingle with these lesser persons, according to their idea. So they didn’t sweep the room, they didn’t arrange the chairs; they thought to show their dis¬ approval by this dirty, disorderly room. They thought Horace Mann would be disgusted, being Commissioner of Education in Massachusetts, and would walk out, and that would be the end of teacher meetings where all mingled. Instead of that Horace Mann came in, saw the situa¬ tion, took off his coat, swept the floor, arranged the chairs, and held the institute. Now I call that a big man and I call that a practically educated man, who when the biggest job is to sweep the floor, sweeps it and sweeps it with grace and dignity. We should get that sort of spirit among us all. Times are changing, and it is important for those that are on the top rounds, whether it be the primary teacher, who seems to be pretty much on the top round, or whether it be some other extreme that to the rest of you may seem the top round, to go to work together in these next few years. If any one of us in this profession begins to say disparaging things about the other, we are all lost because we are not professional at all when that sort of thing takes place. When I was principal of a training school I thought I was a wonderful person and nobody told me different. Everybody wanted to get good marks, and so I was surrounded by a lot of admirers, pseudo and otherwise; and I never dreamed but what I was a great person and handed out my pronouncements. Something hap¬ pened ; I woke up; I wasn’t so great; and that was when my education began. Many people get so educated and get so involved in their subject- matter that they get admiring friends around them and people who want to get their degrees and who don’t really listen to what they honestly think. I was a student in a class like that. I heard the professor talking1 at summer school about our saying what we thought and not taking what anybody else thought for granted. That sounded good to me and so the next day I told him what I thought. It was different and I wasn’t met very heartily. A sweet-faced woman who had been there a long time called me aside and she said, “Now, Miss Hale, you mustn’t do that. You mustn’t disagree.” Why,” I said, “they told me to. They wanted me to think for my¬ self and I was thinking.” But, she said, you must think the way they do when you think for yourself or you never will get your degree in your life.” And I never did until two weeks ago and I got it another route. General Sessions 65 The second thing I want to speak of is the importance of spiritual education. 1 have heard that there are those who think the N. E. A. is too religious, that the N. E. A. is too spiritual. I think that that is a fine recommendation for the N. E. A. If I hadn’t been a life member and if I had not had some of my family members, I would have started right out when I heard that because I would have felt so safe. When the greatest criticism that can be made of our Association or the public-school teachers of this country is that they are too religious or too spiritual, we have noth¬ ing to fear from our critics. There has never been a time when we needed the consolation and resourcefulness of spirituality and religion as we do now. Those probably sincere but not quite deep enough thinking souls who are taking away the people’s religion in our higher institutions' of learning and giving them nothing in return, should search their hearts and see how much they are to blame for the catastrophes that are happen¬ ing all around us now. You can scarcely pick up a paper but what you read of suicides, and suicides among the educated and among the socalled higher classes of people quite as much as suicides among those who are supposed to be of a lesser intelligence or education. If you think suicide is unfortunate, if you think it is unfortunate that people put their burdens on somebody else and go out of life, then you must see that there is some relation between some of these students and the godless teaching in some of our socalled higher institutions of learning. These are times when, as never before, we must build up zones of rer sourcefulness to which people may go when everything goes out and life is a disappointment to them. If we send young people out into the world believing in nothing, no faith, no hope, then we have only ourselves to blame when their house above totters, and they do this that mav seem cowardly to those who do not understand what lies behind it. There is music, the refuge of some ; there is religion, the refuge of us all ; there is art ; and for me there is poetry. Many a time the poetry has kept me from giving up the ambition at least that I should have to do this great work that each one of us must do. That may be old-fashioned, it may be plebeian to believe in God, it may be old-fashioned. I may be just a coun¬ try woman to still think, “I will lift mine eyes unto the hills” is the finest motto, is the finest foundation I can give my pupils. I would destroy no man’s religion. I would criticize no man’s religion. I would take away no man’s faith unless I could give him something as in¬ spiring, something as satisfying, something as life-saving as that faith has been. If this be plebian, if this be against the principles of higher educa¬ tion, then I shall quote my old New England forbears of a century past, coming from another land, and I shall say, if this be treason to higher education, make the most of it. I want to leave you with a quotation from a poem that I wish you would all read, Lowell’s, “The Present Crisis.” It could almost have been written for us today, and so I close with quoting those words of strength familiar 66 National Education Association to you all, which is my idea of the firm foundation I want this Association to give all children : We see dimly in the Present what is small and what is great, Slow of faith how weak an arm may turn the iron helm of fate, But the soul is still oracular; amid the market’s din, List the ominous stern whisper from the Delphic cave within, — “They enslave their children’s children who make compromise with sin.” Truth forever on the scaffold, Wrong forever on the throne, — Yet that scaffold sways the future, and, behind the dim unknown, Standeth God within the shadow, keeping watch above his own. MEETING THE EMERGENCY IN EDUCATION WILLIAM J. BOGAN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CHICAGO, ILL. The preservation of democracy is a sacred trust placed upon the public schools by the builders of the nation, a task regarded by teachers as their prime function in a government by the people. It has been well said that The scho.ol teacher writes the insurance policy of democracy,” and there is no doubt that the teachers have tried to preserve this legacy by the in¬ culcation of ethical ideals, the stimulation of intellectual activities, and the development of character and citizenship ; but now they are faced with conditions that require less attention to methods and more attention to the study of economics, for the schools are in danger of destruction at the hands of those to whom the nation has looked for financial leadership. This attack might have been predicted, for from time immemorial human¬ ity has been divided into two camps, one upholding the rights of the com¬ mon people and the other upholding the right of might, whether repre¬ sented by physical or mental or financial force. In our country the best expression of these opposing theories has been given by Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton. They of course did not initiate the quarrel but they labeled it well. The differences were fundamental. Hence friction resulted. In Greece, in Rome, in France, and in America a fight was due whenever downtrodden man was able to lay his hands upon that weapon commonly called education. The schools are the trustees of a legacy such as no other people have known. The very word “trustee” gives to the holder of the title a deep sense of the responsibility of trusteeship and an appreciation of its sacred¬ ness. The connotations of the word always assume honesty and care for the helpless. A trustee is one who is trusted. It seems fitting, therefore, that teachers should be labeled as trustees of the rights of children. In the Great War soldiers died for democracy believing that their sacrifice would benefit the world for all time. Teachers are not dying for democ¬ racy but they are showing millions how to live for democracy. Can the world forget the thrill that came to it when it read that at the sinking of the Titanic when hope for the ship was lost the command rang forth: “Women and children first!” That is the slogan of the sea which every General Sessions 67 maritime nation, worthy of the name, follows to the death. “Children first” is a slogan of the classroom which every teacher follows, no matter how bitter its implications may be. The policy of the teachers of France during the Great War is followed, in spirit at least, by the teachers of America during the present financial war euphemistically called “the de¬ pression.” This policy is indicated by the order of the French Minister of Instruction, that “The schools must everywhere be kept open.” Follow¬ ing is a special tribute to the teacher which was issued by the Department of Education : We admire, not without reason, the serenity of the farmer who, two steps from the battle line, is sowing for the future his grain on the bloody furrows. Let us admire none the less those teachers who all along the line of fire hold their classes within sound of cannon; they also are sowing for the future. From the beginning of recorded history down to the present day, progress in civilization has been made possible thru a continuous war for the rights of the common man against the forces of ignorance and greed. In some cases the charities of the rich became in time the rights of the poor. This was especially true of education in our own country. Free public education not so long ago was a charity handed down by the rich. Now it has become the most precious heritage of the poor, which no social group or government can eliminate without destroying the foun¬ dation of society itself. Society need not worry much over the financial aspects of the education of the children of the rich, for they may be edu¬ cated in private schools. One may, however, doubt the moral value of an education exclusively for the children of the rich, and to the extent that this type of education lacks in democratic value, society has cause for worry, but the withholding of educational privileges from the poor will prove disastrous. The school in all ages has tried to meet the needs and demands of society. Hundreds of years ago when society was static this task was com¬ paratively easy. Social and economic changes were few and far between. In certain ages the changes were so gradual as to be hardly noticeable over a period of centuries. Labor was hard and unchanging. Labor- saving devices were unknown and would have been unwelcome. In cer¬ tain parts of the world the ancient methods of agriculture and industry still persist. One may see today the fellaheen of Egypt using the methods that were popular in the days of Moses. Children followed in the foot¬ steps of the parents and the lowly man knew his place and kept it. Edu¬ cation was only for the few. It was a closed monopoly for the select and elect. As changes in society were so very slow it was an easy matter for the schools to keep pace with them. The schools must keep pace with the demands of society. In fact, so¬ ciety has forced upon them all the modern phases of education for which they are now being criticized. The people of today insist that the schools for their children give training in health, citizenship, vocations, and adult 68 National Education Association education. The people demand for their children a greatly enlarged cul¬ tural service, including what we now regard as the fundamentals, art, music, and literature. The schools have raised the level of intelligence thruout the nation and thereby have promoted a higher standard of living which, in turn, has resulted in an increased prosperity. The plight of the taxpayer in these times of depression is serious in¬ deed. He is confronted as never before with the results of waste, extrava¬ gance, and corruption in government. He knowTs not where to turn for redress, and in his rage he strikes out blindly like an insane patient wrho fears his nurse. He places all office-holders in the class of wasters, if not in the class of corruptionists. Teachers and school administrators object to this classification insofar as it applies to them. Like bankers and captains of industry, the schools have made mistakes, but corruption in school ad¬ ministration insofar as that administration rests upon school men and women is a negligible quantity. The taxpayer has good cause to protest against the high cost of government, but he should use intelligence in his protests. Friends of the public school join with the taxpayer in demand¬ ing the elimination of waste, but they ask that in these attempts at econ¬ omy there be no attempt to destroy the seed corn of democracy, for therein lies economic and social salvation. Big business in its attempt to lower costs of government should move cautiously and in accordance with the principles of wise statesmanship, for the record of big business in managing its own affairs for the past decade does not inspire confidence in its ability to manage education. Big business seems often to claim a divine right to the possession of wealth but every student of history and economics knows that without the pres¬ ence of the common man this type of divinity wall not function. The rich have acquired their wealth from the common people but many feel no urge to make return. Manhattan Island which wTas sold about three hun¬ dred years ago to Peter Minuit by drunken Indians for twenty-four dol¬ lars worth of junk has increased in value to billions of dollars, not thru the skill of stock jobbers, railroad manipulators, or wreckers, but thru the common people with the common needs that developed civilization. Therefore, the schools representing the common people, as well as the uncommon, resent the attempt to make free public education in America like a charity handed down from the bounty of the rich. The rich have themselves proclaimed this benefaction by impressing upon the people thruout the generations their superior rights. And now there is none so poor to do them reverence. Therefore, I say that the slogan save the schools strikes deeper in its implications than salaries or supplies or any other material things. The im¬ pairment of the schools means the weakening of the rights of every citizen ; and tho in our despair of democratic government we sometimes cry for the man on horseback to save us from ourselves, we know that every vestige of liberty taken from us will be difficult to restore, just as we know that some phases of democratic education eliminated in a crisis like this will never be General Sessions 69 restored. At best we are not nearly so free as we imagine. Someone has said that liberty is what twelve butchers, bakers, and candlestick makers think it is, and little else. The method of developing higher ideals of liberty is called education and that is a very slow process, for we like to forget as quickly as possible the struggles and pains that accompany the maintenance of our ideals. There is an old Greek legend according to Ludwig to the effect that when Prometheus was modeling the first man he slaked his clay in the waters of Lethe, the waters of forgetfulness, and hence the human race finds it easy indeed to forget what it dislikes to remember. Hence freedom, once acquired, should never be abandoned. Restoration is too slow. To meet the emergency in education every friend of the public schools should let the public know how great the emergency is. Facts should be pre¬ sented to the public. Parents should be taught that any reduction of efficiency in the schools means a loss to their own children. The elimination of waste and extravagance — objectives approved by the schools — should not be used as an excuse to destroy the ideal of American citizenship, the rights of the common man. The second definite method for meeting the emergency in education is, after proper education of the public, to make an appeal to the public, if pos¬ sible, thru a legal referendum. If the people believe in the schools the vote will be overwhelmingly in favor of the schools ; but if they are so badly frightened by the specter of taxation that they will vote to rob their children of the legacy of democracy, the schools will be forced to admit that their holy task has been badly done. Another method of meeting the emergency is to prove to industry that its welfare depends upon the solution of the many complex problems of society by the schools in cooperation with industry. Leaders of thought in all lines of industry and commerce, especially those, who lack a knowledge of the public schools, should know that the school system is society’s most important agency for its own perpetuation. Naive captains of industry who listen with extended ears to self-seeking snipers in educational circles should be corralled and forced to listen to the truth. Many are sincere but nearly all are abys¬ mally ignorant of school conditions. “Balance the Budget” is a good slogan for everyone to follow but the emergency in education may become permanent unless the schools insist upon the adoption of an additional slogan, “Balance the Revenue.” Few com¬ munities are trying to reform their tax systems but all communities are cur- ting expenses right and left with slight regard for ultimate consequences. If the people who have been taught democracy from the cradle to the vicinity of the grave apostatize now the hopes of countless descendants of the helpless, the harassed, and the oppressed of all nations will be destroyed. Have the teachers of this nation faith enough in their efficiency as trustees of the rights of the children of the nation to trust their case to a popular vote? If doubtful they might take comfort from this admonition of the Grear Teacher: “Let not your heart be troubled; be not afraid.” 70 National Education Association IS EDUCATION THE JONAH OF THE INDUSTRIAL CRISIS? AARON SAPIRO, ATTORNEY, NEW YORK, N. Y. We are in a peculiar time. We are in a period that has been dominated by industrial leaders, by financial leaders, by political leaders, and as a result of that extraordinary leadership, here we are, the wealthiest and almost the richest in resources of all the countries on earth, with 7,000,000 unemployed, with poverty such as you and I have never seen generally in the country before, with sickness and all the other concomitants of poverty, and worse than that, with an actually hopeless attitude on the part of more than one- third of the people of this land, because when you read the figures on unem¬ ployment you only read the figures of those who are industrially employed, the men who have been put out of work from factories, stores, and offices. Have you ever thought of what corresponds to that in agriculture, because in agriculture, with about 6,000,000 families on the farm, if there is a condition that should warrant a man’s being out of work, he doesn’t get thrown off the farm in most cases; he just sits there in misery and almost starves. The thing in agriculture that would correspond to men out of work in industry is where a man in agriculture gets from the year’s work less than the year’s work has actually cost him in dollars and cents. And for this year that means 5,000,000 agricultural families. The real unemployment in America is 7,000,000 people in industry and 5,000,000 families in agriculture. Almost 40 percent of the people of the United States live on the farm or in tiny communities that depend upon farming, and those farmers are waiting to see what this next winter will give them in money, because with money they must buy everything of life that they have. They say that in Chicago wheat is quoted at forty-six cents a bushel and you who know agriculture know that when the Kansas farmer sells his wheat in Kansas they deduct the cost of shipping that wheat to Chicago, altho they never ship it there ; and that price of forty-six cents in Chicago means that the Kansas wheat grower will get thirty-five cents a bushel for his wheat this year. Some studies on last year’s wheat have just been finished in which it is said that it costs forty-one cents a bushel to raise wheat, if you didn’t have to pay any rent for the land or did not have to pay any interest on the mortgage on the land, and last year’s crop in Kansas was double the crop that is promised this year. This year Kansas wheat will cost at least sixty cents a bushel to every grower in the state and about a dollar a bushel to those who have to pay rent for the land, because more than half of the farmers of the United States today are tenant farmers and more than 70 percent of them owe on mortgages on the land. So far every bushel of wheat that is sold in Kansas this year, and in every other wheat state, the farmer will be actually losing somewhere between twenty and sixty cents a bushel on each sale. Cotton — There are more than a million families raising cotton in the United States and cotton is quoted in New York at 5.2 cents per pound. That is about $25 a bale. If you are in Texas and you sell cotton there they General Sessions 71 deduct one cent a pound, as tho they were still shipping the cotton to New York, so that the Texas farmer will get $20 a bale for cotton that he can’t possibly raise for less than $35 to $40 a bale. In Georgia, North Carolina, and South Carolina they will he getting $22 a bale for cotton which it costs them from $40 to $60 a bale to raise. Corn — There are 3,000,000 bushels of corn raised in the United States a year. They quoted corn today in Chicago at twenty-nine cents a bushel. In Iowa, the leading corn state of the Union, that means they will be getting about twenty-three or twenty-four cents a bushel for corn. Business — Business after business has closed down, throwing men out of work. What has happened in business? Several years ago our people got the mania of mass production. They also got the idea they could create mass con¬ sumption. They put in new types of tractors and new types of machines ; and for consumption put in a new type of ballyhoo, new advertising, new hustlers, and tried new schemes to broaden the field of consumption, but they made one blunder — they made production progress eight times where they made consumption progress only three times. They found out there was a big pyramid of consuming public and at the top of the pyramid a little class of about 250 men who had an income of over a million dollars a year, but away in the bottom class there were more than 12,000,000 who had incomes of less than one thousand dollars a year, and in between those two classes there were all sorts of layers with varying incomes. The smart business men, the advertisers, the ballyhoo people were on the job to see if they couldn’t open up new layers of consumers and get nearer the bottom of the pyramid. They pressed instalment sales and they got the people of the country to buy all sorts of things on the instalment plan, and the thing went on, and they manu¬ factured and manufactured until suddenly they manufactured too much. They had to force men out of work. Agriculture had lost her buying power and the whole pyramid collapsed — over-production in agriculture and over¬ production in business. What other groups have been doing things in the crisis? Why, state groups have been meeting with the insurance companies. You haven’t heard much about these meetings. The big insurance companies of the United States have been losing terrific amounts of money. They are in danger of insolvency. So the Insurance Commissioners met with them lately and worked out a deal like this — suppose an insurance company has bonds of a certain railroad; they bought them originally at $100 and now those bonds are down to $40 ; if they took the present valuation that insurance company might be insolvent and so there would be trouble. And what has the govern¬ ment arranged? They have said to the insurance companies, “If you have lost $60 on a $100 bond, you can amortize that — take a loss of $10 this year, maybe $10 next year, perhaps $10 in the third year, and maybe by the time you get down to the lower levels the market may turn and those bonds may then be worth $100 again.” And that gave the insurance companies — and I think it is the right thing to do — a chance to fool themselves, a chance to 72 National Education Association fool their own books, fool the Insurance Commissioners openly and keep solvent because the government is interested in keeping those insurance com¬ panies all right. They do things to help big business. They do things to help the railroads, they do things to help insurance. Let us see what they have done with educa¬ tion in America, which is more important than the railroads, or the banks, or the insurance companies, because the very life of America is in the schools of -this land. The United States needs the teachers of America. You teachers have been silent during this crisis. You have let the socalled industrial leaders and so- called banking leaders and the socalled political leaders give America all its guidance, and you see where we are and you see where we are going. You can see that conditions are getting worse in every important place because there is no leadership in organization. Leadership cannot come from politics and it cannot come from bankers unless they begin to think in terms of con¬ struction instead of terms of exploitation. They have tried to throw over education in the United States as tho it is the Jonah of this crisis, but I tell you that education can be the Isaiah of this crisis singing the eternal words, singing not merely things of truth but sing¬ ing things of unity, singing things of unity between men and between other countries, singing things of unity on earth, singing things that are more pre¬ cious than the little specific truths that we learn out of mere books. Who is to do that? Have you been following some of the things they have done in Russia? I object to the political system of Russia just as you object to its political system. I object to much of the economic system of Russia just as you object to much of its economic system. But did you notice that as the hardships come in Russia, she keeps increasing the schools, and did you notice that as the hardships come to Russia she keeps preparing new millions of youngsters and she says, “We won’t be able to do it this year, we won’t be able to do it in the next five years, but when you youngsters grow up you are going to be trained with a social viewpoint and you youngsters will build the new Russia.” I have grown jealous of Russia when I read some of those things because in my own country I heard these discussions about throwing education overboard in the time of crisis and from Russia I heard the story of spending more and giving more to education in time of crisis. I do not know if we will be able to come out of this crisis quickly without some tremendous social changes, without some tremendous industrial up¬ heavals, without trouble of serious kind during this winter that is to come. Hurling words in political platforms will not fill empty stomachs, and empty promises in political planks will not satisfy these hopeless farmers. Some leadership has to come to them that they know comes from their viewpoint, that they know comes from the ground of America. You can bring that viewpoint. You can bring that thought to them. You can tell them that they can organize. You can tell them that the American people are strong when the American people depend upon themselves and do not depend on relief General Sess:ons 73 and charity handed to them by political and other leaders. You can tell them that story and you can bring them that viewpoint as no other group in Amer¬ ica can bring them the story today. Nobody else has the contacts that you have. Nobody else can meet both adults and children as you do. Everybody else is trying to get something out of them. You are always trying to give them something. You are the bringers of light ; you are the ones who give them not merely the little facts of things, you are the ones who have given them things of beauty, things to dream about. You have built up an inner content in people, where those who have been responsive to your education can weather any crisis; they can take whatever fate gives them and still hold their heads up because something is within them, something that ties them to all the rest of humanity, some¬ thing that ties them even to what we know of divinity. That has been your work. That has been your great work and never did you need to do that work as you need to do it now. You ought to redouble this organization, you ought aggressively to prevent any city from cutting down on educational facilities, not merely on the money side but on the full teaching side. You are the ones who ought aggressively to take the lead in America today and simply say this: “There is no price that is too high to pay for education; there is no penalty that is too great for ignorance ; there is no penalty that is too great for low viewpoints.” You are the ones who can carry light, you can carry the high viewpoints, you can make men, women, and children realize no matter what we go thru industrially our heads are still up ; if there is a fault in our industry we can remedy it. If you will hold out the light to the masses of this land, if there is a trouble in our system let us see where that trouble is and change the system. Go to your work, you who carry the responsibility, not merely for the socalled technical education of the people, but the responsibility of the morale of America because you are the builders of hope, you are the real carriers of light, you are the ones who, like Isaiah, sing in eternal words. You cannot be made the Jonah of the industrial crisis, to be dumped overboard as tho educa¬ tion can be wiped out by some foolish economy of that type. You embody all the dreams, all the hopes, all the sentiment of the nations, of this democracy, and if you do what you can do, aggressively and universally, you will change the industrial systems of America, you will change the agricultural methods of America, you will bring back the standards of living to America, you will bring back homes to America, and America will smile again because of you. HOW PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS HELP IN SOLVING THE PRESENT EMERGENCY JOSEPH ROSIER, PRESIDENT, FAIRMONT STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, FAIR¬ MONT, W. VA. Our problems must be solved by investigation, study, and thought. We have come into that period when intelligent judgment must be applied by those who direct our great industrial, business, and civic enterprises. In times 74 National Education Association of depression the masses of our people are susceptible to emotional appeals and radical movements based upon unsound economic and political princi¬ ples. Erratic and fallacious reasoning in periods of prosperity have no doubt contributed largely to the disaster of the people who enjoy the fruits of such conditions and who are prone to be satisfied without thinking about the in¬ security of the house which they are building. When the house which has been built upon the sands has collapsed, feelings are aroused and waves of reaction are started. To the thoughtful student of human welfare, periods of depression are not without their blessings. Hardships in all of their forms provide the best test of human institutions. A great student of human nature realized this when he said, “Sweet are the uses of adversity which like the toad, ugly and venomous, wears yet a precious jewel in his head.” These times demonstrate that there are no omniscient super-men. In the presence of the great economic and social forces of the world, the captains of industry and business stand confused. Once again it has been demonstrated that material wealth and industrial power cannot cope with the human emo¬ tions and psychology. We must return to the principles of the great spiritual teacher who also furnished basic principles for sound political economy in the parable of the builder wTho located his house on a rock and when the storms raged and the winds blew that house stood firm. The period of hard times and adversity thru wffiich we are passing will bring us back to the funda¬ mental and sound principles on which all economic and social stability must rest. As never before we realize the truth of Emerson’s law of compensation. Traders in the marts of business, captains of industry, directors of great commercial enterprises, and ordinary business men must realize that sooner or later we must pay for what we get, and that we will never have anything securely until we have earned and paid for it. Thru the activities of our educational organizations we must begin to set the house of education in order. While we are firm in the belief that our systems of education have remained anchored to the sound and traditional moorings on which they were originally established we cannot evade the challenge or the testing of our practises. Undoubtedly the emphasis in edu¬ cation as the result of the great depression will swing back towards spiritual and cultural ideals. Just as men who were swept off their feet by economic prosperity became submerged in the things of this world, educational leaders were carried away with the objectives of utilitarian education. We should not hear so much in the years to come in the fields of education of the methods of the counting house in measuring educational results. With all of its cost sheets and its efficiency practises, industry has not been able to preserve itself. Just as in the world of economics men have found that the human factors transcend all mechanical organizations for efficiency, so in education we are called upon to re-emphasize the human and spiritual values. For a quarter of a century the school systems of our country have experienced great mate¬ rial progress in buildings and equipment. The next few years will see less General Sessions 75 material growth and more advancement in the professional, intellectual, and spiritual capacity of the teachers of our country. May I venture the opinion here that to the highly trained and cultured teachers of our nation in the col¬ leges, universities, and schools we must look for that intelligent guidance which will lead us out of the present darkness. The teachers of our country, more than a million in number, were probably the least affected by the wave of prosperity preceding our great depression. In this field of human effort there were no hundred thousand dollar salaries so common in the business and industrial world. In the days of easy money men continued to direct great educational institutions and school systems on modest salaries. 'J he men and women in the ranks continued their devotion to the instruction of chil¬ dren and young people at salaries which were not comparable to the income of mechanical workers and laborers in the industrial field. Teachers in pros¬ perous times found it about as difficult to balance their budgets as govern¬ ments are finding it to be in these days of depression. For these reasons the teachers as a group are better prepared to meet the present emergency than are any other group of workers. As a class we were forced to live economi¬ cally in the days of prosperity. Persons employed in industry and business are being called upon today to live on the salaries and to practise the economy with which we teachers have always been familiar. Thru our professional organizations we should sound the note of faith, optimism, and hope. As a matter of fact, the men and women of this country who have given their lives to the cause of education know that nothing of real value to society has been lost and that with a proper study and interpre¬ tation of the adversity wdiich has come upon us much may be gained. We have in our land today the best prepared, most highly trained and cultured teachers that we have ever had. They have read and studied history and are able to interpret the meaning of historical movements in relation to human culture, economics, industrial development, and social and political progress. Our studies show us that there is nothing unusual in the period of depres¬ sion thru which we are passing. The people of our nation and of other na¬ tions have gone thru many similar periods. Periods of human folly have always been followed by periods of human distress. In the face of bad government, economic blundering, human strife and wars, and disastrous political fallacies, humanity has continued its march of progress. The thoughtful teachers of our country know that the hard times of the present are only a temporary pause in the advancement of human welfare. Yet I doubt not thru the ages one increasing purpose runs, And the thoughts of men are widened with the process of the suns. Thru the educational organizations of our country we should courage¬ ously face the practical problems of school administration and business econ¬ omy in the management of school affairs. Adjustment to changing condi¬ tions is the most important result of modern education and in the solution of the problems of this emergency we should give a practical demonstration of such adjustment. Here the educational leadership of our country will 76 National Education Association be put to a supreme test. First of all our people should be made to realize that there can be no backward steps affecting the real educational welfare of our children. 1 he founders of our government clearly recognized the fact that our institutions can be preserved only thru universal intelligence and that we can have universal intelligence only as a result of general edu¬ cation. In response to this need the states of our union have built up great public school systems. In the schools, the colleges, and universities of our land knowledge has been imparted, thinking has been encouraged, and intel¬ ligent leadership has been developed. However grave this emergency or any other may be, the people in a democracy cannot safely neglect the edu¬ cation of the rising generations. There must be no compromising with the insidious theory that too many people are going to college and too many peo¬ ple are being sent to school. That is the whispering of those who would undermine the foundations of our government. In a practical way we must apply the theory that education for the minds and hearts of our young people is as important as food, clothing, and shelter for their bodies. For society in general, education is as important as good roads, automobiles, public build¬ ings, the administration of our state and federal governments, and the army and the navy. Thru the educational organizations of the state and the na¬ tion we will pledge ourselves to make all needed economic and financial ad¬ justments that may be created by this emergency, but we shall stand firmly against any movement that proposes to subordinate the education of the chil¬ dren of our country to any other state or national enterprise. 1 he teachers of our country thru their professional organizations should do their part in helping to bring about economic recovery. In salaries and income our one million school teachers are probably more representative of normality than any other group. Their standards of living are characterized by a sanity that is typical of our great middle classes. Any drastic lowering of the income and standards of living of our teachers would produce a most depressing effect upon our basic economic structure. The financial sound¬ ness of our commercial structure today rests upon large numbers of small in¬ comes and not upon the excessive incomes of a few. A banker in an industrial community recently verified the statement that the integrity of his institution in these days of depression depends upon a large number of small depositors, whereas in the days of prosperity the few large depositors had been regarded with more favor. With a small but steady income teachers make a substan¬ tial contribution to trade activities. A group of merchants in a city where a large state association was holding its annual convention recently testified that the teachers in attendance had greatly stimulated the business of the city by their wise and intelligent shopping. The salaries of our teachers thrown into commercial channels are no inconsiderable factor in the main¬ tenance of normal business activities. The American school teacher spends his salary carefully for those things that are most essential to the preserva¬ tion of our standards of living. The margin above living expenses goes into life insurance and savings accounts and the purchase of modest homes. The budget for living expenses is widely distributed in the marts of trade. In General Sessions 77 no other group will be found less of waste or carelessness in expenditure than among the teachers of our country. Thru these great educational organiza¬ tions the men and women engaged in the work of education pledge them¬ selves to cooperate to the limit of their incomes in restoring to all of the peo¬ ple a sane and sensible prosperity. Out of this period of depression should come a teaching profession that will be universally recognized on account of its professional and academic preparation and its high cultural ideals. The leadership, power, and influ¬ ence of small groups of educators have always been potent in the social and economic affairs of the nation. It is a deplorable fact that in the past too large a proportion of the total number of teachers has lacked that scholar¬ ship and culture which are essential to the most efficient instruction of chil¬ dren. In state and national associations we should everywhere take a stand for thoroly educated teachers in all of our schools whatever their level. Certification to teach in this country should be based upon solid academic at¬ tainments and demonstrated professional skill. The organized forces of edu¬ cation should stand just as strongly for better teaching as they do against the powers of reaction which would carry us back to the former days of inade¬ quacy and inefficiency. We do not set too high an ideal when we look for¬ ward to the day when every child enroled in a school shall have a competent, scholarly, and cultured teacher. The problems growing out of this depres¬ sion must be solved by our intellectual classes. In the laboratory, the library, the classroom, and in mental contacts we must find the plans and the remedies for the curing of our ills. Teachers and educators are today properly classed among the intellectual groups. For this reason they bear a great responsi¬ bility not only in the nurture and development of the rising generation but in the economic, the social, and the spiritual stability and progress of all the people. Emerson once made the statement that the greatest human enterprise is the care and the culture of men. The universities, the colleges, and the schools of this nation are primarily devoted to the development of the highest type of manhood and womanhood. The stability of our American institu¬ tions, the economic and social progress of our people, and the great human virtues and spiritual values are dependent upon the intelligent thinking fos¬ tered by our systems of education. The preparation and the training of edu¬ cators and teachers must be so comprehensive that they can be wise and in¬ telligent leaders in a changing world. Our great educational organizations stand for the highest ideals of preparation and service in the vital work of education. In days of prosperity as well as in times of adversity the organized educa¬ tional forces thru their professional organizations give their devotion to American ideals and the preparation of the children of our nation for a changing civilization. As a representative of the teaching profession I speak with pride in saying that there is no finer record of public service than that of the teachers of our country. In a very real sense they have placed devo¬ tion to the cause of education above every thought of selfish gain. On behalf of this great body of public servants I appeal to the people of our nation 78 National Education Association for the same loyal support that is given to all other governmental activities which are regarded as vital to the existence of our institutions. Upon our teachers we feel the nation may rely for its chief defense in withstanding all sinister influences that would undermine the structure of our government, and to them the people of our country may look for the advancement of the ideals and principles which have made America great. In these hours of depression when men and institutions are being tested, when faith in democracy and the ability of the people to control their destinies is waver¬ ing, wThen there are doubts about universal education, and when our govern¬ ment and its activities are attacked and criticized, more than one million teachers of America declare their unswerving allegiance to the great prin¬ ciples of freedom in response to which our institutions have been built. Here is a group of American citizens who will not sell America short. Here among this group of patriotic public servants will be found that faith, courage, and devotion which will rescue and preserve all that is best in our American life. MANAGED MONEY AND UNMANAGED MEN 1 • WILLIAM TRUFANT FOSTER, NEWTON, MASS. The last time I spoke to an N. E. A. convention was at Portland, Oregon, just before we entered the war. At that time I said that this war, declared to be a war to end war, was no such thing. I declared that it would create enmity and ill-will which would last for two generations. I declared that the N. E. A. conventions for the next twenty years would be suffering the results of the folly of the World War which would never settle anything; that it would merely pry out problems to be settled for generations hence. And what did I get? I got nothing but condemnation for being pro-German, and today I sha 1 get condemnation for being pro-Bolshevik, because I am go¬ ing to tell you that under circumstances such as prevail in Russia, they wTould not tolerate the stupidity of mounting surpluses and increasing need. If there were any community in Russia which had as many well-trained teachers ready to work as we have, as many surplus carpenters and painters and architects and plumbers and all the rest, as much surplus steel and lumber, and hard¬ ware and plumbing material, they wouldn’t sit around stupidly saying, “It is too bad ; you can’t do anything about it.” They would find a way of notifying those id e carpenters and painters and architects to get busy and do what they all are eager to do — build beautiful, modern, adequate school buildings. They wouldn’t let these idle printers stay idle. They would have them produce the better books which we are ready to use, and they would give the teachers, who want nothing else but an opportunity to work, an opportunity to do it. Now I don’t want Bolshevism. Don’t misunderstand me. I think any re¬ sort to such a revolutionary extreme as that would lead us into worse trouble. All I am saying is that it is no defense of Capitalism to stand 1 Condensed from stenographic notes, nncorrected by the speaker. General Sessions 79 up and say, “You can’t do anything about it”; for Capitalism in this day and age to say that is to acknow’edge defeat and it is insufferable. It is distinctly up to these men who call themselves “Wizards of Finance,’’ “Captains of Industry,” to show us the way whereby we shall enable the people who are trained to work and eager to work to go to work and produce the things which everybody admits we all want. It is not any de¬ fense for them to say, “It is too bad ; you can’t do anything about it ; and you teachers don’t understand all this; the retrenchment is necessary.” My response is: Retrenchment in education is not necessary; this argu¬ ment should be met solely on economic grounds. It is no use talking about education, what a fine thing it is — they all admit that — but they come back to you and say, “We can’t do it because we haven’t the money,” or “because we are in the depression.” In other words, they insist on going backwards every time you propose standing oy your guns and going resolutely forward. They always answer you on economic grounds, consequently your replies must be based on sound economic arguments; and they can be because you are right. They say there is no money. Well, what is money? Money doesn’t grow on bushes. Money doesn’t fall like manna from the skies. Money is not an act of God. Money is an invention of man, presumably for his own con¬ venience. Over the supply of money and credit man has absolute control. Every dollar of currency, every dollar of bank credit that is created goes where it goes because of the act of some man. Every dollar which goes out of existence goes out of existence because of the fear of some man. Conse¬ quently, since money is entirely subject to control, there is no reason, except lack of intelligence, why we don’t see to it that there is enough money flowing to the people who want to buy goods to enable them to buy the goods that the unemployed want to make. After all, the fundamentals of this situation are exceedingly simple. In a money and profit economy, consumption regulates production. In other words, the manufacturer looks to his market. T he market is almost exclusively a dollar market. As long as people want to buy goods and have enough money to buy them, they buy them, and the manufacturer goes ahead producing. But under a money and profit economy, he cannot continue to employ men and pay wages and produce unless the market is sustained. Again I say, the market is sustained only by an adequate flow of bank ciedit, because bank credit takes care of over 90 percent of our business. Consequently this de¬ pression is exclusively a monetary phenomenon, and the solution is to come thru an adequate control of the flow of money and credit. What has happened is a matter of fact and not opinion. In this depression the money has been driven out of circulation. If you want to base this on some statistics, pick up this week’s papers, and see the statistics for the banks of New York for last week, and you will find that the process of driving the money out of circulation is still going on, and has been for three years with only slight checks. The money is being driven out of circulation. 80 National Education Association There is no mystery then about the reason why business cannot continue to employ men and produce goods. It is because of this constantly dwindling stream of the only means whereby people can buy goods. Business is being starved to death by the steadily dwindling flow of money and credit without which it cannot go on. All this time we have been told that we don’t have to do anything about it. Under our great principle of rugged individualism or “ragged individualism,” as John Dewey calls it, we assume that if we leave everybody alone to pursue his own interests he will necessarily do what is for the best interest of all. We have found it works precisely the opposite way. That when we get into this vexatious spell of deflation, each individual, each banker, each corporation, does precisely what makes the situation worse, and for his own protection. If the money is to get into circulation at all, it must be thru action by all of us jointly and that is necessarily the federal government. Some of these business men and bankers tell you, “No, the government must not do any¬ thing except what we want it to do.” They overlook the fact that collective action in the United States takes place thru the federal government or not at all, because the federal government is the only agency which represents all of us. Now how are you to get the money into circulation? I am going to give you the correct economic foundation for your faith in education, your faith that education must not be retrenched, especially in times of depression. One way collectively to get this necessary money into circulation is by charity — which is the worst way, because it kills self-respect, because it is entirely inadequate, and because the burden is not properly distributed upon those who are best capable of bearing it. The economically sound way of getting the money into circulation that we need is to pay wages, because that is what the unemployed want. They want chores, not charity, because work preserves the morale of the people. And perhaps, above all else, because when you put the necessary money into circulation to pay wages for con¬ structive work, the nation has the wealth which has been created, and that is what makes this age-long demand for expansion of public works in time of depression fundamentally a sound economic program. Four years ago everybody agreed to this. President Hoover, in three cam¬ paign speeches, reiterated his faith that in a period of depression we should expand public works in order to take up the unemployed. Secretary Mellon agreed with it. Secretary Davis agreed with it ; every secretary agreed with it. The American Federation of Labor adopted a unanimous vote in favor of it. The Democratic Party put it as a plank in its own platform. Mr. Hoover requested the cooperation of the governors of all of the states in putting this plan into effect in the event that a depression started. Now I happen to know about this. I was requested to go to New Orleans to the Governor’s Convention in November, 1928, to present the economic founda¬ tion for this policy of expansion of public works in time of depression. The plan was proposed, at Mr. Hoover’s request, to the Convention of General Sess:ons 81 # Governors. The sum that was specifically indicated at that time was $3,000,- 000,000; no petty amount — $3,000,000,000. Every governor except one agreed and promised to support, in answer to the definite request of Mr. Hoover, to cooperate with the federal government in time of depression in putting this policy into effect. The newspapers, by actual count, to the ex¬ tent of 93 percent, approved the policy at that time. Economists, as you know, have advanced this policy for over a century. This was four years ago, when we were in prosperity socalled, and everybody agreed that on economic grounds we should proceed in depression to take up the slack of employment by construction of public works. Now what has happened? They tell us now, in effect, it is all right, per¬ fectly sound, to advocate an emergency measure like this in prosperity ; but you mustn’t use it in an emergency. It is not so much the trouble today that we have frozen assets as it is that we have frozen feet. This country can’t go bankrupt. We don’t owe a cent to any other country in the world; on the contrary they owe us sixteen billion dollars. There is no necessity for balancing the budget now except the necessity created by the hysteria; and it is no time to balance budgets in a period of depression. This is not the time to retrench. This is not the time to reduce employment. This is not the time for the federal government, which is the only agency which has com¬ plete control over these vast potential credit resources, to throw men out of work and then in the next breath ask us please to put them back to work. This is no time for retrenchment. Every branch of government that curtails expenditures for public works at the present time is making matters worse. It is not economy for any nation to waste ten million of its human beings who are eager to work. It is not economy for any country to have a million school teachers, carefully trained for the job, all eager to work, and then tell them they can’t be allowed to work. It is not economy; it is just plain stupidity. Under an intelligently ordered economic system, with ten million eager workers ready to take our idle machines and use our surplus material and turn it into wealth which a hundred million people are eager to have, we would not say to those ten million eager workers, “It is too bad but there is nothing we can do about it.” That is the stupid economics of despair. I want to tell you another sound argument and I am very much in earnest about this. We want to defend the extension of funds for educational pur¬ poses, not only for this year of depression but for the rest of our lives. This country, largely as I said thru the efficiency of its public-school sys¬ tem, has got to the point where it has a larger potential per capita production than any other country in the world. We have proved that we can produce ninety billion dollars a year of wealth even when we are not using our pro¬ ductive resources at half their capacity. In an intelligent community of the future we should face this problem of released labor due to invention. We should use that surplus labor, I think, very largely in the field of health and education, and that is simply talking 82 National Education Association on the soundest economic ground. For the rest of your lives you must feel that you are on perfectly substantial grounds, and you can hold your position against any banker, or economist, or business man, or politician, and you can tell them that from now on, we should study a definite plan of increasing the total proportion of our productive resources which are spent on education. In the past we have been saving in stupid ways. It doesn’t do the country any good to save cotton mills which we can’t use, steel furnaces that have to be banked, office buildings that nobody wants. These have been built not at the request of the teachers, but by the direction of these wise bankers and business men and politicians. Now they come to us and tell us that we have got to liquidate intelligence, too. The point is that in the past, instead of, as the bankers told us, wasting our substance in riotous living, we have been wasting our substance in riotous saving. In a real sense, we saved what we spent, and lost what we saved. If we had only saved in the form of educa¬ tional facilities instead of useless facilities for production of goods, for which there was no market, we would all be better off today. In other words, thruout this per.'od of prosperity the teachers here represented, who were urging the bankers and business men and politicians to spend more money for education, now find that they were right and the bankers were wrong. We did our saving in the wrong place. If we had saved it in the form of equipment for education we would be better off. More playgrounds would certainly have done us more good than these useless, additional cotton mills. It is all a part of a campaign on the part of the bankers and others to re¬ duce the standard of living. You wouldn’t believe it if I had ten minutes to quote the bankers who for the last three years have been actually advo¬ cating a reduced standard of living for this depression, and the obvious cause of it was we were reducing our standard of living too fast. One phase of this general stupidity is the campaign for retrenchment in the schools. This is economically unsound and would reduce the standard of living in the country as a whole. Now, as I have said, I trust that the N.E.A. without any weasel words, without equivocation, with directness and finality, and the assurance that it is right, will in its resolutions indicate that right now is the time to enlarge expenditures for education on sound economic grounds, and then we should look forward steadily in the future to spending a larger proportion than in the past of the total wealth of the nation and other resources on health and on education. The fact is that having stupidly forced liquidation on busi¬ ness the bankers are now, many of them, stupidly trying to enforce liquida¬ tion on intelligence, too, and that is the thing we must resist. We must in¬ sist that the education of the youth of this country shall not be allowed simply to go up and down with the stock market. 1 he opposition, as 1 have said, is solely on economic grounds. Our defense must be solely on economic grounds, too. General Sessions 83 I don t want you to think I am hopeless about this situation. Somehow or other, history shows, no matter how stupid we are, we recover from busi¬ ness depressions. We always do and we are going to recover from this. All I am asking is that we shall recover soon. All I am talking about is that wTe as teachers should see to it that our influence is totally on the right side, and that we at least are doing something about it and doing it intelligently. If there is anybody left here who doubts that we have every facility to pull us out of this depression, just consider that we have absolutely every physical means of producing wealth and abolishing poverty that we had three years ago. Everything — absolutely nothing is lacking except the will and the sense to use what we have. If anybody still doubts that we could quickly end this depression and that we could find the money wherewith to do it, imagine what would happen if war were declared tomorrow. You know what would happen. Orders would go out to the ends of the earth ; every man in the United States who wanted a job would find a job; railroads would suddenly come to life — the depression would be over. You know it. Congress would ap¬ propriate $3,000,000,000, $5,000,000,000, $10,000,000,000— any amount that was necessary. Where would the money come from ? Precisely where it is now. Now if there is plenty of money wherewith to kill men abroad there is plenty of money to save men at home. If it is appropriate for us to use collec¬ tive action thru the federal government on a large scale, for destructive pur¬ poses, it is equally appropriate for us to use federal funds on a vast scale for constructive purposes. If then, in conclusion, there is enough money at hand to build bombing aeroplanes and to make poison gas wherewith to kill children abroad, there is enough money at hand to save a’l the children in our public schools at home. YOU AND YOUR GOVERNMENT THOMAS H. REED, PROFESSOR OF POLITICAL SCIENCE, AND DIRECTOR OF THE BUREAU OF GOVERNMENT, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN, ANN ARBOR, MICH. For the past three months there has been on the air every Tuesday evening a radio address on the general theme of “You and Your Government.” The National Broadcasting Company has provided gratuitously a countrywide hookup wdth thirty-nine participating stations. A committee of busy politi¬ cal scientists and educators has spent long hours in the preparation of a program, a teacher’s manual, and a listener’s handbook, and in editing ad¬ dresses. The National Advisory Council on Radio in Education has dis¬ tributed more than 200,000 copies of the announcement of the series and supplied informational material to periodicals, organizations, and listeners’ groups too numerous to mention. Eminent scholars have laboriously pro¬ duced able and authoritative lectures. The University of Chicago Press has poured out thousands of copies of delivered addresses and other materials. The American Library Association has prepared reading lists, and many 84 National Education Association libraries have set aside special shelves of pertinent hooks for interested readers. Civics teachers have assigned these broadcasts as homework and dis¬ cussed them next day in their classes. Why have radio executives, announcers, technicians, publicity men, clerks, committeemen, lecturers, teachers, librarians, editors, and pressmen been busy at this task? So that you might learn about your government , its or¬ ganization, activities, and problems. Let’s stop and consider for a moment the elements of the problem. Who are yoz/? Immediately you are a group of teachers and school executives. But besides you there are some 120,000,000 more “you” scattered over our country. For as related to government you are scarcely to be distinguished from your fellow citizens except by your greater opportunity for service. I know you pretty well — both your particular group and the larger mass of which you and I are a part. I’ve been studying you now for a quarter of a century. In the first place, you don’t know too much about government. You all have your specialties, in school and out. You leave the teaching of citizenship to the civics teacher and the practise of politics to the politician, just as you leave mathematics to the mathematics teacher or banking to the banker. Ignorance of political affairs is not exclusively the sin of the proletariat, of the idle rich, or of the youthful and temporary female members of the teaching profession — even principals and superintendents sometimes display a marvelous ignorance of the governmental system into which our scheme of education fits. Education long ago chose to ignore government — or at least to avoid contact with government. It regarded itself as a separate compartment of administration, divorced from that evil thing, politics, which infested court¬ houses, city halls, and state capitols. It preserved its attitude of splendid isolation until the depression made it clear that the taxpayer could no longer pay all the schools demanded and also support the other necessary services of government. Without money enough to go round, school executives have been forced to realize that they are a part of a government which they must understand. After all, for you as individuals and as a group, it is your gov¬ ernment. Your government is that relatively new governmental device called a democracy — a government supposedly of the people, by the people, and for the people, and in which at least every adult citizen can participate to the extent of voting if he wants to. It is a wellknown fact that only about half want to, even in the most exciting presidential elections, while ordinary state and local elections muster but a miserable minority to the polls. We know, too, that of those who vote many do so unreasoningly under the influence of race and sectional prejudice, party emblems, campaign cries, and the crude emotionalism bred of demagoguery. It is further a matter of common knowl¬ edge that the actual selection of candidates in both great parties is left habit¬ ually to the dictation of a few active politicians who assume to direct the party organizations. In fact, what we have, except in rare periods of popu- General Sessions 85 lar uprising, is not democracy but a system of government in which the role of the people is one of indifferent acquiescence in what the politicians plan for them. No one in his senses could say today, “There’s nothing the matter with the United States of America.” The real fault lies in an absence of con¬ structive leadership. We have leaders in every walk of life, but almost none for our national life as a whole. We have great artists, authors, bankers, in¬ dustrialists, scientists ; but this age of specialization tends to make success a prize for concentration of effort within narrow lines, not the reward of a broad outlook on society. The task of reconciling the conflicting claims of groups and sections is left to a government directed by politicians as rail¬ roads are directed by railroad men. The sole competent integrating force in modern life — the state — is wholly in the hands of politicians. On them alone we depend to bring it to pass that farmer, manufacturer, banker, and mer¬ chant work together in harmony. Who is there to say that as a class our politicians are really well qualified to perform this all-important task? It is our habit to sneer at them, to deride and distrust them, but never to dis¬ lodge them, except momentarily, from control. The situation is obviously not the fault of the politicians but of you and me and our millions of in¬ different fellow citizens. What, then, is the answer? Can we by any conscious process of education help to bring to our distracted country the leadership it needs? Yes, our universities can train men for leadership if we can get the cultural and vo¬ cational aspects of our educational system into proper relationship. We must save some of our best young men and women from the desiccating effect of too early specialization. We must give them an understanding of life in its unity — not, as Dr. Meiklejohn proposed, by the study of an antique civiliza¬ tion, but by the study of our America today. Our schools can train the masses to pick their political leaders with more discrimination. Without this, indeed, there is no hope of salvation, for there needs must be leaders in a democracy. I am often asked, “How can a young man or woman do effective work in politics?” My answer is, “Pick a leader — the best available — and follow him as long as you can.” The prob¬ lem is how to tell the true from the false in leadership. It is essential that the prospective citizen be taught the fundamental structure of his govern¬ ment, the processes of political action by which elections are decided. The current problems of government should be employed as illustrations, but it is futile to try to teach problems for their own sake because the problems of 1932 will not be the problems of 1942 or 1952. More than all else it is necessary — and possible — to teach young people to approach the selection of leaders critically and realistically. This can be done by impressing each youth with the importance to him of government. That it means as much to him to select a good alderman as to buy a good suit of clothes must be borne home to him. The task ought to be easy in a day when government absorbs a quarter of the nation’s income. The product of one day’s work in four goes to support the governmental 86 National Education Association system. here is no other one thing so important to every man’s economic life as government. So much for the part of the schools. Political education, however, must be a life-long process. Issues change, problems disappear, and new ones rise to vex us. The civics instruction of thirty years ago is of little use to anyone in solving the problems of today. But more fundamental still is the fact that no system of formal education can go deep enough really to prepare for any vocation. It can only clear the ground for preparation. We must learn the vocation of citizenship on the job, as we acquire skill in law or medicine or business. It is essential, therefore, that we have continuingly effective means of adult education. One reason for the failure of our leadership has been the absence of any adequate means of communicating ideas to the masses of our people. Even the greatest newspaper chain reaches but a small fraction of the population. Our people have been torn by many and conflicting counsels. And now we have in the radio our herald’s horn which can reach the outermost confines of the continent, and with it comes a great educational opportunity. I have not time to deal with the general educational possibilities of radio ; I wish to speak of it solely as a means of civic education. You know of its use and effectiveness in the last presidential campaign. It will play an even greater part in the contest of this year. But the use of radio by candidates and their active political supporters, useful as it is in bringing their ideas directly under the scrutiny of the people, fills the airways with too much ballyhoo to be relied upon as a foundation for civic education. There is, however, a great mass of truth and wisdom accumulated by the research of scholars in government and politics which, if it could be made available to the ordinary citizen, might revolutionize our political life. For this purpose three things are necessary: First, a national hookup at a con¬ venient hour; second, the organization necessary for the preparation of programs and their adequate announcement; third, a technic of broadcasting which will make interesting to the millions truth based on scientific investi¬ gation and analysis. We have the first to the extent of a half-hour every Tuesday evening at eight o’clock New York time for four years, the gift of the National Broad¬ casting Company. We have the second in the Committee on Civic Educa¬ tion by Radio, organized by the National Advisory Council on Radio in Education in conjunction with the American Political Science Association, which is about to conclude its first experimental series of fourteen broad¬ casts on You and Your Government. The Committee is made up of political scientists, economists, educators, and public men. It has no partisan bias. It advocates no theory or ism. Its sole purpose is to bring before the micro¬ phone men who can speak with authority on the organization, processes, and functions of our government. The third necessary element — technic — we are striving by experiment to develop. No man yet knows a sure road to the hearts of the radio audience. Amos and Andy and the dance orches¬ tras get there. We cannot pretend that we do, but we will find the way if General Sessions 87 there is one. The You and Your Government series has been received with enthusiasm beyond our expectations. The series will be resumed on Tuesday, September 6, at eight o’clock Eastern Daylight Saving Time, on the topic “Problems of Government in a Depression.” After election we shall take up the more concrete issue of “Constructive Economy in State and Local Government” — a subject very close to the life of every teacher and school officer in the United States. There are two great services which these broadcasts can render : first, as a supplement to present means of civic education in the schools; and second, in reaching the adult masses. These broadcasts furnish teachers of civics an opportunity to bring their students directly in contact with the ablest men in the field — the men whose books the students read, whose views they hear discussed. The Committee is endeavoring to have each address adjusted to the understanding of high-school students — each address is carefully edited with that in mind. Numerous teachers have been assigning the You and Your Government programs as homework and later discussing them in class. Next fall this will be done in a concerted way for certain large school sys¬ tems, to be followed up by tests prepared by leaders in education and gov¬ ernment teaching. If you are interested in helping develop this side of civic education, please write to me at the University of Michigan or in care of the National Advisory Council on Radio in Education at 60 East 42 Street, New York City. The University of Chicago Press will print a listener’s handbook with outlines, bibliography, and questions, obtainable for twenty- five cents, and copies of each lecture at ten cents each. We only dimly know the possibilities of the radio as an instrument of reaching the adult masses. Our technic is still crude and inadequate ; but it can be improved, and we hope — ambitious dream — if you will — to supply constructive ideas enough really to affect the character of our political life. An experiment? Yes, but worth trying — for if it fails what further recourse have we but the abandonment of democracy for some form of government in which unity of will can be manifested. We have built our life on the theory of government of, by, and for the people — by the people because on no other basis could it be so surely for the people. But if without leadership, common interests, and ideals, common means of expressing opinion, vox populi is but a confused and confusing babel and democratic government either a sham or a futility, the institutions of the fathers will have to be cast aside for something more practical. God forbid that this should come to pass. No matter what the other “yous” want, you and I want no dictators. We really want self-government. We want the young people in our charge to grow to self-reliant, interested, active citizens. We want them to know and feel the significance of the nation and its government — and I want, with my col¬ leagues of the Committee on Civic Education by Radio, to help to bring to them now and keep before them in after life the impartial truths of our political life. Let us work together for a better civic education — all to¬ gether, for a civics course or so cannot atone for the sins of a whole curricu¬ lum. Let’s know our government ourselves. Let’s make our interest in it 88 National Education Association plain, for we can never get others interested unless we can give them the example of our own interest. Let’s know our government for the protection of our schools and our great order of teachers, w*hich in the long run depend on government. Let’s listen in to every new and helpful idea which may promote a better informed and more interested citizenship in ourselves and those committed to our charge. “Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty.” True in 1776, true today. Only by the unceasing labor of those who really love their country can it be preserved. Shall we preserve it? Yes! TEACHING LOCAL HISTORY BERTRAM E. PACKARD, STATE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, AUGUSTA, MAINE In these days, when we are placing so much emphasis upon the correct teaching of our history as a nation and are striving to our utmost to engender in the minds of our pupils a feeling of civic pride and patriotism, it is of especial importance that we emphasize the teaching of local history in our schools. There seem to me to be twm fundamental reasons why the study of this subject is important. In the first place such study engenders in the mind of the pupil a spirit of patriotism. Patriotism and love of country are syn¬ onymous terms; and if we have taught the boy and girl in the public schools to love the community in which they live, we have gone far toward inculcat¬ ing in their minds that most desirable thing — patriotism or love of country. In the second place it is extremely fortunate that local history is not to any great extent to be found in any written form. In the teaching of local history we have to go back to the sources. We have to look thru old hooks and records and newspapers. We have to rummage thru old attics and look over old letters and photographs. We have to talk with older people who know something about the history of the community in an earlier day. Thru these processes we accumulate a vast amount of information, much of which is unreliable and much of which is reliable and may be substantiated by accu¬ rate evidence. In such study the pupil unconsciously develops what we may term a “historical sense.” He acquires the habit of instinctively discarding that which is false and unreliable and selecting that which is true and which may be substantiated by real evidence. These then seem to be the chief reasons of importance for the study of local history. There may be added the fact that the subject of local history is extremely interesting and that such a study often brings to light many bits of information which might otherwise be lost. It is of especial interest to study the biographies of the founders of any community. Emerson* has aptly said that, “An institution is the lengthened shadow of one man.” So may we find that in innumerable communities habits and characteristics wdiich are commonplace today are the results of some strong outstanding personality who did his part in the shaping and molding of the social life of the community. General Sessions 89 The field for the study of local history is unlimited in its scope. A study of our growth and development from colonial times is most valuable and in¬ teresting, and much authentic material is available for this study. While excellent work has been accomplished in some localities, I feel sure that on the whole this study has been sadly neglected. Not to any measurable extent is this necessarily the fault of the teacher. It is simply for the reason that the subject has not been sufficiently brought to his attention and because, in the busy round of his everyday duties, he has not gotten around to it and has not really understood how to go about such a study. It is better to make an intensive study of the history of the town, county, and state in the two upper grades of the elementary system, which may be the seventh and eighth or eighth and ninth grades. This does not mean, how¬ ever, that the study should be neglected in the intermediate grades. In these grades, commencing with the fourth, much work of a valuable and interest¬ ing nature may be accomplished. One period per week in connection with history or geography may well be taken for this work. It should commence, of course, with talks by the teacher but gradually the pupils will be able to bring in material which they have been able to collect from assigned topics. Later on I shall mention the project of writing a town history for the upper grades. These histories should be preserved and will furnish an ex¬ cellent foundation for the work of the intermediate grades. Above all else I wish to emphasize the importance of making the work continuous, i. e., it should be made a part of the school work every year. It should not be taken up one year and dropped the next. Lhe study of local history has been made a part of the prescribed course of study for the state and should be con¬ sidered as a part of the regular school work. During our Centennial year this work was made a feature of the school program in many of our schools and much excellent work was accomplished. It would seem, however, that our teachers received the impression that the work was only to be carried on that year, for very little of it has been done since. While the history of many towns has been written, yet for the majority of them very little is known concerning their history. Of course, those living in towns having a published history will make a careful study of that work, nearly all of which are very reliable and authentic. In the main, the writers have gone to the sources for their information, and we have some exception¬ ally valuable town histories. Whether there is a published history or not, it is a most interesting and valuable project, both from the civic and historical standpoint, and from the standpoint of the study of English itself, to have your pupils prepare and write a history of the town. It is not a difficult or impossible task, and under the proper guidance and direction of the teacher they can do it well. An inexpensive notebook will serve the purpose, or the pupils may make their own books, designing and illustrating them according to their own original ideas. Be sure, however, to have a sufficient number of pages. In some instances these histories have been considered sufficiently valu¬ able to be published. These histories, as already suggested, will make valu- National Education Association able reference material for the intermediate grades and also for future classes. Make the work continuous and carry it on from year to year in the same way that you do United States history and geography. Make use of the local newspapers in every way possible. They will be more than glad to coopeiate and in many instances will publish the work of the pupils in their columns. In every way possible study local history from the sources. Every town is rich in source material. Information of great value may often be found hid¬ den away in old attics and garrets, old desks, trunks and even boxes and barrels, simply awaiting the diligent seekers of historical facts. Old deeds, old records, old letters, old books, old furniture, old houses, town records and reports, almanacs, and newspapers are simply suggestions of where to look for original and valuable information. Across the Kennebec river from the capitol in Maine stands the old bar¬ racks in which Benedict Arnold quartered his men while making his memo¬ rable journey thru the wilderness to Quebec. Only a few miles down the river in the town of Pittston stands the old homestead of Major Reuben Colburn, where two hundred twenty batteaus were made to transport the eleven hundred members of that company. Appropriate markers record these facts, but the old buildings still standing are “sources” or first-hand evi¬ dence of the journey. At Wiscasset, in the old courthouse, is a deed conveying a tract of land fifteen miles square on the east of the Kennebec River near its mouth. This deed was given by the Indian Chieftain, Matahonoda, to William Bradford in 1674. It recites the fact that for a consideration of two hogsheads of bread, a hogshead of peas, two coates of cloth, five gallons of wine and one gallon of strong waters, this land was transferred. This deed is a prima facie evidence of the fact of the transfer. It is a “source” of historic information upon which the historian may rely. The first gristmill and sawmill in the Kennebec region were built in Dresden by Dr. Silvester Gardiner in the year 1753. The buildings have long since disappeared, but ruins of the old dams are still faintly visible and there are in existence photographs of the mills taken in 1860. On the back of these photographs are depositions of persons who personally knew about these mills. These constitute reliable “sources” that the mills once stood in this place, and serve to illustrate the value of securing photographs of all objects of interest. Letters, reports, documents, and newspapers contemporaneous with the event are “sources” of first value. Diaries written at the time, and notes made on the event at the time and place of the event or circumstances, have substantial historical value. The teachers should enlist the cooperation of local organizations as the grange, women’s clubs, service clubs, the churches, and all local organiza¬ tions. They will all be intensely interested in the subject. The local news¬ paper would gladly open its columns for contributions of this character. It means work on the part of the teacher, but what project really worthwhile General Sessions 91 does not mean work? If any teacher will attempt this project of the study of local history and geography in his school he will be rewarded amply thru the results obtained and the community interest aroused in a study of the subject. I have yet to find an instance of a teacher who has not felt amply rewarded for any effort put forth along the lines I have suggested. To create a love of country and a spirit of patriotism which is invaluable and to acquire that important lesson of distinguishing the false from the true seem to be the two fundamental reasons for the teaching of local history. In addition there is the human interest element and the fact that it may be made a community project in which every person in the community will be inter¬ ested. This fact alone brings about a feeling of cooperation which is worth all the effort involved. Facts and events which might otherwise be lost are brought to light and preserved. Certainly any teacher will feel amply repaid in undertaking a project of this type. MODERN METHODS AND CURRENT PRACTISE IN READING ANNA DOROTHEA CORDTS, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, CEDAR FALLS, IOWA When the Puritans crossed the ocean to make America their new home, they brought with them the horn book and the children’s primer. From either one or both of these texts all miniature adults of school age in the new world were taught to read. And the ABC method was the one and only means of accomplishing the art. In about 1700 the famous New England Primer was published, and for a hundred years it was the children’s work type reader, their literary inspiration, and their spiritual guide, all in one. It contained not only the alphabet for learning to read, but the catechism and religious instruction as well. In Adam’s fall we sinned all. Thy life to mend this Book attend. Such was the content from which the young New Englanders learned to read. Additional substance for their souls’ nourishment was provided in lines like these : I in the burial place may see Graves shorter far than I ; From death’s arrest no age is free Young children, too, may die. All children’s poetry of that time was of this nature. Even Satan in that day would probably have been incapable of anything so frivolous as Hay diddle-diddle, the cat and the fiddle; The cow jumped over the moon. The little dog laughed to see such craft; And the dish ran away with the spoon. and Pipe, cat — dance mouse, We’ll have a wedding at our good house. 92 National Education Association With the introduction of Webster’s blue-backed speller in 1783 renewed emphasis was placed on the ABC method. The material for reading and spelling was quite similar, and children learned new words by “spelling the same.” Later the sound method was believed to be superior to the ABC method of learning to read. And in the most progressive schools in America, a, b, ab ; gave way to a, b, ab ; c, a, t, cat ; to c, a, t, cat. But the first real step in advance in teaching reading was made by Horace Mann, Secretary of the Board of Education, in Massachusetts in 1837. Mann set out to investigate the reading situation in the Massachusetts schools in order to discover to what extent reading was a mental and emo¬ tional experience and to what extent it was “a barren action of the organs of speech upon the atmosphere.” The result of his survey pointed out the glar¬ ing fact that in a class of forty-eight pupils, forty-four did not understand the meaning of the words they read; more than 91 percent of the “scholars,” he concluded, were merely exercising their organs of speech upon the atmos¬ phere. The investigation gave rise to the question whether children should be taught to identify the separate letters of words or whether they should be taught to recognize words as wholes in learning to read. “It can hardly be doubted,” Mann said in his report to the Board of Education, “that a child would learn to name twenty-six familiar words much sooner than the un¬ known, unheard, and unthought of letters of the alphabet.” Soon after the pronouncement of this remarkable discovery, the Mc- Guffey Readers were published. And by the time they had reached the peak of their popularity in the last quarter of the nineteenth century, the Word Method of learning to read was rapidly replacing the ABC Method. Today it is the most widely used method of beginning reading in the United States, as revealed by studies of current procedure in the primary grades. In spite of all that we know about the laws of learning, the relation of mechanics to meaning and interpretation in reading; the significance of eye movements in relation to rate of recognition and interpretation ; the impor¬ tance of reading as an outgrowth of a real life situation, we begin by teach¬ ing children words. Take for example this type of lesson in the children’s primer: This is Dan. Dan is a big boy. He can run. Run, Dan, run. Before the pupil can interpret any one of the sentences, he must be able to recognize each word in the sentence. So he is taught to identify the words: Dan, and is; a and this and big and boy, etc. After that he attempts the whole sentence. And we say the child is learning to read. He is being taught by the Word Method advocated by Horace Mann almost a hundred years ago. With the “reading” of the very first sentence, the tendency of word-by¬ word calling manifests itself. So the teacher, having in mind the significance of mechanics in relation to meaning, correct phrasing, rate of recognition, General Sessions 93 and proper interpretation, begins at once to give practise in grouping the words in the sentences: This is — a big boy — can run. She slides the pointer under the whole phrase on the blackboard. “Read the whole line,” she urges. “Try it again; a little more smoothly, please.” So instead of calling a word at a time, the pupil is now urged to “span the eyes” over several words, namely, whole phrases in the sentence. He is now being taught to unlearn what he learned in the beginning. If the practise exercises are well motivated, sufficiently compelling, and given frequently enough, new habits may eventually be formed. From now on it is a neck to neck race to determine whether the old habits of pausing to look at the form of each symbol, or whether correct interpretation and phrasing will ulti¬ mately be established. It’s a question of howT successfully the old bonds can be broken in order that the new ones may be formed. If the pupils could have begun with reading situations based on either real or vicarious experiences which would have enabled them to interpret each unit of thought before attempting to identify any of the words in it ; then later learned to identify the phrases or word groups in the sentences; and lastly the separate words; reading from the very beginning would have been a meaningful, satisfying experience. Proper habits of phrasing and eye span would have been encouraged from the outset, and no old bonds would need to have been broken in order that new ones might later be formed. This order of procedure, the exact opposite of that in the word method or the traditional approach to reading, is functioning, but only in the most progressive schools in the country. The great majority of our first-grade pupils and teachers are not enjoying its benefits, in spite of the recommenda¬ tions of the Twenty-fourth Yearbook,1 printed reports of scientific investiga¬ tions in primary reading, courses of study, professional books, and articles in educational periodicals. No less exciting than the finding of a new planet was the discovery of the educational principle, that skills should be practised in situations in school like those in which they are to function in life. Recent studies tend to show that skill in identifying new words and phrases in books and printed matter is more economically and effectively acquired when the printed page, in¬ stead of flash cards or the blackboard, is used for purposes of practise. Most of our schools are still developing skill in reading from cards and charts, rather than from books, newspapers, and periodicals. Isolated word drills from the blackboard for the purpose of developing word recognition and meanings are as widely current, today, as they were thirty years ago, in spite of all that we now know about the tremendous loss in transfer of skill from the blackboard situation to the printed sentences in the book. Altho teachers have often been sadly disappointed in the results obtained from the tradi¬ tional blackboard drill, it seems to be as popular as ever. 1 National Society for the Study of Education. Part I. Report of the National Committee on Reading. Twenty -fourth Yearbook. Bloomington, Ill.: Public School Publishing Co., 1925. 358 p. 94 National Education Association In phonics, as an aid to reading, first-grade children are still being taught to respond to the isolated symbols, a, t, st, b, br , f , a, e, i, o, u. As if any one of these separate forms ever appeared in a reading situation! It was in 1534 when the sounds of letters were first presented in isolation in the old world He is a clever child indeed who is able to generalize from ^ and a and t in isolation to s, a , and t , in sat, and pronounce the word, when he meets it for the first time. And then to confound him in his confusion we ask him to respond to an overwhelming number of socalled family phonograms : ad as found in bad, ick in stick and sick ; un in gun and fun; ish in dish, fish, and wish; ap , id, og, and the like, all in isolation. And this is exactly what was being done a hundred years ago. Since then we have learned that one does not even hear ad in pronouncing bad, or had, or mad; p and et in pet; b and ig in big; nor gr and een in green. The vowel is pronounced with the initial, not with the final consonant. It is ba that we hear in bad; pe in pet ; bi in big; gree in green. Our knowledge of the science of phonetics, of the laws of learning, and the results of investigations showing the nature and the frequency of occurrence of the sounds in the children’s reading vocabulary have made possible improved methods in teaching phonics. But, again, tradi¬ tional procedures are still -widely current in our schools. Perhaps one of the most significant findings in the field of reading was the discovery by Judd, Gray, and others, that silent and oral reading are two different activities and that training in one does not insure proficiency in the other. Then after the discovery that rate of recognition when learning to read, advances more rapidly than speed in articulation; and that about the time when the pupil has reached the fourth grade, he is able to identify or recognize words in sentences much more rapidly than he is able to pronounce them ; and that from then on continued practise in oral reading seriously retards rate of reading and interferes with the pupil’s ability to comprehend, the wide discrepancy between theory and current practise became more and more apparent. Another important discovery which resulted in improved methods in teaching reading showed that neither silent nor oral reading is a single ele¬ mental exercise as the name would imply, but rather a highly complex, composite activity demanding a variety of skills and abilities depending upon the nature of the material and the purpose for which one is reading. Reading a recipe from a cook book is a different mental function from read¬ ing the headlines in a newspaper. The reading of an editorial, for example, requires skills and abilities quite different from those involved in either of the other two activities. And reading bedtime stories to the babies requires still other types of attitudes, skills, and abilities. The identification of the reading abilities involved in the various func¬ tions is to education what the discovery of new elements is to chemistry. Practise in most of our schools is still general; reading for specific purposes is a relatively rare procedure. 4 he work of Horn, McBroom, and others in analyzing and defining the study skills and abilities ; in pointing out the appalling need of teaching pupils General Sess ons 95 how to study effectively ; and constructing exercises for developing the neces¬ sary skills and abilities, has resulted in the adoption of a learn to study pro¬ gram in our most progressive schools; but in the majority of our elementary classrooms, even today, the old, traditional practises are still in use! “To¬ morrow, we will finish the chapter, pages 29 to 32. I ake your seats and study your lesson, and be ready to recite it when you come to class.” Nor does one need to go outside the city limits to experience traditional practise. Studies show that in our rural, town, and city schools, children enter high school and college, not knowing how to study; how to locate material ; to pick out the main points in a lesson ; to appraise or evaluate them; to hold fast to those points suitable for their purpose and to reject all others; to organize the significant data and to provide for remembrance. Children in our elementary grades are still not being taught how to study. Fortunately, modern methods in teaching reading make a nice distinction between reading of the work type and reading of the recreational type. However, reading undisturbed and unnoticed, in some quiet corner of the room, for one’s own delight; for the pure joy of the adventure; for the pur¬ pose of extending interests; broadening and enriching experiences; reading for the thrill it gives the reader, is still the exception and by no means com¬ mon practise in our schools. Thousands of children have never had such an adventure. Think of never having feasted in the greenwoods with Robin Hood and his merry men ; or vaccinated the monkeys with Doctor Dolittle in Africa! Imagine never having been an outlaw, a prince, or a pirate; never having been shipwrecked, or lost on an island; or in the cave with Tom Sawyer and Becky Thatcher, or played hooky and gone fishing with Huckle¬ berry Finn; or hunted wild animals — lions and tigers — in the jungles! “Library books are hard to get. But even when we get them, our children can’t read well enough to enjoy them,” is the usual explanation given in defense of the situation. Our pupils need more opportunity to read, just for the pure joy of reading. If at each succeeding level of attainment in learning to read, from the primary grade to the junior high school, children could enjoy a wide plateau of rich and varied reading experiences highly charged with interest with not even a single added difficulty to interrupt the fun, every pauper in reading in our elementary schools might become a prince! Thousands of children grow up intellectually impoverished with little or no desire to read, no appetite for books even where they are provided, because reading is too difficult, too rigorous a chore. Suppose, that instead of always having had to struggle with difficult words and meanings, long and hopelessly involved sentences, the pupil, after having reached a certain stage of reading ability, before advanc¬ ing to the next level of attainment, could have enjoyed a whole plateau of rich, vital experiences solely for the delight and satisfaction which such an experience can give. What a difference in his desire, his appetite for reading, that would have made! Perhaps the greatest single need on all levels of attainment is exactly for that type of abundant and enriched reading exper¬ ience. 96 National Education Association What are we going to do about it? Alas! In spite of all our studies and reports on the values and purposes of literature, poems are still being assigned as lessons to be learned ; lines to be memorized ; words to be looked up in the dictionary and “brought back” to class. “I want you to learn this whole poem by heart. For tomorrow, learn just the first stanza; but be sure you can say it without a mistake,” is a typical assignment, even today. After the “recitation” the next day, comes the discussion of the author’s purpose in writing the poem, his success in having accomplished it, and whatever analyzing, moralizing, and intellectualizing, class time permits. Is it a wonder that children so often dislike poetry? What great exper¬ ience, what joy, satisfaction, or inspiration can be obtained from such pro¬ cedure ? What beauty of life and loveliness can a poem bring to the soul of a child under those circumstances? What more than simple interpretation is needed in order to share with the children the deep, human experience ex¬ pressed in these simple lines by T. A. Taly: EEN NAPOLI Here enn Noo Yorka, where am I Seence I am landa las’ July All gray an’ ogly ees da sky, An’ cold as eet can be. But steell so long I maka mon’, So long ees worka to be done, I can forgat how shines da sun Een Napoli. But oh, ween pass da boy dat sal Da violets, an’ I can smal How sweet dey are, I can not tal How seeck my heart ees be. I no can work, how mooch I try, But only seet an’ wondra why I could not justa leeve an’ die Een Napoli. If Christopher Morley had thought that anything more was needed for the enjoyment of this little gem, certainly he would have incorporated it in the lines : SMELLS My Daddy smells like tobacco and books Mother, like lavendar and listerine ; Uncle John carries a whiff of cigars, Nannie smells starchy and soapy and clean. Shandy, my dog, has a smell of his own (When he’s been out in the rain he smells most) ; But Katie, the cook, is more splendid than all — She smells exactly like hot buttered toast! And what words from the teacher could possibly add strength, depth, height, grandeur, majesty, or glory to this poem of Sandburg’s: General Sessions 97 PRAYERS OF STEEL Lay me on an anvil, O God. Beat me and hammer me into a crowbar. Let me pry loose old walls. Let me lift and loosen old foundations. Lay me on an anvil, O God. Beat me and hammer me into a steel spike. Drive me into the girders that hold a skyscraper together. Take red-hot rivets and fasten me into the central girders. Let me be the great nail holding a skyscraper thru blue nights into white stars. All our printed reports of scientific investigations in reading; our year¬ books, based on these findings ; our courses of study developed from the best that we know both in theory and in practise ; our professional textbooks in reading; articles in current educational periodicals and teachers’ manuals have greatly influenced practise in classroom procedure, but only in compar¬ atively few schoolrooms in the country as a whole. School visits and surveys show that the narrow, limited, and traditional practises in teaching reading are still in use in the majority of our schools. Little or much as we know, we know far better than we do. The greatest need at present, it seems, is not for further investigation for improvement of method in teaching reading but for a series of studies for discovering effective means for “catching up” with what we already know. This problem is obviously one for research in administration. Altho the classroom teacher is the agent for making the transition from old to new and better ways of teaching, it is the office of administration to provide the means for putting new and better programs into operation. Until we can “pry loose old walls; and lift and loosen old foundations” and bring up the rear in educational practise we really have made but very little progress. AMONG NEW BOOKS HELPFUL TO TEACHERS EFFIE MACGREGOR, PRINCIPAL, BURROUGHS SCHOOL, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. Among worthwhile school experiences boys and girls are now having, is that of making the acquaintance of good and varied reference materials and learning how to use them correctly. I often think how much more satisfac¬ tory my childhood might have been had I been provided with books which would have answered my questions. Most of these children’s encyclopedia have recently been revised, and they are among the new books helpful to teachers. My high-school experience was more or less nebulous. My instructors had never heard of subjectmatter integration and, certainly, I saw no connection 98 National Education Association between life itself, and Latin, science, and high-school mathematics. If George A. Dorsey s Alan s Own Show : Civilization had been written in that day, my school experience might have been different. Mr. Dorsey says, in the first paragraph of this book, that he devoted most of his life to trying to find who we are, how civilization is developed, what makes it great, and, possibly, what constitutes civilization. While you will be reading the 958 pages of his book, you will be learning much about sub- jectmatter integration. But, if you are cherishing any final solutions con¬ cerning any phase of life’s various human expression which you wish un¬ disturbed, Mr. Dorsey’s book is not for you. You may think he sounds impractically idealistic when he says, “The be¬ ginning and the end of morality, of ethics, or peace in family, tribe, or na¬ tion, is social justice.” But, by the time you reach this statement, you will know better, because thruout this book Mr. Dorsey has insisted, again and again, that “Science, science alone, is universal ; its language, alone, is that of the human voice.” As a caution, he adds, “Let us be clear about this. Science is not magic, nor a way of salvation, nor an object of worship. It is a method of procedure.” To destroy the last shred of complacency with which any educator may be afflicted, he writes, “What a democracy needs is a democratic education; and what a democracy demands is an Industrial Age democratic education.” Then he asks, “Is it getting it?” It is good to know that the needs of high- school boys and girls are being met with greater satisfaction to them than were mine in my high-school experience. When I attended teachers college, I learned that the only way one can succeed in teaching is thru an understanding of the individual child, and that love and understanding have much in common. The term individual differ¬ ence was not then in use, but certainly individual differences were recog¬ nized. The ideal which the reporters on Mr. Lincoln Steffens’ remade New York Commercial Advertiser set up for themselves, years ago, was not very unlike the ideal I had learned for good teaching. They attempted to “get the news so completely, and to report it so humanly, that the reader would see himself in the other fellow’s place.” As I recently read the Autobiography of Lincoln Steffens , I wondered if his search in education was not the common search most of us made. He was hoping to find “a basis for an ethics.” For some time, I thought Shakespeare gave evidence, in Hamlet, of hav¬ ing found “an ethical basis,” when Polonious advises his son Laertes: This above all : to thine own self be true, And it must follow as the night the day, Thou cans’t not then be false to any man. Very slowly, but very surely, I came to see, as did Lincoln Steffens, that “what the world needs all the time is to find someone who is not sincere, but intelligent.” General Sessions 99 If you are a teacher, a mother, or a father, and have a boy, or boys, in your charge, you will find in Mr. Steffens’ account of his boyhood many ex¬ cellent and practical suggestions that will be of great help to you in under¬ standing boys’ interests and boys’ emotional reactions to their interests. He will give you a picture of academic education that will make you a crusader in the reform of education, to give children an opportunity to learn the truth thru the location and use of facts. For those of you who are politically minded and interested, he will per¬ sistently and accurately analyze American politics — local, state, and national — and finally repay you for the intensity which you expend in following him by making a clearcut statement of his conclusions for the solution of our political problems. He says, “Honesty is not enough; it takes intelligence, some knowledge of economics, courage, strength, wdllpower, humor, leader¬ ship — it takes intellectual integrity.” When Mr. Steffens adds, concerning the conference between President Hoover and the “big business men” of the country, which was recently called because of the present national economic crisis, “It matters not that this president and these captains of industry did not know what to do ; we have not yet got to science and scientists in gov¬ ernments,” you will agree with him and want to join him in attempting to draw the curtain which separates the chaotic “now” from the scientific “then.” Last summer, I took a course on “The Modern Elementary School” in one of our leading universities. A typed bibliography was given out at the first meeting of the class. In an outline of the course, the “major premise” read as follows : The modern school should recognize the implications of its functions to the society which its children are to comprise. It must accept its share of the responsibility for directing, changing, and bettering this society. The “problems” of the course read: What are some of the fundamental processes and philosophies in the modern school which have implications for this society? What evidences can we find in the modern school that these processes and philosophies are operating and that their implications are being recognized? I went home and distributed copies of Dr. Reynolds’ bibiliography of the course to, the teachers with whom I work, and we started to inform our¬ selves relative to the learning needs of the modern child. As we read and worked, we listed some of the obvious significances of modern society, as follows: 1. The modern age is a machine age. 2. Manufacturing centers develop because of distribution facilities. 3. Unemployment results from machine improvement. 4. General depression accompanies widespread unemployment. 5. Distances are shortened and time is saved, due to modern invention. 6. National independence is changing to international dependence. 100 National Education Association 7. War, rather than settling social, political, and economic problems, adds chaos to confusion in such problems: So, war must go. 8. Last, but of greatest importance, the development of science has resulted in the need for the development of the scientific attitude in the individual. Apparently, authors and publishers were working with us; for, as new books appeared on the market, we found many that were of great use to us. I have time to mention but a few of the books we used and to give you a brief illustration of the effect of their use on the curriculum of our school. Stuart Chase ends his book on Men and Machines with these two par¬ agraphs : I see before us three alternatives: (1) We can drift with the tide, as at present; (2) We can officially adopt some simple formula like “government by business” or “state socialism,” and thus attempt to run a dreadnaught with a donkey engine; (3) We can face the full implications of the machine, relying on no formula, be¬ cause none adequate have been created, with nothing to guide us but our naked intelligence and a will to conquer. The stars, alas, predict the first; Russia proved the futility of the second, when the Marxian formula gave way to the New Economic Policy, which is another name for pragmatism; the last is the great adventure — the boldest, most exhilarat¬ ing, most dangerous adventure that ever challenged the intelligence and spirit of mankind. From our brains have sprung a billion horses, now running wild and almost certain, sooner or later, to run amuck. Where are the riders with their whirling ropes; where the light-hearted youths to mount, be thrown, and rise to mount again? No book that has been recommended to us has so completely analyzed the machine age and its “social implications and functions” as has Men and Machines, by Stuart Chase. If you have not read it, we recommend that you number it “one” on the list of books you will need to know in order to pro¬ mote the service of real education in a modern school. If for no other reason at all, except that you are looking for a stimulating, useful, and inclusive bibiliography, you will want to add A Short Introduc¬ tion to the History of Human Stupidity, by Walter B. Pitkin, to your list of new books which will be helpful to you. Getting acquainted with books before beginning to read them is often very interesting, but with this book it is really an exhilarating experience. The poem on the introductory page, “To the Subject of this Book” is one of strength and beauty, and the “Table of Contents” may cause you some regret that society’s needs demand that we shall shift from a classical to an “Industrial Age democratic education.” Mr. Pitkin is a master of several of the sciences, as well as of English. The combination is fairly unique. He has something to say, and he can say it with exactness of meaning, considerable humor, and much beauty. If you have any idea that he is at all frivolous concerning his subject, you have only to read the first twenty pages of his book to discover those stupidities from which you suffer because of other people, those from which you suffer because of yourself, and many others that you had never noticed. Apparently, it makes little difference from what angle a trained thinker begins to ponder on our needs; the conclusion is always the same. On page General Sessions 101 538 of his History of Human Stupidity , Mr. Pitkin says: “No— Man will be saved from his stupidities by science, only; not by religion, nor by moral drill, nor, least of all, by laws.” After all of this emphasis on the need of a scientific procedure relative to the solution of social problems, it is reassuring to educators to know that as long as ten years ago one among their number, Dr. Harold Rugg, had entered the field of social science with full realization of the import of scientific development from the standpoint of education as well as content, with a series of books on social science. This series consists of six books, the titles of which are : 1. An Introduction to American Civilization 2. Changing Civilizations in the Modern IV orld 3. A History of American Civilization 5. An Introduction to Problems of American Culture 4. A History of American Government and Culture 6. Changing G overnments and Changing Civilizations. If you are interested in the study of sound, scientific, modern educational procedure, you will find these books of great value. If you earnestly believe that “the modern school should recognize the implications of its functions to the society which its children are to comprise, and that it must accept its share of the responsibility for directing, changing, and bettering this society,” you will want junior and senior high-school boys and girls to know these books. Also, if you need to clear your own thought in the field of presentday social problems, you will find these books packed with vital and reliable informa tion. As many of you know, these books appeared in pamphlet form, twice, before being published in their present final form. As a result of Dr. Rugg s careful and painstaking work with this material in the field of education, he says he “attempted to set down the outline of the evolving theory” in a book written for students of education when he wrote Culture and Educa¬ tion in America, which was published during the summer of 1931. In the foreword of this book, he said that it is “a tentative outline of the chief con¬ cepts of American culture and needed steps in educational reconstiuction. You remember that Dr. Rugg, with Miss Ann Shumaker, published the Child-Centered School in 1928. All of these books belong in the library of every progressive teacher. Child-centered schools have brought to the foreground of our thinking the importance of organizing school experience on the basis of a curriculum comprised of a series of units of activities, rather than on the basis of sub- jectmatter. This is confusing to the teacher who has been in service for some time. She needs help and she wants it practical. Teachers will find The Ac¬ tivities Curriculum in the Primary Grades, by Marion Paine Stevens, of great practical value. This book is well organized and written in a clear, lucid style. The first part of the book answers all the questions the experi¬ enced teacher raises concerning * I he Activities Curriculum , the second i 02 National Education Association part of the book deals with “Typical Activities”; and the third and last part of the book describes “Typical Units of Work.” This book is helpful not only t0 Primary teachers, but to all teachers who want to know more about the organization of a program of learning based on units of activities. Another helpful book in this field of education is that by Martha Peck Porter, The Teacher in the New School. This book gives an interesting account of Miss Porter’s actual experience with a group of third grade chil¬ dren in the Lincoln School of Teachers College. In the introduction, which Miss Rebecca J. Coffin writes, she says, “This book isolates and describes some of the technics underlying procedures based on children’s interests, their individual differences, their natural ways of learning thru activity, and their relation to society.” She adds, “The last chapter describes the wLy in which the method has been adapted to public schools.” If you are an ad¬ ministrator, and are sincerely trying to make your school modern, you will seek comfort and information from this chapter, time and time again. If you wish you had gone to a school where children’s questions were really im¬ portant, the description of the work of these children, resulting from their questions, will be a delight to you. Anothei lecent book of value to teachers in elementary schools is that by Dr. Leo J. Breuckner and Dr. Ernest O. Melby, Diagnostic and Remedial Teaching. This book is of technical nature and is of value in solving the problem of individual children who are victims of academic maladjust¬ ment in school. Diagnostic tests and materials, and methods of use, are clearly and fully desciibed. Specific material is also supplied for remedial service in every elementary school subject. Teachers who need this sort of help will be interested in knowing that the book was written for teachers, rather than for the specialist. Most of you have read much of the current writing on Russia. You may have missed the New Russia’s Primer , which is really a textbook for the youth of Russia. It is a very remarkable book, too, and seems more remark¬ able when one discovers that it was written, not by a Russian educator, but by a Russian engineer, Mr. Ilin. Then, there is Red Bread 3 among the several books which Maurice Hindus has written on Russia. Mr. Hindus was born a Russian peasant. He has an understanding of the Russian peasant, in relation to the present experiment in political reorganization in Russia, which no outsider could have. That fact, coupled with his ability to write well, makes his books worthwhile to teachers who are interested in a sympathetic account of the doings in Russia. However, the most interesting book I have found on Russia has recently been written by Emma C. Ponafidine, under the title of Russia — My Home. A prefatory note is written in this book by William Lyon Phelps, who, at one time, had been a guest in the Russian ancestral Ponafidine home. Mrs. Ponafidine is an American woman who married Peter Egorovich Ponafidine in 1885, when he was serving as Russian Consul in Tabriz — where she was living with her American missionary parents. General Sessions 103 M rs. Ponafidine gives an accurate historical account of the experiences of herself and family from the time the manager of their estate appeared in the doorway, in 1914, and announced, “Madam, war has been declared,” to the time of her escape to America with two of her sons, in 1922. While we are looking at Russia, let us extend our interest and join Dr. Carleton Washburne on his educational research tour. In his very recent book, Remakers of Mankind, Dr. Washburne says he went around the world to get these questions answered : “Are the leaders of educational think¬ ing in different parts of the world conscious of their own goals? What are their goals? Are those of different leaders and different countries “antagonis¬ tic, complementary, and harmonious, or identical?” Dr. Washburne found that, “The leaders of educational thought clearly are not agreed among themselves as to where they want to go.” That brings to mind the thought of world peace. If Dr. Washburne’s Remakers of Man¬ kind could be used as a text in the next meeting of the World Federation of Education Associations, it might be of real value to the world. Of Only Yesterday , by Frederick Lewis Allen, a patron of my school recently said, “That book should be a textbook in the hands of every high- school boy and girl.” That mother had an intelligent appreciation of the interests of modern high school boys and girls. At the same time, Only Yes¬ terday is a book which no parent or teacher should miss. Dr. William C. Bagley’s recent book, Education, Crime, and Social Progress, is a compilation of talks on education which he has delivered on several occasions. Dr. Bagley reminds us that it is well for us to proceed in our chosen profession with caution, as well as with enthusiasm. I always buy any book that Dr. Bagley writes, for two reasons: first, because he always makes me check my educational thinking, and, also, because he makes “edu¬ cation” interesting reading. A new book of Dr. Charles Beard has just been published and is called A Charter for the Social Sciences. It is the result of a report made to the American Historical Association on an investigation of the social studies in the schools. It is a small book — you can read it in an evening — and it is among the new books you will want to know. Recently I was recommended to a bit of beauty in the book world which I had missed. It was published in 1923, but it will always be new because of the sheer beauty of its thought, word, and execution. It is called The Prophet, and it was written by Kahlil Gibran. Much of the content of the book is general in interest, but there is one short chapter which Mr. Gibran wrote in response to the teacher who requested of The Prophet, “Speak to us of teaching.” This is part of the response : No man can reveal to you aught but that which already lies half asleep in the dawning of your knowledge. The teacher who walks in the shadow of the temple among his followers gives not of his wisdom but, rather, of his faith and his lovingness. If he is indeed wise, he does not bid you enter the house of his wisdom, but, rather, leads you to the threshold of your own mind. 104 National Education Association THE PRESENT EMERGENCY AND ENRICHMENT OF ADULT LIFE JAMES A. MOYER, STATE DIRECTOR OF UNIVERSITY EXTENSION, BOSTON, MASS. Many adults are always hovering on the edge of vocational failure. New processes of manufacturing, new ways of distributing products, new systems of accounting, and the consolidation of factory plants require workers with new training. Those who have the habit of learning, the habit of thinking, the habit of growth, are the ones who will be most benefited by such changes and will have security in employment. In this machine age the man or woman who is trained for only one kind of employment is insecure. Statistics show that more than 20 percent of the men and women now being fully employed are working in occupations that less than twenty years ago were distinctly new, and there are still greater changes in industry and business ahead. It is vitally important that in the present emergency and in fact always in the future, there should be oppor¬ tunities in tax-supported trade and commercial schools for re-training those still employed in declining and seasonal industries and for specialized edu¬ cation and re-training of other adults that they may keep abreast of these rapidly changing conditions. The time may not be far distant when even the proverbial “two strings to one’s bow” in the matter of employment will be insufficient for employment security. The need for such training among employed adults has resulted in new demands being made on public trade and commercial schools. In many of these trade schools there is not the same flexibility for adult education as in schools for business training. Unfortunate legislation is largely responsible for the restrictions that hinder in the training and re-training of employed adults, especially in the present emergency. Regulations for trade education that apply to an earlier generation are not adaptable to present require¬ ments. Local administration should not thus be hampered. It is generally agreed, I believe, by those in charge of adult education in the several states that federal supervision interferes with necessary flexibility of programs and so is undesirable. The present industrial order, as it has brought more leisure to working people than they have ever had before, and as it will doubtless bring in the future still fewer work hours per day and fewer work days per week, has increased the magnitude of the problem of educators to find satisfying occu¬ pation and worthwhile recreation during leisure hours. The present emer¬ gency is emphasizing to educated men the fact that the failure of adults to continue to read and to study results in mental stagnation. Predictions as to what are likely to be the relative amounts of work time and leisure time in the whole day in the future may, of course, be modified somewhat when we consider that the discovery of new needs will make jnecessary greater production to be accomplished either manually or mechgu)- General Sessions 105 ically. Doubtless new wants will be created by the very fact that there is more leisure time for employed persons and will result in increased demand for employment. It is unlikely, however, that the production and distribution agencies will be increased for these reasons in anything like the proportion that labor will be displaced by the increasing mechanization. In many respects, the present is a suitable time to look about for the pur¬ pose of discovering the innumerable ways of enriching the lives of men and women by education and recreation that will provide for their greater secur¬ ity, comfort, and happiness. It is obviously appropriate at this time to question and investigate how leisure time is used by the large numbers of men and women now out of employment. Relatively few persons know what to do with themselves in such times of emergency. Many get to a condition approximating mental stagnation due to the fact that their minds have not been educated to the appreciation of any special interests such as hobbies, and that their hands have not been trained for the performance of the socalled skills. Those engaged in industry, however, are not the only ones who have this difficulty in knowing what to do with themselves in their leisure time. The apostle of life enrichment, L. P. Jacks, cites an interesting example of a college graduate who, at one time, was successful in business but lost out in a period of hard times. He states his predicament thus, “My education fitted me fairly well for my jobs, but now that I have no job, I am like an empty barrel. At the same time that my stomach is empty, my mind is starv¬ ing.” After this college graduate had thus spoken, he followed with this very important question: “What is education doing to prepare me and my community for a good and enjoyable use of my unemployed time? This man was justified in asking the question, and there are many other reasons for the same question. If the leisure habits of the better educated adults in our communities, rich and poor alike, show quite generally a lack of even ordinary intelligence in the use they make of spare or unemployed time, it is not difficult to understand that much missionary work remains to be done to promote richer lives. Doubtless, much of spare time and unemployed time is applied to no other purpose than the alleviation of boredom, with a con¬ stant search for those excitements of momentary duration, and a general de¬ pendence on ready-made pleasures, such as require no active mental par¬ ticipation. Personal creative activity of whatever kind is the element that makes the use of leisure time really enjoyable and productive of mental contentment. It is the element that is so generally lacking in the habits of all adults. In the same proportion that the labor requirements of men and women are reduced, the leisure time of employed persons is increased. Improved methods of home management have also brought more leisure for the house¬ wife. In the natural development of this displacement of manual labor by machinery, it is to be expected that in the not too distant future the work- portion of the day will be the short part of our social life, and the leisure part will be the long. Now, more than ever before, men and women can 106 National Education Association count on time to spare after they have earned their day’s pay or fulfilled their household duties, so that the door is opening more and more to leisure enjoyment. It is here that we find also the “peril of leisure.” Almost any one of us in the course of earning a livelihood in work, how¬ ever satisfactory from a material viewpoint, is constantly reminded that the day’s work does not provide for the normal aspirations for self-expression, for the creation of something that uplifts from a humdrum existence. Edu¬ cation pursued in leisure hours to satisfy these aspirations may, indeed, fur¬ nish the ground-work of a satisfying avocation ; and the number of avoca¬ tions open to us is legion. It is ours to make a choice. “Reading with a pur¬ pose” the worthwhile books in public and private libraries is nearly every¬ where an easily accessible avocation. The emphasis, however, must be on purposeful reading, as merely “browsing” in a library is an almost valueless method. Some city and town libraries are cooperating with the school departments in giving publicity to the opportunities for adult education by distributing a single-page circular listing such opportunities, especially reading and state- supported correspondence courses. Arrangements have been made with the librarian to place one of the circulars inside the cover of every book that is taken from the library. Finally, an avocation has in many cases a more practical aspect than those aspects that have been mentioned. In times of stress or unemployment, it may happen that an avocation may give financial returns and possibly tem¬ porary employment to offset the loss of wages. It becomes then a “second line of defense.” The unemployed man, while seeking for a new position, will find that a hobby will help to occupy his mind and thus may ward off the unfortunate results of worry and introspection. An avocation is a good in¬ vestment, both spiritual and material. FORWARD LOOKING MOVEMENTS IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS ANNIE CARLETON WOODWARD, CHAIRMAN, N.E.A. COMMITTEE ON INTER¬ NATIONAL RELATIONS, SOMERVILLE, MASS. There has probably never been an age when world affairs have been of more importance than now. The world has been undergoing a readjustment upon which hinges the entire future and wellbeing of all nations. Educators want to help. They know that they have an important function to perform. Their duty is forward looking because in their hands are placed daily the potential citizens of the world. These students must be prepared to take the re¬ sponsibility of helping countries to assume their place in the international scheme of life. Another prime purpose of the educator should be to guide and help students to become conscious of the need of being world citizens. Most thinking people are coming more and more to the decision that the real salvation of our civilization will have to come thru the adoption of in- General Sessions 107 telligent scientific planning, made effective by unselfish support of the mass of people who are morally educated to the point where they care more for the welfare of society as a whole than for their own personal or group inter¬ est, and who are educated intellectually to the point where they realize that in the long run their personal or group interest is dependent upon the welfare of the whole. Educators realize that there must be an awakening of the spirit of coopera¬ tion and the use of the Golden Rule. Without educational development man is like an animal — uncivilized. He may be affectionate, lovable, well-groomed, contented, or the reverse of these, but his course is aimless ; and he and the society of which he forms a part are subject to wreckage at any time by the course of unforeseen circum¬ stances which might have been foreseen, or by circumstances which were fore¬ seen, but were not attended to. Such forward looking movements are needed to develop our responsibility of citizenship. The responsibility of being a useful unit in the community, state, nation, and world. All social life, all stability and progress depend upon each man’s confidence in his neighbor, that because of the careful plan¬ ning of his life he can be relied upon to do his duty. Unquestionably the need of the day is to so live that everyone can have confidence, not only in your honesty, but also in your wisdom and your cour¬ age. Men are not born with wisdom, they acquire it by habitual self-control, not by allowing one’s self to be influenced by the popular impulses of the day, but by those principles that endure and lie at the base of civilized society. The same fundamental values can be found in many movements that are forward looking and aimed to help mankind in its effort to develop a world- mindedness and understanding. A few of these I should like to consider with you. Professors and instructors of the private schools and colleges, and teachers of the public school system have exchanged for some time, and thru their effort they have been able to stimulate youth with the goodwill spirit and the desire to know their neighbors better. Great good could come if more teachers were encouraged to exchange. Some states need to consider legislation in order to make it easy for classroom teachers to have this privilege. Their pension, tenure, class rating, and salary should not be disturbed by their exchange. For they are goodwill bearers and promote sympathetic attitudes which render invaluable service to their countries and advance international understanding and tolerance. We are proud of the number of exchanges already made and admire those teachers for their courage and professional spirit. Recently the World Peace Foundation has given out the results of its survey showing that few colleges of undergraduate rank in the entire coun¬ try were without some opportunities of instruction in international affairs. More than 3700 semester courses dealing with international affairs were being taught. In total these courses contained about 200,000 classroom hours of undergraduate instruction. 108 National Education Association This instruction is not limited today, as it used to be practically to political science. Teachers of nearly every subject find that they are able today to interpret their work in relation to a world point of view. This is helping the public and private schools in making over their curriculums. Isn’t this for¬ ward looking? Not long ago one can recall that courses dealing with inter¬ national affairs wTere very few and rarely offered in undergraduate instruc¬ tion. Also in colleges and universities there is the rapidly growing work of the International Relations Clubs. Over three hundred are already flourish¬ ing. Credit should be given the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, for the great help which it has rendered. The purpose of these clubs is, “to stimulate and encourage the habit of serious and intelligent thought along international lines in the hope that it may become a life habit.” As you may know this endowment supplies these clubs with outlines, lectures, summary of international events, wisely selected books and pamphlets on international questions. Then there are other clubs of college students which use international problem topics for study and discussion, such as Current Events Club, World Fellowship League, History Club, Foreign Relations Club, Diplo¬ matic Club, and World Friendship Club. As an outgrowth of these clubs there often comes some demonstration. A common expression has been the use of the “Model Assemblies” of the League of Nations. I note that last year 7200 students from 24 states representing 178 colleges and schools, took part in these international projects. This is truly a forward looking movement, as is proved by the fact that the educational department of the League of Nations Associations reports a growing interest in this work. Need we doubt the radio’s mission in this great field of action? Can there be one of us who has not already heard an inspiring message come in from overseas. Yes, possibly in a language with which you were not familiar and you waited patiently to hear it translated. Certainly the radio is a great power in promoting world understanding, and this will improve and increase with the years. Every school that was radio equipped had again this year the opportunity of hearing the message from the children of Wales on World Goodwill Day, May 18. Visualize the hundreds of classrooms with thousands of chil¬ dren that heard those words. How impossible it is to measure the extent of good that wTas done that day. For the same purpose, during this year our president, Miss Florence Hale, has given us remarkable radio programs on education. These have been in¬ structive and interesting, helping us to realize our mutual problem in educa¬ tion thruout our land. And it is our earnest desire that these programs may be extended to include the world point of view. Looking forward one can imagine the still greater help to mankind for educational advancement which will come as more international radio programs are prepared — programs wherein the children of the world take part. Because the really worthwhile values in the human race are associated with youth. General Sessions 109 There is perhaps no more striking illustration of the change in man’s thinking than is shown by the general tendency in the new textbooks. There one becomes increasingly aware of the ramifications of their subjects into the international field. It matters not the grade or subject, ample opportunity is offered the pupils to get a better understanding of world problems and world appreciation. From books one looks to magazines and the press, and we notice an increasing amount of world news and international information. Surely we have all followed the reports of the International Conferences — the latest action about the gold standard, the functions of the world bank, and every gathering of the League of Nations and the Woild Couit. More¬ over, we knew daily what was taking place in China and Japan. Today we watch with eager interest the Conference at Lausanne. Yet it flashes thru our minds that too many people, at home and abroad, are so selfish that they are governed by the desire to save themselves, even if they have to ruin others in the attempt. However, these international truths that are being printed daily give great intellectual and spiritual achievements of the race, causing people to think in world terms and arousing people to feel with all humanity and be interested in world purposes. Another valuable forward looking contribution is the formation of Inter¬ national Relations Committees by adults. Such organizations as the Rotary, Kiwanis, Chambers of Commerce, parent-teacher associations, women’s clubs, university clubs, professional and business women’s clubs, have started them. They sponsor forward looking international ideas and arouse their groups by lectures, plays, moving pictures, pageants, and contests on world affairs. In fact, these clubs are just as valuable for the enlightenment of adults as the clubs in colleges are for youth. Every educator deeply interested in the progress already made by the for¬ eign students who have studied in our country must give credit to the Inter¬ national Institute of Teachers College, Columbia University. 1 hat Institute has been a pioneer in international education to the extent that today it can safely say that every civilized country has some students active in the field of education. For ten years students have come there from foreign lands to study together their common problems. Nothing is so far-reaching as for students to be thinking and working together for the common good. In spite of all the forward movements one can find, one still notes that the all inclusive movement is the World Federation of Education Associations. It has stimulated and brought to the consciousness of the educational world the necessity and the opportunity of developing the spirit of goodwill and international cooperation. Every educator in the world should become a member and strive to understand and help the economic, social, and political changes thru which we are passing. Civilization needs the direction which the best trained educators can give. This association is having a Regional Conference in Honolulu, Hawaii, this summer, and in Dublin, Ireland, next summer. There is no question but what the results will be beneficial and far-reaching. 110 National Education Association kind itt may 1 S,Ugges\that as ed“s we do our part to help man- d learn by example the lesson taught us in 1900, “when an Argentine bishop preached a passionate appeal for peace. Hearing of this, a Chilean bishop took up the same cause, and the two of them set out, each in his own country, to preach peace ,n the villages. They succeeded in getting the gov- eiments to refer the dispute to arbitrators. ” Is not mankind today advanced to the state of development that it can se e its disputes by arbitration instead of resorting to brute force? This is a challenge to education. OBJECTIVES AND METHODS IN THE NEW HEALTH EDUCATION IRVING W. SMALL, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BANGOR, MAINE Many years ago a very wise man made this statement, “A faithful am¬ bassador ,s health. (Proverbs 13: 17.) Since the time of this statement and preceding it, each generation has had its accepted standards of health It is only within recent years that there has been an aroused enlightened public n iment in support of health instruction. The experience of the World War directed the attention of the people of our nation to the immediate need of establishing in the public and private schools both health and physical edu¬ cation programs, in order that our young people might be physically fit and mentally alert to perform the great tasks of life successfully. t is Probably true that every community and state in our country has ome j^nd °f a health program, operating in the interest of raising the stand- rd of health. Much I have to say in the discussion of my subject will relate to my own state and city. J hp¥f'"e’ a.rUral state- is confronted with many problems in the field of health, but they are being solved successfully. In addition to the many local health agency there are three organizations whose services coyer ^ PnM- Hi °rganlzatlons are the State Department of Health, the Maine Public Health Association, and the Red Cross. The work of these agencies so coordinated as to practically avoid duplication of effort. Information secured thru the State Department of Health indicates that health work ,n the schools of the state is rapidly increasing and expanding and is being conducted along the following lines : g and ££%££* P'aCed UP°" the development of the infant ciadonfboth ofeiTafd'nomofficifl.3'6 '°CaI and PUb'iC hea'th "Ursing ass°' tenrhl?efinite ■eff0m bei"g !,,ade’ thru Public health associations and parent- eacher associations, for every preschool child who is to enter school for the first 4eEfforetstem h’*0 haVC/ “mPlete Physica' examination" the spring against smlllnox andngdmh,he ‘° ‘™munize the Preschool child and the school child been again^Iph^ria"'”8 P3St ^ th°USand Childr™ ha- General Sessions 111 5. The annual medical examination by a physician with follow-up work by the nurse is resulting in reducing the prevalence of communicable disease among school children, thus improving school attendance and the health of the pupils. The co¬ operation of hospitals and clinics for operative work and dental care is resulting in much corrective work. 6. In many communities the services of a dental hygienist have been employed for prophylactic work. 7. The home economics departments are actively interested in stressing the im¬ portance of serving at least one hot dish to children who need to eat their lunches at the school building, and in teaching the girls personal and community hygiene. Courses in infant care sponsored by the State Bureau are helping girls to become in¬ terested in the importance of the preparation for parenthood thru the care of the infant, and the relation of health of the home and community to the health of the child. 8. Special attention is being given to the importance of a complete physical ex¬ amination of all pupils who actively participate in athletics. 9. Attention is being directed to the great need of developing a program of physi¬ cal exercises and athletics adapted to the needs of the individual, thereby engaging a larger number of pupils in the activity program. 10. A program of athletics modulated to meet the needs of girls, in charge of a woman teacher specially trained for the work, is being strongly recommended and adopted in those communities where finances permit. 11. Where the minimum requirements for the health programs in the school out¬ lined by the State Department of Education are followed, there is a marked increase in school attendance and less retardation. The tuberculin test is being recommended for the early detection of active tuberculosis. 12. Decided improvements are being made in the sanitation of school buildings and surroundings. The Maine Public Health Association is carrying out a very constructive health program in the schools of our state. Some of the most important parts of the program consist of the health habit charts for classroom use, the six and seven point pins, which are awarded for certain attainments, and the better teeth campaign. The health habit chart is so organized as to solicit the active interest of the pupils in selecting and practising daily a certain number of health habits, and recording their own records under the supervision of the teacher. An organization for teamwork is necessary. The health habits selected from the chart are practised for two six-week periods, at the end of which time, the reports are forwarded to the Maine Public Health Association ; and if 90 percent of the pupils qualify, the school is awarded a health habit trophy or seal. In order to qualify for a seven point pin, the pupil must pass a satisfactory test on vision, hearing, throat, teeth, weight, and posture, and file his birth certificate. A six point pin does not require the birth certificate to be filed. The six and seven point pins are changed each year, which requires the pupil to have an annual checkup in order to secure the new pin. The six and seven point pins have been used in the Bangor Schools for the past two years with excellent results. In the year 1931, we had 1241 seven point pupils, and 170 six point pupils. This means that 47 percent of the pupils enroled in the grades so qualified. 112 National Education Association In the bettei teeth campaign, 100 percent certificates are given to class¬ rooms where all pupils have had all dental corrections made, and 50 percent certificates to those classrooms where one-half or more of the pupils have had all dental corrections made. In 1931, fifteen of the Bangor classrooms quali¬ fied for the 100 percent and forty-nine for the 50 percent certificate. This year twenty- five schools qualified for the 100 percent certificate, and forty qualified for the 50 percent certificate. The Red Cross has rendered valuable service in starting and promoting the school health program in our state. Were it not for the efforts of the Red Cross in many towns, the school health program would be materially weakened. The health program in the Bangor Public Schools is administered by two physicians serving partime, two school nurses, serving for a period of forty weeks per year, the city health officer, ex-officio, consulting medical examiner, and the superintendent of schools. Principals, supervisors, and teachers give loyal support to the program. The duties of the medical examiners are to give annual physical examina¬ tions to all pupils enioled in the schools. Additional examinations are given when deemed necessary to keep the schools free from contagious diseases. Special examinations are given to all pupils recommended for the Open Air School. The duties of the school nurses are to assist the medical examiners with the physical examinations by supervising the weighing and measuring of pupils, and recording results of the examinations. They recommend to the medical examiners all children whom they consider eligible for the Open Air School. They do all follow-up work in the health program thru home visitation. With consent of parents or guardians, they supervise the taking of children to oculists, hospitals, and clinics, for treatment. The following medical inspection regulations are in force: 1. All children excluded from school by medical examiners or school nurses must piesent a medical certificate for readmission. 2. Children excluded by teachers for illness are referred as soon as possible to school nurses or medical examiners who determine whether a medical certificate is necessary for reinstatement. 3. Children absent from school two days or more because of personal illness must secure medical certificates for readmission to school. One of the important units in our health program is the Open Air School. 1 his school is in charge of a trained classroom teacher and dietitian, and the health program is directed by the medical staff. To this school are admitted children who are experiencing difficulties in the regular grade school work, due to physical conditions such as malnutrition, contact cases, and other causes. Children are admitted from the third, fourth, and fifth grades, and the school is limited to twenty-five. Parents who have children in the school obligate themselves to observe the rules and regulations governing the child’s home program. The program of the school is from 9 oclock in the morning General Sessions 113 to 3 oclock in the afternoon. During this time the children have school work, a lunch period, dinner, and a rest period. The importance of nutrition is being stressed thruout our entire school system. The school nurses give health talks to children emphasizing the need of proper diet. The milk lunch is served in all grade schools, especially to the undernourished children. In cases where the milk cannot be paid for the parent-teacher associations and clubs are willing to assume this obligation. Mental Hygiene is gradually finding its place in the school curriculum. We are just beginning to give this part of the health program consideration, working in cooperation with the Department of Psychology at the State University. A course of study in nutrition to be taught by the local Red Cross nutrition¬ ist to a class of grade teachers for university credit is under consideration. This class will probably be organized at the opening of the school year in September. Under the direction of the Anti-Tuberculosis Association, a summer school camp was organized a year ago at one of the schools and conducted on much the same plan as the Open Air School. This school received undernourished children who would remain in the city during the summer months. The children for the school were recommended by the school nurses. This school proved so successful that it will be organized this year so as to accommodate more children. A health program to be successful must be understood by the people it serves. Thru the press, the parent-teacher associations, and service clubs, the message of the school health program has been carried to the people of our city. During the year, from twenty to twenty-five pictures of classrooms which have won 100 percent dental honor rolls have appeared in the daily papers. This means that all children in each classroom had all necessary den¬ tal work completed, which was certified to by filing dental certificates. One of the greatest needs of the health program today is the proper in¬ tegration of its parts and a closer coordination with the physical education program. To accomplish this aim, there needs to be well-defined, concerted action on the part of all who are actively interested in the welfare of the child. Regardless of the objectives that may be incorporated into a health pro¬ gram, there is one objective in which all agree and that is, we are training the whole child mentally, physically, and morally. Whatever contributes to mak¬ ing the child physically sound, mentally alert, and morally straight for life’s responsibilities, should be encouraged. BUILDING PERSONALITY IN THE CLASSROOM GARRY CLEVELAND MYERS, HEAD, DEPARTMENT OF PARENT EDUCATION, CLEVELAND COLLEGE, WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY, CLEVELAND, OHIO In the classroom we want to help the pupil learn as effectively as possible, what he is supposed to learn. We also want him to grow likable while he learns, likable to his classmates now, and likable to his everyday associates 114 National Education Association bye and bye. We want to do our best to aid his learning progress, mental health, and personality. We also wish to help each pupil contribute to like progress in every other pupil. But we need to ask ourselves frankly to what degree we prove unwittingly to be stumbling blocks to most effective learning, and to what extent we help unconsciously to destroy wholesome mental health and personality in the pupil, even tho our very ardent purpose is to build them up. When the child of four squarely faces you to tell you something, he, if you are inattentive, will seize you by the ear and hair and turn your face to meet his ey es. Gi ammatically he may not do as well as he will do in the junior high school later, but rhetorically he does much better. He is more eloquent at four than at fourteen. See how at fourteen years of age, he stands to re¬ cite. His shoulders dioop; his neck and spine are limp ; his eyes center on a crevice on the floor, on a spot upon the wall — anywhere but on the eyes of his classmates. He may halt and stammer, back up for a new start, and rarely complete a sentence. His ahs and ands are overworked. His breath is shallow and irregular, his voice weak, his enunciation indistinct. He may not be heard five feet away. Nor is his thinking very clear, since he feels so insecure and uncomfortable. Louder! you call to him. He starts, takes a drowning breath, and speaks a few words to be heard thruout the room, perhaps. If what he had meant to say next has not vanished, his voice dies down almost to a whisper soon, while his teacher s muscles in the region of her diaphragm cut up capers. She believes she has proved a martyr to the cause of patience if she keeps from telling how she feels. In case the pupil pauses for another breath, she tells him curtly to “go on” while the waving hands of the thirty-nine remaining children rise like spears for battle. Are their motives altruistic? Not at all. Never had they been more selfish. “Me, call on me. I hope he fails and fails, that on his body I might rise to glory !” is their attitude. Wouldn’t it be wonderful if children in the classroom could be led far enough from savagery to cease making themselves nuisances while a class¬ mate is attempting to recite ? Gan you imagine any practise more destructive than is this barbarity ? How is a child to learn to think and to express him¬ self courageously with such frightful odds against him ? But the reciting pupil may outwit these antagonists. (Let us call him Percival). Percival may take a running start, and speak so quickly and so rapidly as to offer them no opportunity to intercept. He may have been right as well as rapid. He may, however, have been only rapid, in which case it is a race with the remaining children to dissect and magnify his errors. And how happy is the one who is allowed to do so! Always it is the teacher’s privilege to speak first. She may choose to make a wisecrack then, or even to resort to shame or sarcasm. The other children laugh uproariously. She had meant they should. She had virtually directed them to make fun of their classmate after he had done the best he could. She feels exhilarated. She had made a joke and caused a laugh. But how does Percival, the suffering pupil feel? Only those who have a vivid memory of the times when they General Sessions 115 were in his place, can understand. If Percival’s mistakes or incompleted an¬ swers had finally been corrected or supplied he hardly profited thereby. He was so upset emotionally and so attentive to his feeling, and to what might be said to wound him next, as never to have heard at all the correct re¬ sponse. Hardly has Percival been prepared to think more clearly and to speak with force and ease next time he may be called upon. As he slowly recovers from his suffering he, with the satisfaction, “That is over now,” may stoically accept his fate or await revenge fully the time when he can join in laughter at a classmate in a like predicament. The curious thing is that the inward pain of Percival had proved a pleas¬ ure to the teacher, and the more he suffered, as a rule, the greater had her satisfaction been. However, she had not set out to do the pupil harm ; she probably was very conscientious; she meant to help Percival, no doubt. She uttered the remark that wounded him since it made her feel so good to do so. Her attention had been solely upon her personal pleasure and entirely away from Percival’s discomfiture. Had she not created something? Had she not made the other children laugh ? She certainly had and she knew it. But what she did not know was that she had stabbed Percival with a poisonous tongue, causing a wound from which he may never entirely recover. The hickory stick has almost gone from the classroom but a more dangerous weapon lingers still — the teacher’s venomous tongue. Scars made by it are carried to the grave. Let us not be too hard on that teacher. She was not the first by whom the child was wounded. His loving parents were the first offenders long before he entered school. Even previous to the age of four, Percival had been laughed at by his parents when he attempted to express himself. Where is the parent who has not smiled or laughed aloud at the questions or remarks of an inno¬ cent child who had not meant at all to be funny ? It also is a prevalent indoor sport among parents to laugh with other parents about “sayings of little children, even to indulge in the barbarity of having the young sufferer re¬ peat an awkward statement so that other adults might laugh at him right in his presence. The tendency to laugh at children and to make fun of their unconventional speech is a universal practise back of which is the powerful and insidious, unconscious urge to seek superiority. Nor are children the lone victims. ^ ou and I even laugh at others of our age. Wfien I laugh at your mistakes I tell myself, tell you and all others who may hear, how su¬ perior I am. Such is Mother Nature’s meanness in us. Any person in this audience who has not enjoyed such satisfaction, unawares of course, and any parent or teacher who has never ridiculed a child, is probably too good for this world. Let us recognize this human frailty in ourselves and admit our guilt. Then let us set about to sin less frequently and less flagrantly. But we must not expect too much of ourselves. AVe must not look for miracles when we are attempting self-improvement. Hardly any one of us can hope to rise entirely above this human frailty. Nevertheless we all can improve. Our success will depend on how well we can exercise our self-control and our imagination ; on how well we can put ourselves in the child’s place, see a 116 National Education Association little as he sees, understand a little as he understands, and feel a little as he feels. As we improve in these respects, we are going to help our pupils in the classroom to acquire more poise, feel more at ease when they attempt to think and speak, and therefore, to think more clearly and to speak more comfortably and effectively. Accordingly we are going to prove to each pupil that we have a very high regard for the sacredness of his personality. We shall not, therefore, call, “Louder” to the pupil talking timidly. We shall, instead, work in all sorts of ways for days and weeks and months to relieve his mind and feelings from the fear of shame, sarcasm, and ridicule, cause him to feel it no disgrace to say, “I do not know,” or to make an error in his recitation. We shall help him enjoy more successes, more achieve¬ ments, more victories of calm, courageous statements of what he has to say, without interruption from us or any of his classmates, and with assurance, furthermore, of the helpful sympathy of all. Our picture of Percival when he attempted to recite was a very limited one. Back of his predicament was more than his dread of ridicule. 1 here also was the fear of blame for not knowing or for making a mistake. In the teacher was the lurking feeling that Percival was deliberately try¬ ing her patience, that he should have known and should be sorry for not having answered right, that hers, therefore, was a righteous indignation. This naive emotional attitude is, in the last analysis, a very curious some¬ thing. On its account we cultivate what we call patience, the virtue of sup¬ pressing anger at the mistakes of one we teach without shouting at him, scolding him, or doing something worse. But when Percival is trying to spell February , or divide 385 by 29, or apply a formula in chemistry, and does not do it well, he is not attempting to vex anyone. He, indeed, is angry at him¬ self for failure and already is distraught. For his teacher to grow angry at him is to bully him, is to kick him when he’s down. Yet what teacher of Percival has not occasionally so pestered him? His parents also do at home, and did before he entered school. Teachers are more patient than parents are. Why ? The pupils are not their own children. Witness the rage of parents helping children at homework or at piano prac¬ tise. What person in this audience taught to run a car by another member of his family found that teacher always calm and lovely? Back of anger in such instance is the sense of self-importance. When we are able wholly to control ourselves and put ourselves in the learner’s place, we have no occa¬ sion to suppress our anger at his errors, no need, therefore, to exercise pa¬ tience. We then are patient without thinking that we are. When we think we are really patient we are meanest and most ignorant. In case, however, we are sensible, we take errors out of the pale of morals and put them into the ocean of habits where they belong. We cease to make the child fear to admit ignorance. We let him say, “I don’t know,” without fear of being called a liar, in the form, “Of course you know, think, Percival, think. Without attaching blame, we then calmly show the child the nature of his difficulty and how to overcome it. General Sessions 117 Our human frailties also tempt us to say to the child in learning difficulty, unkind things about his learning lack or personality traits, dubbing him a dumb bell and the like, ridiculing him in conversation overheard, with other teachers. Inhere never was a time when school machinery as such was so highly perfected as now. Our interest in machinery has caused us to lose sight of the individual pupil as a personality with feelings — joys and sorrows, hopes and fears. We have spent so much time at training teachers to teach and test, especially test, that the child has almost been forgotten. Tomorrow we shall cease to teach arithmetic and begin to teach children — real children who are alive. As a part of our fine machinery have come standard tests. From them we have learned a great deal about norms of achievement and we have grown more conscious of definite objectives. Out of this testing movement has come some very definite gains, no doubt. Also have come some losses, some grave losses, to the mental health and personality of pupils, even to the learning progress of some pupils. The teacher has observed that most standard tests have two measures — speed and accuracy. She says to herself, “I’ll fix ’em; I’ll speed ’em up.” And so she does. She turns her teaching to timed testing. She sets her pupils working against the stop watch. So they must study and recite by the watch and by the watch they are supposed to think. How is a child to think under such conditions? Often the classroom is the last place for him to think. If stop watch teaching improved learning efficiency, we might be justified in torturing pupils by timed, drill exercises, and in making them feel they must always hurry. But no one has really proved that hurrying children does increase efficiency. Some data, to the contrary, indicate that working against the watch decreases speed as well as accuracy. Don’t we live in a world of speed? We certainly do. But we have con¬ fused the product with the process. What a child knows accurately he can answer quickly; but to make him try to answer quickly is no way to make him know. The emotional disturbance caused by haste stirs him up emotion¬ ally. The way to make a child slow is to hurry him. The way to make him fast is to lead him to work carefully and slowly. Seek calm and accuracy first and speed inevitably will follow. Most educational experts disagree with me, since nearly all of them are speed propagandists ; but parents don’t. Let any¬ one discuss this matter with an average group of fathers and mothers if he doubts what parents think about the matter. Bye and bye when we shall have overcrowded the waiting rooms of the neuro-psychiatrists, and there is no place at the inns for the insane, parents will rise up and command us to cease with this damnable school practise. “Dynamite the stop watch,” they will say. “Save our children from the curse of speed.” Stop-watch drills will be barred from the classroom as belonging to bar¬ barity. Whereas those textbooks which today have speed drills on almost every other page, are best sellers, they tomorrow will be relegated to the 118 National Education Association scrap heap. Two hundred years from now they will appear as curios in the museum along side the torturing devices of the inquisitions. There is a gleam of hope ahead. The child guidance clinic is calling our attention to the myriad factors in the school success and conduct of the child ; the visiting teacher is making us more keenly interested in the home and neighborhood as a background of the child’s behavior ; and the parent- teacher association is showing the home and school how to cooperate in the interest of the child. Teachers are becoming active members of the P. T. A. with a view to learn about the home life of the pupils and become acquainted with their parents. The question-answer recitation is slowly giving place to self-directed school activity, individual instruction, and motivated learning by small groups. Creative interests are increasing in the classroom, even in the senior high school. Department barriers here and there are breaking down and dramatic work and extra-curriculum activities of all sorts are affording wide oppor¬ tunity for self-expression, and for giving others pleasure. Creation and in¬ vention, self-directed group activities, or individual instruction preclude the stop watch. Creative work, moreover, by its very nature, relieves pupils from the usual strain of formal speed activity. Better days are coming, but their coming is a little too slow to please some of us. POSSIBILITIES OF VISUAL-SENSORY AIDS IN EDUCATION C. F. HOBAN, PRESIDENT, N. E. A. DEPARTMENT OF VISUAL EDUCATION ; AND STATE DIRECTOR OF VISUAL EDUCATION, PENNSYLVANIA DEPART¬ MENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, HARRISBURG, PA. As a preliminary to this discussion, I quote from the report of Henry S. Pritchett’s Vocabulary Test which shows that the average college senior knows but sixty-one out of one hundred words in familiar use by educated people; and in connection with Doctor Pritchett’s report, the comment of one of the many newspapers that printed an analysis of his findings — “We are unable to think of any argument,” says the Milwaukee Sentinel “that releases college education from the responsibility of at least providing its dis¬ ciples with a sufficient vocabulary to converse with men and women of ordi¬ nary culture.” I have tried groups on words from the elementary curriculum such as malt, skewer, latex, Nokomis, travois, and found that some of the words were absolutely without meaning to those questioned, and others only super¬ ficially known. The cure for verbalism, in my judgment, lies in the effective use of visual- sensory aids both in the instructional and learning processes. But the effec¬ tive use of visual-sensory aids in instruction requires preparation on the part of teachers, so that they may know these tools of teaching, where to get them, and how to use them ; and the responsibility for this knowledge and this technic rests on the shoulders of the teacher-training institutions of the country. General Sessions 119 As comprehended in modern instructional and learning procedures, visual- sensory aids are those concerned with the visual, auditory, and tactile senses. All visual-sensory aids are included in the following types: apparatus and equipment, school journeys or field trips, objects-specimens-models, pictorial materials (flats, stereographs, slides, film-slides, films), and the miscellaneous group such as dramatization, exhibit, and pageant. The values of visual-sensory aids in the instructional and learning proc¬ esses have been definitely established thru scientific investigation. During the past year, it has been my privilege to have had close contact with a research student from Duke University who made a critical analysis of all known experimental studies in the field of visual education. Every major experiment in this and foreign countries, and all of those in the graduate schools of the United States — a total of more than one hundred — were thoroly studied. The analysis revealed reliable testimony that the proper use of visual-sensory material increases initial learning, effects an economy of time in learning, increases permanence of learning, aids in teaching back¬ ward children, motivates learning by increasing interest, attention, self¬ activity, voluntary reading, and classroom participation. The frequency of these outcomes — which range from not fewer than three to more than twenty — is eloquent testimony of the possibilities of visual- sensory aids in education ; and right here is a challenge to every superintend¬ ent and supervising official in this country. Instruction in the schools of our country can be improved by teacher preparation in these technics and atten¬ tion to the use of these materials on the part of supervisory officers. No school official will deny that apparatus and equipment are essential classroom tools, and that teachers should know the minimum amount of standard equipment and apparatus necessary for satisfactory outcomes in the respective subjects and school activities. This knowledge is very impor¬ tant from the economic and professional viewpoints. The school journey or field trip is a rich and valuable medium for instruc¬ tion and learning. Grinstead, as a result of the outcomes of his experimental studies, gives the following illuminating conclusions. Properly conducted school journeys should : 1. Bring about an increased interest in school work and a sustained interest in the topic studied. 2. Assist the pupil’s comprehension. 3. Clarify principles. 4. Help children to organize their knowledge. 5. Develop constructive thinking. 6. Stimulate interest in natural and man-made things and situations. 7. Help pupils to find themselves. 8. Constitute a cooperative enterprise. 9. Blend school life with the outside world. 10. Enable or compel a teacher to conduct a more logical and orderly recitation. Reports from education departments in foreign countries sustain these conclusions. Great Britain, progressive European countries, and Japan make 120 National Education Association the school journey central in their educational procedure. Local journeys are a definite part of their school schedule. Long journeys are encouraged in England, Germany, Sweden, Italy, Czecho-Slovakia. Two cities in this last progressive republic— Prague and Brno— have specially built buses to take ciippled children on educational trips. The Japan Department of Education reports that local school journeys are used regularly by elementary and sec¬ ondary schools. Longer or distant journeys are made at least once and some¬ times twice a year. Equally valuable and closely related to school journeys and field trips is the effective use of objects-specimens-models and museum lessons. More than a half dozen of the experiments examined testify to the worth of this type of visual aid and the museum as an asset to school work. Especially significant is the extent to which the group of lowest mentality children profit thru the use of object-specimen-model materials and visits to museums. Objects-specimens-models provide realistic and concrete elements. They en¬ able pupils to see and handle materials which are being discussed, thus re¬ vealing such characteristics as three dimensions, coloring, weight, and texture. By object is meant the thing itself; specimen means a part of the thing as for example, a piece of coal, wood, clothing; model, a replica or representation in miniature. Museums have a wealth of material that, if used, will enrich and vitalize subjectmatter. Closer cooperation between school people and museum offi¬ cials will make these materials available to schools in the areas served. There is a growing feeling that schools should have their own collections of object- specimen-model materials and they can be assembled and made useful to practically every subject in the curriculum. There are limitless opportunities in this respect in the fields of geography, history, and science. Again I would expect teachers to know the sources of these materials, how to assemble and house them, and an effective technic for their use when occasion demands. No comment is necessary regarding the values of pictorial materials since they are so wellknown and so widely used. I strongly suggest that the school people of the country become familiar with the twenty or more experiments that have been conducted with stereographs, slides, and films. Pictures tell a story more graphically and tersely than words. They bring the world and its activities to the child. In my work with school groups, I find few teachers who are in possession of definite standards for evaluating pictorial materials. To use pictorial materials effectively in instruction requires that teachers know standards of evaluation, guiding principles for their use, their adap¬ tation and relationship to the curriculum, and when and how to use them. Untold damage has resulted thru a lack of this knowledge. It is highly proper at this point to suggest that the greatest guiding principle for the use of visual- sensory materials is that of justification. This principle should be impressed vividly upon the mind of every person engaged in the instruction of children. Radio-vision belongs to the visual-sensory field. Its development thus far has been very interesting. I am referring particularly to what has been accom- General Sessions 121 plished in the fields of geography, history, literature, mathematics, music, and science. From the standpoint of enriching, vitalizing, and improving the quality of instruction, the possibilities of visual-sensory aids are very great. The achieve¬ ment of these possibilities rests entirely with the teacher-training institutions and the school supervisory officers of our country. As I approach the conclusion of this discussion, I call the attention of the presidents of the teacher-training institutions and the superintendents of schools of the country to the following four declarations made in Washing¬ ton in February when the National Academy of Visual Instruction and the Department of Visual Instruction of the National Education Association were merged : 1. Experimental studies, research, and surveys have revealed definite and im¬ portant values for visual-sensory aids. 2. A knowledge of these visual-sensory aids and a technic for their use require special preparation. 3. The contribution that visual-sensory aids make to improved instruction justifies a requirement that every teacher in training in the public schools of the United States take a laboratory course in visual-sensory aids. 4. Some means should be developed to train teachers in service in this course. These are sound constructive declarations. The consensus of opinion of students of this subject is that combination visual-sensory aids courses — visual aids in history, visual aids in science are a great mistake since such a procedure results in much confusion and duplication of effort. The feeling prevails that the core of the curriculum of a visual-sensory aids course should consist of the following elements common to practically all subjects: re¬ search, historical background, psychological aspects and verbalism, project¬ ors and projection, school journeys, objects-specimens-models and museum procedure, pictorial materials, photography — still and motion picture camera technics, blackboard and bulletin-board technic, administering and budget¬ ing visual materials, radio-vision, bibliography. I am absolutely in accord with this thought. I believe this core material should be the initial course in visual-sensory aids and that it should be man¬ datory. Surely no educator would defend these common elements and tech¬ nics in art, English, geography, health, history, mathematics, music, and science. It is my firm conviction that next to educational psychology, this visual-sensory aids course possesses greater values, from the instructional and learning viewpoints, than any other professional course in education. It may be of interest to the National Education Association members to know that Pennsylvania State Teachers Colleges require such a course from every person preparing to teach in the schools of the state. Pennsylvania’s Superintendent of Public Instruction is an enthusiastic believer in the possi¬ bilities of visual-sensory aids. I commend his viewpoint to the other state superintendents of the country. Pennsylvania’s Board of Teacher College Presidents has made this course mandatory in all of the state-owned teacher- 122 National Education Association preparation institutions of our Commonwealth. I commend their action to the teacher-college presidents of the country. I he slogan of this meeting is “Looking Ahead in Education.” Since the values of visual-sensory aids have been revealed a wider use of school jour¬ neys and of objects-specimens-models in instructional procedures has been commended to the teachers of our country. May I venture the prediction that if a course in visual-sensory aids be made mandatory on the part of every person preparing to teach in the schools of the nation, if superintend¬ ents of schools will encourage teachers in service to take such a course — either in extension or at summer schools — and if visual-sensory aids be used effectively in the school rooms of America, the next ten years will witness one of the greatest contributions to the improvement of instruction that has ever been made in the history of our country. SAFEGUARDING OUR RURAL SCHOOLS MRS. INEZ JOHNSON LEWIS, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, DENVER, COLO. There is a wide spread between the poorest and the best schools in the United States. In the integrated picture of American education the rural child is not getting an even break. In a just plan for human welfare there can be no discrepancy in the chances for an education of all the children of all the people. Inequalities between rural and urban education, if continued, will undermine the prosperity and the stability of a free government. The educational forces of our country must lead the way in making for an understanding and a sympathetic attitude toward the entire rural situation. Ours is a tremendous responsibility. The decline of agriculture and an impoverished rural life in any nation portend disaster for that nation. A happy, economically free country life must at all cost be sustained if this country is to maintain the place that it has won among nations. There must come into being a fair plan of taxation for the support of the rural school. Our country has a twofold problem. It is mandatory that the efficiency of the rural school be increased at a reduced cost to the local com¬ munity. While those responsible in government are meeting the challenge of equalization in the way of efficiency and cost, the educator has much to do. First, and most important of all, the school must train the rural child to live with his fellows. In a large measure rural education should not be different from general education in its social aspect. A broad experience is needed for rural people and rural communities to maintain their rights in governmental affairs. Heretofore the farmer has been a producer only. In the future he must be¬ come a business man, as well as a producer. The latter entails a different sort of education which concerns itself with the duties of citizenship and a knowledge of the business world. The farmer has a right to knowledge which protects his economic welfare. General Sessions 123 I plead then for an enriched curriculum for the country schools. It is thru an enriched program that we will be able to dignify and beautify country life. I plead for a set-up in every local school that will remove the inferiority complex in country places. 1 he rural child must be steeped in the idea of his importance to the social and economic world. The future farmer must have some knowledge of eco¬ nomic laws. Therefore a simplified course in economics must occupy a place in country high schools. Country life must not be barren of culture. “Not by bread alone doth man live.” The fine arts will portray the beauty of country life. Let us have more of literature, art, and music. These are not frills; they are essentials. Any¬ thing that makes for happiness, large vision, and contentment should not be classified as frills. I plead for a song festival in every county and a rural choir in every state. Music has a socializing and harmonizing influence. Every child should know the joy of song. Experience in the rural choir and song festival will make for happiness, poise, and freedom of spirit. Let the school meet the recreational needs of the country community. The machine saves the time and the backs of men and women who work with the soil. Labor-saving machines, easy and comfortable transportation make recreation possible. The automobile and good roads eliminate isolation. The old isolation often proved deadening and ravaging. There must be larger areas of administrative units. Large numbers in attendence at country schools make for social contacts which are necessary mental and social stimuli. A social group should be large enough to make it possible to teach cooperative effort among our future country citizens. The small rural school with its very small attendance and barren curric- ulums made citizens individualistic much to the detriment of the efficiency and happiness of rural life. Let us properly evaluate those features which still enrich American life and which, if preserved, will sustain our national life thru challenging pe¬ riods of our existence. This nation owes an unmeasured debt to the American farm home. Aside from providing food for the people, it has yielded price¬ less gifts in the realm of ideals. The American farm home is still sending sons and daughters out into the world who know how to work. They have habits of industry. It is in the ^ farm home in America today where children are still learning a sense of per¬ sonal responsibility. It is in the farm home that we still see undisturbed the picture of the home circle where father, mother, and children work out their problems of life together. The child from the country areas is entitled to an education comparable to that of the urban child, not only for his own sake, but for the sake of the nation. If the industrial and business w^orld senses its duty and fully comprehends the interdependence of rural education and the social and economic stability of the nation, it will lend great effort to shield the rural school from the effects of the present depression. Education is prosperity’s greatest ally. Edu- 124 National Education Association cation is the greatest hope for evolving a plan of human welfare and security. In our complex society, with its interdependence of group upon group, the farmer who feeds the world is the most important part of the whole. Rural education, then, supported by a just and fair system of taxation and providing for the vocational, cultural, and spiritual needs of country exist¬ ence, will in a large measure lead to America’s economic and social salvation. HOSTAGES TO THE FUTURE WILLIAM C. COOK, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CHARLESTON, W. VA. In the very bivouac of our national life, the educators of America have met in solemn council. There is but one thought in the mind of this vast throng of educators and that is, “How can education meet the challenge of democracy in the present situation in the light of the presentday needs of society?” We stand today in the position of hostages to the future. We are the pledge given to society that the children of this generation will be de¬ veloped into useful citizens of tomorrow. The nation has entrusted us with this grave responsibility. If we should fail to discharge our duty at this crucial time, we deserve to meet the fate that awaits any hostage in times of bitter warfare. There are living today within these United States 36,000,000 boys and girls of school age. Close to 30,000,000 of this number are actually enroled in our public and private schools. This is indeed a vast army, and it is at least, one army that dare not be unemployed. Directing and guiding the lives of this restless multitude is another army of more than one million teachers. In addition to these pupils and teachers of elementary and secondary grade, there are 1260 institutions of higher learning, in which are enroled more than 900,000 college students preparing to enter the various professions of life. One cannot review these facts without being impressed with the magni¬ tude of the task that lies before us. Even in normal times, the responsibility of directing the work of education demands capable leadership ; but in this hour of unparalleled economic stress, it is a challenge that calls forth true patriots and if need be, martyrs, for the protection of the future citizens of this republic. In the struggle to maintain our presentday existence, both private and public enterprises are being forced to utilize every available recourse. Vast reserves have been depleted. Legacies have been exhausted. Private and public savings have been sacrificed in order to meet the demands of the moment. Economies have been effected that have forestalled the continuance of many a worthy enterprise. Education is threatened with curtailments that threaten its future development. We need to bear in mind that nations like individuals cannot spend their patrimonies without endangering their perpetuity. The greatest safeguard to any democratic form of government is educa¬ tion. It is only thru education that the problems of taxation, economics, crime, General Sessions 125 and prohibition can be effectively and successfully solved. Unless the educa¬ tional system of this country is able to train the youth of America to cope with these vital matters, the future of our nation is uncertain. Our failure to recognize and combat in militant fashion, the hostile forces that seek to impair and destroy education means that we perish and civilization fails. We are bound to make whatever adjustment is necessary in order to make available educational opportunity to every boy and girl thruout the length and breadth of this land. Democracy is on trial just now, and it is a question whether or not under our present agencies and institutions and conceptions of govern¬ ment, we can meet the impending disaster. It is an open question to be answered by the educational leadership of America as to whether or not we have vision enough to see things in their true perspective. Do we see the im¬ portance of protecting the intellectual and spiritual resources of our youth? Do we have the courage to demand that the lives of our children be developed to their full capacity? If not, we are disloyal to the trust that is imposed on us and we are unworthy to be hostages to the future. The big thing ahead of all school administrators just now is the reshaping and redirecting of our state educational systems. Education is primarily a state function. This fact has not been generally recognized. The greatest single weakness in educational administration is the failure on the part of the several states to assume the responsibility of providing revenues for edu¬ cation. Altho many states, in fact most of the states, admit in their constitu¬ tions that the state is obligated to do this, yet in practise, they have delegated this authority and responsibility to local units of government. It would seem that at a time when the nation feels called upon to vote billions of dollars for the relief of less fortunate areas of the United States, that the separate states would recognize their obligation to help the less favored counties and districts in their efforts to provide education. A few states have taken this attitude; but so long as the states, taken as a whole, supply less than one-sixth of the school revenue, it cannot be said that they have assumed this responsibility. Unless the state recognizes and discharges this obligation to its growing citizens, it must assume the responsibility for the impairment of its educational system and the ultimate breakdown of civilization. Never in the history of our nation was there greater need for fearless states¬ men. In times of crises nations turn to education for the solution of their perplexing problems. Today, America is looking to the educational states¬ men here assembled to lead her out of the shadow of doubt and depression, into the sunlight of faith and prosperity. I need not say to you that this requires sane, aggressive, and even militant leadership on the part of all governmental and educational agencies. It is not the task of any single person or any group of persons but the solemn duty of all. The business interests of the country must realize that “Educa¬ tion is,” as President Hoover said, “our only indispensable business.” And we have no other alternative than to stand fast for those things that will most surely guarantee our nation’s future. 126 National Education Association It is inconceivable to think that the problems of the future will be any less difficult to solve than the problems of the past. Is it illogical to assume that oui futuie citizens will be able to grapple with these problems with less education than the citizens of yesterday or today ? I am pleading with the educators of today and with all educational and governmental officials who, in any way, control the destiny of education, to demand for the youth the type of training that will enable them to overcome the difficulties that arise from the inevitable reorganization of this country, and to find intelligent and peaceful solution to the complicated problems that arise in a complex society. In this way, and in this way only, can we prove ourselves worthy hostages to the future. SETH PARKER AND RADIO MRS. SOPHIA MECORNEY LORD (MRS. SETH PARKER), NEW YORK, N. Y. Mr. Lord started his dramatic work by giving programs for entertainment only. Soon he felt that these programs were burlesque and did not truly depict characters he knew. He felt there was something lovable and sincere and far more fundamental than these programs he was giving. So he decided to try to write radio programs and give up magazine work for a while. He tried to develop a program — it wasn’t the program as you know it — which we gave on Sunday nights. It was an old-fashioned singing school program, which would be developed around Father and Mother Parker. He brought the village characters into these programs, too, thus bringing in the humor. The first programs were singing old-time songs rather than hymns. We weren’t very successful at first in getting in on the larger broadcasting sta¬ tions. Four years ago we put a program on for a period of ten weeks, over a small New 'Vork station. I think it was probably the hottest summer New ^ 01 k had ever known. We had to have a drink of water between songs to keep from passing out between the numbers on the program. Finally it attracted enough attention so that it was put on by the National Broadcast¬ 's Company more as a singing school, but still as a Sunday night perform¬ ance. It grew from an experiment into what has been called a national institution. I thought you might be interested in hearing some of the fan mail we get. It never ceases to be interesting to us to read it thru because it is from our fan mail we learn the different types of people who listen to us ; and we have learned there are thousands of people in all parts of the United States and Canada who listen to us every Sunday night — all classes and types of people. We find among our listeners wealthy people and very poor people. There are men in state prisons, some of them there for life, who listen every Sunday night; there are soldiers in government hospitals in various parts of the country , there are miners under the ground who listen to us; and, of course, old people all over the country in the old people’s homes. Then there are just ordinary people like the rest of us who listen and love the program be¬ cause it probably brings back memories of their childhood, or memories General Sessions 127 they have heard their mothers and fathers tell about. Some of the letters that come I can’t read to you because they are so intimate it would be a sacrilege to read them in public, but I have gone thru and picked out a few I think are fairly typical of the letters that come to us each week, coming in usually Monday, Tuesday, or Wednesday after people have listened to our program. I will read you a few of them. Seth Parker Dear Sir: This Sunday night your service found its way into this apartment, which is, in truth, just a bootlegging place, and altho it was at first unwelcome, it did a few of us some good, myself especially. I’ll say that it did wonderful good. This is a good ways from “Maine,” or wherever it came from, but it isn’t as far as I have traveled, and on a devious route besides. And such a service I’ve never had a chance to hear. I m writing immediately before my enthusiasm wears off, but it won’t wear entirely off. I think next Sunday I’ll hear it again, if I am near a radio. Just “San Francisco” This one comes from an official in one of the district courts of Colorado: Considering my anti-churchgoing proclivities, it may amaze you that I am even interested. However, there is something so human and at the same time so far re¬ moved from the “holier than thou” factor in Seth Parker and his companions that I am forced to make an admission. No matter where we go on Sundays we see that we are tuned in at Jonesport in the evening, even tho it be necessary to go home to get the connection. The wife may go to church in the morning while I play golf, but both of us are part of the Seth Parker meetings. This one says : Two moderns we are, college graduates, and criticized because we desire to in¬ terpret religion in the light of our knowledge. Yet, without fail, we tune in Sunday evenings to be one with you all. We wonder can you feel the unity and peace that your half hour brings? In the minutes that you enrich with your program, two moderns become quiet and worshipful. This one is a little different: Mr. Seth Parker: I do not know anything about you except what I hear of you over the radio. Now I have a story to tell you. Me and my wife have listened to your services for a long time and always enjoyed them. We sat together in front of the set, me holding the boy and her the little one. Well, week before last she suddenly died of pneumonia. I didn’t hear your service last Sunday, but tonight I did, only this time I held both the kids and I just drug up the chair where she sat. I never wrote to no radio people before, but I thought if I got this off my chest I would feel better and I thought you was the only one I knew who would understand how I feel about it. Probably you won’t even see this letter, but if you do I just wanted to tell you I am going to be mother and father to my kids. I got a little garage business, so I don’t need to worry that way. I am going to bring up those kids right, and that is a promise. 128 National Education Association This one again is from some young people : We first heard you in Washington, D. C., last June when visiting a navy friend of mine. I was amazed at the time to know that those gay young folks, dancing or playing bridge on Sunday evening, would stop to listen to you and to see how deeply they were impressed. This one was written after a Mother’s Day program. It was the rather recent program. I don’t know whether you know anything about it or not ; but in it we had a telephone conversation, presumably from a boy in San Francisco and his mother in Jonesport, Maine. It is a fact that after that program hundreds of sons called up their mothers. We had at least sixty letters come in from mothers telling us that sons they hadn’t heard from in years had called them. This is one of them : Let me tell you how my prayer for my long lost and indifferent son was answered Mother’s Day thru your broadcast and the collection story. When they sang, “For I love him, he knows,” my heart went out in prayer for my boy, I knew not where. In less than 20 minutes the telephone rang — long distance from Chicago — the “hello” revealed the answer to my prayer, and I spoke his name, and he said, “Yes, dear.” I asked: “Did you listen to Seth Parker tonight?” He said: “Yes.” Oh, it was so good to hear his voice again — nearly three years now . . . Then the last one I have here is a particularly pathetic one. It is about a girl who ran away, met with unfortunate experiences, became ill, and went to a little town where she knew no one to die. A very kind-hearted landlady took her in and was quite kind to her, and it was from this landlady we received the letter. In the first part of it she tells how the girl came to her and how ill she was. Then she went on : I felt I could not help her, as I have always feared death myself. She would not see a minister or anyone who would talk religion to her. She had a radio in her room, and I asked her if she had ever heard Seth Parker. She said, no, and she would not hear you because you were a preacher. I told her how nice your hour always is, and finally she said she would try it the next time. After that I was away and did not see her for some weeks. When I finally did see her, Mr. Parker, I found her entirely changed. Her heart had melted, and she was no longer afraid. Speaking of you, she said: “The second time I heard them, they sang, ‘I am praying for you,’ and I felt it meant me. And now when they have the silent prayer, I always feel it is partly for me.” This morning I went to see her. She could only whisper about the hymns you sang last night — “Safe in the Arms of Jesus” and “Happy Day, When Jesus Washed My Sins Away” — and she asked if somebody could sing them at her funeral. She said she had a little money left and wanted to send it to Seth Parker to do good with. She took it from her bag under her pillow and handed it to me, which I enclose. Just now I had a telephone message saying she had died. The last thing she said was: “Bless Seth Parker — I am not afraid now.” Tomorrow I have two girls who will sing the two hymns at the house, and then she will be taken to her childhood home. I know you have many letters and may never read this one, but she wanted you to know. General Sessions 129 THE MOST FOR YOUR MONEY HONORABLE EDITH NOURSE ROGERS, MEMBER OF CONGRESS FROM MASSACHUSETTS The average American citizen upholds a high standard of honesty in busi¬ ness, and a commendable respect for ownership of property and money, but there are thousands of people who assume financial obligations that common sense should tell them they can never fulfill. Under the pressure of high- powered salesmanship the citizen with low resistance to temptation yields to his inclination to outdo the Joneses and his other neighbors in possessions until his financial status is hopeless. The rapid rate of economic progress in this country has earned the ap¬ plause of the whole world. American citizens are very proud of their wealth and business power. That all good things might be “bigger and better” is a wellknown American ideal. However, the very spirit which prompts us to strive for distinction in the grandeur of material things in this country is now a cause of much tribulation. It is really pathetic to see those thousands of bonus marchers in Wash¬ ington, men who have come there thinking Uncle Sam will take care of them ; men who, if they had saved their money during prosperous times would probably have had enough to tide them over this difficult period. If they only had managed their money properly, they would realize that the federal government cannot possibly pay them over two billion dollars. It is very tragic to see them, your heart aches for them. I was in the Senate when the Senators were voting against the bonus. You could hear thru the Senate walls the voices of those thousands of men — it seemed as if they were mock¬ ing the Senators, but they proved to be cheering them. They sang “America,” and that is the sort of citizens those men are. The tragedy of it all is that they came to Washington without understanding; they knew nothing of money matters ; they knew nothing of budgeting. We are paying dearly for our too pretentious ambitions. We have trained ourselves to acquire wealth rapidly, but have often allowed ourselves to expend it foolishly. The schools have contributed much toward the development of worthy ideals of citizenship. I cannot for one instant feel our school system has been a failure. It can be reconstructed, perhaps, in some respects; it can be im¬ proved ; but I won’t admit for a second that there is anything like failure in our American school system. The schools can contribute still further in a very definite way in the present crisis by training children in the wise use of money. Most citizens could not be induced to steal money, thanks to our ideals of honesty ; but they do not pay their bills — bills which they have assumed far beyond their ability to pay, and they are stealing from the shopkeeper just as surely as if they were stealing from the cash register. The public has felt for so long it could buy things on the instalment plan, thinking they would have a better job, better salary just around the corner. Unfortunately just 130 National Education Association around the corner meant the down-grade of prosperity instead of the up-grade. Personal budgeting of expenses should be practised by every individual from his earliest years. The schools owe everyone an opportunity to develop a scientific and practical method of budget making. Let the schools make our children budget conscious and budget conscientious. The present financial breakdown is a stop light in the highway to national bankruptcy. For passing a red light on the lane to prosperity we always pay. Thousands of American citizens would have been able to tide over the depres¬ sion in comfort if they had spent their inflated war earnings in accordance with sound principles. Our nation is entering upon a new phase of its economic existence. The easy road to wealth thru the exploitation of extensive natural resources has been blocked. There is no more land to acquire for an insignificant sum. Our free forests are owned. Our mineral wealth has been tapped. From now on our economic progress must be attained thru the development of personal skill and ability to render needed service. The first requisite to success in this new era will be the conservation of monetary rewards for this service. While increasing the capacity of youth to earn thru the development of increased vocational skill, the schools must develop a respect for the incomes earned thru this increased capacity to serve. It has always seemed to me unfair to teach our children how to earn money and then do practically nothing toward teaching them how to spend that money; how to distribute that money. In some of the schools, of course, they teach banking, to a certain extent teach children to save, but they don’t teach the children to give; they don’t teach the children how to distribute what they have. You should teach children that it is just as patriotic to protect the American dollar as it was to buy Liberty Bonds during the war. The efforts of the schools should be supplemented by a nationwide movement at this time to enlist all adults in the effort to stabilize values. We do want to protect our American dollar. We do not want to throw off the gold standard. If we protect our dollar, we are not going off the gold standard, and every one of us has got to think. We have got to realize that there is a definite relation between budgetary planning for individual citizens and budgetary planning for the nation. Individuals who have learned to save money for themselves will be slow to countenance profligate spending by public officials. Members of Congress are now flooded with letters from their constituents urging the appropriation of huge sums for every conceivable purpose. Some of these purposes are self¬ ish. Some voters are perfectly sincere in suggesting a purpose that they think would help the country ; but how we can save the taxes you and I pay, how we can balance the budget and, in the same breath, make some huge appropria¬ tion for developments that will help only the limited few is beyond my com¬ prehension ; and I know it is beyond your comprehension. General Sessions 131 By the way, the postoffice tells me people plan not to send any more letters because they will have to pay three cents. People are planning to pay their bills, not by check, but by drawing a lump sum and then paying out of that money. Of course after a month or two months time people will become some¬ what accustomed to the tax and they won’t like not to write their girls just the same, and they are going to write to the fathers and mothers, so they are just going to write letters as usual. Perhaps it is just as well we should be taxed. We are going to find government money is our money and that we pay the bills for every single government expenditure. We want that govern¬ ment money wisely distributed, wisely spent. We want to learn not to squander our own money in order that public officials will not squander the money that we put into the federal government. The French have more nearly returned to normal conditions than the people of any other country. They have been able to do this because they realized the value of the sou or the value of the penny. I remember that in my childhood a few pennies meant a fortune to me, and I used to think how I could get the most out of those few pennies. I was buying a newspaper the other day and I didn’t want the pennies back. I said to the girl, “I don’t want the pennies.” She looked at me and smiled and replied, “Nobody values pennies any more, not even the children.” If America is to return to a period of material prosperity, it will be only thru the efforts of its citizens individually and collectively to guide their spending wisely. If, out of the present economic crisis, we can find ways and means to improve existing conditions and to avoid their recurrence, the experience nationally and individually will not have been in vain. It does seem pretty hard, however, that people should have to suffer, to my mind entirely unnecessarily, because in the schools in their youth they were not taught the value of the penny. They were not taught to protect the dollar by watching the pennies and by distributing those pennies. I think everyone in Massachusetts has great pride in the fact that from the fifth grade thru the entire school system the Brookline schools have, for the last four years, taught money management — time and money manage¬ ment or budgeting. I don’t know how many of you know of that system. To my mind it is the best I have heard of thus far because it is the simplest. It is so simple even a child can understand it — apparently the children love it. I have letters written by the children to me; letters from the children who graduated from the school. They tell me they find it invaluable in after life. To my mind everything possible ought to be done to help our teachers. You know even better than I do that you are responsible for the welfare and for the character of an entire nation. It is your boys and your girls who will go out into the world to make good citizens, or fair citizens, or poor citizens. Of course, inheritance, home environment does much; but you have it in your power to take those children for a certain number of hours out of their unfortunate environment, surround them with interest, enthusiasm — and the children have so much of it if they are only properly led. Because you have 132 National Education Association the entire nation and the future of the nation in your hands, I am anxious that you should teach them wise money management. The use of money is the having of the necessities of life, the food and clothing and the rent ; the giving, which means the giving to the churches, the giving to the charities, and the caring to help other people; and then the spending, perhaps for the movies, for some little luxury they may want; and then the taking out of insurance, the taking out of annuities to protect the teachers for a happy older life in order that when they may retire they may feel secure and that they may live on at peace and in comfort I feel so strongly for the teachers, for the children, for the parents, for this entire nation. We are going to be a stronger nation I know. It is probably better for those of us that aren’t actually suffering to have to face the facts and to learn what Calvin Coolidge said he believed in : “Thrift, not to save money but to save lives.” THE FIGHT FOR THE RIGHTS OF CHILDREN IN THE PERIOD OF DEPRESSION GEORGE DRAYTON STRAYER, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. It is appropriate that the members of our profession lead in the fight to protect the rights of children during the period of the depression. We are concerned, as are all who wish well for our society, with the protection of children from hunger and disease, from unwholesome physical surroundings, and from social and moral hazards. But while we cooperate with others in these provisions that make for the general welfare of children, we have the peculiar obligation to fight for the continuance of an efficient educational service. We, more than those of any other group, have a responsibility for the maintenance of a system of public education which, as proposed by the White House Conference on Child Health and Protection, seeks to pre¬ pare children for life thru the discovery and development of their individual abilities and thru training and vocational guidance to prepare them for a liv¬ ing which will yield the maximum of satisfaction. The progress of public education, particularly during the period of the past twenty-five years, has moved in the direction of this ideal. We have sought to secure the regular attendance of boys and girls in our schools until fourteen years of age, and in some communities until sixteen or even eighteen years of age. We have provided in kindergarten and elementary schools a variety of opportunity suited to the needs and capacities of individual boys and girls. We have developed the junior high school, with its “broad¬ ening and finding” courses, and the guidance service which contributes to the successful achievement of all boys and girls during the period of early adolescence. We have extended greatly the opportunity for secondary edu¬ cation. For a majority of those enroled in these schools there has been a choice of subjects and of curriculums adapted to their abilities and voca¬ tional outlook. Higher education has been provided more generously for General Sessions 133 the people of ambition and superior intelligence. In all departments of the school system we have recognized the necessity for physical education and health teaching. We have made available more significant opportunities in the fine and industrial arts and in home economics. Special provision has been made for those who are handicapped. These great gains have involved an increase in the expenditures for public education from less than $500,- 000,000 in 1910 to approximately $2,300,000,000 in 1930. It is proposed that our program has been over-expanded. There are those who believe that we must retrench not merely by securing a maximum of service for every dollar spent, but by withdrawing from the educational program many of the opportunities which have been developed during this generation. It is seriously proposed that we cannot afford the program of education already established. Evidence of the denial of educational opportunity is easy to find. In cities and in rural areas school terms have been shortened. In some cases, par¬ ticularly in the rural areas, the term has been made so short as to amount to a denial of any significant opportunity. Schools for the most part, even under the best conditions, have been less adequate for rural children than for their city brothers and sisters. Teachers in these schools have never been as well prepared. The buildings and equipment have been less adequate, and the adaptation of the needs of individual children, particularly those who are seri¬ ously handicapped, has been less sure than in urban areas. During the current year in many rural areas the very meager opportunity which was formerly available to boys and girls has been still further limited. But even in our more favored communities, children are being denied many of the opportunities fundamental to their highest development and to the welfare of society. Opportunities for ambitious boys and girls in night schools have been denied with the closing of this part of the school system. Significant training for those who have left school to go to work provided by continuation schools has been omitted from the program. The provision of adult education which was just getting under way has been dropped. Even in urban areas the school term has been shortened in order to balance the budget. At the same time, according to the data collected by the Research Division of the National Education Association, in 182 cities new buildings which are needed have been postponed. In 173 cities there has been marked retrenchment in the purchase of textbooks and supplementary books. In 80 cities there has been a reduction in the number of supervisors ; in 42 cities a reduction in the night school offering; and in 40 cities less provision for music. The restriction of the school program is a serious matter. The supposi¬ tion that adequate education can be provided if only the traditional school subjects be taught is contrary to the facts which are wellknown to those who work with boys and girls. The opportunity in music or art for some children is of vastly greater importance than the provision in the three R s. T. he chance to work in laboratory or shop may mean the difference be¬ tween success and failure for children who get their greatest satisfaction out 134 National Education Association of working with materials rather than with symbols. The later physical wellbeing and economic productiveness of the individual may be depend¬ ent upon a generous program of physical education and health service. With all of the progress that has been made in the United States during the past generation, there are still tens of thousands of handicapped boys and girls for whom no special provision is made. We have learned how to provide significant education for the deaf, the blind, the crippled, and the mentally backward. Wherever such services are made available, society profits in the long run even as the individual gains in self-respect and in economic strength. It is not sound economy to propose that we deny signifi¬ cant opportunities for education to those who already labor under such great disabilities. It may be well to tell those who would drastically reduce the budget that there are communities in which education is still being maintained at a high level of efficiency. In some of these communities and states there are unusual economic resources. In others it is a combination of economic strength and the development of a sound system of financing public education. There is need thruout the United States for a reconsideration of the pro¬ gram of financing our schools. The difficulty in many communities is the dependence upon the general property tax. The burden, resting as it does mainly upon real estate, has in some instances become too heavy to bear. In this situation the response should not be to close the schools nor to render them less efficient, but rather, to study the possibility of developing a better revenue system. There is need, as well, to consider the possibility of greater participation by the state in the support of schools. Reforms in taxation will of necessity involve the whole state and will call for the collection of revenue on a statewide basis. This makes it necessary that the state enter in to provide a larger measure of support for public education. The members of our profession have an obligation to bring to the atten¬ tion of those who believe in the significance of public education the need for better financing of their schools. Specialists in taxation, in school ad¬ ministration, in government, and in business should be enlisted in the study of the problem of the financing of education and in the development of recom¬ mendations for immediate legislation. It is alarming to propose retrench¬ ments which would interfere with the efficiency of the school system merely because the revenue system needs to be reformed. Men and women who wish well for our society will be willing to bear the burdens and make the sacrifices necessary to preserve the rights of boys and girls. The situation is critical. If our democracy is to be maintained, we must in our schools develop the boys and girls, the young men and young women with the knowledge, the insight, and the ideals necessary for its perpetuity. We must have schools that do much more than provide opportunities for growth in knowledge and in skills. We must have schools which seek to develop a generation of young people who love liberty, who seek justice, and who are willing to sacrifice personal advantage to the wellbeing of the whole group. If our society is to endure, we must have the kind of teachers General Sessions 135 and the sort of curriculum which will produce a citizenship devoted to the attainment of social justice. We have the peculiar obligation to fight for the rights of boys and girls during the period of the depression. We must cooperate with all those agencies which seek to preserve the physical wellbeing, the moral integrity, and the intellectual and social development of this generation of boys and girls. Now is the only time that these young people can secure that education which will enable them to take their places and do their part in the de¬ velopment of our society. We subscribe most heartily to the proposal of the President of the United States that “however the national economy may vary or whatever fiscal adjustments may be made, the very first obligation upon the national resources is the undiminished financial support of the public schools. We cannot afford to lose any ground in education. That is neither economy nor good government.” THE TEACHER’S CODE IN THE PRESENT CRISIS EDITH B. JOYNES, PRINCIPAL, ROBERT GATEWOOD AND GEORGE WASHINGTON SCHOOLS, NORFOLK, VA. There is no code in writing that the teacher can point to, but the present economic crisis demands that we phrase one that the public will honor and accept. An educated public demands a high standard of efficiency for its teach¬ ing body ; and as problems arise to be solved, the educated broadminded teacher is the one bulwark on which American ideals and character hinge. We hope the aspirations of our teachers are great enough to soon see every schoolroom presided over by a leader possessing at least four years of college training beyond the high-school diploma. Our teachers must be happy, for a happy teacher is an asset to any system. She passes it on and those with whom she is in daily touch catch the same spirit. Money questions are vital and close to us all. But nothing makes a teacher more unhappy than to know that her fellow workers not so well qualified as she, are receiving a much higher salary. A standard salary where merit shares alike is the best mark of happiness that a teacher knows. No pangs of jealousy, no thought of envy for her fellow workers arise when she has the assurance that there is no underbidding in salaries. Our teachers must be better organized. We have done a splendid piece of work in the organization of our teachers all over the United States, but the problems that confront us now remind us that it is not complete. Wffiere is the weakness? Is it in the teaching personnel? Is it in the administration? Is it in the public sentiment at large? Is it because the public is too much divorced from the schools? Or is it the lack of whole hearted cooperation among all workers in all departments of the educational program? Who can label this problem and offer a suggestion ? Our teachers must form a closer link between school, home, and business. Today the problem of the home and its reliance on the school for the finer things of life is graver than ever before. There is no time for parental in- 136 National Education Association fluence to shape the character of the children of the state. The school must shoulder this responsibility and instil in the hearts of the boys and girls character traits that make for a strong citizenry and lofty ideals. Teachers must be thoroly acquainted with the financial and civic affairs of our city, state, and nation. We must exert ourselves to understand the problems of taxation and finance. That is the great problem that affects each one of us. Every teachers organization in the United States should emphasize these three things : ( 1 ) the importance of cultivating civic contacts and using these contacts to present the teacher’s point of view regarding education ; (2) the need of studying finance and taxation and using pertinent facts to influence public opinion in matters affecting school finance; (3) the de¬ sirability of securing proper publicity for the schools in order that the citi¬ zens of tomorrow may have a keener appreciation of what the schools have done for them. Every locality is different and a publicity program must be interpreted in terms of the needs of the school and the community. The type of program needed must be understood and desired by the faculty before the school can hope to establish a publicity program that will enlighten the patrons and gain the cooperation necessary to put over any type of an effective educa¬ tional program. I suggest the following methods of interpreting the schools to the public : (1) educational articles in the daily newspapers; (2) educational speakers at parent-teacher association meetings; (3) educators to speak on civic club programs; (4) urge teachers to belong to civic organizations, so as to make contacts outside their own group; (5) educational exhibits of pupils’ work; (6) urge parents to visit schools; (7) presentation of actual school work at school league meetings; (8) principal’s bulletins; (9) school paper; (10) urge teachers to do more visiting in the homes. School publicity is one of the most essential factors in educating the public mind to a sympathetic understanding of the modern program of education so necessary to meet the needs of a changing civilization. The responsibility of the interpretation of the school to the public in a visual, scientific manner rests upon the school. Only in this way can we hope to gain the cooperation of the home and convince the public that huge sums of money spent on edu¬ cation are wisely used, and that the school of today with its enlarged pro¬ gram is meeting the needs of a changing civilization in better and more efficient ways than ever before. The responsibility of school publicity rests upon the administrators and teachers the same. Unless the school is willing to assume its responsibility of interpreting education to the public in a language that they can under¬ stand, it is impossible to get them to believe that the large sums of money spent on education are wisely invested. Therefore, we must convince them that in this changing civilization the curriculum must be built around the three C’s, character, culture, and citi¬ zenship. Any intelligent interpretation of the aims, procedures, and accom- General Sessions 137 plishments of the school means a better cooperation of the school and home in the education of the whole child. If we can educate the public to the great need of teachers with broad back¬ grounds, educators who see things fairly and justly, and who are also able to solve the complex problems of today, we will create a quality demand for teachers, not a quantity demand. .There would be a shortage of teachers to¬ day if we placed the demand on quality. Many teachers who have inferior licenses have underbidden the trained teacher. But by cooperative effort be¬ tween state and school officials, federal officers of education and teacher as¬ sociations of all types, we can eliminate the granting of inferior certificates and thus decrease the supply of teachers. Our teaching does not measure up unless we set the example and are prop¬ el ly trained for guiding and shaping the destinies of the millions in our charge. It should ever be our goal. Each one should ask: Do I instil the qualities that make strong citizens ? Do I see evidence in my teaching in the unfolding of the characters under my supervision ? Am I giving them the best in me? Will these boys and girls make a better America of tomorrow? Will they think thru the affairs of their generation better than their fathers did before them ? I suggest the following items for a Teacher’s Code: 1. Develop the whole child. 2. Give adequate recognition and reward for preparation and professional growth. 3. Be thoroly conversant on civic and financial conditions of state, city, and nation. 4. Acquaint the public with plan of education in the United States. 5. Form a closer link between home, school, and business. 6. Make the work of the schoolroom just as vital to the communitv as business itself. 7. Recognize one salary scale for all, thus insuring a contented teaching body. Participate in the public affairs of the city, state, and nation and exercise the rights of citizenship. 9- Strive for better organization of teachers in local, state, and national asso¬ ciations. In conclusion, I again want to urge every teacher to be thoroly informed about local, state, and national affairs because the whole world is in our schoolrooms, and we must have a sympathetic appreciation of the problems of all people of all lands. We must learn to work with all people, think clearly and wisely with all nations, and teach our pupils to respect the brotherhood of man and the Fatherhood of God. God cannot be left out of our plan, for in character and integrity is the strength of our citizenry to¬ morrow. RESEARCH AND ABILITY GROUPING PAUL R. MORT, DIRECTOR, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. Ability grouping has recently come in for a considerable amount of ad- veise criticism. Some of the criticism has clarified the issues; some has con¬ fused them ; but none of the criticism has succeeded completely in breaking 138 National Education Association down the well-established belief in the possibilities of ability grouping or the desirability of such grouping when wisely used. Ability grouping is based upon the inescapable facts of individual differences. What we need is better understanding of the significance of individual differences and more intelligent application of our understanding in the management of various types of schools. An appraisal of ability grouping ought to be consistent with one’s accepted point of view regarding the educative process. The issues have often been confused because the critics have not always held consistently to one point of view. Ability grouping has certain limitations and possibilities in a school which adheres to the older and more traditional view of the curriculum. It has other possibilities and limitations from the point of view of pro¬ gressive schools which presumably see the curriculum in a different light. But the possibilities and limitations are not the same in the two kinds of schools. Critics who assume the progressive point of view regarding the curricu¬ lum and then attempt to appraise ability grouping in terms of its relation to a traditional curriculum are neither consistent in their point of view nor particularly helpful in clarifying the issues from either point of view. It is my belief that the problem of homogeneous grouping is still an open question. While it does not reduce in any great degree the amount of work which faces the teacher, I believe that it pays for itself many times over, and any device which can reduce the load of the teacher or make possible a larger load is one which is to be welcomed. For the socalled activity schools, I believe the matter of homogeneous grouping, while not so important, is also still an open question. Either much that we have done in the way of discovering individual differences and their significance for education is useless, or many of the activity schools are over¬ looking a very important aspect of the educational program. I believe the answer is the latter. Being sympathetic with any movement which makes for the growth of boys and girls from where they are to higher planes, my sym¬ pathies are all with those who would take the schools out of the cut and dried group instructional, piecemeal, educational regimen. But the task of sym¬ pathetic researchers in this area in determining the significance of individual differences to new and strange devices, is of no less importance than the more cultivated task of discovering their significance in the traditional schools. I believe that the results of careful researches into this problem will show that even tho we attain more adequate school organization along freer lines, we shall still need grouping of some sort. It is not likely that activities can be carried on with sufficient scope and variety that all can participate in the same activities with a maximum of profit. Before being asked to present this material, I had come to the conclusion that the question of whether to group or not to group was one of those issues which was of little importance. On thinking it thru in the light of recent researches and my own earlier work, however, I have come to the conclu¬ sion that while the problem is a comparatively small one, it is thoroly worth General Sessions 139 attention. Grouping is no cure-all, as is no administrative device. It is no substitute for common sense. It does no more than make a beginning at in¬ dividual adjustment. Having teachers' realize this, I would say that until we have much more evidence against the use of this device, use it, ever being on the lookout for the evil effects which some believe it to be capable of hav¬ ing. T o those using it I would say examine carefully the arguments against the use to see whether or not they are arguments against the device or argu¬ ments against the school which you would like to have it serve. Many of the arguments appeal to me as being comparable to the arguments against any kind of a tax which is proposed. It has been said that 95 percent of the arguments against any individual tax are arguments against all taxation. Similarly, a large percentage of the arguments against homogeneous group¬ ing have been arguments against the schools which it served. So long as you believe in the purposes which your school serves, such arguments should not be unduly disturbing. SOME VITAL CONSIDERATIONS IN HOMOGENEOUS GROUPING J. R. MC GAUGHY, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. Let us examine homogeneous grouping in the light of the most commonly accepted tenets of the philosophy of modern education. No one of these is better known or more widely accepted than the famous pronouncement of Dewey that “school is life and not just preparation for life.” It seems no exaggeration to propose that the acceptance of this principle of Dewey’s has done much to further genuine progress in our educational systems. Be¬ lieving this dictum to be true, we have freed our elementary schools of much of their formalism and artificiality. It is our sincere belief that homogeneous grouping as it is practised is in complete violation of this principle. We challenge anyone to point out in real life, outside of our penal institutions, anything remotely approaching homogeneous grouping. Without thought you may say at once that there is a great deal of homogeneous grouping in adult life — that musicians tend to flock together, that people of somewhat the same levels of intelligence tend to be found in the same trades and professions — but let us remember that the grouping of the school is imposed by superior authority and that it is permanent. Each of these human beings is assigned to spend all of the hours of the school day with a group of other children not one of whom is truly like him, tho they are called “homogeneous.” Another very important tenet of our modern philosophy is that one which has been popularized by Kilpatrick — “respect for personality.” Notwith¬ standing the claims of those who propose that dullards are happier if thev are segregated, we propose that the labeling and stigmatizing of human beings because they happen to be so endowed that they secure low scores on paper-and-pencil tests is anything but genuine respect for personality. Like- 140 National Education Association wise we fear that the segregating of high-score pupils, treating them as if they were persons apart and encouraging them to become a snobbish, smart aristocracy violates the principle of real respect for the personality of these more favored children. We have proposed that one of the principal reasons for adopting homo¬ geneous grouping was the belief that it would facilitate the adjustment of the educational program to the needs of the individual pupil. In practise we believe the exact opposite is the result. If we hand over to a classroom teacher a group of children definitely labelled as “homogeneous” we can¬ not blame the teacher very much if she treats them as if they were alike in all ways — if, in other words, she quite completely neglects the individual with his specific needs and interests. Up to this point the arguments for and against this type of school organi¬ zation have been purely subjective. Arguments for homogeneous grouping have been set off against contrary arguments. The reader must choose for himself which group is more nearly true or which deserves more weight when the pawns on this chessboard of organization are highly individualized human beings. Let us now turn to a consideration of the facts about homogeneous group¬ ing as revealed by research and experimentation. Nearly all of the studies in this field have been of one of two types — either a comparison of the aver¬ age or mean achievement of different groups of pupils, or a study of the statistical correlation between pupil scores on various pencil-and-paper tests. Studies of the first type are in agreement that brighter pupils will do better, on the average, on achievement tests in any of the school subjects. When the total grade group is divided into slow-moving, normal, and fast-moving sections, the mean performance of the normal group will almost always ex¬ ceed that of the slow group and that of the fast-moving group will exceed those of both of the other groups. Studies using the correlation technic almost universally support Thorn¬ dike’s contention that good things tend to go together. Scores on intelligence tests and reading tests sometimes show a correlation as high as -|- 0.75. This relatively high correlation is probably explained by the fact that the tests, tho called by different names, measure very much the same type of abstract, verbal intelligence. The correlation of intelligence with other school subjects runs a good deal lower than that with reading. When intelli¬ gence is correlated with musical ability or mechanical ability, the correla¬ tions found are generally positive but are often very small. Recent research has proved so definitely that the abilities of each pupil are very highly specialized — that each pupil tends to perform much more successfully in some fields of activity than in others — that many educators have discarded the name “homogeneous” and have adopted the term “ability grouping.” The defense given for ability grouping is ingenious but unsound. Altho pupils in each ability group will have highly specialized abilities and therefore will not be homogeneous in any true sense, yet it is a fact that the higher ability groups will attain the grade standards in the General Sessions 141 minimum essentials in a shorter time than will the middle group. The low ability group, it is proposed, will use all of its time each year in attaining sufficient mastery of these bare essentials in each field of subjectmatter. These being the facts the proponents of ability grouping defend this plan of organization on the ground that it will be possible to give to the high groups a maximum of enrichment of the curriculum ; at the same time it will be possible to give the middle group a smaller amount of enrichment. The fact that the abilities of individual pupils are so highly specialized suggests a substitute for homogeneous or ability grouping which should be mentioned in this discussion. It is the plan of sorting each grade group according to the abilities of the pupils in each specific field of subjectmatter. Under this plan all of the reading classes of an elementary school would be scheduled for the same hour of the day. If there were 100 fifth-grade pupils they 'would be sorted into three or four class groups on the basis of their reading ability as measured by objective tests and teacher judgment. At the next hour an entirely different sorting of these fifth-grade pupils would be made on the basis of their ability in the specific subjectmatter scheduled for that hour. This plan is in accordance with the known facts concerning the specific abilities of children but it has educational implica¬ tions which must bar it from serious consideration. Such a schedude for the elementary school program would build higher and stronger than ever the fixed divisions between separate subjectmatter fields and would encourage a return to the formalism of twenty-five or fifty years ago. It would annul immediately all of the splendid progress we have made toward the organiza¬ tion of the curriculum into lifelike units of activity and interest. In the light of sound philosophy and of the facts as known at present the best solution seems to be that of dividing each grade group into random or heterogeneous sections, then to impress upon each teacher the fact that there will be a tremendous range of ability confronting her as each activity is taken up and to encourage her to make informal and temporary divisions of her classroom group according to the specific needs of the individual pupils. Under this plan the needs of individual pupils can be met, yet there will be no labelling and stigmatizing of the kind inherent in homogeneous or ability grouping. ABILITY GROUPING FROM A TEACHER’S STANDPOINT GEORGIA W. AIKEN, PRESIDENT, NATIONAL LEAGUE OF TEACHERS ASSOCIATIONS, CINCINNATI, OHIO Ability grouping has attempted to do better the difficult problem of the proper guidance of individual differences. School systems adopted this de¬ vice of separating the quick from the slow by means of the newly developed testing instruments. Everything about it seemed true and workable. As the years have gone by our knowledge and our common sense have lessened the rigid conformity to mechanical means. Gradually to ascertain our ability groups we have added more factors than were originally used. Mechanical 142 National Education Association means alone did not suffice. Strict conformity, somehow, to formulas did not bring the expected results. Confusion has arisen as to the meaning of ability grouping and various interpretations are played upon it. Professor Paul R. Mort has drawn a dis¬ tinction, which seems to hinge chiefly on the purpose of grouping. He states that the purpose of ability grouping is to make possible the adjustment in wholesale fashion of class work to pupils of different levels of ability: First, grouping in such a manner that members of a class will fall as nearly as possible together in their achievement in school subjects and will remain together during the term. Second, grouping according to innate ability for the purpose of adjusting the breadth of the entire curriculum, more or less regardless of the nearness to which pupils fall together in a given subject.1 Dr. A. S. Otis states in the December issue of Childhood Education : Other things being equal the more nearly homogeneous the ability of the pupils of a class is to learn the subject which they are being taught, the better. Dr. Otis is supported quite strongly by Dr. Stenquist and Dr. Kallam. If we turn to others we And that ability grouping is not so fully accepted. Dr. J. R. McGaughy in a recent address to the Department of Superin¬ tendence in February believes “we have accepted the policy of ability group¬ ing upon authority rather than on the basis of scientific facts secured thru research and experimentation. Ever since we accepted ability grouping we have been trying to find out how it works and what to do about it.” To him random grouping with the ability challenge of the pupils to the teacher offers the most reasonable solution in the light of the findings of progressive education. Laurence B. Brink, in a recent article in School and Society for March 26, 1932, is firmly convinced that: First, The groups cannot, except in a very large school, be organized with statistical validity. Second, Administrative difficulties still further interfere with effective grouping. Third, The bases of classification is not satisfactory. Fourth, Teaching procedures can be better adapted to individuals by a different method. Fifth, Whatever advantages homogeneous grouping may have for the learners, they are more than counterbalanced by inevitable losses. With such differences of opinion by educational leaders, where does the teacher stand ? At the present moment valid studies of any scientific value and experimentation are too few to show what teachers do think of ability grouping. Teachers like all others are subject to a standpoint of ability grouping colored by personal educational philosophy, contact with life and people. The teacher who feels that education is life and that the whole child needs developing, fostering, guiding, and adjusting knows that ability grouping must be used in a wise way, for at its best it is only an educational device. 1 Burr, Marvin Y. : Homogeneous Grouping. Contributions to Education, Columbia University. 1931. General Sessions 143 Wherein does this educational scheme approach and wherein deny this con¬ cept of the total evolving individual ? The purpose of ability grouping is not in the newer sense just a refined measure for teaching traditional subjectmatter but to provide for the differ¬ ent needs of the individual. The range of achievement of pupils overlaps in any artificial sectioning, even with the most careful classification. There are those who believe a differentiated curriculum, along with grouping, is the best solution so far found. But if that is true, will vast numbers of boys and girls only have a skeleton, while others will have the beauty of art, music, literature, and science? To quote from Babson: “Is the real purpose of life to produce goods, or to develop manhood?” Subjectmatter while having the sanction of tradition and greatly facilitat¬ ing marking and determining promotion is but one and possibly a minor one of the results expected from education. Facts good today are abandoned tomorrow. We need not so much to exert emphasis on subjectmatter impor¬ tant as its place is but rather technic by which we obtain information to solve our problems and develop habits of working, attitude towards people and problems, character and personality, and other less tangible results. RESEARCH AND THE BEST CLASS SIZE WILLIAM G. CARR, DIRECTOR, DIVISION OF RESEARCH, NATIONAL EDUCA¬ TION ASSOCIATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. Classes in public schools are growing larger. The present shortage of school funds has accelerated a tendency which has been more slowly going on for many years. Two principal conclusions from research are that classes are growing larger and that the scores of students on standardized tests are about the same, whether the students are in small classes or in large. It is not valid reasoning to conclude that size of class is an insignificant factor in education. The studies have, for the most part, been too limited in scope and too artificial in experimental conditions to warrant sweeping conclusions. Where larger classes are formed because of economic pressure in public school budgets, all possible adjustments should be made to avoid, as far as possible, harmful results. Pending such adjustments, teachers should continue to seek the best ways for handling both large and small groups. Conflicting views on the class size problem arise in part from the failure of the public to appreciate the difficulties of the teachers’ work and in part to divergent philosophies within the profession of education. If routine learn¬ ing of facts — names, dates, definitions, and the like — is the sole aim of educa¬ tion, it is possibly true that class size is unimportant. If, however, education takes for its major purpose the development of personality and character, most educators would favor at least some small groups permitting close and friendly contact between teacher and pupil. Perhaps the final solution of the problem of large or small classes will be a compromise between two extremes. The exhibit school for the World’s Fair in Chicago has been laid out on a principle of flexibility. There are 144 National Education Association large classrooms, sixty-two feet by twenty-two feet ; there are two sizes of smaller classrooms and still smaller workrooms for individual study which are only sixteen by eleven feet.1 When this building is in operation it may suggest certain types of school work which can be carried on effectively with large groups and certain other types which can best be carried on with the small groups of children. Perhaps in the future, school children will spend part of their time in small groups which will be even smaller than the smallest classes today, and the rest of their time in units much larger than our largest classes. Whatever the future may hold, those teachers will con¬ tribute most to the advancement of education who retain an open mind on the whole question of class size and who attempt to find in their own pro¬ cedures those methods best adapted to the kinds of classes with which they deal. Teachers should also be aware of the administrative problems involved in the adjustment of the teaching load. As a practical administrative proposition there are only four apparent ways of lightening the total load of the teachers in a given school system. The first method would be the reduction of educa¬ tional services, either by excluding some children from school or by abandon¬ ing certain types of educational opportunity. This option is repugnant not only to the American ideal of a complete and democratic school system but also to the general opinion of the public and parents and to the professional views of most teachers. A second option involves the securing of more money for education, whereupon the number of teachers and the number of class¬ rooms may be proportionally increased. This second option is scarcely a possibility in most communities during the present economic unpleasantness. The third option calls for the appointment of more teachers while retaining present budgets. This means that the total salary budget must then be di¬ vided among more persons and that the salaries of all must be reduced in proportion. The fourth choice is to leave the number of teachers and pupils as it is and to seek every possible method for lightening the teachers’ load thru administrative adjustments. There are doubtless many schools where such adjustments could be put into effect with advantage to the educational program as a whole and with real relief to the teaching staff. Such changes must be largely worked out locally, but the following may serve as suggestive illustrations :2 Give teachers clerical help for letters relating to school business. Supervise the janitorial work so that the teachers need not be responsible for keeping the room clean. Print and simplify all notices, school reports, and similar materials. Provide all teaching equipment well in advance of the date of actual use. Eliminate short periods of five or ten minutes at the opening and closing of schools. Distribute responsibility for extra-curriculum activities evenly among the entire school faculty. ^‘Exhibit School for Chicago World’s Fair.” Journal of the National Education Association 21: 198; June, 1932. Washington, D. C. : the Association. 2A larger list is available in Lewis, Ervin Eugene. Personnel Problems of the Teaching Staff. New York: Century Co., 1925. p. 243-46. General Sessions 145 Arrange for voluntary student assistance in laboratory and library work. Provide substitute teachers promptly so that a regular teacher will not have to assume the work of an absent teacher. Remove those children who present special problems from regular classes. Provide facilities for mimeographing material needed for instruction. Avoid unnecessary teachers’ meetings. Reduce to a minimum all interferences with the usual daily schedule. Protect teachers against unwarranted criticism from parents. Help teachers to discover time-saving methods for grading papers. Reduce the number of different daily subject preparations per teacher. The great mass of the public, with a bland disregard for academic issues, makes three demands on the schools: train more pupils; train them better; do it all cheaper. Quantity, quality, and economy are today the watch¬ words of the public in education, as in business and industry. The teacher’s load means something very definite and very real to anyone who is a teacher or who has ever been one. But the average man-in-the-street is probably in¬ clined to deny the very existence of a teaching load in any measurable amount. He thinks of teaching as one of the world’s “soft” jobs, involving merely pleasant association with a group of eager and lovable children for a few hours a day and for five days in the week. He knows nothing of the years of professional training, the especially heavy demands which com¬ munity life makes on the teacher, the hours of evening preparation, the su¬ pervision of after-school activities, attendance on professional meetings and classes, special assistance to individual pupils, and the fact that good teach¬ ing is a really difficult task which calls for a steady outlay of nervous and physical energy. Meanwhile the forces making for stringent governmental economy sharpen the whole issue and the temper of everyone involved in it. SIZE OF THE CLASS FROM THE TEACHER’S STANDPOINT LUCY MASON HOLT, PRINCIPAL, OCEAN VIEW SCHOOL, NORFOLK, VA. How many children can a teacher teach? Let me see the children. If a button is a button and a tree is a tree, isn’t a child a child? No! There are as many different children as there are children. A friend of mine in this state left her young son with her mother one day while she went to a party. When she returned her mother said, “You will have no trouble raising that boy for he is twin devils.” All children are not twin devils. Shut your eyes and see them — timid children who are afraid, sick children, cowed children, children who are amazed, children who are sly, those who bully, those who tease — and you, the teacher, must know each. Being a member of a large family I frequently heard discussions on how many children there should be in a family. I was never nervous, because I came first. But once the twelve-year-old stated this ultimatum and it has never been discussed since, “You ought not to have any more children than you can be sure that each one has a clean handkerchief in the morning.” Now the teacher has an even larger order. Wouldn’t it be wonderful if she knew that each one had a clean mind ? 146 National Education Association A wellknown teacher said once that when she met her class in the morn¬ ing she felt like the driver of a twenty-mule team. She gathered up the lines, and they must not be tangled. And what does the line mean where the child is concerned ? We must know his home, his environment, his background, his physical condition, and his aims and how he plans to attain them. It seems to me that I never paid a home visit in all of my experience that I did not come away with a clearer understanding of the child, maybe with a far greater sympathy. His physical condition means everything. He cannot do his best work nor can his teacher do her best work with him, unless his physical condition is good, and still in our home visiting we have a condition like this: We explain and prove that a child has bad tonsils. We plead that these be removed, offer the services of the clinic and express our willingness to arrange every detail, and are dismissed at the end with this statement, “My husband doesn’t be¬ lieve in tonsils.” That opens up a new field for the teacher. Now, when we have visited and found out just how our pupil is situated and have had our sympathies broadened, haven’t we found our work? For isn’t that our work to love each child with such understanding sympathy that we help each to realize the best that is in him? How many can you love? Just because you are a woman is no proof that you love children. Everybody four feet three inches is not a good kindergartener any more than five feet ten makes high- school teachers. It is something else. Have you got it? My arms will reach but just so far ; my eyes can see but just so far. That is physical limitation, but this “something” which we must have in order to be teachers does not know such bounds. As we grow in the light of the love of the Great Teacher just that much we grow in our ability to love these children. Why can’t we make our purse holders understand ? What economy can there be in loading a teacher past her ability to carry? Some may say, “More new teachers are coming in from our colleges and training schools.” Even so, colleges and training schools can’t make teachers. They can help to develop, but God makes real teachers, and penny wise indeed is that locality which overloads the teacher. Character is the test of teaching. Subjectmatter is the tool with which we work. Each child has God’s pattern in him. Your ability to understand His plan guides your hand in the carving. The tale is told that a principal once at his wits’ end to know what to do with his greatly increased enrolment walked into a crowded classroom and said, “These children are big enough to sit in the other room. Let’s promote them to the fourth grade.” As an elementary principal I, too, would promote them on the length of their legs rather than overload a teacher. We are the buffers between the child and the times thru which we are passing. He must not be the loser. There must not be a single child about whom it will be said, “This is the stone which the builders neglected.” General Sessions 147 EDUCATION AND FUTURE PLANNING N. L. ENGELHARDT, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. i ' Probably the most significant work which has been done in school planning is concerned with the analysis of community trends and growth, the selection of school sites, and the proposed development of the school plant. The technics in this field have been fairly clearly developed and have been applied with considerable success. Future planning for the school plant has resulted in the saving of many dollars, in securing more adequate returns from the dollars which have been spent, and in the improvement of community planning. Another aspect of future planning which has received some attention is budgetary planning, especially budgetary planning over a long period of years. A notable example of such budgetary planning is that of White Plains, N. Y. where in the field of capital outlay a capital budget has been developed covering a period of years to come and allotting the amounts to be appro¬ priated for school buildings, for street outlays, for municipal buildings, and for other physical aspects of community development. Such a budget is used as a definite guide for taxation as well as for appropriation purposes. It harmonizes with conflicting interests, it permits the taxpayer to understand what his future budget will be, and it results in definite progress as is evident to the visitoi to White Plains. Even the budget for annual expenditures in a school system has been developed in terms of a limited period of future planning. Considerable success in anticipating budgetary needs not only over a period of a year but over a period of several years has been achieved in some school systems. Long-term indebtedness is usually coordinated carefully with other types of expected annual expenditures. The relationship between total budgetary appropriations and increases in assessments has given concern to many educators in the development of their annual as well as long-time budgets. In these times of stress public education should be endeavoring to solve certain of society’s problems which it did not attempt to solve during the period of prosperity. Adequate future planning might have made possible an educational program today which would show no curtailment over the educational program advanced during the period of gathering of wealth. A proper reserve program might have been developed so as to secure equality over a period of years and for the children of various school generations. Future planning might have made possible a constructive program for the youth of our land who have left school and who today to such a great degree find for themselves no established place in our social order. It may well be that the emphasis which our professional groups have been giving to the struggle for professional recognition and professional advancement should now be placed upon the future relationship of our educational program to the society which it is expected to serve. It is not inconceivable that the formalized and limited scheme of public education which exists today will give way in a broadening and lengthening process to the most significant 148 National Education Association kind of an educational program involving all of life instead of a few sheltered years, and comprehending education in its broadest significance instead of as the acquisition of a few tools, or as the lobby entrance to life. Future planning requires on the part of our teachers the most intimate knowledge of world conditions and world affairs. The reading-circle days when teachers were expected to study the most recent contributions in pro¬ fessional technics or professional methods must now be supplanted by days of study of a new and fast-growing literature, namely, the literature of society, its problems, the possible solutions, and the relationship of educa¬ tion to it all. Chase in Men and Minds , Boas in Our New kV ays of Think¬ ing , the Lynds in their Middletown, Rugg in Culture and Education in America, Lippman in Public Opinion, and Odegard in The American Public Mind are makers of literature which for the educator is fully as professional as the book on professional technic. The public educator thru intensive re¬ search must become better acquainted with the problems of the society which he serves. He can no longer be provincial ; he can no longer be complacent ; he can no longer be incompetent. Children are being taught in many schools today as tho their horizons were as limited as those of the nineties. Has the school recognized that the outlook of children has changed and will continue to change? The radio, the sound picture, the automobile, and the airplane have crowded knowledge and appreciations into their years. The preschool and out-of-school life of children brings them contacts and opportunities which were totally denied the children of a few decades ago. Breadth of knowledge and a wide range of thinking have become assets of the modern youth. The advantage gained thru the out-of-school contacts must be more significantly supplemented thru what the school itself provides. The school has the opportunity of directing new and more powerful forces of human energy than in the generations which have passed. For each dollar spent in the grades and high school, research and research alone, can bring more significant returns. As with the machine so in similar manner, the influences of a national tariff, of a reparation’s plan, or of a worldwide governmental policy might be shown with all of its attendant educational problems and relationships. With respect to the machine alone, it would seem as tho public education had ignored its influences and refused to accept all of the responsibilities attendant upon machine development. One may well say that public education cannot assume any more burdens — but public education must expand as a society’s needs grow. “Planning the economic order,” “equitable and just forms of taxation,” “correct occupational distribution,” “planned program of production,” “con¬ trol of business cycle,” “economic interdependence of nations,” “fair distri¬ bution of wealth” — these are some of the many catch-phrases of the day. In them, plans and planning play a significant role. Here, education may well take its cue. Planning in education has probably always existed. Planning education for a rapidly changing society has long been and will continue to be a problem of greatest moment. In a fixed social order or under certain forms General Sessions 149 of government, the educational programs are easily regulated. In a demo¬ cratic society, the existence of the society itself is dependent upon the alertness of its members to the need of change and the adequacy of the machinery for making the change. Adult education, retraining of the unemployed, training for cultural appreciations, coordination of all educative agencies, and voca¬ tional guidance have emerged as super-problems in near future education. Future planning in education should thus be encouraged not only upon the physical side, but also upon the purely educational side. Such future planning will raise very important questions. True research will answer the questions involving method, results, and costs. There will be questions involving the expansion of the educational program to include younger and older people. There will be questions involving a higher degree of cooperation and coordination with other educative agencies, such as the home, the theater, the museum, and other institutions developed for recreational or esthetic purpose. There will be questions of reducing teaching time to secure a definite result, and the elimination of over-teaching and over-lapping in teaching. The question will be raised whether school work cannot become more of a reality, whether our children cannot be made more conscious of world problems and their national and local implications. The broadening and the widening of courses and opportunities must proceed. In the last analysis research must find a way of getting more education for less money, or of securing superior results for the money now spent. The administrators and teachers who would advance the cause of education during this period of stress will be compelled to plan on a more significant scale, unhampered by tradition, a future program which will aid in a general societal advancement and in a better human adjustment to society’s needs. HOW MILWAUKEE HAS HELD THE LINE MILTON C. POTTER, PiyiSIDENT, N.E.A. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE ; AND SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, MILWAUKEE, WIS. As long as the public permits extravagances in road building for the ben¬ efit of railroad busters and pleasure-seeking autoists, as long as it bases school support on tangible property alone, reserving for political purposes the taxes collected from the vast intangible forms of modern wealth and income, as long as it is unwilling to forego ten million dollar courthouses erected as monuments to vote-getting politicians while little children nearby attend school in ramshackle shanties, as long as corporate bond merchandisers are permitted to clear themselves in tiny type of all responsibility for the goods they sell, as long as graft is tolerated in municipal government, as long as the trustees named in bond indentures are selected by the debtors and after defaults tend to act as attorneys for the debtors, as long as the public permits federal payrolls to care for the relatives of congressmen, and as long as most elected officials are unwilling to accept salary reductions, the time is scarcely opportune for indiscriminate slashing of school budgets. Milwaukee respects equity. 150 National Education Association If and when stein necessity finally compels the friends of the children on the school board to cut salaries, the teachers, out of loyalty to their calling and theii love for those children, must happily and gallantly accept their full part in the general task of reducing the heavy burden on the taxpayer. But they must insist for the sake of its effects on the teaching of their students that this reduction be conditioned upon the elimination of graft, extrava¬ gance, and favoritism in all governmental activities. For years the teaching piofession, next to the ministrjq was the most underpaid of all professions, and it is only within the past few years that salaries have provided anything above the cost of living. It is wellknown that many of the self-appointed defenders of the taxpayer were during and after the war reaping profits far beyond anything that the highest paid teachers ever earned. But I ask you in all seiiousness, have any of you ever heard of one of these men who reaped enormous profits while teachers were being paid a bare living wage, offering to share his profits with the teachers? Had his willingness to share his profits with others been at all equal to his present willingness to have the teachers share their relative prosperity with him, I am sure his plea would receive a more sympathetic hearing by all taxpayers whether renters or owners. Mil¬ waukee has a sense of humor. It is a wellknown fact that we in this country have generally chosen to honor first the great material builders. We have made obeisance to the men who have erected great edifices of stone and steel as being the great bene¬ factors of the human race. We have honored the railroad builder, the factory builder, the automobile builder, and all of the other material builders, but we have generally failed to honor the builders of boys and girls. We are fre¬ quently called tax eaters. Now that there has been a decided slump in the profits of the great material builders whose praises we have hymned in all the schools thruout the length and breadth of the land, we bemoan their losses, and speak as tho the end of the world were at hand. Our history shows that the material builders have weathered other economic storms and have risen as greater builders than ever before, and there is little reason to believe that such will not be true again. Not all of our sympathy should be expended on the material builders. Some of it should be reserved for the builders of boys. We can well afford to postpone some of our material building without serious consequences, but the one form of building which we can never af¬ ford to postpone for one moment (which cannot be postponed) is the build¬ ing of boys. They do not regard their teachers as a governmental flunkey. They know they need him. Time lost in the life of a boy can never be re¬ covered. Scars made will not wash out or work out. If need be, let us save money by curtailing material building wherever necessary but let us not for one moment think of curtailing the building of boys and girls. Milwaukee respects teaching as a non-political vocation. Our present economic situation is due primarily to greatly diminished de¬ mand for materials but there has been no decrease in the need for educa¬ tional products. The demand for sane-thinking citizens, the products which the schools try to build out of the raw material of boys and girls, was never General Sessions 151 greater. More and better forms of education must be provided. There can be no slump in this biggest of all businesses, the building of boys and girls. Regardless of economic conditions intellectual progress must and will con¬ tinue. With smaller financial resources the school must carry a heavier load. Milwaukee can take it. Material prosperity could not forever abide. It never has. Riches take unto themselves wings. So the Milwaukee children of the voyageur and the Ger¬ man migration long since conspired together to lay up for themselves treasures in heaven. Whereupon their treasure upon this earth has become somewhat safer than others’. And in these last days they do not consider teachers’ wages as speculative dividends to be paid or passed at will. They do not think of teachers as stock gamblers. To most Milwaukeeans the teacher’s pay is a fixed charge. In fair weather or in foul they find it. Milwaukee is happier in this dark day’s liquidity, in her record of good faith and meticu¬ lous honor toward her teachers, than she ever was in the days of liquid sun¬ shine. It may have helped to make her famous. Today’s travail will make her proud. Milwaukee sees it thru. THE ILLINOIS PROBLEM AND ITS SOLUTION ROBERT C. MOORE, SECRETARY, ILLINOIS STATE TEACHERS ASSOCIATION, CARLINVILLE, ILL. The problem in Illinois may be stated thus: How to obtain with a broken- down tax system sufficient revenues to finance our necessary public institu¬ tions, functions, and services, including the schools ; or how to improve our tax system so it will yield sufficient revenues. A member of the legislature recently described our present situation in the language of the highways by saying that for several years our public institu¬ tions have been joy-riding in an antiquated Model T tax system that is now wrecked by the fast, furious, and reckless driving by ignorant, selfish, or dishonest chauffeurs, who have violated all the traffic, speed, and safety laws. This breakdown of our tax system has caused an extreme deficiency of school funds in many districts and a total lack of funds in a few. The remedy immediately necessary to cure the present situation is the rigid enforcement of the law and the payment of the taxes due and overdue in Cook County. The tax strike must be suppressed and the public revenues collected or our government falls. Rebellious taxpayers and weak-kneed public officials must both be convinced of their duty, the first of their duty to obey the law and pay their taxes, the second of their duty to inforce the law and collect the taxes. Both must quit playing politics with the tax machinery. It is time to supplant petty partisan politics with pure patriotism and to substitute service to society for service to self and party. If the present laws were enforced and obeyed, much of our present trouble would disappear. If the assessment laws are bad and difficult to enforce, the best way to get the people to improve them is to make an earnest and continuous effort to enforce them. 152 National Education Association Waste, extravagance, and graft in the expenditure of public funds must be eliminated. Altho nearly all people agree that this must be done, it is one of the most difficult things to do. Politicians and other public speakers and writers must actually practise patriotism by telling the truth, the whole truth, and only the truth about taxation, instead of appealing to prejudice and selfishness by telling half- truths or untruths and condemning taxation in general. The general con¬ demnation of taxes has incited many people to rebel against our laws, and the waste, extravagance, and possibly worse, have given them some excuse. Until these twin evils are cured, there will be serious difficulty in collecting taxes. Looking more to the future, we find that a much-needed remedy is the amendment of the state constitution to permit the legislature to enact modern tax laws better adapted to modern economic conditions. Several amend¬ ments have been submitted to the people in the last twenty years, but they have either been so ambiguous in their meaning or so much in favor of cer¬ tain special interests that the people have rejected them; and of course those who have unfairly evaded taxation under the present provision have feared any change and have used every possible means to defeat proposed amend¬ ments. But whether the Constitution is amended or not, laws should be enacted that will improve methods of taxation, the administration of tax laws, and the economy of public funds. A good beginning was made at the special ses¬ sions of the General Assembly this year in the enactment of two important laws : 1. An income tax law, which is now being tested in the Courts as to its constitutionality. If it stands the test, it will slightly relieve the general property tax which has caused so much complaint. 2. An emergency law now in effect completely reforming the assessment machinery of Cook County. The duties of the local town assessors are now more limited, and the board of assessors of five members and the board of review of three members have been abolished. Instead of these two boards, there is provided one county assessor and a board of appeals of two members. This board can make changes in the assessments made by the assessor only after a hearing of which both the assessor and the owner of the property in question have had notice. This quite definitely places the power and re¬ sponsibility of assessment on one person and makes it impossible to shift re¬ sponsibility for omissions, inequalities, and violations of the law. Other laws recommended by school people for equalizing both taxes and educational opportunities would provide ( 1 ) a larger district unit for school taxation and administration, and (2) a much larger state school fund ap¬ portioned to local school districts according to needs. Finally, education should help remedy the present situation and should pi event a recurrence of such a situation in the future. We must earnestly endeavor to meet the challenge expressed by an Illinois senator when he asked : What are the public schools for unless they are to give the people General Sessions 153 such an education, such an understanding of public affairs, such a civic moral¬ ity, and such a patriotism as will make impossible the occurrence of such a situation as we are now suffering?” Y he devastating depression and panic, occuring as they have in a time of surpluses of wealth, labor, and products, must have been caused by vio¬ lation of certain economic laws, moral laws, or both. Why should not human beings be trained to discover these laws and to have an earnest and actuating desire to obey them ? Isn’t it possible that we have been consciously or unconsciously teaching an unrestrained, selfish, predatory individualism that measures its own suc¬ cess by its ability to collect the earnings of others rather than by rendering social service for a compensation in proportion to such service ? Why has not our education in the past developed such a social consciousness and civic morality as would deter public officials from misusing public funds and the voters from electing dishonest people to public office? Is it possible that things have come to such a pass that we dare not teach that an official who takes public funds without rendering a fully compensatory service is as much a thief as the robber who breaks into our house at night? Why shouldn’t we teach that any man who indiscriminately attacks any necessary public institution, such as taxation for instance, is really a traitor to his country ? And that the tax dodger and tax striker are as truly enemies of their country and its institutions as an invading foreign army would be? And that the executive officer wffio refuses to enforce the laws is as bad as the slacker or deserter in time of war? And that extravagance and waste of public funds are crimes against society? I close with three sentences chosen from a recent article entitled “Educa¬ tion — What For?” by Dr. George S. Counts: If the schools are to be really effective, they must become centers for the building, and not merely for the contemplation, of our civilization . If a bold and real¬ istic program of education is not forthcoming, we can only anticipate a struggle of increasing bitterness terminating in revolution and disaster . To refuse to face the task of creating a vision of a future America immeasurably more just and noble and beautiful than the America of today is to evade the most crucial, difficult, and important educational task. HOW WE ARE MEETING THE EMERGENCY IN KENTUCKY JAMES H. RICHMOND, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, FRANKFORT, KY. During this period of financial distress, the public schools have been sub¬ jected to more violent attacks than any other agency of society despite the fact that they have given a better account of their stewardship than any other division of government. Many political, financial, and social organizations have failed our people in this crisis, but the public schools have continued to render effective service. Despite the fact that they are in no wise respon¬ sible for the distressing situation that now confronts our people, they are being grossly discriminated against in the matter of necessary governmental 154 National Education Association retrenchment. In the state of Kentucky, and I judge that other states have had the same experience, the schools have had imposed upon them an undue share of the retrenchment program. In many parts of Kentucky, practically the only retrenchment that has been put into effect has been imposed upon the public schools. Schools should not be exempt from legitimate criticism. On the other hand, they should welcome it and do, but they should not be penalized for giving a better account of the tax dollar than any other branch of govern¬ ment. Our schools should always operate as economically as possible, and if trained school administrators were always permitted to effect constructive economies, it would be possible for the schools to make a much better show¬ ing with the money available than they are now privileged to do, due to the fact that the public frequently blocks policies of administration which affect its own selfish desires or whims. But even if the schools were allowed to effect all desirable economies, they would still cost a great deal more money than they formerly did, since the public school service has been broadened in every way. This extended and amplified service has been demanded by the public — the same public that now criticizes the increased costs of public education. The public school is not a mere gratuity, but a fundamental branch of our government, which is necessary to our happiness and wellbeing. If democ¬ racy is to be “made safe for the world,” we must educate our people. The primary function of the public school is to train for citizenship. In Kentucky, we are endeavoring in every possible way to meet the present critical situation in public education. The State Department of Education has prepared a bulletin outlining desirable and feasible economies. A Com¬ mittee of the Department is giving extended thought to this particular service, and group conferences are being planned for the purpose of ad¬ vising school boards and administrators on matters of necessary retrench¬ ment. Moreover, the department is taking advantage of the present situ¬ ation to encourage boards of education to effect reorganizations that will secure the double advantage of economical administration and improved service. Recommendations that might have been disregarded during a period of smug prosperity, are now receiving sympathetic consideration at the hands of school boards. Months ago, sensing the drift of affairs, I recommended to the Legisla¬ ture the creation of an educational commission, which would define the state’s responsibility in education, analyze essential school data, and report its findings and recommendations to the 1934 Legislature, which recom¬ mendations would have as their core a new school code — simple, adaptable, and progressive. This commission has been organized and is now function¬ ing. One of the immediate problems to be considered by it is an emergency program which will aid the schools in their present financial distress. The commission is convinced that it will be able to recommend policies that will not only improve the service of the school but at the same time reduce their General Sessions 155 costs of operation. Of course, the broader aspects of the commission’s work have to do with social planning. Another thing the school leaders in Kentucky are endeavoring to do is to strengthen the morale of the teaching profession in our state. Despite the fact that they have been victimized by policies of unfair discrimination, we are urging them to keep the faith and to give Kentucky during the com¬ ing year the best school service that the state has ever received. The school teachers of Kentucky are reacting favorably to this appeal. As an evidence of this, the summer schools of our university and teacher-training institu¬ tions are enjoying heavy enrolments. Kentucky is determined that there shall be no moratorium in education. HOW VIRGINIA IS MEETING THE EMERGENCY CORNELIUS J. HEATWOLE, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY, VIRGINIA EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, RICHMOND, VA. Virginia is sharing with many other parts of the country the typical re¬ sults of what we all have come to know as the unprecedented economic crisis. Virginia, like other states in the American Union, has developed her pub¬ lic school system in accordance with principles and policies that have char¬ acterized the development of public education in this country. The American people in setting up systems of public education have agreed upon at least two very fundamental principles that have come to be regarded as axiomatic. First, that the public schools exist for all the children of all the people. And second, that the maintenance of these schools is one of the major functions of government, and, therefore, should be supported by public taxation. A third principle, not yet agreed upon but now in the slow process of reaching a conclusion, is — What shall be taught in the pub¬ lic schools of America? Virginia has recently taken a forward step in this much discussed and unsettled question involved in the third principle just stated. For the past year she has had twelve thousand teachers engaged in the problem of revising her course of study for the elementary and second¬ ary schools of the state. She proposes to continue this work for the next year or two, even under the pressure of the economic crisis. Virginia has been fortunate in not carrying a heavy bonded indebtedness. She built a state highway system on the pay-as-you-go plan. For the pres¬ ent fiscal year, she is one of only three states in the Union that have de¬ creased their bonded indebtedness. This condition of affairs will certainly result in a more rapid recovery when we once emerge from the socalled de¬ pression. The Virginia Legislature was in session for sixty days during the past winter and spring. At its opening session, Governor Pollard stated that the state’s financial condition was sound and had the confidence of the people and the investing public, but in order to balance the budget for the next biennium and to maintain this confidence, we must curtail expenses and in- 156 National Education Association crease no taxes. The Governor in his inaugural address two years before made the statement that schools must follow the children and taxes must follow the schools. Mr. Sidney B. Hall, the new state superintendent of public instruction, on taking his office a year ago, immediately formulated a policy for public education and instituted a campaign among the people on the fundamental policy that public education was a state function, and, therefore, the instruc¬ tional costs should be borne by the state, leaving to the local units the cost of capital outlay and general maintenance. This policy is now generally recognized and will no doubt in the near future come to be the state’s policy for public education. While the legislature of the general assembly did not provide for carrying out this state policy for public education, it did provide nearly one million dollars additional fund for public education, so that if the state budget keeps its balance Virginia will have more money for public education during the next biennium than she has ever had in all her history. As an emergency policy of the counties and cities, teachers’ salaries in Vir¬ ginia have been cut, in a few instances as much as 30 percent. Ten counties out of one hundred recently reported that teachers’ salaries would remain at their usual level. The rest of them will be cut on an average of 9.9 percent. Out of twenty cities in Virginia, only seven have cut salaries, averaging 9.2 percent. For the total of 120 counties and cities in Virginia, the average salary cut will amount, for the coming session, to 9.8 percent. In addition to these salary cuts and the curtailment of budgets, other economies will be incorporated, such as increasing the teacher’s load and eliminating newer and experimental features in school work about which there may be some ques¬ tion as to whether or not they are absolutely essential. There will be a slow- ing-up of the building program notwithstanding the more than usual de¬ mands due to increased enrolment in the schools. There will be, however, no lowering of academic and professional standards for the certification of teachers. We have not yet reached the danger point where school boards will be tempted to supplant the well-trained teacher with a cheap and poorly prepared teacher. The teachers of Virginia are agreed that they must share with the rest of the citizens of the state the burden of these times. In many instances, they have voluntarily taken salary cuts and inaugurated other forms of econo¬ mies, but they have strongly registered their opinions that there should be no curtailment in the essential educational facilities necessary for giving the children their full educational inheritance, even in times like these. They have not failed to make it clear that in accepting reductions in salaries they do so with the distinct understanding with school authorities that as soon as economic conditions improve salaries and school costs will be put back to their former level. The teachers of Virginia are equally agreed that inno¬ cent little children in the elementary school shall not be forced to bear the burden of an economic crisis; that there can be no moratorium in education. 1 he debt we owe to children and our commonwealth may not be deferred but must be paid “now or never,” that the progress we have made in the General Sessions 157 past years in building up a better system of instruction for the children shall not be sacrificed to selfish ends or to promote the political fortunes of any individual or party, that whatever retrenchments are made in public educa¬ tion should be made by the friends of the children and not by those who, in the hysteria of economic fear or stress, would take drastic steps to curtail in any way the essential function of public education. MEETING THE PRESENT EMERGENCY IN EDUCATION IN IOWA AGNES SAMUELSON, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, DES MOINES, IOWA During the 1931 session of the legislature there was an apparent need for an exchange of confidence between leaders in public-school education and in the general assembly. A meeting was held in which the governing committees of the state teachers association, the department of public instruction, repre¬ sentatives of the various types of school districts, and the schools and tax committees of the legislature were brought together for a conference on pertinent problems involving education and taxation. The outcomes of this event were constructive — keener consciousness on the part of our legislators that the educational problems were more comprehensive and involved than appeared on the surface and a better realization on the part of our school executives of the complexity of problems facing the legislators. No destruc¬ tive school legislation was given any serious consideration after that. It was a fine illustration of the results that can be obtained when a wholesome ac¬ quaintance and exchange of viewpoints clear the atmosphere of many mis¬ understandings. Believing this to be a time to keep essentials continuously in view, we have adopted a program to improve instruction and outlined it to cover a period of years. Its purpose is to focus attention upon the relation of the various subjects to the problems which the pupils face in mastering them. During this past year the emphasis has been on reading and its relation to study. The former two-day inspirational institute has been converted into an all- year program for the improvement of instruction whereby the county super¬ intendent may bring direct helps along the lines of testing, demonstrations, and other diagnostic and remedial aids to bear upon the classroom situations. A series of bulletins has been prepared by the department and distributed to the teachers of the state. Bulletins I and II of this series were organized as answers to questions actually asked by teachers in teaching reading; the third bulletin was directed toward helping with the problem of study on the high- school level. While the department of public instruction has no state supervisor of secondary or elementary education, our normal training supervisor prepared the bulletins and is now at work on a course of study in safety education. Members of the department staff have aided in the field work and the ex¬ tension division of the Iowa State Teachers College has given almost full 158 National Education Association time to service along this line and the Iowa rural choir movement. The ex¬ tension division of the State University of Iowa conducted a testing program, the radio station WOI at Iowa State College gave us monthly schedules on the air, and parent-teacher association groups endorsed the program. To encourage scholastic achievement in the rural schools we presented an Iowa letter — a maize-colored monogram symbolic of our tall corn and a special recognition for clearing hurdles in the common branches — to the pupils who earned given rankings in the state eighth-grade examinations. Plans are now completed to prosecute a drive on language and its relation to study during the coming year; we expect to move the ensuing year into the field of social sciences. The purpose of these drives has been primarily to improve the quality of instruction in the classrooms of our state. When this result obtains, the most important characteristic of an economical school system has been created. Laymen have pointed out to school people the importance of this reduction of operating costs of the school so that other people, less qualified to do it, do not take the matter out of their hands with results harmful to the schools. School administrators of Iowa appreciate this attitude and do not need to be reminded of its importance. They are depression-conscious, are scrutinizing every item of their budgets. Nowhere is a better piece of work being done in appraising, checking, and adjusting than in the schools. School executives are not smugly content with their practises, but are reexamining their pro¬ grams and methods in the direction of all the economy consistent with the maintenance of efficiency. They are proving to be good students of taxation as well as directors of education. They believe much good will come out of the crisis if the focusing of the microscope on the schools will call attention to the big issues revealed by the lens and take it off the petty things around the fringe ; if it will lead to the overhauling of our school law in such a way as to remove the inconsistencies and effect remedial legislation ; if it will lead to a better appreciation and interpretation of education. The emergency has spotlighted the need of laymen advocates who will go to bat for education. If there is any single lesson which people in public edu¬ cation may learn from the present economic collapse it is the necessity of a continuous program of publicity in which the people may know the things for which the schools are operated and the methods used to achieve these ends. Schools are being guided more and more by facts revealed thru re¬ search and less by guesswork and opinion. In its estimate of schools the same policy should be carried to the people. Our teachers are responding to the challenge of the crisis by placing chil¬ dren uppermost. They have drafted a new certificate measure for raising their own professional qualifications. If it becomes a law, our school children of today and tomorrow will be the beneficiaries long after the depression is a historical fact. We are convinced the people of our state want to have good schools and are determined to have them. The way in which they enrich their curricu- lums, expand the school system at both ends thru kindergarten and junior General Sessions 159 college units, hunger for adult education courses, improve their school plants and instructional equipment, and do all this almost entirely under local sup¬ port, shows their faith in the schools and their confidence in the teachers who direct them. That faith has not and must not be shaken ; that confidence has not been misplaced and the teaching profession will continue to justify that confidence. Back of it all is the dominating fact that while we do not have as much to live on as we used to have and should have, we have just as much to live for — the children of our schools, the leadership of tomorrow in the new order of things that is coming out of the chaos. HOW CALIFORNIA IS MEETING THE EMERGENCY HOWARD J. HANNA, PRESIDENT, HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS ASSOCIATION, LOS ANGELES, CALIF. California realtors are incensed over inequality. Real estate bears three- fourths the tax burden altho it represents only one-fourth the state’s wealth. Their attacks on assessed valuations and tax rates have threatened our edu¬ cational program. Teacher associations have had defensive research and publicity committees busy the entire year. Some boards of education decided to reduce the unit costs of education but not to impair efficiency. After conferences, nine state organizations including realtors and grangers, have united to support an initiative constitutional amendment for November election. Th is amendment requires the state to raise definite funds for education by income taxes, inheritance taxes, and selective sales taxes but abolishes the county tax on real estate for education. The district provisions for taxa¬ tion remain the same. Our state department of finance is emphatically for the amendment but the director of finance is against it. Any proposal to tax income producing personal property meets with ob¬ jection that such wealth will move across state borders if required to share the burden equally. To prevent this, some degree of national uniformity is needed on income and inheritances for educational support in all the states. Another national law is needed to require intangible securities such as stocks and bonds to bear their share of the tax burden. In California, in¬ tangibles are taxed only one-tenth of one percent or about one-twentieth the rate on real estate because of difficulty in getting intangibles listed at higher rates. Corporations should be prohibited paying dividends to residents of dif¬ ferent states unless evidence of listing with assessors is produced. Such national laws furthering equalizing taxation on all forms of wealth would require only a fraction of present taxes on real estate and stop fights on efficient educational programs. 160 National Education Association THE OFFICE OF EDUCATION IN THE PRESENT EMERGENCY BESS GOODYKOONTZ, ASSISTANT U. S. COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. It is natural that the program of the Office of Education should reflect the problems and difficulties of this period. Being a research agency dealing with professional problems of education, it has been subject to requests for information and service and has selected problems for study based upon or modified by the present situation. A few of these problems may be de¬ scribed. The relation of education to the unemployment situation has been one of the common questions put to the public schools. At the time that the President’s Organization on Unemployment Relief was attempting to mo¬ bilize the resources of all agencies for service to the unemployed, schools were promptly called upon because of their facilities for reeducation, recreation, health, guidance, and welfare service. Some schools were doing a tremen¬ dous amount ; others were asking for suggestions on what to do. At the re¬ quest of the President’s Organization an inquiry was sent from the Office to school administrators, bringing in a wealth of accounts of actual expe¬ riences in dealing with the problems in their communities, which were then summarized and prepared for distribution by the President’s Organization. A very large number of the inquiries coming to the Office are for statistical information. School superintendents and school boards want school costs for cities comparable to their own in size and type ; surveyors want comparative statistics ; state legislatures and state departments of education need to know how other states have solved their problems. For many years the Office of Education has collected and compiled such statistics biennially; in the bul¬ letin on city school statistics data are given for 2850 cities, entailing field work of four statistical experts for several months and long months of tabu¬ lation in the Office. In such a huge task promptness in reporting has had to be sacrificed to completeness of detail and therefore recent data have not always been available. To correct this difficulty plans have recently been made to supplement the regular biennial collection of national statistics with a less extensive annual study aimed to give per capita costs, which will be available as promptly as the returns make possible. In a similar way the regular annual report of college and university budgets and enrolments is now being supplemented with a report on changes in income and expendi¬ tures, actual and estimated, for the coming year. This report for the next school year should be ready early in the fall for the use of college and uni¬ versity administrators. The service activities of the staff of the Office have similarly reflected the problems which schools are facing. To mention one, the coordination of educational offerings in state-supported institutions of higher education is receiving increased attention at present. A number of states, well-supplied with at least one state university, a state college, several state teachers col- General Sessions 161 leges, and the newly developing junior colleges, have begun to question the desirability of extensive duplication of offerings in their various schools and the competition among state-supported institutions for students and for state funds. About two years ago Arkansas and Oregon asked the Federal Office of Education to help them study this problem and recommend a coordinated plan for higher education in their respective states. This past year Missis¬ sippi and North Carolina have asked and received similar service, and at least two other states have requested assistance of this kind for an early date. It seems probable that as additional retrenchments become necessary be¬ cause of decreased state support, other states will need to work toward a better coordination of their programs of higher education. In addition to effecting natural changes in its program, the present emer¬ gency bids fair to affect the Office of Education adversely and seriously in its present efficiency, prestige, and future development. The present emer¬ gency for the Federal Office is one not only of reduced appropriations but of lack of confidence on the part of governing bodies and the general public in the curative powers claimed for education in general and the need for governmental participation in education or any social regulation in particu¬ lar. The duration and uncertainty have been not the least troubling features of the emergency. In August of last year the Office of Education was asked to prepare its estimates for expenditures for the next fiscal year beginning July 1, 1932. This it did very carefully, bearing in mind the admonitions of the Administration to keep all requests for appropriations to a minimum. In September the Bureau of the Budget acted, making an allowance some¬ what under the original request. In March, the Department of Interior’s appropriation bill was passed by the House of Representatives, cutting the Office of Education’s budget 11 percent further. In April the Senate ac¬ cepted its appropriations committee’s report and passed the Department of Interior’s appropriation bill, giving the Office a further cut of 26 percent. This bill, which is a reduction of 34 percent under the Bureau of the Bud¬ get’s estimate, was accepted by the House and signed by the President. A brief explanation may be made of what this means in terms of oper¬ ating efficiency. As it stands at the present time, unless further legislation is passed affecting appropriations, to operate on our present reduced salary budget would require either the compulsory furlough of every employee in the Office from the Commissioner down for at least a month and a half with¬ out pay, or the discharge of from 10 to 15 employees. This is a serious mat¬ ter in an office as meagerly staffed as is the Federal Office, where the dis¬ charge of one specialist means also the closing out of service and research in a whole field of education. A second serious result of the reduced appropriation lies in the restriction in types of research which may be carried on. Research by questionnaire only sets definite limits in the types of problems which may be undertaken, and in the character, accuracy, and completeness of the data which may be se¬ cured. For several years the research staff in the Office has worked con- 162 National Education Association sciously to further investigation thru field studies which, tho local or sec¬ tional, are of universal interest to educators. This past year has seen the de¬ velopment of several such field studies. For example, the education of Mexi¬ cans and other Spanish-speaking children is of great importance in the south¬ western part of our country. Locally it raises questions of dual administra¬ tion, of curriculum, of teacher selection. Nationally it illustrates the prob¬ lems of bilingual education everywhere. This past spring a member of our staff spent several months in the states which have a large Spanish-speaking population, collecting data, visiting schools, interviewing administrators and teachers, studying the educational problems and their local solutions. The report, we hope, will be of value to school systems thruout the country which face a similar situation of a large foreign-speaking school population. Still another field study of the past year is one undertaken in cooperation with the Department of Agriculture in making a thoro industrial-social sur¬ vey of certain sections of the Southern Appalachians. A great deal of sen¬ timent is stirred up periodically and considerable speculation occurs over the intellectual and educational status of the southern mountaineers. No ques¬ tionnaire study can speak authoritatively on the subject, but a careful county by county and school by school study can reveal the actual conditions. Such a careful study is now in progress, as are similar field studies of other prob¬ lems. However, the present decreased appropriations for travel offer a con¬ siderable setback to the continuance of this type of investigation. Finally, the reduction in appropriation has two other serious consequences : one, reductions in the number of publications and in the number of copies of publications available for distribution, which is a research agency’s prin¬ cipal means of making itself heard ; and the other, the suspension of the Commissioner’s program of national surveys. The Survey of Secondary Edu¬ cation is just now being brought to a successful close; of the two in prog¬ ress, the Teacher Education Survey suffered a reduction which will curtail the printing of its reports, and the Survey of School Finance which had been authorized by Congress at a cost not to exceed $350,000, was cut off entirely after one year’s work at a cost of $50,000. Its program included a study of the educational effects of certain economies in school expenditures ; the formu¬ lation of standards for determining reasonable school costs ; basic facts needed by state legislatures in distributing state aid; and other studies of major importance at the present time. Under a grant of $25,000 from the Gen¬ eral Education Board certain of the finance studies will be continued for a short time, with the hope that Congress will later appropriate the neces¬ sary funds for the completion of the study. It is evident that educational agencies everywhere, in common with other public and private agencies, must effect economies and suffer retrenchments. Whether these shall be temporary or permanent, and whether retrench¬ ments in fundamental programs or only suspension of practise, must depend very largely upon the educational profession. General Sessions 163 THE CAUSE AND CURE OF HUMAN STUPIDITY WALTER B. PITKIN, PSYCHOLOGIST AND AUTHOR, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. I here are, as you know, a little more than two billion people in the world today ; and as a matter of charity I am going to leave out of the roll of this great census of the stupid, the children under fifteen because they haven’t had a fair break yet. So we take out that third of the human race which is under fifteen, and that leaves us about 1,330,000,000 people that are the sub¬ ject of our census. We find that in all the people living in the tropics there are easily 400,000,000 cases of people of marked stupidity, well below what we like to call average in the school sense of the term, due to nothing but the climate, due to nothing but the hot and humid air of the equatorial regions. Most of these people are suffering from some form of tropic neurasthenia or tropic enemia. The blood in their bodies is in the wrong place. Wherever it is, it isn’t in their heads. The result is their heads do not function properly. And then we find, and some of the medical research men have already told us in interesting and learned volumes, that a large number of these people and others quite early in the game ruined their mental equilibrium by heavy drinking, for heavy drinking takes the blood away from the surface of the body and puts it back into the organs, including the brain. So in order to regain some of their balance, they proceed to drink as much rum as they can swallow and we find perhaps 300,000,000 more cases of tropical alco¬ holism, some of which was produced by the tropical disease of the climate alone, a total analysis of 700,000,000 cases. Then we find, according to the reports, 75,000,000 still in the tropics, all suffering from drug addiction chiefly because of the climate. We find that the Rockefeller Institute declares that among a billion people exposed con¬ tinually to hookworm there are intermittently somewhere between 250,- 000,000 and 300,000,000 people suffering from hookworm. We find malaria is spreading in the tropics instead of receding. Great sections of the Ganges Valley, once filled wdth great cities, are now depopulated by the spread of malaria, and those who are not killed by it are rendered stupid, not neces¬ sarily so for all of their lives, but enough so that we can put them in this little census. Of these victims, we find there are 500,000,000 cases, on the basis of the census of various parts of the tropics. Then we find various tropical diseases involving anywhere from 200,000,000 to 300,000,000 more cases. We move on into the temperate zone, where most of the work of the schools is and your business happens to lie, and we find from the reports on malnu¬ trition and the effect of that on the mind of the growing child and adult, and taking the United States as an example of the world, which is a very decided charity you will all admit, we find somewhere around 25 percent of the whole world’s population is more or less stupid, either from too little food or from the wrong food. So we set down there something like 430,000,- 000 more cases. 164 National Education Association Then we find studies into fatigue, made by various industrial specialists here, in Europe, in China, and Japan. We find again a percentage of people who are incompetents as a result of over-work, either thru too long hours, too great concentration, too monotonous labor or the like, and this runs into something like 250,000,000 for the world at large. Then we add to this the fairly well-reported cases of temperate zone alcoholism, particularly in Russia, and we can get, I find, another 250,000,- 000 cases without the slightest effort. And now we come finally to the cases the intelligence testers like to test today, the feeble-minded, the insane, the low-grade imbecile, the high-grade imbecile, and we find that probably there are not more than 50,000,000 to 150,000,000 cases of that sort that conservatively could be counted in the world’s census of stupidity — anywhere from around 2.5 to 4 percent ac¬ cording to which kind of a measure you like to use. And when we have got this list we stop and draw a deep breath and try to add it and the best adding I could do brings the total number of cases of stupidity due to the causes I have named up to somewhere around three times the total population of the earth, which is a pretty high number. And I think of this total perhaps two and a half percent can honestly, on the basis of tests, be put into the category of the moron, the dull, the insane, the serious epileptic, the idiot. So we have at least 97, or 96 people out of every 100 people in the world with all their dullness probably due mostly to the kind of a world in which they have been living and not to the kind of a brain they happen to be born with. That changes the picture, don’t you think so? And it carries with it a number of very significant implications, I think, with regard to education, its policy, what people should expect of the schools, and what the schools should expect of the public. The trouble with the children in the schools is that they bring such a bad nervous system along with them to the schools. The trouble is the kind of a world they come from and if you like, with the biologists, you can say their trouble is their environment and let it go at that. If that is true in 97 out of 100 cases, there seems to me to be a very peculiar implication. It seems to me if the public wants the schools to produce a civilization, the main job of your school teachers is not to educate pupils. Your main job is to remodel the world. That is all. If out of every 100 children you get 97 of them — I am speaking of the world now and not you personally — if in the world at large the schools have to do with inferior material, which, 97 times out of 100, is due to bad climate, the diseases impending, bad clothing, over-work, bad hours of sleep, and all these other factors that I am enumerating, doesn’t it seem a plain matter of common sense and logic that the way to improve the results in the school is, first of all, to work on the place the pupils come from? I can’t see any escape from that conclusion. Now I don’t believe the school teacher is to turn into a socalled reformer, nothing of that sort, but I do mean a number of very definite things, some of which I am going to men¬ tion. General Sessions 165 When you go all over the world and study the statistics of public welfare in the different countries ranging from little places like Albania where the average man makes $13 a year, thru countries like India where conditions of plain physical existence are so low, the heat is so oppressive, the insects of that place are so terrible that as long as those conditions endure there isn’t any possibility of education in the sense in which you talk about it, and when you think that in the United States nearly one-half of the children who come into the schools are, according to the officials who study it, suffering from malnutrition, and realize that our children are much better off than those of the rest of the world, and when you see the effects on their mental re¬ actions of under-fed and badly fed children on their school records, I don’t see any escape from the conclusion I stated a minute ago. The job of the school isn’t education — it is 3 percent education, perhaps; the job is somehow or other improving things outside so that you have the right kind of raw material to work upon. If your raw material is wrong, make it right before wasting your time and effort upon it, and if making it right means going out and seeing that the enormous limiting effects of physical environment and social environment are blocking you, make that your first business. You have got to begin with very simple things. You have got to help banish bad climate. It sounds like a simple job. Maybe it sounds like an advertisement to some of you, but when you stop to think that one-half of the human race is dull and witless because of stupidity, you may agree with me that probably fifty years from today the N. E. A. when it meets in con¬ vention and the first great achievement in the conquest of climate will have been made, the people sitting in this room or in the same assembly will admit clearly the conquest of climate has done perhaps twenty-five times as much to deliver the world from stupidity and viciousness as all of the school teach¬ ing ever did. And that is not the fault of the school teacher. You thru clear thinking see it is a thing outside of the teacher. It is the Serpent in the Garden and what comes to you has been bitten by that serpent before you could ever treat it. So think of yourselves, then, as modelers of the physical world and treat education as rather a pleasant side line. A SURVEY OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION JOHN K. NORTON, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. In the coming year the school systems of many communities face the dilemma of more work to do with less money to spend. Powerful agencies are in action, which from one motive or another would rob the schools of the gains they have made since the close of the World War. In such a time it is of supreme importance that the professional organizations of teachers should be maintained at the highest level of efficiency. This applies alike to local, state, and national teachers’ organizations. Thru these agencies the 166 National Education Association piofession possesses one of the most effective means of preventing selfish or short-sighted action against the schools. We who are privileged to attend this convention have no more vital pro¬ fessional duty than to see that the role which the National Education Asso¬ ciation plays in a period such as the present is carried vigorously and con- cietely to oui colleagues who are not in attendance. If we are to discharge this obligation effectively it is necessary that we be wellinformed concern¬ ing the program of the National Education Association and the administra¬ tive organization and personnel thru which this program is translated into action. 1 herefore, let us go together for a few minutes to the Washington head- quaiters building of the National Education Association. Here is a modern, well-planned, but not extravagant building of seven stories located on an adequate plot of land at the intersection of two of the strategic streets of the capital city. Let us go into the building. Entering thru the simple, but beautiful Six¬ teenth Street entrance we come into a spacious lobby graced by a fine statue of Horace Mann. “Ladies and gentlemen,” we might say, if we were to adopt the technic of the tourist guide, “you have now entered the head¬ quarters of the greatest publisher of educational literature that exists in the world!” For it is a fact that last year no less than 3,000,000 copies of pub¬ lications dealing with the schools were mailed out by the National Educa¬ tion Association. No other agency approaches this figure. Let us proceed to the third floor where the E)ivision of Publications is housed. Here is found those responsible for planning and editing that fine professional Journal with which you are all familiar. Much of the progress made in the field of educational journalism during the last decade can be directly traced to the influence of the Journal. The Division of Publications is also responsible for the editorial manage¬ ment of a wide series of association and departmental publications of a peri¬ odical nature such as the V olume of Proceedings , the yearbooks, as well as for a large number of occasional reports issued in response to special educa¬ tional needs. Appropriately connected with this Division is another important function — that of developing a program of educational interpretation. This involves the organization of the effective convention publicity which has come to be a characteristic of our conventions, the developing of avenues for the dissemi¬ nation of information thru newspapers and lay magazines, the arranging of radio broadcasts, and the encouragement of sound programs of continuing educational publicity by the nation’s thousands of school systems. The effect of the Association s program of publication and educational in¬ terpretation can hardly be over-estimated. It would be the most short-sighted folly if we were to permit the restriction of this vital service to the profes¬ sion and to childhood. More than ever, during the coming year, every teacher needs the encouragement and inspiration the Journal provides. Clear under¬ standing of the work and purpose of the school will be needed more than General Sessions 167 ever in 1932-33 if the schools are to hold their own. It is the duty of every one of us to see that the support necessary to the continuance and improve¬ ment of the vital service rendered by the Journal is provided. Let us next proceed to a division with quite a different function, that of Records and Membership. Most of us have had experience in keeping a class register of 30 or 40 pupils. Others have organized files necessary to account for the children of a school of a few hundred children. Still others may have had contact with the records of a continuing school census of a city. But even if we have done all of these things, few of us understand the work involved in keeping track of a quarter of a million school teachers. That is one of the jobs of the Division of Records and Membership. Here are handled by the most efficient machine methods, the various membership files of the Associa¬ tion, its numerous departments, and its many publication lists. Believe it or not, this Division is striving with might and main to work itself out of a job. It has already succeeded in doing this in large measure in Hawaii and Pennsylvania. Both Hawaii and Pennsylvania use the conclu¬ sive membership plan whereby teachers may enrol at the same time in local, state, and national associations. May I recall that Hawaii has the highest percentage of teacher membership of any other state or territory. May I also recall, altho it hurts me to do it, because of my California and New York connections, that Pennsylvania has more members in the National Education Association than any other state. Other states are in part follow¬ ing the example of these two pioneers. If more would do so, it would permit the Membership Division still further to cut down the overhead of mem¬ bership collection with a consequent increase in the direct service which could be rendered the profession by the Association. Let us next look in upon the Association’s Field Division. Among the evidences of work accomplished which this active Division has to display is a huge map of the United States which geographically locates the many contacts which have been built up with lay leaders and lay organizations thruout the nation. The Field Division is also responsible for promoting the movement for a Department of Education. One of the great milestones in the progress of that movement was reached this year when the National Advisory Committee on Education, appointed by the President of the United States, brought in a report which urged the creation of a Federal Depart¬ ment of Education with a secretary in the Cabinet of the President. One of the characteristics of the National Education Association is its all-inclusive quality. It is an organization to which all school people may belong — teachers, supervisors, and executives. At the same time it offers channels thru which groups within the profession may work upon their pe¬ culiar problems and express their particular viewpoints. The Division of Classroom Service in the headquarters of the Association is an expression of this latter fact. This Division exists primarily to serve the needs of the classroom teachers of the nation. Its program is too varied to permit summary. The Division offers a means of contact between the offi¬ cers of the Department of Classroom Teachers and its far-flung membership; 168 National Education Association it assists in the preparation of the News Bulletin and the valuable series of yearbooks sponsored by the classroom teachers. These are but a few of the important services rendered by the Division of Classroom Service to the pro¬ fession. The National Education Association is, first of all, an educational or¬ ganization, but it is also a business organization. It lists assets of more than a million dollars. It annually expends more than half a million dollars. The responsibility for the administration of the Association’s business activities is delegated to the Business Division. This work includes the purchase of supplies, the physical operation of the headquarters building, the solicitation of Journal advertising, the management of convention exhibits, the account¬ ing for funds, the provision of meeting halls and the arrangement of the thousands of details which are essential to the smooth operation of the Asso¬ ciation’s annual conventions. Working with the Business Division is the small but important Division of Accounts, which regularly issues understandable statements of the Asso¬ ciation’s financial condition, supplies the facts necessary for the intelligent preparation of the annual budget and for its effective administration thru- out the year. In the decade since its establishment the Research Division has become the source of a series of important services to the profession. During these ten years the Division has issued fifty Research Bulletins which have had a total circulation of approximately one million copies, it has sold $100,000 worth of publications and in addition has supplied the Association’s members with tens of thousands of free copies of its publications and has answered 100,000 letters from members in the field requesting information or advice on edu¬ cational matters. The Research Division has made the Association the principal source of information on teachers’ salaries and renders direct service annually to hun¬ dreds of communities each year in the field. Its studies did much to advance the trend in the last decade from the old piecemeal method of paying teachers to the principle of long-time planning and salary scheduling. A wellknown economist recently listed the work of the National Education Association as one of the three major factors responsible for the relatively large gain in real earnings of teachers in the last decade. The existence of salary schedules has been one of the vital factors which has thus far operated to prevent the wholesale slashing of the salary gains made between 1920 and 1930. The Research Division’s studies in the fields of school finance, and educational administration are everywhere accepted as authoritative and have exercised important influence in promoting educational advance. In the headquarters of the National Education Association will be found the Division of Administrative Service. Its major work is with the De¬ partment of Superintendence. The service of this department to educa¬ tional leadership thru its conventions, yearbooks, and other activities is too wellknown to require development. In the management of the two great annual conventions of the Association, in the conduct of research projects, in General Sessions 169 the publication of professional literature, and in other ways, the Head¬ quarters Division of the National Education Association and the Depart¬ ment of Superintendence constitute one organization so far as cooperative endeavor is concerned. This is an outcome of the vision and spirit of un¬ selfish cooperation which Mr. Crabtree, secretary of the National Educa¬ tion Association, and Mr. Shankland, secretary of the Department of Superintendence, have exhibited in the development of the program of serv¬ ice which issues from the headquarters building. Profiting from the experience of the Department of Superintendence, two other departments have recently appointed executive secretaries at head¬ quarters. The Department of Elementary School Principals and the De¬ partment of Deans of Women have recently created offices in the head¬ quarters building to carry forward their professional programs. The contribution which the program of the National Education Associa¬ tion has made to educational advance is incalculable. The need for the con¬ tinuance of that work was never greater than in 1932-33. Some of the delegates of this convention are able to testify as to the evil results which accrue when a school system is required to carry an increased burden on a decreased budget. We must not let this happen to the National Education Association. This organization is being called upon to perform the work of normal times and is also attempting to do additional work to meet the special needs of the profession growing out of the depression. We may count upon full cooperation from our headquarters staff. Under the inspiring and dynamic leadership of President Florence Hale, the staff has rendered the most significant year’s service that the profession has yet enjoyed. At the same time, thru rigid economies, a total of $21,000 has been saved from the budget appropriations which were authorized a year ago. As a consequence the Association enters the new year in a sound financial condition. Let us see that the membership income is such during the coming year that the same may be said a year from now. Let us pledge ourselves whether we be principals or superintendents of schools, supervisors or college professors, teachers in active service or on retirement allowances, to guar¬ antee that the membership income is provided which is essential to the un¬ diminished continuance of the Association’s service to the profession and to the childhood of America. THE NEW DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION ERNEST D. LEWIS, PRESIDENT, N. E. A. DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCA¬ TION ; AND CHAIRMAN, DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE, EVANDER CHILDS HIGH SCHOOL, NEW YORK, N. Y. I he high schools are at the very center of a civilization that is rapidly changing; into them are crowding, in ever-increasing numbers, the children of all the people ; and society is demanding from them instruction suited to the highly complex life of today. Furthermore, the introduction into the educa¬ tional system itself of the experimental and scientific attitude toward its 170 National Education Association product has made apparent many weaknesses and has pointed the way to more satisfactory methods of teaching than those now in use. Taken altogether our high schools are rapidly drifting from old moorings and sailing somewhat uncertainly on uncharted seas. To help steer the edu¬ cational craft so that our young people will not suffer during this transition period, is the duty of our high-school teachers. Better equipped than ever before to face and solve educational problems, high-school teachers should, thru a national professional organization, make their experience and abili¬ ties count. With some such thought in mind, the National Education Association, at its meeting in Los Angeles, revived the Department of Secondary Educa¬ tion, which has devoted the present year to organization, and is now ready for active work. What are some of the changes that the new department must help to bring about? It is evident that the high-school diploma of the future must cover a greater variety of subjects, suited to students with differing aptitudes and possibilities. More careful consideration must be given to the individual, especially in the large urban high schools. His abilities and his emotional responses must be carefully studied, documented perhaps, and guided. Meth¬ ods of instruction must, however, be less standardized than at present, vary¬ ing much with the needs of the individual and with the needs of the com¬ munity in which the individual lives. More and better training in the arts and in literature, as opportunities for the use of leisure, must play a larger part in the education of the adolescent. Other readjustments will easily suggest themselves to all teachers of high- school pupils. There must be wider opportunities for vocational training that leads somewhere and not into blind alleys. Character training must be charted and systematized so that it will provide the necessary stamina to meet the complex life of the present. Above all, there must be more careful preparation for meeting the many social obligations that American life of the twentieth century places upon young and old. To solve some of these problems will demand the best thought of the teachers in the secondary schools of the United States, and is the outstand¬ ing argument for a national organization such as the Department of Sec¬ ondary Education. HELPING PUPILS TO CHOOSE A VOCATION WILLIAM T. MELCHIOR, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY, SYRACUSE, N. Y. Recently, at an informal gathering in New York State, Owen D. Young, Judge Lytle of New York, Dr. Skinner of Tufts College, Lou Heaton of the New York Herald-Tribune stressed one fundamental fact — that the young men and women today cannot be choosers of jobs; they must, of necessity, go into the world so trained and with such a fundamental con- General Sessions 171 ception and philosophy of life as to fit into the patterns they find — not dilly¬ dally until they find the pattern they would like. Life’s occupations require not primarily an initial selection on the part of the individual, but rather a succession of adjustments and readjustments. Emotional stability, physical adaptability, mental acuity, social attitude, spiritual strength ; these, since Cain and Abel toiled and fought, ever have been factors in man’s success in a vocation. An early understanding on the part of the boys and girls of their economic responsibility to society cannot help bringing with it an understanding of the need for a sincere consideration of a life vocation. But, “choosing a vo¬ cation” involves elements other than the economic. The California Commission for the Study of Educational Problems re¬ ports: “There is reason to believe that for thousands of high-school gradu¬ ates who cannot go to college, Commencement day is the day on which they commence to wonder for the first time what they should do to earn a living.” This condition seemed to concern the Commission, as it does most citizens and many school men. I am not particularly worried over this. However, I am concerned whether or not, in that high-school course and in the grades preceding, those graduates have learned wholesome attitudes toward voca¬ tions, habits, and general attitudes essential to success in any vocation. I am concerned about their understanding of at least some of life’s problems, and the mastery of certain skills to cope with some of those problems. Human energy is wasted, lives misspent; misery and disaster result from the lack of ability to adjust self to changing environment, and from inability to readjust the environment — lack of ability to conform and to transform and from inability to select a vocation, an avocation, and companionships. We must accept psychological and sociological evidence and aim definitely and basically at pupils understanding their relationships to the lives of others, and at inculcating habits and attitudes to strengthen the desired relationship. The essence of guidance is not new. Long ago Comenius said, “Education is the development of the whole man.” Every boy and girl who has been given a foursquare education, physical, mental, social, and spiritual, has been helped to choose a vocation. Valuable as is organized guidance, with its spe¬ cial aims, materials, and procedures, the fact remains that “Guidance is, in essence, an integral part of each step in conscious education.” Each step is based on guiding principles. The remotest rural teacher, limited in mate¬ rials of instruction and in training, will more effectively help pupils toward life’s adjustments if motivated by the Cardinal Principles of Education. She will plan, select her materials, teach better if she daily says: “My duty is to develop the whole child. This means I must teach for better health, strong devotion to home, enlightened citizenship, worthy use of leisure, ethical character, a command of fundamentals, and vocational efficiency.” I hope she will add esthetic appreciation. To her the terms may be vague gener¬ alizations, but they will lead to more specific teaching. These principles are basic in all teaching. True teaching is guidance! 172 National Education Association Pupils will be studying and doing research for firsthand information on cotton growing, automobile manufacturing, mining, dairying, lumbering, transportation, and distribution. Now, the teacher who consciously is aiming toward helping pupils choose a vocation will include the direction necessary and give the guidance necessary to stimulate pupils to think of these life problems as vocational problems. No longer, then, will pupils only list natu¬ ral resources, occupations, and products. They will see the relationship of the natural resource to the vocation. They will see what the job really is. I want to stress the importance of this ; namely, that teachers very con¬ sciously so guide project work, large unit work, problem work, that pupils find out more about the actual work involved in the industry under con¬ sideration. To do so cannot detract from the cultural value, the academic requirement, the pupil interest. On the contrary, it will enhance the values of these and in addition make far more vivid and real the very facts and knowledges the teacher insists upon. In addition, the learning process will be more satisfactory to pupils, hence more readily mastered. This method of using curriculum materials not only leads to curriculum understanding and facilitation of the learning process, but will afford actual social, life situations. Pupils will learn, more than they have in the past, the lessons of cooperation. Cooperation means more than getting along to¬ gether. It means sympathetically, understanding^, working together. It means understanding the other fellow’s environment, opportunities, and capacities, and adapting oneself to them. Pupil leaders will have a greater opportunity to develop, and yet these same potential leaders will more than ever find themselves dependent upon higher authorities. There will be no completing the job ahead of the others, there will be no “finishing the les¬ son.” There will always be new truths, new associations to dig out of libraries, stores, factories, banks, offices, to which groups will go for first¬ hand information. Pupils from one school system will send to other schools, and receive in return from them, narrative, descriptive, expository material on local occupations. Thus they will be getting not only facts and under¬ standing, but lessons in cooperative activities. I realize, of course, that there is nothing I have said about philosophy, content, and method that is new’ in American education. What I have tried to do is to put a reemphasis upon the three essentials of all education as they apply to vocational guidance. If, instead of waiting until the child had reached the fourth or fifth grade, the course of study was so planned that when he first entered school, even in the kindergarten, his knowledge of occupa¬ tions could be increased, his interest in occupational life would be intensi¬ fied. As he advanced from grade to grade he would learn more of occupa¬ tions and the training and qualifications required for them. If it should be necessary for him to leave school at an early age or even in a lower grade, he would leave understanding in some measure at least the limitation of his life. Instead of idly sitting by, waiting for the return of those super-inflated days known as prosperity for money enough to introduce any elaborate guid- General Sessions 173 ance program, there is a challenge to improve child growth thru teacher growth by philosophic, creative, cooperative, and scientific supervision. Teachers in service', during these days of strain and stress, can, by an en¬ riched philosophy and improved method, make of their schoolroom at least one place in which there is happiness, composure, and lack of nervous ten¬ sion. In this atmosphere, vocational choices unconsciously will be develop¬ ing. These are no fanciful dreams. I see them happening every week in classrooms conducted by teachers working in this philosophic, creative, co¬ operative, and scientific supervisory program. In these schools, boys and girls are achieving as they discover their own general interest, general abilities, and general aptitudes. They are learning both when under restraint and when left to their own devices. They are learning that school is life and that this life is preparing them for life’s work. In these schools, helping pupils to choose a vocation is not a named course, a separate unit. Here, in these schools, in which I spend one happy, full day once a week, I see boys and girls preparing for life and work, for “The End Crowns the Work.” THE NEW DAY AND THE NEW PHYSICAL EDUCATION JAMES EDWARD ROGERS, DIRECTOR, NATIONAL PHYSICAL EDUCATION SERVICE, NEW YORK, N. Y. The public schools are as much responsible for physical literacy as for mental literacy. Physical illiteracy is on an increase in this country. In the future it will be increasingly more difficult for boys and girls to live physi¬ cally well and to keep fit. The schools therefore must provide not only for the mental training of youth but also for their physical and health education. This industrial high-speed civilization is doing damage to the physique of our people. Rapid changes from a rural to an urban population and from an agricultural to an industrial life dominated by the mechanical machine has caused the rapid rise of a new set of national diseases that play havoc with the race, especially in the ages of middle life. We have three new na¬ tional diseases; (1) physical breakdowns, (2) mental breakdowns, and (3) nervous breakdowns. It seems as tho the human machine is cracking under the stress and strain of modern tension and speed. We have conquered communicable diseases, increased the longevity of life in the years preceding the forties and decreased child mortality, yet there is an increase in the death rate of adults between the ages of forty and sixty- five* This is due to functional disorders of the heart, lungs, liver, kidneys, and stomach. These vital organs, essential to life and wellbeing, depend upon big muscle activity. They were taken care of when men lived out-of- doors and did the work of the world with the use of their arms and legs — the big muscles. It is recorded that 60 percent of our school children have physical defects. The draft statistics show that one-third of our young men were unfit to don the uniform. Life extension societies show an increase in the death rate in the ages of middle life. The antidote is more out-of-door 174 National Education Association living, more big muscle activities thru sports and games, and a balanced ration of work, play, and rest. Because of these facts physical education has become an important part of the school curriculum. As education has changed, so physical education has progressed. It is no longer physical culture — the building of big muscles and strong men. It is no longer physical training — the developing of the acrobat and the athletic star. It is now physical education — education not of the physical but thru the physical. The need is clear. If we are to survive this period of readjustment we must make educational provisions for people to continue their education and to enrich their lives. People want to prepare for the problems of presentday living. They want to recover the opportunities they have missed. What the American people do in their spare time will largely determine the character of our civilization. The problem can be met largely by cooperation. Community educational agencies, together with the many other community groups, must provide programs to meet the needs. Much is being done ; more must be done. Re¬ cent surveys have shown that there are many national, state, and local organ¬ izations sponsoring informal educational programs. One is often surprised to know what the N. C. P. T., the Federation of Women’s Clubs, the Y. M. C. A., the Y. W. C. A., the American Library Association, local art gal¬ leries, municipal museums, and many others are doing. One is impressed with the educational programs fostered by the American Association of Museums and the American Library Association. Are you familiar with their activi¬ ties? You would be surprised, if you were to list all the organizations in your local community, to find many fine programs. However, the great need is to mobilize all these forces in a common cooperative effort to see that all adults who have missed their chance are cared for. The solution is clear. If educators will get the concept that informal edu¬ cation is as important as formal, that avocational education is as important as vocational education for labor, then we will be prepared to meet the demands of this civilization which is now in the midst of fundamental changes. The solution calls for progressive education in adult education. Education must furnish the leadership and the program. We must have the larger vision that education is a total continuous life process and is not concerned with simply the 12 grades but with the development of the whole individual thruout his life. The National Education Association has recognized this challenge and has appointed the National Commission on the Enrichment of Adult Life. THE PRACTICAL SIDE OF THE NEW EDUCATION R. L. COOLEY, PRINCIPAL, MILWAUKEE VOCATIONAL SCHOOL, MILWAUKEE, WIS. Twenty years at the crossroads, meeting the people who come from the door of the school into employment, leads to the observation that there is no such thing, in this observer’s experience, as “the new education.” There General Sessions 175 is a need for greater freedom, a freedom generally accorded the scientist, a freedom which permits our schools to ascertain certain facts and then go wherever the facts lead. In the seventeenth century, Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi said: “There shall be in the future no dirty, hungry, ignorant, awkward, thankless, will¬ less mass, devoted alone to animal existence. We can never rid ourselves of the lower classes by having the wealthy give them something or even their all. We can rid ourselves of them in the sense that the possibility of culture and self-support shall be open to everyone. Ignorance and rudeness and the vice which springs from them and the malevolent frame of mind that hates civil laws and ordinances and generates crime shall disappear.” We need not only be practical in education, which means to put the proper evaluation upon the cultural, as well as the manual manipulative processes commonly called “vocational education,” but we need to be prac¬ tical about the present economic and financial situation with respect to edu¬ cation. The people who tell us that there is one governmental unproductive officeholder upon the backs of every twelve men, women, and children in the United States would have us feel that the governmental employee, be he teacher or acting in any other capacity, is being carried on the backs of private business and the people in private business. They'would have us think that if two men are in a boat, one having a pair of oars in his hands and rowing, and the other riding, a dead weight in the boat, we have there a true picture of private business carrying the burden of government and paying the wages of public employees. They would have one think that a man making pine sticks into kiddycars in private business is paying the bill, while the teacher is making no economic contribution when he is engaged in building boys into men. Except that those who have been assiduously spreading this conception of public employment wish to make the public feel that the money paid in taxation is expended for things that do not contribute to our productivity and thus furnish the wealth from which taxes are extracted, their illustra¬ tion would be without point. The science of economics knows no difference between people in public or private employment — all it insists upon, in order to give a favorable ac¬ counting, is that the service rendered shall be a necessary one and profitable to have performed. The science of economics does not inquire as to whether the service so rendered is public or private in its nature. “God’s patient poor” do not care whether those they are carrying on their backs are engaged in public or private employment, and when it comes to reposing on the backs of “God’s patient poor,” or “impatient rich,” no one wants anyone there. The service of the teacher can be matched with any of the other wealth- producing services in the country as to its favorable effect upon economic conditions. Because the modest financial status of the teaching profession in many localities has for the moment become the envy of some of the embarrassed middle class and an annoyance to the wealthy, many who object to the cry 176 National Education Association of “soak the rich” are leaders of the pack raising the cry of “soak the teachers.” In these times, however, there are appearing many fine and powerful friends of the schools, and our concern as teachers must be to be worthy of them. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND THE PRESENT CRISIS WILLIS A. SUTTON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ATLANTA, GA. The making of a living is absolutely necessary to the making of a life. Bread and meat must precede sonnets, pictures, or sculpture. Vocational edu¬ cation is therefore the primary need in the whole field of education. The complexity of modern life demands more and more of vocational education. When the family needs were simple and when agriculture and homemaking constituted the only two vocations in primitive society there was little need of vocational schools or of vocational classes, but when life has become so complex and when home life has been restricted to a hole in the wall, high up in the cliff dwellings, then vocational education becomes an absolute necessity. The complexity of life in itself makes vocational education a necessity, but the mobility of population and the radical and swift changes in ways and means of living, the inventions and discoveries which were in their prime yesterday — obsolete today — bring on a need for a different type of vocational education and make it a necessity for schools to plan vocational courses in such a way that they will re-educate, retrain, and redirect the energies of people into new vocations and new channels. In the present crisis vocational education must not only apply to the young in the high schools and in the vocational schools of the country, but must apply to the adult population even up to fifty and sixty years of age. The blacksmith must be retrained for a new position, the bookkeeper must be readjusted into machine accounting; the man or woman who tied the threads at the old looms must be retrained to manipulate the machines that tie the threads at the new looms. The driver of horses must be retrained into a mechanic and into a driver of trucks. The man who took care of the oxen or fed the horses must be retrained to build a hangar, to adjust an aeroplane, and to study an internal combustion engine ; the old teller at the bank must be made over into a new cashier. So vocational education becomes, as never before, an absolute necessity. 'The greatest preparation for vocational training is the education of the whole man, is seeing to it that in high schools, colleges, elementary schools, and kindergartens the development of the physical man, the care of the whole body, the study of recreation and pleasure, the knowledge of the classics, the understanding of literature, painting, sculpture, music, and fine art shall make a well-rounded man who has his entire soul attuned to the highest and best that is in the universe and that this shall be the basis and the background for vocational education. Therefore, today, as never before General Sessions 177 in all history is education in general more definitely tied up and more en¬ thusiastically interested in vocational education, and therefore is vocational education more definitely integrated with what we have been pleased to call general education and both shall lose themselves in their title into the educa¬ tion of the whole man. At no time in history has there been such a need that people who have classified themselves as educators along the general line shall be interested in the development of, the maintaining of, and the ongoing of the great voca¬ tional field. It is out of these vocations and out of the money that they help to create and the positions which they give to our people that we shall find revenue to run what we call our regular educational work. Unity must be the watchword of all educational work. DEFINITE BENEFITS OF NATIONAL, STATE, AND LOCAL TEACHER ORGANIZATIONS ROY W. CLOUD, SECRETARY, CALIFORNIA TEACHERS ASSOCIATION, SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF. In preparing the articles of incorporation of the National Teachers Asso¬ ciation at Philadelphia in August, 1857, the purpose given was “To elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in the United States.” That purpose was indeed worthy of the founders and set forth a program which has been followed and which has helped to build a civilization in our country of which we can be justly proud. In 1863 the state teachers association of which I am a member was or¬ ganized. The preamble to its constitution reads: We as teachers of California, in order to further the educational interests of the state, to give efficiency to our school system, to furnish a practical basis among those devoted to the cause in which we are engaged, and for those purposes to elevate the office of teacher to its true rank among the professions, do hereby adopt the following constitution. Under such a guiding influence the teachers of the state for many years have enroled and have worked for the welfare of the boys and girls who came under their leadership. It is probable that every state educational asso¬ ciation in our country has a similar idea expressed in its corporate law. Basing their declaration of principles upon those of the state organization, most of the local associations have set standards for their members which are in the highest degree worthy. Any organizations which have as their principal tenet the raising of the ideals of their members are bound to prosper. Every state in the United States of America has a teachers association. J here are many local teacher organizations within each state. Thus is formed a great chain of many links and the master link should be the National Education Association. 178 National Education Association Teachers often ask what the benefits of a teachers association are. The common question is “What has the association ever done for me?” The function of the National Education Association should be to fix policies of educational worth and determine standards to which the individual states should strive to attain. It should be the great fact finding organization. If New York has an unusually fine program of education, the teachers of the other states should be informed and should be given information as to how they might secure similar opportunities for their boys and girls. When North Carolina or Missouri are given the benefit of new and improved school conditions, all of the circumstances surrounding the change should be brought to the notice of the rest of the country. Similarly when the state of Mississippi is endeavoring to keep its schools open to the best material to be found in textbooks for the elementary grades, the teachers of Mississippi should have information which will guide them in their study and deliberation. The National Education Association, then, is the policy fixing, the fact finding, and the fact distributing body of the teacher organizations. Advice and help should be ready at all times. When particular information is asked for assistance should be forthcoming. New ideas and research studies may be supplied to all members of the organization thru the official publication or thru bulletins prepared for a specific purpose. The benefits secured thru such procedure would be many. As solidarity of purpose and desire for achievement have been actuating principles of the National Education Association from its inception, we can state that the teachers of the nation have been brought into closer relation¬ ship thru its operation. It has raised the standards of the profession. It has furnished factual materials. It has provided informational and inspirational speakers at its meetings and has given its members the satisfying knowledge that they belong to a real profession and that theirs is one of the most worth¬ while occupations open to any citizen of the land. The state teachers association as it functions in the United States is a policy forming organization. But besides that it must put into operation movements which will bring about good school conditions. Those in control of its operation must inaugurate procedure which will operate for the wel¬ fare of the schools and for the teachers employed therein. It must bind the teachers of the state into a single unit to accomplish its purpose. The National Education Association has benefited the teachers definitely by its great programs, its research material, and by instilling into its mem¬ bers the knowledge that there are ethics of the profession which all should attempt to follow. The state associations have aided education by their legislative programs, by their conventions which have annually brought edu¬ cators of prominence and ability into the state, by their state journals which have brought monthly messages of advice and encouragement, and by their studies which have elevated the standards of teaching. General Sessions 179 Local organizations have directly benefited society by shaping public opinion. The teachers in all of the schools come into daily contact with homes of all of the people. Thru the fine wholesome attitudes they have taken and thru solving problems of professional and civic importance they have been able to influence the citizens of the country. Better schools, im¬ proved working conditions, longer school terms, higher standards of certifi¬ cation, and adequate programs have been the results. So far this paper has dealt in generalities. For a few minutes a definite piogram of advantage should be stressed. Teacher associations have been of direct benefit because they have brought the teachers together as a unit for better school conditions. By this unification they have caused the teachers to have higher ideals and better ethical standards. It is probable that there is no other piofession in which the members so universally seek self-improve¬ ment. Enrolment in extension courses, in correspondence work and at sum¬ mer schools thruout the land is increasing yearly and the percentage of teachers seeking self-improvement is growing by leaps and bounds. To teacher organizations must go the credit of demanding higher stand¬ ards of certification. This demand has caused the lengthening of the train¬ ing courses which a student must follow before a credential can be secured. Thus the educational qualifications of teachers have been improved. It was not very long ago that two terms of three months each constituted a fairly good school program in many of the states of the Union. To be sure the pupils in the city schools had an opportunity of more hours in school but in the rural sections the pupils had their chores to perform. The amount of education for the farm boys and girls was therefore limited. Today the average length of the school year has grown perceptibly ; and while an equal educational opportunity is not yet the right of every child in America, the educational associations, national, state, and local, are responsible for laws which have lengthened the school year and have made equalization funds available in many sections of the country. First a slogan was made common. It was “Collect the money where the wealth is found and distribute it where the children live. That slogan has caused the establishment of many fine schools in rural areas. In those schools are trained teachers who are con¬ ducting up to the minute, worthwhile programs. Another contribution of the associations is rural supervision. Many of us have served as county superintendents of schools. We could visit our various districts once or twice a year. We could offer very little help because our contacts weie so infrequent and of such short duration. Rural supervision has made possible frequent visits of trained workers. Their messages and work have brought a new order of education. It would be possible to talk of retirement, increased revenues for educa¬ tion, free textbooks, sabbatical leave, and other association achievements. Schools and school procedure have changed and most of the changes have come thru the studies of the committees of the teacher associations. The studies have become findings and the findings have caused laws to be enacted which have brought about a changed order of education. 180 National Education Association THE DUTY OF ASSOCIATIONS TOWARD UNEMPLOYED AND AGED TEACHERS E. RUTH PYRTLE, PRINCIPAL, BANCROFT SCHOOL, LINCOLN, NEBR. To help lead us out of our present economic “slough of despond,” the teachers organizations have definite responsibility and opportunity. In this brief discussion I shall limit my suggestions to four points that need study and understanding by the teaching profession and the public to aid in the solution of present economic conditions. Definite plans of study set up by local, state, and national educational organizations and followed out in every part of our nation would set our “own house in order” by making us better informed on teacher problems. Then to bring this same general information to the tax-paying public is another obligation of the profession. This can be done by definite study and by well-planned effective publicity thru our local, state, and national organi¬ zations. Expenditure of the tax money — When the general public, the taxpayers of America, know the real facts, relative to how tax money is invested and what the returns to the public are, relative to this investment of public funds, then there will be no trouble about the budget for well-planned, well- administered schools. It is the duty of the associations, local, state, and national, to get this information to the whole teaching body and to the tax¬ payers. Splendid research in this line is being done by our National Asso¬ ciation but are we all reading these Research Bulletins f Numerous facts on this subject were presented in a recent Research Bulletin which stated that a minor fraction of the nation’s economic power and capital is invested in public schools; that the nation expends annually for each of a number of items considerably more than it expends for public education ; that the nation’s total tax bill requires a smaller portion of its income than is required in other important countries, and that public school costs constitute approximately one-fourth of the total tax bill, federal, state, and local. U nemployment of teachers has been caused by the surplus of teachers. After four years of study and research the N. E. A. Committee on the Eco¬ nomic Status of the teacher gave these conclusions : 1. The salaries and welfare of teachers are closely associated with economic laws. An oversupply of teachers tends to lower salaries, makes tenure insecure, and forces many excellent teachers to seek more lucrative occupations. 2. There tends to be an over-supply of persons with licenses to teach, but a limited supply of persons with a high level of professional training. The certification laws of a number of the states permit persons with little or no professional training to obtain temporary credentials. Such persons can often be employed at a smaller wage than the teacher with two years or more of college preparation. 3. In a period of an over-supply of teachers the certification and professional training requirements should be raised. Need of retirement legislation — Another obligation and duty of our local, state, and national organizations is to promote the study of the fundamental General Sessions 181 principles of sound retirement looking to holding the good laws now in effect, to improving unsatisfactory retirement legislation, and to securing the enactment of good laws in states which have no statewide retirement law. The chief cause of failure in the past in my own state (and I believe in all others), has been because the teachers themselves and the public have not been sufficiently informed and actively interested in retirement legisla¬ tion. When the public knows that our schools will be made more efficient by retirement legislation, that it is an economic expenditure of the public funds because of value received in better schools, the legislation will come, provided the teachers themselves are also informed and actively interested. It is folly to expect the legislature to take the initiative or to foist upon any class legislation that seems to benefit that class unless the members of that group are themselves informed and actively interested. Need of homes for aged teachers — Much commendation is due the states and localities that have promoted and secured recreation clubs and perma¬ nent homes for teachers, especially for aged and deserving members of the profession. In this class are Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Vermont, and others. To intensively study all these needs of the profession during this unfortunate low economic period and at the earliest psychological, op¬ portune time, to work for the proper corrective legislative measures is our duty and obligation to our profession. BUILDING AN EFFECTIVE PROGRAM J. HERBERT KELLEY, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY, PENNSYLVANIA STATE EDUCA¬ TION ASSOCIATION, HARRISBURG, PA. The professional program should offer an occasional inspirational address of popular and general appeal. It should present the scientific aspects of education, such as the learning process, results of experimentation, the philo¬ sophic aspect of education, skilful teaching. In the smaller groups it should utilize demonstrations with groups of children. However, the most im¬ portant part of the professional program should deal with the six big pro¬ fessional problems of the teacher. A consideration of these problems will challenge and hold the attention of any professionally-minded teacher: !• The problem of qualifications of the teacher, which sets up the requirements for getting in 2. The problem of salary, which determines the scale of living 3. The problem of growth, which makes growing possible and encourages it 4. The problem of tenure, or hanging on 5. The problem of retirement, or getting out 6. The problem of welfare — the conditions for spending the evening of life. In building an effective program, we must schedule a business session and make it so compelling that all will want to stay and participate. Here we check up on the work of committees, elect officers, and delegates, dis- 182 National Education Association cover the weak places in the organization and strengthen them, in fact, perfect the organization. ‘The weakest part of our coming profession,” said our president, Miss Florence Hale, on last October 12, while speaking to Philadelphia’s convo¬ cation of 10,000 educational workers, “is our liberal arts colleges and our universities, for not all the members of their faculties are willing to co¬ operate thru professional organization. Many college professors who ought to be leaders of the profession, are not even members of state and national associations.” In a live business session we may attack the problem of un¬ professionalism at the head of the profession and devise a way of building up and strengthening this weakest spot in our profession. The only limitation in building the kind of program here outlined is the cost, but even that limitation is not serious for many of the best convention speakers with a real message are available for a full day’s work on general sessions and in subsidiary organizations for $100 a day plus expenses. That honorarium is more than most men earn per day, and it is possible to attract practically any desired speaker with a real message and a burning desire to give it, except those who seek to exploit their services. Such speakers need either to be suppressed or deflated. A recent number of the Literary Digest said that one of the benefits of the depression was the deflation of socalled big men. The first part of this month I heard of a case in point. The principal of a high school in Pennsylvania invited the president of a midwestern state university to make the commencement address. The president replied that he would gladly do so and that his honorarium would be $750 plus expenses. That particular university president is probably unaware that we are in a period of deflation — both of prices and of men. Apply this test to a proposed speaker: Would the American Bar Associa¬ tion use him? Would the State Medical Association schedule him? Would he be considered by the other recognized professions, such as, engineering, dentistry, accountancy, or architecture? If not, our profession cannot afford to use him even on a general program for inspirational work or entertain¬ ment. We must strive for professional programs for our professional organi¬ zations even at the expense of an occasional attack on the part of some of our members of professional indigestion. WHAT A MODERN SCHOOL SHOULD DO FOR A MODERN CHILD ROLLO G. REYNOLDS, PRINCIPAL, HORACE MANN SCHOOL, TEACHERS COL¬ LEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. The public schools must accept the challenge of modern days. It cannot develop a generation of children crammed with the dead and useless mate¬ rial of bygone generations. It must bring into its educational program vital facts and information of today’s civilization. It must make the common pos¬ session of all children those things of presentday life which are vital. The General Sessions 183 generation of tomorrow cannot solve the problems which it will meet on the basis of useless facts. A modern school therefore must develop within this generation of American children the power to know things that are worth knowing and that are vital in connection with the problems that face the world — the power to do things in an age of action. We can no longer build character in children by preaching to them or by beating them. A mod¬ ern school must set up situations to show the child that doing the right thing is desirable. In this way alone can it develop true character. It must also teach the child to do things in order that he may develop those creative parts of his individuality which will allow him to contribute to the welfare of the group. It must teach the coming generation to think straight. The school can no longer afford to think for its children. It must teach them to think for themselves. The kind of thinking which has been prevalent thruout our country in years just past is evidence that the school has not accepted its responsibility for teaching children how to think straight. A modern school must develop within children the right feelings. One of the most significant things about this modern age is the tremendous amount of power which it is placing in the hands of the next generation. The greatest responsibility of the school, in my opinion, is to develop within children the right feelings toward this great force which they have inherited. The whole realm of feeling is the realm of attitudes. It is the most im¬ portant thing in the life of a child. Let me name some of these attitudes and as I name them, will you please think of things which we usually teach in school, such as square root, the products of Paraguay, the rivers of France, the kings of England, and the presidents of the United States. Contrary to those, these attitudes of mind come within the realm of feeling. * Tolerance — If you have a boy, would you rather he would know the products of Paraguay or have tolerance? Kindliness — If you have a girl, would you rather have her know the rivers of France or kindliness? Fairness — What better could you wish for your son than that he be a square shooter, fair, loyal, affectionate, dependable, persistent, loving? Those are things which make boys and girls individuals. It is not the in¬ formation you pour into them that makes them individuals. We have neg¬ lected them woefully in the public schools of America in the last generation and I am afraid we are reaping the harvest. Another of those attitudes, those personal traits which make individuals either great or small, is the whole field of beauty — the esthetic, the beautiful and rare in music, in art. If I had to choose between my small daughter’s being able to spell faultlessly or being able to feel Beethoven’s Fifth Sym¬ phony which do you think I would choose? Well, I would choose the symphony, because that has something to do with that inner spirit in her, that thing which we, under the influence of mental tests, have lost sight of. The philosophy behind the education of American children must change. The child must be considered as an individual and developed as such. The 184 National Education Association goal of success held up before him cannot much longer be that of selfish personal aggrandizement but rather one of service to the group of which he is a member. I can’t resist giving you as my closing word a poem written by an Ameri can girl. It was written by a girl in the Lincoln School of Teachers Col¬ lege and it is called “Youth.” I must laugh and dance and sing, Youth is such a lovely thing. Soon I shall be old and stately; I shall promenade sedately Down a narrow pavement street, And the people that I meet Will be stiff and narrow too, Careful what they say and do; It will be quite plain to see They were never young like me. When I walk where flowers grow I shall have to stoop down low If I want one for a prize ; Now I’m just the proper size. Let me laugh and dance and sing, Youth is such a lovely thing. CHARACTER EDUCATION IN THE NEW SCHOOLS MARGARET T. MC GUIRE, PRINCIPAL, MC CALL BOYS SCHOOL, PHILADELPHIA, PA. When a teacher really reaches the character of the boy or girl she has touched the great spiritual values of life. This is no mean achievement. The first requisite for the development of character is character. No teacher or trainer of children can hope to bring out and strengthen the moral attitudes of childhood unless he stands supremely as an exemplar of the fine qualities that make for fine character. rhere are many elements in character, but two of the most significant for us to consider, it seems to me, would be unselfishness and courage. Prosperity bred a type of selfishness, not only in the ordinary man, but in the man of affairs that appalls us as we read of the greed and thoughtlessness of many men in whom we had implicit confidence. Soft lives are not the medium thiu which to grow men of courage. I he fine f!owrer of suffering is courage to face wrhatever is in store for us. 1 here is no doubt that this age upon us, which is a new age, is in the business of saving only those who have the unselfishness to be their brothers’ keeper and the courage to survive in this struggle for the survival of the fit. General Sessions 185 For a dozen years past, we have heard and somewhat rightly believed, that the American home was being destroyed. When money was plentiful, the home became a stopping off place for parents as well as children. It seemed to exist as a convenience, but few believed that this was more than a passing phase, and when real danger came close, the spirit of the pioneer became manifest again. Homes must be kept intact at whatever sacrifice. It is a most heartening experience to study thru these days a tremendous tenacity that the family spirit has over the members of the household. It has not been the welfare organizations or the donations of the economically favored that held families together during these dark days. It has been the unquenchable spirit of family love — small homes have opened their doors — the utterly beieft have been taken in — food has been found. Sometimes I have wondered how the family has held together. In many cases, three and four families are living in the quarters that a few years ago were given over to one family. This has all been done uncomplainingly. Educators may well study this interesting phenomena and draw from it the lessons in character training. A story is told of a wealthy man whose retrenching program meant the recall of his boys from a fashionable board¬ ing school, return of his wife from a fashionable European resort and his own giving up of the night clubs. He reports that he was never more happy in his life. He finds a purpose in living. A new interpretation of life must be developed for the coming generation. This cannot be done by preaching. There must be a conviction that is reached by experience and practise. I believe that the school must make greater demands for the boy of a new age because life will make greater demands in sacrifice and effort. The only education that can be called real education is that which involves “beating our own last best.” This will make for character. Less than this will destroy it. I know of no easy way to character training because it is not an achieve¬ ment easily gained. The child must live character, not occasionally, but all during the day in the school in which he is being educated. Without this background, his education is really without meaning. I heard a socalled fairly good teacher remark that she would not dare take her class to an exhibition because they would disgrace her. I wondered what she thought she was doing to the children on whom she made so little impression that she could not expect decent citizenship if they went beyond the confines of a school. Whatever such a teacher does in academic teaching is a mere shell, has no real purpose, and the child’s time has been practically without profit. If self-control and unselfish citizenship have not resulted thru the day’s teaching, the few^ facts learned have little meaning. Someone has said education is what you are after you have ceased for¬ getting. Unless character has been developed in the living thru the day’s 186 National Education Association work in the schoolroom, unless the teacher, by actual practise, has convinced the children of the joy of fine courage and fair conduct, unless honesty has been deeply instilled and a love of effort inculcated, it is my considered opinion that the school has failed of its meaning, however fine the showing may seem to be in other fields. The human being is just as great as his inspirations are. If he has no inspiration for honest work, courageous attitudes, decent citizen¬ ship, he is of very little value to himself or his community. EDUCATION AND THE WORLD VIEWPOINT AUGUSTUS O. THOMAS, SECRETARY-GENERAL, WORLD FEDERATION OF EDUCATION ASSOCIATIONS, WASHINGTON, D. C. No matter what faith we have in education, we know it is impossible to make over human nature in a few years or even in generations, to rid our¬ selves of selfishness, greed in business, social impurities, and government cor¬ ruption. W e cannot take away from the divine the prerogative of redemp¬ tion, but I do wish to call attention to the fact that we are living in a changed and a changing world and that our programs, not only of education, but of life, must constantly be revised to fit the conditions under which we live. May I not direct your attention, therefore, to some of the newer objectives of education and to its broader purposes? We are no longer living unto ourselves alone. We are a part of a new world community. Education up to recent times has been largely provincial. Each country has marked out its own program and follows its own course, but under the influences of the scientific revolution thru which we are passing, provincialism must be cast aside and a new cooperation accepted. During the week we have confined our attention largely to the education of our own children, but there is a larger need. While we are primarily in¬ terested in the education of Americans we must not forget that we cannot live unto ourselves alone. We must mingle in scores of ways with the people of all nations, tongues, and races and must, therefore, be interested in a program of universal and worldwide education. It is as desirable for our neighbors as for ourselves. If education is good for Americans it is good for all people the world over. At the present time 62 percent is a fair estimate of the world’s illiteracy. We have faith in education as a means of human improvement. If we do not have this faith we can scarcely justify our ex¬ penditure of vast sums of money to educate all of the children of all of the people. Very suddenly the nations have been thrown into one neighborhood and before they have been taught how to get along with each other. The kind of education which will bring the greatest comfort to the new world is that which will produce a greater tolerance, a more complete understand¬ ing, and a better mode of cooperation. It needs the type of education which General Sessions 187 will bring a broad-mindedness and an appreciation of the contributions which other nations can make to the happiness of all. There must be those great 1 emote purposes such as a finer neighborliness, a greater integrity in business, in social justice, and the substitution of justice among nations which will enable them to discard force in the settlement of international problems. It is quite true that the general forms of education now in vogue in the several civilized countries will in due season make better Americans, better Englishmen, better Frenchmen, better Germans, better Chinese, and all the rest. This must make a better world, but there is still an educational need which we have not known exactly how to meet. We know that our academic lessons train the intellect but it requires something more to nurture the spiritual values until the young citizen has a proper regard for the wel¬ fare and security of the community in which he lives, until he can lift his eves beyond the boundaries of his own land to see the peoples of other coun¬ tries in their tiue relationships and to place himself in their point of view until he can appreciate their attitudes. Material things fade into insignifi¬ cance beside the spiritual things of life. In this, I am not referring to re¬ ligion. Religion of a specific brand is personal and not a public matter. I am thinking of those practical values which we associate with the good men and good women, good citizens and good neighbors. There is no doubt at all but leligion must make its possessor better, but when we speak of religion we are inclined to think of our own particular isms. I am speaking of those qualities which we admire in fine men and fine women— honesty, industry, uprightness, public spirit, and courage to face life when it seems darkest. During recent years we have been building a world culture. We may call it world civilization. We do not know just what the term civilization means, but I take it to mean a mode of living which must be based upon a mode of thinking. The scientific revolution thru which we are passing has lev¬ eled the barriers between peoples and we are now coming together in count¬ less ways previously not experienced. We are using the same materials, dressing in much the same fashions, reading the same news dispatches, eat¬ ing the same food, riding in the same automobiles, trains, and airplanes, and by association and imitation we must be thinking something alike. And each nation is contributing to this new civilization. How the nations help each other to live is an interesting study. We Amer¬ icans arise in the morning for our day’s duties. We brush our hair with a brush the bristles of which came from China, we clean our teeth with a brush the bristles of which are from Japan, we put on our suit of Australian wool colored with German dyes and made over English spindles and cut according to London patterns, or we wear our silk from the Orient made by Parisian 188 National Education Association designers. Our buttons come from France, the leather of our shoes from Argentina. We sit down to our breakfast and find our table spread with Irish linens, our cutlery from Sheffield, and our dishes of Haviland china. We drink our tea from Ceylon or our coffee from Brazil, we eat our honeydew from South Africa or our pineapple from the Islands of the Sea. About all we have native to ourselves and to our country is our appetite. But wTe may go still further in visualizing this internationalized world. In our hotel in the city, we are brought down in the elevator by a colored boy, we are met at the coffee shop by a French head waiter, we are waited on by an Italian waiter, our shoes are shined by a Greek, an Irish policeman aids us in the traffic. We trade with a Jew and pay our bills to a Scotchman. We visit our art galleries and find Italian painters, we visit a music hall and hear the German grand opera, or we visit the Russian dance. We see about us Gothic and Corinthian features in our architecture. We ride about in our automobiles on Dutch East India tires, the mechanism of our car is improved by Vanadian steel from Peru, chrome from Caledonia, and manganese from Caucasus. Under these conditions we are constantly trading with one another, borrowing and lending, and finding it necessary to get along together. One of the greatest purposes of modern education must be to help us real¬ ize this new situation, to teach us the art of living together. It must relieve us of our old primitive elements of fear, mistrust, national and racial, and give us a greater appreciation of what this diversity of mankind may mean to the progress and happiness in a new worldwide civilization. Instruction must have two general purposes. The one is to inform, for thru information we learn to understand. The other is to create attitudes. Misunderstanding and lack of sympathy have brought the world to the present deplorable con¬ dition. It brought on the great war. We sometimes talk about the closing of the war when the Armistice was signed, but war is still going on. We are not thru with it, for we are still paying our bills. The cost of the war was terrific, both in human life and in the destruction of wealth. The direct and indirect cost of the world war is estimated to be equal to the wealth of the United States. If, therefore, we should sink the United States with all its wealth to the bottom of the sea, it would give us a fair conception of the cost. This leaves a great hole in civilization which must be filled up before we can progress. The man who lost his fortune in the depression has contributed it to the paying of these bills. The cut in teachers’ salaries and the loss of posi¬ tion and home, are all being dumped into this hole to fill it up. No one ever won a war and war never determined justice. If the schools of all nations have a great outstanding purpose it must be to teach to the rising generation a new conception of international relations, a new appreciation of the values of inherited gifts of the various peoples of the world and must eliminate the General Sessions 189 old time hatred. It must teach the rising generation that the nations of the earth are free and independent but cooperating units, each with certain in¬ alienable rights, among which are self-government, the development of na¬ tional resources, the promotion of trade and commerce, the lessons of their own achievements, and the development of a love of country. In our enthusiasm for this new order and this new aim of education, we sometimes go so far as to believe that we must minimize or forget our own country. This is a mistake. We are told to love our neighbor but that does not mean that we should forget to love our own country. Patriotism is a virtue and the best possible foundation for bringing a respect and love for our fellowmen. There is no conflict between love of country and love of human¬ ity. The one does not displace or succeed the other, but the love of mankind and the spirit of justice to all is a sequence of patriotism. The National Education Association sensed the approaching situation and the necessity of international cooperation in all educational enterprises about twelve years ago when it appointed a Committee on Foreign Relations and later instructed that committee to call a worldwide conference on education looking to mutual advancement and to international understanding. The greatest achievement of this conference was the organization of the World Federation of Education Associations which has already become a powerful factor in world understanding. It now brings together nearly one half of the world’s teachers and has greatly modified the old prejudices. It has cleared the way for better understanding and appreciation among those who are charged with the instruction of the young. Under the auspices of the Federation, Mr. Raphael Herman offered twenty-five thousand dollars for the best plan of education calculated to bring about a better understanding and cooperation among the nations and a contribution to world peace. The plan of Dr. David Starr Jordan was accepted and for three biennial meetings five worldwide committees have been carrying on research and bringing together materials adjustable to such a plan. They have gathered during these years much valuable materials which are now ready to be wrought into a definite plan which may become . available for the schools of all nations. This plan will embody the experiences of the races thru their history and the contributions of the nations to the progress of mankind, as a basis of international understanding, sympathy, and cooperation. This plan will omit those controversial subjects over which nations may clash. It must be true to facts and avoid the other em¬ phasis of national virtue and the minimizing of the achievements of others. It will be depleted of extraneous materials and will deal only with the actualities of history and achievements which have had to do with the ad¬ vancement of the races. It may include: 190 National Education Association 1. The training of teachers for the new international point of view. It will endeavor to avoid emotionalisms but will be based upon the psychology and the philosophy of understanding and the points of collective justice. 2. The great epochs of history and the movements which have carried the nations to higher grounds of social advancement. 3. The community aspect of great literature, art, music, and architecture. 4. The application of science and discovery to the advancement of the nations. 5. The organization of the social sciences with the international point of view, the development of the spirit of justice and broad-mindedness. 6. The story of national attempts to set up machinery for the solution of inter¬ national problems and the efforts which have been made to substitute justice for force. 7. The appreciation of fine patriotism based upon a love of country rather than upon revenge and hatred of others. It is not the purpose of such a plan to standardize the educational proce¬ dure among the nations. It is understood that no nation has as yet dis¬ covered all the safe theories of education and the wisest methods of dealing with youth, but the plan proposed and its accompanying materials may be used as a general basis and guide to one of the greatest ends of education. You may say this is a difficult task, or it cannot be done. Yes, it is a difficult task but not so difficult as enduring another destructive war like the one from which we are just now struggling to emerge. It will not be so costly and it will change a destructive to a constructive element. If such a plan can be devised and approved by the outstanding scholars and philosophers of the nations in whom wide confidences are imposed and which will direct the attention of the youth of the nations to common proj¬ ects and purposes, it will constitute one of the greatest contributions, if not the greatest that has ever been made to education. THE NATIONAL SURVEY OF SECONDARY EDUCATION J. B. EDMONSON, DEAN, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN, ANN ARBOR, MICH. The public has discovered that teachers and administrators are not in sub¬ stantial agreement regarding the philosophy of American secondary educa- * tion. The conversations and public utterances, as well as the acts, of certain members of our profession show a sincere belief in the older philosophy of secondary education. This older philosophy assumes that secondary educa¬ tion is a privilege to which only those of proved capacity are entitled. It is the philosophy of a system of secondary education for the intellectually and socially elite. It is the European point of view. It implies that the secondary school must be progressively selective by eliminating all students who cannot maintain a high standard of performance. General Sessions 191 In contrast with this older philosophy there is the newer point of view that has found expression in many new developments, some of which are resented by the advocates of the older opinion. The newer philosophy de¬ mands that secondary education be open to all the children of adolescent age. It implies that the secondary school must provide types of education as varied as may be demanded by the interests of secondary school pupils in order that each pupil must have the opportunity to progress as rapidly as he can, or as slowly as he must. The older philosophy and the newer philosophy are incompatible, and the findings in the Survey will show that the newer philosophy is gradually dominating the objectives and practises of American secondary education. The data in the report of the Survey will show that the total enrolment in public high schools of the country in 1930 was approximately 50 percent of those of the normal age for high school. Figures for 1890 do not yield a proportion larger than 4 percent. The increase in the enrolment in the public high-school since 1890 will be reported as 3849 percent. This tre¬ mendous growth in the enrolment in the secondary school is in itself an adequate justification for the nationwide inquiry. These data and other facts will have an important bearing on the more general acceptance of the democratic objectives of our scheme of secondary education. The Survey will also make a contribution on the problem of college and high-school relations. It is common knowledge that the public is critical of our secondary schools because of the numerous criticisms made of them by the colleges. One might conclude from talking with certain college repre¬ sentatives that all the problems of the colleges were traceable to deficiencies in the program of instruction in the secondary schools. There is also much evidence that the secondary schools are undermining public confidence in the colleges by blaming them for most of the defects of secondary schools. Cer¬ tainly the forward-looking leaders in our secondary schools and in our col¬ leges should recognize the fact that a relatively uninformed public is likely to lose faith in both the secondary schools and the colleges as a result of these attacks and counter-attacks. The findings of the Survey will show that cer¬ tain colleges have adopted measures which have greatly improved the articu¬ lation between the secondary schools and higher institutions. It is my pre¬ diction that these findings will help to end the foolish, wasteful, and unin¬ telligent bickering relative to college admissions. The Suivey will furnish valuable data on the curriculum of secondary schools. In the last decade the teaching profession has dabbled in curriculum revision, but it is commonly charged that much of the instruction in many high schools is similar to that of a quarter of a century ago. In other words, some leaders believe that the vast social and economic changes in American 192 National Education Association life have not brought many comparable changes in our programs of instruc¬ tion in secondary schools, except in relatively few centers. It is claimed that we have had many national committees at work on curriculum problems and we have had numerous reports from groups of experts, but these reports have not greatly influenced the instructional programs of our schools. The Survey will reveal certain widespread tendencies to change the curriculum of the secondary schools. Two dominant shifts in subjects required of all pupils will be revealed. One of these is away from foreign languages and mathematics, the subjects favored by requirements for entrance to college; and the other is an increasing emphasis on instruction in the social studies and in physical education. There will be special monographs on certain subjectmatter fields and the reports will help to settle such questions as. Is the curriculum unrelated to life? Is it changing? If so, in what direction? On such significant problems as the selection of teachers, the place and value of extracurriculum activities, the organization of the school library, the provisions for individual differences and scores of other practical prob¬ lems, the findings of the Survey will furnish valuable data. Now that the Survey is completed and the findings will shortly be avail¬ able in printed form, it is important to consider the problem of the follow-up work. It would be most unfortunate to have this Survey stop with the pub¬ lication of the series of monographs that might be useful in courses in edu¬ cation but have small circulation outside of a few libraries. The findings in the Survey should be of great value in planning for Ameri¬ can secondary education. The present time is especially appropriate for initiating a constructive program affecting our secondary schools. The great changes in life which have been brought about by the ups and downs in the economic world have tended to increase demands for changes in education. These are the days when everyone is concerned with proposals to restore financial and business health. Concern is almost as keen in proposals to pre¬ vent the economic system from getting out of order in the future as in pro¬ posals to cure the present disorder in the economic world. The idea of eco¬ nomic planning is receiving much consideration by responsible leaders. While business is concerned with appraising its past and trying to read the future, it is not surprising that many persons should demand that the educators also appraise the past and try to read the future. It is most fortunate that we now possess in the Survey such valuable material for use as the basis of such planning. I am glad to report that there are already under way certain plans look¬ ing to the formation of committees and commissions to follow-up the Survey. The North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools has de¬ cided to feature the Survey at its 1933 meeting. The National Department 193 General Sessions of Secondai v School Piincipals is planning to take an active part in the follow-up of the Survey, and the Southern Association of Colleges and Sec¬ ondary Schools is also planning to do constructive work in the interpreta¬ tion of the findings of the Survey. The National Committee on Research in Secondai} Education has determined to devote its efforts to help make this Survey a real influence in American education. It is encouraging to find these evidences of concern about the follow-up of the Survey. In its report the National Advisory Committee on Education made the recommendation that the federal government should render large intellectual assistance to the states in matters of education thru research and thru the collection and dissemination of reliable information. The committee ex¬ pressed the belief that such a service would be of great value to the schools. It was pointed out that no single state can have adequate access to the ex¬ periences beyond its boundaries and that the federal government could there¬ fore be of great service in the field of research on a nationwide basis. If the Secondary School Survey yields the results that its friends anticipate, it will not be hard to convince Congress in future years that similar inquiries into other phases of education can be fully justified. . Reports of Committees Much of the most significant work of the Asso¬ ciation is accomplished by committees. . The scope of the work carried on by committees during the past year is indicated by the following pages devoted to their reports. Unless otherwise in¬ dicated the reports were adopted by the Representa¬ tive Assembly at Atlantic City. For discussion con¬ cerning reports see Minutes of the Representative Assembly in the latter part of this book. Complete lists of the membership of each committee are also given elsewhere in this volume. [196] REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE ECONOMIC STATUS OF THE TEACHER B. R. BUCKINGHAM, LECTURER, GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, HARVARD UNIVERSITY, CAMBRIDGE, MASS., Chairman This Committee on the Economic Status of the Teacher is a committee \\ ich is swinging into action with rather astonishing prospects. If the people here assembled will think back to the days when they began as teachers they will remember that the question of what sort of a career teaching was likely to afford was uppermost in their minds. Those of you who are able to think back to that time can now compare the aspirations that you then had, the hopes you entertained, with the realization that the years have afforded. I am not nearly so much interested in the question of salary as it relates to the economic status of the teacher as I am in what the salary means as an expres¬ sion of public esteem. I am far more deeply interested, and the committee I lepresent is likewise far more deeply interested, in the thing the salary is a s> mptom of lather than directly and primarily in the salary itself. In inquiring into the economic status of the teacher, I am interested in finding out not only the concrete evidence of money and values derived from teaching as a career, but in that more fundamental question of the attitude of the public and of the teaching body towards teaching as a calling, and before this committee gets thru I am going to insist, if I can, upon a direct and frontal attack upon that more sociological question than the economic one, namely, the regard in which teaching and the teaching calling is held. The committee, in considering its function, has spent something like three years skirting around the edges of its problem because it lacked the faith in the teachers of the country to seek to attain from them the difficult, the time consuming, the personal data which the problem actually required. I apolo¬ gize for the committee for its timidity in this respect. I recall that in the delegate meeting in Seattle this committee was set up by action of the teachers themselves, acting from the floor of the delegate body. The setting up of such a committee was not an agendum of the meeting. That ought to have given me an inkling as to the seriousness of the purpose which animated the teachers and the teaching body in their attitude toward the work of this committee. The committee has thought it an appropriate occasion, due to the uphappy business situation in which we find ourselves, to broach the matter more directly, to investigate the economic status of the teacher on the job. We have selected the fifty-one cities of the country for which the Department of Labor publishes monthly statistics on the cost of living. We have felt that anything which sought to describe the adequacy of the income of teachers would be misleading as it has so frequently been found to be misleading, if it were divorced from the data on cost of living in the various localities concerned. It has always been difficult in your salary campaigns for you to present con¬ vincingly before the people the difference between your salary level and that [ 197 ] 198 National Education Association of adjacent or comparable cities for the very reason that doubt was thrown upon the comparability of the figures in question. We have approached the superintendents of these fifty-one cities and we have not disguised from them the fact that the proposal for the cooperation of their teachers in this enterprise involved a degree of sacrifice which in the aggregate was considerable. We enclosed with our first letter introducing ourselves to the superintendents a blank indicating the nature of the informa¬ tion which we would seek to secure from the cooperating teachers. It was nothing more nor less than a statement of income and expenditures by month thruout an entire calendar year. And they told us, and we ourselves were inclined to believe, that only a small response favorable to the proposal would be made. I wish to express my admiration for the teaching body of the country as is reflected in the returns received from these letters. I have greater con¬ fidence than I have ever had before in the essential soundness of the teaching body of America. There is in the budget and correspondingly in the construction of salary the question of necessities, the things we have to have, the things and service for which we must spend money to maintain physical fitness. There is some ground for the belief that on a professional level a teacher should receive a compensation to which those expenditures for necessities would bear the rela¬ tion of one-half. So we may think of the expenditure for necessities as about half of the adequate salary. It is not too much, however, to ask that a salary permit savings ; otherwise the economic status of the teacher is poor indeed. It is proper that the teacher have spiritual refreshment and have an adequate participation in the affairs of the community and the teacher necessarily should have sufficient salary for these purposes. These are the different conceptions of salary and the components with which we are dealing as we think about this question of the economic status of the teacher. I should like to close by emphasizing a thing which I said before, namely, that the economic status of the teacher, especially as it relates to finance and to salary, is only a symptom of the public esteem in which edu¬ cation and the calling of teaching is held. If salaries can be demonstrated to the public as being below the esteem in which they hold a teacher, if the salaries are below that, and that can be demonstrated to be so, then the im¬ provement of the economic status of the teacher is not a difficult problem. It simply becomes a matter of the expression of the people. If, on the other hand, salaries should be shown to be higher than the aspirations of the people for their schools, or for the workers in the schools, then the teachers in the community affected will always have a fight on their hands. This N. E. A. body has investigated a large number of questions. It has studied curriculums, it has studied supervision, it has studied the salary ques¬ tion, and in all these it has done well. I now propose to you, and I hope that you will carry something of the idea and message to your constituency, that Reports of Committees 199 we now enter upon a study of the economic status of the teacher in which we are going to give the answer to a prior mind which you possessed when vou entered the profession, and it is our hope that in the various studies which the N. E. A. has fostered and supported this may not be the least. REPORT OF THE JOINT COMMITTEE OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION AND THE NATIONAL CONGRESS OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS MRS. B. F. LANGWORTHY, FIRST VICEPRESIDENT, NATIONAL CONGRESS OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS, WINNETKA, ILL. I am very glad to have an opportunity to report about this child of N. E. A. pater and N. C. P. T. mater. It is only about four years old, it is still in the habit-forming stage, but it is a nursery school child and we believe that its social attitudes are rightly directed and that it is going to prove a good and healthy citizen. We have been trying to organize in all of the states between the National Congress of Parents and Teachers and the state teachers asso¬ ciations, committees that will work together on the plans that may be decided upon each year. Last year we succeeded in getting thirteen of these com¬ mittees started and you can very strongly help this work if you will try to help form these committees. This year our task is of course the upholding of the enriched curriculum and we believe that the better study it has in relation to the school budget in trying to make our people see that we always pay and can pay for the things that we want the most, and in making them see that in the public school system they are getting, for a very small amount thru taxes, a really very high-priced education for their children. To forward this work the National Congress of Parents and Teachers is about to issue a little leaflet on taxes and school budgets which will go to all of our members with the request that it be studied. I perhaps may run the risk of dating myself with you if I tell you I can remember when the institution of “Thank you, Ma’ams” existed on every hilly road in the old horse and buggy stage. It was the spot where there was a slight drop or place where the horse could stop and rest before he went on. We believe that in the combination of these committees thruout the states, if we really work together and not just talk about it, that we can make of this too popular “depression” simply a “Thank you, Ma’am” where we can rest and get our wind to go on. 200 National Education Association REPORT OF THE LEGISLATIVE COMMISSION THOMAS E. FINEGAN, PRESIDENT, EASTMAN TEACHING FILMS, INC., ROCHESTER, N. Y., Chairman Congress has just passed a tax bill which has already received the signature of the President. It calls for over a billion in taxes. This tax is a first lien on the income of the nation, and it must go to the federal government. It is a second lien on the income of the several states. In addition, the states levy their taxes. Then the municipal authorities levy their taxes. After that, education comes in for her share — with pretty lean pickings. The one billion dollars of revenue that is taken by the federal government would be available for the support of local enterprises, educational and otherwise, if our national scheme of taxation had not been modified some years ago. This is one of the features of taxation that needs scientific consideration in this country. This Association has advocated for years a thoro investigation of this subject. But the question is, how are we going to get it? There must be some regularly constituted authority of the federal government that is equipped to make careful research into the question of taxation and make available to the legislative authorities of the nation and the states, the prin¬ ciples upon which taxes may be properly framed to support those activities essential to the social and economic welfare of the Republic. This is the first essential procedure on framing sound measures of taxation for all tax¬ ing units in the country. That action cannot be done effectively by a state. The states have been delving into the problem, some of them with reasonable success, but taxa¬ tion has a national horizon, and needs to be examined from that broad view¬ point. The problem requires action by some national body. Some agency of the federal government must possess the authority to deal so thoroly, scien¬ tifically, and comprehensively with this complex subject, that its pronounce¬ ment will impress the people of the nation. We should not be thinking always about new sources of taxation. It seems to me that this body may very well give its attention to the question of economy. First of all, economy in the work for which we are responsible. I say to you that in these days of financial distress thruout the whole world, not only our country but every other nation, the obligation rests upon every¬ one who has responsibility in the administration of education or who shares in such responsibility thru classroom work, to devise effective means of economy without depreciating the service of the schools. Many centers thru¬ out this country have been giving the finest kind of cooperation to the financial authorities, to the end that every dollar possible shall be saved and not a dollar wasted in maintaining our national program on education. To accomplish this end the whole education program needs deliberate and sympathetic evaluation from year to year. The most competent econo- Reports of Committees 201 mists and educational administrators should make this evaluation. It should be done by a federal agency which possesses authority to acquire data, and which could make the results of its study available to every administrative or taxing school unit of the country. But the nation needs to look for economy in public enterprises and ex¬ penditures for purposes other than education. This Association may very properly urge that every branch of governmental service shall be as economi¬ cal in the administration of its work as are the public schools. Have you read the federal budget? If you haven’t, I suggest you get the New York Times of June 5 and June 12 and read two articles that you will find in Section 9 of that paper. There is an item of $721,000,000 for the maintenance of our national military establishments— $721,000,000. There is an item for $989,000,000, almost a billion, for the relief of veterans. There is an item of $1,017,000,000 for debt service, and debt service includes that which must be raised to meet the war debts and to pay the interest upon such debts. So that for the maintenance of all our military enterprises and meeting our obligations in that field of service, we have an expenditure in 1932 of $2,720,000,000. This sum exceeds by several hundred millions the amount which is expended on public education in this country. The great World War would never have been fought if the nations of Europe had not been armed to the teeth. The President of the United States the other day recommended, or suggested to the conference in Europe which is now studying the question, that armaments should be reduced by one- third. This year the nations of the world are expending over five million dollars on armaments armaments alone, on the establishment of military equipment for the nations of the world. A saving of one-third of that for the next ten years would enable every government in the world to pay its debts and be relieved of this great useless financial burden which even men¬ aces our civilization. The one million teachers of America do not need to wait for the creation of a federal department before they can become an effective influence in the solution of this problem. Warden Lawes, in his admirable talk at this convention, said some things that ought to make us think and think straight and hard. He paid us the compliment of saying that the teachers were not responsible for the situa¬ tion that he pointed out. He said the responsibility in a large measure is due to the lack of adequate equipment and a proper organization of the schools. I hat was his theory. I think there are several other aspects of that question, bor instance, we have charge of the boys and girls for about one-third of the time of their waking hours. Where are they, the other two-thirds? What influences are being exerted upon them in that time which may be stronger than that which the school exercises over them? We will not shirk our re¬ sponsibility, but we ask the home and we ask the public to accept its re¬ sponsibility as well. We may modify our courses of study, increase our equipment, and change our organization, but if in the great cities of this country provision is not 202 National Education Association made for the recreation and play of boys and girls when they are out of school, the gangsters will continue to be fostered. The best antidote to the breeding of gangsters is playgrounds and reading rooms. This is not a prob¬ lem of local interest. It is one of great national importance. I am happy to say, as a member of the Presidents Advisory Gommittee and as a member of the fifteen who constituted the steering committee, that I have never known a group of men and women to act with more disinter¬ estedness, less prejudice, and more eagerness to reach sound conclusions than that committee did. They divested themselves, every member, of their per¬ sonal opinions. The committee considered the facts and material that were revealed thru the careful, painstaking, thoro study directed by Charles R. Mann and Henry Suzzallo and their able staff of assistants. After considering the subject with deliberation for two years, many members of the Advisory Committee reversed their previous opinions on one of the fundamental needs of American education, and the committee was almost unanimous in. its action in favoring the organization of a Federal Department of Education. By a vote of 43 to 8 that committee voted for the establishment of a Federal Department of Education. To me this appears as one of the significant fea¬ tures of the report. I want to endorse all that Mr. Mann said about making a study of that report. No person who has a desire to be professionally, equipped can afford not to make a careful study of the report. Do not read it. Study it. Analyze it Go into the references that are given and get at the very bottom of this subject, and if you do you will understand why the fathers who founded this republic thought it necessary that the several states should control edu¬ cation. The report heartily endorses the traditional policy of placing educa¬ tion under the control of the states, where it properly belongs. The . report recognizes the nation’s interest in education and its right and obligation even to accord financial support under proper conditions. That is what this body has advocated for fifteen years, ever since the previous emergency in education occurred. This report is one of the most scholarly presentations of the philosophy of American education, and con¬ tains the finest and truest guide for future development, in my judgment, that has ever been written. The nation is under great obligation to Mr. Mann and Mr. Suzzallo for this great piece of constructive work. I his report ought to be a textbook in every teacher-training institution of the country ; it ought to be a textbook that is used by every superintendent who is giving training to his teachers in service. It ought to be a common textbook for every teacher and administrator in this country. It should be studied by every public-spirited American citizen. We have no further suggestions of recommendation to make except that which is embodied in the resolution which will be presented by the Com¬ mittee on Resolutions. That is simply a resolution approving the findings and recommendations made by this committee. Reports of Committees 203 REPORT OF FINDINGS OF THE NATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION CHARLES R. MANN, DIRECTOR, AMERICAN COUNCIL ON EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. c., Chairman The Report on Federal Relations to Education has been somewhat mis¬ understood in various quarters. There are certain newspapers in the country, for instance, who are saying that the report recommended the establishment of a Federal Department of Education, and promptly consigned the report to oblivion. I think I may be able to show you before I have finished that it is not altogether forgotten even yet. But the fundamental point in the report is one that is of exceedingly great importance to the school system of the country, not merely because it deals with the relation between the federal government and the public schools, but because it deals with the handling and policies of the schools themselves in their own communities. Therefore, I want to pick out from the report certain major distinct features which you may not have noticed as you read it by yourselves. In the first place, it is important to note the nature of the problem that was put up to the committee. This was defined for the committee by Secretarv Wilbur. When he discussed it, Mr. Wilbur made three important points. He said, “You are working on one of the most troublesome problems before any democracy, and particularly before this one. If you give us the proper chart to steer our educational course, we will do something worthwhile.” The second point : “I hope, above all things, that you will not confuse the essentials of education with the political mechanisms that may be worked out to bring them about. There is no political maneuver, nor any single law, that will clarify the means by which we should carry on in administering education.” This distinction between the essentials of education and the political mechanisms that are used to bring them about is one that runs thru the report and is exceedingly important. The third point which Secretary Wilbur made: “I trust you will help us see what should be the national interest in this most important field. When I say ‘national interest,’ I am thinking in terms of things that people want done.” Now those were three important points in the charge that was given to the committee. You will find answers to all of them in the report. I want to take the liberty to answer first the last one in which Secretary Wilbur says he hopes to have us find what is the national interest in terms of things the people want done. You will find the answer to one point therein on page thirteen of this report. The democratic educational system which has evolved among us has shared the double aspiration of the American democratic movement itself — to ordain and estab¬ lish institutions which safeguard a free society and its government, and to maintain conditions that give every citizen of the land the utmost chance to live a more sig¬ nificant life. 204 National Education Association Proceeding then on that definition of what the people want done, the report analyzes the relations of the federal government to this problem. Now the relation of the federal government to the problem is one of rather limited area. It does not deal with the relations of the states to the schools, or with the relations of communities to the schools. The one problem with which the committee dealt was the relation of the federal government to the schools. The report analyzes this relation and finds that the relationship divides itself into two main divisions. In the first place we have the relation of the federal government to the states and communities with regard to schools, to the condition of the public schools, and this relationship is very confused be¬ cause the American people have delegated no authority with regard to edu¬ cation to the federal government. The responsibility for the condition of education is, therefore, divided and the division of that responsibility among the several elements, state, federal, and local, is very confused. Hence, one section of the report deals with that phase of the problem. The other section of the report — I mean the other phase of the federal problem, is the federal relations to education in which the federal respon¬ sibility is clear indeed. That is, the entire responsibility has been delegated to the federal government. This section deals with education in federal areas, which means army camps, navy stations, and other areas which are wholly under the jurisdiction of the federal government, with the relations to the Indians, who are wards of the federal government, with the territories and outlying possessions, the Philippine Islands, Porto Rico and so on, where the responsibility is wholly federal. It deals with the training within the federal service, the various service schools run by the federal depart¬ ments for the training of their own employees ; it deals with research and information where the federal government is authorized to distribute such information, and finally deals with the international relations, which is ordi¬ narily a federal function. So the report analyzes the federal relations to edu¬ cation under these two main headings. Now it may seem by this that the burning problem for the public schools deals with the relations between the federal government and the states and local communities, but I think you will find that there is a great deal of in¬ formation in the sections dealing with federal responsibility which is of sigi ificance to the management of local schools. However, the radical prob¬ lem of the relation between the federal government and the state and local communities is dealt with quite at length, the facts analyzed in accordance with Secretary Wilbur’s instructions chiefly from the point of view of the essentials of education. And on that ground the committee discovered three fundamental policies, which it recommends for the basis of procedure of federal relations to the education of the states. These three fundamental policies are summed up in the tenth chapter and I am going to mention them because they are exceedingly significant. The policies which were approved by the committee are set forth in the following paragraphs. Reports of Committees 205 Political control of the purposes and processes of public education shall i emain with the state, territorial, or other regional or local governments. Financial support — The policy approved by the committee is this: Any federal financial support for education in the states shall be given only for education in general and not for special phases of education. Information service — The third important policy: The federal govern¬ ment shall be adequately empowered to render intellectual assistance to edu¬ cation everywhere thruout the American domain, whether conducted as a public or a voluntary enterprise. Those are the main points, it seems to me, in the report. I may say, inci¬ dentally, that the report also discusses the question of what federal mechan¬ isms would be desirable to carry out these policies. By a vote of 38 to 11, the committee recommends the creation of a Federal Department of Edu¬ cation. Now what are you to do about it? What can this Association, what can the American people do about it? There are two main avenues of activity. One is the avenue of politics, and a great many people think that is the way to get things done in education, thru political activity of the sort that has been carried on in Washington during the last two or three weeks when the report of Congress threatened to change some of the subsidies for education. On this point the committee states its policy in the following paragraph : Educational reform lags only for the time needed by citizens to make up their minds — a democratic right of which they ought not to be deprived. When the pace seems too slow to satisfy impatient reformers, it may be effectively accelerated by enlightening the public mind with convincing evidence. This is in the long run the method that secures enduring results. To wish to move faster than the people can decide is to recede from the American way. That is the policy which the committee favors in the report with respect to progress. That policy requires the education of the public, and that the public generally shall read and study and understand the report. You see, I have told you, that there are three fundamental policies advocated. Those policies have a great many interesting and complicated, detailed sequences in the management of the schools. The thing that will bring the schools forward, in the estimation of this committee, is that we study and understand the report and then each one in his own town, in his own environment, seek to conform to those fundamental American policies. Therefore the committee has made no effort to do anything with the report other than get it read, studied, and understood. We have distributed some twenty thousand copies of the report and copies are still available at the office of the committee. It seems to me that what this Association can do to be really effective in promoting the findings of the report is, first of all, to study it ; and, secondly, to try to carry out and apply the policies in your own particular domain. This is very important for the reason that the chief obstacle, it seems to me, to the development of American education is an unfortunate schism that 206 National Education Association exists between the adherents of general education and the adherents of voca¬ tional education. This schism is of long standing. It began in Benjamin Franklin’s time. It was the cause, or one of the causes, of the passage of the Morrill Act in 1862. We can learn from the subsequent events of the Morrill Act something of how such a schism develops and how it is operating, be¬ cause the Morrill Act created a separate series of land grant colleges and in some of the states sought to make those colleges separate institutions in order to make sure the training in agriculture and mechanic arts was not submerged under academic traditions. Seventeen states out of the forty-eight created these colleges. Those seventeen separate institutions have no one of them made or become great American institutions. They have languished ; they haven’t done the job. The states which established consolidated institu¬ tions and placed the land grant fund for agriculture and mechanical arts in the state university combined with the general education have become the great American state institutions. I refer to Cornell, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Illinois, Nebraska, California, in all of which states, and some others, the practical and liberal were combined in one institution. That the separate land grant colleges have not become prominent in the American scheme I think I can prove to you by asking you which of you can name the seventeen institutions that are separated in the land grant colleges? I don’t believe anyone here can name all seventeen. Some of them have been extremely useful organizations, as Purdue, for instance, Ames, Iowa, and others, but as a rule they have not conformed. A movement was started to consolidate those institutions. Some of the states have realized the futility of trying to develop the liberal arts and the vocational and mechanical arts in separate institutions. North Carolina last year passed a law combining its state institutions; Georgia has just done the same ; Oregon has moved to consolidate. The same futile situation exists on the secondary school level with respect to vocational education. This Association is not without guilt in that matter. You refer to the his¬ tory of this Association and you will find that the manual training section in 1903 passed a resolution asking the Council of this organization to make a study of industrial education and show what was necessary in this country in order that the young people who leave the public school might know how to take part in the w’orld’s wTork. That resolution was ignored, and the result was that a separate organization was formed to care for the industrial edu¬ cation. The result is simply this, that there are at the present moment about a million students studying vocational training under the separate organiza¬ tion. There clearly should be about twenty million in the public schools who are receiving vocational instruction. It seems to me it is the job generally to educate the public to bring about this change. Reports of Committees 207 Therefore, I urge you to take up this question of the elimination of that schism between vocational education and general education and make voca¬ tional education an integral part of the public school system and by doing so you will be finding the most complete way to foster a Department of Educa¬ tion, in wdiich this organization is particularly interested. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF ONE HUNDRED ON RETIREMENT ALLOWANCES ANNA LAURA FORCE, PRINCIPAL, LAKE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL, DENVER, COLO., Chairman The 1932 Report of the Committee on Retirement Allowances gives highly important information about the way in which teacher retirement systems are operating. It is the most complete body of facts of this type that has been heretofore assembled. Previous reports have dealt with principles basic to sound teacher retirement systems and with analyses of legal pro¬ visions embodied in existing retirement plans. This report is based primarily on data covering approximately 20,000 re¬ tired teachers and current financial and membership data from a large num¬ ber of states and territorial and local retirement systems. Since the inauguration of the present retirement system over six hundred thousand enrolments have occurred. Over three hundred thousand persons are now active members of these systems. The high turnover among active teachers, and the large percent who never apply for membership must profoundly affect the administration of the sys¬ tem and the attitude of teachers toward participation in retirement systems. The average age at retirement varies considerably, members retiring for age or service from as early as before sixty to as late as after eighty; for disability average age ranging from thirty-two to sixty. In general, allowances for age or service do not exceed $1000 for state systems or $800 for local systems. Allowances for disability do not exceed $800. In no system is the average allowance jnore than one-half of the active salary; for disability, approximately one-third. During the last fiscal year state and local systems have had a combined income of seventy-six million dollars. Disbursements totaled about twenty- four million for one year. States are responsible for investing large sums of money. Twelve states invested fifty-four million dollars during the fiscal year. Thirteen local sys¬ tems invested twenty-four million. Practically no losses thru investments have been reported. I he material presented in this report emphasizes the fact that teacher retirement legislation is still in an early age of development. The final result of many of its legal provisions and administrative regulations cannot be determined until many years later. 208 National Education Association REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON SOCIAL-ECONOMIC OBJECTIVES FRED J. KELLY, CHIEF, DIVISION OF COLLEGES AND PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS, U. S. OFFICE OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C., Chairman Mr. George S. Counts for one of the recently published John Day pamphlets uses the following title: “Dare the Schools Build a New Social Order?” He makes perfectly clear that up to date the school has assumed little or no responsibility for determining either the direction or the rapidity of social progress. By implication, if not by direct statement, the ills which now so beset us he lays at the door of education. What shall be the answer? Dare the school build a new social order? If so, how? One thing is clear to begin with. A new or radically changed social order is coming. Political revolutions in a score of countries; the weakening influ¬ ence of historic institutions such as home and church ; the worldwide spread of education among the common people; the renunciation of war as a method of settling international differences ; and the spectre of want in the midst of plenty — these doom the present social order. The question is, “What agen¬ cies shall take the lead in creating the new social order?” In America even more than in other countries, the people have come to suppose that education holds the key to social advance. Certain social and economic conceptions dominate the ideals of America and have done so from its founding. Americans then look to the public schools to build a society in which these conceptions are dominant in the life of the people. The people are just beginning to recognize that education has not functioned very suc¬ cessfully to this end. They see glaring evidences of educational failure. We give lip service to equality of opportunity but we use wealth in our own individual interests with little regard to the welfare of the mass of people. In theory we recognize our obligations to posterity, but we go forward with the rapid exhaustion of our natural resources of soil, forests, and minerals. In short, our people, grown up in the public schools, still violate in their in¬ dividual and collective lives most all the ideals for which America is sup¬ posed to stand. Partly, at least, because of those violations we are paying the present price in human suffering in America and thruout the world. We are experiencing the most ominous social collapse of a century. Will the people continue to pin their faith to the public schools and colleges? Can we measure up to their hopes? The N. E. A., at its meeting last year in Los Angeles, created a Committee on Social-Economic Goals of America. Its duties were twofold: first, to propose to the Association desirable social-economic goals of America; and second, to indicate the material and methods which the schools of the na- tion should use to attain these goals. This committee represents the Asso¬ ciation’s attempt to take hold of this fundamental issue. 1 was honored by appointment to the chairmanship of this committee. It was my belief at the Reports of Committees 209 time of appointment that the work of the committee was the most far-reach¬ ing thing which the educational forces of America could possibly undertake. My further study of the problem thruout this year leads me still more firmly to that conviction. If the N. E. A. is to assume the leadership and point the way to a new social order it must realize that in this movement it is shouldering a new re¬ sponsibility. It is saying to the world, “Up to date teachers have been content that the great questions of human welfare should be settled by others. Here¬ after educators are to assume some responsibility for revealing and reshaping the great goals of American life. They will also set up the machinery to dis¬ cover the social-economic policies and practises necessary to achieve these goals. They are to assume responsibility further for developing a generation of people possessed of an intelligent understanding of, and an active opinion in support of, these goals, policies, and practises.” The N. E. A. is saying, and I hope saying more or less militantly, that a social order can be built in which a social collapse such as the present one will be impossible. They are saying further that the educators of America propose to assume major re¬ sponsibility for building such a social order. While it has been impossible this year to have the committee of which I am chairman, function in any effective fashion because the funds which were made available for its use could not be expended to bring the committee to¬ gether, I am hoping that the officers of the N. E. A. will see fit to make pos¬ sible active work next year. The task of setting up a charter of America’s social-economic goals and of examining the materials and methods of educa¬ tion best designed to achieve these goals is urgent. Whether the present per¬ sonnel of the committee is named again is immaterial, but that the N. E. A. should prosecute actively the job which it set for itself a year ago is in my judgment imperative. The next generation dare not be vascillating and con¬ fused as this generation is in the presence of the problems confronting society. They must have opinions, and know why they have opinions, on such ques¬ tions as immigration, race relations, housing, standard of living, marriage and divorce, capitalism, labor, unemployment insurance, the stock market, law enforcement, and the like. The responsibility for what those opinions shall be rests upon education. The schools, colleges, and adult education agencies can predetermine these opinions and the present social collapse indi¬ cates clearly the crucial importance of their so doing. If the N. E. A. desires to extend the time of the Committee on Social- Economic Goals, provision should be made for closest cooperation with other groups working upon related problems. Chief among these is the Com¬ mission on the Investigation of the Social Studies in the Schools, working under the auspices of the American Historical Society. This commission has a problem similar in many respects to the one assigned to the present com¬ mittee of the N. E. A. It is composed of competent persons, both educa¬ tors and representatives of the social sciences, and has been at work for nearly three years. It will conclude its studies at the end of 1933 and plans to pub- 210 National Education Association lish its findings in a series of fourteen monographs. The first of these mono¬ graphs, called “A Charter for the Social Sciences in the Schools,” by Charles A. Beard, is already in print. The President’s Committee on Social Trends, which is now completing its work, is engaged also in studies that will have a definite bearing upon the problem of the N. E. A. committee. Its findings will be exceedingly helpful but will, of course, not be reported in such a way as to be immediately useful to the schools. Other studies, such as the Wickersham Commission on the Cause and Prevention of Crime, the White House Conference on Child Health and Protection, as well as studies which are stimulated by groups such as the Social Science Research Council, provide materials from which scholars in the field of the social sciences can set forth the fundamental social economic goals, policies, and practises with much more assurance than could have been done at any earlier period. These investigations make it unneces¬ sary for the N. E. A. committee to conduct original studies to derive the facts which bear on the question. However, with all this rich fund of mate¬ rial it is still necessary to provide the machinery for its careful interpreta¬ tion and its organization into such form as will be serviceable to the teachers in the schools. To do this require: first, that a group of social economic lead¬ ers shall meet from time to time to re-examine the evidences, and restate the social-economic goals for the achievement of which our schools should strive; and second, that investigations of educational practises shall be con¬ stantly carried on to determine how these goals may be best achieved thru the agencies of education. No committee of the N. E. A. can do this work itself. The best it can do will be to serve as the medium thru which the N. E. A. will enlist the aid of the best scholars in the field of the social sciences in determining what is best to teach, and enlist the cooperation of the most forward-looking superintendents, principals, and teachers to de¬ termine how best to teach it. This is, in brief, my conception of the committee’s function. If such a function is approved it will mean a continuing service from year to year in helping the organized education of the country to assume better its most important responsibility. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE TO COOPERATE WITH THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF TEACHERS IN COLORED SCHOOLS N. C. NEWBOLD, STATE DIRECTOR OF NEGRO EDUCATION, STATE DEPART¬ MENT OF education, RALEIGH, N. C., Chairman At the meeting of the National Education Association in Minneapolis, July, 1928, both the Board of Directors and the Representative Assembly approved resolutions presented by this committee. Section 4 of these resolu¬ tions reads as follows : Reports of Committees 211 That the N. E. A. give its sympathetic interest and encouragement to the prepa¬ ration of a motion picture which will describe on a factual basis the “History of Negroes in America,” their struggles, their accomplishments in education, litera¬ ture, art, music, their accumulation of wealth, their contributions to America in industry, agriculture, and in the arts and sciences, and in peace and war. This proposal has been discussed by our committee many times since then, and repeated efforts have been made to get results. At a meeting of the committee in Washington February 22, 1932, a fur¬ ther step was taken in this matter and the following resolution passed : “That a subcommittee be appointed to make a careful study of possibilities involved in the proposed motion picture on the ‘History of Negroes in America’.” This time the committee included in the scope of the work of its subcommittee this additional task: “To secure the rewriting of textbooks on American History to include facts about Negroes.” The subcommittee appointed to perform these services includes: Mr. S. L. Smith, southern director for the Rosenwald Fund, chairman; Mr. W. T. B. Williams, dean of Tuskegee Institute; and Mr. Arthur D. Wright, president of the Boards of Trustees of the Jeanes and Slater Funds. The subcommittee appointed at Washington on February 22, 1932, to study carefully ( 1 ) the possibilities involved in the motion picture on the “History of Negroes in America,” and (2) the inclusion in textbooks of American history of notable facts about Negroes who have played a part in the nation’s history, is making the following brief report of progress: 1. Thru the good offices of Mr. Will Hays, president of the Motion Picture Pro¬ ducers and Distributors of America, we have gotten in touch with at least two large producers, and have had considerable correspondence with one of the leading producers and distributors who is offering valuable suggestions and seems willing to undertake the making of a picture — episodical — in five or six reels, which would be so planned as to appeal to the theater-goers of America, due to its informative nature, plus the abundance of worthwhile entertainment which could be interwoven into the story. As the success of a picture on this enormous scale depends mainly upon the name of the star or stars, as well as the title, the committee is now giving careful consideration to this part of the program. When this is planned, it would then be necessary to have a scenario prepared by a skilled technician in this field, with the cooperation of all groups interested in Negro life and education. The committee has also had much encouragement from Mr. W. E. B. Du Bois, a noted journalist, and Miss Mary Beattie Brady of the Harmon Foundation. They have given much thought to this subject, and each expresses a willingness to cooperate with the committee. 2. The committee has discussed the problem of having historians include notable achievements of Negroes and the race in textbooks of history on the same basis as achievements of other races are recorded, with a number of groups interested in Negro history and life, including Mr. Carter Woodson, director and editor of the Journal of Negro History, Mr. Charles Johnson, director of Social Science at Fisk University, Mr. Ulrich Phillips of Yale University, and others. Much study is now being made by various groups and individuals to provide means of furnishing supplementary reading in Negro life, not only for Negro schools, but for white schools and colleges. These groups seem willing to cooperate with this committee in efforts to see what can be done toward having the American historians include in all textbooks of history for the elementary, the high school, and the 212 National Education Association college, such notable achievements (if any) by Negroes as are worthy to go into history. Members of the committee have discussed this problem also with school officials who seem willing to cooperate in any way they can to carry thru the plans of the committee. The committee has had two brief meetings since February to discuss the problems involved, with all three present, and while each member feels that the tasks to be performed involve difficulties, they are in agreement that with continued thoughtful efforts on the part of this committee, with the full cooperation of the National Education Association and the National Association of Teachers in Colored Schools, as well as other groups interested in Negro education and life, something can and will be accomplished which will help in the solution of these problems. Other undertakings of our N. E. A. committee are: 1. A subcommittee headed by Mr. Leo M. Favrot, General Field Agent of the General Education Board, is cooperating with the officers of the Na¬ tional Association of Teachers in Colored Schools wherever desired in setting up worthwhile and workable programs and objectives for that organization. The N. E. A. can be of tremendous service to the Colored Association by holding out to it a strong and friendly helping hand. 2. A subcommittee was appointed “to find out what contributions the white colleges of the south are making toward a study of problems of Negroes.” A partial report of this subcommittee was given at Los Angeles last July. Since then the study has been completed and published in the proceedings of a conference on “Education and Racial Adjustment” held at George Peabody College, Nashville, late in July, 1931. Copies of this study, which shows that more than one hundred white colleges in the south are studying the problems of the Negro race, may be had upon request to the Commission on Interracial Cooperation in Atlanta, or to Peabody College, Nashville. 3. That efforts be made to locate studies, particularly graduate studies, that have been made or that are now in progress on any phase of Negro education and health, and that these studies be examined (by a subcom¬ mittee) to determine if such studies are of sufficient importance to justify their publication by the United States Office of Education (or some other agency) for distribution thruout the country. 4. By direction of our full committee, a subcommittee has been appointed “to study the question of discrimination in the use of federal funds for edu¬ cational purposes.” This subcommittee is composed of Mr. Leo M. Favrot, Miss Mabel Carney, and Mr. W. W. Sanders. The committee has devoted considerable time and work to this study but cannot report at this time. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS JOSEPH H. SAUNDERS, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEWPORT NEWS, VA., Chairman The Committee on Resolutions, which was appointed at the meeting held last year at Los Angeles, had a very definite feeling that inasmuch as in the past several years there had grown up a custom in our Association in connec¬ tion with resolutions whereby we repeated every year all of the philosophy Reports of Committees 213 of this great organization concerning a system of public schools, it would be wise to incorporate these annual repronouncements of the platform. Be¬ cause of the length of these resolutions that we have been sending out for several years they do not gain the attention either of the public or of the field of teaching or of the people outside of the field of teaching. The com¬ mittee thought it would be helpful to have a permanent platform to which reference could be made annually. Each year changes could be made as the body saw fit, and a few new pertinent resolutions could be offered. We felt that this would be a more effective plan. Therefore, immediately upon the adjournment of the Los Angeles convention I asked Secretary Crabtree and the research staff at headquarters to make a study of all the resolu¬ tions that had been passed by this Association in the past 75 years of its existence. That material was carefully collaborated and sent out to the members of the Resolutions Committee ; then the resolutions adopted at Los Angeles were sent to 300 prominent people in education thruout the United States. Fifty of these were college professors, fifty were school principals, fifty were state superintendents or territory superintendents, fifty were city superintendents, and fifty were classroom teachers. These were selected from every state in the Union, in order to secure a cross-section of American educa¬ tional opinion. When their replies came back, they were tabulated in the Research Division by Frank W. Hubbard, who has done an outstanding piece of work on this year’s resolutions, and at the February meeting of the Department of Superintendence, the Resolutions Committee met and considered that report. The report was revised again, sent out for criticism and again returned. So that several hundred papers have passed back from Washington between the chairman of the committee and the members of the Resolutions Committee thruout the year. Last Friday, Saturday, and Sunday the Resolutions Committee sat continuously to revise and reword this platform. As a result the resolutions offered are in two sections, first, a plat¬ form, which we hope to be a somewhat permanent pronouncement of the National Education Association; and second, a set of resolutions that are on current matters for this year. Platform The National Education Association believes that education is of major concern to the American people. The influences exerted upon the passing procession of youth, which makes its way from infancy to responsible citi¬ zenship by the pathway of the schools, should effectively promote the ideals of democracy. Looking to the future of our country the Association calls upon laymen and teachers to examine and to support the following state¬ ments of educational policy: Part I. The Child The National Education Association believes that American fathers and mothers desire to lift their children to higher opportunities than they have themselves enjoyed. This zeal for the happiness of the next generation, 214 National Education Association kindled in our country by its first pioneers, has been passed on undimmed from one generation to the next. As a people we are convinced that human progress marches only when children excel their parents. Opportunity — Every child, regardless of race, creed, social position, resi¬ dence, or physical condition, should have the opportunity for the fullest development of his individual powers thru education. Character — Character is the major outcome of education. All activities of the school should contribute to the habits and attitudes which manifest them¬ selves thru integrity in private life, law observance, and intelligent participa¬ tion in civic affairs. Health — The school program for physical and mental health should sup¬ plement the efforts of the home to establish habits of clean and wholesome living. Initiative — Children should be taught how to think more than what to think. Education should prepare the rising generation to meet the social and economic problems of an ever-changing world. Labor — No child should engage in premature or excessive employment that deprives him of the benefits of comradeship, of play, and of education. Part II. The Teacher The National Education Association believes that progress in education depends largely upon the preparation and character of the individual teacher. No nation can afford to entrust its children to incompetent teachers. Democracy in the profession — Teachers, regardless of position or title, are workers in a common cause. Efforts to capitalize the talents of all teach¬ ers thru curriculum committees and other shared responsibilities should be encouraged and extended. Ethics — As individuals and as groups, teachers should observe the prin¬ ciples of conduct set forth in the code of ethics adopted by the Association. Improvement in service — Every teacher should be a student of profes¬ sional problems — seeking in every way to know and to advance better edu¬ cational practises. Associations — Membership in educational associations should be encour¬ aged, for thru such agencies group effort may be brought to bear upon pro¬ fessional and social problems. Part III. Local School Systems The National Education Association believes that the continuous mainte¬ nance of efficient local school systems is of fundamental importance. Con¬ ditions in every school must be such that children and teachers may work together with the maximum of effectiveness. Financial support — A modern program of education requires generous support from public revenues. Local districts should add to state and na¬ tional sources of income the funds necessary to provide a complete program of education. Reports of Committees 215 Unit of administration — To the end that classroom instruction may be * most effective, the local unit of school control should be large enough to justify the employment of men and women with special training in educa¬ tional leadership, administration, and supervision of instruction. Outside the urban areas this unit should be large enough to provide an educational pro¬ gram commensurate with rural needs. Distinction of functions — There should be general recognition of the dis¬ tinction between the lay control of public education and the professional administration of schools. Lay boards should not nullify expert services by unnecessary interference with the professional activities of their employees. School budgets — School budgets should be prepared by the school super¬ intendent and his staff and presented to the board of education for considera¬ tion. There should be no retrenchment in school budgets without due con¬ sideration both of the immediate and the ultimate consequences. Where genuine economies seem advisable they should be made with the advice of the professional staff. Education should be one of the last governmental functions to be restricted or curtailed. Basis of selection and promotion — All teachers should be selected and pro¬ moted on the basis of their professional qualifications and attainments. Schoolboards — Local and state boards of education should be chosen on a nonpartisan basis, selected at large from the area which the board is to serve, and granted terms of office of such length and arrangement as to make it impossible to choose a majority of the board at any one time. Curriculums — The educational program should take into account the interests, needs, and abilities of individuals. It should prepare pupils for cul¬ tural, vocational, recreational, and civic responsibilities. Educational interpretation — The educational program today needs the active support of all citizens and organized community agencies. Educators should make a practise of keeping the aims, practises, and achievements of the schools constantly before the public. Part IV. The State and Education The National Education Association believes that the control and the organization of education are state functions. Upon the state falls the major responsibilities of organizing a system of schools, preparing the teachers, pro¬ viding adequate financial support, and maintaining the necessary educational standards. The quality of future citizenship depends largely upon the effec¬ tiveness of the state in discharging these functions. State school system — Each state should provide and support from public funds a system of free schools beginning with the kindergarten and extend¬ ing thru the university. Adult education — Opportunities should be provided for adults in every state to enrich the cultural aspects of life, to prepare for parenthood, to de¬ velop personal talent, to improve or to re-educate vocational abilities, to remedy deficiencies in education, and to learn the responsibilities of social life. 216 National Education Association Rural education — Children in rural communities should be provided with an education as generously supported as that given to urban children. State and national school authorities are urged to study curriculum needs and possible administrative reorganizations, particularly of rural education. Special education — Gifted, exceptional, and handicapped children should receive instruction, guidance, and special care in accordance with their re¬ spective needs. Surveys by local, state, and national authorities are needed to provide the basis for an adequate educational program for these children. Guidance — Provision should be made for systematic programs of guidance and counseling in state school systems. The programs should be balanced so as to include the educational, the social, and the vocational problems of the individual student. Competent persons, prepared in the field of counseling, should be employed whenever possible. Vocational education — Every state should provide a complete program of vocational education for youths and adults. Classes should be organized and maintained as integral parts of local school systems. Partime and evening classes should be provided wherever necessary. Teacher preparation — Upon the preparation, the character, the selection, and the placement of the teacher depends in large measure the ultimate success of education. It is important that the preparation of teachers should be adequate, rich in professional and subjectmatter content, and adapted to the demands of actual service. Certification standards — Professional and academic requirements for be¬ ginning teachers should be increased and enriched in many states. The mini¬ mum standard recommended by the Association is four years of preparation beyond the high school. Tenure of service — Teachers should hold their positions during com¬ petence and good behavior. There should be legislation to protect teachers from discharge for political, religious, personal, or other unjust reason, but the laws should not prevent the dismissal of teachers for incompetence, im¬ morality, or unprofessional conduct. Retirement systems — To promote efficiency in public education every state should adopt a sound plan for the retirement of aged and disabled teachers. School finance — Adequate support of a modern system of schools requires a system of taxation which conforms to the best theory and practise. Con¬ tinued research should be made to find and to disseminate facts about the best sources for local and state governmental revenues. Such unbiased studies of public finance should be followed immediately by legislation which will provide adequate support for education. The units of taxation and the distribution of public funds should insure a reasonable minimum education for every child. State departments of education — It is an obligation of each state to pro¬ vide a state department of education equipped to certify as to the adequacy Reports of Committees 217 of local programs of education in meeting state standards. This state depart¬ ment should, thru experimentation and thru personal leadership, stimulate local communities to provide increasingly more adequate programs of edu¬ cation, to the end that the state minimum program may from time to time be advanced. State education associations — The splendid growth and development of state associations for teachers is hailed as evidence of an alert profession. Under wise leadership these groups can be sources of strength to the educa¬ tional programs of the states. Part V. National Relations in Education The National Education Association believes that there are functions in the education of children which only the national government can discharge. General recognition should be given to the federal government’s obligations to unite, to guide, to stimulate, and to support education in the interest of a high type of national citizenship. Federal aid — Funds should be provided by the federal government to assist the states in making an adequate education available to every child and adult. Special funds should be available to prevent the interruption of education in areas devastated by floods or other widespread disasters. The several states should use these funds for the foregoing purposes without fed¬ eral dictation. Education by radio — Legislation should be enacted which will safeguard, for the uses of education, a reasonable share of the radio broadcasting chan¬ nels of the United States. State and national school officials should develop the technics for using the radio effectively in education. Qualifications for naturalization — The minimum requirement for natural¬ ization should include the ability to read and to write the English language understanding^, a general knowledge of American local, state, and national government, the desire to exercise the right of suffrage, and evidence of men¬ tal and economic competency. Provision should be made to receive all persons into citizenship with suitable ceremony. Department of education — The federal government should promote edu¬ cation in the states by the dissemination of authentic information on prob¬ lems of general educational concern. The Association believes that this service can be rendered best by a department of education with a secretary in the President’s Cabinet. Office of Education — The research activities and informational services of the Office of Education deserve the sympathetic interest of all teachers. Until Congress establishes a department, the funds of the Office of Educa¬ tion should be augmented to the end that its efforts may be increasingly effective. Parent movements — National movements among parents to safeguard the welfare of children and to bring the school and the home in closer coopera¬ tion should enlist the enthusiastic support of teachers. 218 National Education Association Illiteracy — The number of persons who are illiterate, or who use the fundamental skills with great uncertainty, presents an insistent challenge to laymen and teachers alike. Illiteracy defeats the purposes and practises of democracy, and hinders the development of world understanding. The Asso¬ ciation commends local, state, and national efforts to eradicate this menace to national progress. Part VI. International Relations in Education The National Education Association believes that improvement in com¬ munication, international business relations, and social intercourse have estab¬ lished many common international interests. In view of these actualities, edu¬ cation should prepare children and adults for cooperative living in a com¬ munity of nations. International exchange — Provision should be made for the exchange of students, professors, and educational publications. State school legislation should make such international exchanges possible and effective. Curriculums — A modern program of education should include the study of the history, the interests, and the problems of other nations. This study should include such instruments of world understanding as the organizations for international cooperation, the courts for arbitration, and the treaties of peace. W orld education associations — Local, state, and national associations of teachers should be linked internationally for the systematic exchange of pro¬ fessional knowledge, visits, and conferences. Resolutions Economy and education — The National Education Association favors strict economy in the administration of public schools, but it is unalterably opposed to any retrenchment which injures the children of America either by lowering present educational standards, destroying the morale or effective¬ ness of teachers, or eliminating school subjects and activities contributing to the health, culture, or vocational training of our citizens. The Association condemns particularly the following practises: 1. Increasing the size of classes beyond the point of efficiency. This pro¬ cedure works a permanent injury to children because sufficient attention cannot be given to individuals. 2. Shortening the school term. Not only does this practise lessen the edu¬ cational opportunities of children, but it tends to increase juvenile delin¬ quency because of the prolonged and unsupervised vacation periods. 3. Reducing the salaries of teachers. Either direct cuts or the substitution of cheap teachers for those who are competent, experienced, and reasonably paid is a blow at school morale and child welfare. 4. Eliminating health, recreational, vocational, and cultural services and activities. This destruction of the essentials of modern education means re- Reports of Committees 219 turning to a narrow, lockstep, uninspired, and inefficient program of educa¬ tion. Education is the right of childhood, the main guarantee of individual hap¬ piness and economic competence, the best insurance of national integrity and safety, and the best preventive of social disintegration. Nevertheless, thou¬ sands of schools have already been seriously injured by unwise, and oftimes unnecessary, curtailments and many school systems are now being threatened with financial starvation. The National Education Association owes it as a duty to the nation to enter a solemn protest against unwise or destructive re¬ trenchment in education. The economic crisis — In the present economic crisis, the immediate need of the nation is a restoration of employment and production. Private enter¬ prise alone is unequal to the task. Collective action on a large scale is im¬ perative. We believe that this means action by the federal government. Sufficient funds should be made available by the federal government for the resumption of public projects, federal, state, and local, which have been planned and approved, but which have been discontinued solely for lack of funds. Of all the public works which are listed in the relief bills now under consideration, there are none so necessary as public schools. Economy which wastes our resources, material and human, as these resources are being wasted today, is false economy. In addition to the projects now favorably considered by a majority of both houses of Congress, the federal government, thru the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, should make available to the several states sufficient funds to safeguard public education against retrenchment. Congress should not over¬ look the fact that our public schools are self-liquidating enterprises, not in the sense that toll bridges are self-liquidating, but in a sense more vital. Par¬ ticularly in the present crisis, retrenchment in education is dangerous, for education is the chief bulwark of the nation against the destructive forces of extreme radicalism. Law observance — Crime conditions and attitudes of lawlessness in our nation today threaten life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. In many communities individuals and groups flaunt properly constituted authority and endanger the effectiveness of the judicial system. The National Educa¬ tion Association commends efforts to prevent crime, indorses the impartial enforcement of all laws, including the Eighteenth Amendment, and urges teachers in the present emergency to stress particularly the obligations of good citizenship. Child health and protection — The National Education Association com¬ mends the careful studies and thoughtful deliberations of the White House Conference on Child Health and Protection. The detailed reports of sub¬ committees present facts and conditions which demand the united action of teachers, parents, and others who are concerned with the national welfare. The conclusions and recommendations of the conference should be studied and utilized by teachers to meet the educational problems of childhood. 220 National Education Association National Advisory Committee on Education — The report of the National Advisory Committee on Education is a state paper of first importance. The National Education Association recommends the report for careful study by both laymen and educators. An expression of appreciation — The teachers and laymen of Atlantic City and of the state of New Jersey, by their thoughtfulness and hospitality, have made this 1932 convention one to be long remembered. The National Edu¬ cation Association expresses its gratitude to all who have made this meeting a notable contribution to the progress of American education. National Council of Education The national council of education was or¬ ganized in 1880, growing out of a paper read by Thomas W. Bicknell before the Department of Superintendence. See Proceedings, 1880:90-94. The active membership of the Council consists of 60 mem¬ bers chosen by the Council ; 60 chosen by the Board of Directors of the Association ; and three chosen by each of the Departments of the Association. For consti¬ tution and bylaws, see Proceedings , 1906:608-11. The Council meets twice each year, once in February and once in June. The officers of the Council for the year 1932-33 are: President W. C. Bagley, Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia Univer¬ sity, New York, N. Y. ; Vice-president, Mrs. Susan M. Dorsey, 1506 Arapahoe St., Los Angeles, Calif. ; Sec¬ retary , Adelaide S. Baylor, Chief, Home Economics Education Service, Federal Board for Vocational Education, Washington, D. C. ; Executive Commit¬ tee: Anna Laura Force, Principal, Lake Junior High School, Denver, Colo. (Term expires 1933) ; Minnie J. Nielson, Valley City, N. D. (Term expires 1934) ; David A. Ward, Superintendent of Schools, Chester, Pa. (Term expires 1935) . Facts relating to the estab¬ lishment of this Department and the record of meet¬ ings are found in earlier Proceedings as follows : 1880: 90- 94 1882: 77- 87 1884: Pt. 3:1-67 1885: 405-551 1886: 261-331 1887: 257-328 1888: 253-321 1889 : 147-440 1890: 289-364 1891: 275-378 1892:745-806 1893 :925 1894:593-678 1895:430-509 1896:393-470 1897:317-583 1898 :489-588 1899 :380-529 1900 :297-364 1901 :349-499 1902:306-408 1903 :301-376 1904 :333-377 1905:271-340 1906 :607-623 1907 :329-454 1908:313-500 1909 :331-435 1910:307-375 1911:331-476 1912:499-605 1913:355-424 1914:293-404 1915:527-627 1916:195-287 1917:129-219 1918:135-149 1919:675-739 1920:107-109 1921:269-368 1922:349-574 1923:425-551 1924:350-428 1925 :266-336 1926 :280-327 1927 :247-292 1928 :221-262 1929 :229-276 1930 :200-245 1931:275-311 [ 222 ] EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS J. W. CRABTREE, SECRETARY, NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. Education is one of the most stable products of our American civilization. It has its foundations deep down in public sentiment. It is a sacred principle in the social fabric. It is in itself the foundation for progress, prosperity, and civilization. In it is the hope for improvement in citizenship and the guar¬ antee for a richer American life. Yet just as society has its ups and downs, education must have its fluctuations. The breakdown in finance and industry has weakened the support of education and hence it has temporarily lost ground. This is the first year in a quarter of a century when the onward develop¬ ment of our American system of education has been seriously interrupted. It has been a year of salary reductions, a year of increasing the teacher load and a year of cutting down on school activities. The school year has been shortened in many areas. In some places schools were operated as public schools during the first half of the year and as private tuition schools during the second half of the year. In a few places the schools did not open in 1931-32. The question arises as to whether there is any progress in education to report for the year 1932. In one sense the facts gathered by the National Education Association present a dark picture. They do show discouraging losses but they do not show a breakdown. They do not show anything like the breakdown that is shown in finance and industry. There is no such despondency among teachers as among leaders in other lines. The heavier burdens and the heavier weight of responsibility have undermined health and have increased the number of deaths reported to N. E. A. headquarters, but they have not destroyed the optimism of hope. The spirit goes on unimpaired. It grows stronger. The losses have been offset with what appears to be a positive gain — a gain in the morale and faith of the teaching profession. Our correspondence plainly shows a growing confidence in the future of American education. Every setback has seemed to direct attention to fundamentals and hence to increase the conviction that education will win. It has become more certain than ever before that our system of education possesses certain elements of strength which will enable it to survive even greater storms than we are now facing. The great achievement of the year, and the greatest in a decade, has therefore been that of strengthening the foundation of hope. It over¬ shadows all serious losses. It prepares for the constructive work ahead. The keynote of recovery from today’s conditions must be careful planning in the light of facts and needs. At no point in our whole system is such planning more important than in the schools. The teacher is and must be the central figure during the present period of readjustment. The organized profession has opportunities such as it never enjoyed before. Educational research is growing stronger each year. The leadership of the profession was [ 223 ] 2 24 National Education Association never better prepared for its task. Teachers are steadily growing in education and working power. The movement to interpret education to the public is making headway. Boards of education have never been more competent or loyal. Powerful lay support is available in every community for the support of sound educational programs. The recovery from the present economic recession must inevitably be slow and gradual. The schools can help by plac¬ ing their own houses in order, by recognizing the relation between taxation and the general economic life of the nation, and by insisting that the money which is spent for schools shall be spent with the utmost efficiency at the point where it will accomplish the greatest good. We have had already a large measure of success in attaining our American ideals on the level of education which we call primary or elementary. Our greatest shortcomings in this respect are in secondary education. This will be the battleground of educational reform for the next quarter of a century. This secondary level has been too much influenced by the institutions above. There has been too much of a tendency to copy college procedure. The effi¬ ciency of the high school stands out. The changes that are coming are in the point of view necessary to meet the larger social needs. Our secondary schools have the special responsibility to make the citizens of American civilization more effective in understanding and controling constructively and cooper¬ atively the great social forces which now trouble us. Every genuine system of education is a response to individual and social need and aspiration. By studying today’s needs and arousing new and worthy ambitions and aspirations, teachers can turn the present situation into an asset. The mere fact of widespread unemployment in the midst of surplus food and materials suggests that society has now reached a point where it may give more of its attention to the human, the intellectual, and the spir¬ itual aspects of life. Under these new conditions, vocational education and guidance assumes a place of increasing importance. Education for leisure be¬ comes imperative. The opportunity for an improved home and neighborhood life is a challenge to the best the schools have to offer. We are at the moment when the public will support educational leaders in the reconstruction of American education — in a reform which will more or less steadily rid us of the narrow academic point of view and substitute the social point of view in its place. The social philosophy of American public education needs to be restated vigorously. It needs to be made clear to the rank and file of teachers and to the general public. This is the time to do that. Schools must aim at fully civilizing youth in the American way. They must make themselves the focal center for correlating and coordinating the cultural and educational assets of all other educative agencies and institu¬ tions. They need to achieve a new internal point of view which will help to bring a new unity and purpose into our American civilized life. By continuing to work at their problems, by strengthening their preparation as teachers, and by using their professional organizations to improve the service of the schools, teachers will turn present liabilities into assets. National Council of Education 225 HOW EDUCATION CAN ASSUME ITS RESPONSIBILITY FOR SOCIAL BETTERMENT FRED J. KELLY, CHAIRMAN, N. E. A. COMMITTEE ON SOCIAL-ECONOMIC OB¬ JECTIVES OF AMERICA; AND CHIEF, DIVISION OF COLLEGES AND PROFES¬ SIONAL SCHOOLS, U. S. OFFICE OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. L The basis of a continuing national life is the existence of a national esprit de corps strong enough to assure a loyalty to the dominant national goals — Some particular character or spirit is dominant in the life of every developing nation. When such spirit languishes, national decay begins. Unless such spirit can be revived, national disintegration follows. That spirit may gradually change with passing decades ; but at any given time national life, if aggressive and vital, is molded in conformity with that spirit. In America there have been from the beginning certain popular ideals which group themselves under the general caption of democracy. At first it was a gripping concept. A greater degree of personal liberty and of equality before the law were worth fighting for. America was the land of opportunity for the oppressed of all nations. Around such a tradition, embodied in the Declaration of Independence, and in the Preamble to the Constitution of the United States, there was in the early decades of this country’s history, a fairly united and a decidedly active public opinion in support of those social- economic policies which seemed to support the accepted democratic ideals or goals. In a relatively simple society these elemental goals of democracy were fairly easily interpreted. “To establish justice,” and “to secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity,” seemed to call for a fairly clear course under the conditions of the agrarian life of a century ago. “To pro¬ mote the general welfare,” among a people who had declared that “all men are created equal,” did not encounter very great difficulties in the days of simple living. But to obtain these same blessings today seems exceedingly difficult. What enhances the liberty of one, limits the liberty of someone else. To treat Mr. A. as equal to Mr. B. may do injustice to both. All such con¬ cepts as justice, liberty, and equality, while fairly easy of interpretation a while ago, are now the center of a maze of conflicts. We as a people are without clearly understood national social-economic concepts. We lack compelling loyalties to common national goals. In short, what was “the great American tradition” has lost its potency, and we are experiencing a be¬ ginning of national disintegration. Recall to what lengths we go to build up and keep alive the esprit de corps of church, lodge, college, and Boy Scouts. Even in these relatively coherent groups we adopt all the clever devices of pageantry, oath, and ritual to touch the emotional life of the members. But in the great incoherent society of Americans we take loyalty for granted. We build up a social order which encourages class distinctions socially, which rests upon either individual or group competition and conflict economically, and which substitutes party 226 National Education Association loyalties for loyalties to principle politically, with no apparent realization that these violate in national life all the devices which we regard as essential to build loyalty in smaller groups. Even our educational system is built essen¬ tially on individualism. Success in school is a personal thing; the glory is in surpassing others, not in measuring up to one’s own best self. Our worship of intelligence has neglected the social impulses which need fostering if we are to have group solidarity. The question is, ‘ Is there actually in America the essence of group solidar¬ ity on a national scale?” Are there common goals which can bind us effec¬ tively and in spirit into a national society, goals to which we as a people can give devotion, goals for which we are willing to struggle as a society, recog¬ nizing that only as society attains these goals can the separate individuals succeed best in their own “pursuit of happiness?” The answer to this ques¬ tion will determine our course for the next century. Probably it will deter¬ mine our national destiny. If we can build up a national esprit de corps suffi¬ ciently compelling in its grip upon us to unite us behind certain great na¬ tional purposes, we can develop as a society. If we cannot, we must continue our present effort at devising ever more and more complicated legalistic con¬ trols over individuals and groups who persist in their unsocial desires. Such an effort is destined to failure, in my opinion, and a society based upon such a procedure will disintegrate. That a nation may most nearly achieve its purposes; that it may not dissipate its energies in internal conflict and con¬ fusion ; that its people may most largely satisfy their aspirations, the people of a nation must be kept vividly conscious of its dominant spirit. For practical purposes, this national spirit must be analyzed into the many social-economic goals which exemplify it. The social and economic policies best designed to achieve those goals must be formulated and these stated policies must become understood and accepted by the people. It must be understood that I do not mean “100 percent Americanism.” With the World War internationalism succeeded nationalism. The ideals, goals, and policies of one nation are of definite concern to all others. A na¬ tional ideal will no longer suffice in itself. The goals of a country must be worldwide in their implications. 2. This national esprit de corps , comparable with the old tribal mores among simpler societies , can be kept alive and vigorous in this day of com¬ plex social life only by utilizing agencies of education definitely for that purpose — In the simple life of the tribe, or of the agrarian period of America, the tribal or national ideals were naturally and easily passed on from one gen¬ eration to the next. Many Indian tribes, however, had very impressive cere¬ monies as a part of the rites by which the youth was admitted into the re¬ sponsibilities of membership in the tribe. But if the task of keeping alive the spirit of the tribal mores was simple, the corresponding task today is extra¬ ordinarily complex. The few and elemental phases of the simple tribal creed have grown into an intricate web so complicated as to baffle even the wisest National Council of Education 2 27 of men, and yet which expresses itself in what is still the dominant force called public opinion. National goals, policies, and practises, if they are to be effective, must win the support of public opinion. The chief instrumentality to mold public opinion in the interest of na¬ tional goals, and to bring about an understanding and acceptance of policies designed to achieve them, is education. The schools must assume the initiative in obtaining the cooperation of other educational agencies, and then with their cooperation must be responsible for developing a citizenry desirous of and competent to attain the stated social-economic goals. The time has come when education must move forward to a new front. My proposal is that education shall assume responsibility ( 1 ) to set forth what the fundamental social-economic goals of America are, and the policies and practises most likely to achieve those goals; and (2) to use all the agen¬ cies of education, the schools, colleges, churches, and the like, in a concerted effort to create and maintain an enlightened public opinion in support of those goals, policies, and practises. Certainly Russia would not dream of undertaking her bold experiment without using her educational system to bring an understanding of its pur¬ poses and plans to the youth, and thru them to the older generation. The American Red Cross builds its future support on the sure foundation of the Junior Red Cross of today. The following quotations indicate that the thought is not a new one. The economic crisis of the last three years has, however, made it of vital impor¬ tance that the question be faced without delay. Franz Boas: ‘Those who look forward to the federation of nations must work to¬ gether to teach their ideals to the young, to teach that no nation has the right to impose its individuality upon another one, that no war is justifiable except for the defense of the threatened integrity of our ideals.” N. E. A. Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education: “The purpose of democracy is so to organize society that each member may develop his personality primarily thru activities designed for the wellbeing of his fellow members and of society as a whole. . . . Consequently, education in a democracy, both within and without the school, should develop in each individual the knowledge, interests, ideals, habits, and powers whereby he will find his place and use that place to shape both himself and society toward ever nobler ends.” George S. Counts: “Such a vision of what America might become in the industrial age I would introduce into our schools as the supreme imposition, but one to which our children are entitled— a priceless legacy which it should be the first concern of our profession to fashion and bequeath. The objection will, of course, be raised that this is asking teachers to assume unprecedented social responsibilities. But we live in difficult and dangerous times — times when precedents lose their significance. To refuse to face the task of creating a vision of a future America immeasurably more just and noble and beautiful than the America of today is to evade the most crucial, difficult, and important educational task. . . . Only thru such a legacy of spiritual values will our children be enabled to find their place in the world be lifted out of the present morass of moral indifference, be liberated from the senseless struggle for material success, and be challenged to high endeavor and achievement. Only thus will we as a people put ourselves on the road to the expression of our peculiar genius and to the making of our special contribution to the cultural heritage of our race.” 228 National Education Association There is one point of difficulty in this proposal, namely, that the schools are regarded as the creature of the legislative branch of our government. While there is not time to defend the point in this discussion, it should be borne in mind that education in a democracy should be an arm of govern¬ ment coordinate with legislative and not subservient to it except in the same way that the judicial branch is subservient to the legislative. 3. Such use of the agencies of education to maintain a national esprit de corps avoids the danger of indoctrination by the 1 use of sound educational methods in the process, and by setting up adequate machinery for the constant revision of the goals underlying the national esprit de corps — One objection raised to using the schools to develop an informed public opinion is that it will stop growth, prevent change, make society static, and hence start decay. This is a most fundamental objection. It has been the curse of indoctrination thruout all ages. A church, for example, evolves a body of doctrine, and sets the machinery of indoctrination grinding and awakens after a few cen¬ turies to wonder what is the matter with the vitality of the church. A certain Teutonic nation adopted about 1875 a certain body of national doctrine, and set the school indoctrination machinery going only to learn in 1918 that in spite of the willingness of that great people to eat weeds and straw, some¬ thing had gone wrong with the doctrine. Such cases are cited to make entirely clear the fact that I perceive the dangers of indoctrination. No policy of using the schools to develop a predetermined public opinion is tolerable or thinkable which does not provide within itself for constant change. This is brought out by Julian Huxley in Will Science Destroy Religions f He says: Science, too, has its dogmas, but is (or should be) willing to change them quickly and painlessly as occasion demands. In the same way, the set of dogmas for any future type of religion will need to be flexible and capable of development, so that they may not incur the evil repute which, not without considerable reason, attaches to the term at the present day. Institutional doctrine is too often set in a relatively changeless mold. When the mold is changeless, indoctrination means certain decay. In the proposal I am making there is not only provision for change in the mold, but a far greater assurance of change than under the present plan. Evolutionary change is slow, inevitably, when the nation moves thru such a morass of con¬ flicting public opinion as is bound to result when the molding of public opinion is left largely to those who serve selfish and therefore conflicting pur¬ poses. A unified public opinion would at least bring a given policy to an ade¬ quate test more promptly than the zigzag advance which we now make. Furthermore, no one would expect to throttle independence of thought on the part of those who advance far enough in the field to use it. Research is established in this country as a pace-maker in all lines — scientific and pseudo¬ scientific. Research workers would be the backbone of the social-economic congress which from time to time would revise its theories or policies in the National Council of Education 229 light of new truth. Medicine does not stop work upon any of its assumed truths merely because for the time being it accepts them and teaches them. Research is going on all the time to check medical opinion — we call it med¬ ical science. There comes a time, according to George S. Counts, when imposition or indoctrination becomes essential to social survival. He argues as follows: Any defensible educational program must be adjusted to a particular time and place, and the degree and nature of the imposition must vary with the social situation. Under ordinary conditions the process of living suffices in itself to hold society to¬ gether; but when the forces of disintegration become sufficiently powerful, it may well be that a fairly large measure of deliberate control is desirable and even essen¬ tial to social survival. No one cherishes more than I the priceless quality of American education which says: “The thing that is important is the individuality and ability of every child. Develop them to their full power, give to every person his full opportunity, and you will give to the country the richest educational fruit¬ age.” What I am advocating in the way of teaching a body of social-economic principles and policies to the children and to adults who want light on the subject, is certainly not inconsistent with the doctrine of developing the per¬ sonality of each individual. Those individuals competent to lead the country’s thinking in social-economic lines will have even more encouragement than now to do so, because they will have a mechanism with which they can be effectual. They will be on a par in their realm with the scientific scholars in theirs. Science has had its patrons in industry and healing. Social science can have only the public it serves as its patron, and the agency thru which the public serves itself is education. 4. T he essential social-economic goals of A merica and the policies and prac¬ tises necessarily to be followed by the people in order to attain the social<- economic goals , should be formulated and frequently revised by a congress of social-economic leaders , including educators , of course , meeting from time to time under the sponsorship of the educational agencies of the country — Objection is raised to the use of the schools for the development of a public opinion respecting social-economic questions because the schools cannot be trusted to have the right opinion themselves. So great wisdom is not believed to reside in the schools. In answer let me say that, being of the schools myself, I disclaim the possession of such wisdom. But I observe a technic in common use among other agencies which I think we might use. The Dupont de Nemours Company regularly employed 1200 chemists in 1929 to help them find the best lines into which to guide their great chemical factories. The Federal Radio Commission employs the best radio engineers it can find. The Federal Tariff Commission employs the best economists it can find. Even the United States Senate Committee on Banking employs an investigator who presumably knows his way around Wall Street. Why cannot education have the benefit of the services of social-economic experts? For some years, schools have employed socalled educational experts to apply measurements to the 230 National Education Association results of our efforts in teaching reading, arithmetic, and the like. We can have experts to tell us how well we are doing what we are doing, but we haven t had experts to tell us whether what we are doing is what we ought to be doing. Partly, at least, on that account we find ourselves now in the unpleasant predicament of doing very well what we are doing, but of dis¬ covering that what we are doing seems not to be what we ought to be doing! “But,” insist these doubters, “social-economic experts have not yet devel¬ oped their science so that their opinions are trustworthy. They may plunge the country into ruin.” That is a reply tinged with irony, these days, but never mind that. Weren’t we taught that the atom was the smallest particle of matter ? Even the fact of three-dimensional space, which has always seemed so reasonable to all but a dozen mortals, may prove to have been a delusion. Nothing is certain. But you wouldn’t have us quit developing a public opinion about the germ theory of typhoid fever merely because someday we may learn that germs don t cause it. You wouldn’t want your dentist to tell you when you go to him with a toothache, “The dental profession is yet uncertain just what is the correct treatment for toothache. Therefore, you go on back home, and when we have reached an agreement among us, I’ll call you.” But the case is not so bad as that. There is a surprising agreement on most of our fundamental issues among our social-economic experts who have no connections which dull their interest in the truth. Our situation is a case of where the doctors agree, but the people, because they can’t see the typhoid germs, still continue to drink contaminated water. My proposal is that edu¬ cation should provide for a congress of social-economic scholars who have no axes to grind. This congress should set itself the task of telling us what we can most safely believe with respect to those important issues upon which our welfare so much depends. This social-economic congress would be to educa¬ tion what the research departments are to the great industrial concerns, or what the technical staffs are to the several administrative boards of our gov¬ ernment. Just how such a congress should be organized is not a matter of discussion here. It should represent the most unbiased and the best informed persons in the social-economic field. Its findings would constitute a sort of platform upon which educators could stand who desire to follow expert judgment in teaching the social goals and policies. Those issues upon which wide differ¬ ences of opinion were found to exist in such a congress would naturally be treated by teachers as controversial. No particular judgment concerning them would be taught. With respect to the great majority of issues, however, it is believed that reasonable agreement would be reached, and these could be taught with safety and propriety in the schools, colleges, and adult educa¬ tion agencies. This proposal is but the educational aspect of national social- economic planning. The bringing together of experts in the social-economic field to decide on major issues and plan for the future has until recently been associated in National Council of Education 231 our thoughts with Russia and Communism. It has been thought that social- economic planning in the United States would break down our democratic form of government and limit our cherished freedom. But the question of securing personal freedom is not so simple as it was at one time. Personal free¬ dom is being restricted by legislation today in America as in no other nation. Probably nationwide social-economic planning is the most hopeful method of regaining a larger measure of personal freedom. The following quotations indicate the nature of the argument for a planned economy. If we admit the validity of this argument, then education must translate it into an informed and active public opinion. Charles A. Beard. The only line of action open before those who believe in action runs in the direction of planning— the adjustment of production to efficient demand, the subordination of the profit-making motive to the larger requirement of stability, and the establishment of security founded on a faith in the continuity of fair earnings for labor and capital.” Stuart Chase: ‘If we are going to have a mechanical civilization — and we have so elected we have got to control it. It cannot be allowed to drift aimlessly without ultimately wrecking us. . . . But a great sprawling machine culture, where a million cogwheels must mesh if food is to be forthcoming, must, in my opinion, either plan or some day go to smash. ... to cast a society primarily acquisitive into one primarily functional, will never be accomplished without fresh and vigorous thought, and the abandonment of many slogans which now pass for thought.” Franklin D. Roosevelt: “. . . some new factor is needed in our economic life and this new factor must come from utilizing our experience and our ingenuity to draft and to organize concerted plans for the better use of our resources and the better planning of our social and economic life in general.” Just how to attack the problem has not been agreed upon. The general opinion is, however, that it should be kept clear of politics. Let us review a few of the proposals for planning as advanced in the industrial field. Matthew Woll, vicepresident of the American Federation of Labor, be¬ lieves that industry must plan for itself. He says: It has been and is the conviction of organized labor in America that political government, valuable above price in its field, lacks the competency to govern industry. Industry must find and apply its own measures of guidance. And it must do this thru correlations of its own essential parts or divisions. . . . The time has ar¬ rived for the conscious, organized development of cooperation in all industry, for the development of fundamentally democratic processes by which industry can bring about that balance which is essential to the welfare and perhaps to the safety of our nation. The “Swope Plan” also takes the position that industry must take the initiative in planning. Under it, all industrial and commercial companies with fifty or more employees, and doing an interstate business, may form a trade association to be under the supervision of a Federal Trade Commission or a bureau of the Department of Commerce or some federal supervisory body specially constituted. It makes provision for developing standard ac¬ counting and cost systems and standardized forms of balance sheets and earnings statements ; as well as definite requirements for both quarterly and annual statements. Plans for workmen’s compensation; life, disability, and unemployment insurance; and pensions are also considered. 232 National Education Association In February of 1931, Senator La Follette introduced a bill in the United States Senate to establish a National Economic Council composed of fifteen members to be appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. By the terms of this bill the members are to be selected from lists submitted by groups of associations and organizations representing the industrial, financial, agricultural, transportation, and labor interests of the United States. The council shall keep advised with respect to general eco¬ nomic and business conditions in the United States, consider problems affect¬ ing the economic situation of the United States and its citizens, endeavor to formulate proposals looking to the solution of such problems, and make an annual report and such other reports as it deems necessary, to the President and to the Congress, together with its recommendations. The “Forum” or “Five-Year Plan” put forward by Charles A. Beard provides for a National Economic Council under the authorization of Con¬ gress. All great industries would have representatives in the membership of the council. It provides further for a Board of Strategy and Planning with appropriate divisions, each headed by a production engineer. This board would concern itself with a study of resources, production, and consumption. It would in turn be closely affiliated with the Bureau of Standards, where industrial research agencies would be concentrated and duplication of effort eliminated, fundamental goods produced under the council would be stand¬ ardized, and those produced outside of that jurisdiction would be subjected to tests. The United States Chamber of Commerce believes that a National Eco¬ nomic Council should be established as an advisory board of three or five members, these members to be appointed by a larger appointing board whose members should be invited to serve by the United States Chamber of Com¬ merce and should be representative of large group interests. The council should be a body of impartial men of recognized ability and public leadership. It would cooperate closely with trade associations, would suggest policies and measures to enable our country to direct its unprecedented powers of wealth- production into channels that would ensure our social and economic wellbeing. A subcommittee of the Committee on Unemployment and Industrial Sta¬ bilization of the National Progressive Conference proposes a National Eco¬ nomic Board appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate, and with preliminary advice from various national organizations. The members should represent special types of expert knowledge rather than special economic interests. The duties of the board should be to assemble information essential to planning for production and forecasting consump¬ tion ; to initiate organizing councils in the various major branches of pro¬ duction and distribution (including finance), for the purpose of setting up such permanent organizations as might be adapted to the special needs and conditions of the different industries; to cooperate in the whole process of organization ; to recommend any new legislation which may be required ; and National Council of Education 233 to recommend any national policy which may contribute to the general end of improving our economic system. The board should cooperate with and guide any governmental bodies now active in the fields affected. From the above you will be convinced, at least, that planning and the bringing together of expert opinion to formulate national policies is truly in the air. I desire to go one step further into fundamentals than any of these. I desire to set education — the truly social agency of the people — the task of predisposing the next generation to the opinion which will serve public interest best. The plans suggested by any of the commissions men¬ tioned above are likely to be doomed to complete or at least partial failure because of the absence of a supporting public opinion. The development of that public opinion is the job of education. But before education can proceed with its task of molding public opinion it must have its own “planning com¬ mission” of the nation’s leading experts. It must not undertake so solemn a task without every possible safeguard. On the other hand, the nation cannot afford to have the most fundamental decisions made except under the auspices of the agency which it supports for that purpose, namely, education. To merit confidence this formulation of goals and policies must be made under the auspices of those whom the people believe to be most nearly free from preju¬ dice and most interested in public welfare. 5. The body of principles and policies formulated by the congress of social- economic leaders should be taught in the schools , colleges , and adult education agencies with a view to producing an active public opinion in their support , thus assuring a unity of national life , and the necessary national esprit de corps — The third objection raised against using the schools for the molding of public opinion by teaching predetermined social-economic policies is that if people are educated they can be trusted to form their own opinions when the time comes. This reason, even if valid decades ago, certainly cannot be accepted as sound today; when the questions involved in almost any of the complex social-economic issues which face this generation have their roots in a mass of data so baffling that even those who devote their lives to the study of them find it well nigh impossible to encompass the necessary information. No field has ever been so rich for quackery and demagogery as the social- economic field is today. This result is inevitable as long as we leave to an uninformed public opinion questions so complicated as joining the league of nations, inflation of the currency, farm relief, unemployment insurance, regulation of public utilities, divorce laws, and scores of other almost equally difficult problems. The situation becomes all the more impossible when tre¬ mendous financial interests are involved. Long ago we recognized the place of expert opinion in less complicated fields. When our child is sick we do not think it beneath our intellectual dignity to say, “I don’t know what is the matter with Mary. I guess I’ll call a doctor.” When we want to build a bridge across a stream we don’t sit around the grocery store stove and debate the matter and then vote that a twelve inch steel beam is strong enough. No, it has now become good form 234 National Education Association to acknowledge that we do not know bridge building. We call in an engineer. But when it comes to practises such as manipulating the stock exchange, that matter is so simple that a majority vote should settle it. We all have equal wisdom in that sphere, even tho our combined wisdom is a large factor in wiping away the savings of millions of our people, and setting them staring at the spectre of want. Education in the schools should give us the tools with which to pursue our developing intellectual, social, and esthetic interests. To conclude from this that all of us, even when the time comes that nearly all shall have had twelve years of schooling, should be able to arrive at a safe conclusion on the multi¬ tude of amazingly complex social-economic issues of our times, is to miss the essential point of education. Education should teach us the place of expert knowledge or opinion. In this day of specialization only those who devote their lives to the given specialty can be expected to possess adequate infor¬ mation to counsel wisely in any great field of human interest. We do not regard it necessary to read the medical journals, the dental journals, and the mining journals in order that we may have an informed opinion on these questions. No, we take the word of the scholars in these fields, and teach it in the schools. We teach the desirability of vaccination, the need of vitamin B, and the dangers of the common drinking cup with no serious charge of the improper use of the schools to develop a public opinion. If, however, we teach that industry should be so organized as to serve public interest rather than private interest, we are charged with the improper use of education. My contention is that the question of industry’s obligation to the public is of such a nature that experts should pass upon it just as experts pass upon vaccination. If expert judgment is that industry should be so organized as to serve public interest rather than private interest, we should teach that thru- out our educational system. Why should we be limited in our treatment of social-economic issues in the schools to giving the evidences on both sides of each question and be precluded from expressing our judgment about their merits while we may say to the children, “Eat more green vegetables”? The assumption has been, apparently, that each individual is capable of weighing the evidences for himself in issues like tariff, industrial management, inter¬ national relations, etc. ; whereas in matters such as the food values in vege¬ tables, the facts are so difficult of understanding that we are at liberty to accept the judgment of experts and teach the children to live in conformity with that judgment. It will be observed that I have selected examples from the world of science which are still controversial. I have done so purposely. They make clear that the issue is not one of certainty in science versus uncertainty in the social- economic field. Rather, we have been accustomed to thinking that social- economic issues are to be settled by much talk by all of us, while medical issues are to be settled by the expert judgment of the doctors. We would rather accept the more than an occasional mistake of the doctor than array our volume of talk against him in the solution of medical science issues. National Council of Education 235 The time has come to recognize that a general school education does not prepare our people to exercise their sovereign right to diagnose the maladies prevalent in our complex social-economic life any more than it fits them to diagnose the illness of our children. We maintain actual control of medical matters by reserving to the legislative branch of our government the right to make laws regulating medical practise. Of course, the same should remain true concerning social-economic matters. The legislative branch of the gov¬ ernment must always have responsibility for crystallizing into law whatever social-economic policies are regarded as best at the time. Education should assume responsibility for teaching what the expert judgments are in social- economic issues, exactly the same as in other issues. If ever we needed a clear demonstration of the fallacy of the belief that people when educated can be depended upon to arrive at a sound opinion on social-conomic questions without the aid of any concerted public policy to bring them the results of expert study, the experience of the last two decades — particularly the last three years — should afford that demonstration. Education is effective in bringing about any predetermined public opinion. Consider the attitude toward alcohol brought about by fifty years of educa¬ tion. The abolition of liquor was steadily gaining thru local option until people switched their faith to law, and deserted education. Ask the spinach growers what they think of education as a molder of opinion. Did anyone suppose that when we started to educate boys and girls alike in public schools that equal rights could long be kept from women ? Further illustrations are superfluous. What we want this country to be, education can bring to pass. Can we determine with confidence what we want it to be? If so, are we educationists willing to undertake the task of bringing it to pass? PLAN FOR A NATIONAL EDUCATION INSTITUTE WILLIAM A. EVANS, PRESIDENT, CINCINNATI SCHOOLMASTERS CLUB, CINCINNATI, OHIO L Purpose — (1) To utilize for 'education the method of the Political Institute carried on at Williams College, University of Southern California, University of Virginia, Denver College, and the New Education Fellow¬ ship of Europe. (2) To secure positive leadership for education in the N. E. A. This project might have been presented to one of the foundations ; or to one of the universities. Several outstanding leaders insisted that this leadership belonged to the N. E. A. At present this prerogative of the N. E. A. is lacking. As a national institution it has first claim upon the plan if it is the vehicle for securing such leadership. II. Plan — Bring together the best minds in educational and allied fields for conference and round-table discussion. The opportunity of securing edu¬ cators from abroad is not to be minimized. Their present activity in the 236 National Education Association United States is largely limited to speaking tours, with little opportunity given us to “exhaust” them, as conference would permit. The new education movement does secure their services, and with a minimum of cost. Similarly, the possibility of securing the services of outstanding men in allied fields is worthy of attention. This phase of the plan opens up new fields of contact for educational forces. III. Time — Immediately before, or immediately after the N. E. A. sum¬ mer meeting. The length of the session remains to be determined ; it should not be less than two weeks, probably. Both suggested times have reasons for and against them. The nature of the conference might determine the choice. That it might conflict with the summer sessions need hardly be considered as an objection. The group would be so small as to affect no school. In many, or most cases, the group attracted would not be summer-school students. As for the leaders in the conference, their number would be small, and their positions so definite, that they should find no difficulty in arranging to be present. Moreover, the plan suggests remuneration of such size as to make the position definitely attractive. IV. Place — Some small college with proper dormitory, recreation, and equipment facilities. The location might be permanent, or it might follow the N. E. A. convention. The idea of choosing a small college as a meeting place has much to commend it. The living costs would be reduced. All recrea¬ tional facilities could be provided, and the recreation could be made to pro¬ mote contacts. A desirable informality and the possibility of personal asso¬ ciations is greatly enhanced. The segregation of the small college automati¬ cally eliminates many distractions and interferences. The geographical loca¬ tion should provide for comfortable climate and surroundings. V. Faculty — The faculty should draw upon the leading educators of the United States and Europe. Some of these would be for fulltime, the others for partime. Lecturers would be secured, depending upon the prevailing thought of the session. In securing the leaders, our choice need not be confined to our own country. We would have the world to choose from. We have much to give, and much to receive. Indeed, an international aspect of the conference has an attractive¬ ness about it. The experience of the New Education Fellowship is sufficient to demonstrate the interest of all nations. Outstanding men who could not join the faculty might consent to lecture and lead discussions. Provision should be made for this valuable service. VI. Student Body — (1) Open to those it might serve, on application. (2) Delegates from cities or institutions to which an opportunity to attend is presented. (3) Number enroled to be limited to such size as to permit the conference, or roundtable idea, to function. National Council of Education 237 The selection of the student body presents a real problem. The invita¬ tional plan is used by all such conferences. Applications are provided for, and, apparently, it is found necessary to limit the numbers by various methods. Probably a combination method would prove desirable for the first sessions. There seems to be no reason to believe that the number desiring to attend such a conference would be small. The New Education Fellowship enrols two thousand from all over the world. Optimistic views of the desirability of attending these conferences indicate that the problem will be one of who may attend. This does not constitute a barrier with which we are not familiar. Eligibility is a safeguard universally used. VII. Expense — To be borne by the student body at first. Cost of attend¬ ance to be determined by the quality of the faculty and length of session. This seems to be the best method for securing stability and permanence. This plan might have to be underwritten until it demonstrates its desirability and worth. However, it seems quite possible to finance the project by the tuition plan. The expense to the individual is comparable to what is spent for a summer session. The attractiveness of the possible faculty and the situation, gives reason to believe that the drawing power of the institute would insure numbers sufficient to take care of the budget. VIII. Publications — The record of the proceedings to be published and disposed of (1) by sale; (2) to members of the N. E. A. ; (3) to educa¬ tional libraries. Some record of the proceedings should be kept. The use to make of the records needs special consideration. If it were deemed advisable to publish some reports as an outgrowth of discussions, there would be a definite market for the product. However, there is a real value to the N. E. A. to be gained by the distribution of such possible literature. IX. Control — This conference should be the child of the N. E. A. Its pos¬ sibilities are so farreaching that no other agency ought to have it in hand. This plan is good but it is not patentable. It will be used in some form or other, and it is now being used in some form or other. The N. E. A. is the sole agency, national in character, which can preempt it. If the N. E. A. abrogates to itself this prerogative, its prestige would be sufficient to hold the field for itself. Any college is at liberty to institute this movement, and some have. When it does, the national aspect of the movement is lost, and the element of competition enters with its attendant evils. The aggrandizement of the particular institution would enter too largely into the picture. The national aspect of the work would disappear. The N. E. A. is the only national agency or institution to give it purely a national aspect. X. Board of Control — Executive Secretary, U. S. Commissioner of Edu¬ cation, President of the N. E. A., and a number elected by the Board of Directors or Executive Committee. This makeup of the Board of Control is merely suggestive. Many reasons suggest a larger and more diverse board membership. It is a subject to be decided after conference. 238 National Education Association XI. Financing the Project 4 50 enroled at $100 . $45 000 15 instructors at $500 per week . $15,000 10 lecturers at $200 . 2,000 Administration . 10 000 450 ($10 x 2) Board & Room . 9,000 Recreation . 1,000 Advertising Campaign . 5,000 $42,000 Margin . 3,000 $45,000 It is quite apparent that these figures are too general. They serve to draw attention to several items which point for discussion. The sum allotted to instructors is intentionally made high. It should be of such size as to make the remuneration attractive, aside from the desirability of the work. If it is controled by the N. E. A., it sets a standard of high pay for expert service. It compensates for any adjustments which may be necessary to be made by those invited to lead. Under “administration,” it is contemplated that it might be necessary to secure the services of an outstanding educator and organizer as the official head of the plan. His services would be partime, probably, and advisory in character. The weight which his name and prestige would carry is no incon¬ siderable part of the position. The actual detail work would be done by an executive secretary, with stenographic assistance. The executive secretary would be a fultime position as an agent of the Board of Control. Temporary office and necessary equipment could be secured at little cost, and might be provided without cost, at first. In this very sketchy fashion, I have presented a plan which I believe pos¬ sesses merit. I have letters in my possession from some of our leading educa¬ tors who seem to think that the plan should be seriously considered. To describe it fully would take a longer time than that given me. Your experi¬ ence will enable you to see possible developments and modifications. Funda¬ mentally, I believe that the plan is sound, and that it provides for a method of pooling the educational leadership of the country, making it continuously available in its power and influence, and giving inspiration which is not pro¬ vided by any other means. REPORT OF PROGRESS OF THE NATIONAL SURVEY OF THE EDUCATION OF TEACHERS E. S. EVENDEN, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. The National Survey of the Education of Teachers was provided for by the Seventy-seventh Congress and was started July 1, 1930. The need for this study was recognized by several groups interested in the education of National Council of Education 239 teachers, especially the American Association of Teachers Colleges, the Asso¬ ciation of Deans of Schools of Education, and the Council of State Superin¬ tendents and Commissioners of Education. Supported by representatives of these groups and by representatives of the National Council of Education, Commissioner Cooper was able to secure an authorization for the expendi¬ ture of $200,000 for a survey to cover a three-year period. The purpose was stated to be a “study of the qualifications of teachers in public schools, the supply of available teachers, the facilities available and needed for teacher¬ training including courses of study and methods of training.” The survey is now in the midst of its second year and is still primarily concerned with its data-gathering activities. For this reason there will be few actual results which can now be reported. However, we shall attempt to outline the work of the survey to date in a manner which it is hoped will arouse your interest, provoke your constructive criticism, and enlist your cooperation in carrying its findings to key people in places of responsibility in your several states. The advisory and administrative organization of this survey will be briefly outlined after which a list of the more important studies which are under way will be presented in order that you may have a picture of the survey as a whole. Advisory and administrative organization — The National Survey of the Education of Teachers is one of a series of national surveys being made under the direction of the United States Office of Education. Dr. William John Cooper, United States Commissioner of Education, serves as director of all of these. An associate director is in active charge of the study. Mr. Benjamin W. Frazier, senior specialist in teacher training of the Office of Education serves as assistant to the director. Provision has been made for three advisory groups: a Board of Con¬ sultants, a Professional Advisory Committee, and a Lay Advisory Com¬ mittee. The Board of Consultants has general advisory responsibility for the survey and is composed of the following specialists in the education of teachers : Dr. William C. Bagley, Teachers College, Columbia University Dr. W. W. Charters, Ohio State University President George W. Frasier, Colorado State Teachers College Dean William S. Gray, University of Chicago Dean M. E. Haggerty, University of Minnesota Dean Henry W. Holmes, Harvard University Dean William W. Kemp, University of California President W. P. Morgan, Western Illinois State Teachers College Dr. Shelton Phelps, George Peabody College for Teachers Commissioner Payson W. Smith, Massachusetts Dr. Guy S. Snavely, Secretary of the Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools of the Southern States President D. B. Waldo, Western State Teachers College. 240 National Education Association The Professional Advisory Committee consists of forty-six members repre¬ senting most of the leading national associations and agencies that are inter¬ ested in the preparation of teachers. This committee will meet annually at the time of the Department of Superintendence meetings, and if necessary on call by the Commissioner of Education. It will serve two main purposes. In the first place, it will make available to the survey the problems and the points of view of the various groups represented and thereby insure a more complete covering of the field and a more accurate interpretation of the needs of special groups. In the second place, the members of this committee will be able to carry the results of the survey to their groups in a manner which will increase the probability that the survey findings will be of service. In addition to three advisory groups whose members assume responsibility for critical study of the work of the survey every opportunity has been taken to secure, from individuals in the field, statements of local and sectional problems, suggestions for studies and criticisms of present practises. Many of these items have been very helpful in determining the phases of the study which should be emphasized. The survey staff consists of three groups of workers, those giving full¬ time, those giving partime, and those cooperating with the survey on a voluntary basis. In addition to these as many as thirty-five different civil service employees have been used for periods of varying lengths for clerical and statistical work. Those cooperating with the survey on a voluntary basis are in most cases persons interested in the more intensive study of narrower phases and are either connected with some organization in the field being studied or are working on investigations for doctors’ theses in the graduate schools of the larger institutions. List of studies in present survey program — During the first meetings of the Board of Consultants it became apparent that most of the more impor¬ tant problems which now confront those working with the education of teachers sooner or later involve the question of what is good teaching. In other words, these questions can hardly be solved without the ability to evaluate the product of different plans for educating teachers. This in turn made necessary a measure of teaching ability or of teaching success. Dean Haggerty suggested the desirability of developing an evaluation program for the entire survey and also that the aid of a group of specialists in measurement, particularly personnel measurement, be asked to assist in the development of this program. This plan was approved and the associate di¬ rector called such a conference in Washington in November, 1930. Those present at this meeting were: Professor E. L. Thorndike, Teachers College, Columbia University; Dean M. E. Haggerty, College of Education, Uni¬ versity of Minnesota; Professor Truman L. Kelley, Harvard University; Professor M. R. Trabue, Director of Research Division, University of North Carolina; Professor Karl J. Holzinger, University of Chicago; and members of the survey staff. National Council of Education 241 At the conclusion of the two-day conference it seemed to be the opinion of the majority of those present that the greatest good would be accomplished if the survey would confine its efforts to studying, as intensively as time and money would permit, a small group — about 1000 sixth-grade teachers. These teachers would be so chosen that they would represent as many as possible of the controversial issues. For example, there would be graduates of normal schools, teachers colleges, colleges and universities; there would be those with little or no practise teaching and those with large amounts ; there would be experienced teachers and beginning teachers, and other differences would also be found. It was proposed to test the effect of one or another of these differences in training by equating the groups of teachers on as many other items as possible and then to measure the result of the teachers’ work by measuring the work of the children taught by them during the year. It was estimated that such a restricted but intensive study would require from $150,- 000 to $250,000, depending upon the amount of voluntary work obtained in taking and scoring the tests. Careful consideration by the Board of Consultants was given the pro¬ posed study and new estimates were obtained on its cost which were more than the original estimates. Because of the cost (which was greater than the unexpended balance of the appropriation) and also because of the small number of teachers involved and the very technical nature of the statistical refinements needed, it was felt that more good would be done for a much larger group of workers if the original plans for an extensive instead of an intensive survey were carried out. There was, however, such full agreement upon the desirability of many of the elements in the other plan that it was voted to attempt several of them on a smaller scale and by the use of volun¬ tarily contributed data. Some of these smaller studies will, it is hoped, show the need for and the possibilities of such an intensive study to be made at some time in the near future. PROGRESS OF THE NATIONAL SURVEY OF SECONDARY EDUCATION LEONARD V. KOOS, ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR OF THE SURVEY; AND PROFESSOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL. The National Survey of Secondary Education, which was authorized by Congress in 1929, has been carried on with an appropriatinon of $225,000. The survey is in its third and final year. It has had the advice of three groups, a body of nine expert consultants, a larger professional advisory committee more widely representative than the consultants, and a group of about fifty prominent laymen representing all the states. The professional staff actually carrying on the work, thirty in number, has been drawn from the U. S. Office of Education and the higher institutions and public schools of the country. 242 National Education Association The survey is being carried thru four main stages. The first of these is to identify high schools with outstanding practises. This identification was accomplished by inquiry of state school officers and other leading educators thruout the country. The second stage involved sending out to the schools thus identified searching inquiry forms. Almost 200,000 forms were dis¬ tributed to be filled out by state school officers, superintendents, principals, teachers, pupils, and parents. On the basis of information supplied concern¬ ing the practises, schools were selected to which visits were to be made. Visiting represents the third stage of the work on the survey. During this stage visits were made to more than 800 schools distributed to more than forty different states. These visits involved more than 180,000 miles of travel by members of the survey staff. The fourth stage includes the work of digest¬ ing the facts gathered and preparing the reports. The plan is to publish a series of about twenty-five monographs dealing with the different aspects of the secondary schools. In addition a number of conferences over the find¬ ings of the survey will be held in various sections of the United States. As we near the close of the work on this survey the conviction is strengthened that the report will prove genuinely helpful to the secondary schools of the country. A number of considerations lend support to this expectation. Chief among these, at this advanced stage of the work on the survey is, of course, the nature of the evidence. Attention has been given largely to what are intended by those who initiate them as constructively innovating practises. These practises are being described, interpreted, and, as far as may be with procedures at hand, appraised. The methods of analysis used and the many interrelationships of the evidence will aid in ascertaining the meaning of the practises. The staff at work on the evidence is a competent one, and, altho the group of specialists could not include all the experts in the fields represented ; the aim was to draw from the best available. One of the greatest assurances we have of the usefulness of the forthcoming reports is the active and generous cooperation of our advisers and of the thousands of principals, superintendents, and teachers in the schools and school systems, not to mention pupils and parents and other adult members of the communities. The survey should afford those in charge of secondary schools a broad basis of interpreted evidence on which to project the next steps in the development of those schools, and over a wide array of practical and significant problems. FREEDOM IN TEACHING HENRY R. LINVILLE, SECRETARY, NEW YORK CITY TEACHERS’ UNION, NEW YORK, N. Y. The past thirty years’ history of the fight for academic freedom in this country from the dismissal of Professor Edwin A. Ross from Leland Stanford University in 1900 to the dismissal of Professor Herbert A. Miller from Ohio State University in 1931, has been characterized by fierce battles in which many excellent teachers have been lost to schools that needed them. National Council of Education 243 Incidentally, as byproducts of the assumed right to dismiss teachers for not adapting themselves to the pattern of conformity, unknown thousands of teachers have been sent out of places where they might have contributed much. Freedom itself, and education also, have lost enormously. Altho thirty years in American life is a short time, it is long enough to yield experience for comprehending the nature of a controversy, for estimating the gains and losses, and for evaluating the practicability of a continuance of a campaign of strategy of the scope thus far pursued. So long as college teachers in general dismiss from their minds the problems of winning free¬ dom of speech or teaching in the confidence that the American Association of University Professors will protect them, and so long as the A. A. U. P. carries on as its major activity the investigation of the cases involving academic freedom and publishes reports of its findings, even with its recent proposal of boycotting colleges that fall below its conception of fair stand¬ ards of freedom, college teachers will not be meeting the challenge of the situation on educational lines. Current educational practise shows conclusively that freedom is at times actually assured as a condition necessary to the learning process. This is undeniable in all programs for the education of very young children. The kindergarten movement, the Montessori method, and all other developments of the socalled “child-centered school,” predicate progress on the condition of freedom. Similarly, all scientific research in pure science, as well as in all applied sciences, including economics, assumes freedom to be indis¬ pensable. Perhaps all seminar work in the universities and probably most of the college class conferences are conducted with freedom on the part of teachers and students assumed to be necessary. Practically, however, neither teachers nor students in the colleges are free. It is still a question of time and place, and the nature of the ideas whether it is proper or safe to express opinions. What is done in these situations which involve “overt acts” is determined by social pressures against which educational forces thus far have had little effect. It is in the area of the education of the pre-adolescent child and the adolescent boy and girl that we find the battleground for and against free¬ dom in teaching. From ten to eighteen are approximately the ages, we hear, when the grooves of habit are deepened, also constituting the period during which erroneous ideas are most likely to be accepted. Practically, they are also the ages during which the traditions accepted by the prevailing social order are most effectively transmitted. Perhaps all nationalist as well as all radical movements, before and since the effort of the military regime of the German Empire to create a conquering nation thru education, have regarded the period of developing intelligence in the youth of their people as theirs to mold in accordance with their own pleasure. So long as educa¬ tion is looked upon as a sort of handmaiden of political movements, revolu¬ tionary, or otherwise, w^e need not be surprised to find each revolution carry¬ ing on the technic of using education for the same purpose, and in the 244 National Education Association same way, that its predecessor in control used education. Political move¬ ments having found education useful, and its servants amenable to political discipline, are under no necessity of giving up a practise which we may now find objectionable. But if those who feel themselves professionally responsi¬ ble for the wellbeing of education, for the checking of exploitation and special propaganda that is carried on in the name of education, we must shift the scene from one of well-nigh fruitless controversy to one of pro¬ fessional study and application. We are not truly a profession until we have standards of accomplish¬ ment, a technic of procedure, and sufficient social standing to make possible the attainment of our objectives, free from dictation or interference on the part of those who seek to exploit the jurisdiction of education for selfish or partisan ends. If we believe that it; is professionally right for us to teach the technic of arriving at the truth, as well as the importance of truth, the conviction with which we teach will be an indication of the assurance we have in the justification of our attempting to deal with the question. The question of freedom is a challenge that we cannot evade. Not only in our thinking on professional problems, but also in our social status and our leadership, the need of protecting and actually practising freedom in teaching is an obligation that faces us now. By our attitude on this single question we indicate wffiether or not we are ready to take up the fundamental obligation of training for citizenship. In a great enterprise of this kind, we need to have careful study of all factors in the situation. However, it would seem to be the responsibility of our largest and most influential professional organizations to undertake the necessary investigations in such fashion that action might follow in due time. Only thru organized effort can we hope to deal with the problem adequately. FREEDOM IN TEACHING ROGER N. BALDWIN, DIRECTOR OF THE AMERICAN CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION, NEW YORK, N. Y. The record of the past ten years of interference with freedom of teaching is longer and more varied than in any decade in American history. More laws have been passed interfering with public-school teaching than in all our pre¬ vious history. Legislators have usurped teachers’ functions in requiring the reading of the Bible, usually Protestant ; in imposing meaningless patriotic exercises and flag-saluting on children and special oaths of loyalty on teachers, not required of other public officers. In three states the teaching of evolution has been outlawed in state-supported schools. Even private schools have not been exempt from increasing state regulation. In the colleges more professors have been dismissed or disciplined because of their views than in any decade in our history. More student papers and liberal clubs have been censored ; more speakers banned from the campus. National Council of Education 245 These inroads on the prerogatives of the teaching profession are due to the drive of entrenched conservative interests determined to make the schools serve the status quo. They are the orthodox religionists, the patrioteers, the employers, and the militarists. They are not concerned with education. They are concerned only with using the schools to support their own interests and to prevent any attack upon them. The lengths to which they have gone are best illustrated by the propaganda of the socalled power trust in the schools, not long ago exposed but still powerful. That education can be perverted to serve the interests of the dominant forces in the country is not surprising. All the forces of public opinion have within the last decade been brought increasingly under their control. Deci¬ sions of the courts, acts of legislatures, the temper of the press, all reflect the dominant economic forces and established interests, fearful not only of radical but of progressive ideas. I am not concerned in my work with educational theory. I am concerned with freedom of educators and students alike to control the educational process without fear of outside interference. I am interested, too, in the protection of minority viewpoints, knowing that rebels and dissenters have always been the pioneers of truth and progress. American education once protected their interests. It was courageous and independent. Today, despite its controls, it has enough spirit, enough courageous voices still left to be ceaselessly attacked by the professional patriots. Their propaganda represents our colleges as hotbeds of communism, our schools as prey to atheism, loose sex standards, and pacifism. This new and increasing control of education can be thrown off only with the utmost effort of teachers and citizens. Organized opposition can make foolish laws dead letters. I am advised that the anti-evolution laws, passed in three states, have fallen into practical disuse except in rock-ribbed funda¬ mentalist school districts. Similarly all the other laws imposing compulsory patriotism or religion can be negatived by vigorous action of the teaching profession. When I recollect that the socalled Lusk laws affecting teaching in New York State were repealed in a campaign led by Governor Smith, it does not seem hopeless to expect that courageous leadership elsewhere will achieve the same results. We will have no freedom of teaching worth the name until our schools are entirely free of any legislative interference whatever with the discretion of local school boards and teachers ; until teachers unions are free to organize and function; until private schools are entirely free of legislative control; and until in our colleges the associations of professors are strong enough to thwart the pressure of entrenched interests. 246 National Education Association FREEDOM, CULTURE, SOCIAL PLANNING, AND LEADERSHIP \ HERMAN H. HORNE, PROFESSOR OF PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION, NEW YORK UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. There are four contributions American schools can make to American freedom. First, our schools should liberate the energies of American youth. These energies are intellectual, esthetic, social, and constructive. Intellectual ener¬ gies can be released by actual thinking in the classroom. Esthetic energies can be released by engaging pupils in creative artistic work. Social energies can be released by having pupils participate in all the activities of the school, including the governmental. Constructive energies can be released by making and building things out of raw material. Second, our classes in the social sciences should consider the nature of American liberty, and its present infringements. Attitudes should be devel¬ oped tending to maintain our liberties and opposing their curtailment. Such attitudes may in specific cases lead to protests and other forms of action. The consideration of all such mooted questions should be objective, impartial, and fair-minded. Good American schools can make good American citizens. But a good American school is more than a teaching school ; it is a living school. Third, American teachers should themselves have definite opinions and convictions on all questions involving freedom. They should also express themselves on these questions. But they should do so not as indoctrinators but as leaders of discussion. To indoctrinate is not democratic. To train in think¬ ing is democratic. Fourth, the aim of American education as regards freedom should be to make pupils individually free and to help remove the restrictions to true freedom. Our youth should be freed from ignorance, prejudice, bad taste, and unsocial behavior. They should be contributors to freedom in American political, economic, and social life. Freedom, positively, is proper and desirable individual and social expres¬ sion ; and negatively, is the absence of all improper restraint upon such ex¬ pression. What is proper expression and improper restraint depends upon intelligent judgment of specific cases as they arise. SECRETARY’S MINUTES Washington, D. C. First Session, Friday morning, February 19, 1932 In the absence of the president, Dr. W. C. Bagley, and the vicepresident, Mrs. Susan M. Dorsey, the meeting was called to order at 10 a. m. by the acting presi¬ dent, Miss Mary McSkimmon, in the auditorium of the United States Department of the Interior. In introducing the first speaker Miss McSkimmon said: “Mr. William A. Evans has come to present a great issue this morning. I have a feeling that perhaps it National Council of Education 247 will be of the greatest interest and the greatest value of anything that has been brought to our great educational system for many years. It is a pleasure for me this morning to introduce to you, Mr. William A. Evans, who will present his plan for a National Education Association Institute.” Following Mr. Evans’ paper, Miss McSkimmon said: “I suppose no one here realizes more intensely than I myself, the difference between people who are united by a common purpose, and those who are concerned only with their own work. In my State of Massachusetts, up until three years ago, the 800 elementary school principals knew no more about one another’s work nor about the common objectives toward which they should work, than the separate persons seated here know about one another. We had that individuality running rife in our state.” She then briefly described the meetings in a common educational cause for the past four years (now held annually at the Land Grant College in Amherst, Massachusetts), where 500 school principals were in attendance in 1931, as compared with 80 at the first meeting called. Following Miss McSkimmon, Dr. Henry L. Smith, dean of the School of Educa¬ tion, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, stated that the matter presented by Mr. Evans had been brought before the Board of Directors, and later before the Executive Committee, and it was thought by the Executive Committee that the National Council of Education would be the branch of the N. E. A., best organized to develop this idea, and the one under whose auspices it should be carried out. The matter, Dr. Smith said, had been brought before certain members of the Coun¬ cil, and resulted in the appointment of a committee to consider the feasibility of the undertaking, but owing to the illness of the chairman, no report had ever been made. Dr. Smith expressed himself as favorably disposed toward such an under¬ taking. Others who participated in the discussion, with approval of such an enterprise, were: E. E. Oberholtzer, who thought it well to appoint a committee to study the proposition ; Uel W. Lamkin, who had conferred with some of his staff on the plan, who were of the opinion that such an institute would be so largely patronized that attendance would have to be limited. Both of these speakers felt that the Council was the body of the N. E. A. to function in the organization and conduct of such an institute. L. R. Alderman emphasized the need of dealing with timely topics at an institute of that kind, and referred to the problems of unemployment on which much think¬ ing is now centered, and would continue to be. J. O. Mallott told of the international congresses and institutes that workers in commercial fields of education had been holding since 1886. He stated that in 1929 there were present 750 delegates from 38 nations. He thought such an institute should provide for a few general sessions and for some specialized sessions. Dean Thyrsa W. Amos felt that the general sessions in the institute should lay stress on the development of the person as an individual, on excellency in the human being, and in addition, there might be any number of roundtables to take care of special interests. On motion of Dr. Henry L. Smith it was unanimously voted to request the presi¬ dent of the Council to appoint a committee, with himself as chairman, to study the recommendations, and to come before the Council at such time as the study was completed, with a definite proposal either against the plan, or a definite proposal as to the organization of the institute, and technic for carrying out the plan. Dr. Edward S. Evenden then presented a “Report of Progress of the National Survey of the Education of Teachers.” In the discussion that followed the reading of this paper, Superintendent Oberholtzer inquired if the committee had a measure for students and teachers. Dr. Evenden replied that in the original proposal they expected to have a measure of the intelligence of pupils and of their achievements in different subjects, but that a number of those immediately interested in the work of the committee said they did not want a measure of these successes. 248 National Education Association Dr. Leonard V. Koos then discussed “Methods of Investigation Used in the Na¬ tional Survey of Secondary Education.” The time was too limited for further discussion of this paper. Second Session, Friday afternoon, February 19, 1932 In the absence of both the president and the vicepresident, the former being in the Far East assisting with an educational survey, and the latter being ill, Dr. Charles H. Judd presided and called the meeting to order at 2 p. m. in the audi¬ torium of the United States Department of the Interior. Dr. Judd called attention to the theses by Dr. Kilpatrick on “Freedom in Teach¬ ing,” which had been printed and distributed in advance, to members of the Council as a basis for the afternoon discussion. He commented on points 6 and 7, having to do with funds to aid the defense of teachers unjustly discharged, and stated that he took it that these two proposals, 6 and 7, were based in some measure on a study of the experience of the teachers union in England, where this type of financial sup¬ port is frequently given to teachers who find themselves involved in communities they serve. He said he did not know how far it was advisable for us to hold to these theses. Mr. Henry R. Linville led the discussion of these theses, as did also Miss Margaret Kiely and Mr. Roger N. Baldwin. The meeting was then thrown open for general discussion of theses and papers read by the discussion leaders. A number of questions were addressed to Mr. Baldwin, who in his answers con¬ tinued to emphasize the rights of the individual and the minority as opposed to the majority. He was interested in local initiative and control rather than state, and questioned the right of the latter to legislate on what should be taught in the schools. He referred to legislation in certain states on the teaching of evolution. In his opinion, the individual teacher should be left great liberty in selecting and present¬ ing content, and legislatures should not dictate what should be taught. Several participated in the discussion, including the chairman, who felt that states and legislatures had been responsible for many things in education that could never have come to pass thru the individual alone. The state, thru its legislative body, has declared “there shall be common schools, and in them certain prescribed things shall be taught.” When the state forbids the teaching of certain subjects, teachers should not contract unless they expect to obey such laws. The chairman further stated that legislatures have a right to prescribe courses of study, and the only appeal is to the Supreme Court of the United States, and the Supreme Court has passed on it by implication and ruling in several cases. The local community has no rights except those legislature permits it to exercise. Rights originate in constituted democratic bodies. The state is a constituted union of life and it has rights, just as people have. Dr. Herman Harrell Horne of New York University, described the freedom of discussion permitted in his classes at the University, and the satisfactory outcomes. He stated that he would like to see “a new technic of controversy adopted in school deliberative bodies, whereby the educative results of controversies might be se¬ cured.” When asked by the chairman if he would use these methods in the elementary school, Dr. Horne stated that it was a test question. In his opinion, children are never too young to think, and the methods used to encourage and develop this must be determined by their background of experience. Dr. Oberholtzer felt that restrictions to freedom of speech have come more largely thru the local than the state unit. Legislation, he stated, had done little to prohibit, and much to make for progress. Our programs under a state system of education, in his opinion, offer the best answer in the solution of this problem. The chairman said that the interesting fact to him was that we have never utilized the opportunity to teach children what society, as a whole, does with what is not National Council of Education 249 controversial. Society has handed over to oncoming generations, certain of its best inventions, and he believes laws are one of them. Schools are here to transmit them. Fundamental facts in education are not controversial. Third Session, Saturday morning, February 20, 1932 The meeting was called to order at 10 a. m. in the auditorium of the U. S. De¬ partment of the Interior, by Henry Lester Smith, former president of the Council, presiding in the absence of the president and vicepresident. The entire session was devoted to a consideration of the following theses prepared by George S. Counts, Columbia University, as a basis for discussion: I. Freedom and Culture 1. Freedom cannot be absolute and primal. All genuine freedom is relative and derivative. Freedom is an achievement rather than a. gift or a condition. The free¬ dom of mankind has come thru the development of culture; the freedom of the in¬ dividual comes thru the mastery of culture. Only thru culture does man, either in¬ dividually or collectively, achieve control over his destiny. Any form of freedom that does not give control and power is deceptive and futile. 2. From the standpoint of education, culture presents two aspects. On the one hand, culture is instrumental and practical — a body of tools, inventions, practises, folkways, customs, institutions, knowledges, and ideas on which the survival and perpetuation of society is dependent. The transmission from generation to genera¬ tion of this stock of spiritual possessions has always been and must always be the major responsibility of education. 3. To the extent that this aspect of culture is free from error and is adapted to the conditions of life, its mastery leads to power over the environment and to free¬ dom. Only thru it does the individual gain that development of his powers and that disciplining of his energies which distinguish man from the brute. 4. On the other hand, culture is an expression and the repository of the hopes, the aspirations, the values, the soul of a people. To this aspect of culture, which is integra¬ tive, directive, dynamic, and qualitative, the term tradition is sometimes applied. Thus we speak of the Christian, the Mohammedan, the democratic, the communistic, the artistic, or the scientific tradition. It is here that the most severe educational con¬ troversies arise. It is here that the question of imposition and indoctrination assumes its most acute form. 5. The thesis advanced in the present outline is that tradition gives meaning not only to the life of a people but also to the life of the individual and to the educative process. Human energy is consequently released, not by freeing the individual from tradition, but rather by inducing him to identify himself most completely with a vital and growing tradition and to find the fulfillment of his life in that tradition. Only as he is influenced by and nurtured upon some particular tradition can his life become integrated and effective. 6. The real question, therefore, is not whether some tradition will be imposed by intent or circumstance upon the coming generation (we may rest assured that this will be done), but rather what particular tradition will be imposed. To refuse to face the task of the selection or the fashioning of this tradition is to evade the most crucial, difficult, and important educational responsibility. 7. Traditions are born, grow to maturity, and then decay. As a consequence, tradi¬ tions once vital may become rigid, formal, and sterile and paralyze the creative energies of a people. Our present educational difficulty lies not in the fact that tradi¬ tion is being imposed by the coming generation but rather in the fact that the tradition which we impose, whether in the sphere of politics, religion, morals, or art, has lost its vitality. In many areas our tradition is out-of-joint with the times. 250 National Education Association 8. Our first concern should be not to follow the interests of children, for in that direction lies futility and dissipation of energy, but rather to bring to the younger generation a vision which will call forth their active loyalties and challenge them to creative and arduous labors. A generation without such a vision is destined to a life of absorption in self, inferiority complexes, and frustration. 9. This means that the first and major task of American education is to create a tradition which has roots in American soil, which is in harmony with the spirit of the age, which recognizes the facts of industrialism, and which will appeal to the most profound impulses of our people. Communism and Fascism constitute the only realistic efforts on the part of Western peoples to meet the general situation which we all face. It seems quite possible that these two developments, in varied form, represent the only alternatives with respect to the future. If there is to be another possibility, its outlines should be sketched without delay. II. Freedom and Social Planning 1. Freedom is a product of cooperative endeavor rather than a condition to be maintained or recovered. The savage is perhaps the least free of men. Freedom, individual freedom, is primarily a positive social achievement rather than a throwing off of restraints. 2. This dependence of freedom on cooperative endeavor is due partly to the fact that freedom comes thru the growth of culture and that culture is a group product. But it is also due in part to the fact that power is a cooperative achievement. Strength lies in the union, specialization, and integration of numbers. Without power there can be only the freedom of quiescence, resignation, and death. 3. The social foundations of freedom are becoming increasingly apparent at the present time. The situation, however, is somewhat confused by the changed condi¬ tions of freedom which have come with the industrial order. As a consequence in the name of an archaic and illusory form or conception of freedom, essentially aristo¬ cratic in origin and predatory in spirit, we are being asked to reject the one road which will lead to freedom for the masses. 4. Thru the advances of science and technology an economic system of extraor¬ dinary power has been developed. If this power would be fully utilized, the economic question could be disposed of and poverty abolished forever. The foundation would then be laid for a measure of freedom that mankind has never known in the past. The complete and uninterrupted functioning of our economic system, however, because of its complexity and intricacy, requires careful and comprehensive planning of economic processes. But the objection is raised that the adoption of a general economic plan would result in the reduction of the liberty of individuals. 6. The extent to which planning the economic order would curtail the freedom of the individual is largely a question of the methods employed. However, even if the methods were crude and “undemocratic,” the gains in freedom for the masses would far outweigh the losses. A planned economy should give economic security to all. And without economic security freedom can have but little meaning. In place of the somewhat questionable freedom to acquire a fortune by means of speculation, manipulation, and exploitation, the ordinary man would gain release from economic worries. 7. Thru social planning, moreover, man places himself on the road to an ever- increasing measure of freedom. The development of a social science which can give man control over his destiny would seem to be dependent on the inauguration of a system of planning. Until man seeks to use knowledge for purposes of control, social science will probably remain what it is today — merely a record of events. National Council of Education 251 III. Freedom and Leadership 1. Freedom is also dependent upon leadership. Culture and social planning are not enough. No society without gifted and courageous leaders can be said to be free in the fullest sense of the word. 2. The development of social and economic planning in a highly integrated in¬ dustrial society will require new forms and new types of leadership. The arrange¬ ments suited to the needs of the simpler societies of the past are no longer adequate. 3. At present, altho our society requires leadership as it has seldom required it before, leadership is lacking. This is one of the most discouraging features of the present situation and is undoubtedly due, not to the lack of talent among our people, but rather to the failure of the traditional methods of choosing leaders. 4. Our methods of choosing leaders are derived from a time when society was very simple in organization and when the political state was relatively distinct from the economic state. At any rate, the economic order lacked integration and was capable of independent operation. 5. In this simple society in which the police function was the chief responsibility of the government and the general welfare was but slightly dependent upon the operations of the state, a simple form of political democracy was possible and adequate. Even in this society, however, it was clearly the intention of the fathers that the people should rule indirectly thru their representatives. 6. That leadership in the complex society of the future, in which the economic and political functions will be closely interwoven, can be chosen by the crude methods of popular suffrage evolved under simple agrarian conditions is scarcely tenable. Rather will leadership emerge as a natural product of the various func¬ tional groups of which society will be composed. Individuals will not be torn from their occupations and laden with responsibilities about which they know nothing. Neither will leadership be entrusted to a race of professional politicians. Rather will men of energy and capacity be advanced from level to level in the fields of their special knowledge. Eventually the most capable will find themselves in the highest positions of leadership. 7. The function of leadership will then be to lead rather than to follow. Genuine leadership involves a certain measure of moral or intellectual ascendancy over the masses which is traceable to some real superiority. While the highest type of leadership neithei bamboozles nor coerces, it also never truckles or flatters. It leads because it can challenge, inspire, and point the way. Such leadership is required today in every department of life. Dr. Counts opened the program by reading the theses he had prepared, with a few running comments of explanation and interpretation. The leaders in discussion were Ross Lee Finney, University of Minnesota; John Dewey, Columbia University; Herman Harrell Horne, New York University; and Boyd H. Bode, Ohio State University. These papers, together with the theses, have been printed in a pamphlet which has been distributed to members of the Council. In the general discussion that followed, participants were the leaders of the dis¬ cussion, and members of the Council. Dr. A. Duncan \ ocum of the University of Pennsylvania said that all who had read the theses or heard them read, and listened to the leaders of the discussion, could not help but agree with him that there was a remarkable unity of thinking in all phases of discussion. Dr. Yocum did not agree with what he interpreted as Dr. Dewey’s insistence that what we need is revolution. In his opinion, what we have to fear is revolution. He stated that there had never been a period' in educa¬ tion when there had been so much enthusiasm and so much sense in teaching, and that interests are being multiplied so enormously that the individual is being lost in diversion. Dr. Yocum thinks that what we need is integration. He does not 252 National Education Association understand why Dr. Dewey refers to existing educational institutions as static. To him the difficulty does not lie in the fact that we are not ready for change, but in the fact that we are too ready for it, and our teaching of democracy has not moved along rapidly enough to keep itself up with demands of our revolutionary change. One or two of the speakers in general discussion seemed to gather from the theses, and later statements of Dr. Counts, that he was in accord with the Russian system. To this the author of the theses countered by stating that he would like to make a confession. He said that he was born in the state of Kansas, but it would seem from remarks of some speakers on the platform at the meeting that he must have been born in Russia. He repeated that he was born in Kansas, and thought a good deal of reference to Russia in the talks was a revelation of the complex existing in this country with regard to Russia. He stated that he had made no reference in his paper to Russia, but had referred to Communism and Fascism in varied forms. He added that he thought the real struggle in the world is bound to go on between those two conceptions. It may go on by the methods Dr. Dewey outlined, and he would rather like to see it go on in that way. However, it seemed to him that Dr. Dewey oversimplifies the matter, that he makes of educational problem or under¬ taking, too much an intellectual matter. Dr. Counts agreed with Dr. Horne in regard to the inadequacy of a problem¬ solving education. He thinks we have developed an educational theory that in¬ cludes other things besides the problem-solving approach to education. He said he did not care how many forms of freedom there were, he was arguing for a kind of freedom that has some likelihood of finding expression in society. He stated that Dr. Dewey had accused him of emphasizing too much the economic feature, but he felt there was not a realization today of how very important the economic factor is. He stated further, that Dr. Horne said he would cultivate democratic tradition, and that he would agree with him thoroly, and was sure if he would read the theses carefully without being frightened about the fact that he (Dr. Counts) had spent much time in Russia, he would find therein arguments for certain democratic tradition. The difficulty, according to Dr. Counts, is that we do not have a demo¬ cratic reality in this country, for what we have in parties today is a combination of incompatibility — a combination of Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton. He concluded by stating that if he could be shown a society wherein a great amount of imposition wasn’t going on, and in which imposition wasn’t necessary to carry on the cultural freedom, and if anyone could outline a scheme wherein men live together at all and imposition isn’t necessary, then he would become much more excited over this question than he was. Dr. Finney stated that he wished he had ten minutes to discuss what he called the iceberg fallacy. The difficulty, from his point of view of the arguments of the morning, is that we don’t give any attention to all sides of life. Dr. Horne then took up the challenge of Dr. Counts to the effect that in all society there is imposition, and gave as an illustration of what he felt was the contrary in the wonderful movement known as progressive education. In these schools Dr. Horne feels that nuclei are being formed in which we do not have imposition. There is an assimilation of point of view which is one of the most hopeful things. Atlantic City, New Jersey First Session, Friday afternoon, June 24, 1932 The meeting was called to order in the Venetian Room of the Ambassador Hotel at 2 p.m., by the president of the Council, who had returned from the Far East earlier than was expected. State Superintendent Agnes Samuelson, Des Moines, Iowa, had been designated to preside in the absence of the president, but due to unavoidable circumstances was unable to be present for this session. National Council of Education 253 The report of the Committee on Reorganization of the Council was presented by the chairman, Superintendent Joseph H. Saunders, Newport News, Virginia. This report was not read in detail as copies had been sent to all members of the Council for their perusal and study prior to the meeting, and the complete report had been read at the last summer meeting of the Council and briefly discussed. In presenting this report the Chairman gave a brief history of the steps leading up to the appointment of the Committee for the purpose of suggesting a plan for the reorganization of the National Council of Education, and called attention to points in the report of this committee that differed from the original draft which had been prepared by Dr. Henry Suzzallo at the request of the Council, and on which the work of the committee of which Mr. Saunders was chairman, was based. Several questions were raised concerning the plan presented by the chairman of the committee, and satisfactorily answered, but there was considerable discussion on a question brought up by A. W. Castle as to the elimination from membership in the Council under the new plan, of representation from the Departments of the N. E. A. Mr. Saunders explained that the Committee felt that good people from these Departments would come into the Council in due season by the methods of election recommended, which were not thru the Departments. The secretary was requested to give her opinion as to the value of such membership in the Council. In so doing, she stated that seventeen of the departments of the N. E. A. had repre¬ sentation in the Council, and in some cases the attendance had been regular, but in others those elected had been irregular in attendance or not present at all. She further stated that there had been delay in supplying vacancies due to the election of new officers in the departments each year, and unfamiliarity with the provision for such appointments. She felt that if the officers of the departments could always be advised as to the importance of this representation and selection of members made on that basis, it would be highly desirable for the departments to make their own choice of such representation and continue their affiliation with the Council. On motion of A. W. Castle, seconded by Chari Williams, it was unanimously voted that one member (in lieu of three as at the present time), be appointed by each Department of the N. E. A. to represent it in the Council. This action of the Council necessitated a change from 160 to 180 in the total maximum number of members to constitute the Council as recommended in the report, since each de¬ partment would be entitled to one representative. Information on this action of the Council was to be transmitted to the delegate assembly by the chairman of the committee. It was then unanimously voted to adopt the report of the com¬ mittee thus amended, provided favorable action on the report was taken by the delegate assembly of the N. E. A. The full report of the Committee on Reor¬ ganization was included in the minutes of the 1931 summer meeting of the Na¬ tional Council of Education. (See N. E. A. Volume of Proceedings 1931.) J. W. Crabtree, Secretary of the National Education Association, read a very interesting and helpful report on “Educational Progress During the Past Year.” His close relationship as secretary of the N. E. A., to the educational program thruout the country, made this report of special value. In the discussion following the presentation of this report a motion made by Guy Wilson and seconded by Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford, was unanimously carried to the effect that a committee be appointed by the president of the National Coun¬ cil of Education to formulate the aims and methods of functional education in a democracy as applied on the elementary, secondary, and college levels, in such form as to afford help and guidance to taxpayers and boards of education, as well as school executives, in any efforts at modifications of educational conditions for economy or improvement. In the consideration of this motion it was suggested that such groups as industrial organizations, chambers of commerce, and legislators, be also included in the 254 National Education Association groups to be reached, but it was decided that the motion as stated could be inter¬ preted to include any other groups, and need not be amended for that purpose. Further discussion grew out of Mr. Crabtree’s reference to the fact that while we have had a large measure of success in attaining our American ideals on the primary or elementary levels of education, we still have great shortcomings in secondary education, which will be the battle-ground of educational reform for the next quarter of a century, and that this secondary level has been too much in¬ fluenced by the higher institutions of learning. A motion was carried to the effect that a committee be appointed to study the secondary school and its future functions, this committee to be further instructed to review the work of the Committee on Secondary Education of the Office of Educa¬ tion, and other studies in secondary education, and be prepared to make a prelimi¬ nary report at the next winter meeting of the Council, and a more complete report at the next summer meeting of the Council. Dr. Bagley stated that in appointing committees thus far in his presidency, he had taken the liberty of including several persons not members of the Council, and raised a. question as to his privilege in such matters. The secretary called atten¬ tion to the fact that Article V of the Constitution made a provision that in the appointment of special committees, and in the selection of writers and speakers, “It shall be the privilege of the Council to appoint such experts, whether members of the Council or not, as shall be deemed best qualified to conduct investigations.” To further strengthen this provision a motion was made by Mrs. Mary C. C. Brad¬ ford that the president of the Council be empowered to appoint, at his discretion, on committees, both members and non-members of the Council. This motion was unanimously carried. In commenting further on the optimistic note in Mr. Crabtree’s report, the presi¬ dent, Dr. Bagley, spoke of the teachers’ reaction to salary cuts, and no salaries, and stated that they are “up on their toes” as almost never before, to do the very best kind of work they can, regardless of remuneration. Chari Williams emphasized especially this attitude on the part of the Chicago teachers, and the fact that they had given a play in which they had treated humorously their hardships and indicated the fine morale that existed among them in spite of the lack of salary. The president also suggested that it might be well for a committee to be ap¬ pointed annually to be responsible for reports of educational progress each year. As there was no comment on this, it was assumed that the Council acceded to this suggestion. The president of the Council, Dr. Bagley, was invited by the Council to give some description of the situation in the Far East and his contacts while there. Dr. Bagley gave a very delightful and interesting description of his stay in Iraq, which he said is the youngest of all nations, and is located in the Tigris-Euphrates Valley. This nation has been governed by aliens for 700 years, and has a population of about three million people. There are many educational problems there, chief among which is the problem of health education, based on better sanitary usages. He says much change is needed in the mores of the people before much education can be given them, especially for work in shop and in agriculture. Ignorance prevails concerning the care of babies, and hookworm is a prevalent disease. The Mohammedans form the most fundamental religious sect in this country. In referring to his visit to Turkey, Dr. Bagley emphasized the fact that many changes, particularly in the way of freedom for women, have been brought into operation there. He spoke of the fact that women were required now to go unveiled, but tradition still held them, so that when officers were not on the outlook, they frequently brought the veil over their faces. Economically, Turkey is very poor, but has made more progress in education in recent years than any other country, except Soviet Russia. In Turkey in less than National Council of Education 255 ten years, illiteracy has been reduced from 90 percent illiterates to 20 percent illiter¬ ates largely thru a requirement that all those from 15 to 18 years of age must attend school six nights a week until able to pass the literacy test. At the close of this talk, announcement was made that the Membership Committee would meet immediately following the close of the session. Second Session, Saturday morning, June 25, 1932 The meeting was called to order in the Venetian Room of the Ambassador Hotel at 9 a. m., by Dr. Albert W. Cook, state superintendent of public instruction in Maryland, who had been invited to preside for the morning as the president’s early return from the Far East had not been anticipated. A list of the questions on Dr. Counts’ theses raised for discussion by the Council, and enumeration of certain points in the theses to be further considered, had been received from members of the Council and were now taken up for discussion, under the leadership of Dr. Cook. The questions follow! 1. What, if any, are the specific knowledges, attitudes, and skills which the school should seek to develop with respect to citizenship ? 2. If a leadership is developed that “can inspire, challenge, and point the way,” an intelligent followership must also be developed. a. How may this be accomplished thru social and economic planning without creating chaos in our thinking and acting? b. What are the safeguards for freedom unless economic security is the result of social planning for the masses? 3. How does education thru passive absorption translate itself into conduct? 4. How select those who are to be the leaders? 5. What is indoctrination, and to what degree should it constitute an element or a method in a modern educational program? Suggestions also were received for further discussion on points 5, 6, 8, and 9 of Thesis I — Freedom and Culture. David A. Ward raised a question as to the function of higher institutions of learn¬ ing as interpreted by their college entrance requirements, and the fact that they seemed to want to admit no one except those who will be leaders. He was eager to get some reaction from the Council as to what the real function of the college in the training of youth should be. Mr. Ward wondered why colleges did not desire to take in a lot of common people, who after all must be taught how to follow wise leadership, and many of whom are real leaders. In the discussion that ensued, Joy E. Morgan emphasized the value of skill in public speaking, and the necessity of training the masses for ability to speak in public. Carson W. Ryan brought out the necessity for intelligent interpretation of sub¬ jects for both leadership and followership, and the need of making lay groups who are responsible for considerable authority understand the problems on which they are many times called to make policies. He referred to the committees, for instance, called upon to reduce budgets, who arbitrarily made cuts and set up new budgets with very little background for interpreting the real needs in the situation. John A. Hollinger feared that some portions of the theses set up by Dr. Counts might be interpreted as emphasizing authority too largely, and that school adminis¬ trators might use this to advantage when they wanted to arbitrarily reduce budgets and otherwise modify school programs. In the opinion of Dr. Fred J. Kelly, there should be a definite line drawn between those who can think for themselves and those who must depend upon expert ad¬ vice. This, of course, presents a great problem as to where the line shall be drawn. He believes that if expert advice could be given to the masses at different levels, they would be glad to get this if there was no “ax to grind” on the part of the expert. 256 National Education Association Adelaide S. Baylor raised the question as to whether the line was to be drawn be¬ tween groups or within the individual. In her opinion, there were some problems that an individual could solve and others which he could not, and for which he would need expert advice, and that it was a differentiation in the individual rather than, or as well as, among groups. Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford called attention to the fact that reference to experts had been frequently made, and she would like to know how to define an expert in government. In response to this question, Dr. Ryan seemed to feel that an expert in government was one who knows where to secure information or where to direct the questioner for information. It was further brought out in this discussion that feeling and acting, as well as intelligence, must be taken into account in consideration of leadership and freedom. Mr. Hollinger thought it might be inferred from Dr. Counts’ theses that the only way out of our social problems is thru Fascism or Communism, to which Dr. Bagley responded that the theses simply stated that those were the real ways in operation at the present time. He further stated with reference to secondary education, that this was the only country in which they tried to get everyone into the secondary schools thru a non-selective process. In his opinion, there is more effort to get pupils into secondary schools and colleges than there is to make them as mentally alert as pos¬ sible thru the education they receive in those institutions. He further cited the situa¬ tion in this country which shows that there are millions hungry, and yet we have an over-supply of food. We have failed in being sufficiently intelligent to know how to properly use the resources at our hand. The remainder of the morning was devoted to a presentation by Fred J. Kelly, followed by a discussion on “How Education May Organize To Assume Its Respon¬ sibility in Social-Economic Planning.” E. C. Broome, superintendent of city schools, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in dis¬ cussing these proposals, stated that in his opinion they were the best he had ever read touching upon these problems. Thomas E. Finegan of Rochester, New York, endorsed what Mr. Broome had said, and thought that the proposals offered the soundest statements of principles that he had heard on educational policies in twenty-five years. To his mind there should be a permanent body working continuously on these problems. Others participating in the discussion were E. E. Oberholtzer who spoke briefly on competitive versus group work in social undertakings ; and Winifred J. Robinson who talked at some length on questions raised by Dr. Ward, and some of her ex¬ periences bearing on these questions. Dean Robinson referred to the fact that thru- out the morning discussion the word “competition” had been constantly recurring in her mind. She said: “In athletics, in our artificial arranging of boys and girls in serial ranks in their classes, in the systems of grades and quartiles by which they are passed from school to school, and from school to college in the case of the state-supported institutions of higher education, we are working against social mindedness. It is a difficult thing for those who are on our committees on admission to college to decide that young men and women really wish to learn something more and have the ability to do so. . . . “Our conceptions of fundamental principles are taking new form. A religious . newspaper comes to my desk, I do not know from what source or what sect. I glance at it with amused interest, saying to myself, ‘No one believes anything so materialis¬ tic as that,’ yet I have to admit that a great many things are true in principle that are not true in fact. A great many symbols have lost their significance that might well be retained. The word ‘sacrifice’ has gone entirely out of our vocabulary. . . . “In the same way the word ‘mission’ does not refer to the teacher’s work as it once did, but the word ‘commodity,’ a thing to be sold to the highest bidder, is too often the right descriptive term. National Council of Education 257 . Dr- c°unts has been so greatly impressed with the single-mindedness of Russia’s aim, that I think he wishes something just as definite for our country. Professor Dewey, with his fine internationalism, feels that we should formulate something new in the present crisis that is broad enough in principle to include the whole world. I think Dr. Kelly’s proposals bring these common aspirations into definite form.” At the close of the discussion on the proposals made by Dr. Kelly, the president of the Council presented the report of the Membership Committee on the election of officers, and adjustment of membership vacancies. This report, which was unani¬ mously approved by the Council, recommended the reelection of the following officers whose terms expired in 1932: Secretary — Adelaide S. Baylor, Federal Board for Vocational Education, Wash¬ ington, D. C. Term expiring in 1935. Member of Executive Committee— David A. Ward, City Schools, Chester, Penn¬ sylvania. Term expiring in 1935. Member of Membership Committee— Caroline Woodruff, State Normal School, Castleton, Vt. Term expiring in 1935. M. E. Pearson, Superintendent of Schools, Kansas City, Kansas. Term ex¬ piring in 1935. The report further recommended that no steps be taken at this time to supply vacancies in membership of the Council until after the action of the delegate assem¬ bly on the report of the Reorganization of the Council. Ths report was unanimously approved by the Council and the officers declared elected. At the request of the president of the Council, the secretary read the following names of persons designated by him to serve on the Committee to report on 44 . ’ s - 1 ' :J> /.')■;< ' i utf ■ j, : .nr ) » / , T J vv > ,i •’ r = .Cl ,! : ■ i; < I. ; lo V>rV 1 .2 i.J 4 0 ! 'jl -• •• n ' 11 i r • ■ ' r . Departments of the Association The growth of departments in the Association began in 1870 when the American Normal School Association became the Department of Normal Schools (now Department of Teachers Col¬ leges), and the National Association of School Su¬ perintendents became the Department of Superin¬ tendence. Another great forward step was taken in 1921 when departments were given larger independence and responsibility. This led to the establishment of fees by the stronger departments and to the selection of an executive secretary by the Department of Su¬ perintendence. There are now twenty-two departments. Informa¬ tion regarding their organization may be found, in the historical note at the beginning of the section devoted to the department in question. The list of de¬ partments with years of organization is as follows : 1. Administrative Women in Education . 2. Adult Education . 3. Business Education . 4. Classroom Teachers . 5. Deans of Women . 6. Educational Research . 7. Elementary School Principals . . 8. Kindergarten-Primary Education . 9. Lip Reading . 10. Rural Education . 11. School Health and Physical Education . 12. Science Instruction . 13. Secondary Education . 14. Secondary School Principals . 15. Social Studies . 16. Special Education . 17. Superintendence . 18. Supervisors and Directors of Instruction .... 19. Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics 20. Teachers Colleges . 21. Visual Instruction . 22. Vocational Education . . 1932 . 1921 . 1892 . 1914 . 1918 . 1930 . 1921 . 1884 . 1926 . 1907 . 1894 . 1894 . 1886 . 1928 . 1925 . 1930 . 1870 . 1928 . 1930 . 1925 . 1923 . 1875 [ 260 ] Department of Administrative Women in Education HE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF ADMINISTRATIVE women in education was organized in Oakland, Calif., in 1915 by a group of women in attendance at the annual meeting of the National Education As¬ sociation. One of its purposes set forth in its constitu¬ tion at that time was to strengthen the friendly and professional relations of administrative women in educational work and to maintain high professional standards among them. It has branches in eighteen states. Since its organization the Council has held two meetings a year, one during the convention of the Department of Superintendence, in February, and another during the annual meeting, of the Associa¬ tion in the summer. At the Atlantic City meeting application was made to the Board of Directors for the admission of the Council as a Department and favorable action on the application was taken by the Representative Assembly on Friday morning, July 1, 1932. The next election of officers will take place in 1933. The officers of the Department for 1931-33 are: President , Isabel Lancaster Eckles, Superintendent of Schools, Santa Fe, N. Mex. ; Vicepresident , Anna Laura Force, Principal, Lake Junior High School, Denver, Colo.; Treasurer , Helen Watson Pierce, As¬ sistant Superintendent of Schools, Los Angeles, Calif. I 262 ] Department of Adult Education The department of adult education was established by vote of the Representative As¬ sembly, July 8, 1921, as the Department of Im¬ migrant Education. The first meeting was held in 1922 in Boston. See Proceedings , 1922 : 905. In 1924 the name of the Department was changed to the De¬ partment of Adult Education. See Proceedings , 1924: 566. The officers of the Department for the year 1931-32 are : President , Mary L. Guyton, Supervisor of Adult Alien Education, State Department of Education, Boston, Mass. ; Secretary , Caroline A. Whipple, Su¬ pervisor of Adult Education, State Education De¬ partment, Albany, N. Y. ; Treasurer , Agnes Winn, Director, Division of Classroom Service, National Education Association, 1201 Sixteenth Street, Wash¬ ington, D. C. ; Executive Director , Katherine L. Kohler, Director of Extension and Summer Schools, Board of Education, City Hall, Minneapolis, Minn. ; Executive Committee : L. R. Alderman, Chief, Service Division, U. S. Office of Education, Washington, D. C. ; Robert C. Deming, Supervisor, Division of Field Service, State Board of Education, Hartford, Conn. This Department meets once a year in July. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier Proceed¬ ings as follows : 1921 :460 1924 :565-582 1927 :293-334 1930 :249-274 1922:905-968 1925:337-353 1928:263-304 1931:315-341 1923 :669-703 1926 :327-371 1929 :277-316 [ 264] NEW PHASES OF ADULT EDUCATION TO MEET THE PRESENT ECONOMIC SITUATION MORRIS E. SIEGEL, DIRECTOR OF EVENING AND CONTINUATION SCHOOLS, BOARD OF EDUCATION, NEW YORK, N. Y. Adult education is required in democracy because it is impossible to give such training to the infant, the child, or the adolescent. Until the fundamen¬ tals of government, of economics, of personal and social problems are as commonly understood as the multiplication table, no democracy can be successful. The ignorance of adults in the matter of health education is an indication of defective education of adults. The majority of the people of the country are living in a condition just above mere literacy. Only by means of educating the people in essential questions can the challenge of the great crisis be met. In the present industrial depression safety lies in the knowledge of the “man in the street” of what to do; otherwise there is great danger that propaganda, which is adult education gone wrong, will be used by interested parties to reorganize our economic structure in accordance with their peculiar tenets. The main features of the present economic situation which adult educa¬ tion can help are : 1. An understanding of the causes of the existing economic problems 2. The elimination of unemployment 3. Constructive use of enforced leisure 4. Vocational guidance of maladjusted adults 5. Vocational training of those who previously lacked such advantages 6. Retraining of those who are victims of technological unemployment 7. Providing a supplementary occupation for those who are partially trained 8. Above all, maintenance of morale by (a) keeping up health standards; (b) providing a certain amount of security as to food, shelter, clothing; (c) encouratrintr neighborliness; (d) restoring confidence. g In each of the above phases the schools of New York City and New York State have undertaken a vigorous constructive program. Such includes sev¬ eral hundred classes for the retraining of unemployed adults; cooperation with employment bureaus for vocational guidance and counsel ; study of the causes of the present economic crisis; definite attempts to maintain family morale, assistance in the matter of food, shelter, and clothing; cooperation in conducting sheltered workshops. In New York City during the past eight- een months over 30,000 individuals have been assisted, with an average weekly register of over 5,000. THE IMPORTANCE OF ADULT EDUCATION HAROLD G. CAMPBELL, DEPUTY AND ASSOCIATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEW YORK, N. Y. Adult education of the present includes not only persons with such imme¬ diate needs, but also college graduates and other fortunately circumstanced adults who in spite of former education feel that they must still engage in I 265 ] 266 National Education Association serious study. Three factors are perhaps mainly responsible for this wider range of interest : the incredibly rapid change in our civilization and en¬ vironment ; the marked increase in leisure time ; and the conclusive evidence, given by Thorndike and others, that men and women in mature life can still learn quickly and effectively. In the United States alone, approximately 4,000,000 adults are enroled in public evening schools, college and university extension, corporation schools, workers’ education, alumni education, and in such organizations as the Y. M. C. A. and K. of C. Vocational education — Two large groups in this field are eager to enter school. One group declares that it was deprived of the opportunity for vocational training by the narrow conception of education twenty-five years ago. The other asks that we broaden still further our conception of educa¬ tion so as to provide public schools for people of all ages who wish to have either additional training for present vocations or an entirely new training to take the place of one that a changing world has rendered obsolete. We have acknowledged that the educative process is a continuing one thru a man’s life. We are now asked to make the public schools available beyond the period of youth to assist in this process. Academic training — The chance for academic training is sought by many who during their youth were unable to take advantage of the offerings of the public schools. Possibly economic pressure forced them to leave school before completing even the elementary school grades. Other men and women often desire instruction that will enable them to get more joy out of living. They may wish to learn of the newer trends in economics and sociology. It may be that they will wish to know how to listen to an opera more appreciatively or to look at a beautiful painting with greater understanding. They may want leadership in the study of stones, trees, flowers, and birds; or it may be that they wish encouragement and direction when they themselves write poems, paint pictures, design hooked rugs, or make copies of beautiful old chairs. Dr. L. P. Jacks, the eminent Oxford philosopher, now visiting this coun¬ try, said in a recent interview: I would, however, help people to find and to choose wiser and at the same time to develop more ways of enjoying themselves. I think thus a vast increase in human happiness would be possible and that people would also become better citizens. Many of the leisure occupations now common in all classes — the rich and the poor — tend to the opposite direction. Nine-tenths of present leisure is devoted to playing the fool. A system of education, which trains a man for dealing with particular conditions but leaves him untrained for all others — trained for work of a special kind (such as salesmanship) but untrained for unemployment (whether voluntary or enforced) has utterly failed at the essential point — that of opening the way to “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” If adversity is to be sweet in its uses at this time, we must admit that fact. 0 In considering this broad question of adult education we should think also of the advantages that will accrue to the state from enlisting the aid Department of Adult Education 267 of the schools in the continuing process of educating its men and women for intelligent citizenship and for a more thoro understanding of the social, economic, and political problems that confront American democracy. We have professional alertness courses for our teachers. Why not for other citizens? Why not for mothers and fathers? Parents are faced with a tremen¬ dous responsibility in training their children in the complexity of modern life and they are looking to the schools for instruction in this field. Each superintendent has problems of adult education in his community. Is our job merely the education of children, or is our job as public school officials, the education of the entire community for better manhood and womanhood, for better citizenship and for better living? If the answer to the latter question is yes, each of us should address ourselves to the problem of adult education. ADULT EDUCATION FOR TRAINING AND ENLIGHTEN¬ MENT EDWIN C. BROOME, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PHILADELPHIA, PA. The sanction and place of adult education in the general plan of public education depends upon two things: the role which public education should play in the general drama of a democratic plan of government ; and the objectives which education should be expected to achieve in the general social scheme. It is quite evident that some plan of general education was contemplated by the founders of the republic as an essential function of a democratic gov¬ ernment, if that government was to endure. Popular education was not to be solely for children, but, as Washington said, for the enlightenment of public opinion; or as Jefferson said, for the diffusion of knowledge among the people ; or to quote Monroe, “Society in every district must gain that portion of useful knowledge which is necessary to qualify men to discharge with credit and effect those great duties of citizens upon which free government rests.” The total responsibility of public education is well-expressed by Abraham Flexner in these words : The effort to exploit the latent powers and capacities of the individual, both for his own good and for the good of society, involves education of the entire popula¬ tion from, if not before, the cradle to the grave. Granted that education should be directed to the total enlightment of society what should be its general objectives? We are not interested at this time in the much quoted and exploited seven cardinal aims of education. They will do for the classroom, but we must direct our thought to the broader philosophy that gives sanction to a plan of universal education. Briefly, it might be said that a proper philosophy of a scheme of general education should contemplate two main objectives — performance and en¬ lightenment. This philosophy places upon education not only the responsi¬ bility of developing skills that are requisite to useful service, but also of 268 National Education Association developing in each individual capacities of understanding and appreciating the finer aspects of life, of distinguishing between the worthy and the un¬ worthy, and of choosing a sane course of action ; or, briefly, an education which enlightens as well as trains. In a country whose people chew a billion dollar’s worth of gum and use two billion dollars’ worth of tobacco a year, spend more on cheap forms of amusement than on their schools, are in¬ fluenced more by slogans and ballyhoo than by facts, impoverish themselves by pledging money they do not have for things they do not need, repeatedly place mediocre men in public positions of great power, and misgovern themselves to such an extent that commonwealths and municipalities are in a state of insolvency, it would seem that the emphasis in our educational process should be placed on enlightenment. It is the duty of institutions of adult and other forms of extension educa¬ tion, as fully as it is of the regular school, to provide courses for enlightenment as well as for training. To give an illiterate the tools of reading and writ¬ ing, or to improve the technic of a mechanic or a clerk is not the entire duty of a school for adults. Important as these forms of instruction are, there still remains the responsibility of making the illiterate, the mechanic, and the clerk, not only more productive workers, but better thinking citizens. Schools of adult education have an exceptional opportunity in that they deal with those who are citizens and voters now. They do not have to wait ten or twenty years to observe the effects of their influence. They have an opportunity thru history, social studies, literature, music, art, and the drama to mold the ethical and social conduct, and elevate the taste of the thousands who are the ruling power today, and whose present influence might be felt thruout society in wiser thinking and saner living, and in the home thru the attitude and conduct of the children. If we had grasped this oppor¬ tunity a generation ago and had made the most of it thru the improved edu¬ cational material and devices which have come to our hands, it is conceivable that the adult school might have been a more potent factor than it has been in establishing among the people of America higher living standards than those of making money and of achieving material bigness. What has all of our worship of false gods brought? Our money is gone and our material greatness mocks us on every street in the form of closed factories and vacant skyscrapers. WHAT IS AHEAD FOR THE INDIVIDUAL? A. W. CASTLE, DIRECTOR OF EXTENSION EDUCATION FOR THE STATE OF PENNSYLVANIA, HARRISBURG, PA. Chief among the problems confronting the individual are: 1. A broken-down system of exchange based upon a gold standard, the supply of which is depleted thru foreign loans and domestic wastefulness, demanding of him a reversion from specialized distribution of labor to the hard work, economy, and self-sufficiency of pioneer days. 2. Unemployment with its vicious and disintegrating effects upon his physical, men¬ tal, moral, and spiritual wellbeing. Department of Adult Education 269 3. The need for scientific prognosis for vocational retraining and counsel in the selection and mastery of a new skill with reasonable likelihood of opportunity for its use, and one far removed from immediate usurpation by invention and discovery in the form of a new machine. 4. More and harder work with longer hours and an increased personal productive¬ ness by every means available, along all possible lines, however varied or divergent. 5. Deprivation and self-denial with rigid economy that will balance his material budget and create for him, as soon as possible, the economic surplus necessary to cultural advantages. 6. Need of opportunities for self-improvement in his present, abnormal, enforced unemployment and his natural and growing leisure time. 7. In some cases, unfortunately, actual starvation or fatal exposure, or both. What are the educational implications of these situations confronting the individual? Likewise, whose responsibility? With amazing inclusiveness they all seem to point, for the greater part, to adult education. If adult education is to serve the purpose for which it is intended, it should bend every effort to help the individual in the material extremity of his present predicament. By schools, classes, correspondence courses, reading courses, and bulletins, it should enlist all existing educa¬ tional agencies in a concerted drive to initiate a pioneering reconstruction program of personal self-sufficiency — of hard work, productiveness, economy and thrift in order to avoid retrogression in our cultural development. Public morale is at an ebb rarely reached in the life of a nation. Just what will be the results of another winter of cold and hunger is difficult to fore¬ see. It behooves us to make a concerted effort to place all public school and educational facilities at the service of those who need occupation of mind. It behooves us, too, to think of the possibility of school buildings as enter¬ tainment centers and even as shelter and warmth for the more unfortunate. To go anywhere we must start from where we are, and the first pre¬ requisite in such a program of reconstruction is training in how to win the bare necessities of life, which, here and now is the most urgent need of the in- dividual. Education for readjustment, yes, but with emphasis upon vocational retraining, upon home repairs, home products, and home economies. Citizenship training to be sure, but with greater emphasis upon coopera¬ tive industrial enterprise and mutual interests for both employer and employee. Parent education, as soon and as thoroly as possible, with continued em¬ phasis upon prevention in the rearing of children, but greater emphasis upon those essential home economies of cheaper and better diets, selection and preservation of foods and clothing, and eliminating wastefulness. Leisure-time occupation and recreation, of course, but with greater em¬ phasis upon home life, self-entertainment, and home study. In short, reconstruction by working, saving, and accumulating to piece together the wreckage of our individual and collective indulgence, laziness, wastefulness, and thriftlessness. 270 National Education Association The opportunity for giving a vital service to the nation at a time of des¬ perate need is knocking at the door of adult education. We should wel¬ come it. We should lay aside the academic gown and all professional ornaments, and with rolled sleeves set ourselves at the task of helping the individual with his homely, every-day job of earning bread and butter for himself and for those dependent upon him. His soleless shoes and wornout clothing should be a challenge to us. New half-soles and good patches at this time should mean medals of honor for distinguished service to all who are sincere. Adult education can, if it will, change our present material liabilities into social assets. Upon the present extremities of the individual can be built interests and attitudes which will preserve and strengthen the spiritual vitality of our race. SOME EXPENSIVE FALLACIES IN AMERICAN EDUCATION ALONZO G. GRACE, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF ROCHESTER, ROCHESTER, MINN. The American educational system, a most fundamental control agency, has been frequently criticized. A small minority, but a minority with a voice, proclaims public education to be expensive and ineffective. If public education is expending too much money in evolving its product, it behooves educationists to discover the source of inefficiency. Public educa¬ tion is not above inefficiency, nor is it above criticism. Education is not so much governed by the whims, hobbies, and experiments of educators as it is by the desires, requests, demands, and deficiencies of society. Shall everyone be educated f — Millions of dollars are expended annually to care for and protect the socially unfit. It would seem that the whole social order in a spirit of misguided humanitarianism is busily engaged in salvaging these unfortunates and creating for them an environment so enticing and so inviting that a new quota is ever awaiting society’s magical touch, the signal for entrance into the inner realms of this moronic paradise. Tho the sage of old says that an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure, society hides behind a camouflage of convention, false idealism, and bland skepticism preferring to build jails, reformatories, and asylums. The breed¬ ing of incompetents goes on and on. The spirit of American education is the spirit of democracy. “Give every¬ one a chance, and if they fail, give them many more at public expense.” In order that the tremendous cost of educating incompetents may be camou¬ flaged, the educator sees that each one is passed on and on until finally he has completed some level of the educational system. Education is not an inalienable right to be enjoyed by all. It is a privilege to be granted to those who have the ability to profit by their experience and the inclination and interest to devote themselves to the process. Rigid selection must prevail thruout the educational system. Department of Adult Education 271 Let freedom ring — Freedom is the factor in the educational system that has all but upset the traditional apple cart. In our public schools, private schools, and even in colleges and universities, the expressionist has a sort of emotional toe-hold. Education has developed into a catch-as-catch-can bout. Freedom without control becomes license. License without restraint be¬ comes chaos — and that is exactly where the expressionist has brought the educational system today. Life is not a sweet, unrestricted march to eternal glory. When youngsters step out into this thing called life, does the world immediately readjust itself to suit the child? Does the child adjust himself to the world about him or does the world adjust to the child? The answer is obvious. There are laws, rules, and regulations to be obeyed. There are disagreeable tasks to be accomplished. Success will mark some of his ad¬ ventures and failure, others. He must know how to face failure as well as success. There is hard work to be done, sacrifices to be made, difficulties to be encountered. If these are not encountered in the educational process, just where may the child get this training? Every individual interest must be served by education — Another fallacy in education is that everything must be offered and every interest served. For example, there is now a decided attempt to push elementary education back¬ wards into the earlier years of infancy. The most costly and questionable practises of modern education is the constantly expanding curriculum. Our educational offering today is not unlike the wellknown cafeteria. We have expanded departments, subdivided courses, and created new fields in a sort of mad scramble to outdo the competitor. The public school program em¬ braces everything from baby bathing to the manufacture of clothing. Col¬ leges and universities have spread themselves equally as thin. Quantity is the index of success in education — Have you heard about the beauty of Wicliffe, the hugeness of the stadium, the enormousness of the endowment, tlfe magnificence of the equipment? In this respect Wicliffe is no different from hundreds of other schools. It is the spirit of everything in America. Quantity is the magic word. There must be numbers. Not what happens to the student but how many students, is the mark of success. Mass production in education must go. Educators should learn that the index of success will be the quality of product resulting from the educational process rather than the hordes of people who seize upon education as the first remedy for their social and economic ills. The primary function of education is not the transfer of knowledge or the materials of education, but the ability of educational leaders to get their charges to think for themselves, to develop that type of leadership from which the greatest satisfaction emanates, and to develop that personality that begets the greatest happiness and contentment during the duration of this great mystery of life. This is essential in normal times. It is imperative during a period of adversity, if we are to preserve democracy. With un¬ employed educated men, and thousands eager to follow anywhere or any¬ thing that will lead to a job, the complete collapse of the democratic ideal is but a matter of time. 272 National Education Association REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS Atlantic City, New Jersey June 28, 1932 We, the members of the Department of Adult Education of the N. E. A., in con¬ vention assembled at Atlantic City, June 28, 1932, do herewith reaffirm our faith in the wisdom and necessity of continued education for adults, especially in these times of economic and social stress, and to give expression to some vital problems in this field, offer the following resolutions: Resolved, That since the school buildings and facilities belong to all the people of the community, that the widest possible use be made, not only for educational purposes, but to provide if necessary, the elementary needs of shelter and warmth. Resolved, That the attention of authorities, national, state, and local, be called to the importance of apportioning adequate funds for the support of all types of activities for the education of adults. Resolved, That employers of teachers of adult schools be reminded that the best results can be had only by employing adequately trained teachers for this work. Resolved, That the people who enter continuation schools by virtue of having entered employment, and are therefore in partime employment receiving pay help¬ ing to support and in many cases be the sole support of their families, thereby taking the adult attitude toward life, be not subjected to the type of school of the juvenile educational delinquent makeup; that the things taught them be those that they need in the present and the future and never be presented as being a mere past deficiency to be made up. Resolved, That the machinery of the partime or continuation schools that have been effective in so many centers, having as it does, a program of guidance training and placement, be strengthened in the public school system and used for the train¬ ing and retraining of the unemployed adult. Resolved, That we extend thanks to Dr. E. C. Broome, Superintendent of Schools of Philadelphia, and Dr. Harold C. Campbell, Deputy Superintendent of Schools of New York City, as well as members of our own group who have taken part in our own program. Resolved, That we extend our thanks to the Committee on Arrangements of the Atlantic City Schools and for the courtesy shown by the New Jersey State Teachers Association. Resolved , That we extend our thanks to the various committees of the Adult Section for the excellent program and fine arrangements for our hospitality. Resolved, That the president be authorized to approve an appropriation of $200 from the Department funds to furnish the files of normals, universities, and public libraries in cities of over 25,000 population, the. past proceedings of the De¬ partment now available, with an invitation to become members of the Depart¬ ment or subscribers to the official organ and that the editor, editorial advisory board, and business mananger be commended for their efforts to strengthen the in¬ fluence of the Department thru the magazine, extending its value in the present economic crisis. The following was offered by Robert C. Deming of Connecticut: Resolution adopted by the Department of Adult Education of the N. E. A., for presentation to the Resolution Committee of the N. E. A., for its adoption and for the press: Particularly during this period of widespread unemployment when men and women are in need of education for future employments, for the establishment of interests, for their continued morale, for a bulwark against radicalism that they Department of Adult Education 273 may feel a corporate part of the community in which they live and conscious of the benefits of our social system, be it Resolved, That programs of Adult Education be expanded and that the schools be opened for the rehabilitation of the unemployed. Adopted unanimously, Morris E. Siegel Henry I. Chaim L. R. Alderman National Commission on the Enrichment of Adult Life WHAT THE NATIONAL CONGRESS OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS IS DOING TO ENRICH ADULT LIFE MRS. A. H. REEVE, PRESIDENT, INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION OF HOME AND SCHOOL, PHILADELPHIA, PA. For a convention whose theme is “Looking Forward in Education,” this committee offers its report largely in terms of the future ; but the “futures” in which we deal are based upon solid foundations of work accomplished and plans accepted for the coming biennium, rather than upon mere hopes and expectations. The National Congress of Parents and Teachers is an organization work¬ ing not only for , but in and thru the schools. It numbers approximately one and one-half millions of men and women, grouped in some 22,000 units connected with public, private, and parochial schools in every state and ter¬ ritory of the Union, the first-named type of school being numerically far in the lead. It reaches an audience many times larger than its membership, since its meetings are open to the public, and it therefore offers one of the best available media for reaching and influencing the life and thought of the average as well as the super- and sub-average American citizen. The educational efforts of the Congress, addressed at the outset thirty-five years ago, entirely to child welfare in a somewhat restricted sense, have ex¬ panded to take in the entire family, for, as has been well expressed, while the program of our Government has been to educate all of the children of all of the people, it has been found that in order to accomplish this task, it is also necessary to educate all of the people. The activities of the Congress as especially related to the work of this commission may be grouped under three general heads: parent training; adult education; recreation, or the use of leisure. Parent training — The original program of the organization, to give assistance and guidance to young mothers in the care of children, has de¬ veloped to a rather remarkable extent, an especially long forward leap having been made in the past two years, during which period a grant from the Laura Spelman Rockefeller Fund has made it possible to place in the field a specialist, who has studied the scope of the Congress, has addressed national and state conventions and district meetings, has trained leaders and selected and prepared suitable material. This grant has now, with certain provisions, been extended for three years more. The work falls under three 274 National Education Association major divisions: (1) General conferences, which may be classed as mass education; to arouse interest in the subject of child study; (2) organization and encouragement of study groups, under leadership, trained or volunteer ; and (3) training of leaders. Methods are outlined to meet varying condi¬ tions, as: (a) the use of a non-technical book with outlines and questions, arranged for volunteer leaders, serious problems being avoided; (b) books and other material for discussion, to be used by leaders with some training or previous teaching experience; (c) outlines or topics for groups under trained leadership supplied by state universities or other qualified agencies. Some progress is also being made by means of radio programs for general inspiration and also for group guidance where discussion follows a broadcast by an authority. Thru the collaboration of universities and other educational centers, schools for group leaders and for parents are being conducted with increasing success. Visual education has also been employed thru exhibits of posters, toys, books, clothing, etc., arranged in connection with national, state, and local meetings. This type of education, by first arousing interest in subjects enriching to child life, has led to the second: Adult education — The cooperation given by the Congress to the cam¬ paign for the removal of illiteracy, and its activity in library extension are special features of this phase of its work. The plans of its Standing Commit¬ tee on Library Extension for the two years past and the two to come include the development of public opinion by means of carefully-planned programs, featuring demonstrations and illustrative plays, the maintenance of existing library appropriations, the strengthening of libraries now in operation, and the encouragement of a campaign under the slogan, “Know Your Public Library.” Booklists of educational and standard literature, including fiction, are being widely circulated thru Congress publications and other committee facilities. Parents’ bookshelves in school libraries are spreading rapidly, espe¬ cially in rural districts, and reading circles are being organized and sus¬ tained, with the collaboration of the Standing Committee on Home Educa¬ tion. The Congress has been successful in many instances in securing county library service. The following resolution was passed at the national con¬ vention, held in May of this year: We believe that the essential service of existing libraries must be safeguarded in this period when people are turning to books as never before, and that library opportunity must be extended to rural people thru the establishment of county libraries. The chairman of this standing committee of the Congress is director of library extension in the American Library Association and serves effectively as liaison officer between the two organizations. In addition to the cooperation with the Library Extension Committee mentioned above, the Home Education Committee of the Congress has a large field of work in directing the home reading of adults as well as chil- Department of Adult Education 275 dren, with special emphasis upon child care and training and family relation¬ ships; also upon the development of the reading habit, particularly under conditions which render group reading difficult if not impossible. Mrs. Hugh D. Bradford, president of the National Congress and a mem¬ ber of this committee, calls attention to the need for greater cooperation from the citizens of the community, civic leaders, business industries and profes¬ sions, with the. program of the schools, and recommends that methods be stressed by the Commission whereby the lay public shall be informed as to all programs for adult education, relating not only to formal instruction but to wholesome environment as well. The Standing Committee on Recreation, which has the valuable support of the National Recreation Association — one of whose staff is its chairman — has made an outstanding contribution to the environment of adult life, and its program for 1932-34 is finely progressive. The conspicuous feature in music has been, and will continue to be, the development in the national, state, and local units of the Congress, of the “Mothersingers,” — and now the “Fathersingers,” — a movement which has brought new life not only to the singers themselves but to the associations of which they are a part. In art, the parent-teacher associations have conducted poster contests, have arranged exhibits of pictures, flowers, pottery, and handcraft, and have encouraged the beautification of homes and of gardens. The advance in the employment of drama and pageantry has been rapid and striking. Beginning a few years ago as an advisory service, this has become a major factor in the recreation program of the Congress. Since the demonstration at the national conven¬ tion of 1931, of the dramatic “stunt,” the two to five minute play leading to the one-act play or pantomime, there have been hundreds of requests for this type of material. Recreation is organized by committees in forty-four of the forty-eight states. In one state alone in the past year, 12,866 family outings were arranged by local parent-teacher associations. The associations are supporting superintendents of recreation in the maintenance of their pro¬ grams, are effectively urging upon municipalities not only the continuance but the extension of provisions for recreation, are conducting under volunteer leadership, community centers in schools, vacant stores and other buildings for neighborhood and family play nights, and are using vacant lots for play under volunteer leaders. In cooperation with other community agencies, the associations have studied local needs and worked to meet them, especially for summer and year-round recreation programs, and great progress has also been made in the development of back-yard playgrounds. There is a marked increase in the use of songs and game periods at national, state, and local meetings, and locally, in father and son and mother and daughter nights. In this general connection the newly created Committee on International Relations, recognizing that interracial prejudice is due to adult attitudes, is laying stress in its program for the coming biennium, of the use of tableaux, plays and pageants, “Round the World Fairs” and festivals, to develop a consciousness of the tremendous contribution made to our national life by 276 National Education Association other countries whose citizens are now ours by adoption, and to broaden adult interest in the songs, dances, music, and literature of the many nations who have rich offerings awaiting our acceptance. T he National Congress of Parents and Teachers is but one factor in the vast movement for the enrichment of adult life. It occupies perhaps the posi¬ tion of the mouse in the wellknown fable, who helped the captive lion to free himself from imprisonment by gnawing some of the strands of the net which held him down. Dealing directly, as it does, with individuals, it hopes to make its contribution thru the channels mentioned, emphasizing activity rather than receptivity, mass education thru its large assemblies, and the development of initiative thru participation in activities graded for elemen¬ tary, intermediate, and advanced groups of every size and by individuals under all possible circumstances and with resources ranging down the entire scale of living conditions. To this end this committee will welcome and pass on suggestions and recommendations from other committees which will enable the Congress of Parents and Teachers to take its full part in the im¬ portant program of the National Commission. A SURVEY OF WHAT MASSACHUSETTS IS DOING IN ADULT EDUCATION WILLIAM F. STEARNS, PROSPECT UNION EDUCATIONAL EXCHANGE, CAMBRIDGE, MASS. Educators have a particular fondness for the use of polysyllabic terms in expressing monosyllabic ideas. Frequently their “three-cushion” phraseology (as one professor has characterized it) induces little more than a pleasant sense of repose in the audience to which it is addressed. The following report might have been called “A Critique of Statewide Studies in Adult Education, Based upon a Preliminary Survey of Opportunities and Needs in Massachu¬ setts, Conducted by the State Commission on the Enrichment of Adult Life, in Cooperation with the Prospect Union Educational Exchange.” However, the program adequately entitles it, “A Survey of What Massachusetts is Doing in Adult Education.” The study was initiated during the spring of 1931. It is now feasible to draw a few general conclusions which might prove suggestive in the development of similar projects in other localities. Simplicity is as desirable and practical in the actual conduct of a survey as in the terms used to describe it. Bearing this in mind from the very begin¬ ning will save hours of struggle with complicated and perhaps nonessential detail. For convenience in consideration, the procedure in a statewide survey of adult education may be divided into four parts : ( 1 ) preparation, (2) investi¬ gation, (3) interpretation, and (4) recommendation. They follow directly upon one another. The value of the second depends upon the first, the third upon the second, and the last, recommendation for a constructive program, upon the third. They will be briefly considered in order. Department of Adult Education 277 1. Preparation After the auspices for the survey have been firmly established and respon¬ sibility delegated, the study must be clearly justified to the agencies which are to cooperate in providing data. This is not a difficult matter. It is gen¬ erally realized by thinking men and women today that the wise and construc¬ tive use of leisure is a vital individual and social need. Furthermore, the ma¬ jority of educators and social workers know that a host of organizations are attempting to supply this need with almost universal disregard for coordi¬ nated action. The advantages of cooperative efforts in a program for the enrichment of adult life are readily apparent: first, in the increased effective¬ ness of concerted endeavor in finding and developing the best methods of attacking various phases of the problem ; second, in greater economy result¬ ing from reduced duplication of activity; and third, in the benefits of more forceful publicity revealing the resources and needs1 of the locality as a whole. The acknowledged success of the community chest movement in social work may be cited as a parallel. The survey can provide a sound basis for such coordinated action thru discovery of what is being done, in some cases overdone, and what is being neglected. Such points as these should be made clear to agencies asked to cooperate in the investigation. In Massachusetts, the study was proposed by the State Commission on the Enrichment of Adult Life. The Committee on Opportunities for Adult Edu¬ cation was made responsible. This committee in turn procured the assistance of the Prospect Union Educational Exchange of Cambridge, an endowed agency for guidance and research. Thus the auspices were established. Hav¬ ing organized a plan, letters were sent to all individuals who were asked to supply data, explaining the reasons for the survey very briefly. This carried the study thru the “preparation” stage. 2. Investigation Experience substantiates the belief that the cooperation of agencies for formal and informal adult education in the promotion of this type of survey is readily secured when its purposes have been made evident. A quotation from the reply of one superintendent of schools serves as an illustration. To my way of thinking, your proposal to advance the educational opportunities of adults is based on good commonsense. The exigencies of the present time are opening the eyes of many people to the importance of further training of mind and hands, and it is incumbent upon the leaders of educational effort to see that these needs are fully supplied. We would gladly give of our time and effort if we had any encouragement. You cannot realize how your questionnaire has heartened me. The usual questionnaire does anything but “hearten” a superintendent. Yet there were other responses in a similar vein. Such an investigation may be conducted by the use of several methods. The questionnaire is almost inevitable. The information thus obtained may be supplemented by personal contact with sources of information and study of material already gathered by statewide organizations. 278 National Education Association The introductory questionnaire should be concise but inclusive enough to indicate the more important features of formal and informal adult educa¬ tion within the locality. The area covered by the survey is so large that only a general impression can be reasonably sought by a centralized organi¬ zation with limited financial support. The groundwork is laid for later, more intensive investigation if such seems warranted. The Massachusetts questionnaire, in the preliminary survey, was sent to all superintendents of public schools and to all public librarians. The forms differed slightly, that to superintendents emphasizing formal adult educa¬ tion, that to librarians, informal. They were so designed, however, as to operate as checks on each other at many points. The informants were asked to give the names and addresses of all agencies engaged in the enrichment of adult life in their communities. A list of twenty-one types of organizations was given as a guide. This included local public schools, endowed private schools and colleges, private profit-making schools, state or county educa¬ tional agencies, libraries, museums, social agencies, religious organizations, men’s clubs, women’s clubs, mixed groups, industrial and business firms, trade unions, chorus groups, orchestras and bands, forums and lecture courses, dramatic societies, racial groups, health organizations, newspapers, and radio stations. The adequacy of the questionnaire has been shown to rest upon a three- point suspension : (1) revelation of agencies, (2) activities, and (3) needs. By complete listing of these, duplication will be discovered if present, resources for meeting current and future problems made evident, and unsatisfied wants indicated. In Massachusetts, the report form was sent to 203 superintendents of public schools and 512 public librarians. Thus 715 points of contact were established with the 354 cities and towns in the state. After a follow-up letter had been sent with a duplicate questionnaire enclosed, only a dozen communities were noted on the “no-response” list, tho many showed only a single return. Forty-six percent of the librarians replied and 82 percent of the superintendents. No doubt the forms and letters might be varied to bring a better result in other states. However, an indication of widespread interest in the survey was manifest. The responses have convinced the investigators of the value of unity and simplicity in the drafting of the questionnaires. Confused and inadequate replies are likely to lead to a mistaken impression of the community situation. It is far better to gather less data and have it exact. As the farmer remarked, in commenting on his congressman, “I’d ruther not know so much than to know so many things that ain’t so.” To supplement the details obtained thru the questionnaire method direct from the separate communities, the central headquarters of various statewide organizations are able to provide considerable useful information. Their representatives continually visit all parts of the state and are well acquainted with local conditions. Department of Adult Education 279 The Survey Committee of the Massachusetts Commission obtained pro¬ gram outlines and directories from many such groups. Extensive details were received from the Massachusetts Federation of Women’s Clubs (with 386 member clubs), the State Grange (297 subordinate granges), the Massachu¬ setts Parent-Teacher Association, the American Legion, the Kiwanis, Lions, Rotary Clubs, the Y. M. C. A., the Y. W. C. A., the Y. M. H. A., the Y. W. H. A., the Massachusetts Council of the Knights of Columbus, the Open Forum Association, the Massachusetts League of Women Voters, and others. Summaries were also obtained showing the location and activities of colleges and normal schools, public libraries, state vocational schools, univer¬ sity extension classes, Americanization courses, the county extension service in agriculture, evening high and elementary schools, radio stations, and news¬ papers. A series of maps was prepared from these data to present a visual display of the outstanding facilities for adult education in the state. The centers of activity became immediately evident. The neglected areas were suggested. 3. Interpretation The analysis of returns from the investigation is not complicated if too great a mass of detail has not been gathered. Each community may well be taken up individually first, then larger relatively homogeneous geographical and economic units considered, and finally a statewide summary made. The three points of the questionnaire form the basis — agencies, activities, and needs. What is being done can be measured. What needs to be done can be discovered. What are the local potentialities for meeting the needs can be gauged. Unfortunately, in the Massachusetts survey, this phase of the study has not yet been completed due to limited administrative and clerical resources, but enough has been done to make possible brief consideration of the fourth and final stage of the investigation. 4. Recommendation The purpose of the survey, as discussed in the first part of this paper, was seen to be the formulation of an effective statewide program for the enrich¬ ment of adult life thru the coordinated efforts of agencies already active in the field of formal and informal adult education. On the basis of the inter¬ pretation of facts gathered in the investigation, recommendations must be made for the achievement of this purpose. These recommendations in the case of surveys by state commissions are brought to the attention of the com¬ munities and agencies involved. The commissions thus fulfill their primary function as advisory bodies rather than independent agents in the promotion of programs for the creative use of leisure. The Massachusetts preliminary survey has resulted in the recommendation that a simple type of district organization for more intensive study of the great variety of opportunities and needs in adult education thruout the state 280 National Education Association be established. Time is too limited to more than mention this anticipated de¬ velopment. The Carnegie Corporation of New York, upon the recommenda¬ tion of the American Association for Adult Education, has generously made possible thru appropriation the publication of a report which discusses all phases of the preliminary survey, including the districting plan. This report is now available for distribution by addressing Massachusetts Commission on the Enrichment of Adult Life, 15 Ashburton Place, Boston, Massachusetts. The task of surveying the adult educational activity of so large a geo¬ graphical aiea as a state may seem complex and arduous. The cooperation of many agencies divides the burden. Moreover, the rewards realized thru the increased effectiveness and economy of a coordinated program can more than repay the cost. Once having resolved on the study there is danger of emulating Stephen Leacock’s horseman who, stirred to action, “leaped into the saddle and galloped off in all directions,” presumably arriving nowhere. Enthusiasm is a vital feature of the enterprise but steady, well-planned, sim¬ plified procedure is the safeguard of progress. It is hoped that other states may take advantage of the experience of Massachusetts in this field. Her mistakes may assure other successes. The Survey Committee of the Massa¬ chusetts Commission on the Enrichment of Adult Life invites inquiries and inspection of records. THE UTILIZATION OF TRAINED AND UNTRAINED TALENT IN THE RECREATION OF MUSIC MRS. WILLIAM ARMS FISHER, PRESIDENT, INTERNATIONAL CHORAL ALLIANCE, BOSTON, MASS. The work of the American Choral and Festival Alliance is to correlate and unify the adult choral activities of America and link them directly to the out¬ pouring product of the nation s schools. At the present time there is no organized force in the community as a distinct continuation activity. The tax- pa) ers piovide for early music training in the schools. To whom shall we look for post-school music assimilation ? Amenca has 384 music schools, conservatories, and music departments of universities— training thousands of young musicians. Included in these schools and in private studios, upwards of 30,000 vocal teachers are turning out each year about 400,000 young singers— for what? For opera? No. Foi the concert stage ? Less than one percent attain a career. For paid choir positions? Two or three percent. But for the other 95 percent— a blank void. All trained for public performance — and no one to listen. The fallacy still exists that if your voice is trained, it would harm it to sing in a chorus. The American Choral and Festival Alliance, in cooperation with singing teachers and choral conductors, will correlate and unify existing singing societies, and thru conferences will dignify and assimilate this army of pre- paiedness. Is there an orchestra awaiting reinforcement of new recruits? Is there a band or a community glee club, youthful enough to attract young people ? Is there a chorus with advance orders to place the school singers in Department of Adult Education 281 groups suited to their advancing potential capacity for higher forms of vocal expression, and as an asset for public functioning? Are cities, towns, districts, unaware of their half-way measures in pro¬ viding for production — production with no thought of distribution and utili¬ zation — either for a profession or for social recreation and happy participa¬ tion ? What a responsibility ! Why put more of the burden upon the schools, unless perchance a tax is levied on post-school activities, to preserve for the community the interpreters of art forms or (equally important) to keep alive the spirit and joy which participators in art possess. Our schools bring multitudes of trained musicians to cope inadequately with unorganized community opportunities and turn out hosts of young singers, wholly untrained in business promotion, to seek their own careers — with the disheartening record of a large percentage of failures. The need is apparent for a specific organization to dignify the choral club in the mind of singers and also to insure public respect thru standards of per¬ formances — one to devote its services to choral music in all its classifications ; one with a plan for action, which has a national platform : To bring America into a more balanced musical activity; to relieve our present instrumental- minded attitude which lately has so favored orchestras, opera, and public school instrumental promotion, to the neglect of vocal emphasis. The American Choral and Festival Alliance was organized to fill a gap and meet this need. It is an organization which choral conductors and vocal teachers agree would professionalize choral conducting and ennoble choral singing. The response has been most gratifying. The problems confronting choral conducting belong to professionals who should have their own organization with specialists as leaders, lecturers and teachers of the art of fine ensemble singing. The Alliance purposes to build a fraternity of interests of the singing societies of America, and — profiting by the music supervisors and our beloved sister nation, England (our most choral-minded country) — build a similar reputation thru festivals, and like our sister nation, build for standards after the manner of the Annual Syllabus which has constituted the guiding hand, for by strict adherence by the program committees, England has in its many years of festival performances acquired a national repertoire of high standard. The activities of the Choral Alliance include: A Program Council A Research Council Division of the United States, for festival centers Organizers of each territory Institutes for choral leaders — with yearly programs for discussion material An Orchestral Conductors Institute — in training of combined choral and orchestral performances Each community to build and utilize its own music product Building up a real singing nation on a genuinely conscious scale as we sing and perform together. ■ ■ i‘ V • V-: ■ '\iU i . \V*. ■ ■> • 1 • * i Ji ■ I r ,f ■ ■ *■)! ’ I . w- ^ *, 11 ' no • . - ’>:• rf hi >' • . : r; • . : O / H O- / " n ii.-.rn; jjni < • i: u wiibjiul} -j >l i:. u) :>n . ' Department of Business Education The department of business education was created in response to a petition read at the meeting at Saratoga Springs, N. Y., July 12, 1892, from the Business Educators’ Association, re¬ questing admission as a department of the National Education Association. See Proceedings , 1892:31. The Business Educators’ Association was organized in New York City in 1878. Its constitution was re¬ vised for acceptance by the Department of Business Education and may be found on page 958 of the Pro¬ ceedings of 1894. The officers of the Department for the year 1932- 33 are : President , Paul S. Lomax, School of Educa¬ tion, New York University, New York, N. Y. ; Vice- president y Benjamin R. Haynes, University of South¬ ern California, Los Angeles, Calif. ; Executive Secre¬ tary, L. A. Rice, Assistant in Secondary Education, State Department of Education, Trenton, N. J.; Treasurer, L. Gilbert Dake, Director of Commercial Education, Board of Education, St. Louis, Mo. This Department meets once each year in July. Facts relating to the establishment of this Depart¬ ment and the record of the meetings are found in earlier Proceedings as follows : 1893:787-807 1894 :957-990 1895 :862-891 1896:791-836 1897:792-824 1898 :856-893 1899:998-1031 1900:542-582 1901:721-758 1902:644-702 1903 :719-753 1904:709-737 1905 :669-707 1907:877-905 1908 :871-907 1909:701-719 1910:833-873 1911:827-689 1912:1031-1095 1913:619-637 1914-649-663 1915:883-941 1916:361-397 1917:315-345 1918:235-249 1919:259-271 1920:263-271 1921 :369-377 1922:575-591 1923 :553-568 1924:429-439 1925 :354-365 1926 :371-391 1927 :335-352 1928:305-324 1929 :317-334 1930:275-292 1931 :343-358 WHAT EACH AND EVERY CITIZEN SHOULD KNOW ABOUT BUSINESS LEE GALLOWAY, VICEPRESIDENT, ALEXANDER HAMILTON INSTITUTE, NEW YORK, N. Y. The two irreducible factors in economics are production and consumption. Business stands between the two as a governor or stabilizer to keep them in balance. The economic system of today has developed managers of production to look after and care for the interests of manufacturers, and the like; it has evolved managers of distribution to promote the interests of merchants and distributors generally ; and it has fostered managers of finance to advance and protect the interests of capitalists and those who loan, but economics has grown no specialist in the art of watchfulness in the interests of the consumer. The economic system of business has been developed on one side only — the side of supply. The ultimate consumer is still legitimate game and the season is never closed. Business as a system, by the aid of which men make a living, has filled the world with concrete facts — facts which are so commonplace that they have been considered as lying completely outside the possibilities of formal educa¬ tional material of the citizen — facts which could be left to common sense and unorganized experience. Perhaps this is a great compliment to the vital nature which these facts hold in our life — facts, like blood, respiration, and assimilation, and their relation to health and happiness, have likewise been taken for granted until something happened to interfere with proper func¬ tioning. Then the expert is called in. Our social organism is in this state today. Low economic blood pressure : unemployment; artificial business respiration: taxes, bonuses, and doles; malassimilation of goods and services — overproduction and obstructed distri¬ bution. Perhaps everyone will agree today that these problems are vital to everyone. The blame for the condition is not, however, placed on the right shoulders. The business man is no more responsible for this situation than the lawyer is for the crime wave, or the priest is for the present state of morals. The business system may need reforming, but not the business leaders. The lawyer does not create the conditions for “law breaking,” and business, no more than the lawyer, creates the conditions for “depressions.” The major economic corrections for which modern civilization is calling lie in the system itself — not solely in the personnel. These changes depend upon the people as a whole and not the business men alone. That is the rea¬ son every citizen should know certain business facts, be aware of economic tendencies and trained in evaluating social relationships growing out of busi¬ ness activities. The buying and selling, the credit and collections, the borrowing and lend¬ ing of everyday relationships furnish the contacts with the basic knowledge of life upon which depend all the social evaluations which press upon each [ 285 ] 286 National Education Association individual, day in and day out, as a citizen. The analysis and classification of these facts as they disclose themselves in the economic unit of the business ‘ transaction” furnishes the philosophical content, the cultural purpose, and the practical incentives needed in the formulation of an educational attack upon any new field of facts bearing upon our learning process. Training in these concepts should begin early, and the young prospective citizen should be thoroly orientated into his economic environment and thru this with his social life generally by the end of his junior high-school course. Consumership is quite as comprehensive as citizenship ; and business touches every individual. The correlation of these facts of business into an educational system whereby scarcity and conflict, dependence and cooperation, order and law may be made impressive and vital to our citizenship in producing a more efficient social organization, is the problem of economics and education, of business men and teachers, today. BUSINESS POSITIONS AND HIGH-SCHOOL GRADUATES ERIC A. NICOL, PERSONNEL MANAGER, WESTERN UNION TELEGRAPH COMPANY, NEW YORK, N. Y. What young men need to meet the complexities of business and the outside world is not expressed wholly in book learning. The development of the desire to get on, which most of us have, is accomplished mostly thru qualities which make one individual acceptable to another — a personality in harmony. It would seem to me that right here we have a problem for commercial educators. On the one hand, business is demanding these qualities, which the schools must in some way find out how to develop and, on the other hand, the average teacher has a logical claim that business will not employ a person for a specific position such as stenographer or bookkeeper without a reasonable degree of skill. It is my duty to find and train for my company those employees who have the qualifications necessary to progress in and give efficient service to the company. We are finding, however, in the training that is being given in industry, that you can develop the qualities of character thru the right meth¬ ods of teaching, and it does not seem to me to be an impossible task for teach¬ ers to direct their students in the development of these qualities. Even the subjects to which the average commercial course is now restricted would provide opportunity for general training. A shorthand teacher, for example, has an excellent opportunity to demonstrate the necessity for the proper expression, correct speech, and better letters. A job analysis of secretarial requirements conducted in a shorthand class for example would produce gen¬ eral training values that would be excellent preparation for business. I have as part of my responsibiilty a school for 1000 of our messengers, in which is included what I believe to be a fairly good course in business sub¬ jects. Our messengers are employed for what we consider a temporary occu¬ pation, during which time they have opportunity for observation of many Department of Bustness Education 287 kinds of business organizations. If their efforts are directed in the right channel, and they receive the right type of supplementary training in school, they are much more able than the average boy to make an intelligent decision regarding their permanent vocation. The commercial teachers in our school have not been so much concerned with the development of specific skills, even tho good stenographers have been produced, but are more interested in the development of those characteristics which few people realize are expected in business. We have found the school extremely valuable in the conduct of discussions around experiences which the messengers have during their working hours. These experiences, among other things, include salesmanship, and the discus¬ sion of these activities has a decided stimulating and educational value. Aside from the fine spirit that such a discussion encourages, it develops initiative, alertness, observation, and association of facts. I do not believe that we have by any means found the answer to the problem of commercial education, but we have very definitely proved that commercial education that is supplemented and coordinated with practical experience in business, produces the kind of employee that has less difficulty in securing and holding a commercial position. The task then for educators, appears to be the building of an adequate program of guidance and selection of students that will create reasonable assurance that the commercial student can more ade¬ quately cope with the personal relationships as well as meet the mechanical requirements of commercial positions. School curriculums for students who intend to follow a business career must be built around the technical ability required in business, but the teach¬ ing of these subjects should be the instrument for developing the required fundamental qualities. This will prepare the student to make intelligent use of his ability and knowledge. LOOKING AHEAD IN BOOKKEEPING AND ACCOUNTING INSTRUCTION CHARLES E. BOWMAN, HEAD, DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCIAL INSTRUCTION, GIRARD COLLEGE, PHILADELPHIA, PA. What is to be the future of bookkeeping and accounting in our secondary schools ? Because only a relatively small number of bookkeeping students become technical bookkeepers, are we justified in eliminating this subject in its entirety or in its technical phases? Do we teach business organization to prepare office managers, commercial law to equip lawyers, typewriting to develop professional typists, junior business training to perfect clerks? Shall we not take into consideration the guidance, promotional, general vocational, and educational values of the subject? Is not the need a change in emphasis rather than in elimination ? Does not the solution consist in revising the aims and subjectmatter content, rather than in decreasing materially the amount of time devoted to the study? 288 National Education Association Based on changes in business and social life, the evidence points to an increase in the following trends in future bookkeeping and accounting in¬ struction in our high schools. 1. First year bookkeeping will be a required subject based on general educa¬ tional, foundational guidance and technically nonvocational objectives, rather than on skill in the recording processes. 2. The subject will be introduced in the tenth or eleventh year; its further study will be justified only by the aptitude of the students electing it. It will have a voca¬ tional aim, leading to the actual practise of bookkeeping or to a. study of advanced accounting. 3. Results of job analyses will modify emphasis, especially after the first year. 4. There will be introduced into advanced bookkeeping and accounting courses more principles and problems which concern the specialization within the book¬ keeping and accounting departments of business firms. 5. There will be more of business organization, law, and economic principles in¬ troduced in all bookkeeping courses. 6. There will be less of telling students how to do, more of allowing them to show what they can do. There will be more emphasis on independent application of bookkeeping principles. 7. There will be more emphasis on developing an appreciation of the uses to which bookkeeping results can be applied; more correlation with principles of management and advertising; more time spent in interpreting and analyzing book¬ keeping results as a tool of control. 8. There will be more emphasis on the values of bookkeeping as an integral re¬ quirement of a general business education. 9. Minor emphasis will be placed on the technical side ; major emphasis on the economic side and the underlying principles of business. 10. The influence of the college and university courses in accounting will be felt in an even greater degree, as an increasing number of teachers of high-school book¬ keeping will come from these schools. 11. Practise sets will be short, emphasizing the application of bookkeeping prin¬ ciples, with greater emphasis on business principles and procedure. They will not be used as bookkeeping teaching devices. More attention will be given to the analysis of results and interpretation of the records. Our conclusion is that the bookkeeping and accounting courses of the future will be of greater educational value, more generally elective after the first year by those who show special aptitude. The subjectmatter of advanced courses particularly will be modified by scientific studies, and greater recog¬ nition of the guidance and general vocational values will be developed. The objective will be changed from that of preparing technically trained book¬ keepers to that of making better citizens by broadening vocational and social intelligence. LOOKING AHEAD IN SHORTHAND AND SECRETARIAL SUBJECTS HELEN REYNOLDS, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF SECRETARIAL STUDIES, OHIO UNIVERSITY, ATHENS, OHIO How is proficiency to be attained? First, it is important that prospective stenographers and secretaries should have the benefit of the most careful voca¬ tional guidance to determine in advance, so far as it is humanly possible Department of Business Education 289 to do so, whether or not they are equipped with those mental and personality characteristics which will enable them to master the information and skills necessary for the performance of the work and to adapt themselves to the peculiarities of their jobs after they leave school. It is trite to say that too little of this has been done it is an old story to say that we have no very accurate means of this prognosticating ability. The fact remains that we must find the means and apply them, in order to reduce to as low a percentage as we can the number of misfits and failures in the occupation. Second, we need to give heed to those who constantly remind us that the production of a commercially useful transcript is not the result of the opera¬ tion of a manual skill, but that it is an interpretive operation. A stenographer can transcribe accurately only within the limits of her understanding. She must be an expert in shorthand, in typing, in spelling, and in punctuation; but she is still unable to produce uniformly accurate work unless she knows what it is all about, unless she has the background of general business infor¬ mation which will enable her to understand the transaction about which she is writing. We must not presume, therefore, to say we are training stenog¬ raphers and secretaries, unless we include in that training such subjects as will familiarize the student with the organization of society for business and with the functions of the various parts of the organization. In this connection, business English makes an important contribution to the development of the good stenographer and secretary. She is much better able to produce a correct business letter or report if she, herself, knows how such a letter or report should be composed. Third, we must better organize our methods of instruction so that students will have the opportunity of developing those attitudes which are essential to them in the performance of their secretarial and stenographic duties, such basic attitudes as self-reliance, ability to follow instructions when given, de¬ pendability, ability to meet people, ability to work well with others, prompt¬ ness. Too often we act on the assumption that if the student has her secre¬ tarial technics well enough developed, she is sure to be successful on the job. Fourth, we must raise our standards of attainment, or at least we must change them. What constitutes a passing grade in school at the present time does not constitute a passing grade in business. We need to learn from business what its specific requirements are with regard to speed and accuracy so that we shall be able to meet those requirements. Fifth, I cannot but feel that our next great advancement in secretarial teaching will be in the reduction of the time spent in learning shorthand and typewriting. I believe we must concern ourselves with discovering more economical methods of mastering these skills. This, then, is what seems to me to lie ahead of us in secretarial instruction: First, a grading up in our product to meet the increased demands of business, this grading up to be secured by a better selection of students for the work ; a keener appreciation of the need of our students for a broad informational background ; a better opportunity for the development of the personality 290 National Education Association characteristics needed successfully to carry on the work ; a standard of class¬ room achievement which more nearly meets the standards of achievement required by business ; the discovery of more economical methods of learning. Second, we must provide a typewriting, shorthand, and business English adapted to consumer needs. LOOKING AHEAD IN OFFICE PRACTISE INSTRUCTION RAYMOND C. GOODFELLOW, DIRECTOR OF COMMERCIAL EDUCATION, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, NEWARK, N. J. All types of business organizations are undergoing a wide variety of change due in some measure to the social and economic unrest that has touched every part of the civilized world. Education in general, and business education in particular, must put forth a greater effort than ever before in establishing a more equitable distribution of emphasis on technic building and the func¬ tional uses of technics in maintaining the proper balance in our social and business relations. Our future courses of instruction on office and secretarial work must be broader in scope and have a more definite viewpoint than in the past. Up to this time it has seemed sufficient to train students in shorthand and type¬ writing and to make them skilful enough to go to work in a business office as a stenographer or typist. The bookkeeping student has been taught the theory of the subject in high school and has entered a business office as assist¬ ant to the head bookkeeper or as the bookkeeper if the concern were a small one. This preparation has been proved to be inadequate in most cases. It does not stimulate the student to advance. In fact, neither type of the aforemen¬ tioned student has been given much preparation for future advancement. No further training has been provided beyond the purely vocational type. The goal for all office practise students in the future is very definitely going to be toward personal efficiency in the business office. At this point it may be well to make clear what is meant by personal efficiency. Personnel directors in many of our largest and most representative concerns have a definite meaning in mind when they use this term. They will tell you that they are far more concerned with the efficiency and personality of their future employees than they are with the technics that have been acquired in two or three threadbare subjects that have held the sole attention of a large percentage of our commercial teachers and students in the past. What they want is a better proportion of technical training with character development. Most organizations today are more interested in the personality of the applicant than they are in the fact that the young man or woman can take down a letter in shorthand at one hundred words a minute and transcribe the notes at forty a minute. The future office employee will be required to have a much broader vision of the future. He must acquire and practise some of the vital lessons of busi¬ ness before he steps out to enter his first position. The student must chart his Department of Business Education 291 future before leaving school and decide for himself how far he is willing to train himself in improving the personal qualities that are the keystones of success. Sufficient technical training in shorthand, typewriting, and principles of accounting, together with an appreciation for the finer qualities that go to round out the individual, are the essential prerequisites for personal efficiency in the offices that our young people will be entering in the future. LOOKING AHEAD IN BUSINESSS EDUCATION JOHN A. STEVENSON, VICEPRESIDENT, PENN MUTUAL LIFE INSURANCE COMPANY, PHILADELPHIA, PA. On the one hand the machine age has increased the supply of goods avail¬ able for consumption while, on the other hand, it has decreased the number of persons required to produce this supply. Marketing executives everywhere are giving serious study to the question of how they can improve the products which carry their trademark in order that their particular organizations may be operated on a profitable basis. Educators, likewise, must face this same problem for the human products which bear the trademarks of educational institutions are selected on a basis of merit in the business world. In the field of business education, the next few years are going to bring about a wider variety of educational objectives and more effective training. The growing recognition of the importance of distribution processes in our social system, for instance, and the increasing proportion of workers employed in distributive occupations in this country are bound to force at¬ tention upon the necessity of providing organized training for various types of selling. In 1900, 8.18 percent of all workers in this country were engaged in distributive occupations while in 1930, 16.21 percent were so engaged — an increase of 98 percent. The question of whether we are to have superficial commercial training or scholarly commercial training, in my opinion, will be answered by the effort we make to provide a solid foundation of general information on which to build our vocational courses. Vocational courses in the insurance world were successful when we gave enough study to the subject to find out what information and skills were needed in that particular work, and then included this information and the opportunity to develop these skills in our training program. In planning our vocational courses to meet the needs of business, we must take into account the fact that the leaders in the business world are not necessarily the men with the greatest fund of information even about their own line of work. They are rather the men with the ability to organize and lead and to work enthusiastically under direction. J. P. Morgan once remarked that “business will have glass pockets in the future, and when it does have glass pockets there will not be room for the business leader whose business ethics allows practices which do not bear close scrutiny. 292 National Education Association I realize that we are up against a far more difficult problem when we try to develop an attitude of mind on the part of students than when we merely try to give them certain types of information or to develop certain skills. As Alexander Meikeljohn pointed out in his new book, The Experimental College, We are very much at home in the field of scholarship. If a student will limit his interest to some field of intellectual abstraction, we can show him what the human mind has thus far done in that field, can build up in him the proper technic, can equip him, according to his ability, to take his place in the ranks of the craftsmen of that study. . . . Bat if the liberal question is asked, our skill and mastery vanish. . . . We have many sciences but little wisdom.” Here is really a tremendous project which is set before those who are engaged in the work of commercial education. We cannot outline a method of solving this problem as we would outline the method of solving a problem in mathematics. We will work out individual solutions; but I think that you, as the leaders and directors of commercial education, cannot fail to see your responsibility. The prophecy will come true, I firmly believe, that “Out of the debacle will come a cleaner and more economical government ; a sounder, safer, and better financial system; improved and accelerated transportation; better re¬ lations between employers and employed; a closer relationship between government and governed.” What is more, the students you are training today are going to be the business leaders who will head our industrial, commercial, and financial institutions under the conditions growing out of the present situation. If you will really look ahead, you must see the glorious opportunities which are open to you as a group if you are willing to accept the responsibilities of leadership. I he responsibilities are heavy but the reward is bound to be adequate. LOOKING AHEAD IN JUNIOR BUSINESS TRAINING INSTRUCTION FREDERICK G. NICHOLS, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, HARVARD UNIVERSITY, CAMBRIDGE, MASS. We shall consider the future of this subject from the viewpoint of its essential values as a part of our public school program of commercial educa¬ tion. First, I look forward to the time when it will be recognized by all edu¬ cators that there are no inherent values in any subject. Second, I look forward to the time when results of teaching junior busi¬ ness training will be measured in terms of what the study of this subject has done to the pupil, rather than in terms of what it has added to his store of useful knowledge. 293 Department of Business Education Third, I look forward to the time when all teachers of junior business training will recognize that the foremost value of this subject from a utili¬ tarian viewpoint is what may be called its “personal u e value.” k ourth, I look forward to the time when all junior business training teacheis will recognize what may be called the vocational and educational guidance function of this subject and consciously and conscientiously strive to discharge their full responsibility with respect to it. Fifth, I look forward to the time when junior business training will be looked upon as a social-business subject of primary importance and not as a vocational commercial subject of secondary and transient importance. Thru this subject a pupil should develop social understanding and civic intelligence. Sixth, I look forward to the time when the only vocational significance at¬ tached to this subject will be due to its prevocational values rather than to its supposed vocational values. Seventh, I look forward to the time when the vocational function of junior business training will be definitely subordinated to every other function if not entirely eliminated, and when such references as are made to occupational life will be made for motivating purposes only. Eighth, I look forward to the time when it will be recognized by all that such a course is of vital importance from the standpoint of achieving satis¬ factory articulation between the junior and the senior school. Finally, I look forward to the time when these things may be said of pupils who have pursued a junior business training course: 1. They have a great advantage from the standpoint of t’^e non-vocational com¬ mon aims of secondary education — health, worthy home membership, avocational in¬ terests, and civic consciousness. 2. They have learned much about the relationship between bu-iness and society, and they have developed sound points of view regarding business as an agency of the social organism. 3. I hey have learned how to make the most of services rendered by business, especially of the quasi-public sort — banks, railroads, express companies, telephone companies, and telegraph companies. 4. They have learned how to keep their own personal records and how to handle their personal business affairs. 5. They have learned much about the importance of thrift and have formed habits of practising it thru budgetary methods. 6. I hey aie intelligent about such matters as insurance, sources of business in¬ formation, simple legal principles of contractual and other business relationships, and forms of business ownership. 7. They have studied themselves in relation to possible types of commercial work open to them in the senior high school and have developed sound points of view regarding high-school vocational education. 8.. Those who should do so will go on into the senior high school because the artic¬ ulation between the two schools is what it should be, and because proper emphasis has been placed on the desirability of doing so. 9. I hose who at graduation from junior high school decide to transfer to the academic curriculum in preparation for college, can do so without troublesome ad¬ justments or loss of time. 10. They have acquired much information about the many kinds of business oc¬ cupations which will be open to them later and have sensed the need for general education and vocational training to achieve success in any of them. 294 National Education Association 11. They have become familiar with the major departments of business and have learned that they should choose an immediate goal for which to prepare in senior high school, and also an ultimate goal for which to prepare later thru training and (or) experience. 12. They have not focused their attention on jobs which they can get at gradua¬ tion from junior high school or at the end of one year in senior high school. They have thought little about going to work and much about what the senior high school has to offer. 13. They have learned something about junior clerical duties and formed correct habits of work in handling simple business situations which have been introduced as media thru which to develop good business habits and desirable personal qualities. 14. They have built the best possible foundation on which to erect a superstructure of more advanced business knowledge, occupational intelligence, and vocational skills. 15. Those who do not go to high school will secure unskilled jobs of various kinds well within the range of their abilities and limitations of age. 16. They have learned to write well, a decided asset in any business position and a source of satisfaction and convenience in handling one’s personal business affairs. 17. They should be able to solve accurately and rapidly business problems within the range of their ability to understand such problems, as they have mastered the simpler and more common topics of business arithmetic and have developed figure- sense and formed correct habits of thought in arithmetical work — another asset in business and in one’s personal life. 18. They have, in short, utilized their time to the best possible advantage from the standpoint of their immediate needs, and of their present and future status as members of their social groups, and of their slowly maturing vocational interests. LOOKING AHEAD IN SOCIAL-BUSINESS INSTRUCTION IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS HERBERT A. TONNE, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, SCHOOL OF EDU¬ CATION, NEW YORK UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. When we speak of looking ahead or attempting to see what are the pros¬ pects of any phase of education, we are really presenting our hopes or those of others. At present there seem to be at least six hopes actually stated or implied in the various philosophies’in current educational literature. The first of these would envisage the complete elimination of these sub¬ jects along with many other subjects now entrenched in the high-school curriculum. There are certain disciples of the doctrine of formal discipline who would eliminate all subjects but those they would call cultural, appar¬ ently those which have been taught for many generations. A second hope which is in direct contrast to the first is that of seeing these subjects as completely vocational subjects. Inasmuch as these subjects are taught as a part of the business curriculum by teachers of business sub¬ jects, and because commercial subjects are vocational subjects, it would seem, the social-business subjects are also considered vocational subjects. A third hope expressed by many thoughtful educators is that the type of attention given to economic life found in the social-business subjects be dif¬ fused into all the subjects in the curriculum. In certain measure this has al¬ ready been accomplished. Nevertheless many, in fact, most of the subjects Department of Business Education 295 in the curriculum have hardly begun to utilize the possibilities of applying their work in business situations. This form of permeation of economic educa¬ tion into other subjects in the curriculum is similar to the role now given to character education in most secondary schools. We may look for an expansion of economic education in this way and still look for its extension in other ways. A fourth prospect for economic education is that it be taken over by the social studies division. Formal economics always has been in most schools more closely associated with the social studies than with the commercial subjects. Courses in problems of American democracy, in vocations and in¬ dustries, and in economic citizenship closely parallel the subjectmatter of the social-business subject, tho they probably differ somewhat in point of view. Unless the people in charge of the social-business subjects, now for the most part business teachers, rapidly undertake an improvement of instruction in these subjects, this tendency is quite likely to take on major dimensions. Harold Rugg and other leaders in the social studies have already made major contributions in economic education which may easily give the leadership in this field to workers in the social sciences rather than in business education. A fifth possibility is to maintain these subjects more or less upon their present basis, that is, as adjuncts to the vocational business subjects. Under this set-up the social-business subjects would be tied up with the job- minded studies like stenography, bookkeeping, and other specialized voca¬ tional units, and would serve as a basis for giving the broader background of business life, which is obviously desirable for those who propose to earn their living in some form of business occupation. A sixth possibility is that of setting up the work in economic education on an independent basis, separated from both the social studies and business departments, but, of course, closely correlated in its work with these and other departments in the organization of the secondary school. When once we have our hopes clearly defined we can more intelligently go about improving the instruction in these subjects. We can better organize our teacher training for the selection of those who are best suited to this type of work. We shall then be able to set up the subjectmatter of the work into definite grades and into an orderly sequence so as to overcome the tre¬ mendous duplications which now so seriously hinder the work in economic education. POSSIBLE SERVICES OF THE DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION TO BUSINESS TEACHERS ALBERT E. BULLOCK, DIRECTOR OF COMMERCIAL EDUCATION, LOS ANGELES CITY SCHOOLS, LOS ANGELES, CALIF. Previous to this year, the Department of Business Education of the N. E. A. has been what might be termed an informal organization with no dues, no list of members, no program for carrying on investigations or studies, and no publication of yearbooks or monographs ; in fact its only activity has 296 National Education Association been a series of two or three meetings once a year during the week of the N. E. A. annual convention. It was not an organization one could formally join. If one belonged to the N. E. A. and taught business subjects he could assume that he was a member of the Business Education Department, but it placed no responsibilities upon him, and gave him no privileges, unless it was the right to vote once a year for the officers of the department. During the past two years the officers of the Department of Business Education have been working to effect a reorganization on a definite mem¬ bership, due-paying basis. During the present year they have attempted to present the new plan to every business education teacher in the United States and to solicit his membership. Tl his would have been a stupendous task even in normal times, but during this period of economic depression a successful membership campaign approached the impossible. Nevertheless, your officers attempted it, believing that those who would join now would form a splendid nucleus for future efforts. In the past, many of the leaders in the field of business education have been individualists, and to get them to unite their efforts in one great enter¬ prise has been most difficult. They have, for the most part, preferred to de¬ vote their efforts to their own local organizations. During the present cam¬ paign, therefore, it has been repeatedly pointed out that the formation of a strong national organization of business educators would not preclude the existence of local or district organizations. After much correspondence, and in some cases direct appeal, one or more wellknown persons in every state but two have consented to act for us as publicity and membership chairmen in their respective states. Our national leaders, E. W. Barnhart and J. O. Malott, have also been lending their aid. The result has been that teachers in all parts of the country are acquainted with our plans, and many have shown their interest by joining. In the meantime, our vicepresident and her committee have been attempting to write a satisfactory constitution and many have been good enough to send suggestions of what it should contain. In a few minutes it will be presented to you for your consideration. The content of a constitution depends upon the purpose of the organization it is intended to govern. Your consideration of our constitution will be more in¬ telligent, therefore, if I point out a few things that the new Department of Business Education might do. Some of these things will require the services of a permanent paid secretary, but if even one half of the thirty-five thousand teachers of business subjects would become members, the dues thus collected would make almost any service possible. One of the most valuable services the Department could render to class¬ room teachers would be to make available to them, in printed form, existing helpful teaching material on each commercial subject, and then keep this material uptodate by means of loose-leaf supplements. The material I have in mind would consist of masters’ theses, surveys, special studies, and pro- giessive courses of study. Much valuable work is done along these lines every year; but because it is not available in printed form, it benefits no one except the one who does it or the few for whom it is done. If one copy of every Department of Business Education 297 useful study made in the United States were sent to our headquarters what a wonderful source they would be for teacher-aid monographs or yearbooks! And with permanent headquarters and a paid secretary to edit them, the idea is not at all fantastic. Another aid for classroom teachers and others engaged in business edu¬ cation would be the publication of abstracts of many of the valuable publi¬ cations of the United States Department of Commerce and Labor. This again would require the expenditure of time, labor, and money and is an¬ other argument for a concentration of teacher-organization effort. Closely re¬ lated to this service would be the preparation and distribution of reading lists upon subjects relating to business education. A third service the Department could render is the publication of a peri¬ odic loose-leaf service bulletin, monthly magazine, or yearbook, or perhaps some combination of all of them. They would not necessarily have to be in¬ cluded in the price of dues, but could be subscribed to separately. The teacher- aid monographs and reading lists already described could be published thru these media, if desired. Another benefit of a strong, national organization, would be its ability to speak officially for business education in matters of legislation or policy. The existence of such an organization would have meant much for business edu¬ cation in its present precarious stage. If the individual teacher is not in¬ terested in having such a spokesman, he certainly should be, particularly the special teachers in junior and senior high schools, for it is the work of these teachers that is undergoing the greatest change. Many other benefits could be mentioned, and some of those already pointed out could be enlarged upon, but time will not permit. The real problem next year will be to make the rank and file of business teachers see the pos¬ sibilities of a strong, countrywide organization. The outlay for each indi¬ vidual would be very small, but the collective power for good of thousands of business teachers all working for the same ends would be almost unlimited. Let us hope teachers will see this and respond in large numbers from every state in the union. REPORT OF THE CONSTITUTION COMMITTEE HELEN REYNOLDS, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF SECRETARIAL STUDIES, OHIO UNIVERSITY, ATHENS, OHIO, Chairman Because they believed that all commercial teachers have felt the need for a national organization which will serve to unify the work done in commer¬ cial education, the officers of the Department of Business Education of the N. E. A. have attempted to work out a plan for the reorganization of that department so that it could function in this capacity more effectively than it has in the past. I he idea was enthusiastically received by the members of the Department in attendance at Los Angeles last summer. I was selected to act as chairman of the Constitution Committee. During the past year, I 298 National Education Association have been in correspondence and conference with the following persons whose ideas have been incorporated in the constitution : Albert E. Bullock, president, Foster W. Loso, secretary-treasurer, E. W. Barnhart, Ann Brew- ington, Paul S. Lomax, J. O. Malott, Louis A. Rice, Clyde Rowe, and Harold Shields. The constitution presented does not purport to be perfect, nor to repre¬ sent all the ideas of all the persons who contributed to it. It is offered as a working beginning, to be modified, amended, and improved as the need for such changes presents itself. Proposed Constitution Article I — Name The name of this organization shall be the Department of Business Education of the National Education Association. Article II — Objectives The objective of the Department of Business Education shall be to coordinate the efforts of business education in the public high schools of the United States, and to act as spokesman for the business education of the country as a whole. This general objective is seen to comprise the following specific purposes: 1. Provide for centralized leadership in public school secondary business edu¬ cation. 2. Provide for coordinating all activities affecting secondary business edu¬ cation. 3. Provide for service as a center of information and service for all interested in public school secondary business education, such as: (a) Prepare and publish abstracts of such publications of the Departments of Commerce and Labor, or others, as may be of interest to classroom teachers, particularly business teachers. (b) Cooperate, when requested, with local organizations for the purpose of aiding them in the solution of local problems, in secondary school busi¬ ness education. (c) Prepare reading and research study lists on subjects relating to busi¬ ness and business education, and distribute them to our members. 4. Provide for the issue of such publications as may contribute to the general purposes of this department, such as: (a) Publish at intervals determined by the Executive Committee a bulletin or magazine for business teachers. (b) Publish a yearbook on business education which will contain the results of each year’s work. 5. Maintain an executive secretary of business education at N. E. A. head¬ quarters in Washington, D. C. Article III — Membership Membership shall consist of three kinds: active, associate, and sustaining . Section /—All persons actively engaged in business education in the United States, who are members of the N. E. A., are eligible to active membership in the Depart¬ ment of Business Education of the N. E. A. upon payment of the membership fee as stipulated in the bylaws. Section 2 All persons who are not actively engaged in business education, but who are interested in business education, shall be eligible for associate membership. Department of Business Education 299 Associate members shall have the same rights and privileges as active members, except the right to vote, to serve as delegates at the annual business meeting, and to hold office. Any business concern or association shall be eligible for sustaining membership , with the same privileges as for associate membership. Article IV — Officers The officers of this organization shall be a president, a vicepresident, an executive secretary, and a treasurer. Article V — Executive Committee Section 1 The Executive Committee shall consist of the president, vicepresident, executive secretary, treasurer, and seven other members who shall be elected from the active membership. To secure a national representation it is suggested that these seven members be elected according to the geographical division of the United States, one being elected from each of the following seven divisions: New England States, Middle Atlantic States, Southern States, North Central States, Northwestern States, Southwestern States, and Pacific Coast States. At no time should the maintenance of this geographical division prevent the election to the Executive Committee of an out¬ standing leader in business education. The retiring president shall serve for one year as an ex-officio member of the Executive Committee. Section 2 Each of the seven members of the Executive Committee, in addition to the officers elected annually, shall be elected in accordance with the following plan: at the business meeting of June 29, 1932, three members shall be elected for one year, two members for two years, and two members for three years ; thereafter, each new member shall be elected for a term of three years. Section 3 Any member of the Executive Committee who cannot personally attend any meeting called by the president shall be expected to designate someone to act as proxy. In case of the failure of any member so to designate a proxy within two weeks of any meeting that has been called after a notice of at least thirty days, the presi¬ dent, as chairman of the Executive Committee, is authorized to name a proxy with power to vote. Section 4 — The Executive Committee is authorized between the annual business meetings held at the time of the N. E. A. summer conventions, to take such action as seems necessary for the best interests of the Department, such action being subject to final approval by the majority vote of the representative assembly at the annual business meeting immediately succeeding the action of the Executive Committee. Section 5 — The Executive Committee shall have the power to formulate a plan for the organization of a national advisory council of business education. Article VI — Amendments To amend this constitution, the amendment must be presented to the secretary in writing. The executive secretary shall submit such proposed amendments to the Executive Committee. The two-thirds affirmative vote of the Executive Committee shall determine whether or not the amendment shall be presented to the Department of Business Education at its next business meeting. A two-thirds vote of the mem¬ bers present shall be sufficient to adopt an amendment so proposed. Article VII — Committees The newly-elected president shall appoint (1) a nominating committee so that committee may have at least one meeting before the Department adjourns, whose duty shall be to prepare a ticket for the following year’s election; and (2) a com¬ mittee on membership. 300 National Education Association Bylaws Article I — Membership Section 1 — The annual dues for active membership shall be $2, which shall in¬ clude subscription to the periodical published by the Department issued quarterly or monthly excepting July, August, and September, at the discretion of the Executive Committee. Section 2 The annual dues for associate membership of an individual shall be the same as for active membership. The annual dues for sustaininq membership shall be $10. Section 3— An active member, upon paying a fee of $50 may become a life member of the Department of Business Education and as such be entitled to all the rights and privileges of active membership for the period of his natural life without payment of further fees. Section 4 — The membership year shall be from September 1 to August 31. All membership dues paid during the membership year shall be credited to that year unless otherwise requested. Section 5 — The annual dues of members shall be sent to the executive secretary on or before November 1. An active member failing to pay his dues as herein pro¬ vided shall forfeit the privilege of membership and after being in arrears one-half year be dropped from the list of members. Section 6 — The right to vote, to hold office, to serve as a delegate to the annual business meeting shall be limited to active members whose dues are paid. Article II — Election of Officers, Annual Business Meeting Section 1 — The election of officers and transaction of business at the annual busi¬ ness meeting, subsequent to the business meeting of June 29, 1932, shall be by a representative assembly composed of delgates apportioned, elected, and governed as hereinafter provided. Section 2 — For every fifty members or major fraction thereof, provided that no state represented by active members shall have less than one delegate regardless of the number of membexs, each state shall be entitled to one delegate in the represent¬ ative assembly of the Department of Business Education. Section 3— The delegate or delegates of any state group shall be elected according to one of the following plans: (a) The executive secretary will prepare a list of active members for each state. He will then mail the list for each state to each active member of that state with the request to vote for a delegate or delegates (as the case may be) from the list, and return the ballot to the executive secretary, who will next determine the elected delegate or delegates on the basis of the highest number of votes received. Provided if any state group may so choose to do: The state association of business teachers, duly authorized by the Executive Committee of the Department of Business Educa¬ tion, may at its annual meeting select a list of nominees and report the list to the executive secretary, who shall then submit the list of nominees by mail to the active members of that state for election of delegates on the basis of the highest number of votes received. (b) Delegates may be elected at the annual meeting of the state association, such elections being immediately reported to the executive secretary. Section 4 Officers of Department of Business Education are ex-officio members of representative assembly. The president presides and votes in case of a tie. Section 5 Delegates shall file credentials on blanks provided by executive secre¬ tary at least ten days before annual business meeting. Department of Business Education 301 Article III — Duties of Officers Section /—The president shall preside at all meetings of the Department of Busi¬ ness Education and shall perform in addition such executive duties as usually fall upon t e chief executive of such an organization. The president shall prepare, with the advice of the Executive Committee, programs for the annual meeting, and ap¬ point committees for the furtherance of the work of the Department. He shall sign all bills approved by the Executive Committee. Section 2 The vicepresident shall preside at all meetings in the absence of the president. Section 3 The executive secretary shall receive all dues, shall issue certificates of membership to active members, associate members, and sustaining members, and credentials to delegates upon proper application. He shall transfer such moneys accompanied by explanatory lists to the treasurer. He shall keep a complete mem¬ bership list and all records of the organization. He shall serve as editor for such publications as the Executive Committee shall authorize. He shall formulate with the Executive Committee and be responsible for the carrying out of such publicity and promotional activities as are believed desirable for the growth of the Depart¬ ment of Business Education. Section 4 — The treasurer shall receive all moneys due the organization and shall receive from the secretary all dues. He shall pay all bills approved by the president, prepare an accurate report, properly audited, of the financial transactions of each year, and shall give such bond as may be required by the Executive Committee. SECRETARY’S MINUTES Atlantic City, New Jersey First Session, Tuesday afternoon, June 28, 1932 Greetings, Earl I harp, president, High School Commercial Teachers’ Association of New Jersey, East Side High School, Newark, N. J. What Each and Every Citizen Should Know about Business, Lee Galloway, vicepresident, Alexander Hamilton Institute, New York, N. Y. For What Principal Kinds of Business Positions Are High School Graduates Wanted? To What Extent and In What Ways, If Any, Is Special or Technical Business Education Wanted? Eric Nichols, personnel manager, Western Union Telegraph Co., New York, N. Y. Looking Ahead in Bookkeeping and Accounting Instruction, Charles E. Bow¬ man, head, Commercial Department, Girard College, Philadelphia, Pa. Looking Ahead in Spiorthand and Secretarial Instruction, Helen Reynolds, vicepresident of the Department, Associate Professor of Secretarial Studies, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio. Looking Ahead in Office Practise Instruction (Including Both Bookkeeping and Shorthand Groups of Pupils), Raymond C. Goodfellow, director of conmmercial edu¬ cation, Public Schools, Newark, N. J. Discussion Leader: John G. Kirk, director of commercial education, Public Schools, Philadelphia, Pa. Luncheon Conference, Wednesday, June 29, 1932 Presiding, Thomas L. Husselton, executive manager, Atlantic City Chamber of Commerce, Atlantic City, N. J. Looking Ahead in Business Education, John A. Stevenson, vicepresident, Penn Mutual Life Insurance Co., Philadelphia, Pa. 302 National Education Association Bon Voyage to the American Delegation to the London Conference of the International Society for Commercial Education, Earl W. Barnhart, chief, Com¬ mercial Education Service, Federal Board for Vocational Education, Washington, Response to Bon Voyage, John Robert Greggs, president, American Chapter of the International Society for Commercial Education, and chairman of the American Delegation, New York, N. Y. Third Session, Wednesday afternoon, June 29, 1932 Presiding, Helen Reynolds, vicepresident of the Department. Looking Ahead in Education for Selling Occupations, Earl W. Barnhart, chief Commercial Education Service, Federal Board for Vocational Education, Washing¬ ton, D. C. & Looking Ahead in Junior Business Training Instruction, Frederick G. Nichols associate professor of education, Graduate School of Education, Harvard Univer¬ sity, Cambridge, Mass. Looking Ahead in Social Business Instruction in Secondary Schools, Herbert A. Tonne, assistant professor of education, School of Education, New York Univer¬ sity, New York, N. Y. Possible Services of the Department of Business Education to Business Teach¬ ers, A. E. Bullock, president of the Department. Paper delivered by F. W. Loso secretary-treasurer of the Department. Report of the Constitution Committee. Helen Reynolds, vicepresident of the De¬ partment, chairman of the Constitution Committee (Ann Brewington, Paul S. Lomax, L. A. Rice, J. O. Malott, Earl W. Barnhart, Frederick G. Nichols, Albert E. Bullock and F. W. Loso) presented the constitution at the open meeting. Mr. G. R. Fisher of Pittsburgh offered a motion that the proposed constitution be placed on the table for one year so that it might be considered more carefully before being finally adopted. The motion was seconded by Dr. Paul S. Lomax of New York University. Professor Frederick G. Nichols of Harvard University discussed the proposed motion and the constitution to some extent expressing approval of the procedure followed. Vote taken and motion carried. Business Meeting , Helen Reynolds, vicepresident, presiding. Professor Frederick G. Nichols offered a motion that the officers for the coming year, 1932-33, be nominated and elected on the basis of the proposed constitution. Mr. L. Gilbert Dake of St. Louis seconded the motion. Vote taken and motion carried. Because of the time limit it was thought best to eliminate the secretary-treasurer’s report on the distribution of membership and the financial report. Miss Helen Reynolds asked for a report from the Nominating Committee. This committee was composed of the following members of the Department: Mr. Ray¬ mond Goodfellow, chairman, Mr. Clinton A. Reed, Mr. Frederick G. Nichols, and Miss Helen Reynolds. (Names of the newly elected officers appear in the Historical Note, p. 284.) Mr. H. I. Chaim of San Francisco moved that the secretary be instructed to cast a ballot for the unanimous election of the proposed slate of officers. The motion was seconded by Mr. W. O. Holden of Pawtucket, R. I. It carried and the ballot was cast. Dr. Paul S. Lomax made a short speech of acceptance. The meeting then adjourned. Department of Classroom Teachers The department of classroom teachers held its first session at the St. Paul meeting, July 8, 1914. It was organized in response to petitions representing classroom teachers in all parts of the country. See Proceedings , 1914:909. The Depart¬ ment was reorganized under a constitution at the Boston meeting in July, 1922. For the constitution and bylaws of this Department see Proceedings , 1924:568-70. For amendments see Proceedings, 1923:578; 1929:365; and 1931:390-91. The De¬ partment of Classroom Teachers cooperates with the National League of Teachers’ Associations. The officers of the Department for the year 1932-33 are: President , Mrs. F. Blanche Preble, 10855 Ver¬ non Avenue, Chicago, Ill. ; Vice-president , Albert M. Shaw, 2833 Estera Avenue, Los Angeles, Calif. ; Secretary , Eugenie J. Brown, Doanbrooke Hotel, Cleveland, Ohio; Director Ex-officio , Sara H. Fahey, 122 West 75th Street, New York, N. Y. ; Regional Directors : Western Section, Faye Read, 131 Vernon Place, Pueblo, Colo. (Term expires 1933) ; Eastern Section, Daisy Lord, 1027 West Main Street, Water- bury, Conn. (Term expires 1934) ; Middle Section, Mary C. Ralls, 6529 Jefferson Avenue, Kansas City, Mo. (Term expires 1935). This Department meets at the time of the annual meeting of the Association. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and record of meet¬ ings are found in earlier Proceedings as follows : 1914:909-916 1915:1161-1177 1916:637-652 1917:615-622 1918:381-389 1919:375-392 1920:343-355 1921 :399-406 1922:683-691 1923 :569-620 1924:460-499 1925 :365-402 1926 :391-423 1927:352-390 1928 :325-352 1929 :335-368 1930 :293-307 1931 :359-393 [ 304] KINDERGARTEN EXPERIENCES, THE BEGINNING OF SOCIAL RELATIONSHIP MRS. EUGENIA WEST JONES, KINDERGARTEN DIRECTOR, FIRST STREET SCHOOL, LOS ANGELES, CALIF. I often wonder if we teachers ever realize what takes place in the minds of the little children when they leave home and come to school for the first time and face the situation in a big school — the yard full of boys and girls, the big building, lots of grown-ups and teachers everywhere, ringing of the bells to stand still or go inside as rules demand. Do we sympathize with these children? Blessed is the teacher who so arranges the room that there is some one thing to attract the attention of all. Children are like grown people, they like their rights and demand them in different ways; and it is this contact that all of a sudden makes Johnnie or Mary realize there are other children in the world, and they demand their rights also. This is the first social affair the child has on entering school. It is a revelation to see Mary drink milk and Johnnie drink it because Mary does and it must be good for you. Planting a garden, singing songs, the rhythm work, running, jumping, playing ball, all add to the child’s growth and help him adjust himself to other situations. If all the things children are exposed to in early teaching could be measured, no one would ever do aught but commend the teacher who teaches thru play , and possesses this high degree of ability. Education becomes more complex every day and the most expert leadership is necessary. How to keep children happy as well as busy, and keep them busy as well as happy, is the problem of today. Dramatization of stories, making costumes, hats, all make happiness. Competitive games, however simple, tend to create a habit of unselfishness and recognition of the rights of others. Mary playing in the kindergarten, building and furnishing a doll house, may some day grace the White House. The boy that makes his first little train in kindergarten might some day be the man who takes the train across the continent, and he who builds that boat might be an admiral of the navy, or the boy or girl who runs and jumps might some day compete in the Olympics — who can tell ! Service to one another, being a member of a group in school, advances the group idea in life. Children, if busy, have no time to get into a fight or into mischief. It is very gratifying to know that the kinder¬ garten and primary curriculum is being so worked out that one hardly knows when the child leaves the kindergarten and slips into the first grade. The only difference should be his reading readiness, and maybe thru pictures, stories, play, and conversation he has learned to be ready to read. What a wonderful investment America has in her children ! Shame on any state or country that penalizes a child. It would be better to curtail anywhere but never pauperize the children’s education. Education is never expensive, it is a necessity, not a luxury. Shall we keep on teaching children thru play about life and energy and what is their right of birth. To be able to be a part of a group and to live with others is the greatest education a child can possess and is his future guarantee of happiness. [ 305 ] 306 . National Education Association THE ACTIVITY PROGRAM, ITS SIGNIFICANCE IN ENLARGING HUMAN SYMPATHIES LUCILE ALLARD, FACULTY ADVISER, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, GARDEN CITY, LONG ISLAND, N. Y. What has democracy accomplished for education? What shall be the future of democratic educational theories and programs? Can we make democracy safe for education ? Let us for a moment liken the activity program in a schoolroom to a small bit of democratic society. Consider the possibilities for the realization of an absolute democracy anywhere. Perhaps that classroom is the only place where realization is possible. In the United States, in society, individual members lose sight of lofty ideals and noble purposes of the original plan for a democratic society in the thrill of personal success. Often leaders forget to plan and share with the many in their mad rush to build themselves up on false or insecure pedestals whose foundations later crumble beneath them. You are the classroom teacher — you have great power — your position is a strategic one! You are indeed fortunate! There in your classroom, you can create an activity program, a little democracy where you can make over some of the warped ideals of 1932. Parents, politicans, and even educational administrators have avoided con¬ sideration of vital social issues, have failed to face squarely questions for which children have demanded frank answers. Youngsters have seen hypocrisy and questionable dealings undermine innumerable social institutions. I believe a wise use of the “activity program” can be a significant enlarger of “human sympathies,” but I believe there is no educational program which can present a “new social outlook,” until the classroom teacher has been given the privilege of expressing herself constructively on social questions. Such privilege would give her recognition, prestige, and courage to pass on the best to her children. The “activity program” in any educational situation consists of the following: (1) A shift from teacher-discipline to self-discipline and self-respect. (2) Freedom to move and to speak with one’s equals, one’s superiors, and one’s inferiors. (3) Freedom to create, and to enjoy and appreciate the fine creations of others. (4) Opportunity to share experiences and ideas with one’s fellows. (5) Freedom to enjoy the discipline of vital incentives to work, opportunity to enjoy the discipline of helping to carry thru a group plan. (6) Freedom from artificial grade standards and competitions, or unjust com¬ parisons of achievement. A new social outlook with human appreciations and human values in the fore, can best be developed thru an activity program with a definite goal. A great educator today must have a scientific attitude, I am told. That is not enough, his attitude must be humane as well. Classroom teachers, let us create within ourselves this humane scientific attitude and remake the world for the future. Department of Classroom Teachers 307 SOCIAL STUDIES INTERPRETED FOR A RADIO GENERATION MRS. LENORE O’NEILL PLUNKETT, ROGERS ELEMENTARY SCHOOL, STAMFORD, CONN. At the present time from one end of the civilized world to the other, men seem to be facing problems that they know not how to solve. All are agreed that failure in their solution will lead eventually to revolution against present forms of government and may result in absolute destruction of the kind of social life that we now enjoy. All are agreed that the solution to these problems must be met somehow thru the field of education. At the present time the violent discussions of city and town officials and taxpayers on methods of meeting the imperative needs of unemployment, show us that too many people in every community lack a sense first of social insight. There seems to be little consciousness of what it means to live in an organized society. Secondly, we have not a highly developed appreciation of how we live together — or in other words, we lack social sympathy. We lack full under¬ standing of the conditions precedent to happy living together. Furthermore, we seem to lack understanding of the conditions that change may bring about. A changing civilization demands a re-valuation of those elements of change that are affecting our ways of living and thinking. The person who is able to sense the direction and importance of these changes in presentday life is really charting a course of adjustment to the still unknown conditions of the future. Few of our people seem able to do this today. Social progress is determined by the ability of the nation’s leaders to develop social vision, yet many of us seem to be wholly lacking in this social mindedness. We know that this social mindedness must come as a result of right character building — of light changes in individual behavior or personality. Social studies have a great deal to offer as a medium to effect these changes. However, the method of handling the subjectmatter is of transcendent importance in effecting them. 1. In the past, excellence in history meant ability to review great events of past ages. Today it should mean the ability to interpret the motives of men and nations as seen in their actions and to recognize similar conditions in later ages. 2. In the past the ability to discuss the meaning of constitutions and laws was re¬ garded as education in civics. Today, accompanying this knowledge must come the cooperation of the right-minded citizen in carrying out measures for the good of the community. 3. Yesterday, the ability to name authors with titles of books and their happen¬ ings indicated wide acquaintance with literature. Today we realize that the vicari¬ ous experience which the students get thru observing in well-chosen books difficulties in the lives of those in whom he is interested, teaches him how to adjust himself to adverse circumstances without the suffering endured by the hero or heroine. He has the experience of making a judgment as to right conduct before he meets the situa¬ tion. The student is led to discuss characters of fiction in the light of the standards of the life of today. He is led to see that while eternal verities remain the same in every age, the fitness of many matters rests in the age in which one lives, or with the group in which one finds himself. Moreover, many matters presented as litera¬ ture develop social sympathy as argumentative discussion and propaganda never could. 308 National Education Association 4. In studying geography, the little girl and boy should be encouraged to tell what they know of foreign lands as learned from their parents. They are thus helped to develop respect for their ancestry and understanding and appreciation of other countries. In the interchange of commerce they can be brought to see the need for cooperation among nations. 5. A study of the music of other lands is a wonderful source of good fellowship among people. Children can be led to see that antagonism should not be linked to the strange or the new. Open-mindedness is the great goal to be sought in much of this study. In the social studies the opportunities are limitless for teaching a child informally that the carving of his own character and personality rests in a large measure with himself. He learns that he must exercise his own powers of decision to the best of his ability. In his vicarious experience in these studies he becomes habituated to making decisions, and he is prepared to choose the right road. UTILIZING INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES FOR A NEW AGE MARY D. BARNES, CONTINENTAL SCHOOL, ELIZABETH, N. J. The changes in educational procedures in the past twenty-five years have shifted the emphasis from teaching school subjects to teaching children. We are aw^ake to the necessity of caring for the child’s physical, mental, and social needs. Binet classes, special classes for handicapped children, homogeneous grouping, individual instruction, activity programs, the platoon system, the work-study-play plan have risen in answer to the problem of providing for the maximum development of the varying capacities of children. The natural, healthful growth of the individual personality is our great concern. Modern social and economic conditions bring home to us the realization that in some way we have failed, and we grope now for the wisdom and inspiration to inculcate in young America the social attitudes and civic ideals that will help him adjust himself and make him shock-proof against any changes in civilization. The radio, television, and the airplane erase artificial national boundaries, and we face the task of preparing the child for world citizenship. We have done much to foster and strengthen his sense of responsibility for contributing to the welfare of his immediate group. That he intelligently appreciates the community’s responsibility for his welfare rests, too, with us. We have far to go in giving him a knowledge of civic affairs. Culturally, America has begun to take her place with the older nations of the world. At no time in our history has the need for the cultivation of the best in art, literature, and music been so paramount. It is thru these channels that we endeavor to prepare young America for the coming age of leisure. We have been censured for emphasizing the intellectual side of these emo¬ tional subjects. Our task, then, is to develop a real appreciation of these cultural pursuits that will lead to creative activities and worthwhile hobbies. Department of Classroom Teachers 309 The present emphasis on character education is an attempt to help America grow up morally. Needed changes in modern society will be brought about, not by bigger and better prisons, or by more legislation, but by a supreme effort for greater individual integrity. This may well be our major responsi¬ bility. The need and value of a study of mental attitudes is recognized in the medical, legal, and clerical professions ; in the business world ; and in the field of industry. It is much more vital that we in the teaching profession appreciate a study that concerns the development of a wholesome personality. There are administrative hindrances to personality and character develop¬ ment over which we have no control. Our administrative officers are reluctant to retain the evils of the traditional school system, but they are up against the stone wall of financial costs. This barrier will crumble only when a community awakes to the need of the development of the whole child — body and mind. American classroom teachers, instead of waiting for utopia, will face the problem of meeting the needs of individual children within any organiza¬ tion. When we can intelligently study the individual in relation to his group, when we are on the alert to discover the causes of behavior that make for poor citizenship — not to punish but to remedy — when, along with our service as classroom teacher we can assume the role of visiting teacher and of mental hygienist, then will teaching become more firmly entrenched as a profession. This solution of the problem of individual differences rests not with adminis¬ trative devices, but with the teacher. Attention to individual differences that life may be wholesome and achieve a manner of success is the teacher’s contribution to democracy. TEACHER PERSONALITY, THE INTEGRATING FORCE IN THE NEW EDUCATION JESSIE GRAY, TRAINING TEACHER, PHILADELPHIA NORMAL SCHOOL, PHILADELPHIA, PA. Personality is the power of individuality. It is reserve strength drawn from conscious, controled, integrated thought, emotion, volition, and action. To increase the power of personality, every contributory factor must be posi¬ tive, constructive, and cooperative. Foibles lessen power, and create a person¬ ality divided against itself. A conscious aim and definite planning are both necessary to build an in¬ tegrated personality, which has power to assimilate all worthy traits of char¬ acter, as well as the power to combat all harmful traits. Curricular activity in the gaining of facts ministers to mind growth. The reason for the acquisition of facts, as well as the use of the data after it is acquired, ministers to spirit growth. Attitude toward mental power, the feeling of responsibility for its altruistic and ennobling use, make the common platform of all the humanitarian professions. Preeminently, in the teaching profession, each teacher who urges a noble use for education is a rightful guide and a powerful inspiration. 310 National Education Association In teaching history, the children should learn to sympathize with the great and good, and to hate what is base. We can hope to develop ideals so far as we can get the child to admire and emulate conduct which has been of social value. We can emphasize more and more that service and self-sacrifice lead thru struggle to social victory. In the history period, do you ever ask the children to express appreciation to our heroes as if they were visibly present ? It makes them very real, and it is almost impossible' for them to misstate what these heroes did or said in making history. The famous sayings of his¬ torical characters make a valuable contribution to character training and integration. Nathan Hale said, I regret that I have but one life to give for my country.” That suggests preparation, dedication, and devotion to the point of sacrifice for a cause. The immortal Lincoln gave immortal praise for loving service when he voiced appreciation of his mother thus, “All I am or all I hope to be I owe to my angel mother.” “With charity for all — with malice toward none Lincoln told the nation of his patience and understand¬ ing and forgiveness, constructiveness, and integration. “Blessed are the peace makers,” said the Great Teacher. Integration of personality thru nature study is another possibility. “If we can awaken a permanent interest in flowers, trees, and birds, unworthy de¬ grading pleasures are not likely to find a very prominent place in the individ¬ ual s life. Integration of personality is also ministered to by geography — “The proper study of mankind is man,” said Alexander Pope. “Thru human geography we see peoples handicapped by disadvantages of climate, soil, and dense population ; and yet, because of the high courage as well as persever¬ ance and industry of their people, they have been able to do two essential things, namely, support themselves and make a contribution to the civiliza¬ tion of the world.” True teaching aims for a conservation of spiritual force in those for whom the teacher is responsible. Curriculums must be taught with the emphasis on the immutable, eternal truths that insure a “more abundant life.” All methods of securing life more abundant, should prove good for doctrine, for reproof, for growth, for power, for wrestling failure from defeat, for finding joy in sorrow, spiritual riches in the midst of poverty, good in everything. CHARACTER BUILDING IN OUR HIGH SCHOOL THRU THE LITERATURE OF OUR TIMES FREDERICK HOUK LAW, HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH, STUYVESANT HIGH SCHOOL, NEW YORK, N. Y. Teaching literature to develop character should be prohibited, for liter¬ ature should be taught for its own sake. Great books should inspire literary delight, and not merely give information about cooking, science, character building, or anything else. That which is important is artistic presentation of three literary necessities — the good, the beautiful, and the true. Department of Classroom Teachers 311 All supremely great works of literature, Homer, Shakespeare, Dante, Cervantes, and Goethe, profoundly ennoble. Teachers should not preach. They should exhibit the artistic; then nobility will follow. If we who are teachers select the literature of our own times in accord¬ ance with the canons of art, we must, of necessity, select works that are both artistic and ennobling. Think over the world’s supreme names in literature mentioned above. All of them, without intending it, made their works pro¬ foundly ennobling, Surely, John Keats was inspired when he said: Beauty is truth, truth beauty — that is all Ye know of truth and all ye need to know. We do not need to preach. We need only to exhibit the truly artistic. Teach the artistic, and at the same time you teach nobility. Do not teach nobility first. Teach art first and last, and nobility follows, as certainly as good play¬ ing of golf follows good form. Adolescent studies, such as Booth T. arkington’s Seventeen , will result in character improvement. Modern stories of animal life, such as Albert Pay- son Terhune’s Lad , A Dog , will increase sympathy. Rudyard Kipling’s Captains Courageous will develop manhood. Even social satire, such as Sin¬ clair Lewis’ Babbitt, will increase breadth of view. Character building in its best forms, therefore, will come about thru the literature of our times only when that literature has been so selected that, at its lowest levels, it increases interest in the life, the activities, the scenes, the objects, and the problems of the modern world; that, on its highest levels, always giving examples of artistic form, it develops sympathy with all that interests mankind today, awakens a spirit of altruism, and leads to a compelling wish to take helpful part in the upward growth of mankind. Optimism, rather than pessimism, spiritual growth rather than moral retrogression, are necessary marks of the best literature, and should form criteria for school selection. Schools of engineering should deal wholly with the engineering of past ages, if teachers of English are forced to deal only with past literature. Modern girls should study Helen Keller’s Story of My Life, and boys, Jacob Riis’ Making of An American. Compulsory reading, and formal study should be abandoned. Imagine a mad intruder, standing at midnight, revolver in hand, forcing you, under penalty, to read some book, and to explain to him exactly what you read. How much love for that book would you gain under such conditions? Shall we likewise compel our students, with the threat of low marks, to read books, however good ? Lay it down as a great educational law that in the teaching of literature, reading should be suggested rather than compelled, the pupil invited rather than forced, the work informal rather than formal. If character-building values, or even art values, are to be brought out, reading must be a delight, shared both by teacher and pupils. Lay it down as 312 National Education Association another educational law, that the teacher of literature should read aloud a great deal, as Hiram Corson did, making no attempt to read all, but reading notable passages that grip the pupils’ natures. To gain full appreciation of all the artistic and character-building values in a work of literature, we should lead pupils to make definite attempts to imitate the subjectmatter, the style, the manner, and the spirit of the authors concerned. If a class leads short stories, such as The Blue blower, by Henry van Dyke, or the stories in the O. Henry Memorial Prize Stories , or the selec¬ tions in such compilations as M.odern Short Stories, edited by the writer, the best test of appreciative reading is thru a combination of informal discussion and of definite imitation. What pupil could try, even unsuccessfully, to imi¬ tate O. Henry s The Gift of the Magi, without definitely putting into form something of the thought, that love that leads to sacrifice is the greatest value in the world ? Is modern journalism morbid and sensational? In spite of charges to the contrary, modern journalism is good for school study. The New York Times, the New York Tribune, the Providence Journal, the Springfield Republican, and scores of other daily papers, provide stimulating material for the de¬ velopment of citizenship. I he Literary Digest summarizes all that is best in the thought and activity of the entire world, and is eminently helpful in class work, leading to a sense of participation in the world’s activities. To keep pupils from close, intimate classroom contact with the wealth of modern writing, is to send them into the world as uniform and uninspired, as if we had confined them in solitary cells in the monastery on top of Mt. Athos, and then had given them diplomas and sent them out to cross streets, ride in subways, and take other active part in our intense and peculiar modern life. To lead to the best character building thru reading, we must insist that a great part of school study in English shall be both modern and truly worthy of the name, the best in literature, for only the best artistic work leads to the best spiritual development. CHARACTER BUILDING THRU THE HISTORY OF OUR TIMES MARY E. O’CONNOR, COMMERCIAL HIGH SCHOOL, NEW HAVEN, CONN. Thru the years of changing economic and social conditions, we have emerged from a rural to an urban people. With this change the number of educational agencies has increased to include not only the home and school but all the complexities of modern life. Two of these agencies are the mov¬ ing picture and the radio. The school today rivals the home and the church in the ethical training of its pupils. Here the movies can be a dominating factor. The school should Department of Classroom Teachers 313 subordinate their commercial aspects, and, by careful selection of the best, utilize them to enrich the curriculum, increase appreciation, and stir the emotions to higher ideals. A valuable activity for such an organization as the National Education Association, would be to act as a clearinghouse to receive films discarded by the moving picture industry, to select those which have ethical value, and to distribute them for educational purposes. No force in American society has developed with the rapidity of the radio. This, also, can be a powerful agency in moral education, altho at present the cultural possibilities are subordinated to the commercial. Since the development of the radio is so recent, the teacher is somewhat confused and hesitant about its use. But since we cannot escape the radio, we cannot ignore its possibilities for good or bad in the lives of the children we teach. If rightly guided, boys and girls will get an understanding of social, economic, and civic problems which will cause them to be better prepared to discharge their duties as good citizens. T hese two modern mechanical devices should be utilized in the best manner possible toward inculcating habits toward the development of truth, goodness, and beauty. THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHARACTER THRU EXTRA¬ CURRICULUM ACTIVITIES EMILY TARBELL, TEACHER, BLODGETT VOCATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL, SYRACUSE, N. Y. It has been said that nothing in our curriculum exists today save what started as an extracurriculum activity. Predicting by that augury, one would say our course of study of tomorrow will be much changed. If absence of clubs allied with certain subjects foredooms those subjects, then the hand¬ writing is on the wall for mathematics. Extracurriculum activities develop the students socially. Thru them the students find their avocations. They receive training for leadership. They learn to cooperate, which is essential for good citizenship. The overcrow/ ded classes of today afford little opportunity for forming of friendships. Corridois jammed with swift-moving lines of traffic offer little chance for exchange of greeting let alone confidences. The boy who recites suavely and easily may be most ill at ease in groups outside the classroom. One lad said : Before going out for sports I was rather a lone ranger, that is, I didn’t have many friends and the spirit of good fellowship was lacking. Then I went out for sports and started to have the time of my life. I became acquainted with a large number of the fellows and even practise was a lot easier than I thought it would be, for whenever the fellows get together, there is always something' doing. I found out what it is to take orders from a man like our coach who is himself a “kid” at heart. It developed me in a physical and mental way. It taught me the fundamentals and how to play them. Good sportsmanship was the motto of the coach and the teams. 314 National Education Association Student activities need not limit themselves to bringing about cooperation among the students but may achieve that end in the community. I shall illustrate : Vocational High School at Syracuse is located in the factory district and is also in the cherished territory of two rival gangs. After the building was completed, nothing was done about landscaping the grounds; for the good city fathers decided that in that section with children running wild in the streets and over the school property, no blade of grass would grow. Patiently the Students’ Council besieged the Board of Education with requests for a lawn. After twelve years of waiting the Council decided to act for itself. Raising the funds for seed and fertilizer was a small matter, but securing the cooperation of all the students and of the neighbors was the real problem. The Council was strategic. First of all the members of the football squad, fifty-four strong, were cajoled into doing the actual spading and seeding. Hours of sweat and toil made the gridiron boys regard that stretch of soil as their own special work of art and woe betide the careless frosh who dared step toe upon the seeded plot. To help encourage all the students in feeling themselves sharers of this under¬ taking, everyone in the school was asked to contribute at least one cent to the fund for seed. But the hours after the students had departed for their homes — those hours from four in the afternoon until ten and eleven at night — had been the time when the neighborhood children had raced boisterously over the school yard. To enlist their aid the students prepared a printed request to the families of the surrounding streets. A member of the newspaper staff wrote the appeal; the printing club turned out the attractive leaflets; members of one of the girls’ clubs distributed these pleas, making personal calls on the mothers in the homes for a radius of six blocks. Chil¬ dren were invited to play in the back yard of the school, but they were asked not to walk on the lawn at front and sides of the building. A student committee visited the nearby schools — the grammer and parochial schools — and solicited the goodwill of those pupils. Leading citizens of the ward were asked to serve on a committee with students and teachers in maintaining the lawn. The most effective work was done by the neighborhood gangs. Members of those gangs who were enroled in the school joined in common cause. Every day after school hours a patrol was established with two-hour beats, a patrol that guarded the sacred tract until eleven o’clock each evening. We have had a lawn for a year now. There are no parks in the vicinity. That bit of green is a beauty spot. The blooming of the spirea bushes this spring was a neighborhood event, for neighbors as well as students rejoice in Vocational’s lawn. Not only do students develop in these activities but teachers as well. Counseling societies and managing teams call for leadership, self-control, diplomacy, tact, and the ability to meet the students on a plane of friendli¬ ness. They take time — these extracurriculum activities — a great deal of precious time. The guerdons are equally as precious. Have you ever noticed to which schools the alumni troop back at every possible occasion? To the schools where teachers and students have been and still are genuine friends. Class¬ mates have left, but the graduates return to visit with their counselors, the faculty. Those visits usually come because students and teachers have been knit together by their work in extracurriculum programs. One of the first questions is, “How is the dramatic club getting along?” Or it may be the science club. Department of Classroom Teachers 315 When one has reached the zero point where he thinks he might better be spending the afternoon or evening hours in extension school work, or with a new book, or in much needed sleep to meet those bigger classes of to¬ morrow — at anything except student activity — there comes a letter thru the mail, a letter from the once frowsy-headed child of whom teachers had de¬ spaired until one discovered how the girl liked to write. The letter sparkles. “Joy brimming over. The editor is sending me to cover the biggest assignment yet. I interviewed Gilbert Chesterton yesterday and Bernard Shaw is next. Do send me a copy of the school paper please. Honestly, I’m homesick for }) one. The weariness of the zero hour evaporates. Beg off from working with the school staff? No, indeed. On with the extracurriculum activity! CHARACTER EDUCATION THRU NATURE STUDY AND RECREATION M. IRENE KERSTETTER, BATTIN HIGH SCHOOL, ELIZABETH, N. J. Nature study and outdoor recreation are not necessarily related activities. We may have outdoor recreation without nature study and we may have nature study without recreation. Ideally the two are combined but this rests almost entirely in the hands of the leader. Nature study, as we use the term here, means all outofdoor activities which include a consciousness of natural objects and yet so satisfy the play instinct that the child characterizes them as “fun.” Nature study can contribute to character education thru the opportunities it presents to satisfy some of the “drives” of childhood, such as the drive for wholesome activity; and it furnishes an outlet for emotional urges such as the desire for new experiences and the wish for recognition from within its own group. With these fundamental urges satisfied, nature study can con¬ tribute to the formation of positive character traits such as: Respect for the rights of others — It will appeal to the child’s sense of fairness to respond to the permission to cross property with respect for that property. Young people learn that plants and animals have the right to carry on their lives and activities without interference from visitors, however interested those visitors may be. Acceptance of responsibility — A group of boys and girls going outofdoors learn that unless they are responsible for their own food they are apt to go hungry. If they fail to stay with the crowd they miss some of the fun. If they wish to cook, which is usually a prized privilege, they must be responsible for the fire staying within bounds and for extinguishing it afterward. Kindness — In an environment where children are in contact with living things, smaller and weaker than themselves, they learn to be gentle. Leadership — An excursion outofdoors gives the wise leader a chance to develop latent leadership qualities, courage, initiative, willingness to help those who are less competent. Patriotism — “I love thy rocks and rills, thy woods and templed hills,” becomes a concrete thing to a child whom America can be made to mean woods and streams as well as cities and homes, whether that child is of rural or urban back¬ ground. 316 National Education Association Appreciation of beauty — Many children are blind to the pattern of the branches against the sky or to harmony of line and color until someone whose judgment they respect shows it to them. We teach them to sing, “O beautiful for spacious skies, for amber waves of grain, for purple mountain majesties above the fruited plain,” and the place for the child to see the beauty of these things is outofdoors. Nature study contributes in secondary fashion to the formation of de¬ sirable character traits by explaining away some environmental fears such as the fear of insects and snakes, leaving a chance for all-round character de¬ velopment. It aids in training the sensory powers thru which contact with the outside world is made, thereby enriching the sensory experiences on which basis character habits are built. It has a very definite contribution to make thru the religious feeling ex¬ perienced by many children while in the quiet of the woods and fields. Nature study and outdoor recreation have much to add to that balance and sanity of character which make for right living as adults. CHARACTER BUILDING IN OUR HIGH SCHOOLS CHARLOTTE A. HUBBARD, DIRECTOR OF GUIDANCE, BASSETT JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL, NEW HAVEN, CONN. I o the high-school teacher is presented a valuable opportunity for char¬ acter building. His pupils, ranging in age from twelve to eighteen, are at the period of adolescence when they approach manhood and womanhood, and, in the words of the apostle, “put away childish things.’’ Parallel with phys¬ ical development occur mental and emotional development, also varying in degree with the individual. Peculiarly characteristic of this period is the reaching out for ideals, unfortunately not all of them worthy, if judged by adult experience or by their ultimate effect upon the individual. The high- school boy or girl is impressionistic; he is a copyist; he dislikes usually to be different from the other fellows ; he is often given to strong emotional feel¬ ings for another individual, often a person older than himself. That there is need for character building in our high school is apparent when we consider the trends of modern society. A century ago, it was pos¬ sible for the farmer to supply the fundamental needs, food, shelter, and clothing for his family without going beyond the bounds of his farm ; home life was more closely knit, and home influence guided the children. Today in our urban society, very little of the needs of mankind originates within the home ; food and clothing are produced in factories and brought into the home. This in turn provides leisure, with the result that there is a tendency to go outside for amusement ; the hold of the home over the child is weak¬ ened. As a matter of fact, the teacher often sees more of the child and knows him better than his own father and mother. Then, too, there is a growing spirit of ridicule toward worthy ideals, and a setting up of wrong ideals. It is hardly necessary to more than mention the growing tendency toward law-breaking within our country today; but the Department of Classroom Teacher. 317 result is that too often the high-school teacher meets the attitude that it is no great disgrace to break a law; rather on the contrary, for the disgrace lies in getting caught. The gangster who successfully evades prosecution becomes a hero'. Another factor which tends to break down morale and erases the finer traits of character is the hurry of the modern age; the child like his father and mother, is in such a hurry to go from one situation to another that he can’t stop to be courteous, to be kindly, to be unselfish. H ow is the high-school teacher to meet this need for character building? There are two major ways; the first is by a program of ethical training or character education ; the second is by the utilization of opportunities pre¬ sented thru the regular program of studies. The first means is apt to become too narrow, too stilted ; it doesn’t reach the high-school pupil because it is too obvious. There is nothing that the adolescent hates more than to be preached at. He recognizes it as a necessary evil in church, and hence to be endured ; but if carried into the schoolroom, the result is apt to be destruc¬ tive rather than constructive. It is not that the pupil does not have ideals — he has plenty, but they are precious to him, and he fears lest they be laughed at. The second method is by utilizing the pupil’s reading, his favorite movie actor, his choice of a radio program as a means to direct him toward a selec¬ tion of that which is worthwhile. By class discussion, by comparison of one book with another, of one program with a better one, we can arouse interest in looking for the good things. Here again, it cannot be forced ; the wise teacher waits for a chance reference which can be turned to account, a reference which originated within the class, and which can be directed to¬ ward a desire of the class to go into the matter further. The commercial subjects offer a valuable field to inculcate ideals of what is ethical in busi¬ ness, of the value of truth and honesty, and dependability. And certainly no more important character traits can be developed than those which originate thru the extracurriculum activities and recreation, those activities which actually create a desire on the part of the pupil to be a good sport, to recog¬ nize the rights of others, to play fair — all of these being necessary if one is to be prepared to “meet adequately the circumstances of life.’’ VITAL NEEDS IN PROGRESSIVE RURAL EDUCATION MRS. NETTIE S. BLAIR, LEBANON, N. Y. The rapidity with which a child progresses from birth to school age de¬ pends upon the freedom that has been given him. The average rural school often discourages this very freedom to grow well. How inconsistent to put a farm child, used to unlimited space at home, into an uncomfortable, screwed down seat in a small uninteresting room with no provision for exercise on inclement days and small area for outdoor play ! Because of their parent’s lack of interest, the rural children are often subjected to inferior guidance, and equipment has been grudgingly supplied and poorly selected. 318 National Education Association In my own school we have tried to provide a homelike room with com¬ fortable chairs and movable desks, and a homelike atmosphere. The girls have used cretonne to curtain off a little library nook with built-in seat. Lattice work, picket fence and swinging gate made by the boys have given another library corner the aspect of a garden with the sign chosen by them, “A Garden of Verse. ” One end of a corridor we made into a shop, equipping it with tools for simple needs; the other end into a small but adequate kitchenette where warm lunches are prepared by boys and girls. The latter usually serve simple foods while the boys make desserts. Last season the boys raised vegetables for the school at their homes, and the girls canned several bushels of tomatoes at school which were used for lunches. Our spacious grounds were acquired thru the activity of the pupils who approached the owner of adjoining land before initiating a reforestation campaign which so interested their parents that they were ready to cooper¬ ate. The objective now is a swimming pool and tennis court. In comparing the old with the new type of school I conclude that the most vital need in progressive education is inclination ; after that, equipment plus ingenuity for carrying it out. THE CHILD-CENTERED SCHOOL MILDRED GOLDBERG, GLASCO, N. Y. A discussion of the child-centered school marks a new era in education. A generation ago when education was considered a matter of training the memory, this subject would not have been broached. Today we no longer accept literally that “history repeats itself” and therefore a knowledge of the past will solve the problems of the future. With the intellectual revolts in all branches of civilization and thought, education too, has not escaped the scathing onslaught of progress. Skepticism, which has entered into all of human thought, has shattered the fixedness and certainty of the future. We realize with Napoleon that “woe is unto the leader who brings a fixed course of action to battle.” Today we realize it is our function to train the mind and not merely the memory. In the attempt to accomplish such an aim, we have begun to place the importance upon the child from his very inception to school. The matter of the child-centered school is a comparatively recent one. It originated in 1896 when John Dewey organized his laboratory school. In this school John Dewey would have the child say not “I know” but “I have experienced ; for the key word of the new education is experience. Perhaps the best description of the new school is expressed in the words “a child’s world in a child’s size environment.” Its educational aim is the all-round growth of the child, but it also has two great goals. These are maximum growth in creative self-expression and tolerant understanding of self and society. Department of Classroom Teachers 319 In speaking of the child-centered school, there must be no misunderstand¬ ing. We do not contemplate a complete severance from the old education. Regardless of what this new school will finally become, it will still, according to Professor Rugg of Columbia University, incorporate all that is best from the old school. The following quotation from Marian M. Miller, editor of the child-training department of the Delineator magazine, best sums the entire idea of progressive education. She says “more and more we are fitting the school to the child, and not trying to fit all children into the same mold.” THE NEED FOR PROGRESSIVE IDEAS IN OUR RURAL SCHOOLS MRS. THELMA L. METZGAR, PRINCIPAL, EMMA WYGANT SCHOOL, EAST KINGSTON, N. Y. Without question our civilization is advancing at a rate that knows no bounds. Each year brings greater wonders to astound and bewilder us. If we are to accept the conclusion that “education is fitting the child for life” then we, as teachers, have the responsibility of fitting him for that life. Are we doing it in our rural schools? Are we presenting the proper stimuli — dis¬ covering each individual’s native abilities or finding that inventive or crea¬ tive spark that may lie dormant and finding it, fanning that spark to a full glowing flame ? I think you will agree that many of our rural schools are still the same good old teacher-centered schools, the same traditional schools of fifty or more years ago with the monotonous “question-answer,” “question-answer” system predominant in all the classes. The development of child initiative is completely ignored ; there is no freedom in class periods for the child to de¬ velop naturally. His inventive and creative abilities are never stimulated, (if ever discovered). Particularly is this true of our small, many graded schools. The teacher has not realized the possibilities of grouping grades. She has been too busy rushing thru her classes — to prepare for those Regents Examinations in January and June. We know full well that our rural schools have long been neglected in more ways than one. For instance, it was once thought unnecessary to give our rural children the equipment that the city child was given. The rural child lived in the country, therefore he did not need other than a purely rural edu¬ cation. Most rural citizens today, however, are realizing that there is no field of purely rural education. It is all general education whether urban or rural localities, .plus the needs of the individual child. The complexity of our civilization today demands that this general education be of the most progressive nature. Recognizing this need, the Rural Education Department of New York State has been endeavoring for some time to give us the things we need. Our syllabi are being revised to adequately provide for progressive teach¬ ing ; considerably more financial aid is given to the rural school by the state ; 320 National Education Association but perhaps the most important endeavor is the courses being offered each summer in our universities and state normal schools where the teachers may study these progressive ideas ; and having studied them, go back to their home schools and put these new methods into practise. The responsibility thrust upon the elementary teacher today has never been greater. How to lit the child of today for his experience of tomorrow, is the great job laid at the door of the schoolroom. The school of tomorrow will, of necessity, be a progressive school, an activity school with the teacher merely a guide. Today our job in the rural schools is to awaken to these facts and to re¬ member as someone has said: “The kind of school will always depend upon the kind of teacher in the classroom.” THE VALUE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE IN EDUCATION VERDA C. HURLEY, MT. RANGE SCHOOL, LAMBERTVILLE, N. J. There has long been a need in one-room rural schools for a better, well- planned seat-work program in the first three grades. In the average one-room school the primary child has comparatively little of the teacher’s direct help in class work. Even after he has completed the seat work given him in reading or arithmetic, he still has from one to two hours for some other activity and it is here that social studies work is most valuable. The helping teachers of New Jersey together with the classroom teachers planned and carried out the social science work. Their plans and the chil¬ dren’s work were compiled and made into a Handbook in Social Studies and Related Activities. The social studies program is divided into three parts. Each year a different unit is taught. Then at the end of the third year the entire units of work are repeated. Section A, or the first year includes: 1. Our own homes 2. Home life in early days in our neighborhood or our country 3. Life of the copper Eskimo 4. Life in a hot moist land 5. Japanese homes 6. Arabian homes 7. Primitive life. Section B, or the second year includes: 1. Local farms 2. Study of milk • 3. Study of bread 4. The early Hebrews The Christmas story Shepherd life 5. Farm life in Holland 6. Switzerland 7. China. Department of Classroom Teachers 321 Section C, or the third year includes: 1. Our community 2. City life 3. Clothing 4. Indian life 5. New Jersey homelands. The first fifteen or twenty minutes of the morning or afternoon should be devoted to social study conferences, because this furnishes work and mate¬ rial for the children thruout the rest of the day. The conference period is used for the organization of the problem for class discussion, for construction and drawing and for English. Sometimes this period grows to be an English class where oral reports and dramatizations are presented by the children. Social studies have caused chil¬ dren to want to express themselves orally and in writing. As the unit de¬ velops special help is needed in various construction or art phases. So often the conference period is an art class. In the early part of the unit much help is needed in learning how to work alone. Such things as selecting proper ma¬ terials or crayons and the use of such materials are necessary, at needed intervals. There are many activities provided for in each unit. A few of them are : a movie, which may consist of pictures with printing or voice to explain each one ; a picture dictionary with the word written under each picture ; a ques¬ tion chart, containing a list of all worthwhile questions asked by the chil¬ dren ; diaries kept by both children and teacher. The values of social science may be summarized by eight important state¬ ments, according to the New Jersey Handbook in Social Studies and Re¬ lated Activities. Social science helps the child to: 1. Know and appreciate the esthetic and practical phase of his own environment 2. Feel the satisfaction of creating, and pride in a product successfully completed 3. Realize his own individual capacity to the fullest 4. Find a joy in books 5. Live comfortably with others, thru learning the art of giving and taking in the right degree 6. Manipulate materials and mental and manual tools with increasing power 7. Gain an increasing interest in and understanding of the lives of others at home and abroad, realize his dependence on and his obligation to others 8. Live actively, not passively, thru noticing and questioning, thru finding and realizing interests, and thru thinking. AN ACTIVITY PROGRAM IN A RURAL SCHOOL MARY B. LIPPINCOTT, MULLICA HILL, N. J. During my training in normal school I studied the kindergarten-primary course, emphasizing the work of the regular grade teacher. However, when I began to teach, I was confronted with the problem of teaching the first four grades in a traditional two-room school. 322 National Education Association After beginning my work I soon found that there were three outstanding problems to be met. First, to provide profitable activity for the group with whom I was not working; second, how to direct the activities of the child who in our state is permitted to enter school at the age of five years; third, how to secure suitable materials at a minimum cost. Providing profitable activity for the group with whom I was not working — In conference with my helping teacher, I found that other teachers were faced with the same situation. Together we attempted to plan a program to integrate not only the various subjects but also the different grades. We based the organization of our units of work on the following objectives: 1. The interests and needs of the child as a basis of all education 2. Emphasis on pupil initiative instead of teacher control 3. Self-controled freedom 4. Creative self-expression. As our program of activities progressed, we kept a careful and accurate record of our plans, samples, and pictures of our illustrative material, and the children’s diaries. This was being done not alone in our school but in many schools thruout the state. As an outcome of three years of such effort and experiences on the part of the children, teachers, supervisors, and help¬ ing teachers in various parts of the state, our Handbook in Social Studies and Related Activities was compiled. It represents the best of the material and technics used during this period. Directing the activities of the child who in our state is permitted to enter school at the age of five years — We have found that when a child enters the public school at five years of age, without kindergarten experience, he is not ready to cope with the traditional requirements of the first grade. W e recog¬ nized the fact that he wishes to investigate, explore, experiment with work and play materials, to talk and to hear others talk, to hear stories and to participate in such activities which will make school experiences a natural transition from home experiences. To meet this need a “program of experi¬ ences for the junior-primary child” is being developed in our county in a manner similar to the development of the Social Studies Handbook in this state. Securing suitable materials at a minimum cost — We have endeavored to develop our units using as little commercial material as possible and to em¬ ploy the things at hand whenever feasible. For instance, the wood in the log cabin was gathered in a nearby woods and the clay was dug by the children themselves. The animals in the circus were made in a preschool period by a group of children whose bus arrived early. The materials used were paper bags, waste paper, homemade paste, and tempora paints. The directions are in the junior-primary booklet. The children also made the house and furni¬ ture in which the three bears lived. Unprinted newspaper and a roll of wrap¬ ping paper meet many of our needs. A quilt was the outcome of an upper Department of Classroom Teachers 323 grades unit in colonial life which was part of the study of the Washington Bicentennial. The children brought the material and old-fashioned quilting frames from home. They pieced the quilt and had the.r quilting party at school. In this way I have been able to meet my problems in a manner which not only contributes to a happy school, but also to the development of a well- directed active school and the beginning of the ability to adjust to any new situation. ARE THE RURAL SCHOOLS KEEPING PACE WITH THE TIMES? MRS. ANNA K. EPSTON, RURAL ROUTE 4, MILLVILLE, N. J. The rural schools of New Jersey, as in most states, range from the one- room to the ten-room consolidated schools. The county superintendent concerns himself mostly with the administrative, statistical, and legal aspects of the schools; while the helping teachers, with their many years of practical teaching experience behind them, are invaluable in assisting and guiding the young teachers to solve the many problems arising in the classroom ; and to inspire the experienced teachers to adopt progressive methods and prevent them from falling into a rut. After considerable teaching experience in a large city system circumstances found me teaching in an eight-room graded school in south Jersey, in a dis¬ trict of small farms owned by industrious workers of Sicilian descent. With very limited equipment and school funds for working out a progressive pro¬ gram, I began to wonder just what could be done. In many homes little or no English is heard or spoken by these children. 4 he average enrolment in my room was forty. From the Haggerty Intelligence Test which we gave, the L Q.’s of these children ranged from 60 to 151 with the normal at 90 to 100. In my grade, the sixth, the physical ages ranged from 11 to 15 this year. In history, the state requires us to cover the periods of history from primi¬ tive man to the colonization of America, enlarging on the Egyptian, Greek, and Roman civilizations, the Middle Ages, and the Renaissance. In geog¬ raphy we are to cover Eurasia, physically and politically, taking each country separately and in detail. In civics we are to emphasize tribal organization which led to world empires, the early hereditary monarchy from ancient Egypt ; the earliest democracy — the Greek city states ; the world empire — ancient Rome ; forms of barbaric government during the Middle Ages ; the national state which arose from the crusades and feudal system ; a general knowledge of the evolutions of governments. After a careful study of the subjects I decided to combine the history, geography, and civics, into a unified course, taking up the historical topics in their regular chronological order and bringing in the geographical facts and civic matters simultaneously. I sought to foster the growth of my chil¬ dren by allowing them the greatest amount of latitude in our school activities. 324 National Education Association A number of modes of expression were open to them, such as clay modeling, wood carving, carpentry, drawing, painting. I was ever alert to find that spark of talent which could be coaxed into an active interest in the child’s general academic school work. Mainly did I seek for these qualities in the dull or below normal group. The very bright, above normal group soon found their textbooks too limited a field for research. They are the children who make most use of the reference library. With the above normal and below normal groups taken care of, the children of average mentality are left unhampered to carry out the assignments made. Some of you wonder how the study of arithmetic may work in with this form of free classroom activity. We organized a department store and book¬ keeping department in connection with a bank. In this way we were able to cover much of the sixth-year arithmetic which includes a knowledge of per¬ centage, finding discounts, getting interest, banking, keeping personal ac¬ counts, and balancing bank accounts. The class carpenters found where they could get a supply of used lumber. Frank, a boy of 15, with an I.Q. of 78, managed the building. He suggested and brought from home wallpaper to cover the rough boards. Old catalogs were brought in, pictures of clothing, shoes, and furniture cut out and attractively arranged and pasted on sheets of unprinted newspaper. These were posted in the store, keeping the depart¬ ments separate, as children’s clothing, men’s clothing, etc. Ours was a real store except for the delivery of goods. So practical was this project that Sam would have been scoffed at if he should have purchased one dozen pairs of overalls or one ounce of sugar. Thru the store this sixth-year group have acquired knowledge and experience of the fundamentals prescribed. There is no fun looking for an error in an addition problem, but the thrill when everything checks, when the store accounts balance with the bank statement, is a thrill which is not lessened as the days of eager, thoro work go on. With the limited facilities and funds available we have found visual edu¬ cation of valuable assistance in helping the children formulate a truer mental picture of the many peoples, their mode of dress, types of homes, and the characteristics peculiar to their occupations and countries which we were studying. In general anything which stimulates the interest of the pupils increases the receptivity of the pupils’ minds as well as improves the morale of the entire room. But more than all of these we are preparing the boys and girls to think and work out their own problems, which will allow them to utilize to the best advantage the freedom they will have in adult life. SALVAGING FOR CITIZENSHIP VERA BAILEY, TEACHER OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS, WEBSTER OPPORTUNITY SCHOOL, KANSAS CITY, MO. There are many classes of people who need salvaging: the murderer, the kidnaper, the gangster, the racketeer, the crooked politician, and above all the indifferent public who makes it possible for these outlaws to operate. Department of Classroom Teachers 325 I could not begin to tell how to save these from their life of crime, but I do believe that the real cause of their condition is love of ease, luxury, and display, and the lack of proper incentive and training for a life of usefulness. My task is to salvage the feebleminded boys who are damaged by birth, environment, or training and teach them how to work with their hands and earn an honest living. Our school is composed of pupils from the regular schools whose I. Q.’s range from 60 to 80 and who have been failures for several years, hence they should be given every encouragement possible thru individual teaching, industrial training, and above all a belief on the part of their teachers that they can be salvaged. I find that I get just about what I expect from my pupils. They rise to the occasion and work under pressure when necessary. We received an order for nine dozen radiator brushes just five days before the close of school. The boys wanted to take the order so they would have their 10 percent commission for graduation. Ten boys working an hour a day sandpapered, shellacked, steel wooled, waxed, and drew the nine dozen brushes in three days by re¬ maining after school but one hour the first day. Feebleminded children should be encouraged by liberal praise. No task is so poorly done but that some small part can be commended. A little praise is the anesthetic that takes the pain out of criticism. I have been checking up on the boys who have been out of school five years or more. I find that they are not pulling levers to trip machines as all the books tell us is the only thing that they will be able to do, but they are engaged in some sort of work that does require a variety of operations«and some initiative. Out of fifty boys only four have been in any sort of penal institution and thirty have had more or less steady jobs most of the time. They are engaged in truck driving, shoe repairing, chair repairing, brush making, janitor work, carpentering, lawn service, lunchrooms, mattress fac¬ tories and one outstanding young man is in the city fire department and is captain of the democratic precinct in which he lives. If we are to look forward in the education of the feebleminded, let’s pro¬ vide some place where these children can work from the time they come out of school at sixteen until they are twenty-one years of age, where they will not have to compete with the child of average intelligence, and will be kept away from the racketeers. A boy of sixteen who may have the mind of a child of nine becomes easy prey for the crook. AUDITORIUM VALUES IN CHARACTER BUILDING BEULAH B. TATMAN, ASHLAND SCHOOL, KANSAS CITY, MO. “Today the prevailing opinion of educators and laymen is that the develop¬ ment of righteous character is the greatest problem in life. This is the task not only of the school, but also of the home, the church, and society in gen¬ eral. ‘Good character is caught rather than taught.’ This makes it evident 326 National Education Association that the success of any program of character training in school depends upon the atmosphere of the schoolroom. The spirit of the schoolroom is deter¬ mined by the attitude and the ideals of the principal and of the teacher. Life, not teaching ; conduct, not profession ; action, not words determine the value of the work of the teacher. Everywhere character training is at the forefront in education.”1 In the better schools of today, the child is instructed in moral education, and is also given opportunity for expression and practise. It is desirable that every school have a definite character-building program. I shall attempt to tell you of but one such program and that is in the school where I have the pleasure of teaching. It is a platoon school, every department of which has its opportunity for the molding of character, but the auditorium is the coordinating and socializ¬ ing center of the school. The aims of our auditorium programs are: First, to inculcate in the child those habits, attitudes, and ideals essential to good citizenship ; second, to furnish opportunities and situations for the exercise and development of good citizenship for which the usual classroom does not provide; third, to unify and coordinate all of the efforts which the school is making along socializing lines. The program of our auditorium is an elastic one, subject to change to meet the need of the day, but in general it is something like this: Citizenship , Day is on Monday. This time is devoted to direct moral instruction. At the first of the year, we make a study of the “habits and attitudes desirable for good citizenship” which are listed on'the report card. T« the children, Monday is the day we have our talks, for the lessons are usually carried on thru discussions, with now and then a poem or story for illustration. Sometimes topics are assigned previously, sometimes they are asked to talk without preparation, and again are asked to choose their own subject. Tuesday is the day when we attempt to get better acquainted with truly fine music and art. I History in the making or what the world is doing today, usually called current events, occupies our time on Wednesday. Our aim is “to know what is happening in the world today which is making it grow .bigger and better.” Dramatization is one of the favorite activities, and Thursday is given over to that. Our dramatizations vary. The original ones, usually written in the homerooms, are the ones most effective in teaching good citizenship. Others are selected as bear¬ ing on some particular topic, or for presentation at assembly or for public enter¬ tainment. The participants in these dramatizations are chosen by pupils and teacher, always keeping in mind that each one must have his turn some time in some capacity. The pageant has been found to be an excellent form to use. It portrays some worthy movement of yesterday or today; it gives opportunity to weave in music, dancing, and poetry; it allows a large number of participants. Club day, on Friday, is the best day of all according to the pupils’ estimate. “Teacher” is a welcome councilor and guide and is appealed to in time of need, but when that emergency is met, she again becomes a member. 1 Kansas City, Mo. Department of Education. “Character Building: Principles and Suggested Procedures.” Kansas City School Service Bulletin. Vol. I, No. 2: the Department. April 1929. p. 5. Department of Classroom Teachers 327 The programs are given by different groups, each group responsible for a program once a month. It is amazing how industriously most of them work to present a creditable program. The pupils are put largely upon their own responsibility, the teacher acting as a councilor and guide. We feel that initia¬ tive, ingenuity, originality, and resourcefulness have been developed in re¬ sponse to situations natural in auditorium activities, and that there is a greater ability to work together harmoniously, all of which tends to greater social efficiency. THE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY OF SUB-NORMAL CHIL¬ DREN IN DEVELOPMENT ROOMS MRS. KATHLEEN H. STEVENS, PRESIDENT, LOS ANGELES CITY TEACHERS CLUB, LOS ANGELES, CALIF. After several years of experimentation in which sub-normal children were segregated into special development classes in our regular elementary schools, a very satisfactory plan for the education of these children has been worked out in Los Angeles. This plan, which has been in operation for a number of years, calls for complete segregation of all definitely sub-normal children over eight years of age into development centers where children with I. Q.’s ranging from 70 down to 50 are enroled. The Board of Education maintains twelve development schools or centers for the education of sub-normal chil¬ dren. Nine of these centers are especially designed and equipped for the special type of education which is provided for these children. Three of these centers function as separate development units but are attached to regular elementary schools. There is one center which is different from all of the others inasmuch as it does not admit children who are under fourteen years of age. This school was established to take care of the children who are too old to profit further by the work in the elementary schools and who are at the same time too low grade mentally to be eligible for admission on a special certificate to the junior high schools. It was observed that when a sub-normal child was enroled in the regular classes, he was forced to compete with his intellectual superiors and therefore he labored under a serious disadvantage. He became discouraged; he was singled out; his disabilities were accentuated. Serious complexes arose, and inhibitions developed until in many instances the sub-normal child became a serious behavior problem. It is therefore to the best interest of the normal child as well as the sub-normal child that the latter should be taken care of in special rooms or schools. In the development school where individual differences are not so great we find the sub-normal child competing with his equals. A flexible course of study and program adapted to the needs of each child is set up ; leadership is encour¬ aged and developed; the child becomes socially adjusted; a minimum of 328 National Education Association academic training is required ; and opportunity for the development of definite manual skills is provided. Generally speaking the objectives in the education of sub-normal children may be outlined as follows: (a) To remove all remediable physical defects and to develop to the maximum the physical wellbeing of the children (b) To develop desirable and healthful habits of living (c) To assist the children to make the best possible social adjustment (d) To give the children those fundamentals of an academic education which they may be called upon to use in life (e) To develop a fund of useful, workable information which shall be definitely related to the child experience (f) To equip the child, if possible, with some specific skills of vocational or pre- vocational type (g) To prepare each child to become at least partially self-supporting when he leaves school (h) To provide simple and wholesome activities for leisure time (i) To attempt to raise the standards of cleanliness, health, beauty, and harmony in the home, thru the child’s influence in the home. If this type of school offers the child who is sick in mind, an education that will enable him to become partially economically independent, if he is permitted to grow up in an environment in which he is not set apart or looked upon with pity or ridicule ; if he is allowed to take his place in a school which provides for him a chance to work and play with those who are his equals, we will have to acknowledge that the development schools as we are trying to carry them on in Los Angeles are meeting their social responsi¬ bility toward the sub-normal child. MENTAL HYGIENE IN THE CLASSROOM CAROLINE B. ZACHRY, DIRECTOR, MENTAL HYGIENE INSTITUTE, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, UPPER MONTCLAIR, N. J. Do we have mental hygiene in America f — On the whole the answer is “no.” Even where we have visiting teachers in schools to take care of the problem cases, we cannot in the truest sense call this mental hygiene. The very fact that the child has been referred implies that something is wrong, and social psychiatry is a more accurate term for the treatment of problems referred. There is one place, however, where we may truly have mental hygiene, and that is in the progressive classroom. A few principles underlying both progressive education and mental hygiene are present in these classrooms. 1. The children are working for a common purpose which in itself tends to integrate the personality. 2. Conduct is not prescribed but determined, as in life, by the necessity of the situation. 3. Values are not deferred. The child values his activity because it meets his own needs. Department of Classroom Teachers 329 4. Every child can have some feeling of success. The progressive school provides creative activity at all levels. 5. Social security may he provided for all children in the informal setting of the progressive classroom. 6. The aim of the teacher is to help the child to gain ability to face life realities. The progressive classroom is a life situation. From the foregoing we can conclude that progressive education and mental hygiene are both working for the well-rounded mature adult. On what does the success of this endeavor fundamentally depend? Its success does not de¬ pend on the method, subjectmatter, or the equipment, but on the maturity of the teacher who is in charge of the situation. Is it for maturity that the superintendent and principal are looking when they engage a teacher, or are they more concerned with her scholastic standing and the fact that she can follow directions without questioning? In other words, are they seeking a mature adult in the teacher they hire, or a cog in the wheel ? What are some of the questions that we should ask in regard to the teacher that we are select¬ ing to deal with the children of this country? 1. Does the teacher face life squarely? Academic life too often offers an escape from reality. A teaching position makes it possible for her to maintain her defenses. Progressive education offers no retreat for a dependant girl who is seeking security in tenure of office and a paternal principal. Progressive education does offer opportunities for an intelligent and emotionally free individual to accept responsi¬ bilities and use initiative. 2. Does the teacher have definite purposes? Is she drifting or does she have a philosophy of life? Is she having an opportunity for integration thru her pur¬ poses? Can she respect her own personality and have an opportunity to grow? We should remember that the teacher needs a sense of success in creative endeavor thru tasks that to her seem worthwhile — a plan and freedom to carry it out, as Burnham suggests. Thus she does not need to get her ego satisfaction thru dominat¬ ing children. 3. Has the teacher made a successful social adjustment? Part of the work of the progressive teacher is the social adjustment of her pupils. She can guide them only as far as she herself has gone. 4. Is the teacher an integrated person? Is she teaching because it is her life pur¬ pose or merely to make a living? Administrators and teachers must bear in mind that personality can be developed, and that the development of personality on the part of the teacher is as important as her health. When we have classrooms and teachers such as we have discussed, we will truly have mental hygiene in America. FACTORS OUTSIDE THE CLASSROOM WHICH AFFECT THE CHILD’S SUCCESS IN SCHOOL NORA WAY, VISITING TEACHER, HAMILTON SCHOOL, SUMMIT, N. J. What are the hidden factors which cause school difficulties — failures to adjust to school procedure or to progress with scholastic success? For too long we have treated symptoms, and only occasionally have we searched for the causes of difficulty. 330 National Education Association In the matter of human relationships, the tendency is to disregard the “disease” or difficulty, or behavior pattern until the condition is acute. To those who see how serious a situation can develop over a period of years, it seems tragic that the possibilities of prevention are neglected. Certain fundamental needs of human nature need to be considered. On the one hand, affection in the home, which makes for security, the feeling that one is wanted and that one “belongs” ; on the other hand, achievement, the feeling that one is somebody, the sense of wellbeing. Unfortunately, numbers of children faced with problems which are interfering with normal satisfactions turn to destructive methods of satisfying these needs. A threat of loss of prestige, it is sometimes said, is to us today what the threat of personal safety was to primitive man. The visiting teacher is always glad to discuss situations with the teacher and to make a study of the child’s environment to discover what is impeding his development. Factors in the home situation are illustrated by case studies. Other factors outside the classroom are conditions existing in the community which hamper the child’s character development. Further factors exist in the pressure exerted upon teachers which in turn affects the child. Adjustment between the individual and the environment should be the aim of education in the belief that intellectual growth will then proceed naturally. THE COMMUNITY LOOKS AT THE SCHOOL RHEA KAY BOARDMAN, SUPERVISOR OF STUDENTS IN TRAINING FOR VISITING TEACHER WORK, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, NEW YORK UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. More and more the eyes of the community are turned toward the school for help. During the past winter, food, clothing, and medical care have been freely dispensed. This demand has been met not only by the donations of funds by the school staff, but extra time has been necessary to supervise the distribution of these services. The closing of this school year has not ended this service and, if the prophecy of authorities is correct, next winter will find the school increasingly involved in this type of amelioration. Children come to school harassed by the conflicts within the home. There is barely enough in the family budget to make ends meet with the father unemployed. Perhaps the mother has taken up the burden to earn in a woman’s way and is trying to keep the family together. Perhaps there is no one working at all and the family have had to appeal to the community for aid. We cannot minimize what these experiences do to a family group which has previously been self-supporting. There were children in New York City last winter who disliked to go home after school because the school building was the only warm place they knew except the movies and lack of money forbade ad¬ mission to the latter. Department of Classroom Teachers 331 The statistics of the Children’s Bureau state that malnutrition increased in one health center in New York City in 1928 from 18 percent to 60 percent. A statewide survey in Pennsylvania shows an increase of from 10 percent to 15 percent. We cannot estimate what this will mean to the school when we consider the “whole child.” Undoubtedly there will be fewer promotions and the teacher will feel that her energies are wasted, especially if she con¬ siders academic progress as her measure of success. In one school system a large number of boys and girls over eighteen have applied for readmission to the school. They secured their working papers several years ago when work was plentiful and now, finding themselves with¬ out employment, ask to be readmitted to the junior high school. In some cases they were allowed to return and the teacher found herself with a very different distribution of ages than she had ever taught in one class. These older boys and girls are returning to us for further training. Will we see thru the maze of irritations and annoyances and help them by being friendly, understanding advisers? Perhaps they will be more ready than ever before to accept our advice and plan with us. Do we understand the social background of our pupils? Do we realize that social adjustment involves two parties — the child and the society to which he must adjust ? It has been said that no society is too illiterate to have a culture of its own. We can never hope to give our students the assistance they need without knowing what they are adjusting to outside of the class¬ room. Dr. John Levy, professor of Columbia University, states: “Children of similar physical and mental constitutions develop different degrees of disturbance as a result of the specific society in which they happen to be born.” Clifford Shaw has pointed out that it is more normal for a child in a “gang” in Chicago to have a court experience than not. Home visiting under right conditions brings one in touch with the parents and is most enlightening. One may get a fairly good idea of the school with¬ out ever entering the door of the building, by listening to the reports of the parents and children concerning their school. Do you encourage these mothers to visit schools? Perhaps they cannot understand our language but they can understand the friendliness of a hand¬ shake and a smile. They will become our most ardent supporters if they can see what we are doing in our classrooms. The problem of the foreign-born would be greatly lessened if the parents felt free to visit us and to talk to the child intelligently when he brings home reports about the teacher. You may ask, “When would we ever have time to teach if we did all of this?” My answer is that there are many principals and teachers who are doing this and they are not the ones who leave work undone. To follow out this program one must have a “social attitude,” a constructive, intellectual, social curiosity, and a desire to help. Such a teacher will have more school visitors, more boys and girls who stay voluntarily after school for help, but she will also have less behavior problems to settle. It is the latter that saps our vitality and makes us old beyond our years. 332 National Education Association Social agencies, churches, parents, and children realize that the school is a strategic factor in this inevitable readjustment of national forces. School buildings are increasingly to become community centers where topics of gen¬ eral importance may be discussed, where neighborhood projects may be planned and carried out. Naturally the principals and teachers will play a large part in this socialized program. Physicians, nurses, psychiatrists, psychologists, and social workers in general frankly admit that the school faculty is indispensable in the successful treatment of unadjustment and effective coordination of social interests. It often takes an emergency to break down social and educational barriers. If this crisis brings about a better working relationship between the community and the school, if it throws the emphasis of education upon socialization in its broader sense, then the school of the future will assume its proper place as a functioning, far-sighted social institution in the community. SECRETARY’S MINUTES Atlantic City, New Jersey Third Session, Thursday Afternoon, June 30, 1932 The annual business meeting was called to order at 2:25 p.m. by the president, Sara H. Fahey, in Committee Room 12 of the Auditorium. The first order of business was the report of the committee on amendments to the constitution which was presented by the chairman, Winifred Matthews of Chicago. The object sought thru each amendment was made clear by the president. The amend¬ ments were all adopted after the amendment relating to membership was modified so as to include retired teachers receiving remuneration from other fields of endeavor. After announcing that the reports of officers covering field work and other activities had been given at the Tuesday afternoon session, and that these reports together with that of the president, as well as her requests for the annual budget, were to be found in full in the Seventh Y earhook, President Fahey presented the part of her report containing her recommendations to the Department. The need of each recom¬ mendation was stated, and after discussion, all the recommendations were approved. In order to realize certain recommendations the following motions were passed: 1. That the practise of publishing a list of speakers recommended by classroom teacher organizations such as was published in the Second Yearbook be revived. 2. That the term “Advisory Council” found in the constitution but which has become meaningless be interpreted to mean that one member from each of the State Classroom Teachers Departments constitute the Council. 3. That in addition to the present Department budget, an amount be appropriated sufficient to cover any loss in salary suffered by the officers in carrying on field work. 4. That the outgoing president be authorized to appoint a committee of five mem¬ bers to study the feasibility of her recommendations. The next item of business was the nomination and election of officers. The nomi¬ nations for president were as follows: Mrs. F. Blanche Preble of Chicago, Ill., nominated by Lulu Mock, Texas, and seconded by Howard Hanna, Calif., Miss Gilligan, Ill., Mary O’Connor, Conn., and Frances Jellinek, Wis. ; and Florence Dickinson, Haddonfield, N. J., nominated by Elizabeth Donnell, N. J., and seconded by Eleanor Rowlett, Va. Miss Dickinson withdrew her name and upon her motion, unanimously carried, the secretary cast one ballot for Mrs. Preble. Albert Shaw, Los Angeles, Calif., was nominated for vicepresident by Viola Kelly, Calif., and seconded by Irene Moffat and Mrs. Kathleen Stevens, Calif., Rena Rockwell, N. Y., and Vida Hammond, Ore. For secretary, Eugenie J. Brown, Cleveland, Ohio, who served in this capacity during the past year, was nominated by Vida Hammond, and Department of Classroom Teachers 333 seconded by Lindley M. Thomas and Clayton Howe, Ohio, and Albert Shaw, Calif. As there were no competing candidates for these offices, the secretary was instructed to cast one ballot for each of the candidates. For the office of regional director for the middle section, the following nominations were made: Mrs. Myrtle Hooper Dahl, Minneapolis, Minn., nominated by Donna Mary McDonald, Minn., and seconded by Josephine Wilson, Texas, Emily 1 arbell, N. Y., Mrs. Phoebe Matthews, Mass., and Jennie Steinmetz, Casper C. Minty, and Mrs. Alice F. Sullivan, Minn.; and Mary Ralls, Kansas City, Mo., who served as vicepresident during the past year, was nominated by Beulah Tatman, Mo., and seconded by Alice Bovard and Matilda Winkelman, Mo., Mrs. Ethel Faust, Ill., Lee A. Dugdale, Colo., Mrs. Kathleen Stevens, Calif., and Frieda Libbee, Wash. The election returns gave 87 votes to Miss Ralls and 83 votes to Mrs. Dahl. Miss Ralls was declared duly elected. The president then called on Mrs. Dahl, chairman of the resolutions committee, to give her report. After slightly enlarging the meaning of the last resolution, the resolutions were unanimously adopted. The following resolution offered by Howard Hanna of Los Angeles was unani¬ mously adopted : Whereas, a large increase in N. E. A. membership is needed for the support of education; and whereas this increase must come largely from interested class¬ room teachers ; therefore be it Resolved, That it is desirable to have a fair proportion of classroom teachers appointed to preside at sections of General Sessions of the N. E. A. held during the morning as well as in the afternoons, and that the Department of Classroom Teachers should be consulted with regard to such appointments of presiding officers; and be it further Resolved, That The Journal of the National Education Association be re¬ quested to publish these resolutions. Mr. Hanna offered another resolution pertaining to more equable methods of taxation ; but, as it was too long and detailed for hasty consideration, upon motion of Frances Harden, it was referred to the Department for consideration and study thruout the year. The meeting adjourned at five oclock. Annual Banquet The annual banquet of the Department was held at Westminster Hall, Hotel Chelsea, at 6:00 p.m. Thursday, June 30. Sara H. Fahey of New York City, presided. The banquet took the form of a colonial dinner. One hundred twenty-five hostesses representing teacher organizations from all parts of the country welcomed the guests. They were dressed in costumes of the Washington period. Nearly eight hundred guests listened to the state commissioner of New Jersey, the president of the Depart¬ ment of Superintendence, and several other noted educators, who were included among the honor guests. The Crescendo Chorus of Atlantic City, students of the school of dancing of Temple University, and the community singing of oldtime songs by the audience with the Chelsea orchestra helped to make this event one long to be remembered. Report of the Committee on the Constitution The following changes and amendments to the constitution were proposed and adopted at the business meeting of the Department at Atlantic City, Thursday afternoon, June 30: Article II — Objects and purposes Amend by adding a section as follows: Section 3. To cooperate with parent-teacher associations and other civic bodies having educational objectives, in order to secure better community understand¬ ing and appreciation of the problems and the value of the public schools. 334 National Education Association Article III — Membership Members of the National Education Association who are employed as class¬ room teachers and all members of classroom teacher organizations acting as officers or agents of such organizations, whether employed as teachers or not, shall be eligible to membership in this Department, provided that no person shall be eligible to membership herein unless such person shall be a member of the National Education Association. Amend by inserting after the word “not” in the third line: — and retired classroom teachers. Article IV — Officers and Duties It shall be the special duty of the president of the Department to prepare a program for the annual meeting of the Department by and with the advice and consent of the Executive Committee and Advisory Council. Amend by adding the words: On the expiration of his term of office as president he shall automatically become a member of the Executive Committee for the ensuing year. Article V , Section 1 — Election The president, the vicepresident, the secretary, and the three members of the Department, to be called regional directors, who shall represent three different sections of the country, to be elected in the manner hereinafter provided, shall constitute the Executive Committee. Amend by inserting after the word secretary in the first line: — retiring president. Article VI, Section 1 — Purposes of Conferences Former members of the executive committee may be authorized to conduct conferences in their respective localities by the executive committee. Amend to read: Former members of the executive committee, who are members of the Depart¬ ment, may be authorized by the executive committee to conduct conferences and perform other services for the Department. Winifred Matthews, Chicago, Ill. Chairman Report of the Resolutions Committee . Higher education — We endorse higher requirements for certification of teachers in order to raise the professional status of classroom teachers and to improve the teaching service. II. Tenure We favor a sound tenure law which protects competent teachers from injustice and provides permanent tenure following a probationary period. III. Rating— We recommend scientific, constructive methods of teacher rating but are opposed to such rating as a basis for salary scheduling. IV. Professional improvement — We urge greater freedom in the selection of work done for professional improvement and at the same time no curtailment of the broadening influence of a wide educational training. V. Professional spirit— We urge greater participation by teachers in all teacher organizations, local, state, and national, and constructive participation in com¬ munity affairs and civic service. In order that the Classroom Department may do more in the future than it has in the past to promote this professional spirit, we recommend that the president ap¬ point a committee with the approval of the Executive Committee, to be known as the Committee on Academic Freedom for Classroom Teachers. VI. Salary schedule — We approve of the principle of equal salary recognition for equal service, training, experience, and responsibility. VII. Salary retention— We believe that the economic welfare of this nation depends upon maintaining a superior standard of living; and we, therefore, urge that every effort be made to prevent the lowering of salaries and the maintaining of the schedule. Department of Classroom Teachers 335 VIII. Teacher participation — We favor the plan of teacher participation in which the expert knowledge and experience of all classroom teachers are utilized for the improvement of the schools. IX. Retirement — We endorse legislation providing for reasonable and financially sound retirement laws in which the state participates with the teachers. X. Sabbatical leave— We believe that the best interests of the pupils in our public schools will be served by granting teachers a leave periodically for study and travel. XI. Cumulative sick leave — We approve of a sick leave of sufficient length that the health of the teacher and the welfare of the pupil are conserved. XII. Welfare work — We urge all teacher organizations to continue the welfare work both for the teachers in service and for those in service who thru sickness or other ill fortune are in need of assistance. XIII. Credit union — We favor the establishment of credit unions when the need arises to protect the teachers from exorbitant rates of interest and to be mutually helpful. XIV. Teacher integrity — We affirm our faith in the professional integrity of classroom teachers. We believe that classroom teachers have a right to professional identity independent of the personal approval of supervisor or principal. Under such conditions only, we believe, will teaching be truly a profession. XV. Teacher load — We urge that every effort be made to present to boards of education and other educational authorities the futility of increasing teacher load, as an intelligent, practical, or farsighted means of retrenchment in educational expenditures. XVI. Teacher training — We believe that somewhere in the teacher-training pro¬ gram proper instruction dealing with relationships of teachers to teacher organiza¬ tions, local, state, and national, should be provided in order that all teachers should have a common interest centered in the profession to which they belong. We also believe that with this there should be further effective training in the ethics of the profession which tend to develop character standards for prospective teachers. XVII. Child labor — Because of our firm belief in equal educational opportunity for all. we favor an amendment to the Federal Constitution which will permit the enactment of a national child labor law. XVIII. Illiteracy — We recommend that the classroom teachers continue to support the campaign for the removal of illiteracy until every adult possesses the equiva¬ lent of a grammar school education. XIX. Character education — We urge that in all classroom activities fundamentals of character development be emphasized. XX. World friendship — We commend the activities of the World Federation of Education Associations and heartily endorse its program for world friendships and understandings. XXI. Professional qualifications — We deplore the current agitation for discrim¬ ination against the married woman teacher. We contend that women have the same right to a professional life, unpenalized by personal sacrifice, as men; we contend that professional fitness only should be the determining factor in the appointment of teachers. XXII. Public support — We ask the continued cooperation of civic organizations, editorial agencies, and radio in the interpretation of presentday educational policies and problems to the public. XXIII. Appreciation of local hospitality — We wish to express our heartiest ap¬ preciation to the teachers and administrative officers of Atlantic City’s public schools, and of the state of New Jersey, including the country communities, whose efforts have contributed so greatly to our comfort and our pleasure during this successful convention. Respectfully submitted, Mrs. Myrtle Hooper Dahl, Minneapolis, Minn., Chairman. ■ ’■ ' ■■ .1 II, : . \ nivxl 6 ' ' ,\l ’• • ff > ■ ■ ' ?| / / N Department of Deans of Women The department of deans of women (National Association of Deans of Women) associated it¬ self with the National Education Association in 1918. Its meeting is first reported in Proceedings , 1918: 391-417. The officers of the Department for the year 1932-33 are : Acting President and First Vicepresident, Agnes Ellen Harris, Dean of Women, University of Ala¬ bama, Tuscaloosa, Ala.; Second Vicepresident, Thyrsa W. Amos, Dean of Women, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa.; Secretary, Sara Norris, Dean of Women, State Teachers College, Mankato, Minn.; Treasurer, Mrs. Mary F. Pilcher, Dean of Girls, Montclair High School, Montclair, N. J. ; Head¬ quarters Secretary, Gwladys W. Jones, 1201 Six¬ teenth Street, Washington, D. C. Facts relating to the establishment of this Depart¬ ment and records of its meetings will be found in earlier Proceedings, as follows : 1919:393-426 1920:357-364 1921 :407-420 1922:693-793 1923 :621-636 1924:500-536 1925 :403-449 1926:423-457 1927:391-418 1928:353-374 1929:369-390 1930:309-330 1931 :393-413 [ 338 ] 1 ADVICE TO ADVISERS ON MEETING THE REQUIREMENTS OF OUR CHANGING ORDER MARY B. GILSON, DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL. John Dewey, in that trenchant and stirring book, Human Nature and Conduct , effectively develops the idea of a deliberate shaping of societal pur¬ poses and desires thru education. “A truly humane education,” he says, “con¬ sists in an intelligent direction of native activities in the light of the possi¬ bilities and necessities of the social situation.” He then protests against our instilling socalled “moral” habits with a “maximum of emotional empress- ment” and “a minimum of understanding.” In morals, religion, and politics, just where critical thought is most needed, we encumber the young with blindly accepted habits of thought which, in later years, survive as infantil- isms, thus accounting for the irrational mental gymnastics, inaccurately termed thinking, in the performance of which many of our adults are so agile. This regenerating of society thru releasing youth from the paralyzing impact of adults is a tremendous responsibility, and those of us who are in the field of the social sciences must, because of the subjectmatter with which we deal, be particularly aware of this. However, we may assume that even in this leaping and bounding age there is something to be gained from the experience of others; and, if we modestly accept that theory, perhaps we oldsters can help the youngsters to acquire knowledge, and perhaps in our bolder moments, we may even offer them advice. Perhaps we may even offer advice to ourselves, the advisers. We sometimes speak of the changing order as tho none but the present order had ever been in flux. This may be excusable because of the great complexity of our present social and economic society ; it surely seems as tho there are more fundamental and far-reaching ferments at work than ever before. For example, we are learning to regard government as an energizing and socially constructive agency instead of a mere police force. Ferments are at work even in the medical and legal professions, surely an evidence that our order is changing! The newly elected president of the American College of Surgeons recently referred to “the supposedly sacrosanct code of ethics” and the newly appointed judge of the Supreme Court, Judge Cardozo, holds that laws must conform with a changing civilization, with the needs defined by the evolution of public purpose. But in spite of some of these changes in basic concepts, our social order is not changing rapidly enough. Technological advances are sweeping us into a veritable maelstrom. We have not learned how to control and direct wisely the creatures of our mechanically inclined brains. That explains the presence of incredibly antiquated social and eco¬ nomic ideas and institutions in the midst of whirling airplanes, radios that bring messages from overseas into our homes, electrical inventions that suc¬ ceed each other with breath-taking swiftness. [ 339 ] 340 National Education Association It would be interesting to trace our cultural lags in ideas which relate to the social order as, for example, the proper place and conduct of the poor and the proper place and conduct of women. In the eighteenth century when many otherwise respectable citizens regarded the proletariat as a necessary quasi-slave basis of society, a prolific writer named Temple said that chil¬ dren of the poor at the age of five or six should be put to work in order that they learn “not to condemn the drudgery for which they were born.” Malthus said poverty and suffering were God’s way of strengthening char¬ acter. Many references may be found in the literature of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries to the necessity of long hours in order to keep workers out of mischief and from indulging what one writer called “their natural propensities for idleness.” A working day of fourteen or sixteen hours was considered a safeguard for their moral welfare. Only a year or two ago the president of a large employers’ organization said the five-day week was con¬ trary to the tenets of the Bible, that in Genesis we read God’s command, “Six days shalt thou labor.” Our ideas on the subject of thrift, too, are under¬ going revision. To be sure we have heard smug, comfortable well-off people say during this present period of depression that people (meaning others than themselves and usually meaning workers) had been living too well and needed to be deflated. One wishes people who hold such views couM know from per¬ sonal experience what it means to live at the margin, what it means to have no financial security, to be trembling on the brink of poverty if not in its abyss. One does not cultivate thrift when the foundations of one’s life have rocked since birth. Why save if an earthquake may swallow you tomorrow ? Perhaps we shall find that those whom we criticized for buying cars and radios and silk stockings were wiser than those of us who put money in banks that failed or bought bonds and stocks that left us flat. In as uncertain a world as that in which we are now living we surely cannot preach the old sermons on thrift without keeping our tongues in our cheeks. A Ford in the hand may prove to be better than many dollars in the bank if we tumble off the gold standard ! But how many hang-overs from the past relate to women ; and how great is the need of a revolutionary change of viewpoint here ! Zangwill once said that the superior attitude of men toward women was not half so harmful to the women as it was to themselves. When men and women recognize this self-evident fact that dominance rots character the lag in our culture will not be so ominous. It has been acknowledged by many social scientists that one test of a civilization is its attitude toward woman. There will be no possibility of our social structure avoiding the avalanche which technological advance is threatening unless we take thought, deep and vigorous thought, and action, even more deep and vigorous, concerning many fundamental problems affect¬ ing women : problems such as birth control and equality of opportunity of men and women. We have not taken enough initiative in examining these and many other problems affecting us. We have left too many of these things to what someone aptly termed years ago the professional understandei , the man who knows all about women. Department of Deans of Women 341 But just what does all this have to do with advising girls? A vast deal, because advice implies the adviser’s keen awareness of the needs and lags of the changing order and the terrible consequences which await us unless we can awaken conscious effort of young persons to face these needs and lags with their eyes open and their feet on the ground. The social sciences furnish the groundwork of knowledge of our social order. Are girls interested in them? The New Plan at the University of Chicago, as conceived, was not to involve any examinations until the end of the year. But the students, conditioned by their high-school practises, asked for a preliminary examination at the end of the first quarter, not for deter¬ mining grades, but for the purpose of testing themselves. The examination was given and the results were as follows : Four hundred and nineteen students took the examination in the social sciences. Of the highest twenty-eight students in this group twenty-two were boys and only six were girls. Of the lowest twenty-eight students ten were boys and eighteen were girls. Unfortunately I am unable to find extenuating circumstances in the oft-repeated but unproven theory that girls are more nervous than boys when undergoing the tortures of an examination, because the term work of the girls, by and large, has been inferior to that of the boys, also by and large. One thing which has impressed me is that the boys are responding to the uprooting of their cherished ideas and opinions with far more signs of life than the girls. Perhaps the girls are playing the role of conserving instead of casting aside worn-out dogmas and traditions. But I hardly think it is this for the papers they write indicate some changes in viewpoint. Their coy, demure silence in class, with a few notable exceptions, flabbergasts me! Is this due to the presence of the male of the species? I have no way of comparing the articulateness of girls in a coeducational institution with that in a woman’s college because I have not attended a woman’s col¬ lege since the mauve decade and our changing order has done some tall changing to the mores since then. So I must just observe in unscientific fashion without any comparable data of any description that very few girls in the freshman class at the university with which I am connected lift their voices in class discussion. The boys (always, of course, with exceptions here, too) are, on the contrary, on their toes evidencing interest in the opinions of their fellow students and eager to voice their own. I have asked some of the girl students why they do not enter into class discussion and they usually say, “Because the boys seem to know so much more about economics and politics.” But I believe the majority of the girls have less interest in the social sciences than the boys have for the same reason that they are less interested in machinery. What are the reasons? Well, in the first place, girls are steered away from these interests from babyhood because they are popularly considered the inheritances and private bailiwick of man. In the second place, there are very few women who have attained success in economics or politics, either in the academic or practical field. Those of us who may have achieved any 342 National Education Association measure of success can usually point to unusual and fortuitous circumstances which have unduly favored us. It is not to our credit that we have been unable, during the decades we have been at work, to open up a larger part of the field and greater opportunities for other women. A lone star who re¬ mains a lone star and does not gather other stars around her is to be deplored, not congratulated. When boys see the numbers of men who go out into the industrial and business and academic world and attain good positions, is it to be wondered at that they are spurred on by this tradition of success? Numbers count in our quantitative society ! For years we have had vocational talks in the schools and colleges by women pre-eminent in their fields; but it is a depressing fact that we have to search with a microscope for women who hold really important positions in any field except those men do not wish to occupy, and, as time passes, the plums still continue to fall in the laps of men. Hence vocational talks and programs do not seem to constitute a very large part of the story in expanding opportunities for women. There are some Senegambians in the woodpile which must be exposed if we wish to examine our predicament more thoroly. One undebatable fact is that training for specific fields is frequently denied women. They often find it difficult if not impossible to obtain special training for a field they may choose to enter. Witness, for example, the fact that the Graduate School of Business Administration at Harvard as well as many other such graduate schools do not admit women. Witness the difficulty women still have in securing training in law and medicine, tho many doors are open today in comparison with those which were open a few years ago. One of the most important reasons for the lack of achievement on the part of women in a field pre-empted by men is the lack of opportunity for cross¬ fertilization. When a woman is deprived of the opportunity for informal day in and day out meetings with her colleagues at luncheon and elsewhere, she is losing far more than appears on the surface. How many times have brilliant ideas and theories been evolved thru the meeting of colleagues over the lunch table or in the club? I have mentioned, then, what I consider a relative lack of interest in the social sciences on the part of girls and I have attempted to give a few reasons for this lack. The next step is to search for a remedy for the situation, unless we are willing to accept a policy of defeatism. The latter we can scarcely do in the face of the slow but sure progress woman has been making during the past hundred years. Even tho it may be true, as many charge, that there has been a reaction during the last few years, the general trend still points upward. Sir Norman Angell lectured in Chicago the other day and poked a good deal of fun at the witch doctors in the academic world. He said that many academicians are so concerned with impressing their colleagues and the world at large with their erudition that they do not trouble themselves with acquir¬ ing technics for making their subjects understandable to any but the inner circles. He said these witch doctors build up reputations for great learning by inventing words and phrases and formulas and then uttering their in- Department of Deans of Women 343 cantations with impressive manner. I believe that is one of the worst phases of some of our educational methods. I believe that mathematics, astronomy, physics, and many other sciences are difficult for many people because there are too many witch doctors dealing with these subjects. Until statisticians stop waving their wands over recondite formulae which frequently issue from a void and return to a void, until those who teach the sciences acquire skill and technic in explaining in clear and simple terms and are not absorbed in surrounding themselves with an aura of medieval erudition and scholas¬ ticism, we may look for the same sterility we have witnessed in the past. There should be no confusion on this subject. There are scientists at the frontier of every science who of necessity are dealing with temporary scaf¬ foldings while they build up their conclusions. During much of the period when they are working out their theories and experiments they are unable to present them in simple form to the lay mind, and it would be unscientific to bandy half truths about in order to make them popular. But, on the other hand, there is an immense field of proved science and an immense amount of exploratory material which could be presented in clear and simple terms. But not only must the subjects of the social sciences, economics, sociology, and political science be presented in clear and interesting fashion, ways must be found of stimulating a desire to know more about these subjects in the person who has been conditioned since childhood to think they are not woman’s affairs. One way to prove they are women’s affairs is to point to the fact that depressions affect every one, man and woman, that the last three years should have made us all conscious of the bearing of economics on our private lives. One hears conversation about the gold standard on the street, in the drawing room, at the dinner table. It is becoming a more inter¬ esting topic than the latest gossip and of far greater importance to each and every one of us than the latest play. Unless girls’ minds are equipped to grapple with these increasingly ominous questions relating to monetary sta¬ bilization and our rapidly changing order, they will justify the scorn of boys and men who are inclined to regard them as members of an audience at a performance they cannot comprehend. It is quite justifiable in our attempts to influence girls to open their eyes and minds to all these kaleidoscopic changes going on under our eyes, to suggest by as wary and crafty means as the end demands what all of us who have reached middle age know if we have kept our eyes open. When men are in the dangerous fifties the reason for their restlessness is not wholly biological. Often they have boresome, stupid wives. These wives have not cultivated an interest in the world of real affairs, in the questions which in¬ telligent men find interesting. Ergo, men find such wives uninteresting and trouble brews. I find such a line of argument often awakens a gleam of in¬ terest in a hitherto dead eye. More altruistically inclined young women may be appealed to with the argument that men frequently become so absorbed in the details of business that they cannot see the forest for the trees, and it is consequently the duty of a wife to encourage interest in the forest by 344 National Education Association being interested in it herself. I also tell them with fervor born of experience what agony stupid wives can cause business and professional women who have to consort with them! As for these wily methods of inducing girls to be interested in the social sciences, you may notice that I accept without any doubt, after long observa¬ tion of my sex, the fact that girls in our schools and colleges as well as all other girls are under the surface contemplating marriage, no matter how deceiving the surface may be. Since sex, meaning with most women matri¬ mony, is a primary urge overriding all else, we must try to find a sex motive for interesting these cryptically purposeful girls in the social sciences. It is wise to present in the attack on this problem the hard but cold fact that all women do not marry, that some of us who once fluttered even as they flutter today are living exhibits of that phenomenon. Also, it is easy to prove that women marry later than in the good old days and they live longer, too, than in those same good old days when grandfather used up three wives and laid them in parallel rows in the family lot. Then, too, the proportion of divorces (one in every seven marriages) indicates that a number of women large enough to deserve grave consideration will of necessity be thrown on their own resources. And the vital statistics of any life insurance company demonstrate the existence of large groups of widows to whom marriage does not mean permanent support. When children are grown, moreover, many a happily married woman longs for absorbing, worthwhile work and interests for which she has had insufficient time during her busy years. The frank facing of the probability of a comparatively long working life is an essential preliminary to serious planning for a real job. It is not hard to demonstrate the next argument — that the social sciences are basic knowl¬ edge in every kind of work if a person is desirous of understanding the world she lives in and works in. But are our subtle wiles of persuasion to be exhausted in dealing with girls? No, it is equally important to use every opportunity to influence boys and men with whom we come in contact to encourage girls to use their abilities. Men, especially employers, need to understand the importance to civilization, and not to women alone, of encouraging girls to prepare for some worthy work, and they need to understand the great danger consequent upon damming back initiative and ability in any group. WTien we won suf¬ frage we merely took a first step. We have a tremendous task ahead in con¬ veying to men the need for equal opportunity for women to use their brains and abilities if we are to develop a well-rounded and effective society. Men must recognize the basic justice of the concept in the right to work as well as the social expediency of developing to the fullest extent the latent powers of the whole of mankind, not merely of half of it. Our order is changing and they must realize that both justice and expediency require a place for women in the sun. More and more, ancient, moss-covered traditions are going by the boards when we trace them to their meaningless origins, and men cannot cling much longer to the idea of their exclusive prerogatives if our social structure is to keep from rocking. Department of Deans of Women 345 We must operate on woman, too. Some psychologist has pointed out the resemblance of certain men and women to various kinds of animals. I here are two kinds of animals I have seen numbers of women resemble — ostriches and porcupines. Ostrich women refuse to acknowledge any sex discrimination because they are afraid some man or some sentimental woman will accuse them of stirring up sex antagonism. It is better to recognize a fact when you see one and face it with courage and honesty (leavened with as much humor and philosophy as you can muster) than to hide a cowardly head in the sand. Ostriches and Pollyannas in the world of human beings play havoc in build¬ ing false illusions. How many vocational guidance conferences have been smeared with their platitudes! Even in Russia sex equality is only theoretical. Altho the American relief workers in Russia (which employed more than one hundred thousand Russians), and indeed foreigners in general, have found Russian women, given an equivalent training, more competent and practical than the men, there are almost no women in positions of importance in the Soviet government. In the Secretariat, for example, consisting of fifteen members, there are no women. Why not face these facts? Why indulge in what Voltaire termed “the mania of maintaining that everything is well?” Porcupines do as much harm as evasive ostriches. They throw out their sharp quills and convince man by so doing that they are over-serious and lacking in tolerance. What a lot of feminine reformers and uplifters have quilled man into obstreperous opposition! If we can work for our causes without damning men who will not subscribe to them we shall widen the field of opportunity for women more adequately than by drastic methods. In advising girls, let us first make it clear that no girl who lays claim to an education can afford to be without basic knowledge of the social and economic structures of which she is a part, that if she goes out into the field of academic endeavor or industry or politics or social work she must be willing to face the hard but true fact that men still resent women’s invasions of their fields and in general will consciously or unconsciously prevent them from rising to important positions. If she acquires an adamantine spirit and indomi¬ table courage she will find the struggle worthwhile. She will not be a stupidly patient Griselda in the face of setbacks, but she will gird up her loins and go forth with courage, undefeated. All girls who plan to enter the field of industry or to teach subjects dealing with industry and business should get firsthand knowledge of workers by working with them and should not consider that they are working with them when they hold positions involving merely supervision, consultation, and advice. Too many girls shy off from the trenches and want to plant their feet under a desk before they have had firing-line experience. Girls in industry need to plan for sabbatical years. If academicians find it necessary to get their eyes off their jobs once in seven years how much more do those of us who get caught in the wheels of industry! However, I have little patience with persons who cannot see the trees for the forest protesting against others not seeing the forest for the trees. We must strike a happy balance and see both trees and forest. I know no better method than 346 National Education Association for academicians and theorists who deal with industrial subjects to plunge into the thick of industry one year out of every seven and for industrialists to return to school every seventh year. It may be a fatuous surmise but I am inclined to think that our industrial world would not be so tumultuously chaotic and apparently without rudders if we insisted upon adult education for men and women in high as well as low positions in industry and business. It surely is not unreasonable to suppose that if they stopped one year in every seven to get perspective, to examine their aims and purposes, to discover the essentials underlying their methods, and to lend aid based on experience to developing an all-round program for the coordination of production and distribution on an industry-wide basis, there might be some degree of order introduced into our disorderly system, if we can dignify the mess we are in by the term system. Some of the finest experiments in industrial relations have toppled and fallen because there was a complete lack of just this sort of approach. How stupid of us, then, to advise young persons to enter a field undermined by explosives without acquainting them with the necessity for constantly keeping an eye themselves on the wider issues and urging the forest view on their colleagues, too. How easy, otherwise, to get absorbed in increas¬ ing production per capita, in reducing unit costs, in training methods, in time and motion study, in all the myriad details of production technic which so often divert attention from larger issues. If I were dictator, a sabbatical year for all executives in industry, spent in study and contemplation, would be one of my first dictates. It is important that girls should learn to avoid developing a grievance. The realist knows that woman meets with certain kinds of blows because she is woman, but we are too liable to attribute all our knocks to this biological and inevitable fact. The proportion of women in good positions is small, the proportion of men in such positions relatively large. When a man in an important position gets what Dorothy Parker terms a sock in the jaw we are not so apt to hear about it. Women in such circumstances stick up like sore thumbs because they are few and far between. A friend of mine tells me the only way to avoid developing grievances is to regard hurts and misfortunes as generic. This is only another way of saying misery loves company which, after all, seems a selfish manner of rejoicing that we have companions who also suffer. However, it furnishes a comfortable shock absorber. The impor¬ tant thing is to send a girl out into the world stripped of silly illusions, to train her insofar as it is possible to train any of us irrational, sensitive, human beings to examine herself and to let each experience in life lead to a broader, more tolerant view of life and its vicissitudes. Considering the increasing complexities and interrelationships of the world in which women as well as men live it seems to me a retrogressive step to offer a different basic education to women from that offered to men. Indeed I should go so far as to say that many of our fundamental difficulties of adjustment in the home and in society are based on different viewpoints between men and women, artificially created, or on an overemphasis of a different approach to problems equally affecting men and women. Let us Department of Deans of Women 347 take, for example, the problem of child psychology in its practical application. None of us would have to go far afield to note the case of a mother who struggles to bring up her children in normal, happy surroundings, whose aim is frustrated by a man who knows nothing about child psychology and cares less. I wish some one would tell me why it is not just as much a man’s as a woman’s job to keep a house orderly and to furnish precept and example to his children in this matter. It merely perpetuates the fiction that because men and women are biologi¬ cally different they have different interests, and should have a differentiated curriculum. I am much in favor of training both men and women in subjects which will fit them better for their joint endeavors in the home. I am not at all in favor of singling out women for special training in the specific duties which will fall to her if she decides to marry and have children any more than I am in favor of prescribing for all men special technical training in office routine. If thousands of women do marry and have children and thou¬ sands of men do engage in some form of office routine they can fit themselves for the specific tasks involved by home extension courses and learning on the job or in graduate work. Preparatory schools and colleges should educate boys and girls in subjects which will fit them to know, to judge, and to decide concerning the questions which increasingly perplex us, not as men or as women, but as men and women. It will be a comparatively easy matter, then, to know and judge and decide concerning the specific details involved in bed making, child feeding, filing systems, and differences in office machin¬ ery. “But,” you will say, “we have tried this plan of training women in the same subjects as men and it has failed.” I say we have merely scratched the surface in evolving methods of educating boys and girls to see life as it affects men and women together as people, to see life whole. I make an appeal, then, for a complete overthrow of educational aims and methods which merely serve to widen a gulf between men and women, already appallingly wide. Let us not indulge in sophistry and say we cannot build an educational system which will bridge this gulf merely because our methods have seemed inept in the past. The changing order challenges us to new effort, to new methods, to methods which will interest men and women together in the upbuilding of a world in which they must live and work and bring up families together. To take precious time in school or college to teach girls to make beds is as futile as to take time to teach men to wash windows, just because many women will have to make beds and many men will have to wash windows. To take time to teach women exclusively child psychology is futile unless their partners in bringing up children are also taught child psychology. Unsolved social problems which must be solved by the joint and unceasing efforts of men and women should be faced and faced soon if the world is not to drift into chaos, and yet we go merrily on our way, neglecting many of them in favor of subjects far less vital. There are prob¬ lems of law enforcement, of crime, of capital, of labor, of security (both of the individual and the nation), of international relations. Does it not seem 348 National Education Association silly to offer courses to girls in tasteful decoration of the home and learning how to spend when they are blissfully unaware of the elements rocking the very foundations of these homes they are learning to decorate? How can homes be happy and men and women live full lives when the gaunt specter of unemployment stalks abroad, wracking the nerves of parents and children, and disturbing all relationships? Do unemployment, tariff, war debt and reparation, rotten politics, monetary system, and war caused by economic systems affect men only ? 4 hen why do we muddle along, bringing up our girls to think economics, political science, and the fundamental organization of our social and industrial system are men’s affairs? Until we see our gross mistakes in shaping the interests of girls in narrow grooves from childhood to womanhood, we shall be idly baying at the moon in asking that the field of opportunity for women be widened and that men and women tackle together in the home and out of the home the problems which affect all of us. Above all this, unless we do succeed in preparing girls as well as boys to deal effectively with these Questions, to think clearly about them, to exercise knowledge, judgment, and responsibility concerning them, we shall not need lessons in budgeting incomes and in wise spending, for we may have no incomes to spend. As H. G. Wells once said, “We are engaged in a race between education and catastrophe.” Education must come to grip with realities. And the worthiest aim of education is an inspiring social policy which both men and women strive to bring to fruition. When Chief Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes recently made his first radio speech, he quoted the Latin poet who said fifteen hundred years ago, “Death plucks my ear and says : ‘Live — I am coming.’ ” Let us try to persuade the girls with whom we come in contact that they have a great responsibility in the changing social and economic order, a responsibility toward the less fortunate, a responsibility to build up a more just and fair order than that which now baffles and dismays us, a respon¬ sibility which should make each and every one of us hearken and help others to hearken to death’s whisper in our ears, “Live — I am coming,” with the full understanding that one cannot live fully and joyously oneself without enriching life for others. RESUME OF DISCUSSION OF THE PROBLEMS OF A DIFFERENTIATED CURRICULUM FOR WOMEN WILLYSTINE GOODSELL, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. For the last twenty-five years educators have become increasingly inter¬ ested in the question of a differentiated curriculum for college women. Sister Jeanne Marie of St. Catherine’s has recently referred to the growing insist¬ ence that studies be more consciously adapted to the changing social and eco¬ nomic demands upon women. She has clearly indicated that the contemporary college curriculum must serve not only the objectives of culture and discipline but those of utility. It is indeed good to learn that St. Catherine’s College is Department of Deans of Women 349 attempting to combine with liberal studies some training, under the direction of excellent teachers, in a few of the many skilled vocations which women are entering. The present curriculum of the woman’s college has been criticized as having little connection with women’s real, everyday lives; as having few unifying principles, but, on the contrary, as being the result of 1 tensions, exchanges, and concessions” between college departments. To the discontent aroused by these conditions must be added, in the writer’s judgment, a con¬ siderable amount of wishful thinking to the effect that college women be gently, but firmly directed toward their real functions in society — home¬ making and child care — and toward courses that will fit them for their proper wTork. Too often the demand for a differentiated curriculum for women means little more than a demand for courses in home economics and child nurture. A suggestive example of this may be seen in the experiment of Dr. Charters at Stephens College to discover what were the activities and prob¬ lems of more than a thousand women college graduates in order to work out a curriculum suited to women’s needs. These graduates agreed to keep daily records for one year of their activities and problems in every field of life — homemaking, social, political — except the vocational sphere. As a by no means negligible proportion of these women were engaged in gainful employment, it is a little difficult to see why this important activity was omitted, while homemaking activities of both married and unmarried women were included, unless it be inferred that Dr. Charters, in building a curricu¬ lum for women, vouchsafes more approval to domestic occupations than to extra-domestic, paid employments. Obviously the two fundamental factors that must be considered in build¬ ing any curriculum, whether for men or women, are: (1 ) what is the nature of the individual to be educated — and this includes, of course, unprejudiced consideration of what her tastes, abilities, and lasting interests really are; (2) what are the current social demands upon educated women. Our first problem then, in connection with a differentiated curriculum for women is how to increase our body of controled observations , of scientific tests, which will help us to discover what abiding interests and life purposes, what loyal¬ ties and ambitions really motivate women. And we may be sure these will vary in degree and kind with every woman, since women, being individuals in the full sense of the term, can no longer be classified under the mass caption woman, as was the honored custom not so long ago. But as soon as any honest attempt is made to understand women as they are, educators will find themselves opposed by a mass of prejudices, hidden desires, and conscious preferences concerning women’s natures which furnish part of the traditional mental luggage that most men and women carry about. In his recently pub¬ lished book, The Work, Wealth, and Happiness of Mankind, Mr. H. G. Wells says on this point: “It was only after the writer had set himself seri¬ ously to summarize the differences of man and woman that he realized how vague, vaporous, and useless is the enormous literature of the subject. It is 350 National Education Association like a wide, warm, damp, haze-filled gully between science and literature, choked with a weedy jungle of pretentious writing. One has not so much to summarize as to mow down and clear away thousands of volumes that in the guise of general discussions express merely personal prejudice and aspirations. The substantial matter of even profoundly ‘scientific’ works is not so much a record of controled observations as a series of casual remarks.” The second problem that confronts educators who would develop a college curriculum to meet the needs of women is this: What are the newer social demands upon women and how can the course of study be adjusted to meet these demands? Unquestionably the mistake all educators have made in planning curriculums has been in tacitly assuming that education is preparing youth for a static society instead of for a swiftly changing social order. There is real need to observe social trends, evaluate them ; and if they seem to be indices of lasting social conditions, to recognize these conditions, with their corresponding demands upon women in our college curriculums. For ex¬ ample, within the last decade there has been a marked increase in the marriage rate among college women graduates. Recent alumnae registers of certain women s colleges show as high percentages of married graduates five years after graduation as once applied to women who had been graduated fifteen years or more. The Vassar Quarterly of May, 1931, shows 72.5 percent of Vassar graduates married in the classes 1912-16 as compared with 53.2 per¬ cent for the classes 1892-96. This increase in the number of college women who marry parallels the growth of a widespread movement for the education o parents. Do these facts suggest the introduction of solid courses in child nurture, child psychology, and child guidance into women’s colleges, together with equally solid survey courses opening up to women the problems and skilled processes involved in intelligent home management ? Another trend of great significance is the ever-increasing tendency of college women to enter skilled vocations after graduation. Dr. Mabelle Blake of Smith College says of the class of 1929 that out of four hundred women w o consulted with her, all but forty-five had an occupation in mind. Of the graduating class of two hundred and fifty-six at Barnard College in 1930, two hundred and thirty-six signified their intention of going to work; and of two hundred and thirty-two members of the class of 1931, two hundred and thirteen planned to enter a vocation. Similar conditions are revealed at other colleges for women. Moreover, there is a decline in the proportion of graduates seeking teaching positions and a marked increase in the variety of occupations which college women are entering. In a study of this subject soon to be published, Miss Grace Foster of Colby College has found that of graduates of the class of 1928 who reported their vocations to the appoint¬ ment bureaus of their respective colleges, Mount Holyoke records showed only 15 percent in teaching positions, Radcliffe 16.8 percent, Vassar 14 percent, and Smith 30 percent. Is the libei al arts college prepared to meet this situation by introducing carefully selected pre-professional and even professional courses into its Department of Deans of Women 351 curriculum? A few concessions in this direction have been made, notably the offering of courses in education as part of the curriculums of several women’s colleges. But the historic aversion to the introduction of subjects having any vocational taint into the precincts of the liberal arts college, dedicated to culture, still operates as a powerful obstacle to the professionalizing of the curriculum, even in the last two years. As a result we find students com¬ plaining, as did one graduate of a liberal arts college to the writer, that “college education does not discover the student.” And another writes: “Being a product of a liberal arts college for women of fifteen years ago, I feel very strongly the need for a combination of these two elements (the liberal and the vocational) in the education of women. I do not believe that a girl should be required to spend time and money after college, as I had to do, in order to fit herself for a job in which she is interested. Nor do I think that vocational education need necessarily be narrowing in its influence, altho I quite agree that this is a danger.” Women are not only homemakers and workers but citizens of the state, the nation, and the larger international order that mankind so haltingly strives to build up. Moreover, women still have more leisure than men. These situations create problems for every college educated woman. Does the cur¬ riculum meet the real need of women for informing and stimulating courses that stir in students a deep sense of responsibility for the public good and give them ample opportunities to act with others in carrying out socially useful plans and policies? Again, are the offerings and procedures of the college definitely designed to discover those tastes and interests in students which, if developed, would serve as permanent sources of personal growth and enrichment of leisure hours? All propaganda and active drives in behalf of a differentiated curriculum for women should be critically scrutinized to discover whether the real motive behind them may not be the old desire to restrict women, so far as possible, to their age-old functions in the home. Second, in order to proceed intelligently in the work of adapting the curriculum to meet women’s needs, we must have more tested knowledge concerning the true nature of the women we are educating — and that must wait upon the slow procedures of science. Finally, the social situations which women will inevitably meet in their lives furnish important clues to the changes that should be made in the curriculums of the women’s colleges. WHAT IS OUR RELATIONSHIP TO THE HIGH-SCHOOL PERSONNEL SERVICE? RUTH STRANG, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. The subject of articulation between high school and higher institutions of learning is in one respect like the subject of disarmament. Everybody talks about it ; everybody, when challenged, admits its importance ; but there seems to be great difficulty in doing anything about it. 352 National Education Association Articulation between high school and college has been the theme of many conferences and the raison d’etre of many committees. “The Articulation of the Units of American Education’’ was three years ago the theme of the Seventh Yearbook of the Department of Superintendence. Many papers on this subject were included in the Proceedings of the National Education Association of the past two years. In 1910 the High School Teachers’ Association of New York City ap¬ pointed a committee to consider the question, and at the present time the Progressive Education Association and the Educational Records Bureau both have committees studying the relationships of high school and college. The problem seems to be especially acute in normal schools and teachers colleges. The following statement was made in the Seventh Yearbook of the Department of Superintendence: “If there is one unit of the American edu¬ cational system which is in need of readjustment in order to articulate with other units of the system, it is the teacher-training unit.” To a number of educators, articulation still means articulation in respect to academic subjectmatter. The goal that has been emphasized is a unification of subjectmatter thruout the educational system so that there will be no waste thru overlapping of offerings and no strain due to unfilled gaps in knowledge. And this is, indeed, an important phase of articulation. Deans and other personnel workers, however, recognize the need of a broader type of articulation which will prevent duplications and deficiencies in the education of the individual along a variety of lines. They see educa¬ tional possibilities in all phases of school life. President Leigh of Bennington College hoped to make all parts of the college life contribute to the develop¬ ment of the whole student. The entire life in the institution constitutes its curriculum. There should, therefore, be progression along a variety of lines as the student passes thru high school and college. The dean is especially interested in transition in social participation. The repetition of social experiences which do not contribute to the growth of the individual and to his precipitation into social life for which he is utterly unprepared and which consequently makes too great demands upon him, should be avoided. To the dean, it seems as important that a student should not stay on the same level of social experi¬ ence as that he should avoid repeating courses in English which he has already mastered. It seems as important that he should not be subjected to a social life beyond his ability as that he should be diverted from a class in second-year French until he has acquired a certain degree of facility with the French language. Development in advance of high school in the art of making friends and in the ability to participate with poise in common social situations — dinner parties, teas, receptions, small group discussions and the like — is to be expected of the college student. There should be articulation between high school and teachers college in the social curriculum. A similar progression from high school to college in habits of independent, efficient, and thoughtful study is desirable. The higher institution may err either on the side of expecting too advanced habits of study, or on the side Department of Dfans of Women 353 of demanding less of the research type of preparation than the student may already have acquired in a progressive high school. There should be articula¬ tion between high school and teachers college in study habits. The scope of articulation encompasses attitudes, leisure interests, recrea¬ tion, health habits, vocational choices, and mental adjustments. There is, for example, often a wide gap between high school and college in the prevailing attitudes toward education, religion, love, and marriage. There should be articulation between the high school and the teachers college in each of these respects. The implications of this broad view of articulation between high schoc and college are two in number. The first is that the high school and college should be cognizant of each other’s programs along all of these lines. It is agreed that academic subjects should progress in difficulty. It is not so gen¬ erally recognized that the college social program should avoid recapitulating high-school activities; that the pupil should achieve greater self-direction and effectiveness in study habits; that he should acquire more mature attitudes and leisure interests ; and that his vocational choices should be made on a sounder basis and be more definite and directive in their value. A merging of the last year of high school with the first year of college has been suggested as a means of bridging the gap between high school and college. The junior college has been proposed as another administrative means of simplifying the problem of articulation. The second implication of the broad point of view regarding articulation is that college personnel workers should know the previous achievements and present status of each individual. The need of knowledge of the entering students in normal schools and teachers colleges is as great as in other institu¬ tions. Students come to teacher-training institutions for various reasons — to avoid entrance requirements, to please parents who want them to become teachers, and to obtain cheaply a higher education. In one normal school from 30 to 50 percent of the freshmen admitted that they did not want to teach. Lack of articulation may be due to lack of information on the part of the college regarding its incoming students as well as to lack of articulation in the curriculum. It is with this second implication that we are concerned. What knowledge does the dean in a normal school or teachers college need in order to help the freshman make a beneficial transition from high school to college? It is generally agreed that “learning students is prerequisite to teaching them.” But how much of the information needed can be secured by the college before the opening or during the first few weeks of the fresh¬ man year ? How much can best be furnished by the high school ? Which items can be secured only from the high school ? The teachers college can use the following means of securing information : 1. Intelligence tests. 2. Achievement tests given at the entrance to college have proved very valuable in the placement of students in courses which will be most profitable to them. 3. Health examination given by the college physician is the most satisfactory way of ascertaining the present health status of the student. 354 National Education Association 4. Blanks filled out by the student furnish additional information. 5. Interviews with college personnel officers reveal additional facts about the students’ background, interests, and attitudes toward success, failure, and people. It is possible for teachers colleges to obtain a fairly complete cross-section of the student’s personality and preparation. Why need further information be supplied by the high school ? Why should the already harassed high-school principal be asked to contribute to the accumulation of facts about the pupils entering teacher-training institutions from his school ? Why should any rela¬ tionships between the high school and the normal school or teachers college be necessary ? One answer to these questions is that even tho the teachers college has the facilities to make a thoro analysis of each entering student (and Townsend’s investigation shows that they are seriously inadequate in their personnel pro¬ grams), it can obtain only a cross-section picture of the present status of the entering freshman. The high school can furnish trends in his development. The high-school record shows how consistently and steadily a pupil works. This is important for the college to know. The high-school personnel service might also furnish the following information about characteristics of students which should aid in their progressive adjustment to other phases of college life. 1. The pupil’s social progress in high school a. Behavior with the opposite sex — extreme absorption in the opposite sex, normal interest, indifference, avoidance of the opposite sex, exclusive inter¬ est in members of the same sex. b. Ability to make friends — is “hail fellow well met” with everyone, has many friends, has several well-chosen congenial friends, has several casual acquaintances, has no intimate friends or acquaintances. 2. The pupil’s study habits a. Attitude toward study — continually tries to get by, offers excuses and com¬ plaints occasionally, works primarily to pass the examinations, works with a mild interest, works with a keen interest. b. General attack in study — very susceptible to distractions, stops studying whenever anything of interest appears, maintains a balance between atten¬ tion and distraction, occasionally distracted, usually concentrates in the face of numerous distractions. c. The pupil’s reaction to difficulty — gives up without even attempting to do the work, gives up at the first encounter with difficulty, works a reasonable amount of time on a problem, persists in spite of difficulty, refuses to give up an impossible undertaking. 3. The pupil’s high-school health record a. Influence of health on pupil’s achievement — lost so much time because of sickness that graduation was delayed or extremely difficult, lost an average amount of time because of illness, exuberant health thruout high school. The items of information requested by colleges vary greatly. The follow¬ ing are those which senior high schools of twenty public school systems state are requested most frequently. 1. Academic achievement a. Schools attended, years and date of graduation b. Length of recitation and laboratory periods c. Units of credit and subjects in which credit was achieved Department of Deans of Women 355 d. Grade of work done, when and where done. Interpretation of high-school rating system e. Rank in senior class f. Regents examination ratings 2. Mental ability a. Results of psychological tests and teacher’s estimate 3. Personal characteristics a. Ratings on moral character b. Statement by principal of personal qualifications or comments by the principal ^ c. Official recommendations of the high-school principal 4. Extra-classroom achievement a. Special activities report, accomplishment in extracurriculum activities 5. Age 6. Health records. Four chief obstacles to making a close connection between the personnel w ork in high schools and that in normal schools and teachers colleges are difficulties of time, space, desire, and ability. 1. High-school staffs lack time to fill out detailed records to send to other institu¬ tions. The pressure of clerical work is already great in the majority of high schools and teacher-training institutions. 2. High schools and teachers colleges are widely separated in space. Communica¬ tion must be thru writing. Correspondence is a poor substitute for a face-to-face conference. Friendly relationships and conferences between the personnel work¬ ers in high school and teachers colleges is made difficult by distance. 3. Not all institutions are fully convinced of the value of the individual records requested by other institutions. A teachers college, for example, keenly cognizant of the importance of knowing certain facts about the previous development of their freshmen, may draw students from high schools which are not interested in furnishing the information desired by the college. 4. A basic difficulty lies in the inadequacy of the advisory programs in high school or college or both. Significant information about individual pupils cannot be sent from the high school to the college or from the college to the high school because such information is not available. As a high school increases in size without a corresponding growth in its advisory staff, the difficulty in knowing pupils well enough to give significant information about them increases. As a college increases in size the difficulty in using facts about individuals obtained from the high school becomes greater. One progressive high school a few years ago tried to obtain facts about its graduates. A series of questions was sent to each college. The replies were meager. The chief reason given by the colleges for not complying with the request was that they did not have the information desired in any of their records. An attempt to obtain information from the college students was also unsuccessful. The students who were not succeeding very well did not wish to report such to their high school. The students who had achieved honors in college showed an adolescent reticence about reporting them. It is evident that coordination can be secured only with strenuous effort. Types of relationships between high-school and college personnel services may be arranged on two scales, ( 1 ) according to the kind of information, and (2) according to the means by which the information is exchanged. Scale 1: Information sent from high school to college: No information Teachers’ marks in the various subjects 356 National Education Association Teachers’ marks plus results of intelligence and achievement tests, showing ex¬ tent to which pupil is working up to his capacity Teachers’ marks plus results of intelligence and achievement tests plus princi¬ pal’s estimate of the pupil’s personality Results of intelligence and achievement tests plus information concerning social achievement, health, study habits, and attitudes Results of intelligence and achievement tests plus information concerning social achievement, study habits, and attitudes plus accurate statements of the pupil’s special problems, needs, difficulties, talents, abilities and interests, and special adaptations and adjustments that should be made in college. Scale 2: Means by which information is exchanged: Cumulative record card sent from high school to college Blanks sent by college to be filled out by high school Blanks sent by high schools to be filled out by college Informal reports sent by high school in which certain items of information are given Still more informal letters written by the personnel officer in high school to the personnel officer in college Annual conference of high school and college teachers. Conferences between personnel officers in high school and college: Formal conference, clinical in character Informal friendly conference Interviews between principal and his graduates of the year before. Altho the cumulative record shows trends in achievement and furnishes the most complete information about the individual, there may be a fallacy in spending so much time and money in recording facts which show the student to be average or typical. The adviser in college wishes to know the ways in which the student is exceptional. It is in regard to these deviations from the average that special adjustment in college is needed. Information of this kind is especially useful to the adviser in helping the student to overcome his special academic, social, physical, or emotional handicaps. In an informal letter or conference the ways in which the pupil is exceptional are more likely to be mentioned. A well-planned blank such as Dean Yost uses at Leland Stanford Univer¬ sity is of value in stimulating the high school to observe individual pupils more closely. Looking forward to filling out a blank of this kind is excellent train¬ ing in personnel methods for the high-school teacher and adviser. This train¬ ing function of the blanks puts a grave responsibility upon the higher institu¬ tion to ask for essentials and thus to direct the personnel work of the high school along useful channels. Receiving significant information of this kind from the high school is a stimulus to the college to use it in helping students to proceed intelligently and successfully from high school into college. An¬ other use of blanks is to stimulate pupils by showing them the goals which the college expects them to reach and the characteristics which the college expects them to possess. The methods of articulation will of necessity vary in different situations, but the principle is constant that a knowledge of the programs of the high schools and colleges and of the individual who passes from one to the other is essential in providing for growth on a continuously ascending spiral of achievement in the important phases of living. Department of Educational Research THE AMERICAN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ASSOCIA¬ TION applied in 1929 to become the Department of Educational Research in the Association. The proper notice was given at the Atlanta meeting in 1929, and final action in creating the Department was taken at the Columbus, Ohio, meeting on July 3, 1930. The research organization brings with it a history rich in achievements and places the National Educa¬ tion Association in closer touch with colleges, univer¬ sities, and research agencies. Officers of the Department for the year 1932-33 are : President, William S. Gray, Department of Edu¬ cation, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill.; Vice- president, Alfred D. Simpson, State Education De¬ partment, Albany, N. Y. ; Secretary-Treasurer, Wil¬ liam G. Carr, National. Education Association, 1201 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C. ; Executive Com¬ mittee: John L. Stenquist, 3 East 25th Street, Balti¬ more, Md.; W. W. Charters, School of Education, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. For the record of the first meeting see the 1931 volume of Proceedings, pages 415-431. [ 358 ] THE INTERVIEW AS A RESEARCH DEVICE GEORGE W. HARTMANN, DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY, PENNSYLVANIA STATE COLLEGE, STATE COLLEGE, PA. The advancement of educational research is to a large degree dependent upon the invention and wider use of new instruments of investigation. In the case of the interview, we have available a technic of uncertain origin, the application of which unfortunately has not been as extensive as its merits justify. Educators, in common with a great number of other professional groups, make constant use of the casual type of interview, but its systematic employ¬ ment as a fact-finding agency needs to be encouraged. There are many ques¬ tions of attitude, for example, which can only be studied by means of the interview, and in cases where other technics are applicable it serves as a use¬ ful and enlightening supplement. Charters claims that the oral questionnaire is always preferable to the writ¬ ten form. This is probably an exaggeration, but there is no doubt that the information thus elicited is more complete and more definite than could be secured in any other way. Validities of carefully conducted expert interviews range around .70 and the reliabilities run well beyond .90. Their value is greatest in the collection of facts concerning personal history, opinions, and attitudes which no one but the individual himself can provide. Typical research problems which could be attacked by means of the inter¬ view are : factors influencing teachers’ morale, truancy and student cheating, and qualities of a good department head. No competent research man doubts but that an enormous body of valuable theory and practise, especially in the field of personality attitudes, could be uncovered by a more extended use of the interview technic. STUDIES IN REDUCING THE VARIABILITY OF MARKS GIVEN ON ESSAY EXAMINATIONS VERNER MARTIN SIMS, UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA, UNIVERSITY, ALA. A one hour essay examination consisting of ten questions on General Psy¬ chology was given to thirty-three college students and the papers were scored by seven readers, each using the same rules for scoring. The marks given by each reader were converted to percentage grades based upon the nature of their distribution. The variations in the grades of the several readers, and the objectivity and reliability of each reader’s marks, were then determined. The rules for scoring were as follows: The questions were divided into “discussion” questions and “objective” questions (simple-recall and short- answer) and the two types were scored separately. Each discussion question (there were four of them) was scored by sorting the papers on the basis of merit into five groups, a normal distribution being assumed and conformed to. The groups were given scores of : 10 for superior, 7 for above average, 5 for average, 3 for below average, 0 for inferior. The objective questions were [ 359 ] 360 National Education Association weighted 10 points each and scored on the fractional part of the elements called for that the student had correct, a scoring key, with the correct answers in the case of simple-recall and acceptable answers in the case of short-answer, being provided the reader. Each reader s marks were converted to grades by locating the passing mark at 1.5 standard deviations, graphing the relationship between marks and grades with the passing mark and 70 percent (passing grade) as the origin, and drawing a diagonal thru the origin and the point corresponding to a perfect mark and 100 percent. The conversion was made by reading from the reader s mark to the diagonal and then to the percentage axis. When so scored and graded it was found that : 1. The average range (from the highest to the lowest grade) given a paper was 4 points. The maximum range for any paper was 7 points. 2. The average mean deviation (from the average of seven grades) for the 33 papers was 1.2 points. The maximum mean deviation for any paper was 1.8. 3. The average correlation between a reader and the average of the other readers was .97. The lowest correlation between any reader and the average of the others was .96. 4. The average correlation between a reader and each of the other readers was .94. The lowest correlation between any two readers was .91. 5. For the discussion questions only, the average correlation between a reader and the average of the other readers was .92. The lowest correlation between any reader and the average of the other readers was .83. 6. For the objective questions only, the average correlation between a reader and the average of the other readers was .97. The lowest correlation between any reader and the average of the others was .95. 7. The average reliability coefficient (odds vs. evens, stepped-up) for the seven readers was .83. The lowest reliability coefficient for any reader was .80. In decided contrast with the usual study of the essay examination, this essay examination scored as described above was found to be highly objec¬ tive, fairly reliable, and the variability of the grades given by different readers was insignificant. IMPROVING THE TRUE-FALSE EXAMINATION WILLIAM A. BARTON, HEAD, DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, COKER COLLEGE, HARTSVILLE, S. C. Because of its doubtful validity the right-minus-wrong formula for scoring true-false tests is not wholly desirable. There is experimental evidence that the reliability of these tests is improved by having the examinee cross out the false word or words in each item judged by him to be false and by allowing him credit for each item he judges correctly according to the directions for the test. There is reason to believe that this cross-out technic reduces guessing to a minimum and that students like it better because they believe that it yields scores that better represent their actual achievement on the test. It also has diagnostic value in determining the examinee’s understanding of the test items. Besides, its employment makes it necessary for the test-constructor to Department of Educational Research 361 make the true and the 1 se items equal in number, a fact which tends to reduce artificiality in th wording of the items and makes it inadvisable for the examinee to check /er his test to see whether he has judged as many items false as true. In brief, the cross-r : true-false test, in comparison with the traditional true-false test scored the right-minus-wrong formula, is a better measur¬ ing instrument, and i also better for diagnostic teaching, and is more satis¬ factory to the studen . As an illustration consider the statement, A nerve impulse arousing a sense organ causes a response, in which there are two bases of falsity. It assumes a false relationship between a nerve impulse and a sense organ, indicated by the phrase, arousing a sense organ, and it also expresses a relationship between two unrelated factors, that is, a response and a nerve impulse arousing a sense organ. It would appear likely that this training in discovering the real basis of falsity in statements should develop many critical readers unusually adept in perceiving the real meaning of whatever they read. THE MEASUREMENT OF WORD MEANINGS C. W. GIFFORD, CHICAGO NORMAL COLLEGE, CHICAGO, ILL. Meanings are loosely called concepts, ideas, generalizations, and essences. These meanings are of course subjective objects which are more or less at¬ tached to objective correlates in the form of signs. These signs or symbols may be in the form of a movement of some kind, an objective object, or more than one object perceived in some group relationship. One word may be classed as one object composed of letters. It is a symbol unit one step higher than a single letter unit. Similarly mathematical symbols such as the plus and minus, a and x, etc. may be classed as simple objects. Rules, such as the rule for forming plurals, laws, such as Weber’s law of perceptual differences, also hypotheses and assumptions, may be classed as objective symbol system units one step higher than the word unit. Now the school of association psychologists appears to be particularly con¬ cerned with the process of connecting each meaning with its symbol as in word recognition, pronunciation, writing, and spelling. In such processes the laws of simple repetition of exactly identical objects (subjective or objec¬ tive) seem to explain the tying of the two together for convenience in further recall, etc. We are more interested, however, in the evolutionary development of the subjective meaning than we are in getting it attached to any objective symbol. Granted, of course, that the two phases are closely linked together and prob¬ ably equally important. The immediate problem is to determine the degree to which one meaning has evolved in the mental powers of an individual. Such an enterprise calls for information concerning the nature of a meaning and the nature of the process by which a meaning develops. 362 National Education Association SOME METHODS AND RESULTS IN OCCUPATIONAL CLINICS FOR ADULTS M. R. TRABUE, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY, COMMITTEE ON INDIVIDUAL DIAGNOSIS AND TRAINING, EMPLOYMENT STABILIZATION RESEARCH INSTITUTE, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. “Round pegs in square holes” have been much discussed and sometimes sub¬ jected to experiments, but never before has it been possible to set up such a comprehensive program of scientific research on the problems involved in the occupational adjustments of human beings as is now in operation under the auspices of the University of Minnesota. More than four thousand adult workers, many of them unemployed, have been thoroly examined during the past ten months, by means of the most objective tests available for measuring health and physical condition, academic abilities, occupational knowledge, skills, aptitudes, interests, sensory dis¬ crimination, judgment, social and occupational history, personality traits, and physical strength. The routine examination of each individual requires him to spend from six to eight hours in the clinic, under the observation of trained physicians, psychologists, social case workers, nurses, occupational interviewers, vocational testers, and the like. Persons who have been trying to make a living in occupations for which they are not well fitted are advised and assisted to enter the occupation for which their abilities, interests, and personalities qualify them. Specific train¬ ing in the new field is provided in a considerable number of cases, and free placement service in accordance with specific capacities is provided for all those who are found fit for employment. Those who are found physically, mentally, or emotionally unfit for employment are placed in the hands of institutions in which proper treatment and care can be provided. A large part of our attention is being directed toward the establishment of standards or norms for the most common occupations. Department stores, meat packing plants, bakeries, machine shops, electric manufacturing plants, life insurance companies, and other representative industries have sent us hundreds of their most successful employees for examination. This thoro testing of successful employees in specific occupations is providing a sound scientific basis for the guidance, training, and placement services offered to unemployed adults. A GENERAL EDUCATIONAL METHOD SUGGESTED BY RECENT RESEARCH ARTHUR I. GATES, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. Leaders in education agree that the most conspicuous defect in the work of the schools is the failure adequately to prepare persons to participate abundantly in the social, economic, civic, religious, artistic, and literary life of the time. The cause of this deficiency is not primarily ignorance, disinclina- Department of Educational Research 363 tion, or incompetence of teachers, but the magnitude of the burden of teach¬ ing the conventional subjects— reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, and composition. The teaching of these subjects takes so much time and energy that little is left for accomplishing the broader purposes of education. The remedy is not to minimize or neglect the instrumental skills, as some theorist.* really imply, but rather to effect improvements in instruction which will pro¬ duce an optimum degree of skill in a fraction of the time now required. Recent research suggests that this result is entirely possible. The persistence of certain traditions from the days when teaching mate¬ rials, especially printed materials, were scarce and expensive, are the main causes of inefficiency in teaching the instrumental subjects. Among these per¬ sisting methods is the excessive use of oral instruction, oral explanation, oral examination. In teaching reading in the primary grades, probably 60 percent of the time is spent in oral work. A recent investigation, utilizing deaf-mute children as subjects, showed that even these handicapped pupils can be taught to read, with no oral instruction, more rapidly than normal pupils learn under conventional oral instruction. Forced by the inadequacy of texts and other teaching materials to do the real work of teaching, the teachers have also unfortunately resorted to the use of many supplementary devices and drills which are ineffective and time-consuming. A recent survey showed that ir) certain subjects, nearly 40 percent of the time is spent in narrow, formal, and relatively unproductive supplementary drills. Recent studies have, on the other hand, shown that materials may be organized so as to enable pupils to learn by themselves with great rapidity what is now laboriously taught by the teacher. It is possible to effect savings in education on the instrumental level comparable to the savings of labor in industry. By relieving the teacher of much or most of the burden of teaching the mechanical skills, education may become a far more attractive and productive profession. Indeed, it is believed that a vast increase in efficiency in teaching the instrumental subjects is the only means of making substantial development in education possible. EQUATING COLLEGE SCORES ARTHUR S. OTIS, WORLD BOOK COMPANY, YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, N. Y. A technic for equating scholarship grades given by different instructors in different courses is as follows : ( 1 ) Measure the intelligence of all freshmen ; (2) construct a standard scale of scholarship grades to parallel the intelli¬ gence scores and so arrange that C corresponds to the median intelligence score, etc. ; (3) find the distribution of intelligence test scores of the students of any particular class and the corresponding standard scholarship grades; (4) arrange the students of the class in order of the grades given by the instructor and reassign grades so that the distribution of reassigned grades will correspond in central tendency and variability to the distribution of standard scholarship grades termed as above. 364 National Education Association NATIONAL SURVEY OF SCHOOL FINANCE PAUL R. MORT, DIRECTOR OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. The National Finance Survey is an enterprise of considerable magnitude. The scope of this investigation for the four-year period and for the next sixteen months was discussed and plans were approved by the Board of Con¬ sultants at the meeting February 18th to 20th. The plans for various investi¬ gations which have been suggested for the survey have been worked out by the survey staff in such a way that possible cooperation with research workers in schools of education and in state and city departments of education is pro¬ posed. The types of cooperative studies include special investigations by spe¬ cialists in the field, attacks on certain problems by Ph. D. degree candidates in various universities, and the collection of materials for local sampling studies thru the agency of master’s degree studies in the various universities. Various methods are to be developed for insuring contact with the field and interest in the results of the survey. For this purpose an advisory committee of from twenty to forty members has been set up in each state. These com¬ mittees consist of educators, government specialists, and interested citizens. Problems which seem to be of immediate importance are : ( 1 ) The investi¬ gations of retrenchment steps now being taken which promise to be real economies rather than sacrifices in educational opportunities; (2) an inves¬ tigation of the nature and returns on various levels of expenditures; (3) the development of standards for the reorganization of rural taxing and admin¬ istrative units; and (4) the gathering of facts which will be helpful to legis¬ latures in the developing of more adequate state aid systems. The research workers in the various states would be particularly helpful in the carrying out of the project of appraising present state aid systems. THE TEACHER SUPPLY AND DEMAND SITUATION EARL W. ANDERSON, BUREAU OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH, OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, COLUMBUS, OHIO In 1931 there was an oversupply of qualified teachers in virtually every major field of teaching. This oversupply was brought about by the following causes : ( 1 ) Reduction in public school and college personnel due to decreased budgets. (2) A return into teaching of many former teachers who had lost their positions in industry, commerce, or other non-teaching occupations. (3) A rapid increase in the number of recent college graduates who qualified for teaching, due to lack of opportunity in their chosen lines. (4) No substantial reduction in the output of teacher-training institu¬ tions. Department of Educational Research 365 (5) A decrease in teacher turnover due to lack of opportunity in other lines, and to the temporary relative advantage of teaching over other occu¬ pations. Approximately half of the college graduates of 1931 trained for high- school teaching positions secured teaching employment. Reports of ninety teacher-training institutions to J. G. Umstattd of the University of Minnesota indicate that on the average the proportion of the graduates placed was as follows: two-year elementary course, 61 percent; four-year elementary course, 68 percent ; high-school academic courses, 42 percent; special fields, from 53 to 75 percent; masters’ degrees, 69 percent; doctors’ degrees, 71 percent. The outlook for 1932 points to an oversupply greater than that of 1931, unless there is a rapid improvement in business conditions. THE EFFECT OF TOTAL TEACHING-LOAD ON THE EFFI¬ CIENCY OF INSTRUCTION IN HIGH-SCHOOL ENGLISH T. C. HOLY, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, COLUMBUS, OHIO Since teachers’ salaries amounted to 74.6 percent of the total operating cost of public schools in the United States in 1925-26, the number and sal¬ aries of the teachers become a chief factor in the cost of public education. The number of teachers in turn, in all except the schools with limited enrol¬ ments, is determined by the size of the classes. The two most significant studies on the effect of the size of class were made by P. R. Stevenson. Conclusions drawn from these studies were that the size of class when considered alone is not the determining factor in in¬ struction. Since the completion of these two studies and others which show in general the same results, it has been frequently said the total teaching load is the significant factor rather than the size of class. This experiment was therefore set up to secure information on the effect of the total teaching load in the field of high-school English. In substance the set-up of the experiment which was conducted in the Akron public schools was as follows: Two English teachers in Akron South High School, rated as equally efficient by the superintendent’s office, agreed to vary their teaching loads during 1929-30. The first of these taught six English classes ranging in size from 38 to 42 during the first semester, while the second taught six English classes ranging from 20 to 27. At the end of the first semester the teachers were exchanged with the classes remaining the same. By so doing comparisons on the basis of achievement tests could be made with the teacher factor held constant. Intelligence tests indicated no signifi¬ cant difference in the make-up of the classes. Since the study included but two teachers and 384 pupils of whom 238 were grouped in six large classes and 146 in six small classes, no general con- 366 National Education Association elusions aie drawn. Within these limitations however, the following results appear: 1. The mean gains on the four tests administered show no significant difference between pupils instructed in large classes (38 to 42 pupils) and small classes (20 to 27 pupils). 2. The corollary to this would be that on the basis of informational tests the two teachers in this experiment taught six large classes as their teaching schedule as effectively as they did the six small ones. A STATEWIDE PLAN FOR THE ADMINISTRATIVE ORGAN¬ IZATION OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM HOWARD A. DAWSON, DIRECTOR OF RESEARCH AND SURVEYS, ARKANSAS STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, LITTLE ROCK, ARK. A statewide plan for the consolidation of schools has been made for Ar¬ kansas. A plan for each of the seventy-five counties was formulated showing the location of schools that should be maintained, indicating the present schools that should be abandoned and consolidated with others, describing the size, character, and scope of the educational program to be offered in each proposed school, detailing the transportation routes necessary, and present¬ ing a budget for each reorganized district. The plan is unique in that it takes into consideration all of the children in every area of the state and seeks to avoid the necessity of super-consolidations in the future. The standards adopted call for six-grade elementary schools having at least 200 pupils and six teachers, and six-year high schools having at least one hundred pupils and five teachers. Wherever local conditions made larger schools feasible the larger schools were given preference, and when necessary, smaller schools were accepted. The minimum cost of the program in all pro¬ posed schools was estimated on exactly the same basis for such items as teachers salaries, transportation, current operating expenses, and buildings. The differences between these costs and the available revenue in each school unit gave the amount of additional funds that the state should furnish to equalize educational opportunity up to the minimum standard schools de¬ scribed for the new plan. Thus the amount of state school funds was deter¬ mined on the basis of the kind of schools needed. Under this plan the area from which pupils come to a central senior high school constitutes a school district. Such a plan calls for 307 districts, in which it is proposed to establish 307 twelve-grade schools, 560 nine-grade schools, 647 six-grade schools, and 270 isolated eight-grade schools. Following the surveys, the number of districts was reduced by consolida¬ tion from 4598 in 1928 to 3193 in 1931, resulting in the establishing of 403 consolidated schools, and the investment of $6,285,000 in 352 new building projects. The high-school enrolment has increased 20 percent and the num¬ ber of pupils transported increased from 13,000 pupils daily to 46,000, Department of Educational Research 367 THE PRESENT STATUS OF ABILITY GROUPING IN THE ELEMENTARY GRADES FRED C. AYER, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION, UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS, AUSTIN, TEXAS For many years the idea prevailed that children of the same age are much alike. As a result, pupils of approximately the same ages were grouped in the same school grades and given the same treatment with respect to subject- matter, methods, and time allotment. In recent years the development of standardized achievement and intelligence tests has made it apparent that children of the same ages are markedly different. This has resulted in a widespread movement, particularly in the larger cities, to classify pupils on the basis of ability. Thus, it is now common to find within the same grade groups of slow, normal, and superior pupils, who are taught different types of subjectmatter or at different rates of speed, the plan being commonly termed “ability grouping” or “homogeneous classification.” The superintendents and research workers closest in touch with the ad¬ ministration of ability grouping very generally regard it favorably. They claim that ability grouping results in higher achievement, that it reduces the number of failures, that pupils are happier in homogeneous groups, that homogeneous groups are easier to teach, and that ability grouping facilitates special attention to individual differences. The results of experimental research, while generally somewhat favor¬ able toward ability grouping, by no means offer conclusive evidence of its unqualified success. On the contrary several lines of evidence have stimulated the opponents of ability grouping to vigorous, and even severe criticism of its results. They claim that ability grouping is undemocratic, that it is costly, that it produces inferiority and superiority complexes, that teachers object to slow groups, that no group is really homogeneous, and that, in general, ability grouping produces poorer results. A critical examination of the more expert opinion and research devoted to ability grouping indicates that decisive evidence is still lacking concerning its ultimate desirability. The majority of experimental studies have been made with little or no independent control of the separate factors of subject- matter, methods, and time specifically adapted to the different needs of the several groups. Until this is done more effectively, no just verdict can be rendered concerning ability grouping, and no proper answer can be made to those who assert that the results of homogeneous classification are inferior to those of “individual progress” or to unclassified “activity programs.” THE IDEAL DIRECTOR OF RESEARCH B. R. BUCKINGHAM, GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, HARVARD UNIVERSITY, CAMBRIDGE, MASS. The ideal director must have some ideals before he becomes a director — ideals which justify him in seeking and accepting a directorship. It isn’t enough that as a school principal he may have become interested in testing 368 National Education Association and may have secured a working- knowledge of statistics. He must have some¬ thing else. He must have a genuine feeling for research. This may not at the time have worked out into a theory. That may come only on the job ; but the attitudes, the feeling, the appreciation should be present, and when it is present it will sooner or later develop into certain beliefs. In the first place, he will conceive the purpose of research to be the con¬ tribution of new truth. He will realize that this aim provides both proxi¬ mate and ultimate goals. As a proximate goal it may be truth new in the particular system in which it is secured and to which it is to be applied. As an ultimate goal it is no less an addition to the sum of human knowledge. In the second place, the ideal candidate for a research directorship will have a preliminary notion of the relation of philosophy to research. This notion will grow with his growth and, in my opinion, it ought sooner or later, to involve two positions. First, it should involve recognition and respect on his part for philosophical research. Second, in this matter of the relationship of philosophy to research, I should expect a recognition of the critical and interpretative standards which philosophy can and should apply to scientific research. The determination of worth or value is a philosophical matter. Third, the research worker should know when to go beyond his scientific data and invoke philosophy (which I call good judgment). The final quality upon which I am going to insist for my ideal director is persistence — particularly persistence as applied to the problems which he investigates. He will not be a chronic beginner of new enterprises. Too much research suffers from incompleteness. Too many workers betray con¬ fidence in nothing so much as in the efficacy of a fresh beginning. The report of their activities is a series of first pages. They live their professional lives under the heading of unfinished business. Study after study appears in print with no other claim to virtue than that of being a beginning. Article after article winds up by weakly turning over to the general public the knotty part of the enterprise. What problems, therefore, a research worker attacks is often of less importance than the tenacity with which he pursues them. A SURVEY OF PRESENT TRAINING COURSES FOR RESEARCH WORKERS RALPH W. TYLER, OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, COLUMBUS, OHIO Research workers in education have received more training than teachers or administrators. Sixty-two percent of a representative sampling of re¬ search workers thruout the country hold the doctor’s degree. Their pro¬ fessional course training has largely been in the fields of psychology, ad¬ ministration, philosophy, measurements, methods of teaching, statistical methods, and history of education. Thru the preparation of a thesis a por¬ tion of them have received additional training in methods of reporting re¬ search, in statistical methods, and in measurements. In the judgment of these research workers the greatest deficiencies of this training are the fail- Department of Educational Research 369 ure to develop an integrated philosophy of education, failure to provide knowledge of the actual conditions in the held to which research must be adapted, a lack of training in the use and interpretation of statistics, and a lack of practise in planning, conducting, and reporting research. In my opinion, these criticisms are reasonably valid indictments of our re¬ search training. The improvement of the training courses so as to eliminate the ground for these criticisms requires not only the addition or subtraction of particular courses required of research students, but changes in the con¬ tent of certain courses, in the methods of learning certain types of research, and in the personnel of students and faculty. This is illustrated in pro¬ posals for improving the training courses so as to develop an integrated philosophy of education, so as to train students in the uses and interpreta¬ tions of statistics, and in order to provide adequate training in the planning and conduct of research studies. The major change required is the recognition by the training agencies that they have a responsibility to the student for training him which is as important in his participation in research as in his course work. Research activities engaged in by members of the training institution should then be analyzed with reference to their possibilities for providing valuable research training as well as for utilizing student labor economically. It is high time that the training courses for research workers be improved. A CRITICAL SURVEY OF PUBLIC SCHOOL COURSES OF STUDY PUBLISHED 1929-1931 HENRY HARAP, WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY, CLEVELAND, OHIO My survey of courses of study published in the last three years is assurance of steady progress in all of the phases of curriculum revision : in refinement of organization of personnel ; in recognition of progressive educational principles; in drawing upon expert guidance; in the application of satis¬ factory technics ; in extent of experimentation and research ; and in the mechanical details. Judging from my returns and from reports in various other sources there are at least fifteen states which are now in the midst of intensive programs of curriculum revision. These include Alabama, California, Florida, Indiana, Iowa, Massachusetts, Minnesota, North Carolina, North Dakota, Pennsyl¬ vania, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Vermont, Virginia. From similar sources it appears that at least sixteen cities are engaged in major programs of curriculum reconstruction. These include New York, N. Y., Chicago, Ill., Pittsburgh, Pa., New Orleans, La., Indianapolis, Ind., Birmingham, Ala., Grand Rapids, Mich., San Jose, Calif., Kalamazoo, Mich., Columbia, S. C., Sacramento, Calif., Little Rock, Ark., Santa Barbara, Calif., Musko¬ gee, Okla., Richmond, Va., and Bessemer, Ala. Thirty-one state educational departments formulated a program of con¬ tinuous curriculum revision within the period of 1928-1930. The actual output of state courses of study rose sharply in 1924 and reached a peak in 370 National Education Association 1927. Since then there has been a gradual decline in output. If, as we are given to understand, revision is to be continuous, another peak should be reached between 1932 and 1935. While it would be too optimistic to expect this to happen, it is reasonable to expect a considerable amount of revision of state courses of study in the next ten years due to the necessity of correct- ing the mistakes which inevitably follow radical changes such as we have witnessed in the last ten years. Applying the same reasoning to city school systems, many of the courses of study produced in the first half of the last decade are due to be revised, especially since most of them were not the product of thoro experimenta¬ tion. It is oui impression that the permanency of the curriculum movement is fairly certain not only because it is intrinsically necessary, but also because it has developed into a most effective instrument of constructive supervision. AN OBJECTIVE ANALYSIS OF CHILDREN’S BOOKS CARLETON WASHBURNE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, WINNETKA, ILL. Six years ago the Winnetka Public Schools, with the help of a grant fiom the Carnegie Corporation and with the cooperation of the American Library Association and about 800 teachers in various schools thruout the country, made a study of the books most widely read and enjoyed by children at various age levels and of various degrees of reading ability. The Winnetka Graded Booklist which resulted had two serious lacks : it was not a complete buying list for schools and libraries, because many books, which are of unquestionable value, were not read and reported upon by a large enough number of children to yield valid data on their grade placement; and it did not contain books for children of the primary grades — they were too young to fill out book reports. It did, however, give us the necessary material for an objective analysis as to the elements characteristic of the structural difficulty corresponding to each level of reading ability, and of the content interesting to boys and girls, respectively, of various ages. A special study of primary books has been undertaken. A preliminary list w as prepared by group judgment of experienced primary teachers. Books from this list were then read aloud by typical tested children at each half grade level from first grade thru third, and a careful record kept of the time and errors. Those books, for which the time and errors clustered closely around the median, were selected as typical for the half grade and then were analyzed for the same structural elements as were the books of the Wdnnetka Graded Booklist. The data from this primary study are being combined with those from the Winnetka Graded Booklist study, in making a new regression equation. The correlations are running much higher with these primary books added and the probable error of estimate will accord¬ ingly be considerably reduced. With these data in hand, a list of about 1500 titles, selected by a committee appointed by the American Library Association, is being graded both as to content and structure. A new booklist will eventuate, we hope this year, Department of Educational Research 371 so organized that books suitable for any age from six to fifteen and for any degree of reading ability from first grade to ninth, may be selected with a reasonable assurance that they will fit the children for whom they are bought and that they will have a high degree of literary merit. CHILD REACTIONS AS A BASIS FOR TEACHING PICTURE APPRECIATION L. A. PECHSTEIN, DEAN, TEACHERS COLLEGE, AND GORDON HENDRICKSON, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR, TEACHERS COLLEGE, UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI, CINCINNATI, OHIO Elementary school children can readily be taught the basic principles of picture appreciation, according to a study of child reactions to pictures. This instruction should help children thruout life to evaluate and enjoy fine examples of art. The older methods in this field emphasize appreciation of particular pictures, but are not of much help if the youngster walks into a museum to see entirely different pictures. Two hundred nineteen fifth- and sixth-grade children in two school systems where no picture appreciation was taught were given an oppor¬ tunity to choose from a group of colored prints those which they especially wanted to keep, and to tell why they selected the pictures they did. They selected pictures largely on the basis of color, prettiness, scenery, and in¬ terest in the people and animals portrayed, and mentioned few technical factors. Later a lesson was taught stressing the elements that had not been men¬ tioned by the children, and the children were again given a chance to choose from a new set of pictures. This time their reasons included such items as color harmony, repetition, and contrast, center of interest, perspective, and balance. Many of the other factors wTere still mentioned, but the childrens reactions were much more discriminating after the lesson than before. Even below the junior high-school level, the speakers concluded, it is possible to teach something of the common language which all artists employ, and to make this knowledge a key to appreciation for all normal children. PRACTICAL SCHOOL ECONOMIES CHESTER F. MILLER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SAGINAW, MICH. Of the eight commonly accepted divisions of current expenditure, in¬ structional costs constitute by far the largest expenditure. If curtailment must come salaries should be kept sufficiently high to attract the most talented and capable to the profession and preserve the morale necessary for efficient work. Scientific investigations have not determined the most efficient class size. Modern education has placed such added requirements on the elementary teacher that the smaller classes, larger salaries for equal training and ex- 372 National Education Association perience, and the shorter teaching day for high-school teachers do not seem to be justified. There is room for economy in larger classes, in better balanced teaching loads and rigid adherence to a scientifically determined amount of service rendered by teachers. True economy is getting the best and most educational service from the taxpayer’s dollar. Certain cities thru surveys of plant operation and maintenance can show savings of thousands of dollars by adoption of scientific methods of fuel purchase and use, cost accounting checks on water and electricity, and the employment of engineers and main¬ tenance employees on an efficiency basis rather than political affiliations and nepotism. The depression has reemphasized the importance of leadership in adminis¬ tration. Following the lead of industry and allotting 2 percent of current expenditures to scientific research and establishing a clearing house of find¬ ings, would lead to economies little realized at present. Seven thousand bank failures in the past few years with large losses to schools are compelling school people to revive neglected and find new ways and means of safe¬ guarding funds. Large sums are lost from mismanagement, sometimes dis¬ honesty and failure to bond employees. The use of surety bonds or trusts to protect deposits against loss in event of bank failure, efficient auditing, investing idle money and sinking funds in high-grade bonds, requiring interest on daily balances, using publicity and legal procedure to force other branches of government acting as collecting agencies to promptly turn over school funds interest and delinquent tax penalties are ways and means of increasing school income. The planning of school buildings has become a highly technical task requiring the combined knowledge and skill of educators, architects and building specialists. Certain cities have saved thousands of dollars by a predetermined program developed to fit the children and the community instead of a forced program to fit the children into a building ornately con¬ structed. One community saved a half million dollars on one building by submitting plans for educational appraisal. Administrators need a more adequate knowledge of the tax problem. Over-reliance on the property tax, escape of intangible property from taxation, failure to levy equally on wealth, inequality in support due to restrictions, the concentration of wealth in new centers, are all problems to which school administrators must give their experience and best efforts. NEEDED RESEARCHES IN PUBLIC-SCHOOL FINANCE ALFRED D. SIMPSON, ASSISTANT COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION FOR FINANCE, STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT, ALBANY, N. Y. The need of more researches in the field of educational finance is exceeded only by the need of directing financial support towards the promotion of their prosecution. The best educational research facilities now exist in the univer¬ sity. Public educational research units, either state or local, are either com- Department of Educational Research 373 pletely lacking or starvingly supported. Yet the very field whence most re¬ search problems spring is the local or state school system. Most of our educational progress today is and must be based upon careful research. It stands to reason that just as the support of schools is vital to their existence so the scientific study of the manifold elements of educational finance and business administration is essential to the efficient application of this support. No period in recent years has given us more evidences of the need of re¬ search in educational finance than the years since 1929. The depression pointedly indicates the need of studies such as the following: (1) Influence of depression cycles on school support and its continuity ; (2) the contractual status of state support provisions; (3) the safeguarding of school funds; (4) the efficacy of public works and school plant extension as a tool for unem¬ ployment relief ; (5) the relation of education costs to business and industrial costs, especially salaries, in response to economic conditions at both high and low levels. Pressing need exists for researches dealing with ( 1 ) the technic of unit cost studies and the forecasting of costs; (2) the development of cost stand¬ ards for plant operation and maintenance; (3) the effect of state minimum standards upon costs and their influence upon the direction of school support ; (4) business administration processes; (5) the influence of tax and debt limitation and fiscal dependence upon the work of the schools; (6) the in¬ fluence of types of local administrative unit organization upon educational finance. No field of educational research is more challenging or more all-embracing than state aid for schools. Its hundreds of ramifications offer compelling need for research and alluring opportunities for contributing to what may prove to be the motif of public education in the twentieth century. A STUDY OF THE MOST SERIOUS PROBLEM TEACHERS GEORGE C. KYTE, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY, CALIF. The distributions of percentages after various items listed under peisonal attributes indicate that the most serious problem teachers seem to have many of the characteristics we should expect to find in the better types of teachers. The problem teachers are generally average in intelligence, neatly and ap¬ propriately dressed, at least civil in manner, generally considerate in sym¬ pathy, and passable in their use of the voice and in their attitude toward life. In the personal attributes best observed when the teachers are at work, the majority of problem teachers fall markedly below the average scores. They are unstable in poise, blunt or boorish in tact, questionable in emotional sta¬ bility, unsatisfactory in initiative, and very weak in leadership. In professional attributes these teachers, in the main, are unprogressive, careless, and inac¬ curate. In both loyalty and cooperation, almost 60 percent fall below a pas¬ sable standard. In social attributes they are mediocre. Over 30 percent of the 374 National Education Association problem teachers are uninterested in or hostile toward their students, and one-third of the group are either disagreeable or antagonistic toward other teachers. Undesirable characteristics are dominant with respect to these teachers’ influence upon their pupils. They are markedly unsatisfactory in many phases of teaching. In guiding the children to make use of their learning experiences, these teachers are either bungling or working futilely. To avoid failure as the final outcome, they become dogmatic or destructive in aiding the pupils to make use of their experiences. In specific teaching skills, the serious problem teachers are clearly poor. The unsatisfactory conditions were shown in their planning of school work, selection of teaching methods, ability in question¬ ing, use of pupils’ time, and matters of classroom management. The deplorable results obtained by the most serious problem teachers may be pointed out in terms of the attitudes and achievements of their students. The real seriousness of their influence is prominent in the children’s reactions toward their school and, worst of all, toward their teacher. Also, in their behavior toward school work, the students of these teachers are shown to be very unsatisfactory. It seems reasonable to conclude from these data that a relatively small number of the most serious problem teachers are sufficiently satisfactory to be retained as teachers and then only if marked improvement occurs. A METHOD OF EVALUATING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF A TEACHER-TRAINING PROGRAM WARREN W. COXE, DIRECTOR, EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH DIVISION, STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT, ALBANY, N. Y. Improvement of instruction depends upon teacher training. There is little objective evidence in regard to the effectiveness of most teacher-training pro¬ grams. In New York State an attempt has been made by a committee of the State Teachers Association to measure and evaluate the work of teacher-training institutions in the state. This has been done by means of information gathered from teachers at the close of their first year of teaching and from the super¬ visors of these teachers. The major part of these data consists of the difficulties which have been encountered during the year together with judgments con¬ cerning training deficiencies. Such data were gathered for each of two years and the agreement is so high as to give warrant for believing that conclusions will be reliable. The items of difficulty reported by twenty-five percent or more teachers in the order of frequency are: Keeping all pupils working Planning effective work for slow pupils Planning schedules to give time for individual help Handling special cases of discipline Training pupils in methods of study Handling more than one group in a room. Department of Educational Research 375 These indicate, in general, difficulties with technics for handling individual needs. The supervisors differed somewhat in the type of difficulty which they thought the teachers encountered. In general, they were most concerned with routine procedure, discipline, and personal relationships. Among the reasons for the difficulties the most frequent is “lack of experi¬ ence,” mentioned by 32 percent. Of next importance is “practise teaching inapplicable to actual conditions under which the teacher works” (18 per¬ cent). This last is more striking when it is noted that only 5 percent said there was too little practise teaching. Nearly 18 percent stated that “lack of instruction in normal school” was the reason for the difficulty. This reason was offered more frequently by good teachers than by poor teachers, poor teachers mentioning more frequently “lack of practise teaching.” GAINS MADE IN TOOL SUBJECTS BY NORMAL SCHOOL STUDENTS DURING A TWO-YEAR COURSE HARRY V. MASTERS, BUREAU OF RESEARCH, WASHINGTON STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, BELLINGHAM, WASH. One group of administrators of teacher-training institutions holds that a considerable amount of specific instruction should be given teachers in train¬ ing in fields of subjectmatter commonly included in the elementary-school curriculum. Another group of these administrators holds that prospective teachers should not pursue such courses for credit when they are given on an elementary or junior high-school level. The State Normal School at Belling¬ ham, Washington, might be classed with the latter group. At Bellingham achievement tests are given to all entering students in arith¬ metic reasoning, arithmetic computation, English usage, history, geography, spelling, and penmanship to determine the level of achievement of the entering freshmen. If certain standards are not reached upon the first test, students may take retests to reach the standard. If, after three retests, the standard is not reached, students are not permitted to engage in practise teaching. A group of 125 students who entered as freshmen in October, 1928, were given the entrance tests again two weeks prior to their graduation in June, 1930. The differences between the average scores on the tests taken upon entrance and at graduation show a large increase in achievement. The largest gain was made in history and the smallest gain in English usage. Students who wTere required to take retests made gains which were twice to ten times as great as did those who reached the standards in their first trial. About half of the students reached the required standards upon their first tests. The standard was most easily reached in the field of spelling and greatest difficulty was encountered in arithmetic reasoning. The results indicate that the use of a testing program as here described insures that students will make satis¬ factory improvement and reach acceptable standards in elementary-school subjects without instruction for credit in these fields at an elementary or junior high-school level. . Department of Elementary School Principals The department of elementary school prin¬ cipals, temporarily organized as the National Association of Elementary School Principals at the Atlantic City meeting of the Department of Superintendence in February, 1921, became a de¬ partment of the National Education Association at Des Moines, in July, 1921. The officers of the Department for the year 1932-33 are : President , Elizabeth McCormick, Principal, Timothy 0. Howe School, Superior, Wis. ; First Vice- president, Earl R. Laing, Principal, Burt School, 20710 Pilgrim Avenue, Detroit, Mich.; Second Vice- president, Lillian M. Towne, Principal, Thomas Gardner District Public Schools, Allston Section, Bos¬ ton, Mass. ; Third Vicepresident, H. B. Norton, Prin¬ cipal, Robinson School, 8400 First Avenue, S., Birm¬ ingham, Ala. ; Fourth Vicepresident, Margaret C. Mackintosh, Principal, Public School 140, Brooklyn, N. Y. ; Fifth Vicepresident, Mason A. Stratton, Principal, Brighton Avenue School, Atlantic City, N. J. ; Executive Secretary, Eva G. Pinkston, 1201 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C. ; Executive Com¬ mittee: M. Emma Brookes, Principal, Miles School, 11918 Miles Avenue, Cleveland, Ohio (Term expires 1933) ; A. B. Heacock, Principal, Los Feliz School, 4737 Hollywood Boulevard, Los Angeles, Calif. (Term expires 1934) ; Herbert C. Hansen, Principal, Talcott School, Chicago, Ill. (Term expires 1935) ; Cassie F. Roys, Principal, Walnut Hill School, Omaha, Nebr. (Term expires 1936). This Department meets twice each year — in Feb¬ ruary and July. Facts relating to the establishment of this. Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of Proceedings as follows: 1921:453 1924:545-564 1927:419-456 1930:333-365 1922 :851-886 1925 :450-477 1928 :375-409 1931 :433-465 1923:653-666 1926:457-495 1929:391-424 [ 378 ] WHY DO WE CHASE PANACEAS IN EDUCATION? FRANK W. HUBBARD, ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR OF RESEARCH, NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. It is my purpose to discuss the phenomena known as “the pursuit of pana¬ ceas.” Under such a topic one might scold, ridicule, or condemn the present objectives and methods of education. One might join the unthinking in their criticism of the socalled “fads and frills” of education. It might be possible even to say some things to please the shortsighted advocates of educational retrenchment. I shall do none of these things. First, because most elementary school prin¬ cipals do not need to be scolded about school methods. Second, when later I speak of “cure-alls” in education I shall not have reference to the socalled fads and frills.” A fad in education today is simply a school procedure too new and too complicated for the critic to understand. In contrast, a “panacea” is an uncritical acceptance and a universal application of a particular device by teachers who should have more perspective and judgment. In the third place, if I should not encourage the panic-stricken advocate of retrenchment, it is because existing economic conditions show that we need more rather than less education. An examination of American education shows that we have been hampered by those with cure-alls for our educational problems. If one examines the records of professional organizations he will be amazed with the fanatical zeal with which various Remedies” have been offered and tolerated by edu¬ cators. One is reminded of the patent-medicine salesman who used to move from town to town with his tent, side-show, nostrums, and raucous talks — selling his doubtful remedies to an ever-hopeful audience. Let me illustrate the point in the field of handwriting. When some of you went to school a flowing Spencerian handwriting was the order of the day. Some of us started to school when vertical handwriting was considered “pro¬ gressive. At the third grade I encountered a system of slanting penmanship. Between the two styles of writing I became so confused physically and men¬ tally that today my handwriting is not exhibited publicly if it can be avoided. If we were to search in the records of professional meetings about 1896 we would find statements on vertical handwriting similar to the following: Probably no topic has provoked more frequent discussion or aroused greater diversity of opinion in educational circles than vertical writing. While some have denounced it as a passing fad, or a worthless innovation which ought never to be seriously considered as a rival of the orthodox, slanting hand, others have claimed superior advantages for it. Its friends have increased in numbers, and at the present time almost all the more progressive cities and towns in the country have made or are about to make a trial of it. In many places where it has been in¬ troduced into a few schools the experiment has been so satisfactory that it has been adopted in all the schools. Remember that the above statement was made in 1896. Note how the “patent-medicine” tactics were applied. There is this gentle ridicule: “some have denounced it as a passing fad.” Then comes the invitation to jump on [ 379 ] 380 National Education Association the bandwagon in this phrase: “its friends have increased in numbers.” Finally, to convince the wavering educator the whip is snapped by the words “almost all of the more progressive cities and towns in the country have made a trial of it.” Continuing with the 1896 statement we find this closing sentence: Vertical writing is a protest against the bad positions of the children, and against the illegible scrawls of grown people, and I am in hopes that as a result of these discussions the pupils in our schools will go out into the world with straight backs — two good eyes, and a handwriting that he who runs may read. In other words our speaker of 1896 would have us believe that vertical writing could solve not only the major problems of penmanship but also numerous difficulties with posture and the hygiene of the eyes. Immediately after the person quoted above finished his address a member of the audience made this statement : Writing from an educational standpoint, develops a muscular control of the hand. It develops attention and close observation. It develops habits of order, judgment, accuracy, self-reliance, and memory. It develops will power. It cultivates the taste. The hand is trained to obedience. The sense of touch and the sense of sight are educated and the will is strengthened. The conclusion seems reasonable that because of unsubstantiated state¬ ments, which proposed a particular system of penmanship as a cure of numer¬ ous problems, many of us were taught vertical handwriting in the first years of school. Later because of similar unverified claims for slanting penmanship many of us were forced to change our penmanship habits. It is my contention that in the search for “cure-alls” we have an aimless desire to do something different and in our wandering confuse means with ends. We forget that the essential purposes of penmanship are to teach the pupil to write a legible hand, with reasonable speed, and with the minimum of fatigue. Some of us lose sight of the fact that vertical handwriting, the Spencerian system, and numerous other systems are but means, tools, or devices whereby we accom¬ plish our essential purposes. In our calmer moments we know that the control of our tools proves that we are master workmen, but that the overzealous use of a particular device marks us as purveyors of nostrums. Let us think for a few moments about the subject of manual training. As you know, manual training began in the United States about 1880 with the rather formalized Russian system and then became less formalized about 1890 by combination with the socalled Swedish sloyd plan. As with most innovations in education the advocates of manual training met considerable opposition and inertia. The records of the speeches of our professional associa¬ tions show the tendency, on the part of a few, to overcome opposition by “patent-medicine” arguments. In 1884 a layman, addressing a teachers con¬ vention on the subject of manual training, said in part: So far as human problems are solvable, they are solvable by intelligence and skill. One thousand manual training schools in the land would solve not only the question of strikes and lockouts, but they would solve the whole capital and labor Department of Elementary School Principals 381 problem. Communism might solve the capital and labor problem for a week, or a month, or a year, and then we should have the same problem back again. But the manual training schools would solve the capital and labor problem permanently by doing away with it. For the boys educated in the manual training schools there will be no capital and labor problem. Wherever they go they will be able to achieve for themselves their due share of the good things of this world. Note that the speaker held out the alluring hope that a few manual train¬ ing schools would “solve the whole capital and labor problem.” We should probably not be far wrong if we suspect that one acute problem in 1884 in the United States was the capital and labor struggle as manifested in strikes and lockouts. If immigration, child labor, or crime had been in the public focus at that time the speaker would have probably offered manual training as a cure for those particular difficulties. We shall not concern ourselves further with examples from ancient his¬ tory. It would be possible to quote from the Proceedings of the National Education Association over a period of seventy-five years to show how over- zealous advocates have exaggerated the potential power of promising move¬ ments. Simplified spelling, foreign language, kindergartens, art education, and music education have been surrounded with bandwagons and shrieking salesmen. As the parades have gotten under way the drums have pounded, the advocates have yelled, and numbers of teachers have joined the mad pursuit of a new sovereign remedy. Thus it is that some of the finest things in education — starting under controled, experimental conditions — have swelled into mob-like movements and then melted away before searching experimentation and research. After the excitement has passed and the crowds departed, the poised worker in education must “pick up the pieces” and set about the task of reconstructing the movement along permanent lines. T he pursuit of cure-alls is not an obsolete custom. IVIost of you are familiar with the recent impetus given to supervision — particularly to supervisory activities of the principal. We should all agree that most of the emphasis on supervision has been a good thing. A principal should be in full charge of the instruction in his building; he should understand teaching methods; he should visit classrooms ; and he should devote a considerable proportion of his time to the study of instructional problems. Without doubt all of these activi¬ ties are necessary, desirable, and ultimately beneficial to children. However, when a principal gives 90 percent of his time to socalled supervisory activities to the neglect of major administrative functions, then he is sacrificing some¬ thing worthwhile for nostrum. When a supervisor considers “classroom visitation” as the only or the best means of supervising then he is pursuing a panacea. When anyone has the idea that supervision can make up for the deficiencies of teaching which come from inadequately trained teachers, shortages in instructional materials, and administrative inarticulations — then he has faith in some universal palliative. 382 National Education Association We are in grave danger of sacrificing upon the altar of “panaceaism” the recent impetus given to character education. One needs only to examine the Tenth Yearbook of the Department of Superintendence to realize that in this volume exists the basis for very effective programs in the cultivation of characters. But today we are pressed by crime conditions of striking pro¬ portions. Many problems of social organization bewilder us. There is grave danger that the overzealous will stampede us after “cure-alls” in character education. If this panic occurs, then many of the splendid developments in character education will be temporarily lost ; for we will prescribe a “sove¬ reign remedy” for all of our ills and then be disappointed because so little progress is made. Mental testing is a movement which has suffered from exaggerated claims. The over-zealous ones said that the socalled “intelligence test” measured all innate ability. It was claimed that the intelligence quotient as measured by tests never changed during the lifetime of the individual. Children were classified and labeled after relatively superficial examinations. Claims were made that the testing movement would reduce teaching to a science and solve the most vexing problems. The panacea phases of the mental testing move¬ ment spread like wildfire, lost momentum, and brought mental testing much undeserved ridicule. A speech that was applauded most vigorously at the Detroit convention in 1931 was one which challenged the systematic use of intelligence tests in our schools. Fortunately, in many school systems the testing movement has assumed its rightful place as an exceedingly useful tool- Like numerous other devices it has been placed in the “working kit” of the well-trained educator to be used when the problems at hand are likely to respond to that particular treatment. In other words testing is returning to the status of “a means to an end” rather than continuing in the role of an infallible remedy. Up to this point it has been contended that education has been beset by advocates of panaceas, that the stampede after cure-alls has misdirected many useful educational movements, and that after the excitement has passed we are seriously disillusioned and cautious toward all innovations. Perhaps even more disastrous than this periodic “chasing about” is the tendency to throw away our old procedures and then after our disappointment to discard the new movement also. Sometimes we almost seem to persecute those who con¬ tinue to use the “old-fashioned” and the “unprogressive” systems. Several years ago there was a teacher of many years of experience em¬ ployed in a school of which I was principal. She put considerable emphasis upon drill technics. Practically all of the other teachers stressed the socalled informal and project devices. It was with great difficulty that I protected this elderly teacher against the ridicule of her associates and the censure of my superior administrative officers. She was labeled as “unprogressive” and “old- fashioned.” While urging her to modify her procedures, I insisted that she retain many of her methods because the children were growing splendidly under the treatment. We need to remember that education seeks to bring about child growth and that the particular method is subordinate to this end. Department of Elementary School Principals 383 An effort to force any teacher to reject her tested methods for the socalled “best” method of the hour is in my way of thinking an attempt to attribute panacea powers to the new technics. To avoid misunderstanding, let me say that I am not opposed to changes or improvements which come about after due research and meditation. It is toward the irrational, emotionalized, and sovereign remedies that these critical remarks are directed. Why do we pursue panaceas? There are probably many factors at work to make “panaceas” alluring to us. Postal authorities tell us that millions of dollars are lost annually by frauds conducted thru the mails. People seek constantly “to get rich quick” and “to settle things once and for all.” There are probably many explanations for this behavior, but we can trace some of the difficulty to our desire to conserve energy and to enjoy equilibrium. This tendency toward complacency seems to be common among all living things. There have been several very careful investigations of the apparent desire of life to find a condition of equilibrium. For example, a one-celled animal, such as the amoeba, seems to enjoy mere existence. A slight dis¬ turbance near an amoeba results in efforts to avoid complications. First, the amoeba contracts, then it moves away from the disturbing element ; and if there is no further irritation, the single cell appears to relax and to renew its calm enjoyment of life. Although this example has been selected to illustrate the point, careful observation shows that living things have a tendency toward complacency. When faced with a problem or difficulty an animal struggles to get away from the irritation. Once safely away from the disturbance it relaxes and does not struggle until faced by new complications. When the new problem becomes unavoidable, there are further random efforts either to solve the difficulty or to escape to more peaceful surroundings. Humans respond to difficulties much as do other living things. When pressed by an unavoidable question we attempt to solve it. If the struggle leads to success we tend to relax until the next question is propounded ; or failing in a solution, we shelter ourselves behind indifference or take ourselves away from the dis¬ turbance. Either artificially or actually we seek a condition of equilibrium wherein we can exist with peace. We are all well aware that life is a series of problems which buffet us about, force us to think, and push us into activity. The problems of teaching demand much of our time and energy. So with the joys of complacency ahead of us we are constantly looking for “short cuts,” “the best methods,” and “the final solution.” In my opinion, these attitudes and these searches for the “final solution” make us willing to believe pseudo-leaders who promise to guide us to utopia. The second major factor leading to our search for nostrums is our desire for social approval. It is always easier to run with the mob than it is to stand out alone. We all love a parade. No matter how firm our resolves to spend time in calm and thoughtful meditation, when the music strikes up our feet begin to dance, and soon we are yelling lustily after the bandwagon. Not only 384 National Education Association do we follow noisily in the parade, but we are likely to throw stones at the spectators who refuse to join us. Someone has called the group of friends and spectators who surround us the social gallery. This term is an excellent description of the facts. We all do our daily school work in the midst of a crowd — children, teachers, prin¬ cipals, and parents. The second tier of the social gallery contains the county officers, the state school officials, and the members of the state teachers associa¬ tion. In the third tier are the national individuals and groups. Finally, we are gradually developing in education a fourth or international group of on¬ lookers. From all of these galleries masses of people are in a real sense looking down upon our work — ready to cheer, to scold, or to jeer at us, depending on how well we conform to the group s idea as to the way things should be done. The group is not always right in what it believes. It is not always well- informed as to what is actually happening down in the “blood and sand” of the arena. Nevertheless, it is exceedingly difficult not to worship a par¬ ticular panacea if it happens to be the totem pole of our social gallery. What can we do about the pursuit of cure-alls? First, let me emphasize that there is no panacea to end all panaceas. In looking ahead there seems to be several matters which principals particularly should keep before them as counter-balances to “panacea chasing tendencies.” As stabilizing influences let me suggest the following: (1) advanced professional training, (2) pro¬ fessional organization, (3) research and experimentation, and (4) medi¬ tation. (1) First, advanced professional training is a stabilizing influence ad¬ vanced in some places with considerable emphasis upon its remedial powers. Disregarding this panacea emphasis, the fact remains that for the country as a whole our elementary" school principals lack professional and academic training. The qualifications in many cities continue to remain nebulous and ill-formed, while in rural areas few standards exist above those required for classroom teachers. The Committee on Standards and Training of this Department recom¬ mended in 1928 that the bachelor’s degree should be the minimum training and that in many" communities the master’s degree should be required. These standards, for those who aspire to the principalship of the future, are not too high. But in getting stability in thought and action we should not place emphasis upon the length of professional training to the neglect of content. Content in future professional courses will have to deal more with problem¬ solving wherein the barriers existing between courses in history, supervision, methods, and administration will be broken down. We shall worry less about names and dates in the history of education, and give more attention to the sweep of social forces, to the reasons for the rise and fall of educational move¬ ment, and to comparisons between present and past educational develop¬ ments. We are only contending here that some of the recent tendencies in elemen¬ tary school teaching will invade our professional courses. Then it will be that Department of Elementary School Principals 385 future graduate students of education may know fewer isolated facts, but they should be able to examine problems critically and to avoid the delusions of universal remedies. (2) The second stabilizing factor for principals will be the professional organizations similar to this national Department. Already there are over twenty state principals’ associations. There are several hundred local prin¬ cipals’ clubs. The potential power and influence for good of the principals’ groups is bound to increase during the next few years. Particularly useful is the conference type of convention which is used widely in the meetings of elementary school administrators in the states of New York, New Jersey, and California. In the round table meeting the audience is not exhorted, pum¬ melled, frightened, or stampeded into a program of action, but instead there is a calm discussion of professional problems. Many persons get a chance to express themselves and all aspects of the problems are brought to light. Differ¬ ences in viewpoints are commended, not condemned. As we look ahead we can visualize the principal’s professional association as enlarging and vitalizing the professional preparation begun in the college. Principals will study their own problems and in so doing will teach one another to beware of utopias where problems are not supposed to exist. (3) The third stabilizing influence of the future is research and experi¬ mentation. Research is a device which in recent years has been credited with magic properties. Nevertheless, I urge research as a tool for principals to use in controling the panacea epidemic. Principals need to keep a well-stocked scientific kit at hand. As new technics and remedies are proposed it should be a habit to reach for the test-tubes and the microscope. A careful student does not accept any new method on the basis of the bandwagon music, the cries of the zealots, or the jeers of the social gallery. He takes the attitude that de¬ vices, methods, and technics are merely devices to be used in his school if they work. The only way to find out whether a device works is for one to actually try it out under controled conditions or for one to accept the findings of some other careful student. In my opinion, each principal may well train himself to experiment with new proposals under the conditions peculiar to his own building. (4) As the final stabilizing influence let me commend the value of medita¬ tion. My own experience and observations lead me to believe that principals become too deeply involved in the routine activities of their schools. They need to draw apart from “the blooming buzzing confusion” and to go up on a high mountain for a period of calm reflective thinking. This need for reflection in connection with our highly organized life has been cleverly stated by a great economic statistician, Roger Babson, as follows: The solution of your personal business problem is to spend more time in medita¬ tion and less in consultation; to devote more energy to study and less energy to ballyhoo; to give more time to praying in secret and less time to pleading with bankers; to read more of the classics and less of the newspapers; in short, to turn over a new leaf.1 1 Babson, Roger. “What the Depression is Teaching.” Review of Reviews 85: 23; May, 1932. 386 National Education Association In education we need to meditate and to turn plans over carefully in our minds, if we are to retain a true perspective of means and goals in education. I urge principals to cultivate uninterrupted and unhurried thinking upon their problems. Summary — In this short address we have considered the pursuit and the advocacy of panaceas as an affliction of education. Movements and devices of considerable merit are taken by over zealous persons and prescribed as uni¬ versal remedies for all problems. Often the persons who fail to follow the “bandwagons” are called “unprogressive” and “old-fashioned.” The social gallery cheers the conformist and jeers at the independent thinker. Groups applaud the magician, listen with open mouths to the spellbinder — and ignore the unassuming educator who plods steadily forward. Because the truly pro¬ gressive educator is one with balance and perspective, I have suggested that principals should look ahead to the stabilizing influences of ( 1 ) advanced professional training, (2) professional associations, (3) research and ex¬ perimentation, and (4) meditation. As master workmen, skilled in the use of many tools, we cannot afford to follow or to lead in the pursuit of panaceas. GEOGRAPHY WITH MEANING L. D. ODHNER, SECRETARY, CAMDEN COUNTY CHAMBER OF COMMERCE, CAMDEN, N. J. Geography begins at home. From the moment we enter this world we are in contact with its geography. Its fields, its streams, its hills, its raw material, its people and their products — all in one way or another greet us at our birth. So actually, geography, more than anything else, begins at home. Why, then, since our Creator has seen fit to apply this principle to his creatures, should we not apply the same principle to the teaching of geog¬ raphy ? Instead of using standard textbooks covering the geography of the world with special emphasis on American geography, why don’t we devote the first few years of our child’s geography course to a study of the geography of his home community — the place the child understands and the place in which he is interested ? He doesn’t want to memorize the products, population, rivers, and moun¬ tains of Ceylon, because until he sees Ceylon from an angle of what these things mean to his own community, they are just so many cold, dead facts to him. Suppose that we started our geography course by teaching the child the geography of his own little borough or township or city perhaps. Once he has grasped the idea of figures he will know what it means when we tell him that there are three thousand people in Merchantville, the town in which he lives. Later he will have a better idea of the size of the population of Ceylon when he understands that with its three million inhabitants, it has enough population to make a thousand communities the size of Merchantville. Then Department of Elementary School Principals 387 let us teach him that the level country, with its sandy soil, surrounding Merchantville, is a coastal plain, and later he will really know what is meant by a coastal plain whenever it occurs in the geography of the world. Then teach him about the products of the soil of the coastal plains surrounding Merchantville, and he will have something by which he can compare or con¬ trast the products of the soil of other parts of the world. Next he will learn that Merchantville is a residential town, and that every morning his father and hundreds of others from Merchantville go to work in Camden and Philadelphia. Camden, he will find, is part of Camden County in which Merchantville is located, and both Merchantville and Camden are part of the Philadelphia metropolitan area. He will thus learn about his county and his metropolitan area ; and let us bear in mind that the metro¬ politan area is a subject that must be taught in geography today, if it does not wish to fall hopelessly behind the times. The metropolitan area today is of more importance than the city, the county, or any mere arbitrary boun¬ daries. Having learned that his little Merchantville is a part of something, the natural curiosity of the child leads him to want to know something of that next larger unit of which his little town is a part. Also today, with all of our automobiles, the child frequently travels thru the other parts of the county and metropolitan area in which he lives. Here is our opportunity to teach him what his county and metropolitan area produce and what products they use. And here is where we can make world geography live! Let us just take Camden, the area with which I am most familiar, as an example. Along Camden’s waterfront are numerous shipyards, large and small. In one of these smaller shipyards Sir Hubert Wilkins had his sub¬ marine, “Nautilus,” outfitted for its much publicized but unsuccessful polar dash. The child will want to know where that submarine traveled and that opens the way for teaching him about the North Atlantic. In the yards of the great New York Shipbuilding Company are being constructed the two largest passenger vessels ever built in America. They are going into European service. Following these ships on an imaginary trip to various European ports makes European geography of interest to the Camden County school child. But every town does not have shipyards that build vessels that travel all over the world, so let us leave the romantic shipbuilding industry for a pro¬ saic little button manufacturing plant, the Peerless Pearl Company of which a Merchantville man is president. There is nothing very exciting about pearl buttons. We can see them on our shirt every day, and we know that they frequently crumble like powder after our shirt has come back from the laundry and we are putting it on in a hurry to get to that social function to which we are already late. But every bit of material from which those buttons are made comes from the waters of the South Pacific, surrounding New Zealand, Australia, and those supposedly exotic South Sea Isles. It comes from the mother of pearl oyster, the shells of which may be seen in quantity 388 National Education Association at the Peerless Pearl plant. When the child learns that all of these oysters are gathered by divers, he will be interested in the geography of Oceanica, that speckled, water-covered continent of the Southern Pacific and Indian Oceans. Without dwelling much further on this subject we shall hasten thru the geography of the world as it may be studied thru the manufacturing plants of Camden. Kieckhefer Container Company uses shiploads of wood pulp from Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Russia. Middlebrook combs thousands of tons of wool from Australia. Eavenson Soap are large importers of oils from Africa and South America, and Standard Tank and Seat use camphor from the Philip¬ pines and Malayan Peninsula. RCA Victor consumes boatloads of mahogany from Brazil and manufactures mechanical music that furnishes entertainment for homes of civilized people in every quarter of the Globe. Campbell’s Soups also are shipped all over the world. Hides for the Reed-Cook Leather Com¬ pany come in from the Argentine and all those tropical countries in which the alligator and ostrich are found. John R. Evans, the world’s largest manu¬ facturer of glazed kid, imports boatloads of skins from Asia Minor and ships many of them back, highly glossed and prepared, to the countries of the Balkan Peninsula. Armstrong Cork Company gets almost all of its cork from sunny Spain, and McAndrews and Forbes bring in shiploads of licorice root from Syria, the Holy Land, and Turkey. Canada plays a large part in furnishing the paper supply for Haddon Craftsmen, printer of the American Mercury, and China and Japan supply the silk for Camden County’s five silk hosiery mills. The chemicals used by Mechling Brothers and Wilckes, Martin and Wilckes cover the geography of Germany and many other parts of the world, and the Continental Can Company must get its tin from Merrie Old Eng¬ land or else go to Siberia. And so my story might continue for hours, for I have but barely scratched the surface. We need merely look into our own community and there we shall learn the geography of the world. Camden County is not exceptional but rather exemplary of all other American communities. So far in my talk I may have laid myself open to the accusation that I am attempting to teach teachers how to teach geography, but that is farthest from my thought. All of this introduction is but leading up to my point that the schools have a tremendous part to play in community development, not only in producing educated pupils for their respective communities, but in contributing towards its upbuilding thru the instillation of civic pride in their pupils. The community with civic pride grows and progresses, builds better schools and employs more school teachers. The community without it de¬ teriorates and its schools retrogress with it. Civic pride has been overdone in many communities to a point which has attracted the attention of those brilliant but iconoclastic cynics who are the literary rage of the day. While their barbs and ridicule may have helped to Department of Elementary School Principals 389 expose spurious civic pride, let us not allow them to lessen our desire for genuine civic pride. Genuine civic pride is nothing more or less than community self-respect and self-confidence. A community without self-respect commands no respect or esteem from anybody, just as a man without self-respect commands no respect or consideration from others. Community self-respect expresses itself in pride in what the community has done and is capable of doing. Communi¬ ties possessing such pride undertake projects and attract inhabitants that contribute towards its growth. Communities lacking it lose even the little which they have. Civic pride — community self-respect — cannot be instilled in pupils who do not know their community, nor by teachers who do not know it. I think it is the responsibility of every community to prepare a textbook on the community similar to our Book of Camden County. I think that such a book should be in every school and that special courses should be devoted to it. Why are we in this world? We are here for only one reason whether we like it or not and that is to be of use to our fellowman. How do we prepare ourselves to be of use to our fellowman? First by keeping our minds and bodies in sound and healthy condition. If we do not do that we are a drain on our community, not a help. Then by housing, feed¬ ing, clothing, and educating our family. Failing to do that makes our family a community liability, not an asset. Following our family comes the town in which we live. If we make it active and prosperous it contributes toward the state. If we do not it becomes a satellite on the commonwealth. To maintain our community as a productive force, contributing both spiritual and material wealth to the state, is the truest form of patriotism. It means far more to our country than demonstrations and parades. Without civic pride — community self-respect — this cannot be done, and so again I emphasize the responsibility of the schools in developing this community self- respect thru teaching their pupils to know their local communities thoroly. The days when things can be sold by blatant repetitions of arbitrary claims that they are the best is rapidly passing. The salesman today who is the most thoroly acquainted with all features of his product is the one who gets the greatest results. The same thing applies to communities. Loud-mouthed claims regarding the community’s superiority find few willing listeners. Intelligent informa¬ tion, however, almost always proves interesting and impresses those who hear it. Without a thoro knowledge of his community the inhabitant thereof can¬ not give intelligent information — and when this is lacking, “boasting” is always resorted to. In an editorial in the Saturday Evening Post for June 11, entitled “Too Big — Too Quick” it says, “Boosting leads to boasting and both may lead to busting.” Unfortunately this statement has been only too true of American communities during the last decade and boosting and boast¬ ing have been substituted for community self-respect. While a thoro knowledge of our community might dampen our ardor along certain lines in which the plain facts show that the community does 390 National Education Association not and cannot excel — while it may show us that a community, like a human being, has limitations, nevertheless we need not fear that it will lessen our enthusiasm for genuine community progress. My study of Camden County has shown me that there are many lines of growth and development that we must surrender to other communities better adapted for them, but when I study some of the things going on in our midst at this very minute, my enthusiasm increases rather than decreases. As an example, let me cite only three of many important projects recently started in the city of Camden which possess tremendous potentialities. An inventor by the name of Furness, who has been working for fifteen years on ways and means for improving the quality and manufacturing methods of rayon, has finally seen his efforts rewarded thru the equipping of a factory of moderate size with his new machine for the production of a new rayon. His rayon has passed the severest tests of all of the great rayon using indus¬ tries and has consistently shown qualities superior to anything else on the market. His machine is almost a miracle. It produces rayon finished and ready for shipment in five hours and three minutes, as compared with eighty hours for any other system. This five hours and three minutes includes every process in the manufacture of rayon from the time that the raw materials are first mixed to the winding of the silken-like thread on the spools for delivery. The whole thing is done on a little revolving cylinder about three feet long and eight inches wide. When one sees this, one knows that it will revolutionize the rayon industry. If the people of Camden County are suffi¬ ciently alert they can keep this industry within their borders and eventually have their community become one of the great rayon manufacturing centers of the world. School children of Camden County should know something about this new rayon invention. It is quite possible that there will be more future for them in the rayon industry of Camden County than in those much more alluring undertakings in the green fields that are so far away. When the Victor Talking Machine Company merged with the Radio Corporation of America, the radio engineering forces of all of the great electrical companies associated in the Radio Corporation were moved to Camden and one of the large buildings of the Victor plant is now entirely devoted to research work. Here, some of the country’s best engineering minds are working day and night on the perfection of television. In Collingswood, one of Camden County’s leading residential communities, they have located an experimental television broadcasting station and every day moving pic¬ tures are being broadcast thru the air in Camden County. It is only a matter of a few years until television is on the market. Without doubt the television receiver will be in a higher price range than the radio, but just as a means was found for financing an automobile for nearly every American family, so will a means be found for placing a television instrument in almost every home. Think what a tremendous industry this will be when that takes place, and what an opportunity Camden County has if it can retain this industry within its borders. In these same laboratories, engineers are perfecting a continuous home Department of Elementary School Principals 391 newspaper, a machine that will print on a tape some six or eight inches wide, the news of the day, together with pictures illustrating it, just as it occurs. Think of turning this machine on at night when one retires at eleven or eleven-thirty and coming down to breakfast bright and early in the morning, and having before you in scroll form, all the news of the day, up to the very last minute for perusal while crunching the morning toast. Here is another potential industry that will employ thousands of men. Only three years ago, aviation interests first were attracted to Camden th ru the location of Central Airport. In that short time it has developed into the official landing field of all of the commercial aviation lines serving the great Philadelphia-Camden metropolitan area. Our county is one that naturally lends itself to aviation and without doubt when the time returns for further expansion of this industry, there will be room for hundreds and maybe thousands of our county’s inhabitants to find employment in one or another of its many different phases. I cite these examples to illustrate the importance of studying the potentiali¬ ties of a community and of teaching them to the children. I believe that this has a definite and important place in the school system. In conclusion, let me stress the importance of telling the story of the community in an interesting and appealing manner. If we tell it merely as routine, in a dry and unimaginative way, it will not arouse the response that the subject deserves. In teaching the local geography of South Jersey, for example, we might say that it possesses a number of outstanding features, including several industries that are the largest of their kind in the world ; some unusual agricultural features and attractive shore resorts. The school children will listen and perhaps repeat the story in the same manner, without taking much interest in it themselves or arousing any interest among their listeners. On the other hand, we might get better results if we told it something like this: South Jersey, which is comprised of the seven southern counties of the state of New Jersey and has an area of about 3000 square miles, is one of the most self-contained economic units in America. On its western borders lies a great industrial area, part of the Philadelphia area, which is frequently called the world’s greatest workshop. But examina¬ tion of this world’s greatest workshop will disclose that a very important section of it lies along the Jersey side of the Delaware River and includes an unusually large number of great industries known thruout the world. Tens of thousands of workers are employed in these plants. Thruout the center of South Jersey lies one of the world’s richest agricul¬ tural districts, stretching all the way from Burlington County down to the Delaware Bay and many of its crops, such as its cranberries, tomatoes, and sweet potatoes, are shipped to all parts of the globe, either in fresh or pre¬ pared form. On the east, along the Atlantic Seaboard are the wonderful South Jersey shore resorts, known everywhere as the world’s playground. 392 National Education Association Here in this small area of only 3000 square miles, all within one hour’s ride of another, we find work in the industrial section, food in the agricul¬ tural section, and health and play in the recreational section. Work, food, health, and play — the four things for which man has striven more than any¬ thing else in this world’s history. And if we take a trip thru this unusual little territory, what do we find ? We enter South Jersey over the world’s busiest suspension bridge. We no more than get on the Jersey side of this bridge than we see the world’s largest radio and talking machine manufacturing plant, the RCA Victor Company; the world’s largest soup canning plant, the Campbell Soup Company ; the world’s largest steel pen manufacturing plant, the Esterbrook Steel Pen Com¬ pany; and the world’s largest plant devoted solely to the retailing of furni¬ ture, the J. B. Van Sciver Company. Two of these companies, the Campbell Soup Company and the RCA Victor Company, are among the world’s largest advertisers. Looking to the north we see the world’s largest plant for the manufactur¬ ing of glazed kid, the John R. Evans Company; and to the South is the world’s largest privately owned shipbuilding plant, the New York Ship¬ building Company; the world’s largest licorice manufacturing plant, the McAndrews and Forbes Company; and the world’s largest wool scouring plant, the Eavenson-Levering Company. Straight ahead of us is the world’s largest manufacturer of automobile supplies, the R. M. Hollingshead Company. As we travel east, we get on to the White H orse Pike, sixty miles in length and mile for mile, the most traveled highway of its length in the world. Traveling east on the White Horse Pike we pass south of the world’s largest plant for the manufacturing of steam heating systems, the Warren Webster Company; and north of old Gloucester County at Gibbsboro, is the world’s largest plant for the manufacture of dynamite, the DuPont Company. At Paulsboro is located the world’s largest plant for the manu¬ facturing of lubricating oils, the Vacuum Oil Company; and at Salem we find the home of the world’s largest plant for the manufacturing of tomato ketchup, the Heinz Company. Continuing still further east, we enter the great South Jersey agricultural district, where we find the world’s largest blueberries, its best fancy peaches, its best fancy poultry, its best fancy sweet potatoes, and down on the Delaware Bay, the world’s finest oyster beds. Going still further east, we pass south of Lakehurst, the home of the world’s largest Aerodrome, and north of Vineland, the home of the Kimball Company, the world’s largest manufacturer of glass for scientific purposes. Then we arrive at the shore, at Atlantic City, the home of the world’s largest Convention Hall and the Boardwalk, the world’s greatest pleasure promenade, and all of the shore resorts together make the world’s largest and most patronized pleasure and health resorts. If this trip thru South Jersey is not fast enough, we can return to Camden and board a Seashore Express and make the whole trip over again on one of the world’s fastest trains, which runs thru South Jersey. Department of Elementary School Principals 393 LOOKING AHEAD FOR TEACHERS LOIS COFFEY MOSSMAN, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. In the last decade we have spent much time and thought upon the im¬ provement of the curriculum. We now have many places which have devel¬ oped curriculums rich in content. The very richness of the offering has presented a new difficulty. Teachers who are able to carry on such work are not numerous. The advocate of such curriculum work is confronted with the question: But where will you get teachers able to teach thus? If one were able to have teachers of the kind he really wanted, what desirable qualities would he be inclined to seek? Which of the following would be included? 1. A genuine interest in child life, fostered by much study and contact with children both in and out of school 2. A sympathetic understanding of children’s tendencies and ability to utilize these 3. An interest in presentday social problems 4. Ability to express one’s ideas with fluency and clarity 5. A hobby or avocational interest which can be fruitfully shared with children 6. A hobby or avocational interest of one’s own which is self-renewing 7. Contact with work of other kinds than the teacher knows how to do himself in some such fields as gardening, chicken raising, dairying, factory work, canning, construction, laundry work, cooking, typing, nursing, sewing, or social-service work 8. Travel which will give one an acquaintance with some peoples different from the home folk 9. Much acquaintance with history 10. Much acquaintance with literature, both for adults and for children 11. Ability to sing and play at least one musical instrument 12. Acquaintance with much good music 13. Some scientific interests of personal concern 14. An interest in the quantitative aspects of life 15. Some constructive, creative imagination that is usable in guiding children’s dramatics, creative art, story writing, and thinking 16. Ability to organize plans, ideas, and materials; ability to file or otherwise make materials available; and ability to teach others to organize and file 17. Ability to read (a) entertainingly and convincingly to others and (b) with accuracy and expedition for one’s self 18. Ability to speak convincingly to an audience on some questions 19. Some manual and creative skill such as lettering, poster and chart making, costuming, stage decorating, bookbinding, modeling, and gardening 20. Some ability to organize a school library 21. Some ability to understand temperamental differences in children 22. Ability to lead group thinking and action. When we contemplate such a list of qualities of desirable teachers we are appalled at the present deficits in meeting the proposals. To have teachers who can measure up to this list means a step in advance jf we would really teach the new curriculums. Perhaps this list is not well made. Perhaps it omits some very desirable traits. Perhaps it is not made up of significant factors. However, using it 394 National Education Association as a stimulating approach to the question before us — What shall we do in looking ahead for better teachers f — let us consider some things that may be done toward answering our question. There seem to be two sources to which to look in attempting to develop teachers of the kind suggested. One is training, the work of the teachers college ; the other is supervision, the work of principals and supervisors in the field. Already forces have been active which give promise of improvement in the type of training which prospective teachers are receiving. Provincialism in the program of study is less apparent than once obtained. Very definite efforts are to be found looking toward giving the students valuable contacts. Trips to metropolitan centers are undertaken. Exchange teachers are sometimes made available. Foreign study for a term is contemplated by some leaders in teacher training. People of note are at times made available in school activities. But much remains to be done. All too often students are graduated from teacher-training institutions who have not traveled far from home ; who have not become acquainted with a people whose mode of living is different from that of the home folk ; who have never seen a great actor or an industrial plant foreign to the familiar home industries. Too many are going out to lead children’s thinking and influence their developing taste who themselves are unfamiliar with vital problems of today and likewise with literature, music, and art. They do not know children’s books. They have not learned to like poetry. They sing little or not at all. They cannot play a musical instrument. They have not read history. Their scientific interests are all too limited. When normal schools had but two years in which to prepare high-school graduates for the work of teaching, these suggested inadequacies of the gradu¬ ates were to be expected. Much more was this true when teachers were with¬ out any professional training. The recent trend toward making the period of training a four-year term makes possible much better preparation. Careful thought is being given to the planning of the new four-year curriculum for teacher training. The teachers colleges have the possibility of developing teachers better able to teach an enriched curriculum. Will the demand of the public schools for such teachers stimulate and encourage the training institu¬ tions to make the needed changes in their program of studies ? Are the leaders in our schools awake to the value of teachers of greater ability and of greater breadth of experience? Do they demand that those who teach the children be themselves people who live and experience richly in their own lives? But what of the teachers who now man our schools? Their period of pre¬ liminary preparation is past. They are now the ones who will teach the chil¬ dren. Can they be used in developing the new curriculums? The work of teaching is unique in that effort to do creative work is not exhausted in its immediate use. Its results are cumulative in developing desirable abilities. Such effort is conducive to growth. A teacher who wisely attempts work involving new enriching content is permanently increasing his resources and understandings. Department of Elementary School Principals 395 Not only is teaching of the creative sort productive of greater abilities and growth, but teachers rather generally welcome opportunity to grow. Teachers as a whole may be depended upon to attempt work of this produc¬ tive type if convincing leadership is available to help them see values and find needed means. This is the place of supervision in helping teachers meet the demands of the new curriculums. What are the things a supervisor may do to help his teachers become better able to teach a curriculum of rich content and experiences? We have in recent years given considerable thought to ways in which those who would supervise may conduct the work so as to be effective in helping the teacher. Most of the attention has centered on class visitation, observa¬ tion of instruction, the conduct of the conference with the teacher, all sup¬ plemented by teachers’ meetings for demonstration lessons and discussion of educational theory. All these have values that must be conserved. One of the difficulties in these attempts to help teachers lies in the fact that we have not always found a way to avoid what may be termed scrappiness in these enterprises. The lesson observed is often in no vital way connected with other things the supervisor attempts with that teacher. The demonstration lesson or the discussion of educational theory is treated too often as a separate entity. The supervisory help lacks the continuity necessary for producing growth. In the things supervisors have been doing to help teachers there is need for more continuity. If one can observe a teacher at his work but four times, three of these would profitably be consecutive. This would make pos¬ sible a supervisor’s seeing a lesson taught and following the same day with a discussion not by way of criticism, but by way of planning the next lesson, the teacher and supervisor planning it together. The teaching of this second lesson is then observed by the supervisor but the observer has a much more sympathetic interest in it because of his part in the planning. The discussion following will also have a different emphasis. By some such continuity the supervisor can help the teacher to learn how to prepare for his work from day to day. Careful planning of the right sort is one of the best ways to improve teaching. But the supervisory task includes a much larger responsibility than the sort of leadership we have just suggested. A real supervisor exercises an influence upon the teachers which is conducive to richness of experiencing which in turn is productive of growth. He knows how to share fruitfully some of his own personal interests and thus awaken new interests in the teachers. H is hobbies may prove stimulating. It is his privilege to suggest lines of action, raise stimulating questions, go with teachers on excursions, encourage further study and travel, and in many ways be a source of stimulus and sug¬ gestion which will encourage teachers to go on and attempt things which they would otherwise scarcely have felt possible. To see possibilities in an¬ other is a gift. To help one realize the possibilities lying within him is a great service. To lead one to do that which to him seems impossible is genuine leadership. 396 National Education Association Our teachers now in our schools did not, in their preparation for their work, have the opportunity to acquire all the abilities herein suggested, but many of these can yet be developed. A good teacher is one who is himself growing. The work of the supervisor is to stimulate this growth along lines that will be fruitful in fostering greater abilities and that will enable the teacher to find greater richness in living. To the measure that one lives fully himself can he bring fullness of life to those with whom he lives. In looking ahead for teachers we must look for ways in which we may promote growth and greater richness in living for those who teach. INTERESTING THE COMMUNITY IN CHARACTER BUILDING MRS. HUGH BRADFORD, PRESIDENT, NATIONAL CONGRESS OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS, SACRAMENTO, CALIF. We are told in convincing terms by mental hygienists, psychologists, so¬ ciologists, and psychiatrists that the behavior of youth is the resultant of all the forces and pressures of his heredity and his environment. We are also told that the youth’s reaction to his environment is generally a normal one and may be, to a degree, anticipated. These things being granted one may reasonably say that environment must necessarily be a vital consideration in attempting to solve the problems of parents and youth alike and in particular in solving the problems concerned with character building. The most important element in any community is, of course, its people ; and the most important influence upon the character of the child in that community is the attitude of those people toward understanding and protect¬ ing children who are building new lives with new aspirations, hopes, and ambitions. Homes in any community reflect the ideals of society. Yet the home, called the cradle of the nation, finds itself rocked by the forces of the community to such an extent that it may no longer feel secure as to its ability to guide and control the character development of the child. Community in¬ fluences, social and industrial, are vastly more important to homes today than ever before. They have modified the character of the home itself. Within the modern home, the radio, the press, modern industry, and new social customs have encroached ; commercial amusements have supplemented and supplanted those of the home ; each with its own standards, which may or may not be for the good of the child, socially or morally. While homes and schools are struggling with the problem of training youth for high ideals in this baffling age, it may well be said that communities as such have seldom even recognized a responsibility for assisting them. Schools have taught obedience and discipline ; churches have sought to teach reverence for God and respect for authority and to bring about a spiritualized ideal of life ; homes have attempted to provide affection and security for childhood ; but homes, schools, and churches have been unable to stem the Department of Elementary School Principals 397 flood of modern individualistic scorn for tradition, for permanent life values, for authority, and for an intelligent determination of what a wholesome character must be because there has been no concerted effort among adults as community responsibility. Perhaps a great weakness of home and school has been its failure to draw into harmonious cooperation all the agencies in our communities. We need to persuade politicians to join educators in thinking more about the future of America in their attitudes toward the safety and protection of the children of today, morally, physically, and culturally. We need the whole community to join in teaching a decent regard on the part of each individual for the lives and property of others whether he be in public or private life. We need the whole community to join in effacing ugliness and sordidness! While we join to eliminate distress in epidemics and catastrophies, it seems too frequently we must face great misery before we move unitedly to prevent worse than sickness and poverty — perverted characters and crime ! To no one set of parents is given the infinite wisdom for completely sur¬ rounding the child with an environment challenging enough to assist him in developing initiative, strong moral fibre, spiritual buoyancy, loyalty and all the necessary virtues which will prepare him to withstand the adverse in¬ fluences in life ; but surely it is not too much to hope that parents and teachers in our parent-teacher associations may be a nucleus for drawing together the adults in a community as the beginning of an intensive study of child welfare as a community responsibility. Henry Neuman has well said “character is best shaped in the attempt of people to remold their environment on nobler patterns.” Our future will depend upon our thinking, planning, and working together , building a new philosophy of life based on this intelligent and stabilizing effort, which draws upon all the resources of the community for the best type of character education. MAKING A METROPOLIS HEALTH CONSCIOUS DOROTHY BILDERSEE, PRINCIPAL, PUBLIC SCHOOL 80, MANHATTAN, NEW YORK, N. Y. Realizing that the school is the best agency for making parents health conscious and recognizing the responsibility of the school for the correction of physical defects of the child, for the teaching of health principles, and the inculcation of health habits, the New York Principals Association or¬ ganized a Committee on Health in 1928. For four years this committee has been studying the needs of the schools, gathering and distributing informa¬ tion on health education, evaluating the health programs of individual schools, endeavoring to coordinate the many elements in the school health programs, and trying to interest all principals in health work. Gradually it has broadened its scope to include all matters that concern the mental and physical health of the child. This work has been carried on by fourteen sub¬ committees. 398 National Education Association Early in the year the Committee on Health decided to hold a series of roundtables, followed by a luncheon, in order to acquaint teachers, doctors, nurses, parents, and others who are interested in child health, with the work of the sub-committees. At the request of New York members of President Hoover’s White House Conference on Child Health and Protection it was made a follow-up of the White House Conference on Child Health and Protection. One of the speakers on each program was a member of a similar committee of the White House Conference. Experts on the topic of the subcommittee, including principals, who spoke from the practical side, gave short papers. Discussion followed and the meeting concluded with a statement of proposed activities by the chairman, as follows: It is the hope of the Subcommittee on Mental Hygiene to increase knowledge and interest in mental hygiene and to bring to each member of the teaching staff realiza¬ tion of the importance of understanding each child’s personality. It will work on the problem of securing the right type of education for the child who becomes a problem during his school life and after he leaves school because the training he is given is not fitted to his mental capacity. The Subcommittee on Parent Cooperation advocates the use of all contacts with the home for constructive health education. It is studying methods of promoting better understanding between school and home. It will try to establish the position of parent health counselor in each school. It will encourage the formation of parent groups to study the work of all the subcommittees. The Subcommittee on the Visiting Teacher will continue its efforts to secure, for each principal, at least the partime services of a visiting teacher. The Subcommittee on the School Plant is working on the problem of bringing old schools to the present high standard as exemplified in new buildings. It will acquaint the principal with modern methods of cleaning buildings, and modern standards for cleanliness and for maintenance. It is studying the installation of hand washing facilities. It will try to guide and influence public opinion so that we have backing in the program set forth. The Subcommittee on Health Day recommends a check-up in each school early in September of the physical defects of each child. It will endeavor to bring to the child with defects that cannot be remedied, the type of training he needs. It will make a systematic effort to increase facilities for the correction of physical defects for those who cannot afford to pay. It hopes to convince parents of the importance of a yearly physical examination for the child. The Subcommittee on Safety will publish “Our Children in the Streets,” a safety handbook, now ready for print, the work of the subcommittee. It will edit material to be supplied by principals and teachers for a 1933 handbook on home and vacation safety. The Subcommittee on Cooperation with the Department of Health, Medical As¬ sociations, and other agencies, is striving to bring about complete understanding be¬ tween the schools and these agencies. It hopes to bring about better cooperation between the private physician and dentist and the school, between hospitals, clinics, and the school. It will acquaint parents with the work of these agencies. The Subcommittee on Health Counselors will continue its efforts to make pos¬ sible, thru an additional teaching position in each school, the functioning of the counselor as recommended in the special report distributed at its roundtable. The Subcommittee on the Health of the Young Child will try to bring about the realization that the health of the preschool child is the business of the school; that systematic effort should be made to have all remediable defects corrected before entrance of the child in school. Department of Elementary School Principals 399 The Subcommittee on the Health of the Teaching Staff hopes to convince the teaching staff of the value of a yearly physical examination. The Subcommittee on Playgrounds and Recreation will attempt to bring about a better understanding of the values of play activities for the child. It will work for increased recreational facilities for children. It will study the summer recreation problem including playgrounds and camps. The Subcommittee on Teacher Training hopes to work with the city colleges and training colleges in order to make the students health conscious. It advocates a physical examination before entrance, correction of defects, and a periodic follow-up. The Subcommittee on Health Education in Elementary Schools is studying and evaluating methods of inculcating health and safety habits now in use in the best schools. It will give attention to the training of teachers in service. The Subcommittee on Administrative Problems will compile and publish a health handbook on administrative problems in health education, covering all phases of the roundtable studies. I have given this account of our health roundtables because I feel that it did more to make our city health conscious than anything else we have done. Thru it we reached two thousand people representing 316 New York ele¬ mentary and junior high schools, 3 training colleges and 9 high and con¬ tinuation schools, recreational organizations, departments of health, health centers, parents associations, and safety organizations. MENTAL HYGIENE’S CHALLENGE TO OUR SCHOOLS HARVEY ZORBAUGH, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, NEW YORK UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. As the findings of the White House Conference find their way into print, we are realizing that those individuals who can’t or won’t meet the demands of adult life constitute the greatest problem of our civilization. There are 500,000 persons in American institutions for the anti-social and inadequate. The cost of their care is three times the federal income tax, three times the total cost of public education. Programs for adult readjustment have met with little success, but study of maladjusted adults reveals that the great majority of them were mal¬ adjusted in childhood. They were all children in our schools. What hap¬ pened to them in school? Their histories reveal conflict with an inflexible curriculum and regimen, failure, and elimination, resulting in a resentment toward authority or a crippling sense of personal inadequacy and frustra¬ tion. The schools must accept in considerable part the responsibility for the failure of these children to accept the responsibilities of adult social life. The maladjusted of tomorrow are in the schools of today. What are the schools doing for them? They will do little or nothing, until we adopt a philosophy of education that makes the emotional stability and social adequacy of the child its car¬ dinal aim; until administrators realize that the program of the individual child must inevitably vary with his potentialities; until teachers are trained to see the whole child, and are admitted to the classroom only when 400 National Education Association they are themselves wholesome personalities and safe for children to live with. Until these changes are wrought in our educational policies and pro¬ cedures the public schools will continue to turn out generation after genera¬ tion ill prepared to cope with the responsibilities of adult living. Two conflicting philosophies dominate education today: the philosophy of education as discipline, and the philosophy of education as self-develop¬ ment. The philosophy of education as discipline, characteristic of the old school, emphasizes the disciplinary values, mental and moral, that are de¬ rived from the mastery of subjectmatter ; centers the educational process about the curriculum ; and measures the success of the educational process in terms of the amount of information the pupil has learned. On the other hand, the philosophy of education as self-development, characteristic of the new or progressive school, emphasizes the develop¬ mental values that are derived from self-expression ; centers the educational process about the child j and measures the success of the educational process in terms of what the child has created. It has written a magna charta of child¬ hood around the word, freedom. The virtues of these two philosophies of education have been widely heralded by their protagonists ; their dangers, particularly as viewed by the mental hygienist, not so widely. Education conceived as discipline holds up to the child a predetermined pattern of experience. The child conforms or is eliminated. The great majority of our public schools explicitly or im¬ plicitly, proceed from this philosophy. Viewing the havoc wrought by the old schools we are likely to hail the apostle of the new school as the educational messiah. Certainly the mental hygienists would admit that from self-expression and creation are derived stabilizing life satisfactions that are the very essence of mental health ; and that self-mastery, which is the basis of emotional maturity, is more likely to be achieved thru experience of freedom than thru conquering multiplica¬ tion tables. But is it a fair question whether in their sectarian zeal many of the new schools have not carried their philosophy too far, have not held the child’s unique potentialities too sacred, have not allowed the child’s pursuit of self-expression to warp his estimate of himself and blind him to the im¬ plications of the fact that he must live in a social world. Certainly clinical experience with the products of certain progressive schools would make us wonder whether child-centered schools may not be creating self-centered children. There is a third philosophy slowly working its way into educational practise, the philosophy of education as adjustment. This philosophy is neither curriculum-centered nor child-centered, but life-centered. It views education as a process of learning to live and getting along with others. So far as discipline, knowledge, and skill contribute to this process, they are good. So far as freedom and creation contribute to this process they are good. Education so conceived is more concerned with the child’s person¬ ality than with his mind or talents, more interested in his emotional atti¬ tudes than in his abilities. It sees education as a process of socialization, and Department of Elementary School Principals 401 the school s function as one of continual guidance. It would measure its success solely in terms of the effectiveness of the personalities of the chil¬ dren who have grown up in its schools. Education conceived as adjustment combining the virtues of old and new schools with values of its own, prom¬ ises a working philosophy that will make it possible for our schools to accept the responsibility that is undoubtedly theirs. SECRETARY’S MINUTES Washington, D. C. The Department of Elementary School Principals held two general meetings in the Auditorium of the National Museum. The program of the sessions was as follows: First Session, Monday Evening, February 22, 1932 Presiding, Earl R. Laing, district principal, Burt School, Detroit, Mich. The New Principals hip Greetings, Florence Hale, state agent for rural education, Augusta, Maine, and President, National Education Association. The Eleventh (1932) Yearbook, Aaron Kline, principal, Pullman School, Chicago, Ill., and chairman, 1932 Yearbook Committee. Progressive Principals and the Superintendent, Paul C. Stetson, superintendent of schools, Indianapolis, Ind. The Principalship and Effective Supervision, John S. Herron, principal, Lafay¬ ette Street School, Newark, N. J. Community Leadership, Joy Elmer Morgan, editor, Journal of the National Edu¬ cation A s so elation, Washington, D. C. Second Session, Wednesday Afternoon, February 24, 1932 Presiding, Earl R. Laing, district principal, Burt School, Detroit, Mich. The New Childhood Twelfth (1933) Yearbook, Helen B. Shove, principal, Minnehaha School, Minneapolis, Minn., and chairman, 1933 Yearbook Committee. Education for Character, Paul T. Rankin, supervising director of research and adjustment, Public Schools, Detroit, Mich. Childhood, the Golden Period for Mental Hygiene, W. A. White, M. D., Saint Elizabeth’s Hospital, Washington, D. C. Child Health and Protection, F. J. Kelly, chief, College and University Division, United States Office of Education, Washington, D. C. On Monday and Tuesday at 7:30 a.m., there were breakfasts at the Mayflower Hotel. These breakfasts are meeting with ever-increasing popularity as an oppor¬ tunity for social contacts, reports of achievements, and exchange of ideas. On Tuesday evening, February 23, the semi-annual dinner was held at the Shore- ham Hotel. A fine musical program was presented, followed by a most excellent address by Mr. Joy Elmer Morgan, editor of The Journal of the National Edu¬ cation Association. Executive Committee Meeting, Tuesday Morning, February 23, 1932 The first meeting of the Executive Committee of the Department of Elemen¬ tary School Principals was held in Room 504, N. E. A. Building. Due to the ill¬ ness of the president, Earl R. Laing, the meeting was called to order by Cassie F. 402 National Education Association Roys, first vicepresident, at 9:30 a.m. The following members were present: A. B. Heacock, representing Harley W. Lyon, second vicepresident; Lillian M. Towne, third vicepresident; Elizabeth McCormick, fifth vicepresident; M. Emma. Brookes, John Loftus, and Herbert Hansen, of the Executive Committee, Aaron Kline and Helen Shove, of the Editorial Committee; Eva G. Pinkston, special secretary, and Maude Rhodes, secretary. The minutes of the Los Angeles meeting were read and approved. Mr. Kline, chairman of the Editorial Committee, made his final report on the 1932 Yearbook. He stated that all material was ready for the printers and that copies of this yearbook should be in the hands of the readers sometime in April. It was moved by Mr. Hansen and seconded by Miss Brookes that a vote of appreciation be given Mr. Kline and his committee. Motion carried. Miss Shove gave advanced plans for the 1933 Yearbook, which has for its subject: “The Principal and the Libraries.” She also announced the topics planned for future yearbooks as follows: 1934, “Principals and Supplemental Teaching Aids” ; 1935, “School-Life Activity Program”; and 1936, “The Principal as a Professional Leader.’’ Miss Isabel Tucker, retiring member of the Editorial Committee, expressed appreciation for the opportunity of working with the Executive Committee. A thoro discussion of certain future policies for the Editorial Committee took place. Members of the Editorial Committee were present and made helpful suggestions for retrenchment. It was moved by Mr. Heacock and seconded by Miss Towne that copies of the various recommendations and policies discussed should be placed in the hands of the Executive Committee for careful consid¬ eration between now and the Atlantic City meeting. Motion carried. It was moved by Mr. Heacock and seconded by Mr. Loftus, that the special secretary be authorized to pay the expense account to the Washington meeting of Mr. John Thomas, new member of the Editorial Committee. Motion carried. It was moved by Mr. Hansen and seconded by Mr. Heacock that the only ex¬ penses for the Editorial Committee authorized by the Executive Committee shall be for the expenses of the two regular fall and spring meetings of the committee. Motion carried. It was moved by Mr. Hansen and seconded by Miss McCormick that the in¬ coming new member of the Editorial Committee who is appointed in the fall be invited to attend the February meeting of said committee without expense to the Department. Motion carried. Meeting adjourned. Executive Committee Meeting, Wednesday Morning, February 24, 1932 The meeting was called to order by the first vicepresident, Cassie F. Roys, in Room 504, N. E. A. Building. The following members were present: Earl R. Laing, A. B. Heacock, Lillian M. Towne, Elizabeth McCormick, M. Emma Brookes, John Loftus, Herbert C. Hansen, Frank W. Hubbard, associate director of the Re¬ search Division of the National Education Association, Eva G. Pinkston, and Maude A. Rhodes. The minutes of the first meeting were read and approved. The first topic for discussion was in connection with the position of special secretary of the Department. On motion of Mr. Loftus seconded by Miss Mc¬ Cormick, the Executive Committee declared the following policies: (1) that ap¬ pointments shall be made for a term of four years; (2) that the beginning salary shall be $4000; (3) that there shall be provided four annual salary increments of $250 each; and (4) that the appointee to the office shall begin service in Washington on September 1, 1932. It was moved by Mr. Loftus and seconded by Miss McCormick that Miss Eva G. Pinkston, special secretary, should be appointed for a term of four years, beginning September 1, 1932. Motion carried. Department of Elementary School Principals 403 It was moved by Miss Brookes and seconded by Mr. Hansen that inasmuch as Miss Eva G. Pinkston had already served one year as special secretary, her salary beginning September 1, 1932, should include the first annual increment. Motion carried. Atlantic City, New Jersey The Department of Elementary School Principals held two general sessions in Westminster Hall, Chelsea Hotel. The topics and speakers for the meetings were as follows: First Session, Monday Afternoon, June 27, 1932 Greetings, Ann Troy, president, Elementary Principals Division of the New Jersey Teachers Association, Park School, Nutley, N. J. Why Do We Chase Panaceas in Education? Frank W. Hubbard, associate di¬ rector of research, National Education Association, Washington, D. C. Geography With Meaning, L. D. Ohdner, secretary, Chamber of Commerce, Camden, N. J. Looking Ahead With an Enriched Curriculum, Lois Coffey Mossman, professor of education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Second Session, Wednesday Afternoon, June 29, 1932 Greetings, Florence Hale, president, National Education Association, Augusta, Maine. Interesting the Community in Character Building, Mrs. Hugh Bradford, presi¬ dent, National Congress of Parents and Teachers, 1014 Forum Building, Sacramento, Calif. What the Principals in the New York City Public Schools Are Doing for Health Work, Dorothy Bildersee, principal, Public School Number 80, Man¬ hattan, New York, N. Y. Mental Hygiene A Challenge to Our Schools, Harvey Zorbaugh, professor of education, New York University, New York, N. Y. Two breakfasts were held, Monday and Tuesday mornings respectively, in the solarium, Hotel Jefferson. A cordial invitation was extended to all principals to join in these family get-togethers and was accepted, judging from the large at¬ tendance. President Earl Laing called particular attention to the yearbooks of the Department, stressing the fine services of the Editorial Committee and urging members of the Department to send in articles. The semi-annual dinner was held at 6 p.m. Tuesday, June 28, in the large dining room of Hotel Madison and was well attended. Mr. Lester A. Rodes, superintendent of schools, Cape May City, N. J., accompanied by Miss Dorothy Turner, Ventnor, N. J. rendered two beautiful solos. The invocation was given by Reverend Walter Bruggeman, Ventnor, N. J. and Harry Clark, superin¬ tendent of schools, Knoxville, Tenn., gave the address of the evening, “Social Aspects of Community Life.” At the business meeting on Wednesday afternoon, the following resolutions, presented by Elizabeth McCormick, chairman of the Resolutions Committee' were adopted : Resolved , That the Department of Elementary School Principals of the Na¬ tional Education Association in convention assembled: 1. Pledges hearty support to the National Committee on Education by Radio in its. effort to secure for the people of the United States the right to suitable air privilege, and in its plan to improve the quality of the broadcast. 404 National Education Association 2. Regrets the cuts in teachers’ salaries and urges that boards of education secure scientific surveys on the cost of living, and that the adjustment of salaries be in proportion to the reduction in cost of living. 3. Favors higher standards of work in the profession and commends each state that is at present time raising its requirements for teachers credentials. 4. Recognizes that economic and social conditions have brought with them diffi¬ cult educational problems that challenge the highest type of professional effort. 5. Declares that children should not be allowed to suffer educationally because of the economic crisis. 6. Asks parents and other citizens where their children may be and what they may be doing in their leisure hours outside the school day. 7. Deeply appreciates the fine hospitality of the principals of Atlantic City and of the principals of the state of New Jersey and thanks them for their per¬ sonal service in making this meeting most profitable and enjoyable. Elizabeth McCormick, Superior, Wis., Chairman W. T. Longshore, Kansas City, Mo. Margaret M. Smith, Denver, Colo. A motion was made by Mr. J. D. Williams and seconded by Mr. E. O. Sanders that the proposed revisions to the constitution, listed elsewhere in these minutes, be accepted. Motion carried. On motion of Mr. Hansen, chairman of the Nominating Committee, seconded by Mr. W. C. Ozier, officers were elected for the ensuing year. (See Historical Note, p. 378.) Meeting adjourned. Executive Committee Meeting, Monday Morning, June 27, 1932 The first meeting of the Executive Committee of the Department of Elementary School Principals of the National Education Association was held in department headquarters in the Crane building. The following persons were present: Earl R. Laing, president; Elizabeth Sands, representing Harley W. Lyon, second vicepresident; Lillian M. Towne, third vice- president; Elizabeth McCormick, fifth vicepresident; M. Emma Brookes and Herbert C. Hansen of the Executive Committee; Frank W. Hubbard, associate director of research of the National Education Association; Eva G. Pinkston, special secretary; and Maude A. Rhodes, secretary. The minutes of the Washington meeting were read and approved. There was a discussion of ways to make the bulletin more useful and interesting to members of the Department. On motion of Mr. Hansen, seconded by Miss Brookes, it was voted to make the following changes: 1. That the bulletin shall be issued five times per year, with four issues of approximately thirty-two pages each, in the months of October, December, Feb¬ ruary, and June. 2. That the April issue shall continue to be a yearbook. Motion carried. A motion was made by Miss McCormick and seconded by Miss Towne, that the special secretary shall be the editor of the four issues of the bulletin and that the Editorial Committee shall continue to issue the yearbook. Motion carried. A motion was made by Mr. Hansen and seconded by Miss Brookes that the title of the bulletin shall be changed to “The National Elementary Principal.” Motion carried. On motion of Miss Towne, seconded by Miss Sands, it was voted to present to the general session certain proposed revisions to the constitution of the Depart¬ ment. Department of Elementary School Principals 405 They were as follows: Article III, Section 1 — amend to read: The officers of the Department shall be a president and five vicepresidents, each holding office for a period of one year from date of election. An executive secre¬ tary shall be appointed by the Executive Committee. Article III, Section 2 — leave out the words “except the secretary.” Elsewhere in the constitution and bylaws where the words “the secretary of the department” occur, change to read “executive secretary.” These changes will occur in Article V, Section 3, of the constitution and in Article II and Article III, Section 3, of the bylaws. Article V, Section 2 (Bylaws) — amend to read: The fiscal year of the Department shall coincide with that of the National Education Association. The membership year shall run from September 1 to August 31. Motion carried and these proposed changes were prepared for first reading at the general session on Monday afternoon, June 27, 1932, and for formal adop¬ tion at the general session on Wednesday afternoon, June 29, 1932. Meeting adjourned. Executive Committee Meeting, Tuesday Morning, June 28, 1932 The meeting was held in department headquarters in the Crane building. The following persons were present: Earl R. Laing, president; Elizabeth Sands, representing Harley W. Lyon, second vicepresident; Lillian M. Towne, third vicepresident; Elizabeth McCormick, fifth vicepresident; M. Emma Brookes and Herbert C. Hansen of the Executive Committee; Frank W. Hubbard, associate director of research of the National Education Association; Eva G. Pinkston, special secretary; and Maude A. Rhodes, secretary. After hearing a report of the work done at headquarters during the year, a motion was made by Mr. Hansen and seconded by Miss Towne that a vote of appreciation be given to the special secretary, Eva G. Pinkston, for the splendid way in which she had been able to integrate the affairs of the Department with the work at national headquarters. Motion carried. A motion was made by Miss McCormick and seconded by Miss Sands that the secretary express to Mr. Crabtree, secretary of the National Education Asso¬ ciation, and thru him to the entire headquarters staff, the sincere appreciation of the Executive Committee for the cooperation extended the special secretary during her first year of service. Motion carried. A motion was made by Miss McCormick and seconded by Miss Towne that the policies regarding the Editorial Committee, as read by the special secretary, be adopted and that a copy of said policies be sent to each member of the Editorial Committee and to each new member as he is elected. Motion carried. A motion was made by Miss Brookes and seconded by Mr. Hansen that the accrued interest from the permanent fund be kept in the checking amount. Motion carried. Because of the large amount of mail received daily by most principals, a motion was made by Miss Towne and seconded by Miss McCormick that the Executive Committee instruct the special secretary to let the addressograph plates be used only for the official business of the Department. Motion carried. A motion was made by Mr. Hansen and seconded by Miss Brookes that the new president appoint a committee on necrology. Motion carried. A motion was made by Miss Brookes and seconded by Miss Towne that Earl R. Laing, retiring president, be named as a member of the National Council of Educa¬ tion to succeed John A. Spargo, who is now commissioner of education of New Jersey. Motion carried. 406 National Education Association A vote of appreciation by the Executive Committee was extended to Frank W. Hubbard for his cooperation and untiring help in furthering the interests of the Department. A motion was made by Miss McCormick and seconded by Mr. Hansen that an expression of appreciation be extended the special secretary for the efficient work she has been able to accomplish for the organization during her first year of service. Motion carried. A motion was made by Mr. Hansen and seconded by Miss Brookes, that the budget as presented by Mr. Hansen be adopted. Motion carried. A motion was made by Mr. Hansen and seconded by Miss Towne that a vote of appreciation be given the president and secretary for the splendid work which they had done during the year. Motion carried. Meeting adjourned. Department of Kindergarten-Primary Education The department of kindergarten-primary education grew out of a meeting of the Froebel Institute of North America, which met in con¬ nection with the Association’s meeting in Madison, Wisconsin, in 1884. See Proceedings , 1884:74. This Department cooperates with the Association for Childhood Education, and the National .Association for Nursery Education. These two organizations co¬ operate in publishing a monthly magazine — Child¬ hood Education . The officers of the Department for the year 1932- 33 are: President , Martha E. Seeling, Instructor, Pestalozzi Froebel Teachers College, 5136 Blackstone Avenue, Chicago, Ill.; Vice-president , Elizabeth Cullen, Kindergarten-Primary Supervisor, 4061 Clairmont Avenue, Detroit, Mich. ; Secretary , Irene Born, 1517 West Wright Street, Milwaukee, Wis. Facts relating to the establishment of this Depart¬ ment and records of its meetings will be found in earlier Proceedings as follows : 1884: 74 1885 :349-368 1886:500-559 1887:331-391 1888:325-359 1889 :443-482 1890:545-581 1891 :529-568 1892 :253-303 1893 :321-381 1894 :679-704 1895 :510-560 1896:471-514 1897:584-614 1898:589-620 1899:530-575 1900:365-403 1901 :500-540 1902 : 409-430 1903:377-407 1904:415-437 1905 :341-373 1906 :626-630 1907:455-475 1908:501-543 1909 :437-457 1910:377-417 1911:477-517 1912:607-633 1913:425-447 1914:405-421 1915:629-671 1916:289-311 1917:417-431 1918:151-157 1919:171-179 1920:191-203 1921 :461-471 1922:967-987 1923:705-719 1924 :583-597 1925 :478-504 1926 :495-527 1927 :457-472 1928:413-433 1929 :425-448 1930:367-389 1931:467-481 [408 ] DEMONSTRATION OF SUPERIOR CHILDREN FOLLOWED BY A DISCUSSION OF THE PROBLEM OF THEIR KINDER¬ GARTEN-PRIMARY EDUCATION LIGHTNER WITMER, DIRECTOR OF THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, PHILADELPHIA, PA. Superiority is relative and inevitable. There is one person in this room superior to all others in the room ; the difficulty, however, is to find that person. This is a quantitative difference. The other difference is qualitative — in what respect is that individual superior ? It may be in a beauty contest or in an intellectual competition. Today all the children I propose to show you are superior intellectually; they are superior food for schoolroom practise. That defines them qualitatively. Quantitatively we may make their degree of superiority as high as we please. For example, I cannot say which of these children is the most superior. I can only say that they belong to a group of children surpassing all other children. A very common measure of superior¬ ity is membership in a group of 20 percent superior to 80 percent. My pre¬ sumption is that everybody in this room belongs to that group. Yon may take that as a compliment, but it is not a very high one, because there are twenty million people superior to eighty million in the United States today. But the 20 percent group, in my opinion, is intellectual, especially if we use the common test used today by psychologists and educators. There are other superiorities, for example, musical superiorities. A child, not long ago ex¬ amined in our clinic, was able to play the compositions of wellknown com¬ posers on the piano, at the age of six. He was superior not only musically, but intellectually. The Psychological Clinic at the University of Pennsylvania was estab¬ lished in 1896, more than ten years before any other psychological clinic or educational clinic or child guidance clinic in this country. It has been in continuous operation ever since, and I have had the pleasure of being its director. Since its beginning we have developed a number of departments: the Speech Clinic is run under the guidance of Dr. E. B. Twdtmyer; an¬ other, the Vocational Guidance Clinic, by Dr. M. S. Viteles, an expert in that field. We have had, for a number of years, a clinic teaching depart¬ ment, first, for backward children, needing hurry-up work in the schools, and second, for a number of superior children who come because I think they are not properly placed in the public or private schools in their neigh¬ borhood and partly because the problem of handling superior children is an interesting problem. Dr. Miles Murphy, chief of clinic, and Dr. Mildred Loring Sylvester, our executive officer, are assisting today in this demonstration. Dr. Murphy will show you the children one by one. After that I propose to take some of the time for discussion of the problem of superiority. [409 ] 410 National Education Association The Demonstration (L., Age six years, six months, was the first child to take part in the program. She read from the first reader, the second reader, the third reader, and then from increasingly difficult material until she read from an article in the Psychological Clinic , reading with ease such words as “enlighten¬ ment,” “refinements,” “analytical discrimination,” “predominantly.” She finally read from De Garmo’s translation of Lange’s book on “Appercep¬ tion.” L. was first examined in the Psychological Clinic in March, when she received an Intelligence Quotient of 166. Asked how she learned to read, she replied that she went to a private school when three and a half years old, in which there were older children learning to read in her room.) Dr. Witmer : The child is saying she taught herself to read by hearing other children read. That is one of the marks of intellectual superiority. She does not have to be taught to read ; all she needs is to be exposed to reading. She can now read anything you give her, even without understand¬ ing it. She has a talent in reading. If she has a talent in that direction, why does it hurt her to read any more than it hurts her to sing at the age of six? She probably does not understand what she reads but that does not distin¬ guish her from many others who read psychology. (C., age seven years, ten months, first came to the Psychological Clinic at the age of six for educational guidance. It was recommended that he be taught at home for one year and entered in a private school at the age of seven. This recommendation was followed. He has now completed the third grade. His intelligence Quotient is 161. He began to read when he was four years of age. He demonstrated his ability to read any material which was given him. He showed and explained a relief map of the United States which he had constructed, evidencing a very remarkable comprehen¬ sion of the physiography of the country. Two other children, one demonstrating a very remarkable talent in spelling and another demonstrating very superior mechanical ability, took part in the program. The last child was a boy twelve years of age, who had just finished the eighth grade of public school, and who received clinic teach¬ ing in the Psychological Clinic, first when he was five years old and later when he was 8 years old. He is now getting along very well in school, both intellectually and socially, and continues to demonstrate the superiority found when he was first examined at the age of 4, when he had an Intelli¬ gence Quotient of 172.) _ I feel that in the analysis of superiority, recognition of a number of fundamental qualities is of primary importance : intelligence is the first. All these children have intelligence. I do not mean by intelligence what the Binet-Simon testers mean. I mean the ability to solve what for each individ¬ ual is a new problem, out of which, for him, he has to produce something new. A child who teaches himself to read before the age of six has creative intelligence ; he is giving himself an education. The number of true intelli¬ gence tests in the Binet-Simon is relatively small. The next of the qualities Department of Kindergarten-Primary Education 411 necessary is efficiency. Here is the letter of a seventeen-year-old boy who displayed intelligence early, and also an antagonism toward anything monot¬ onous. Consequently his spelling is atrocious. Spelling is not an earmark of intelligence at all. It is only an earmark of brain machinery which shows a well-trained animal. The third item is one of the most important in school work : intellect. The intellectual level is defined by the amount of acquired knowledge in use. Intellectual ability is defined by the ability to acquire, retain, organize, and use knowledge. These children all must have intellec¬ tual ability if they are going to succeed in school work. The Binet-Simon test is predominantly intellectual, the kind of intellect necessary for progress in school ; that is why it is good for ranking school children. It picks out these children who have the best ability for progress in school. The fourth item is mind. I prefer to call it analytical discrimination, the ability to see into things. The American people are having a good training in analytical dis¬ crimination, in learning to pick out what is true from what is not. The fifth item is the soul ; the emotional nature of man. It is motivation. The surpassing motivation is only one part in our school work today. The last and most important quality is will-power. We have, then, determination, intelligence, efficiency, intellect, mentality, emotional life or disposition, and will-power. A child may be relatively deficient in one of these six, but if he is deficient in three or four he cannot come into the group of superior children. ART IN EARLY CHILDHOOD BORIS BLAI, SCULPTOR, PHILADELPHIA, PA. The work which I have attempted at the Oak Lane Country Day School has been chiefly in the three mediums of wood, stone, and clay. I have chosen these because they are most fundamental. My aims have been to develop an instinctive sense of proportion, flexibility of the hands, and con¬ fidence on the part of the child in the possibility of creative work. We should not forget that we are living in a machine age. In our day people hardly realize the value of what can be done with their hands, and we have become almost afraid to compete with machinery. Yet that which is pro¬ duced by the hand, even when crude and irregular, is of much greater value than anything produced by machinery. It is for this reason that I do not believe in the over-equipment of school workshops with a lot of ma¬ chinery so that innumerable tools are used to obtain mechanical perfec¬ tion. If this is done, the child’s imagination is denied its proper freedom and, instead of developing the power that lies in his hands, he relies too much on what can be done with the machine. The child’s hands can and should be developed so that he is able to express himself in the three mediums I have mentioned with the aid of only a few tools. Give a child a block of wood and two chisels, and he will keep on carving until he begins to develop some sense of form. In the beginning his work will be crude, but as he continues, his taste will develop and eventually he will be able to 412 National Education Association produce work which has genuine artistic merit. When the wTork is prac¬ tised from childhood, the child finds it natural to create in all the various mediums, and he soon has an instinctive sense of form and proportion which will show itself when he comes to make even the simplest objects. Even a chair of a very simple bookshelf will begin to express this sense of form which the child is developing. You can begin work of this type with chil¬ dren in the first grade, and you can also begin it with people sixty years of age, but the results are somewhat different. The adult of sixty who begins this work feels rather like a person on crutches who is always conscious of walking so many steps a day. The child, however, soon becomes like a per¬ son who runs naturally and never thinks about his legs. The child’s hands can be developed naturally so that they can produce esthetic work almost without conscious thought. Of course, children need much encouragement. At first, the child says I cannot do that,” but if you are at his side with the necessary encourage¬ ment and are able to show him by example that it is not too difficult, he very soon makes the first step and then, in most cases, there is very little further trouble. When I was first asked to take up this particular work, I was not sure that it would be successful. I had always taught adult students of sculpture who took the work in a professional spirit, but also among my pupils there had been some who had been referred to me by neurologists. I had had neurasthenic patients who had been completely cured by being taught to do creative work with their hands. A famous neurologist of Philadelphia had expressed the opinion to me that if similar work could be done by all school children it should become unnecessary to build any more asylums. It was this feeling that gave me the interest to start my work in the school. When children have found that it is not too difficult to express what they desire, ideas begin to multiply in their minds, and it is not difficult to get them to undertake even quite ambitious pieces of work. Both coopera¬ tive and individual work is possible, and both engender mutual appreciation, admiration, and friendliness. It is interesting to see how this mutual ap¬ preciation will spring up even between children of very different ages. After he has acquired the necessary technic, a child with ideas can accomplish some very remarkable work. I do not want to give the impression that every child should be encour¬ aged to believe that he is a great artist, but I do believe that every child should be encouraged to undertake creative work himself. I have little faith in the person who merely goes to museums, looks at sculpture and paintings, and then gives a criticism of what he saw. I very much doubt whether he saw anything. I believe that the person who has tried to do the same thing himself will see a great deal more, even if his own attempts have been very poor. Seeing is a part of development, but to be able to see you have to develop your hands. It is not until you have experimented with your own hands that you can really see the work of others and appreciate the quality of its technic. Department of Kindergarten-Primary Education 413 The methods I use are very simple. I begin by showing the children simple modeling — squeezing the clay with two thumbs and two fingers, and trying to make simple blocks. They make blocks and balls and cylinders, keeping up each only for a few minutes, so as to avoid monotony. When a child needs encouragement, I stay next to him myself and work with a piece of clay near him, until he becomes fascinated with what I am doing and wishes he could do the same thing. It is necessary, by a few simple exercises, to develop the hands for the first few weeks until a certain in¬ stinctive sensitiveness has been acquired. It is necessary to see that nobody in the class fails. Sometimes the child who has grown up in an alien environ¬ ment is very indifferent at first and it is necessary quite soon to get him inspired by the possibilities which the work offers. As soon as the child sees that he is not a failure, he begins to stand on his own feet, becomes self- expressive, and needs much less help. This is a dangerous stage for, on the one hand, those who have little native talent need continued encourage¬ ment, and not too severe criticism ; on the other hand, those who are really talented begin to need severe criticism lest they become too complacent. After a child has worked in this way some time, it is interesting to see how clumsiness is eliminated, and how a certain grace enters into the manipulation of tools. It is only when the mastery of tools is complete and their use has acquired this graceful quality that the student’s mind is really free to pursue its creative purpose. I intend, if possible, to extend this work to other mediums — for instance, to iron and silver. In silver I should like to see the children working' a>t small models, making their molds, melting their metal, and casting to their molds as is usually done with large bronze figures. In iron the children could hammer out their design on the same principles as we use in wood and stone, and develop the same feeling for proportion. Once the technic in wood and stone has been learned, it is easier to work in the other mediums. Pottery, of course, is a very natural extension of the work in clay; designs can be created and the work can be extended right thru the glazing and baking stages. I believe that an immense amount of unsuspected talent exists among school children, and that we are giving them a very great opportunity. I should like to bring to all children facilities for artistic expression as a nor¬ mal part of their education. In former days, when a child had great talent, his ordinary education was sacrificed and, at an early stage, he became ap¬ prenticed to some great master and learned nothing but his art. He was robbed of his childhood and of his education. I think it is possible to pro¬ duce a great artist who is also a properly educated man, and I think that, with this aim in mind, our schools should offer proper facilities for even the most talented children to pursue their artistic work at school in a nor¬ mal environment among normal children. I believe that if, in a school of two hundred children, we could find three or four with conspicuous talent, and if we could see to it that their childhood was not lost, that their edu- 414 National Education Association cation was not neglected, while, at the same time, their artistic talents were properly developed, we could inaugurate a method by which the in¬ telligent artist of the future will be a healthy, educated, and well-adjusted person. Department of Lip Reading The department of lip reading was established at the Philadelphia meeting of the National Education Association, in July, 1926, following the required successive meetings of the group, and after a petition had been presented to the Associa¬ tion. The officers for the year 1932-33 are: President, Coralie N. Kenfield, Instructor to Adult Deafened, Public Schools, 617 Shreve Building, San Francisco, Calif. ; Vicepresident, Estelle E. Samuelson, Super¬ visor, Education and Employment Work, The New York League for the Hard of Hearing, Inc., 480 Lex¬ ington Avenue, New York, N. Y. ; Secretary-Treas¬ urer, Helen Scriver, Instructor in Lip Reading, Pub¬ lic Schools, 20 Daily News Building, Santa Barbara, Calif. Meetings are held once each year in July. Facts relating to the establishment of this Depart¬ ment and the record of meetings are to be found in earlier Proceedings as follows : 1926:1067-1100 1928:435-449 1929:449-462 1930:391-400 1931:483-494 1927:473-486 [416] ROCHESTER’S PROGRAM FOR THE HARD-OF-HEARING CHILD MARIE A. BALL, INSTRUCTOR OF LIP READING AND SPEECH CORRECTION, V JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS, ROCHESTER, N. Y. Interest in the work of training the deaf dates back to about the seventh century when the Venerable Bede, a bishop of that period, taught a deaf boy to speak. Interest in the status of the hard-of-hearing child, however, is comparatively recent. About thirty years ago the National Education Asso¬ ciation appointed a “Committee on Statistics of Defective Sight and Hear¬ ing of Public School Children.’’ In 1902 this committee made its report to the commissioner of education. Reports from seven cities with 57,072 pupils examined showed that 2064 or 3.6 percent had defective hearing. At that time, there was no definite means of knowing what constituted defective hearing, so this percentage cannot be said to be scientifically correct. At about the same time, over 5000 pupils in the Chicago schools were tested with the seashore audiometer. This interest in the study of the hard-of- hearing child has been augmented within the last five years by the im¬ provement of instruments for measuring the degree of acuity of hearing. The work can now be carried on in a much more scientific manner and many valuable experiments are being made in different parts of the country. Since 1908 one of our Rochester physicians, Dr. Franklin Rock, has been giving treatments, advising, and testing the hearing of pupils in the Rochester schools. Dr. Herbert S. Weet, our far-seeing superintendent, and the Rochester school board were the first in the country to recognize that loss of hearing is an educational problem of the public schools. As a result, Rochester in 1915 opened the first public-school class for the hard- of-hearing child. An effort has been made to lighten the educational burdens of the children under its jurisdiction, to guide them into gainful vocations, and at the same time to develop a system of medical prevention which is effectively lessening the menace of deafness among the children of the com¬ munity. We have developed our plan thru cooperative suggestions and are constantly seeking to improve it. Doubtless we shall be able to learn much from others who are likewise studying the whole problem. Periodic examinations of the hearing of every school child with the 4A Audiometer are an essential part of Rochester’s program. This procedure is necessary to do effective work in the prevention of deafness. Pupils with a loss of hearing are advised to have treatments or remedial work. The child’s own physician, the school otologist, or the hospital clinics afford an opportunity for the care of every child. Proper placement in the classroom is emphasized. Lip reading and, if needed, special class work are given to the pupils whose handicap is serious. Educational adjustments, such as special coaching, are sometimes given. While the advantage of this pro¬ gram from an educational and physical standpoint is readily discernible, the public in general is perhaps not aware of the social significance of the [417] 418 National Education Association program for the hard-of-hearing child. Lip reading gives the hard-of-hear¬ ing child a tool that enables him to compete with the child of normal hear¬ ing. A recent questioning of a number of pupils of junior-senior high- school age evoked from many of them statements such as the following: “We don’t worry since we have had lip reading. We are much happier. Our lessons seem to be easier. When we aren’t worrying about our studies and loss of hearing our ears seem to be better, too.” Undoubtedly treatments played the most important part in the improvement of hearing, but we feel that the social disadvantages that accompany a hearing loss may be over¬ come by the right social adjustment. The community as well as the child, parents, and teachers should be con¬ cerned with the problem of loss of hearing and what it entails. Unless these pupils are adjusted physically, psychically, and socially and become eventually self-supporting members of society, the community itself will suffer an eco¬ nomic and social loss. CONSERVATION OF HEARING ANNETTA W. PECK, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY, NEW YORK LEAGUE FOR THE HARD OF HEARING, NEW YORK, N. Y. The work which we have so deeply at heart has made gratifying progress. It has attracted the interest of workers in educational research so that several books, whose consensus of opinion agrees heartily with our own, have enriched the small literature of our subject. Again, the social program we have been promoting — including health, education, vocational guidance, and recreation of the child with impaired hearing — has been honored by adoption into the recommendations of the White House Conference on Child Health and Protection. The numerous local leagues comprised in the American Federation of Organizations for the Hard of Hearing are doing valiant serv¬ ice in support of this program and as a result a mass of public opinion has been developed which is bearing fruit. Lip reading as a part of the regular school routine for all children with impaired hearing may accordingly be said to be generally accepted as a principle and to be reaching a fulfilment whose completeness is only a matter of time. So far the pioneers of this Department have realized their objective. Its first president, Caroline F. Kimball, laid a broad foundation when she named it “Department of Lip Reading” without qualifications of any kind; for the term lip reading stands unaltered altho almost every term associated with it has been declared antiquated, and has been discarded for a termi¬ nology which is more accurate and at the same time more simple. The leaders in this movement have completely changed their attitude towards their work and now see it, with a strong inward feeling of liberation, as conservation of hearing. My viewpoint must necessarily be that of the social worker — a highly specialized viewpoint, because my associates and I, social workers of the New York League for the Hard of Hearing, have been obliged by educational Department of Lip Reading 419 conditions in our city to enter the educational field and to build up a demon¬ stration school as an activity of our organization. We were able to do this thru one of the mechanisms characteristic of the professional worker whose hearing is impaired. When you recall that about 40 percent of adult persons who lose a part of their hearing have to change their occupations you will understand how the professional staff of a social agency for the hard of hearing might easily include among its economically rehabilitated members former teachers who were capable of developing into educators. In a word, there was not, twelve or fourteen years ago (and indeed there is not even to this day) any educational provision for the child in the New \ork school system whose hearing is threatened or actually impaired. This atypical child is not only an educational problem ; he is also a medical prob¬ lem and a vocational problem ; and because of this many-sidedness and also because of the psychological and the environmental factors entering into it, this child’s problem can obviously be handled most successfully by the ex¬ perienced social case worker. When such a social worker is able to add to her equipment a personal experience of the same handicap which is bother¬ ing her little client and a former experience as a well-trained school teacher — when she has all the varied activities of a social center at her disposal, one may readily see that such a demonstration school as we have at the League is an ideal theater for research and discovery. This school of ours is now ten years old. It is graded, and this past winter had included a small class of ungraded children, two of whom triumphantly passed their intelligence tests at the end of the first term’s lip reading and were returned to the grades. Besides lip reading, we are doing a most inter¬ esting work in voice conservation and speech training with our hard-of-hear¬ ing children, and we are checking up improvement by, before, and after speakophone records. Sessions are held on Saturday mornings and attendance is about 100. In summer we have a weekly class of a dozen or so. The school is in charge of Estelle E. Samuelson, a member, like the majority of our social workers, of this N. E. A. department. Two others assist her, one in looking after our student teachers and the other, our medical social worker, in the audiometer testing and other allied work connected with our otological clinic. From six to ten teachers are employed, nearly all of whom are licensed public-school teachers and all of whom have been trained in lip reading methods. Our employment workers are ready to give vocational counsel and to register the children when they graduate. All this has had a most favorable effect upon the schools, as our successful children become more and more widely known, because of our constant par¬ ticipation in school surveys (when invited), our frequent consultations with groups of educators, lectures to student teachers of the New York schools, and so on. Indeed, between the work accomplished, the cooperation of teach¬ ers like Miss Dora Schulman who represents this Department in the N. E. A. Council, who are members of the League, and the efforts of our Hard of Hearing Child Committee headed by Dr. Wendell C. Phillips, we have 420 National Education Association every reason to believe that the city department is on the eve of adopting the program advocated by the N. E. A. Department of Lip Reading. Hearing is conserved by careful use of specially designed detection ma¬ chines called audiometers ; medical testing and examination follows ; lip read¬ ing instruction is then given, which the children welcome as a delightful skill and acquire rapidly. With care in selection of an occupation — thus guarding earning power against further losses of hearing — such children are well able to look after themselves as adults, working and playing in the normal, unhandicapped world. This is the program accepted and recom¬ mended by the recent White House Conference. It opposes segregation. Segregation of any kind is fatal to the healthy development of children who do not hear well. It is easy to shovel them into separate schools. But there should never be separate schools for them, merely semi- or tri-weekly lip reading classes in elementary schools. Schools for the deaf are no place for them. Schools for all sorts of handicaps are no place for them. Why? Because special schools block their normal development and so prevent happy mingling with the normal world when they grow up. Because special schools encourage childish friendships which lead to undesirable marriages — mar¬ riages which are likely to produce insecure, unsatisfactory, unsuccessful homes for new families. Keep childern whose hearing needs watchful care normal in all their human relations. This is true conservation of hearing. WORKING FOR STABLE PROFIT GROWTH IN THE EDUCATION OF THE HARD OF HEARING ALICE G. BRYANT, OTOLOGIST AND LARYNGOLOGIST, BOSTON, MASS. The need for lip reading must be interpreted by its effect on the hard of hearing. To understand the problems of the hard-of-hearing in terms of human interest, welfare, and growth gives meaning to life. “Language is the great confessional of the human heart,” and lip reading breaks down the barriers of reserve and suppression and minimizes unpromising surroundings of everyday social barriers, gives tangible records of natural interchange of ingrained ways of thought and expression, prepares the way for creative understanding and action and works for stable profit growth. Today tradi¬ tion and opinion in hard-of-hearing education are undergoing revision by recorded data of scientifically measured and related facts secured by the highest and most specialized skill of man and machine. What is the hard-of-hearing need? It is primarily an individual study and includes the preschool child. It is an urban and rural study. We must find the hard-of-hearing child and then teach him. A physician should examine every child, and treatments and follow-up treatments may be needed. An organized group testing by the 4A Audiometer is accurate, simultaneous, rapid, and is a time and nerve-saving invention. Re-testings find hearing losses or gains. Teachers of lip reading should be skilled, in¬ tensely human, and cooperative. Department of Lip Reading 421 To segregate the hard-of-hearing is an educational, social, economic, and spiritual crime. They belong to the fully recognized school classes and ought to receive lip-reading instruction at stated periods a week. We want measured and related educational systems to produce less waste and more service-bearing and problem-solving return. Lip reading is a tool to work with, an insurance against class repeating. Three million hard-of-hearing in our public schools! Let their brains be tenanted with constructive, pur¬ poseful, and dynamic thoughts. They should travel the charted roads of education. “Education has no product but man.” The school plant of the prince or pauper has no inherent value. It only becomes wealth producing, service producing, when it is put to work for the use of man. Then it renders serv¬ ices of profit growth by human action. The hard-of-hearing pupil has in¬ telligence. He does not belong to the retarded class, only as we fail “to select, to equip, and to train” him by the time-saving, wealth, and service producing educational instruments that are within our reach and power for his use and needs. The appeal is made to find the hard-of-hearing child as well as the hard- of-hearing preschool child and the underlying causes of deafness, and to seek measures for early preventive treatment. Every child in our public schools should be tested by the 4A Audiometer. Where defects in hearing are found, retests should be made at stated intervals. It will serve as a check for “behavior problems and vocational rehabilitation.” It is a calamity to expose a child to any of the communicable diseases. It is a serious question to neglect treatment in respiratory diseases. Immuni¬ zation with toxin antitoxin strongly supports the claim that diphtheria can be made negligible. The scientists have controlled scarlet fever by antitoxin, and whooping cough by control is lessened in severity. These diseases along with measles and chicken pox may encroach upon the ears and sinuses and bring about disastrous effects, and they call for special effort in preventing damage to the hearing apparatus. No vague recognition of an earache, a discharging ear, or a running nose should exist. They demand immediate expert attention. The school otologists and laryngologists should know the ear and throat conditions as well as the general health status of every pupil in their prescribed public-school areas. The parents and guardians of the hard-of-hearing pupils should be informed thru the accepted sources of ear, nose, and throat defects and progression in hearing losses. Advice should be given that treatment or follow-up treatments will be necessary either at an otologist’s office or at an otological clinic. The school nurse and social worker will collaborate to make possible more useful action and profitable effects. Resources and funds may be organized to secure more free and useful and time-saving action and health advancement and educational progress in treating ear defects at stated periods by bringing into schoolroom use the traveling school clinic. The hard-of-hearing, like the hearing, are “normal individuals with constantly developing minds.” What more does the student know when he 422 National Education Association goes out of the classroom than he knew when he entered? The educational system of the hard-of-hearing must be measured and related to overcome wasteful action. This question of education for the hard-of-hearing is an individual problem, as all education should be, and not a mass problem. 1 he newer education for the hard-of-hearing should be put speedily in active practise so that “useful energy absorbed may become useful energy produced.” The teacher executive should answer these questions with certainty of direction and approved quality of force in the interest of the hard-of-hear¬ ing for stable profit growth. “What is? What can be? What should be? And what can I do? WEat should I do? What must I do to control, to direct, to develop, to strengthen, and to secure a revaluation of the new era of education of the hard-of-hearing?” I he teacher must ever work and the pupil must ever work to make “Homo minus Sapiens, Homo plus Sapiens.” Department of Rural Education The department of rural education grew out of the Department of Rural and Agricultural Education which was authorized by the Board of Directors in 1907. See Proceedings , 1907 :44-45. At the Chicago meeting in 1919, the Department was reorganized with three organized rural groups then existing — the National Association of State Supervisors and Inspectors of Rural Schools,, the County Superintendents’ section of the National Education Association, and the National Associa¬ tion of Persons Engaged in the Preparation of Rural Teachers — under the name of the Department of Rural Education. See Proceedings , 1920:279.. The Department meets twice each year, in Feb¬ ruary and in J uly. The officers of the Department of Rural Education for the year 1932-33 are: President , Ray P. Snyder, Chief, Bureau of Rural Education, State Education Department, Albany, N. Y. ; Vicepresident , 0. H. Plenzke, Assistant State Superintendent of Public Instruction, State Capitol, Madison, Wis. ; Secretary , Mrs. Katherine M. Cook, Chief, Division of Special Problems, U. S. Office of Education, Washington, D. C. ; Executive Committee: Anna Swenson, Direc¬ tor of Rural Education, State Department of Edu¬ cation, St. Paul, Minn. (Term expires 1933) ; M. S. Pittman, Director of Rural Education, State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich. (Term expires 1934) ; Helen Hay Heyl, Assistant in Rural Education, Albany, N. Y. (Term expires 1935) ; 0. H. Plenzke, Assistant State Superintendent of Public Instruc¬ tion, Madison, Wis. (Term expires 1936).; Dr. Fan¬ nie W. Dunn, Professor of Rural Education, Teach¬ ers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. (Term expires 1937). Facts relating to the establishment of this Depart¬ ment and the record of meetings are found in earlier Proceedings as follows: 1907: 44- 45 1912:1365-1413 1917: 599- 615 1922:1099-1197 1927: 497- 560 1908:1187-1217 1913: 801- 812 1918: 271- 295 1923: 745- 841 1928: 453- 543 1909: 953- 993 1914: 877- 909 1919: 281- 289 1924: 651- 715 1929: 463- 542 1910:1081-1108 1915:1131-1161 1920: 271- 303 1925: 522- 563 1930: 401- 499 1911:1117-1161 1916: 613- 637 1921: 523- 617 1926: 536- 600 1931: 495- 540 [424] RURAL EDUCATION IN 1960— A PROPHECY DAVID SNEDDEN, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. Certain underlying social conditions and changes are destined pro¬ foundly to affect the scope and content of rural education during the next thirty years* Census figures show that the prevailing sizes of rural families are rapidly becoming smaller. This inevitably means increased solicitude of parents for the schooling of their children. Many sons and daughters of farmers even now attend high school. Very substantial proportions go on to college. But by 1960 it is predicted that practically all the children of farmers will attend fulltime schools to eighteen years of age, and that 30 to 50 percent will seek at least two years attendance in liberal arts colleges. Immigration into the United States has now practically ceased from Europe and Asia. It will probably soon be curtailed from countries to the south of us. Two results will increasingly be in evidence. Cheap, sea¬ sonal labor for farmers will diminish, to be more and more replaced by machine service. No longer will hard-working immigrants take over farms that the native born are unwilling to work. But if the well-schooled young Americans of the future are to succeed to the farms of their fathers or of others, they are going to come to their work with far more of definite vocational preparation than is now the case. Farmers and other citizens now intend that our public schools shall at some stage give vocational training towards efficient farming ; but as yet we have pitifully meager and weak programs for that purpose. Only central vocational schools of farming, from three to ten to a state, receiving students not less than eighteen years of age, are going to solve the problems of equipping the coming generation of farmers for their newer technical and commercial responsibilities. AGENCIES CONTRIBUTING TO RURAL AREAS— PRESENTATION OF THE PROBLEM ALICE A. PIERCE, INSTRUCTOR, DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, CORTLAND, N. Y. . It is time that the classroom teacher, the parent, and the administrator alike recognize the educational force in children’s out-of-school activities. Numerous agencies are at work attempting to guide and control the youth of our country. It is quite generally acknowledged that there is need for critical study and purposeful planning of the programs and goals of such agencies in order to secure coordination of educational effort and equality of educational opportunity. Such a need was recognized by the White House Conference on Child Health and Protection ; it was expressed in the first resolution adopted by the Department of Superintendence at their meeting in Detroit last February; it appears again and again as the subject of dis- [425 ] 426 National Education Association cussion in our educational magazines ; and this group has seen the necessity of making it the theme of this program. In a study initiated by this Department, twenty-four rural supervisory units representing nineteen states were used for illustration. Three-fourths of the total school enrolment reported from these areas was found to come from homes located in centers of less than 2500 population ; and 50 percent, from open-country homes. The supervisory officers contributing data reported twenty-one different agencies known to have as a part or all of their program the education of children of school age. Eight out of the twenty-one show relatively wide service. These are the Parent-Teacher Association, the Library Associa¬ tion, Boy Scouts, Nursing Service, Agriculture Extension, Junior Red Cross, Anti-Tuberculosis Society, and 4-H Club. However, the Parent- Teacher Association, Library Association, and 4-H Club were reported as not serving at all in three units ; Boy Scouts and Anti-Tuberculosis Society as not giving any service in five units; Nursing Service and Agriculture Extension as giving no service in seven; and Junior Red Cross as not serv¬ ing in nine units. In addition, the Church, Women’s Clubs, and the Y. M. C. A., were reported as serving in nine out of the twenty-four units ; the Girl Scouts in six; the Y. W. C. A. in four; the Campfire Girls and Girl Reserves in two; and the following in one unit only: Knighthood of Youth, Young Citizens League, Izaak Walton League, Thrift Club, Sunshine So¬ ciety, and County Social Service Workers. The extent and support of the activities carried on by six of these agencies were studied rather in detail. The number of paid workers under agricul¬ ture extension averaged two in the twenty-four units, with a range from 8 to 0. The money spent on this type of service averaged $6,947.06 in the sixteen units where expenditure was made. Only 3 percent of the school children enroled in twenty-two of the twenty-four supervisory units was found to be engaged in agriculture extension activities. Likewise a study of the extent and support of 4-H Club work was made in these same areas. Three out of the twenty-four units reported no 4-H Club work. In eight cases this work was reported in connection with re¬ turns relative to agriculture extension work. The greatest amount of money reported from any one unit as being spent on 4-H Club work was $9,800, with a total of $35,800 spent in eleven rural supervisory units, or an aver¬ age of $2,557.14 for fourteen units. These figures stand out in contrast to the three units which provide for their boys and girls no activities of this nature. A wide range in extent and support of health activities was also found in these units. In eight the total amount of money spent by the Anti- Tuberculosis Society amounted to $12,200 with a range of $3,000 in one unit to $50 in two different units. Seven units reported no service. Twelve units reported no paid workers. Thirteen units reported money spent on Nursing Service to the total of $110,335, or an average of $8,487.30 for the twenty-one units where ex- Department of Rural Education 427 penditure of money is made, with a range of $30,000 spent in one of these units to $200 spent in one other unit. One supervisory unit reports as high as twenty-three paid workers while six units report no support of such activities. This service was reported as reaching approximately 36 percent of the total school population in twenty-one of these supervisory units- The reports relative to Boy Scout activities revealed thirteen paid work¬ ers in a total of nine of these units ; the sum of $30,400 spent in ten units, with a range of $15,000 spent in one unit to $150 in each of two other units; while four units were reported as giving no support to the Boy Scout organization. Library Associations were reported as giving service to approximately 50 percent of the total school enrolment reported from twenty-two units, 42 paid workers were reported in a total of fifteen supervisory units ; and a total of $98,000 spent in seventeen units, with a range of $42,000 spent in one unit to $300 spent in another, while three units reported no support of library activities. The most noticeable characteristic in the figures given in these illustra¬ tions is the wide difference existing in the extent and support of the activi¬ ties in the different units. One is led to ask: Is such a situation fair, just, equitable? Should an adjustment be attempted? It does not seem unpedagogical or unreasonable to advocate, in order to realize the most for the individual, that his educational program should rest upon a sensible, unified organization of his mental, physical, and social activities. After all does not the real meaning of education demand just such an organized procedure? Until we unite in this common task can education be called a national enterprise? After a careful study of these situations one is led to draw the following conclusions : 1. That there are numerous distinct agencies which have as a part, or all, of their program the education of rural youth. 2. That extreme differences exist between such opportunities for learning pro¬ vided for boys and girls in one rural supervisory unit and those that are provided in another. 3. That unequal support of the activities of these various agencies exists in the units reported on in the recent study carried on by the Department of Rural Education. 4. That rural supervisory officers apparently are not in agreement as to the rank of the activities of any one agency when educational value to those participating is the criterion. 5. That a clear-cut set of activities that should make up the programs in the respective fields is lacking. 6. That overlapping is apparent in supervision, in type of activity, and obviously in money, time, and effort spent. 7. That possibilities for education now exist that are not being made available to large percentages of rural children, such as those opportunities for voca¬ tional and character education offered by 4-H Clubs, Boy Scouts, and the like. 8. That an organized and unified program of all educational agencies would appear to be sensible and progressive educational procedure. 9. That sympathetic, intelligent, and interested cooperation on the part of or- 428 National Education Association ganizations dealing with rural youth might prove to be a step in providing greater educational opportunities to rural boys and girls than are now pro¬ vided under separate and individual plans. These conclusions upon presentation become challenges. It is hoped that contributions of the various specialists on this 1932 rural education program will offer practical suggestions for the solution of some of the problems that they present. AGENCIES CONTRIBUTING TO EDUCATION IN RURAL AREAS— THE CHURCH WARREN H. WILSON, DIRECTOR, TOWN AND COUNTRY DEPARTMENT, PRESBYTERIAN BOARD OF NATIONAL MISSIONS, NEW YORK, N. Y. The first teaching of the rural church is that sense of personal worth, which William James discovered to be the essence of religion. This comes to the child in the teaching of the personal nature of God. In the very humblest church it is taught that the universe centers in a personal divinity who cares for that child. The second is to introduce the child to literature ; for the Sunday school is devoted to the Bible, which George Russell the Irish sage calls “the most majestic and beautiful of all human language.” And this teaching is imparted in the environment to which it is suited; which it interprets, not in the clipped and hard speech of cities, but in the rich vocabulary of the country, of trees and beasts, of sun and stars, of love and death. All these the rural youth has daily seen. He intimately knows the simple and tragic elements of life itself. Of these the Bible speaks on every page. The litera¬ ture of Hebrew inspiration is the source of all our best love of letters- This is taught in the classes, often poorly, always earnestly and simply, that meet in every rural church every week of the year. If project work is to be preferred, the rural child learns in his church about marriage. For it is within the narrowest teaching of the most rustic pulpit. The preacher is often lacking in social scope as a teacher; but he has before him the families who compose his congregation. He knows the homely code and he teaches what he understands. The practise of marriage, in all its forms, its failures, and its perfections, is a matter of constant dis¬ cussion, that centers in the church. The rural child lives always in the laboratory of the most important of experiments. For agriculture requires that the tiller of the soil have a wife and children; and the rural church knows well how to cooperate in the social process of man’s cooperation with nature. I cannot claim that most rural churches have the skill to teach nation¬ alism. But they all have a stake in the world as a whole. For every denomi¬ nation — with a few exceptions — has an interest in foreign missions, so that the youth drinks in every year the message of knowledge and sympathy with other peoples. He learns the alphabet at least of internationalism. Department of Rural Education 429 Further, in the government of the congregation he learns the manner of community leadership. In its contributions to a public cause, he observes, and to a degree he shares, in the American habit of public benevolences. Nowadays, with the organization of young people’s societies in all denomi¬ nations, he makes a beginning in social pleasure, in public speech, in dele¬ gated service, and in the performance of the office of trust. These are some of the educational experiences of rural youth in the church. It is an experience shared by millions of young men and women. There is no other school equipped or permitted by our customs to speak with such penetrating and suggestive authority. AGENCIES CONTRIBUTING TO EDUCATION IN RURAL AREAS— THE LIBRARY EDITH A. LATHROP, ASSOCIATE SPECIALIST IN SCHOOL LIBRARIES, U. S. OFFICE OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. Modern teaching is dependent upon libraries. It encourages children to seek information from many books. It places emphasis upon the analysis of problems rather than upon memorizing facts from textbooks. Such teach¬ ing cannot be carried out effectively unless children have access to books and other reading materials treating of various subjects. Progressive schools do more with books than use them as a means of enriching the curriculum. They encourage reading for pleasure, and guide children in the formation of discriminating tastes in reading. If library-centered schools are to develop in rural communities, schools in such places must make more use of library agencies than ever before, because of curtailment of school budgets. A business and professional women’s club in one city is conducting a campaign for used children’s books in order to form a rural-school traveling library for the county in which the city is located. It is agreed that books unsuited for use will be sold and the money used to purchase new books. Such a project is worthwhile, provided cooperation is sought of educational and library officials of the county; and provided the decision of books to be discarded rests with librarians and teachers who know children’s books. While there are many schools that do not have sufficient library books, there are others not using the books they do have. One state school library supervisor is urging teachers to know and use the books they have in their libraries. The library is vital to the school because it is the medium thru which the intellectual life of the individual is to be carried on after school days are over. That school functions best whose pupils after leaving it look to books and other printed materials as one important source of informa¬ tion and recreation. To what extent are rural schools making use of library agencies? Public libraries that give service to schools are varied. They may be under school district, township, county, municipal, or state control. In addition, there are private libraries giving service to schools such as those managed by 430 National Education Association organizations like women’s clubs or the D. A. R. We need to know more than we know at present of the use made by schools of library agencies. The White House Conference on Child Health and Protection states that 1000 counties have no libraries within their borders. It cannot be as¬ sumed that children living within all of these counties have no contact with libraries, for we know that traveling libraries furnished by state library extension agencies supply books to schools in some of these counties. A number of state library agencies give first preference to requests from schools remotely situated from public libraries. Some light on the service given schools by county libraries is found in the United States Office of Education Bulletin 1930, No. 20, entitled County Library Service to Schools. This study, which is based upon reports from approximately 55 percent of the county libraries in the United States, shows that about 85 percent of the rural schools located in counties having county libraries receive service from the libraries. We need more information on the extent to which township libraries (including the New England towns) are serving the schools located some distances from the libraries. One township library that I visited recently was furnishing books to about one-third of the schools in its taxable area. Another was circulating collections of books to all of the schools in the township, but the books were not adapted to the needs of the school curriculum nor to the reading interests of the children. The types of activities extended rural schools by libraries are varied- The chief one is loaning books. In some instances, pictures, clippings, and pam¬ phlet material is loaned. It is seldom that library supervision is avail¬ able. Only ten states have school library supervisors. An example of library supervision for townships is found at Gary, Indiana. Three townships adjacent to Gary have entered into a contract with the public library at Gary for library service. This service includes a school library supervisor. State library agencies do much reference work for schools, but just how much of such work is requested by rural schools is not known. I went over one day’s mail in the reference section of one of the largest state libraries, in order to see whether, with the help of the librarian, I could determine the percent of requests from rural schools. We estimated that it was prob¬ ably about 10 percent of all the requests. This day’s mail was said to be quite typical. State library agencies are not sufficiently staffed to segregate rural-school statistics. United States Office of Education Bulletin, 1930, No. 20, shows that county libraries carry on a variety of activities for schools in addition to supplying books and other reading materials. They circulate victrola records, maps, globes, visual aids and charts, sponsor pupils’ reading circles, issue booklists, visit schools, and furnish speakers for teachers’ institutes. Approxi¬ mately 41 percent of the county librarians reported that special efforts were made to direct the reading of children during summer vacations. One county librarian in California said that instead of talking to teachers at institutes, she was visiting as many of the rural-school demonstration Department of Rural Education 431 centers as possible. She felt that her contact with teachers at such centers was more valuable than formal lectures- How well are rural library agencies equipped to serve schools? The gov¬ ernment investigation of county libraries showed that many were so poorly supported financially that efficient service was impossible. The minimum annual appropriation was $200; the maximum $289,049; the median $9062. In approximately 22 percent of the cases reporting, the annual appropria¬ tion was less than $2500, and annual appropriations of $10,000 were rare. State library agencies, even in states that have the largest collections of traveling libraries, cannot supply promptly the requests for books from rural schools. Both Mr. Tolman, director of library extension in the New York State Library, and Mr. Lester, secretary of the Wisconsin Traveling Li¬ brary Commission, have told me within the past few months that they did not dare to advertise, to any considerable extent, their booklending service for schools, because they could not supply present demands. I mention these states because they are among the states best equipped for such service. If libraries are to serve schools, there must be close cooperation between the executive heads of the agencies. Cooperation is not enough. There must be intelligent comparisons of the objectives of the two institutions; there must be knowledge of the resources of libraries on the part of school heads, and knowledge of the library needs of schools on the part of library heads. A unified program does not necessarily mean that the library and educa¬ tional agencies of the communities shall be consolidated. An understanding of the objectives of each agency and an agreement upon activities so as to avoid duplication of effort, is more important than consolidation. The potentialities of libraries as contributing factors to rural schools, are great. These potentialities cannot be realized until educators and librarians comprehend the degree to which the library is an adjunct of the modern school. When they do comprehend this, ways and means will be devised for carrying out an integrated program of school and library activities in rural communities. Let there be further study of the subject. AGENCIES CONTRIBUTING TO EDUCATION IN RURAL AREAS— HEALTH ORGANIZATIONS MALVINA TRUSSELL, HEAD, BIOLOGY DEPARTMENT, SOUTH GEORGIA TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLLEGEBORO, GA. At a recent meeting of the Department of Superintendence, Charles H. Judd said that the health education program up to that time had largely failed wherever it had been turned over to physicians who are interested primarily in medical inspection, or to a physical director who is an athlete. Dr. Judd further stated that in view of these mistakes of the past, superin¬ tendents should see that new material of instruction be prepared ; and that teachers and supervisors thruout the school system should be trained to understand and participate in a general plan of comprehensive health edu¬ cation. 432 National Education Association The truth of the above statement and a realization of the part that is being played by various agencies in the field of education, were probably responsible for the survey upon which this paper is based. The study, which deals with the agencies contributing to the education of rural school children, is based on material collected by Alice A. Pierce from twenty- four rural superintendents or supervisors, representing nineteen states. Ad¬ ditional material was collected from reports and official bulletins on educa¬ tion, and from educational programs of a number of agencies working with rural boys and girls. Due to the fact that Miss Pierce’s study deals with the promotion of edu¬ cation in general, there is an overlapping in the activities of the various agencies. I have selected only those activities that deal directly or indirectly with health. Since two agencies, the Nursing Service and the Anti-Tubercu¬ losis Association, dealt almost wholly with health, a separate consideration was given them. There was a wide range as to extent of service rendered by these two agencies. The service extended from highly organized and centralized activities supported under these two heads to no activity at all. Under the Nursing Service the range of money spent over a period of twelve months averaged $8,159.79 for each of the twenty-four units. The range of total expenditure was from $30,000 to no money at all. For the Anti- Tuberculosis work there was a range from $3,000 to no money spent. The total money spent by eight of the twenty-four units was $12,200. Lack of data made it impossible to determine the average expenditure in connection with the service of the Anti-Tuberculosis Association. The study revealed the fact that only 8 percent of the total enrolment in twenty supervisory units received any type of nursing service, and the Anti-Tuberculosis Society reaches only 7 percent of the total enrolment in the above area. Nursing Service appears to be chiefly government supported, while the Anti-Tubercu¬ losis work is largely supported by local subscription and the sale of Christ¬ mas seals. The number of paid workers in the Nursing Service ranges from twenty-three to none, with an average of approximately three for each of the twenty-four units. Only six paid workers are reported under the Anti- Tuberculosis Association. From a list of activities engaged in by rural school boys and girls who participate in the programs of twenty-one agencies, the following health activities were claimed by supervisory officers: health, physical examinations, athletics, camping, recreation, selling Christmas seals, sanitation, clinics, hot lunches, immunization, Junior Red Cross paper, state health, nurse’s serv¬ ice, and summer-roundup of young children. Twelve different agencies are found represented, each offering at least one of the above activities. With the exception of the regularly scheduled activity of the particular agency, health activities lead all others. A tabulation of the above activities as given by the supervisors, shows that a very small percent of the total enrolment considered is taking advantage of the activities offered in health by the vari¬ ous agencies. The study also shows that either the agencies for the promotion of health are not at the service of the average rural school child, or the school Department of Rural Education 433 is not taking advantage of the opportunities afforded it by such agencies. Ignorance of the rural health situation must be responsible for the above facts. Nature has assisted in every way possible to make the country a health¬ ful place in which to live, but the rural population, instead of helping, has hindered the work of nature. Any successful program in health among rural boys and girls must be a program which touches every individual not only in the school but also in the home. It seems, therefore, that the solu¬ tion of the problem will be found, as Dr. Judd says, not only in offering new material of instruction, but in training supervisors and teachers thruout the school system to use this material in developing a general plan of compre¬ hensive health education. AGENCIES CONTRIBUTING TO EDUCATION IN RURAL AREAS— BOYS AND GIRLS CLUBS MYRA M. NEFFLEN, STATE SUPERVISOR OF RURAL SCHOOLS, CHARLESTON, W. VA. The founders of our Republic set up in our Constitution American ideals which rightfully should be the ideals of our American schools wherever found, urban or rural. From criticisms, adverse or constructive, concerning the ideals and achievements of our public schools and those concerning the guides for procedure and materials for use generally found within the schools, one may well conclude that only a natural consequence is the developing of certain agencies and activities, having primarily for their aim “well-rounded lives.” If “education is life,” our boys and girls should certainly have the oppor¬ tunity of participating in activities motivated, and organized and conducted so as to habituate them in forming “more perfect union,” in being “just,” in practising “domestic tranquillity,” in providing for a “common defense” (against dishonesty, cheating, stealing, all criminal acts as well as against ignorance, disease, and the like), in showing good sportsmanship wherever “general welfare” evokes such, and preserving the “blessings of liberty” — that liberty which, while it provides for individual development, yet expects each individual to respect the fact that his own “liberty” ends where his neighbor’s starts. In Alice Pierce’s “Study of Agencies Contributing to the Education of School Children in Rural Areas of the United States,” we find listed the following chief agencies: 4-H Club, Anti-Tuberculosis Society (usually functioning in school as the “Health Crusade”), Junior Red Cross, Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, Hi-Y Club, Girl Reserves, and Audubon Club. Of the twenty-four rural areas, including approximately 800,000 chil¬ dren, reporting for 1930-31, nineteen were served by the 4-H Club either under separate development or as part of agriculture extension service, “with an average of one and one-fourth paid worker for each unit, and an average expenditure of $1487.50 for each of twenty-four units” (for just the 4-H 434 National Education Association work). The percentage of enrolment ranges from 1 to 97, with only six units (embracing 18,604 children) having an enrolment as high as 40 per¬ cent. Nevertheless, as a whole, the study makes the statement that, at pres¬ ent in the United States, the “annual enrolment approximates 700,000 members, increasing about 8 percent annually. The extension force consist¬ ing of 2600 county club agents, and 1100 agricultural home economics ex¬ tension specialists, give about 32 percent of their time to 4-H Club work. In addition to these paid public extension teachers, approximately 60,000 leaders serve without pay. Club camps offering five or six days of recrea¬ tion, instruction in swimming, hikes, and inspiring singing around camp¬ fires, are prominent events in the life of 4-H Club members. In 1928 there were over 3300 of these camps in the United States with 155,000 in attendance.” O. H. Benson of the Rural Scouting Service of the Boy Scouts, makes the following observations: There are big possibilities in the farm and home patrol and in the Lone Scout idea for the boy who is isolated in the small community or on the farm. The or¬ ganization has taken definite steps in the interests of all boyhood by providing a Rural Scouting Service and giving Scout training to rural boys. The program has been organized on a rural need basis so that every boy who desires Scout training may have the opportunity to participate in the Scout programs and enjoy the bene¬ fits. One of the plans recommended to help farm boys in rural schools in character building and citizenship training is to offer the Lone Scout plan to at least one boy in each rural school and have this boy become a demonstrator of Boy Scout practises and principles in and for the school. . . . What can be accomplished is shown by the results in the Black Hawk Area Council located at Rockford, Illinois, where over two hundred Lone Scouts are organized into twelve district tribes under leadership and with active relation¬ ship to all Council programs. Likewise, a demonstration of the countywide use of the Scout program is being made in Emmett County, Iowa, where a County Tribe of Lone Scouts has been organized with representatives in every school district of the county. The work of scouting is demonstrated annually at the boys’ and girls’ institutes and teachers are given Scout training at institutes. The Scout program will be tied up with the five-year program for the planting of historic and memorial trees on school- grounds, along public highways, in the parks, and on other properties thruout the county. To the agencies listed, may I add the “West Virginia Club,” having as its ultimate aim more worthy citizenship, in which during its second year, there are enroled over 52,000 children in over 27,000 clubs mostly organized in rural communities. The value of the programs of these various agencies can no longer be questioned. Their integration and incorporation into our educational pro¬ grams so as to provide greater opportunities for all our rural boys and girls to produce an acceptable American citizenship is the challenging task for rural educational leaders today. Department of Rural Education 435 THE RESPONSIBILITY OF TEACHER-TRAINING INSTITU¬ TIONS DURING THE DEPRESSION JAMES B. PALMER, DIRECTOR OF RURAL EDUCATION, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, POTSDAM, N. Y. There are two very important responsibilities standing out in bold relief among the many problems facing teacher-training institutions at this time. Stated briefly they are: First, The preparation of rural teachers is forcing itself into the upper years of our courses in normal schools and teachers colleges in a way that has never occurred before. We must capitalize on this development so that it will produce a lasting demand for well-trained rural teachers. Second, The economic crisis, as it has affected and is now affecting the agricul¬ tural industry and rural life, brings to an abrupt focus the obligation teacher-train¬ ing institutions must assume in the making of a new rural social order. With a glance at the field of public elementary schools it is very evident that the rate of turnover in the teaching staffs everywhere and especially in city elementary schools will decrease for at least a year or two. In city schools, in particular, most of the teachers who have an opportunity to sign contracts again will be pleased to do so. Many former teachers, mar¬ ried and unmarried, are anxious to re-enter the profession because other fields of work are now less profitable or because husbands or relatives are out of work. Because of these and related developments in the field, teacher¬ training institutions are faced to an increasing extent with the problem of placement. They must of necessity turn to the rural field. This raises the question as to how best to prepare prospective teachers for successful rural service. It is no longer necessary to justify the assump¬ tion that some specialization in training is essential for the adequate prep¬ aration of teachers for rural schools — with one and two-teacher schools as the more critical problem in mind. The large majority of administrators and experts concede this point. There is, however, a considerable difference of opinion as to how to provide this specialization and to what extent spe¬ cialization need be provided. There are two general types of organization which have been set up and tried. In one, all prospective elementary school teachers are required to take a certain amount of special training for rural schools. This holds no matter whether the student is pursuing a kinder¬ garten-primary, intermediate, grammar grades, or junior high-school course. In the other form of organization another type of elementary-teachers course is set up as a rural-teachers course. Four-fifths of the different curriculums is common material for all students. The other fifth deals with specialized material including practise teaching in prospective rural school situations. While circumstances may alter the nature of the problem in different places, experience with the latter scheme and a study of the possibilities of both lend, it seems to me, preference to the rural-teachers course as an elective field along with the courses for graded city schools. Such a plan draws to it a group of students interested in the rural field and makes 436 National Education Association possible specific training that is not readily attained in a general offering to all students. It provides also for a focus of what should be in three- or four-year courses a high type of specialization for a particular field. Such a plan lends greater dignity and brings better results in rural-teacher training. In no phase of teacher training are these two features needed more than in the rural field. There are, however, certain difficulties inherent in this plan. There is the problem of inducing students to elect a field hav¬ ing in many respects a less attractive outlook. There is also the question as to whether the prospective teacher should be directed to take the rural-teachers course when she plans to use a posi¬ tion in a rural school as a stepping stone to a city position. Since the rate of turnover in the personnel in rural schools is rapidly decreasing, espe¬ cially so at this time, the length of service of such transients is likely to be a period of years. During this time additional professional preparation in service can take care of the need for specialization on specific grade levels if that be necessary. The following considerations are essential. Do not rural children deserve a teacher who is educated and trained to teach ade¬ quately the school she serves? Does not the success of a teacher in the rural field condition her chance of placement elsewhere? Should she not be trained for successful work in that first field ? A broadly educated, cultured teacher who stays in a rural position for two or three years only is better than one of less ability and education who may stay permanently.. So far only the narrower aspects of this special responsibility of teacher¬ training institutions during a depression have been presented. Even that has been done in an abbreviated form. There is a still larger obligation fac¬ ing us. . No one of our great industries is in more deplorable condition than is agriculture. The breakdown of our banking systems has swept thru the small towns and villages wiping out the life savings and operating funds of thou¬ sands upon thousands of farm people. The number of bankruptcies of farm owners and operators has reached an appalling figure. The ratio of prices re¬ ceived for products to the prices paid by farmers for the bare necessities of life has been unfavorable for years and within the last year has become alarm¬ ingly disproportionate. The system of taxation based on real estate was formulated for a pioneer civilization. It now places an almost insurmounta¬ ble handicap on the farm business with other conditions as they are. Sweeping changes in the organization of the agricultural industry are certain to result. The new order may take the form of corporation or big business” farming with its monopolistic tendencies and serious labor condi¬ tions and employment problems. Certainly these extensive holdings of farm lands by banks, insurance companies, and the like cannot be allowed to lie idle. It may be that collective farming of state owned and controled tracts on a plan similar to the Russian scheme is to be the solution. Such a reor¬ ganization would of necessity involve far-reaching changes in the order oi government and society. The mere thought of this radically different struc¬ ture is repulsive to our American ideals. Perhaps it will be a wide extension Department of Rural Education 437 of the cooperative farming and marketing on a scale almost beyond our comprehension — certainly far beyond the comprehension of even our more progressive farmers. This last named form of organization is conceived by the great leaders to capitalize the advantages of numerous other plans and to retain many if not all the valuable elements in the present system. If any of the present personnel remains after the change it will be due to a remaking of attitudes, ideals, and everyday practises of that personnel. If time permits, this new leadership in the industry may be developed out of the present younger generation of the rural population. If it is, it will be thru the educational opportunities provided for our rural boys and girls, our rural young men and young women. Farm people do not appreciate or use to advantage many of the services made available to them. We can¬ not blame them for it. Their outlook is the reflection of the poor antiquated schooling which they at one time received. The exceptions to this are those farm people who for a time got away to agricultural colleges or in some other contacts gained a different perspective. Is it actually any wonder that agriculture is in a bad way ? It is a gen¬ erally recognized fact that the rural schools have for years been at the bottom of the educational ladder. The teachers there are the most inexpe¬ rienced, youngest, poorest in point of preparation and are the poorest paid. They have the least, the poorest, and the oldest equipment to work with, the least supervision or professional stimulation, and in most cases the most difficult piece of work to do. To bring about an enlightened leadership and an intelligent followership for a new rural social order, schools with modern objectives are necessary. It is a startling thing for the rank and file of educators to realize that the small rural elementary school has striking advantages over schools of the usual city and large village type. The possibilities for cooperation and prac¬ tise of desirable social relationships, for individualized instruction and the development of unprejudiced critical thinking, for introducing opportuni¬ ties for the personal experience in the appreciation of art and music, for the remaking of children’s health habits thru a full day of personal con¬ tacts covering most of the phases of daily life, for building character on the “caught not taught’’ basis, will be found and utilized by cultured, tactful, enlightened, well-prepared teachers. Such teachers will certainly create a de¬ mand for more like themselves. Older teachers may, thru summer sessions, extension courses, and visiting days, catch the vision of progressive rural edu¬ cation if the principles and new practises are to be found both in normal school or college classes and in the affiliated rural practise and demonstration schools. They will aid materially in bringing about a situation where “rural teaching as a career’’ is both profitable and attractive. The challenge cannot be avoided, the gauntlet is on the ground before us. Are we in teacher-training institutions to pick it up vigorously, grasp it firmly, and forge ahead to a vitalized rural teacher-training program? 438 National Education Association CLASSROOM PROCEDURES IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL HAZEL HICKS, CRITIC TEACHER, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, GENESEO, N. Y. A recent trend in classroom procedures in the elementary school has been the effort to organize the curriculum into what has been termed activity units. As the term suggests, activity is the basis of the learning situation. It is the child’s activities which carry him on to further worthwhile activities and consequently to further learnings. The term also suggests unity. In each unit some central theme runs thru the activities and unifies them into some large learning situation. Thus, we may say that an activity unit is a large learning situation, which is made up of a series of integrated experiences and activities and that fund of knowledge and information which is needed to give richness of experience and continuity of thinking on the part of the child. The problem of how to carry this theory of unit teaching to the teacher, to make it work its way into our educational practise with boys and girls, that children “may live and live more abundantly,” is a challenge to all classroom teachers and faculties of educational institutions. In order to show how experiences arise, how activities tend to integrate, how fields of subjectmatter may be drawn into the situation to give con¬ tinuity of thinking and richness of experience on the part of the child and how unity exists, we shall describe how a unit, designated as Viking Life, was carried out on a fifth-grade level. In such a study, at least two large learning possibilities are evident: First, the child can better understand the nations of Europe when he knows some¬ thing of the effects of these people upon the civilized world at that time ; second, the study of Vikings has many possible leads for child activity. The problem of how to get a group of children eager for achievement and how to get them to enter into an undertaking in a wholehearted way is of first importance. In this case it was necessary to build up the environment. It was done thru pictures on the bulletin board, discussions of these pictures, and books on the reading table. After the children had read and listened to Viking stories, they were asked whether they had thought of some things it might be fun to make. Immediately their responses were people, weapons, boats. Here again teacher direction entered. A lack of cooperative effort with this group had previously been very apparent and she felt that an undertaking in which all worked together would be more worthwhile to them. In order to bring this about she described the possibilities of making one large boat instead of many small ones. The building of the Viking boat became the main center of interest in the room for a period of seven or eight weeks. When finished it measured nearly ten feet from stem to stern and the mast stood at least five and a half feet high. It was large enough so that several children could play with it at the same time. Viking dolls or figures were made for the boat and as soon as they were finished each was given some task to perform. One became the captain and directed the ship while another guided the larger rudder oar which did the steering. Sometimes one had to climb the mast and fix the sail Department of Rural Education 439 while others managed the anchor. Thus, it became a part of their play. From the reading of Jennie Hall’s Viking Tales, other Viking books, and from their history study their ideas grew. Gradually as they built their boat, they were gathering a fund of knowledge which contributed to making these Viking people real men and women. Thru the explorations which these people made in their boats, the children learned of the rise of other nations of that time. When the Vikings, called Danes, went to England, it became a prayer of the early Britons, “Lord save us from the fury of the Norsemen.” At this time the children learned who these early Britons were, how their nation had come into being, and an acquaintance was made with such men as Alfred the Great. The study of the beginnings of France and Spain were taken up in a similar way. Thru such procedures they learned of the rise of different nations, their struggles for existence, and their contributions to what was then the civilized world. As the history study developed it led into geography. Locations of coun¬ tries must be known. Where did these people live, where did they go, were questions which had to be answered by the map of Europe. More definite ideas of where these journeys led the people came thru tracing the journeys on an outline map of Europe. Another important phase of the work in geography was the application of the knowledge of the Norsemen to form a definite notion of the meaning of a geographical principle, “Human life upon the earth is affected by surface features and climatic conditions.” 4 hey learned that there were definite reasons why these people took to the sea and became bold and daring sea robbers. In the same way the needs for the mastery of English technics arose. There was much planning to be done. Work had to be divided and decisions had to be made. Many discussions were carried on in the regular English period. The need of a large class book was evident, for some means had to be found whereby the work of all members of the class could be saved. By putting this together into a book, everyone could see what all the others had done. Paragraphs of explanation were needed for the book and this necessi¬ tated written work. Good explanations called for interesting paragraphs, well-stated sentences, and the use of punctuation marks. The need for drill on what constitutes a sentence was evident. In order to meet this need several English periods were devoted to drill on picking out sentences, telling how many sentences a certain paragraph contained, where the sentence began and ended, and the use of capital letters in making meanings clear. Their own compositions gave much of the material on which to drill. Their Eng¬ lish texts supplemented drill material when more was needed in order to acquire the skill. Poetry relating to Vikings was read to the children, and it became fun to try to see what they could do with original poetry. They found that rhythm, repetition, beautiful words and ideas helped to make good poetry. Such classroom procedures represent an attempt to put into practise a philosophy which is permeating our elementary educational institutions today. We are not maintaining that it is novel or that it fully accomplishes 440 National Education Association our ideals. We are simply trying to find a way. There is great consolation in this sentiment which Hughes Mearns has voiced, “The schools are sorely in need of men and women who are unafraid but too wise to be foolhardy ; who believe in ideas which they know not yet how to achieve. For these the impossible lies but little beyond the possible. Gradually thru the years, thru thoughtful venture, ideals become practises, the impossible becomes the pos¬ sible.” CLASSROOM PROCEDURES IN THE HIGH SCHOOL P. S. DANIEL, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, RALEIGH, N. C. This discussion of classroom procedures is based on the program of curric¬ ulum construction in Raleigh which is now in its ninth year. We hold that school is life and should approximate in it conditions under which children should live and work. Successful living demands the solution of fundamental life problems. The pupil today needs to know certain facts and principles of life ; that work is essential to individual and social happiness ; that tolerance and openmindedness are essential for group cooperation ; that all life adapts itself to its environment. A pupil should develop the power to do those things that come to him in daily life with ease and efficiency. He needs to be trained to think, to see both sides of a question, and to think straight about it. Another power every child should have developed in him is the power to appreciate beauty in the world about him, to feel things. Lacking this ability he will not be able to enjoy the finer, more worthwhile things of life. The curriculum should be so organized as to provide for learning situa¬ tions which draw upon all phases of experience and make use of all kinds of subjectmatter or content. Such situations we call units of work, or ex¬ perience. Just how and why did we break away from the traditional secondary pro¬ gram ? There was a growing feeling on the part of members of the staff that the traditional high-school program did not fit its students to meet and to solve the fundamental problems of life. Students coming to high school from the elementary schools where they had enjoyed a program of free activities did not fit into the traditional high school. These students were accustomed to having a share in planning and carrying on their work, and had developed habits of work that were different from those followed by high-school stu¬ dents. So it became increasingly necessary to make adjustments in the pro¬ gram and plan of work in high school. First, we were faced with the task of determining the sources and nature of the new curriculum content. A careful study of the community, and re¬ search work at the University of North Carolina, led us to believe that there are five fields in which arise the problems that are the concern of every citizen : (1) health, (2) natural science, (3) social, political, and industrial life, (4) commerce and vocations, and (5) fine arts. In attempting to set up the problems in these fields we have found that they are very closely integrated, which is of great importance in the organization of the curriculum. Department of Rural Education 441 When the major sources of curriculum content had been determined, the next step was that of determining the persistent life problems growing out of these fields which children of high-school age can understand and can do something about. Such problems as transportation and communication which touch the daily lives of boys and girls have been found to be full of rich content ; they are based on past experience of the race and hold challenging questions yet to be answered. Problems having to do with “How the World Earns Its Living” and “How We Are Governed” are equally vital. Other units that have been found rich and meaningful are : A study of industries Inventions Conservation Makers of American democracy How machines have influenced our living and thinking Fine arts in America Literature-language units, combining a study of the language of a people with a study of the culture and traditions of that people, are shown thru their history and literature. Following the selection of these major problems came the work of de¬ termining the fundamental principles basic to an understanding of the prob¬ lems. This is far from completion but definite progress has been made. To illustrate, the teachers have concluded that in a study of government pupils should get certain fundamental principles as follows : that where more than one man is present, government is necessary ; that the type of government depends upon the character of the people concerned ; that organization is essential for any effective work ; and that competent leaders are essential for any civilization. At this point I consider a definite statement about the development of a typical unit. A unit on “How Man Has Kept Records” proved most stimu¬ lating to one group of students who traced the history of records and print¬ ing from the days of the caveman to the present. The study led them to public and private libraries and collections, to museums, printing establish¬ ments, and newspaper offices. They kept the record of the parent-teacher association of the school and issued the monthly news bulletin for that organi¬ zation. The uses of books and papers as a means of indoctrination of the whole community or nation presented an interesting and challenging prob¬ lem. They were particularly interested in the type of books being made by the government for the schools in Russia. The power of the press came to have new meaning for them. In this unit of work they learned more history, economics, English, and more about industrial life than they would have learned under the traditional plan, besides learning these facts in relation to use in the understanding of challenging problems. There was a need for science in the development of the unit and the science teacher came into the group at the time he was needed. Later he took the group to the science laboratory for demonstrations and experiments. 442 National Education Association Many opportunities arose for creative expression with crayon or brush or pen. Much interesting material was assembled and cataloged to become a part of the school materials bureau. In addition to such learnings this group came to have an appreciation for books and the care of books that they had not known before. They learned to respect good work of members of the group, to share materials and infor¬ mation with others, to assume responsibility for carrying on some part of the work. Each unit is checked by the criteria proposed by the staff and against the fundamental principles and outcomes that have been tentatively agreed upon. The word tentatively” is used because as the teachers grow in the ability to do this work and as the students grow thru the doing of it, they come to have an ever wider understanding of the basic principles, and the outcomes become increasingly greater as a result of both teacher and students. The mechanics of the program have been handled thus far as follows: three periods of forty-five minutes each are assigned to a unit group. This gives sufficient time for group and individual research work, recitation, and laboratory work. In addition to this unit of work these students are given service courses in English, mathematics, and modern languages to provide the drill necessary for mastery of needed skills and controls. Teacher training essential to this type of work has been provided chiefly by training the teachers in service. They have come to feel that they need broader training for this work. This is being secured thru summer school and extension work, thru study groups which they plan among themselves, thru travel and foreign study. Many teachers have requested leave of ab¬ sence for further study. And of more importance, teachers feel that they are learning thru doing, just as the pupils are. Still another important aspect of the work is the question of measuring the results obtained. The professional spirit of the staff has certainly im¬ proved. Our teachers are students, and they are adding to their training each year. They are more open-minded and more able to see and plan meaningful experiences for the pupils. Our pupils are more resourceful ; they are better able to plan and to carry on the work in the classroom. They are able to assume a considerable respon¬ sibility in carrying on the work of the school. They show improvement in habits of study, in ability to control their conduct in many kinds of situations, and in the ability to meet new situations and solve problems. Parents say they see in the children a growth in cooperation, in courtesy, in interest in things about them, and in their ability to carry on worthwhile leisure-time activities. While I know that many questions about this experiment are yet un¬ answered satisfactorily, I am convinced that our program is training indi¬ viduals who know how to plan and work together, who know how to accept and to give criticism, who show initiative, who have a zest for life, a desire to find out things for themselves, who like to have hard problems to solve. Such training certainly is valuable in developing citizens who will be more able to meet the demands of the community, the state, and the nation. Department of Rural Education 443 SIGNIFICANCE OF MODERN TRENDS IN EDUCATION FOR THE FUTURE OF RURAL SCHOOLS JOHN L. MANAHAN, DEAN, DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA, CHARLOTTESVILLE, VA. Social, economic, and industrial changes will profoundly affect the scope, content, and method of rural education during the next quarter of a century. The present world economic depression is forcing a more accurate appraisal of the results obtained from all teaching and learning situations. An ever increasing emphasis is now being placed, and will continue to be placed, upon an education designed economically and efficiently to administer to the indi¬ vidual and group abilities and needs of our school population. Our public-school program of the immediate future must recognize certain fundamental principles among which are : (1) Elementary education for our rural children will be essentially the same as for our urban children. Both will reecognize that the child is the center of all educational activities and that the whole child — mental, physical, and social — must receive full consideration. (2) Pupil learning is the all important consideration in the school. (3) More effective learning will be accomplished thru pupil doing — that is, pupil activity. The pupil must be led to live while in school in accordance with those principles of conduct and government that will operate after he has fin¬ ished his schooling and entered upon his life’s work. (4) The old theory that the school must provide a storehouse of knowledge must give place to the theory that thru pupil-activity and pupil-thinking knowl¬ edge for the individual is created. (5) All work well done will possess a cultural as well as a vocational and practical value. (6) Efficient pupil-learning and teaching will rest in an ever increasing degree upon the recognition of natural and creative pupil interest in school activities as related to community life. (7) Individual differences — mental, physical, and social — will condition to a large extent pupil-learning, economic success, and social service for both the individual and the group. (8) The primary function of the teacher is that of a director of pupil-learning rather than an imparter of knowledge and a hearer of recitations. (9) An improved program for measuring the results of teaching in terms of preparation for actual life activities and situations must be developed. (10) The success of teacher-training programs of the future will be conditioned by a full recognition of the above principles. PRE-SERVICE TRAINING OF RURAL TEACHERS MABEL CARNEY, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. For brevity and definiteness I shall present my topic under two heads: (1) Conditions of rural teacher training today, and (2) proposals for the pre-service preparation of rural teachers during the present situation. Great progress has been made in the preparation and status of teachers for one-, two-, and three-teacher schools in the last twenty years. In 1912 there 444 National Education Association were 212,000 one-teacher schools in the country, taught by teachers, 40 per¬ cent of whom were only elementary-school products or had had less than two years of high-school study ; while only 30 percent of the corps were high- school graduates, or had had more than two years of high-school preparation. As for the in-service training of this vast army of rural teachers there were then practically no professional rural-school supervisors thruout the whole United States. The median salary for one-teacher rural schools was at this time $317. 74.1 Today marked contrasts are apparent. We have now only 150,000 one- teacher rural schools — 131,500 of this number being white and 18,500 negro. Of the white teachers in these one-room schools, one-third are normal-school graduates, and only 16 percent have had less than two years of high school; while the median preparation of this group is four years of high-school educa¬ tion plus one summer session of additional professional training. Salaries to¬ day for one-room rural-school teachers average $883 in contrast to the $317 of twenty years ago, and the average experience is two years and six months.2 Notwithstanding the foregoing indications of progress, however, the rural- teacher situation in its present comparative status is sometimes over-rated. In the country as a whole we have still 5000 socalled teachers in one- teacher rural schools who have completed only the elementary grades or had less than one year of high school. There are roughly also 6000 other rural teachers who have had but two or three years of high-school education, while the median rural teacher, as quoted above, is only a high-school gradu¬ ate with one summer session of professional training. The overwhelming influence of the present hour, is the economic depres¬ sion with its widespread unemployment. In rural education we meet effects both good and bad. The good lies in the fact that in some states and from some teacher-training institutions we are now getting graduates of two-, three-, and even four-year courses to take positions in the country. Some of these better qualified teachers become genuinely interested in rural welfare. While rural schools are benefiting in this way from the general surplus of teachers in some states, in other states, chiefly those commonwealths with weak professional organization and inadequate legal power in their state departments of education, the competition of large numbers of unemployed teachers is playing havoc with professional standards in rural schools and sacrificing the hard-earned gains of the last quarter-century. There is in reality no surplus of trained teachers in the United States. The surplus existing and causing such professional disquiet is chiefly one of unqualified or but partially qualified teachers representing a situation which could be largely and immediately, if not wholly, corrected by putting a teacher of high-school graduation and two years of professional training in every rural school of the land. 1 Monohan, A. C. The Status of Rural Education in the United States. U. S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D. C. Bureau of Education, Bulletin 1913, No. 8. 2 Gaumnitz, Walter H. Status of Teachers and Principals Employed in the Rural Schools of the United States. U. S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D. C. Office of Education. Bulletin 1932, No. 3. Department of Rural Education 445 Most significant of all among the present conditions influencing rural teacher-training today is the new appeal of country life and of all that per¬ tains to farming as “a mode of living.” Thru these days of unemployment, insecurity, and distress which, all impressions to the contrary, are far more terrorizing in cities than in the country, rural interest has mounted steadily. Our farm population actualy gained a half-million migrants in the year 1930. Turning now to the second aspect of this discussion, attention is called first to the fact that there are two distinct groups of teachers among the trained or partially trained entrants going into rural schools today: teach¬ ers who are pursuing the specialized preparation for rural teaching offered in our public normal schools and teachers colleges ; and teachers who have had specialized preparation for the other or non-rural phases of teaching. Prescribing for the training of rural teachers to meet the present social and economic situation in the average state, I would make two large com¬ prehensive provisions designed to affect and enlighten practically the whole elementary teaching force of America. The first of these would aim to give all prospective teachers, both elementary and secondary, a general under¬ standing and appreciation of American farm life, and of the important part country people have always played, and still exercise, in our national tradition and wellbeing. Such an understanding could be best gained, in my judgment, by the perusal of an orientation course on modern American civilization. Second, I would have all primary, intermediate, and junior high-school teachers, especially those known to be headed rural-schoolward or thought likely to move in this direction, pursue minimum units of in¬ struction on the organization, programming, and management of one- teacher schools, together with a limited number of observations of first- class teaching in such schools. This would be broadening and professionally cultural to all elementary-school teachers of the nation, and would catch the 37 percent of non-rural specialists now going into one-teacher rural schools without an hour of specific consideration and study. We shall always need, as long as one-teacher schools exist, an interested and devoted staff of specialized rural teachers who like country schools, are willing and eager to work in them, and who have had definite well- focused training for meeting their needs. The specialized instruction for this rural group should be based upon the distinctive conditions and problems of country life. These include the physical, social, economic, and educational aspects of rural living and learn¬ ing as represented by special courses and activities in the following fields: Special rural courses — All elementary-school teachers, both rural and urban, should have an introductory course in elementary science, but rural teachers who are to work with children immersed in a nature environment need additional preparation in this subject stressing the nature study aspects. Agriculture should be taught here for understanding and appreciation, not for vocation. Rural soci¬ ology and economics should follow the orientation study of modern American civilization, affording those students who expect to work in the country a more detailed knowledge of typical farm life. Rural population, rural social institutions and problems, the economic situation in agriculture, and the international aspects 446 National Education Association of farming should be included among the topics treated. A course in rural educa¬ tion should cover the desirable adaptations of the educative process to rural- school conditions and to the farm child’s experience. Special rural practise — Practise teaching for prospective rural teachers should be both general and specialized. The general practise should include observation, group teaching, and room management. This may be conducted most economically in the grade rooms of the campus training school or local town. In addition to this the normal student contemplating, or likely to enter, rural service, even tem¬ porarily, needs specific practise designed to meet actual rural conditions and done in one-teacher, two-teacher, and consolidated schools. The rural student’s program of practise should also include some experience in starting beginning children particularly in reading. All institutions preparing rural teachers will do well to encourage the organization of rural life clubs among their student bodies. At least two specialists in rural education will be needed to conduct the differentiated instruction and other activities advocated here for the prepara¬ tion of rural teachers. One of these, preferably the director of rural educa¬ tion, should teach one or more of the special courses offered, and should assume general responsibility for the direction of the rural student group and the development of rural education interests thruout the institution and its territory. The other, designated as the supervisor of rural practise, should have general supervision of all practise teaching done in one-teacher, two-teacher, and consolidated schools and should also teach some units, especially those on curriculum and method. Advantages of the foregoing plan — The foregoing program attempts a compromise between specialization and generalization. It is an effort to prepare teachers effectively for rural schools as they now exist, and also to provide for transfer and the changing social order. The plan thus tempo¬ rizes with the present industrial trend without capitulating everything to it and this, it is submitted, is the type of education and of teacher training needed in American life today. AN EXPERIMENT IN THE IN-SERVICE PREPARATION OF RURAL TEACHERS CHARLES RUSSELL, PRESIDENT, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, WESTFIELD, MASS. In April, 1927, the then State Normal School at Westfield, Massachu¬ setts, called back to a conference its graduates of the previous June. Since that time each year in the spring the conference has been repeated, with the exception of 1930 when there had been no graduating class due to the change of the minimum course of study from two to three years. The plan of the conference which gradually has developed has several significant fea¬ tures in addition to those respecting the young teachers who in the majority of cases have served their novitiate in rural or village graded schools. The first step in preparation for the conference is to request the permis¬ sion of the superintendent of schools to allow his young teachers to return to Westfield for the three days of the conference. There has been almost Department of Rural Education 447 unanimous consent on the part of the superintendents to this invitation, with the proviso that the college shall furnish substitutes from its graduat¬ ing class wherever it is possible to do so ; and with the further provision that the salary of the young teacher shall not be cut under those circum¬ stances. The conference itself is conducted in such a way as to give the young graduates as great opportunities to bring up and discuss problems of the first year of teaching as is possible in the time available. On Monday of the week of the conference the substitutes report for duty in the rooms where they are to substitute. For two days the regular teacher is responsible for the classroom, while the substitute is kept busy learning the sequence of the curriculum, the names of the pupils, the organization of the school, and the problems involved in continuing the teaching. Tuesday, at the con¬ clusion of the school day, the young teacher returns to Westfield leaving the substitute to carry on alone for the remainder of the week. The conference itself consists of several related parts. One of these is that of observation of the master teachers on the college training-school faculty, who demonstrate for an hour on each of two afternoons, and follow the demonstrations by discussion with the young teachers of problems raised by the demonstrations. A second phase of the conference is that of some inspirational demonstration, followed by a discussion of the possibili¬ ties for adaptation of the special demonstration in the individual classrooms of the young teachers. A third phase of the conference usually comes at the end when all of the young teachers are called together for a general discussion of the pos¬ sibilities of further in-service education. In this meeting the problems con¬ cerned with the transfer of credits to other institutions, the use of local extension courses, the cost and possibilities in summer session attendance, the wisdom of attempting winter session attendance thru leaves of absence, and similar questions are brought up and considered from both general and specific points of view. The most important phase of the conference from the immediate point of view of the young teacher is that concerned with the answering of the problems sent in prior to the conference. In the conference periods the specific problems of all the young teachers present are read by one of the leaders and a general discussion follows. This discussion is led alternately by one of the three leaders who are, usually, a master teacher from the college training school ; a member of the college faculty interested in the field of the problems ; and a representative from a nearby school system, a superintendent of schools, an assistant superinten¬ dent, or a supervisor or special teacher, who is capable of dealing with the problems in hand. Since, as has been previously suggested, most of the graduates of the teachers college spend their first year of teaching in rural or semi-rural schools, the conference is largely concerned with problems of rural school teachers, and thereby becomes inevitably concerned with the in-service improvement of such teachers. 448 National Education Association Teacher after teacher returns to the conference with questions regarding help in providing seatwork for pupils on all levels. The following problems are typical statements of the case: I need suitable seatwork for the more rapid workers. I also need suitable seat- work for the pupils unable to do the regular work for whom I do not have suffi¬ cient opportunity for personal supervision during school hours. My problem is to find interesting and instructive seatwork for first and second grades. I have found it difficult to keep children in the lower grades busy after their required work is done. I have found difficulty in providing suitable seatwork for my upper grade pupils (6-8). There is definite need for study material other than for the preparation of the day’s lessons. It can be academically stated that such questions are prompted partially by a lack of suggestion on the part of the college itself prior to graduation. In the answering of the problem, two factors stand out with great clarity. One of these is that the average rural school in which these young teachers work is sparingly supplied with materials that can be turned to the use of the pupils, such as magazines, construction and art materials, play equip¬ ment, and the like. The other is the non-adjustment of the young teacher to the administration of the curriculum even after six or more months of effort. In the fields of subjectmatter the problems are those that in large meas¬ ure the faculty might reasonably be expected to solve before the young teachers enter service. Such problems as the following are typical of those in this category: 1. How can the teaching of grammar be motivated? I should like to know of means of promoting interest in drills other than matches, games, contests, and the like. 2. I am not sure how far a teacher should go with social studies in the lower grades. Are the habits and customs of other peoples more important to talk about than the comparison with people in the United States? 3. My pupils have very little understanding of practical problems in arithmetic. They cannot yet comprehend the difference between changing something large to something smaller, or vice versa. 4. I should like to give more attention to nature study. We cannot give special time to the subject, because of program limitations. What correlation could one make ? In general it may be said that the pre-service training of our graduates can be markedly improved in two distinct ways that are directly revealed by the conferences which we have conducted. In the first place it is clear that in many ways the teachers-college faculty and the training-school faculty as well, must utilize the pre-service energies of their students to a far greater extent in the seeking out and collecting for their own later use materials closely allied to ordinary classroom needs. It is also clear that in the pre-service training of the student the time of the prospective teacher must be more clearly and pointedly directed to the problems of the use of subjectmatter, the direction of the interests of Department of Rural Education 449 pupils in practical ways, and to a more practical planning of the training- school assignments. In the main it appears that there are two practical ways in which the work of young rural teachers can be improved while in service. One of these is thru the improvement of the material situation of the rural school. A more generous distribution of supplies, particularly in the field of art and in the matter of supplementary materials for other studies, a more complete development of the natural external advantages of the rural school, a quickening of local interest in the development of indoor facilities for schoolroom activities, and in facilities for good music and music apprecia¬ tion, and in the equipment of the playgrounds and school yards, are all implied in the improvement of the material side of the rural school. All of these will tend towards making the teaching of the young teacher more efficient and the learning of the children more effective. A second practical way in which to improve the work of the young rural teacher lies in some administrative scheme that will permit a more effec¬ tive and constructive supervision of the teacher in the classroom itself. The natural advantages of the rural school characteristics make possible a far more rapid and effective adjustment of the young teacher than the artificial situation and character of the city graded school. If these natural advantages can be enhanced thru the wise guidance of the young rural- school teacher the adjustment of such teachers should be more rapid and more effective than that of their city sisters. TEACHER PREPARATION AS SEEN BY THE SUPERVISOR OF RURAL CHILDREN KATHARINE JAMISON, STATE HELPING TEACHER IN WARREN COUNTY, BELVIDERE, N. J. Many people use the term teacher training to cover a comparatively short period of time, as tho it began only when the candidate for the teaching profession entered a normal school or teachers college. When does the preparation for being a good teacher begin ? With life itself, and I believe it begins with our grandmothers. Surely it commences with the formation of our earliest character traits. Tho training can effect a considerable change in one’s actions and thoughts, I doubt if it can ever really make an artist teacher out of a person who lacks, innately, the gracious qualities necessary for the inspiration and guidance of childhood and youth. The world is asking us to apply our knowledge, our insight, and intelli¬ gence, to the job of teaching its children how to live at peace with one an¬ other, how to play the game fairly, how to lose cheerfully, if lose one must, how to grow up into loving husbands and wives, wise fathers and mothers, and how to find beauty, relaxation, and inspiration in the simple things in life. Progressive education has founded its teaching upon such philosophy. With the expansion of this type of education, from the small private school to great numbers of our public schools, and the introduction of social studies 450 National Education Association into the curriculum, we have felt the need for artist teachers, of whom we have all too few. Good teaching calls for a graciousness that arises from breadth of viewpoint, and which is all too often omitted in the measuring stick used in judging who shall be admitted to teacher training. Unfortu¬ nately, those matters which can be represented by red and blue lines on a graph are too often taken as the sole requisites for admission. As a supervisor of rural teachers, I should like to make a plea to the powers that be, legislators, state boards of education, presidents and facul¬ ties of teacher-training institutions, to use greater care in the selection of their students. It is not sufficient that a person be merely honest, moral, and intellectually intelligent; he must possess an intangible but invaluable spiritual element in his personality that will enable him to project himself with sympathy and understanding, into other times, other experiences, other lives. The outcome of our present attempt at progressive education depends upon the kind of teachers in our schools; their standards, good or bad; their ideals or lack of them; their insight or their dullness; their breadth or their narrowness ; their sympathy or their indifference ; their power of see¬ ing a pattern in civilization, and relating the last yesterday with the yes¬ terdays of three hundred years ago; or their ability to see only small, iso¬ lated sections of affairs and events. Let us have teachers with faith and courage to tell the truth about things. Then perhaps we shall have done with such teaching as, “America has never waged war for territorial ex¬ pansion” (shades of poor slaughtered Indians). The word culture has such varied meaning to people considering it, that it might be well for me to speak of what I mean by culture. There is a cer¬ tain kind of socalled culture, that might better be termed intellectual snob¬ bishness. Dewey defines such culture as < purely private refinement, a cul¬ tivation of certain states and attitudes of consciousness, separate from either social direction or service.” It is obvious that such culture is not the kind we are looking for in our public schools. I prefer to think of culture as the power to understand other humans and their experiences. Certainly, a per son possessing such culture is the exact antithesis of the intellectual snob. Culture of this sort partakes as much of the spiritual as of the intellectual, and may be encountered in peasant as well as — I was about about to say a prince, but shall say professor instead, since princes are no longer popular. What are some of the marks of the cultured teacher ? First, I should like her to possess a desire and feeling of obligation to develop her own per¬ sonality along interesting lines, with the consciousness that if she is to spend hours of every day with an audience, she has no right to bore them. She must be a person of imagination, of broad interests, and capable not only of instructing children, but of leading them and opening new vistas, of which they had not dreamed. She has not so much right as an actress to fail personally, for in the case of the latter, the audience is voluntary. The teacher’s audience is compulsory ; weak little ones who dare not rebel and walk out. Department of Rural Education I should like to think that the good teacher has considerable capacity for understanding other people, and life, as lived in other professions, in the office or factory, and in the home. Possibly there is no other profession, in which a person has so much chance to become autocratic, for the teacher is constantly dealing with immature minds, who generally accept, without dispute, what she passes on to them. In other professions, she would have to match her wits with her peers or superiors. It is refreshing, too, to dis¬ cover teachers who can carry on interesting conversations, without filling them with anecdotes of the classroom ! Rural people are frequently indifferent to the exquisite beauty about them. Country children need to be made aware of the wonders that greet them on every hand. It is the job of the rural teacher to do this, to help them to interpret the things about them, thru poetry, music, and art. But how can she do this if she feels no thrill herself about such things, if that part of her own training has been sadly neglected ? We see pitiful attempts on the part of some teachers to obtain creative expression in verse, without ever having prepared the way for such expression thru the wide reading of suitable poetry to their pupils. The products so often labeled “original verse” might better be called “original worse.” One can scarcely be equipped with a better tool for excellent teaching than a command of one’s mother tongue. The teacher with a careful English training, including as it does, the selection of salient points, unity and co¬ herence of thought, outlining, and the use of vivid words, is vastly superior to the teacher lacking such training, in drawing parallelisms, contrasts, com¬ parisons, human interest stories, in the recognition of the essential and the superfluous, and in evaluating and organizing subjectmatter. Never before have we so needed to know how to study child nature in¬ telligently, in order to understand all the physical, mental, and emotional reactions that constitute child life. Courses in adult psychology would be most helpful toward the better understanding of ourselves and the parents whom we meet. If we, as educators, can come to regard child study as a preventative , rather than a cure , and can find it possible to work accord¬ ingly, we may find ourselves realizing some real progressive education. SECRETARY’S MINUTES Washington, D. C. Executive Committee Meeting, Sunday Afternoon, February 21, 1932 The Executive Committee of the Department of Rural Education met in the National Education Association Building, at 4 oclock. There were present Miss Myra Nefflen, substituting for Miss Swenson who was unavoidably absent; Mr. O. H. Plenzke ; Miss Helen Hay Heyl ; Mr. Ray P. Snyder, vicepresident; Mr. £. N. Ferriss; Mr. J. E. Butterworth ; chairmen of committees; Mrs. Katherine M. Cook; and Miss Kate Wofford, president. The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and approved. The president reported that the membership drive which had been recently carried on had resulted in an unusual increase in membership, the present mem- 452 National Education Association bership being 315. In each state she had appointed a state leader who had cir¬ cularized her state, in some cases with unusual success. New York, for example, has 59 members; Alabama 20; Wyoming 19. Others worthy of special mention are West Virginia, Louisiana, Oregon, Vermont. The president feels that membership is a matter of leadership, and advised that a similar campaign be carried on next year. The president reported also that she had appointed a committee on rural school libraries and one on adult education. The chairman of the former is Miss Edith Lathrop, of the United States Office of Education; of the latter, Mr. Willard, recently deceased. This chairmanship has not yet been filled. It was moved by Miss Heyl, seconded and carried, that the Executive Commit¬ tee advise that all present members be billed next year in November and re¬ quested to renew their membership; also that forms be devised for securing new members and that a supply of these be sent to each chairman. Membership dues are to be collected and new members requested in November, 1932. Mr. Wm. McKinley Robinson, chairman of the committee on securing an inter¬ preter in the office of the National Education Association, reported that while the Executive Committee had acted favorably on the request, no provision had been made in the budget for such staff member. Means of furthering the efforts for securing such an interpreter were discussed. It was moved, seconded, and carried, that the new president be advised that it was the sense of the Executive Commit¬ tee that the present committee be continued, and that the committee be authorized to take such steps as are necessary to secure their objective; also that the com¬ mittee thru its chairman seek an opportunity to appear before the Budget Com¬ mittee of the National Education Association at its April meeting. Miss Harrison, chairman of the Committee on Radio, submitted the report of her committee, which was accepted. The Executive Committee also recommended that the Committee on Radio be continued, the personnel to be subject to the choice of the incoming president. Mr. J. E. Butterworth reported that the Publications Committee had prepared and had printed a report for 1932. It would be distributed and discussed at the meeting Monday evening. The report was accepted. There was also informal dis¬ cussion concerning the difficulties of the Publications Committee, and it was con¬ sidered desirable that new appointees on the committee be among persons located in reasonably close proximity to the chairman in order that the work of the com¬ mittee might be somewhat facilitated. In the past it has been impossible to hold meetings of this committee. Miss Edith Lathrop reported for the Committee on Rural School Libraries. The Executive Committee recommended that this committee be continued, the personnel to be subject to the choice of the new president. Miss Heyl of the Committee on Nominations reported that that committee was not yet ready to make its report. Another meeting of the committee was to be held later in the afternoon. The committee then adjourned to meet after the election of the new president. Business Meeting, Monday Afternoon, February 22, 1932 A short business meeting was held Monday afternoon, February 22, at the close of the program session. Miss Helen Heyl, chairman of the Committee on Nomina¬ tions, reported the following nominations: President, Ray P. Snyder, New York, Vicepresident, O. H. Plenzke, Wisconsin; Executive Committee, Miss Fannie W. Dunn; National Council of Education, Mrs. Katherine M. Cook. In submitting her report, Miss Heyl said that the committee had carefully con¬ sidered officers with regard to location and with some kind of succession in office in order to preserve continuity of proceedings in the future. With this idea she said they had decided to nominate as president for 1932-33 the person who had been Department of Rural Education 453 vicepresident the preceding year in the hope of setting this as a precedent. In nominating the vicepresident the committee hoped that succeeding committees on nominations would follow this precedent and that the vicepresident nominated for the present year would succeed to the office of president the following year. The report was accepted and the officers as nominated by the committee were declared duly elected. The business meeting then adjourned till Wednesday after¬ noon, February 24. Business Meeting, Wednesday Afternoon, February 24, 1932 At the close of the program session, Wednesday, February 24, a business meeting of the Department of Rural Education was held. Reports of committees were given by Margaret Harrison, Committee on Radio in Rural Schools; E. N. Ferriss, Com¬ mittee on Rural Secondary Education; Wm. McKinley Robinson, Committee on Specialist in National Education Association. Executive Committee Meeting, Wednesday Afternoon, February 24, 1932 On request of Mr. Snyder, newly elected president of the Department of Rural Education, the Executive Committee met in Mrs. Cook’s office, Department of In¬ terior Building. There were present the newly elected president, Mr. Snyder; Mr. Butterworth; Miss Heyl ; Miss Dunn; and later, Miss Wofford, retiring president; Mr. Robinson; and Mrs. Cook. There was considerable discussion concerning the possibilities of improving our publications. The plan of discussing publications at at least one regular meeting was also discussed. It was suggested that at least one session of the next meeting in 1933 be devoted to discussing the findings of the National Survey of Secondary Education as they are concerned with small high schools. President Snyder reappointed the present committee on securing an interpreter in the office of the N. E. A., Mr. Wm. McKinley Robinson as chairman. The matter of selecting an executive secretary was discussed, the present sec¬ retary being anxious to discontinue the work. However, it was the sense of the committee and was duly moved, seconded, and carried, that Mrs. Cook be elected as executive secretary for the ensuing year. It was also suggested that the secretary and president investigate the possibilities of printing a digest of the proceedings of the February, 1932, meeting. The secretary was instructed also to investigate the expense connected with the printing of membership cards resembling those used by the N. E. A., to be used in the future. The Committee discussed the desirability of sending some type of circulars to all members of the Rural Department three or four times a year. The form and method, however, were not definitely decided upon. The matter was left to the discretion of the incoming president. The meeting then adjourned. V Department School Health and Physical Education The department of school health and physi¬ cal education had its beginning as the Depart¬ ment of Child Study which was created at the As- bury Park meeting in 1894. See p. 40 of the 1894 Pro¬ ceedings . In 1911 the name was changed to the De¬ partment of Child Hygiene. See Proceedings 1911: 870. In July, 1924, the Department was merged with the Department of Physical and Health Education under the name of the Department of School Health and Physical Education. See Proceedings , 1924: 96. The officers of the Department for the year 1932-33 are: President, A. W. Thompson, State Director of Health and Physical Education, State Capitol, Lan¬ sing, Mich.; Vice-president, Edna W. Bailey, Asso¬ ciate Professor of Education, University of Califor¬ nia, Berkeley, Calif.; Secretary-Treasurer, James E. Rogers, Director, National Physical Education Serv¬ ice, 315 Fourth Avenue, New York, N. Y. ; Executive Committee : F. W. Maroney, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. (Term expires 1933) ; A. G. Ireland, State Director of Health and Physical Education, 1208 Trenton Trust Building, Trenton, N. J. (Term expires 1934) ; William E. Burdick, State Director of Physical Education, 7 Mulberry Street, Baltimore, Md. (Term expires 1935) ; Ethel Perrin, American Child Health Association, 450 Seventh Avenue, New York, N. Y. (Term expires 1936). The Department meets once each year, in June. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of Proceedings as follows : 1893:615-678 1903:817-847 1911:905-939 1919:315-323 1927:561-581 1895: 944-950 1904: 803-843 1912:1141-1153 1920: 311-323 1928: 545-567 1896:893-937 1905:755-781 1913:667-695 1921:517-523 1929:543-559 1897: 870-916 1906: 711-713 1914: 683-721 1922:1085-1099 1930: 501-527 1898: 929-959 1907: 925-951 1915: 971-995 1923: 744-842 1931: 541-560 1899:1064-1097 1908: 999-1047 1916: 681-699 1924: 637-651 1901: 758-771 1909: 745-789 1917: 521-535 1925: 577-598 1902: 737-759 1910: 921-949 1918: 339-359 1926: 600-624 [456 ] HEALTH AS A TOTAL CONCEPT FRANK S. LLOYD, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, NEW YORK UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. While objectives, thru meaning and interpretation, vary, there should be with use and examination an increasing understanding of the objective of health and a more exact statement of its meaning. Health as a primary objective of education received official recognition in the Report of the Com¬ mission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education of the National Edu¬ cation Association ( Proceedings of the 59th Annual Meeting, 1921). It is questionable whether there has been an increased clarity of meaning con¬ cerning the objective health. There are four groupings of the meanings of the objective health: 1. The group stressing health as organic vigor, more properly termed physiolog¬ ical health. 2. The group stressing health as a total concept inclusive of all aspects of a human personality. 3. The group which, accepting the first or second meaning of health, treats it as an ultimate objective having value in itself. 4. The group which, accepting one or two above, treat as a preliminary or back¬ ground objective which paves the way for efficient living, but does not insure efficient living. The accepted meaning will affect the material presented, the leadership technic, and the administrative procedures. It is necessary that we clearly rec¬ ognize the scope and limitations of the implications of the accepted meaning. Accepting the broader viewpoint of health — that of the maintenance of a total integrated, efficiently functioning personality, in which health enables the individual to make successful adjustments but does not assure that he will make them — procedures must be established which insure such efficient functioning in all aspects of the school life and in all aspects of the child’s life as can be efficiently administered by the school. It implies the assurance that all types of handicaps will be removed, or where this is not possible that they will be compensated. It permeates into every item of instruction and every molecule of the child’s personality. Its responsibility is on every teacher and officer of the school, and with no particular teacher. It implies that the person or person administering such an objective must be able to organize and administer in all aspects of health, to insure the maximum contribution from every situation presented in the school. CREATIVE ACTIVITIES IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION MARY JOSEPHINE SHELLY, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. Creativeness in physical education is primarily a matter of the conduct of a modern program composed of sports and games, aquatics, and rhythmics. [ 457 ] 458 National Education Association The characteristics of creativeness in physical education are: first, it is freely active, that is, it seeks to recognize and command its own powers in their natural form; second, it is expressive, that is, it conveys a meaning; third, it possesses intrinsic purpose, that is, it is essentially self-directed. The problem of rendering creative a modern program of physical educa¬ tion in part depends upon a reasonably creative plan thruout the school, and upon an evaluation by the school of physical education as an essential part of all education. The child, given any sort of chance, is a living mechanism of the activities here defined as creative. The problem is with the uncreative teacher rather than with the uncreative child. The practical factors, to be classed as administrative, making for crea¬ tiveness are : proper time-allotment, adequate space-allotment, suitable equipment, and provision for continuity within subjectmatter. The specific teaching factors are: richness and suitability of material, freedom and coherence of method, and integration. These grow from a viewpoint upon physical education as taking place always in the unique medium of human movement, thruout which the laws of action are uni¬ form. We need a fully formulated science of movement to ensure the best functioning of these teaching factors. In a time of stress such as this, the degree of survival of physical educa¬ tion should be in direct ratio to the degree in which it is creative. Doubtless it will be on less fundamental grounds ; but the dead spots in the program, the spots where the play spirit has been shunted out by stereotyped teach¬ ing, these are the points where attack from outside is not only certain, it is probably deserved. But deserved as it may be, we would do well to examine the nature of that attack, and if it urges us into paths where our true pur¬ poses would never take us, we should repudiate it. Frequently what is de¬ manded under stress are immediate, semi-extrinsic outcomes. These are likely to militate against creativeness in our field, and we should protect the ground we have gained there. If we are to make use of attack as a con¬ structive force, we will care more about the creative future of our work than about our own immediate practical security. If these two cannot be reconciled, we do better to sacrifice than to betray. That we should find ourselves at any time in a position in which crea¬ tiveness has become so thoroly self-conscious a problem, is in itself matter for pause. But whenever the free, expressive, purposeful quality has some¬ how been lost from physical education activities, that is an especially pro¬ pitious time to recover it. In another crisis, there should be no question of what is creative and what is not in physical education. Securing for our¬ selves that strong position, constitutes a goal and task for everyone who be¬ lieves in the right of physical education to survive. Indeed, in the hard light of a struggle for survival, creativeness in the conduct of the physical educa¬ tion activities of a modern program stands out as self-preservation and plain common sense. Department of School Health and Physical Education 459 PROGRESS IN HEALTH EDUCATION DURING THE PAST YEAR ETHEL PERRIN, ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR, DIVISION OF HEALTH EDUCATION, AMERICAN CHILD HEALTH ASSOCIATION, NEW YORK, N. Y. The first tangible result of the White House Conference was the Chil¬ dren’s Charter. The living value of the Children s Charter is an outstanding mark of progress for the past year. Each section of the charter is a spring¬ board, and is being used as a starting point for constructive pieces of work. One evidence is the increased demand for copies and the translations of the nineteen sections of the charter into foreign languages. Another evidence is the limitless times it is quoted in total or in part, in articles, reports, and speeches. The next step in this year’s procession are the publications from the White House Conference. So far, twenty-nine volumes, varying from 41 to 604 pages each are set at our disposal. These are all committee reports, and there are as yet three committees to have their reports printed. There are also several reports of subcommittees, in pamphlet form, and more to follow. Another mark of progress which has been stressed during the past year is the importance of mental and social hygiene in every phase of education. We find not only in the reports of the White House Conference, but in all school health writings of recent date, great stress laid on the importance of the mental and emotional development of the child, not as something by itself, but as an integrated part of all education. In other words, no teacher can afford to lose sight of it, no matter what she is teaching. The corollary to this is, that all teachers are taking a lively part in the health program no matter whether they believe it or not. In 1926, the American Child Health Association began a study of health programs in the public schools of this country, with the object of evaluating these differing programs in terms of certain health aspects of the children. Fifth and sixth grades were selected as having been exposed a sufficient length of time to give some evidence, and 7500 children in seventy different cities were carefully examined. The data is being presented in monographs and four have been published, all containing material of interest to teachers. Perhaps the most evident result so far is the change of policy in regard to weighing and measuring. It has been proved that there is a normal varia¬ tion in weights of children of the same age and height due to the differing widths and depths of the bony framework, as evidenced by certain skeletal measurements. Consequently it takes more than the mere hopping onto a scale to determine whether or not a child is undernourished. There are however, other advantages in having scales in the schoolroom. It is always important to know if a child is not developing as he should, and this is often denoted by loss of weight or by failure to gain. Another reason for keeping the scales is the interest they add to the program. But it must always be remembered that there is no normal rate at which all children 460 National Education Association should gain — and that failure to gain, unless for several months, is not necessarily a cause for worry. The material being assembled for the next monograph contains much of interest, both to teachers and to school nurses. One measure of the success of a health program is the correction of remediable defects among the chil¬ dren. One part of the study was a careful examination of mouth conditions of 7500 children. These examinations were made by trained dental hygien¬ ists. There are sufficient private and clinical facilities almost everywhere in this country to prevent a serious condition of those most important teeth, the first molars, but it may surprise you to know that a cross-section of the whole country shows that among eleven-year-old children, ten out of every hundred have three first molars either missing or in such a serious con¬ dition of uncorrected decay that half the surface of the tooth is involved. The last progressive step to be called to your attention is a two-year study which has been in process of development since last January. Re¬ membering the serious physical handicaps which are either missed in the original examinations of children or are not corrected thru follow-up measures, you will be interested in the next study which is under way on “The Reasons for Success or Failure in Securing the Correction of Serious Physical Defects.” It is to be carried out in New York City and vicinity with the cooperation of City Departments of Health and Education and various social service organizations. The study is sponsored by the Metro¬ politan Life Insurance Company and is operated by the Research Division of the American Child Health Association! Mr. Donald B. Armstrong, third vicepresident of the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, makes the following statement: “The Metropolitan is interested in this study as a general health measure that will affect at least six million policy holders of school age in the United States and Canada.” Some of the questions the study hopes to solve are : Are the examinations usually given thoro enough to reveal important defects? How many serious handicaps are now missed? Of the defects revealed, how many are corrected and thru what means? Why are the failures to correct? How can this be remedied? Some ten or more marks of progress have been enumerated in this paper, but the outstanding one is our growing sense of interdependence, not only among the members of our own tribe as represented jy such a group as this audience, but, an interdependence among all groups. Fred J. Kelly of the United States Office of Education, and chairman of the section ,of Educa¬ tion and Training of the White House Conference, states it as follows. “The basis of a continuing national life is the existence of a national esprit de corps strong enough to assume a loyalty to the dominant national goal.” Department of School Health and Physical Education 461 ADJUSTING HEALTH EDUCATION TO THE NEWER TRENDS IN EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY OTTO W. HAISLEY, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ANN ARBOR, MICH. Health has become an increasingly primary consideration of society. The schools, to which society has delegated in part one of its most important tasks, must therefore pay increasing attention to the inculcation of health habits, health knowledges, and health attitudes in those whom it was estab¬ lished to guide. The development of a health curriculum offers possibilities of rich ex¬ periences in teacher and pupil growth, for health problems touch every activity in the school. There is no surer way of training teachers in the fundamentals of health education than in the actual construction of a health curriculum because here one sees a philosophic principle not as a mere abstraction, but as a reality as it affects both content and procedure. The most serious difficulty in any health program is the integration of all the forces that have a bearing upon school health. Groups representing different instructional interests and different aims set in motion forces that nullify one another. One group by its procedures, unwittingly, perhaps, but all too frequently makes ineffective the work of another group. We need to discover a common denominator which will enable all teachers to get on common ground. There is too wide a gap in the philosophy of the kindergarten teacher and the teacher of twelfth-grade Latin and mathematics. All too frequently the junior high-school homeroom teacher speaks a language which the special music teacher fails utterly to com¬ prehend. Not a health curriculum, but the actual making of a health curriculum by a group of teachers offers more possibilities as an integrating force than any other single activity which I can name. In all departments, in all school activities, in practically every school situation there is a health sphere affecting both pupil and teacher. In this very thing lies the possibilities of the activity. It makes of every teacher a health teacher. It employs a highly individualized procedure thus empha¬ sizing a valuable technic. It likewise emphasizes problem approach and problem solution. Last of all it emphasizes education as a living, a grow¬ ing process. Education as a living process must take into account body, mind, nerves, emotions, social self, hereditary tendencies, in short the whole child, the realization of which will probably be the basis for the greatest educational progress in the twentieth century. Many of our state departments are preparing and distributing courses of study to the schools of their respective states. But what the teachers of America need is not more courses of study, but more work in making courses of study. They do not need the completed product but they do need the growth which comes from completing the product. 462 National Education Association Adjusting health education to our new philosophy involves for most of us curriculum construction. Curriculum construction is loaded with prob¬ lems of integration which shoot into every nook and crevice of public- school organization, curriculum content, and procedure. In the final analysis this integration is synonymous with consistency in thought and action and may be obtained only by analysis of each situation in terms of underlying philosophic principles intelligently comprehended by every member of a teaching staff — physical education people, doctors, superintendents, all. MENTAL HEALTH AND PLAY ESTHER L. RICHARDS, PHIPPS PSYCHIATRIC CLINIC, JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY, BALTIMORE, MD. The mental health aspects of play may be roughly divided into two main trends: 4 he first has to do with the role of play variously organized in de¬ veloping the coordinative mechanisms of child and adolescent and grown¬ up, and training the intellectual controls of the organism thru planning and judgment and well-timed inhibitions; the second has to do with the role of play in supplying pleasurable and relaxing satisfactions that are so desper¬ ately needed in educating a human being to emotional maturity. Let enjoy¬ ment and a feeling of satisfaction determine the quality and quantity of the earliest play life, and you may be sure that subsequent years will take care of themselves. I am a believer in summer camps, but there would be more happy chil¬ dren if some little campers could be gathered up with families in mountain or seaside home and enjoy themselves without schedules and routines. Organized athletics for high school and college has won recognition, but parent and school interest in systematic play is still in its infancy. The be¬ ginnings of adolescent play were found in calesthenics and gymnasium. My impression is that this form of physical exercise was very unpopular — in fact so unpopular that it is being replaced as far as possible by group games and dancing and the optional substitution of formal athletic exercises with squash and fencing and tennis and bowling. It is of comparatively little use to preach honor and a sense of fair play and a feeling of social responsibility for property rights and the upholding of law unless we can get this over to the growing individual in terms of how a group feels about it. We are gregarious, not solitary in our thinking and action. We have respect for what the group does ; we subscribe to their codes ; we want social approval more than any other one thing. The field of group play is confronted by a challenge of educational possibilities hardly yet realized. From the stand¬ point of formal pedagogy physical education is still in the step-child stage of existence. It is tolerated in some places; it is featured in others; but its possibilities are, in my opinion, nowhere recognized as they should be. The playground is a great laboratory of behavior which is not contributing to research as it should, because it is not given half a chance. Department of School Health and Physical Education 463 Psychology is telling us a great deal about the introverted type of per¬ sonality, and its proneness to bend and break beneath the strains of adult life. A great question before mental hygiene is whether we can make this ingrowing personality out-going in its reactions ; whether we can teach these individuals as children and adolescents to enjoy group contacts and relaxing. Play is our greatest ally in such a process. In this economic crisis luxuries are being cut out right and left from pri¬ vate and community and public welfare budgets. That is as it should be. But we must be very careful to differentiate between necessities and lux¬ uries. Physical education and playground work are a necessity, not a luxury, and this fact has got to be put over to public consciousness. The efficiency of programs of physical education and recreation is at its maximum in the secondary school and college. It diminishes as one goes back into the elementary school, and practically disappears in the early grades and kindergarten. Yet fifteen out of every hundred children entering the first grade leave school at the end of the sixth grade. This means that millions of children leave school with practically no physical education and recreational opportunities. There are about eleven million children in rural schools in this country. Four millions of these are in one-room schools. One and one-half million leave school by the sixth grade. Physical education and recreation even for those rural children who go to high school is hardly a drop in the bucket compared with opportunities which city children have. Behind these inadequacies are need of more funds and lack of adequate leadership. Both of these deficiencies can come only when communities and states are educated to the point of appreciating the physical education needs of child¬ hood. Not long ago, while sitting at a board meeting of a child welfare or¬ ganization the question arose as to whether we should send a delegate to at¬ tend a meeting where the park and playground needs of our city were be¬ ing discussed. I was amazed to hear the issue debated on the ground that such work was not included in the province of our organization. The men and women who took this view are enthusiastic country club members who regard their golf in the nature of a divine right. Their children go to pri¬ vate schools well equipped with play facilities. They evidently have never seen the wretched, barren, overcrowded, unequipped playgrounds of our colored children. The crowded, unsanitary homes from which these chil¬ dren come make the playground and school yard the only spot where the energy of childhood and adolescence can work itself off. Here is a great strategic spot to attack delinquency and social disease and tuberculosis, and all the other ills that hover like harpies around the lives of helpless child¬ hood. Every dollar spent in increasing recreational facilities of city and rural community is at least a thousand dollars saved for that city and rural com¬ munity in its juvenile and adult expenditures on physical and mental health and the handling of its crime. The presentday world is revolving at such a terrific rate that our whole modern life with its enormous development of 464 National Education Association machines and technics is filled with an unrest that continually uses up our stiength without giving us time for recovery. Are our diversions re-creating or depleting? Do they help us in relaxing body and spirit, or do they con¬ stitute new excitements and stimulations that merely add to the strains from which we are trying to escape? Here are questions with which the behavioristic sciences of psychology and psychiatry are struggling in their endeavoi to understand the alarming increase in nervous and mental dis¬ orders in our midst. The philosophy of recreation has yet to be written, and the job of tackling it lies at the door of our own restless, strained, and dis¬ contented generation. THE NEW DAY AND THE NEW PHYSICAL EDUCATION JAMES EDWARD ROGERS, DIRECTOR, NATIONAL PHYSICAL EDUCATION SERVICE, NEW YORK, N. Y. The public schools are as much responsible for physical literacy as for mental literacy. Physical illiteracy is on an increase in this country. In the future it will be increasingly more difficult for boys and girls to live phys¬ ically well and to keep fit. The schools therefore must provide not only for the mental training of youth but also for their physical and health education. This industrial high-speed civilization is doing damage to the physique of our people. Rapid changes from a rural to an urban population and fiom an agricultural to an industrial life dominated by the mechanical ma¬ chine has caused the rapid rise of a new set of national diseases that play havoc with the race, especially in the ages of middle life. We have three new national diseases: (1) physical breakdowns, (2) mental breakdowns, and (3) nervous breakdowns. It seems as tho the human machine is crack- mg undei the stress and strain of modern tension and speed. We have conquered communicable diseases, increased the longevity of life in the years preceding the forties and decreased child mortality, yet there is an increase in the death rate of adults between the ages of forty and sixty-five. This is due to functional disorders of the heart, lungs, liver, kidneys, and stomach. These vital organs, essential to life and wellbeing, depend upon big muscle activity. They were well taken care of when men lived out-of-doors and did the work of the world with the use of their arms and legs — the big muscles. It is recorded that 60 percent of our school chib dren have physical defects. The draft statistics show that one-third of our young men were unfit to don the uniform. Life extension societies show an increase in the death rate in the ages of middle life. The antidote is more out-of-door living, more big muscle activities thru sports and games, and a balanced ration of work, play, and rest. Because of these facts physical education has become an important part of the school curriculum. As education has changed, so physical education has progressed. It is no longer physical culture — the building of big muscles and strong men. It is no longer physical training — the developing of the acrobat and the athletic star. It is now physical education — education not of the physical but thru the physical. Department of School Health and Physical Education 465 4 he contributions of physical education to education are many: 1* Its gymnasium program makes for biological growth and physical fit¬ ness in the gymnasium. 2. Its sports program makes for character building and citizenship train¬ ing on the athletic fields. 3. Its recreation program promotes the wise use of leisure on the play¬ grounds. 4. Its health program makes for better living in the corrective room. 5. Its educational program promotes citizenship training thru like situa¬ tions. SECRETARY’S MINUTES Atlantic City, New Jersey Business Meeting, Wednesday Afternoon, June 29, 1932 The regular business meeting of the Department was called to order on Wednesday afternoon at 4:15 p. m., by Secretary James E. Rogers in the absence of President ash and Vicepresident Thompson. The Nominating Committee, consisting of Wil¬ iam Burdick, Ethel Perrin, and F. W. Maroney, presented the following list of ?o^erSi,ind Jne,mbers of the Executive Committee: A. W. Thompson, president, 1933; Edna Bailey, vicepresident, 1933 ; James E. Rogers, secretary-treasurer, 1934- foX/cCTeu^Tmmee: F' W‘ Maroney> 1933 i A- G. Ireland, 1934; William Burdick, 1935 ; Ethel Perrin, 1936. A motion was made and seconded that the nominations be accepted and closed and the secretary cast a unanimous ballot for the officers and members of the Executive Committee. The secretary stated the request from E. Dana Caulkins of the Wingate Memorial Foundation asking that a similar resolution be passed by the Department as was passed by the American Physical Education Association at its national meeting at Philadelphia in April regarding the Wingate athletic broadcast. A motion was made, seconded, and unanimously carried that the Department pass such a resolution. MEMORANDUM REGARDING THE WINGATE ATHLETIC BROADCASTS The Wingate Athletic Broadcast has been carried over a network of sixty-five cities in the United States and Canada, each Saturday noon, from 12:45 to 1:00 SiEaSteun/tandard TilTie' The Columbia Broadcasting System donated HO, 000 worth of air time, making possible this program of twenty weekly fifteen- minute broadcasts, prepared by the Wingate Memorial Foundation of New York City. The mail response has been very large, indicating a widespread interest on the part of the general public, school and city officials, teachers of physical education and boys and girls. ’ This program which has been conducted on an experimental basis may be ex¬ panded and made much more useful next year if the Department of School Health and Physical Education will extend its cooperation and support, both in the prep¬ aration of the program and in the organization of a widespread hearing of the broadcasts over the country on the part of teachers of physical education coaches athletes, etc. ’ ’ .Altho the broadcasting companies feel that from the standpoint of arousing a wide interest over the country it is essential that the program should include well- known personalities in the field of sports and athletics, nevertheless they are 466 National Education Association entirely agreeable to maintaining sound educational objectives as a basis for the program. This means that the program should include discussions by leading authorities in education, health and physical education, who in simple and clear language will disseminate vital knowledge on the organization and conduct of athletic sports and games along progressive educational lines. The objective may be summarized as a better program of athletics for all. Particularly in this time of retrenchment, it is believed that such a broadcasting program might have great effect in educating public officials as well as the general public in the importance of maintaining adequate support for the physical educa¬ tion program of the schools. It is therefore suggested that the Department of School Health and Physical Education give its active support to the development of this nationwide broadcast. In spite of the period of retrenchment, the Department was successful in getting an appropriation of $775 — $500 for the Joint Committee on School Health Problems of the N.E.A. and the A.M.A. of which Dr. Thomas Wood is chairman, and $275 for the three committee reports of the Department as follows: 1. A report on progressive, graded physical education programs by New York University. 2. A study of the best procedures and policies in the conduct of girls’ athletics by Ethel Perrin. 3. A study on standards for teacher-training institutions by N. P. Neilson. It is hoped that the first two studies will be printed this year. Department of Science Instruction The department of science instruction is an outgrowth of a State Department of Natural Science Teachers which was organized at a meet¬ ing of the Colorado State Teachers' Association in 1894. See Proceedings , 1894 : 951. It was first known as the Department of Natural Science Instruction. The officers of the Department for the year 1932-83 are: President , Ellen Eddy Shaw, Curator of Ele¬ mentary Instruction, Brooklyn Botanic Garden, Brooklyn, N. Y. ; Vicepresident , Ellis C. Persmg, School of Education, Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio; Secretary , Louise Herrick, Roose¬ velt High School, Rockford, Ill. This Department meets once each year, in July. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of Proceedings as follows : 1895: 951-959 1896: 937-968 1897: 916-959 1898: 959-985 1899:1097-1118 1900: 592-609 1901: 771-803 1902: 759-790 1903: 847-897 1904: 843-897 1905: 781-827 1906: 719 1907: 951-959 1908: 965-999 1909: 789-829 1910: 949-969 1911: 939-993 1912:1153-1195 1913: 695-717 1914: 721-773 1915: 995-1029 1916: 699-751 1917: 535-557 1918: 295 1919: 289 1920: 305-309 1921: 663-667 1922:1239-1267 1923: 843-861 1924: 753-775 1925: 598-609 1926: 624-636 1927: 583-597 1928: 569-589 1929: 559-579 1930: 529-542 1931: 561-575 [468 ] THE PHILOSOPHY UNDERLYING NATURE EDUCATION SAMUEL C. SCHMUCKER, EMERITUS PROFESSOR OF BIOLOGY, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, WEST CHESTER, PA. We all realize how much more comfortably, and hence effectively, we work in familiar surroundings and among old friends. Conversely, we all realize the paralyzing effect of a strange setting and of unrecognized faces. The case is quite the same with man in the outdoor world. The better he knows it, the more comfortable he is in it. To be among trees is a good thing; to be definitely passing a chestnut tree, or leaning against a sugar maple, or seeking the shadow of an oak, adds much more to one’s sense of being at home. To be aware of the song of the birds is doubtless soothing to the spirit ; to listen to the cooing of the dove, the fluting of the wood thrush, the clatter of the flicker, the piping of the white throat, the calling of the bob-white, of towhee, or of whip-poor-will is a far stronger influence in en¬ riching the listener’s life. One need not consciously name to himself any of these, any more than he labels the friends he sees at an evening party. But he is aware of each of them individually and they make him feel at home. In exactly the same fashion, the man whose work lies in the open country does that work the better for such familiarity as he may have with granite, shale, and limestone; with hemlock, beech, and walnut; with arbutus, laurel, and daisy; with black-eyed-susan and red-headed joe-pye. A second, and very valuable result of intelligent, early touch with nature is that it helps man onward with his task of acquiring the type of thinking which we have come to call “scientific.” He learns to see, in nature, the constant connection between cause and effect. It is true that Eddington and Jeans have dwelt strongly, of late, on the apparently hit or miss behavior of the electron which man has never seen. There may be much infinite variety as they posit the behavior of the individual, ultimate particles of which matter is made. But when these are studied in perceptible masses, the average behavior is so regular as to be foretellable with wonderful accuracy. Our American public is inherently religious, but many influences are at work which are distinctly weakening the confidence of our young folks in this aspect of life. Almost any student of nature now knows enough of the history of the earth to realize that it has gradually come to be what it is, and is slowly coming to be other than it now is. He is able to see some at least of the infinite adaptations of organic life to its environment. Such a one can scarcely fail to observe that there is an orderly sequence here and not a kaleidoscopic jumble. He will recognize a coordinating power that underlies it all. This power we older folks have learned to call God. Our young men and women are at an age when, quite naturally, novelty appeals and revolt is attractive. Objections and criticisms of the views of their fathers, unless considerately made and conservatively addressed to those whose minds are prepared to receive them, may throw them entirely out of the road, perhaps even wreck them. If guided step by step, with reverence for the past on which we must build, and with high hopes for the future when [469 ] 470 National Education Association knowledge shall be wider and confidence better grounded, our youthful students will know little of the shocks which have broken many men. We need, and are slowly getting, a restatement of our religious faith in terms of our present thinking. The increase of scientific knowledge is the most potent influence in bringing about this change. Everything that fosters the consciousness of the deep, abiding presence underlying nature will help our young people to bridge the interval during which the new statement of the faith is developing. To them, so taught, the multitudinous, transforming heavenly bodies will still, as of old, declare the glory of God ; the developing earth and its myriad evolving denizens, both high and low, shall to them, as to the distant singer of Judea, show His handiwork. WHAT SHALL BE THE SCIENCE PROGRAM FOR THE JUNIOR AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS? ELLIS HAWORTH, HEAD, DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, WASHINGTON, D. C. The educational values derived from science teaching may be considered under two general headings. In the first group are those values which arise from the direct use of the facts, principles, and generalizations of science in everyday life. In the second group are those values which are secured concomitantly from the study of natural sciences thru forming generaliza¬ tions respecting methods and thru forming generalizations from which scientific attitudes may reasonably be expected to develop. The first group includes material as to the manner in which the findings of science have direct application as factors in modifying our social institutions and systems of thought. Emphasis is on direct informational value, with* the view that functional information furnishes the ideas that are essential to thought processes. As to the second group, the socalled concomitant values arising indirectly from science teaching, our present methods are woefully deficient. We shall never attain such values, unless the teacher consciously sets up in the class¬ room learning experiences designed to attain them. A specific recommendation dealing with this question is to be found in an editorial in the July, 1932, issue of the Journal of Chemical Education. The editorial discusses the virtue of the historical method of approach in teaching elementary chemistry and from it we quote the following paragraphs: As regards the effort to transmit some knowledge and appreciation of the scien¬ tific method to students, the fruitfulness of the historical approach is again evident. It is desirable that the student receive the impression that science is essentially “organized common sense.” From this standpoint it is much more important that he be shown how conclusions are reached on the basis of experimental evidence than that he memorize the conclusions. Too many students acquire the idea that scientific laws, theories, and hypotheses spring full-armed from the brains of geniuses as the result of some occult phenomenon which the average man never experiences. The disinclination of the average man to use his brain is due in part, of course, to sheer inertia, but it is also due in part Department of Science Instruction 471 to his suspicion that the effort would be futile. He simply has no notion of the technic of intellectual achievement and it does not occur to him that, within the limitations imposed by his mental equipment, he can learn to apply that technic. Perhaps we cannot “teach him to think,” but we may give him some insight into how the thing is done and encourage him to suppose that the operation is possible for him. So far as a statement of policy is concerned, the program advocated by the Yearbook Committee of the National Society for the Study of Education is sound in the opinion of the writer, but on the practical side its program leaves much undone. A list of some of the major generalizations of science is given and some attempts are made to indicate learning experiences appro¬ priate to various grade levels in attaining an understanding of these general¬ izations. The determination of these learning experiences suitable to the various grade levels is, however, still left too much a matter of opinion. Investigations are sorely needed in this field to determine what is or is not possible on a given grade level. Furthermore, no information is given as to the modifications in the program that are required on a given grade level due to ability grouping of the pupils. This latter problem is still one of our major problems. The program for general science provides for giving all junior high-school pupils such an understanding of the major principles of science as will affect in a desirable manner their ways of thinking and their ways of acting so that they may be able to adjust themselves to present conditions of life with increased satisfaction to themselves and with greater value to the community of which they are a part. Obviously such a program cannot set the same degree of achievement for all, in view of the heterogeneous population of our junior high schools. What we can try to accomplish is to have each pupil reach a degree of achievement which is commensurate with his own ability. The solving of this problem is one of our most pressing needs. At present, there seems to be in many quarters a tendency to set an impossibly high standard of achievement for pupils of low ability and to demand too little of the exceptionally capable child. In closing, may we repeat that the program of science teaching advocated by the Yearbook Committee is sound and feasible, but that much remains to be done before it can be placed upon a smoothly operating basis. THE CULTURAL VALUE OF BIOLOGY IN SECONDARY EDUCATION RALPH C. BENEDICT, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF BIOLOGY, BROOKLYN COLLEGE, BROOKLYN, N. Y. Out of that “vast medley of currents and movements which now disturbs the educational consciousness,” it is the province of this discussion to single out biology as it is offered in the field of secondary education ; biology as one current in the wide and complex stream of civilization. Certainly it is impol tant that this problem be considered from as broad a viewpoint as possible , that we attempt to gain the perspective of detachment and impartiality. 472 National Education Association Certain it is also that the problem is one to challenge intensive and extensive inquiry. Modern society in its progress is as fluid as the water of a river ; the cur¬ rents, eddies, and other stream movements of the social stream are no less constantly changing, intermingling, fusing, and blending than are those derived from the multitudinous sources of the rainfall. How then shall we proceed to analyze this problem ; to attempt to trace in any exact degree the possible influences of high-school biology on our American culture? How may we hope to discover and recognize clearly any contributions which the future historian of the year 2000 will definitely ascribe to the specific in¬ fluence of the biology of the secondary schools? During 1930, over eight million children were registered in the classes of the six-year period which constitutes the stage of secondary education. Of this number, some 6,800,000 were enroled in the first four years of this period, the seventh, eighth, ninth, and tenth grades, comprising the entire junior high system, and the first two years of the senior high, and the period during which the regular courses in biology and other courses with large biological content are offered. What contributions to our modern culture or civilization can the science of biology make thru the medium of this enormous number of children and thru the multiplied millions in the homes from which they come ? Civilizations or cultures are always characterized by some basic elements — activities or tools. IVIodern civilization is recognized as predominantly founded on an industrial development, with coal, iron, and the steam engine as its material bases, and with physics and chemistry underlying. However, modern culture is characterized by another important development for which biology is subsidiary. Achievements in the fields of medicine and sanitation take equal rank with those of industry. Biological research has also laid the foundations for immense advances in agriculture, in genetics, and eugenics, and is also fundamental to modern psychological research. Biology in high schools has the privilege and duty of serving as the means by which interpretation and diffusion of the results of research may be made generally available. While our civilization is founded on biological dis¬ coveries, for the great mass of people the benefits are only vicariously enjoyed. Modern research has advanced so far that distribution of results is more important than further advance. From biology must come also an understanding and appreciation of the concept of change, of perfectability, as based on the facts of evolution, so that there may ensue a forward-looking public outlook. Finally from biology, there should be developed an increasing appreciation of the scientific method, in¬ creasing habituation in dispassionate, unprejudiced thinking. Biology above all other sciences because of its greater opportunity for empirical and in¬ ductive approach, because of its multitude of practical but simple problems, and because of the immensely larger number of children in its classes (in¬ cluding part of general science) offers the best means of affording practise in scientific thinking. Biology teachers are prophets of this new dispensation. Department of Science Instruction 473 THE MOST IMPORTANT PHASE OF NATURE STUDY IN THE SCHOOLS OF PITTSBURGH JOHN A. HOLLINGER, DEPARTMENT OF NATURE AND SCIENCE INSTRUCTION, CITY SCHOOLS, PITTSBURGH, PA. The platoon schools in Gary, Detroit, Pittsburgh, and elsewhere put nature study and elementary science squarely into the program of studies. Teachers were assigned specifically to the work in classrooms specially equipped for the purpose. Supplies and books were provided. Courses of study were developed and methods of procedure were outlined. Adequately trained teachers are an essential still to be provided. Teacher¬ training institutions are attacking this problem. In Pennsylvania, however, teachers may be assigned to the teaching of nature study and elementary science without indication of preparation for the work. Certification in this field is not required. Training of teachers in service thus becomes very important. Supervision is one of the most effective means of training teachers in service. Construc¬ tive supervision is at present the most important phase of our nature study work in Pittsburgh. Constructive supervision is in sharp contrast with inspectorial types of supervision. There are two phases of constructive supervision. First, the supervisor appreciates good work done — maybe better in the specific instance than the supervisor himself might do. Appreciation of such work and an analysis for the benefit of teachers may be termed appreciative supervision. Second, where work may be improved the supervisor functions effectively in building up improved technics. This is creative supervision. In this program of constructive supervision there are 5 supervisors and a director working directly with 163 teachers in elementary schools and 102 teachers in high schools. With this supervision is also included the direction and supervision of the use of visual aids. Two scheduled visits each semester are made by each supervisor, one at the beginning of the semester and one near the end of the semester. On the first visit a quick check is made of such things as equipment, supplies, teach¬ er’s general fitness for the work, teaching schedule, content materials, and specific suggestions for procedures. Near the end of the semester there is a check on the completion of special problems, proper storage of supplies, and care of equipment. During the rest of the time supervisors are subject to call by principal and teacher for the purpose of helping to solve some specific problems, e. g., specific technics peculiar to nature study and elementary science : Observation on field trips — collecting specimens and mounting, labeling, and storing specimens ; reflective thinking — type studies ; laboratory procedures — demon¬ strations and individual pupil’s experiments ; effective use of tests ; and directed or supervised study. 474 National Education Association Observable results may be briefly summarized as follows: 1. Increased interest and sustained application on the part of pupils are noticeable. 2. Reflective thinking and statement of conclusions by pupils are plainly evident. 3. A group of sixth-year pupils, specially gifted in nature study, meets on Saturday morning under the guidance of a member of the local museum staff. 4. Near the end of the school year a special field trip is organized for a highly selected group of nature-study pupils. The best all-round nature study pupil in the sixth year is selected by teacher and principal to represent his school on this trip. A definite program of instruction is laid out and a test in the field follows. Each pupil then reports back to his school the values of the trip. The supervisors and the director take complete charge of this field trip. The children are divided into groups, each under the guidance of one of the supervisors. By such a program of supervision it is reasonable to expect the course of study, as outlined, to function in the lives of pupils. Teachers working con¬ ditions are made as good as possible. Equipment and supplies are furnished and used effectively but economically. Science, in the elementary school, oc¬ cupies a major position in the program of studies. The children now in school get some conception of the scientific method of solving problems, re¬ flective thinking, and the application to life situations and conduct controls of such principles as conservation of natural resources, living in harmony with the laws of nature, and the application of natural laws to proper living. NATURE EDUCATION AT THE BROOKLYN BOTANIC GARDEN ELLEN EDDY SHAW, CURATOR OF ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION, BROOKLYN BOTANIC GARDEN, BROOKLYN, N. Y. Nature education at the Brooklyn Botanic Garden has a certain advantage in that it is at a botanic garden, and so a wealth of material and opportunity is spread before children, teachers, and the adult public. A botanic garden may represent a museum of outdoor collections and opportunities to meet at first hand those things of nature which many children meet only in books or on occasional trips. Nature education at the Brooklyn Botanic Garden falls under certain definite heads: (1) Visiting classwork with children in school time with their teachers; (2) distribution of plant material for nature rooms and school gardens; (3) preparation of material for teaching nature classes at schools; (4) distribution of penny packets of seed; (5) special classes for children on Saturdays thruout the year in nature work and gardening; (6) loan sets of lantern slides for the schools; (7) extension classes for teachers in botany, nature study, greenhouse work, and school gardening. 1. Visiting classwork with children is based entirely on the course of study in nature work for the city with several objects in view — definite in¬ struction with real material, trip around the grounds with prepared instruc¬ tion (guide sheets), a pleasant and profitable time, a definite, planned fol¬ low-up for the school, and aids to visual instruction including lantern slides, motion pictures, living plants, mounts. Department of Science Instruction 475 2. The Brookljm Botanic Garden has three greenhouses devoted to class instruction and the raising of extra material for nature study in the schools. 3. Mounted leaves and pressed flowers (based on the grade study in trees and flowers), collections of fruits such as nuts, burdock, etc., terrarium material, plants for school gardens are available. 4. One million penny packets of seed packed by children are distributed to schools for school gardens and home gardens. 5. Special classes on Saturdays are held for two hundred boys and girls chosen because of nature interest. These classes consist of classes in green¬ house work, experimental work on soil, culture of plants, garden plans. In the summer there is an outdoor garden three-quarters of an acre, with Shakespeare garden, rose garden, formal borders, and individual vegetable gardens. 6. Loan sets of slides on trees, forestry, and wild flowers. 7. Extension classes planned to assist teachers in their nature work at school. Courses receiving credit count toward college degrees. We are often asked if this is a progressive school, this little group of about two hundred children meeting every Saturday morning all thru the year except for the month of January. My reply always is this, if by pro¬ gressive school you mean a place where children are learning to understand life by actual experience, a place where they realize that not every personal impulse can be indulged in, and where working together is much more im¬ portant than being a lone figure, where sympathy and understanding abound and where we face facts as they are, then indeed we are a progressive school. We look upon the garden as a phase of nature study, an important labora¬ tory where one meets problems face to face, and where it is impossible to sidestep the results of your work. Over the door of the Children’s Garden House there is a saying from Wordsworth, which we feel is typical of our work, “Happiest is he who hath the power to gather wisdom from a flower.” THE SUPERVISION OF ELEMENTARY SCIENCE ELLIS C. PERSING, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF NATURAL SCIENCE, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY, CLEVELAND, OHIO With the introduction of elementary science into the program of studies in the elementary school numerous problems immediately confronted the superintendents. A course of study adapted to the local needs was the first problem which claimed the attention of the administration. Scientists and educators work¬ ing with the teachers have provided an outline of objectives and activities which serve as a guide for the teachers until research offers more adequate guidance. The courses of study in some of the cities and states illustrate the trend of this problem. Teachers immediately realized the need for more adequate training and have taken advantage of the recently revised program of some of the teacher¬ training institutions. The science supervisor should encourage teachers to 476 National Education Association take courses while in service and if necessary provide a program by which they can secure the science training for their grades in the schools. Materials including lantern slides, motion pictures, pictures, minimum apparatus such as magnets and prisms should be provided for each unit. Teachers should not be expected to buy the equipment for the elementary school any more than high-school teachers would be asked to buy the supplies for the chemistry course. The plan for supervision should make use of the wealth of material in the community. The museum, the library, and the parks are glad to extend their service if the schools can show a definite program which warrants the funds for such a service. The club for teachers is essential to exchange ideas and keep up with the latest developments in science. In connection with the extension classes teachers should be encouraged to put on display some of the exhibits which children have made to illustrate principles of science. Teachers have difficulty in finding time to go thru the enormous number of articles that appear each year in our educational magazines. Even tho they read all of them there is still the problem of knowing that which repre¬ sents serious and reliable research. Only one trained in the technic of re¬ search is qualified to interpret many of the highly statistical studies. Broad training and considerable experience is nececssary to be able to select that which is worthy of the immediate attention of the classroom teacher. The supervisor should bring to the attention of the teachers, magazines which carry abstracts of articles and reviews of the new books. In addition the magazine should contain articles which directly or indirectly apply to their grade. The junior and senior high school have been given more con¬ sideration than the elementary school in the science periodicals. Teachers should be encouraged to subscribe to such magazines as School Science and Mathematics , Science Education, The Science Classroom, and Science and Invention School Service Magazine but they should not be com¬ pelled to do so. These periodicals and others should be placed on the reading table where teachers may have access to them. Instead of all the schools being given over to experimentation and research in science the efforts are concentrated in one school in Cleveland. This school is designated as the Doan Science Curriculum Center. Here teachers are en¬ couraged to develop and try out units. These later are made available to other schools. In this way materials and devices are tried in one school instead of one hundred and those which are not adapted to a particular grade can be elimi¬ nated. This school has tended to focus attention on science teaching and is having a decided influence on the science program. Department of Science Instruction 477 THE SCHOOL GARDEN— THE LABORATORY OF NATURE E. RUTH PYRTLE, .PRINCIPAL, BANCROFT SCHOOL, LINCOLN, NEBR. The challenge to educators today is to make our everyday schoolroom procedure train for the wise use of leisure time, quite as much as it is to give training that will enable the individual to earn an honest living. The school trains for the wise use of leisure time when it introduces children to a wide range of life interests — when it cultivates in the child a love of the out-of-doors, of flowers, of animals, landscape, sky, and stars. There is no better health insurance than an interest which takes one often into the great out-of-doors. It was Henry Turner Bailey who said: “When we are wiser, we will not run the buses of the board of education to bring rural children into city schools, but to take city children into the country, that they may learn to know and love God’s first revelation to man, and feel at home in the natural world because they are well acquainted with it.” PLANTS IN THE SCHOOL GARDEN LABORATORY ALFRED C. HOTTES, DIRECTOR, JUNIOR GARDEN CLUBS OF AMERICA, AND ASSOCIATE EDITOR, “BETTER HOMES AND GARDENS,” DES MOINES, IOWA The object of the school garden laboratory should be to acquaint the juniors with the fascinating world of plants in which they live, for an in¬ terest in plants, unlike many other interests of life, lives and grows year by year. There are many pleasures and pastimes, an interest in which is confined to babyhood, childhood, adolescence, middle age, or old age, but an interest in plants lives forever. No one ever knows all the plants of the world — no one has ever counted the number of species, and yet since earliest times men have studied plants for their use and their beauty. Weeds have been variously defined by authors, most of which agree that a weed is a plant out of place. And yet I think you will agree with me that the more we study plants the fewer weeds there are in the world. When we come upon a plant in the woods which is not in bloom we frequently con¬ sider it a weed. But when it is in flower we call it a wildflower. Or another plant is a weed when in blossom, but when it produces its glorious fruits it becomes one of the joys of autumn and seems akin to a pearl of great price. An ancient story says that when the holes were dug for the three crosses of Christ’s crucifixion, the flowers were all rooted out; they withered and died. But the smartweed held its place and grew vigorously at the base of the Cross. Today we know this, for on each leaf there is the unmistakable sign of a drop of blood. This one outcast plant, like some outcast people, shared in this awful scene. Let us, then, attempt to bring the junior into a consciousness that he should find beauty and happiness in the near-at-hand rather than seeking wider and distant pastures for the unusual. If you could show a junior a plant of the common matweed and point out its flower structure he would 478 National Education Association immediately see its relationship to the poinsettia, and he would realize that even the plants have poor relatives. If we could point out the flower of the helenium, sneezeweed, or helensflower, which grows along the roadsides in many parts of the country, and is hardly distinguished from the sunflower, and tell him how this plant did a very daring thing by developing a tiny bit of bronze in its petalage, and that today there are several dozens of varieties of helenium autumnale which bear honorable names such as Riverton gem, Riverton beauty, superba, with colors so glorious that they rival the autumn tints of our trees, the junior would feel quite different about the ordinary sneezeweed. Everything which is said to junior gardeners about plants should be pre¬ sented in a delightful way. Without doubt there is some truth in the fact that gardening is valuable to teach some of the fundamental lessons in char¬ acter building, but the wise garden instructor will keep this in the back¬ ground, emphasizing the joy and not the work of gardening. In all of my work with the Junior Garden Clubs of America I have tried to keep a little slogan foremost in my mind. It is this: “It should be the right of every boy and girl to be born into a more beautiful country, and it should be the opportunity of every boy and girl to make his contribution toward conserving and improving the world in which he lives.” This op¬ portunity and vision cannot help but bring about an ideal and beautiful home life. THE SCHOOL GARDEN AS A NATURE LABORATORY ALEXANDER J. MUELLER, SPECIALIST, DIVISION OF ELEMENTARY AGRICUL¬ TURE, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LOS ANGELES, CALIF. In my plea for the school garden I am pleased to think of it as a nature laboratory. In many senses the school garden is not unlike the modern com¬ mercial laboratory. Before a commercial laboratory is established there must be a raw product to work upon. Whether it be oil, sugar, or some other product of the soil, the laboratory is necessary to experiment on this product to get the best fin¬ ished product possible. In our nature laboratory the raw products are the children and how raw some of them are in regard to nature! We are deal¬ ing with the finest of the Creator’s products, which when finished will be the backbone of the nation of tomorrow. Surely no laboratory is too fine or too costly to give them the things necessary to make them fit properly in the social structure. We have established a motive for our laboratory and we have the raw product, so we have reason to h'ope that the public can see it in the same light. That is the job on our hands — making those in charge of the ad¬ ministration of education see our viewpoint. Possibly the best argument that we can put up for the school garden, would be to say to those in charge of education, “Take a look. Over here we have the people who lacked nature education, note their condition in Department of Science Instruction 479 times of stress. Over here we have the happier, more prosperous group who can utilize the earth and make it do their bidding because they had the de¬ sire to do so instilled in them as children.” It should not be necessary to touch on the economic side in our arguments for the school garden, yet in our plea for our nature laboratory it is quite obvious that we must use any and all arguments in its favor, so let me give you first a mental picture of the ones who lost out. I am thinking of a man whom I know who, until very recently, held a high position in the business world. When the depression came he lost his job. All his experience and training availed him nothing. He still has money but it is going rapidly and he gets more bitter every day. His yard and garden are full of weeds. Around him are acres of idle land, also in weeds. This man has wealth beneath his feet, but he has never had contact with the soil, knows nothing about it, and cares less. He has been educated to work at a certain job for someone else. He has depended on the resources of some company or individual to keep him going. With all his education he has not learned the joy of creating and each day he drifts deeper into the mire of hopelessness, when he could be having the time of his life, had he been properly trained in his youth. He is typical of multitudes of men and women of today. The picture of the nature-trained men and women is different. Depres¬ sions will not affect them in the same manner. Besides having the knowl¬ edge and the inclination to draw their needs from the earth’s storehouse, they are enjoying life with that intangible something that they have gained thru the contact with nature and her people. Being a son of the soil myself, I feel this has done more for me than any amount of training without it could possibly do. We are passing thru the most critical period that our nation has ever witnessed. How we will come thru it no one dares to predict, but I firmly believe that we can prevent other depressions if we can but instil in the youth of America, today, a love for nature and the realization that the Creator placed the earth here for us to draw forth our material and spiritual needs. Let us inspire the youth of today with the thought that there is dignity in the labor that brings forth the necessities of the body and soul from the soil thru the medium of the plant, one of God’s finest creations. SECRETARY’S MINUTES Atlantic City, New Jersey The Department convened on June 27 and 28 and met with the School Garden Association of America on June 29. On June 30 a considerable number of members of the Department took part in a field trip to the Pine Barrens and to Whitesbog. This excursion was arranged and carried out by the teachers of Atlantic City. Mrs. Chenoweth of Atlantic City was leader. The program given June 27 included the following papers: The Philosophy Underlying Nature Education, Samuel Schmucker, professor emeritus, State Normal School, West Chester, Pa. 480 National Education Association What Shall Be the Science Program for Junior and Senior High Schools? Ellis Haworth, head, Department of Science, Public Schools, Washington, D. C. The Cultural Value of Biology in Secondary Education, Ralph C. Benedict, resident investigator, Brooklyn Botanic Garden, Brooklyn, N. Y. The Most Important Phase in the Pittsburgh Program of Nature Study, John A. Hollinger, Department of Nature and Science Instruction, City Schools, Pitts¬ burgh, Pa. High School Science, Henry Weed, Department of Science Girls, Commercial High School, Brooklyn, N. Y. The session on June 28 included the following papers: Nature Education at the Brooklyn Botanic Garden, Ellen Eddy Shaw, curator of elementary instruction, Brooklyn Botanic Garden, Brooklyn, N. Y. The Development of Nature Rooms in the New York City Schools, Van Evrie Kilpatrick, director of nature garden work, New York City Schools, New York, N. Y. The Supervision of Elementary Science, Ellis C. Persing, School of Education, Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio. The latter paper was read by the secretary in the absence of the author. The following officers were elected: President, Ellen Eddy Shaw; Vicepresident, Ellis C. Persing; and Secretary, Louise Herrick. The president was requested to appoint a committee to consider what might be done to make the Department a more influential factor in science teaching in the country. Department of Secondary Education The department of secondary education was established in 1886. It lapsed temporarily in 1924. In 1931 it was revived by the Delegate Assembly of the National Education Association at its annual convention in Los Angeles. The officers of the Department for the year 1932-33 are: President, Ernest D. Lewis, Evander Childs High School, New York, N. Y. ; Vicepresident, Frank E. Barr, Balboa High School, San Francisco, Calif. ; Treasurer, George M. Strong, East High. School, Columbus, Ohio ; Secretary, Ann E. Ryder, Dickinson High School, Jersey City, N. J. ; Director for South¬ ern Region , Robert W. House, Salem High School, Salem, Va. ; Director for Midwestern Region , Asa E. Foster, Starling Junior High School, Columbus, Ohio ; Director for Intermountain Region , Grace Kenehan, Chester S. Morey Junior High School, Denver, Colo. ; Director for Pacific Region , Grace M. Davis, Modesto High School, Modesto, Calif. ; Director for Eastern Region , Augustus Ludwig, Pershing Junior High School, Brooklyn, N. Y. This Department meets once a year in July. Facts relating to the establishment of the Department, its revival, and the record of meetings are found in earlier Proceedings as follows : 1887:395-464 1888:403-433 1889:499-533 1890:615-655 1891:615-687 1892:333-373 1893:177-242 1894:743-794 1895:579-635 1896:557-619 1897 :644-699 1898:664-700 1899:601-817 1900 :428-453 1901 -.565-604 1902:455-492 1903 :429-486 1904:473-536 1905 :423-479 1906 :633-637 1907:521-710 1908:577-667 1909 :479-522 1910:443-533 1911:555-657 1912:663-765 1913:469-499 1914:445-488 1915:723-753 1916:517-574 1917 :253-284 1918: 177- 189 1919: 195- 204 1920: 209- 230 1921: 667- 678 1922:1267-1293 1923: 861- 880 1924: 775- 802 [482 ] VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL OF ' TOMORROW SUSAN J. GINN, DIRECTOR OF VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, BOSTON, MASS. Guidance yes, vocational guidance — is as old as the schools themselves. True it was done, as it still is in many sections, in a hit-or-miss fashion. In a few rare cases it was remarkably well done by those exceptional teachers who had a vision and were quick to recognize qualities of leadership in some of their pupils. There are still echoes from successful men in business and the professions who publicly testify to what the advice of certain teachers meant to them. The high school of the future cannot afford to depend upon any such sys¬ tem. This age of organization and specialization demands an organized pro¬ gram of educational and vocational guidance. Neither the superannuated Latin teacher nor the young thing just out of teachers college, nor the well- meaning homeroom teacher, is able to cope with the problem of the vocational life of the pupil. Maturity of mind, with the best judgment obtainable, ex¬ posed to the best courses in the field that the colleges offer today, are mini¬ mum essentials for the proper conduct of a vocational guidance program. This is just as much a field of specialization as that of science, of foreign languages, or what not. We cannot expect teachers to major in several sub¬ jects and for this reason I object to the homeroom teacher being selected as the vocational counselor of her group. To be sure this same homeroom teacher should be one of the most valuable assistants a counselor could have. In a large city high school the vocational counselor should be the head of a department having more specialists if numbers warrant or directing the efforts of other teachers who assist in the work. May I state here that the guidance function should be understood by all teachers and entered into by all of them to a limited extent — but what is everyone’s affair is no one’s is as true in this field as in others. The high school of the future will have a definite program of vocational guidance and the necessary proportion of time in the school schedule. It must meet the needs of all classes. Then will dawn a new day in democratic education and school will be recognized as life itself and not merely prepara¬ tion for life. One of the outstanding functions of the guidance program of the future high school will be to gather together the cumulative records of the various phases of the child s life as the basis of the individual counseling program, "these records will also serve the placement department in locating the child in the type of work for which he is fitted and in which he is interested. Again follow-up” studies in higher schools and in industry will be better under¬ stood and of greater significance if associated with the school history of the child. The vocational guidance department should truly be the laboratory for the complete understanding of the child. [483 ] 484 National Education Association Vocational guidance should extend compulsory school attendance and keep youngsters in school who under old circumstances would be gang mem¬ bers, neither at school nor at work. Here are the beginnings of schools of crime. Note the ages of our outstanding criminals — usually between eighteen and twenty-two. The new program of guidance and vocational training will not in any way shorten cultural training, but rather will accent the same. I maintain that no cultural training is worthy of the name if it does not tie up with life, and no vocational training is worthwhile if the cultural side is left out. Hence they should go hand in hand. Business is continually testing its product by means of laboratory methods, by sales volume, by consideration of complaints, by watching the product in competition with other similar products. Schools have been unaware how the product was distributed or how suc¬ cessful it is. We have been content with handing out diplomas and wishing our young people success. Because our security has not depended upon the success or the failure of our product after leaving school, we have not been concerned — but we should be. We must apply, as in business today, the latest scientific methods in finding out where the schools have been successful and wherein they have failed. This is the function of a vocational guidance de¬ partment. Guidance should emphasize the need for versatility and adaptability be¬ cause of changing technics. Much unemployment of the present time might have been avoided had this been recognized before. At a recent meeting a personnel worker was heard to state that 75 percent of the men discharged during the depression period were allowed to go because of incompetency or inability for readjustment. An economist of note who has been directing a study of unemployment this past year stated publicly that vocational guid¬ ance is one of the great needs in emerging from our present depths. CHARTING INDIVIDUAL APTITUDES AND ACHIEVEMENTS ALBERT G. PACKARD, LOCAL EXAMINER IN CHARGE OF DIAGNOSTIC AND PROGNOSTIC TESTING, BOYS VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS, BALTIMORE, MD. Someone has said that the guidance counselor’s heaven would be in the land of formulas where one could take the results of a few tests and by com¬ putation combine certain factors which would give a result indicating a specific vocation for each individual. Unfortunately, human behavior is so complex, so involved, that this heavenly idea lies in the distant future. How¬ ever, a great many theories which were dreams at the time proposed, have since become very real. How many, only fifty years ago, would have given credence to the possibility of everyday use of mental tests for diagnosis and prognosis as we are using them today? Significant progress in prognosis has recently been made at the Boys Voca¬ tional School, Baltimore. In general the technics so ably formulated by Department of Secondary Education 485 Clark L. Hull in his Aptitude Testing has been followed. The entire enrol¬ ment of the school has been carefully measured with a battery of the tests including the following: Otis Self-Administering Tests of Mental Ability, Stenquist Mechanical Aptitude Tests— I and II, MacQuarrie Mechanical Ability Test, Stenquist Assembling Test. Other tests used experimentally are the Minnesota Form Board, A and B, Minnesota Spatial Relations Test, O Connor Wiggly Block and Finger Dexterity Test. The plan in general has been to give promising tests to the boys soon after entry, then to record with considerable care the relative success of each boy at the end of the two-year course. By this old but effective method, certain significant data have been collected. By the use of the Hull technic — partial and multiple correlations, regression equations, and the resultant possible weightings of the tests, it is now possible to select a battery of tests for the entering boys and to predict with considerable accuracy the chances of success in the various skilled trade courses taught. The general order of correla¬ tions found may be summarized as follows : r between instructor s rating, on shop performance and classification on test results = .88 PEr = .0069 Intercorrelation between tests = .13 to .45 To carry out this program practically in a school has required the de¬ velopment of numerous forms and devices for recording and interpreting the data. A number of these are now available. THE IMPORTANCE OF CHARACTER EDUCATION IN THE HIGH SCHOOL OF TOMORROW JOSEPH ROSIER, PRESIDENT, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, FAIRMONT, W. VA. In the consideration of character education in the high school of tomorrow we are concerned mainly with the problems created by changing social con¬ ditions. The young men and women in our high schools will not be able to adjust themselves to the moral situations confronting them with mere knowledge of ancient and accepted moral codes of conduct. Such precepts no doubt were of value in the life out of which they were developed but these young people will live in an entirely changed environment. The character training of our American youth will be determined largely by all of the in¬ stitutions and agencies with which it comes in contact. Conditions and cir¬ cumstances of life will have the most impressive effect. The youth coming out of our high schools tomoirow will find themselves in a world of confusion in regard to matters of religion. History teaches that in all adjustments and among all peoples, religious practises have had a great bearing upon the character of people. As in all ages past, so on the morrow men and women will recognize the still small voice. It will continue to be true that when duty whispers low, “Thou must,” the youth will reply, “I can. So out of the high schools of tomorrow will come a generation that 486 National Education Association will be responsive to all the uplifting powers and influences of religious pre¬ cepts and teaching. The generation coming out of the high schools of tomorrow will develop a form of political and social organization in which there will be no tyranny of the majority and no destructive will of minorities. Under our democratic form of government we are frequently called upon to choose men and women as our representatives in the discharge of official services. The measure of success which will attend the operations of our government will depend upon the discrimination and judgment which we exercise in the selection of our representatives and executives. Character training in the high schools of to¬ morrow must develop a keener sense of honor and responsibility among those who serve their fellow citizens in official position. The most vital relation in human conduct is that of parent and child, brother and sister, and the group held together by the ties of blood. Modern social changes have profoundly affected the organization of the family life, and there are many things in our modern industrial civilization that tend to break up the family unity. Our future society must preserve all of those influences of the family life which are potential in character education. In this connection the high schools of tomorrow must recognize a definite basis of sex morality. Those of us who place our faith in the spread of truth and knowledge have no fear of the ultimate outcome of modern sex morality. Whatever the consequences, science has carried us into a world of light and knowledge and the young men and women of the future must be trained in the high schools to base their conduct upon the facts which they have learned. There is still a place in our modern complex society with all of its team¬ work and social conformity for individual self-sufficiency and self-direction. High-school education will have missed its most important mark if it does not train its graduates in habits of personal development. In the end personal integrity, honor, self-reliance, and character are the most precious possessions that any individual can have. We look to the high schools of tomorrow to feed into American life each year larger numbers of young men and women who along with a capacity for social adjustment and conformity will still have rich personal individual lives. Character education in the last analysis is a personal and individual achievement. MAKING SOCIAL ADJUSTMENTS IN THE HIGH SCHOOL OF TOMORROW META B. STEINHAUSEN, DEAN OF GIRLS, GEORGE WASHINGTON JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL, ROCHESTER, N. Y. History is written in headlines. In educational circles today such articles as “The New Frontier,” “We are Pioneering Again,” “A Changing Civili¬ zation,” “The Challenge of the Machine Age,” warn us of the evils of today and bid us prepare the way for the school of tomorrow. “How,” you may ask, “can we prepare for tomorrow’s Utopia when the needs of today are so pressing?” The captain must know his harbor even while following his chartered route. Department of Secondary Education 487 The present crisis is more than economic. We must admit we have rushed ahead and created an environment with little thought of the future. The task now is to meet the present emergency with intelligence and foresight and plan as far as possible a “safe and sane” program for our children in school which will give them opportunities for a social adjustment that will make possible the good life.” Where shall we begin? Social adjustment is all-inclusive, it means life. We must begin by keeping in mind the progress made m our schools. Growth must come from what has been accomplished and the school of tomorrow must use as its foundation the school of today Education today starts in the cradle, progressive ideas start in the nursery schools. From kindergarten to high school the child is the center of atten¬ tion and is recognized as an individual in the making.” Conditions are changing so rapidly that yesterday’s education barely covers today’s needs. We talked glibly of education for a worthy use of leisure, but the leisure of today, forced leisure, with its many intelligent, unhappy , hungry, distressed human beings, is quite another problem. In the past we were asked to understand and teach subjectmatter, to train for the worthy use of leisure, to develop good citizenship, to instil in the mind of youth attitudes that would result in good character habits. In the school of tomorrow, emphasis will be shifted from subjectmatter to the child as an individual in terms of needs, capacity, background, spiritual, mental, and physical health, behavior, ambitions, in fact all of the factors which affect or play upon him. The same qualities that have brought order out of chaos in times past are needed for “the new education.” The task now is to adapt ourselves to meet the present emergency. Let us look to the pioneers of the frontier days ——they learned by doing and theirs was “a changing civilization.” They lived history, they were part of a new country with lands to conquer. We are living today the history of tomorrow, we are part of a new era where education must lift the world from its fears, depression, and idleness to a new life of hope and opportunity for each individual student in the great schools of tomorrow. PROVIDING FOR INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN THE HIGH SCHOOL OF TOMORROW LUCY L. W. WILSON, PRINCIPAL, SOUTH PHILADELPHIA HIGH SCHOOL FOR GIRLS, PHILADELPHIA, PA. If the high-school clientele continues to double each decade, as it has for the last fifty years, then, in 1940, all the children of secondary age will be in our high schools, or their equivalents, instead of a mere half of them as is now the case. The necessity for providing for individual differences will be even more imperative than it is at present. Fortunately the flexibility that the comprehensive high school already has achieved augurs well for its future ability to readjust. Its relatively recent recognition of the importance of re¬ search and experimentation is a long step forward. It will make possible future expansion in aims, in purposes, in curriculums. 488 National Education Association Teaching technics will be developed to further much greater individualiza¬ tion of instruction, probably along the lines already begun, namely, thru planning (Dalton, Winnetka, Morrison, or Unit, and any other of the dozen varieties on the market). But better teaching technics alone cannot win the battle. Courageous administration and intelligent and creative supervision are necessary that good teaching may become effective and universal. To realize our hundred-year-old dream of equality of opportunity thru education, the high school of the future must expand in accordance with the need for very widespread vocational objectives. All the occupations for which we are increasingly and unintelligently preparing our graduates are even now oversupplied. Recently a survey of 7000 Illinois seniors showed that 50 per¬ cent of them were hoping to enter four professions — professions then employ¬ ing only 2.5 percent of all those gainfully employed ! When all go to and thru high schools then all occupations must be supplied by them. This means polytechnicalization individualized beyond anything yet attempted except in Russia. Hopefully it will mean worthwhile work for everyone, worthily performed, instead of the present unemployment. But such high schools will not arrive unless they are scientifically and intelli¬ gently planned for and efficiently administered. CHARTING THE FUTURE OF SECONDARY EDUCATION IN THE LARGE URBAN CENTERS OF THE UNITED STATES HAROLD G. CAMPBELL, DEPUTY AND ASSOCIATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEW YORK, N. Y. If, in the future, we are to guide properly the hundreds of thousands of adolescents in our great cities, we must find some way to differentiate further our courses of study so that in the high school of the future we shall adapt our education to the needs of the pupil better than we are doing today. Our general high schools are continuing to spoil good mechanics and undoubtedly many of the pupils in our industrial courses would serve the world and them¬ selves better if given an academic training. On our future journey, in order to reach this ideal, the high schools must do something to convince parents that all children are not created with the same types of ability. On our part, as teachers, we must develop a surer tech¬ nic for discovering the attitudes and aptitudes of our pupils, so that we may be positive that the advice which we give them is for their best interests. In our high schools as we go on I believe that we are going to develop a better system of vocational education. Gradually certain errors in our educa¬ tional thinking are disappearing. There are still those who believe that the boy who cannot do Latin should be immediately dropped into a shop. This idea is a “hold-over” of the old attitude that vocational work is something inferior, to be given to near-morons who have failed in everything else. But the extension of vocational education must be done with constant reference to industry. As we go on, we are going to spend more time in considering how we may educate our adolescents for the more profitable use of leisure time. One of Department of Secondary Education 489 the greatest byproducts of this machine age is the grant to the worker of more hours during which he is not occupied in remunerative work. As we progress, the high schools will consider their most important work the inculcation of proper health habits. All of our students will be health¬ conscious, for what shall it profit them to be aware of the many opportunities for the intelligent use of leisure, if the lack of health makes it impossible to grasp these opportunities? Health habits are rarely established during ma¬ turity. Unless matters of proper personal hygiene become positively habitual during adolescence, there is small chance for their establishment later on. The high schools of the future will do something we have not attempted _ they will develop the emotional side of our students, that side which is bound to have an important bearing on the method in which leisure is used. Out of the experiences of curriculum and extracurriculum activities, the teachers of this country are making a conscious effort to develop self-reliance in their pupils. A recent study of the extracurriculum activities of the forty- two New York City senior high schools shows that our pupils are engaging in one hundred and eighty-six different forms of pupil activity outside of the requirements of the course of study. These include not only athletic activ¬ ities but literary, musical, vocational, social, and all other activities in which pupils engage if their leisure is properly used. The classroom itself, as most parents know, is entirely different from the classroom of a generation ago. Our advances in child study and the more friendly and cooperative feeling between teacher and pupil have brought about a condition whereby our pupils now feel free to give expression to their inmost thoughts in both speech and writing. The result is that our schools are turning out more creative writers than ever before. It is not an unusual thing today for a high school to publish at intervals a creditable volume of the verse of the students and every year at least one beautifully printed magazine of student prose. The youth who has learned the intense personal satisfaction which comes with the creation of something worth¬ while, will find little difficulty later on in using leisure intelligently. Our literature classes are no longer dissecting laboratories in which amateurs painfully tear, limb from limb, the beautiful works of literary geniuses. Rather are they classes in which an effort is made to see the beauty of fine thoughts clothed in beautiful speech. The alert English teacher today considers himself a failure if he has not given his pupils the desire to travel the broad avenues of sweetness and light which are reached thru the pages of good books. All of our schools have as a requirement a considerable acquaintance with the social sciences. We strive to develop in each a civic consciousness so that the intelligent use of leisure will include the realization of duties and obliga¬ tions as well as of rights and privileges. As far as the power lies within us, we should chart the secondary schools of America so that every educable adolescent may obtain in them an oppor¬ tunity so to develop his aptitudes and his abilities that he may live a life use¬ ful and happy to himself and to his fellows. 490 National Education Association Where are we going in our secondary schools? We have traveled a great distance in a very short time. I sincerely hope that we are advancing toward that time when secondary education will have the knowledge, the desire, and the ability to adapt itself to the individual needs of the adolescent. I agree with you that this seems a large and probably an impossible program. The nearer we approach this ideal, the surer we can feel that the United States of tomorrow will be safe in the hands of the adolescents of today. CHARTING THE FUTURE OF SECONDARY EDUCATION IN RURAL COMMUNITIES OF THE UNITED STATES EMERY N. FERRISS, PROFESSOR OF RURAL EDUCATION, GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. Rural secondary schools of today are as a class operating under the limi¬ tations of size. Relative smallness more than any other single feature is the factor that largely determines what the school does and, to an important degree, the characteristics of its human and physical equipment. Data on a group of selected schools show that it is possible for schools to overcome the factor of smallness but only to a degree. Even in those schools the smaller the school the fewer desirable characteristics it possesses. Relative smallness operates as a major factor in the rural secondary schools of today in the direction of short tenure of principals and teachers, of limited provision of special rooms and other physical equipment, of a limited and poorly balanced curriculum, and of limitations in respect to many other de¬ sirable features of modern secondary education. It seems obvious both from the standpoint of adequacy of educational op¬ portunities for rural children and from the standpoint of reasonable economy that the future rural secondary school wherever possible will be much larger than are the majority of such schools at the present time. A greater degree of centralization has already been brought about in many instances and has been made feasible in most sections of the country by the development of im¬ proved roads and means of transportation. Many rural children are at present living outside the boundaries of any recognized secondary school district. In the future development of secondary education in rural communities this undesirable condition will cease to exist. Every rural child will live within a recognized secondary school district, thus entitling him to secondary training without special cost to either himself or his parents. Opportunities for secondary education will be further equalized thru transportation to the school at public expense of all pupils living beyond walking distance. In the future the modified six-year rural secondary school will be the predominant type. No school will be regarded as meeting the educational demands of the times that does not offer in its curriculum all the various types of subjects needed for a rich and well-rounded development and suited to the variant interests, abilities, and needs of all its pupils. Department of Secondary Education 491 ARTICULATION OF THE JUNIOR AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS JOHN H. BOSSHART, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SOUTH ORANGE, N. J. The ordinary methods of articulation are to provide skilful placement guidance and to carefully dovetail subjects. These methods will never pro¬ duce any appreciable improvement in articulation. The real difficulty lies in disagreement concerning the aims and functions of education and a lack of understanding of the necessity for adjustment to the needs of the growing child. Articulation is impossible when the teachers of the two levels hold con¬ flicting philosophies of education. Neither can articulation be achieved by the establishment of logically dovetailed institutions to which the pupil must be fitted. A school procedure that interrupts the continuity of one child’s growth and thus becomes an inarticulation for him, becomes to some other child a challenge that he accepts and uses as a stepping-stone to perhaps the greatest single period of growth in his entire school career. Articulation can be achieved better by harmonizing the teachers’ philosophies of education, by increasing their knowledge of children’s needs, and by making schools flexible enough to adjust to those needs. SECRETARY’S MINUTES Atlantic City, New Jersey First Session, Monday, June 27 The theme of this session was “The Individual and the High School of Tomorrow.” The scheduled program for the meeting was followed thruout. The abstracts of the addresses delivered may be found on the preceding pages. Business Session, Wednesday, June 29, 1932 President Lewis called the meeting to order and asked Mr. Ashby of the Head¬ quarters Staff of the N. E. A. to act as secretary in the absence of Miss Ryder, the regular secretary. Mr. Ashby read the minutes of the Los Angeles meeting which were approved as read. The report of the treasurer was presented by Mr. Metcalf, of Columbus, Ohio, in the absence of Mr. Strong, the treasurer. Mr. Metcalf reported income from mem¬ bership dues for the year, of $272, with a balance in the bank of $81.60, but with unpaid bills amounting to $1135.60. He called attention to the fact that the High School Teachers Association of New York City, had loaned to the Department $609, in order to assist the Department in getting on its feet until membership fees would be sufficient to cover the expenses. He recommended that the Department repay this loan at the rate of $50 per year, which arrangement was approved by the High School Teachers Association of New York City. It was moved by Miss Celine Combatalade of San Francisco, Calif., that the report of the treasurer be accepted with the understanding that acceptance of the report means that the Department agrees to pay $50 per year on the loan. This motion was seconded by Mr. B. B. Hampton of Staten Island, New York. The motion carried unanimously. 492 National Education Association Piesident Lewis then stated that the next order of business was the election of officers for the ensuing year. Frederick Houk Law made a short talk in which he called attention to the fact that the present officers of the Department were in a better position to advance the interests of the Department during the coming year because of their past experience. He felt that this was especially true because of the fact that the Department has been reorganized for only one year and is still in the forma¬ tive process. He stated that President Lewis had given liberally of his time and energy during the past year. In view of these facts he moved that the Secretary be instructed to cast one ballot for the entire present slate of officers to continue in office during the year 1932-33. President Lewis then asked Dr. Law to act as chairman while action was taken on this motion. Dr. Law agreed to do so and his motion was seconded by Mr. Hampton. Mr. Lewis then took the chair again and expressed his appreciation of the confi¬ dence expressed in him. He then spoke briefly of the great opportunity which the Department of Secondary Education has. Meeting adjourned. Second Session, Wednesday, June 29 The theme of this session was “Charting High School Education of Tomorrow.” The scheduled program was followed with two exceptions. United States Commis¬ sioner of Education, William John Cooper, was unable to be present owing to the fact that he had just received word of an appointment by the United States Govern¬ ment which took him to Europe unexpectedly. In his absence his paper was read by Assistant U. S. Commissioner of Education, Bess Goodykoontz. Superintendent John H. Bosshart of South Orange, New Jersey, was unable to be present owing to illness in his family. His paper was read by Howard Dare White, Assistant Commissioner of Education, Trenton, New Jersey. Department of Secondary School Principals The department of secondary school princi¬ pals was organized in Topeka, Kansas, in 1886, under the name of the Department of Secondary Instruction. See Proceedings , 1887 : 936. Anticipat¬ ing the proposed merger of the National Association of Secondary Principals with the National Educa¬ tion Association, the name of the Department was changed to the Department of Secondary School Principals. The officers for the year 1932-33 are: President , W. W. Haggard, Superintendent, Joliet Township High School and Junior College, Joliet, Ill.; First Vicepresident , Robert B. Clem, Principal, Shawnee High School, Louisville, Ky. ; Second Vicepresident , E. E. Church, Supervising Principal, Junior-Senior High School, Parkersburg, W. Va. ; Secretary-Treas¬ urer, H. V. Church, Superintendent, J. Sterling Mor¬ ton High Schools, Cicero, Ill.; Executive Committee : Harrison C. Lyseth, State Supervisor of Secondary Education, State Department, Augusta, Maine; M. C. Jones, Principal, High School, Huntington Beach, Calif. Facts relating to the establishment of this Depart¬ ment and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of Proceedings as follows : 1887:395-442 1888:403-433 1889 :499-533 1890:615-655 1891 :617-687 1892:332-373 1893 :177-242 1894:743-794 1895:579-635 1896 :557 -619 1897:644-699 1898 :664-700 1899 :601 -818 1900:428-453 1901 :565-604 1902 :455-492 1903 :429-486 1904:473-536 1905 :423-479 1906:633-637 1907:521-710 1908:577-667 1909 :479-522 1910:443-533 1911:555-657 1912:663-765 1913:469-499 1914: 445-488 1915: 723-753 1916: 517-574 1917: 253-284 1918: 177-189 1919: 195-204 1920: 209-230 1921 : 667-678 1922:1267-1293 1923 :86 1-880 1924:775-802 1925:450-477 1926:636-652 1927:599-677 1928:591-650 1929:579-632 1930:543-595 1931:577-620 [494] A PROGRAM FOR SECONDARY EDUCATION THOMAS H. BRIGGS, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. First, public education is a long-term investment by society to perpetuate itself and to promote its own interests. This thesis with its more important implications I have elaborated in the Inglis Lecture for 1930.1 It is so sound that I have no doubt that it is irrefutable. It is so contradictory of many cur¬ rent practises wastefully supported by public funds that long and far-seeing effort will be necessary to make even partial application. It is so important that it cannot be neglected by those who take seriously their professional obligations. The very difficulty of its application should emphasize the chal¬ lenge, especially to such an organization as this association. Second, to accomplish the preservation and the promotion of the kind of organized society that we approve, an appropriate education should be pro¬ vided for all youth. This principle, reflecting a growing sentiment, was, with a limitation to the age of eighteen, proposed by the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education. It received general verbal accept¬ ance by both the profession and the public. But verbal acceptance is not suffi¬ cient. Our practise falls far short in two respects. In the first place, second¬ ary education is still selective — to no such extent as in previous generations, but still so far that approximately half of the adolescent population is not in school. This means that society does not and cannot make them as com¬ petent as is possible by increasing their powers to the making of their com¬ munities better places in which to live and in which to make a living. It is, moreover, a denial of the principle of democracy. How can we justify the expenditure of taxes collected from all for the education of only that frac¬ tion who have inherited or by the discriminating program of the schools have acquired only one of several types of ability? The principle, which is anchored in democracy and on the successful application of which democ¬ racy is dependent, maintains that an appropriate education shall be provided for all youth. The word “all” is impressively and challengingly inclusive. Third, inasmuch as no program can expect to hold all youth to formal schooling until they reach adulthood, secondary education must , so far as possible, be maximally good to the extent to which it is pursued. There is as yet no means of knowing with anything like accuracy which pupils after the law ceases to hold them will appear at school on any morning. At present the ones who drop out with a smattering of this and that in a subject, or even with sound preparation for future work which they never undertake, represent by any rational bookkeeping an alarming waste. Cultivation that does not fructify is a poor investment. It is a relatively simple matter to arrange, so that they are good to the extent to which they are pursued, all of our courses of study except those in advanced mathematics and foreign languages, and in them the ideal can be approximated. This principle must be accepted and 1 The Great Investment, Harvard University Press. [ 495 ] 496 National Education Association applied or else students roust justify their ability to profit bv courses meager in immediate but rich in deferred values, perhaps, as in England, “give an undertaking that is, post a bond — to continue the studies until there is a reasonable opportunity for successful fruition. In other words, our schools must become intelligently and economically selective. Any other policy, in¬ cluding that of laissez faire under which we now work, will assuredly result in a waste of public money and of individual effort that no one can justify. In all probability if the courses revealed convincing values as they progressed a larger number of students would wish to pursue them further. There are, of course, other principles that need to be established, and the three presented must be greatly elaborated, as they cannot be in this brief paper, before their importance is recognized and the wide nature of their effects can be realized. But these are sufficient to illustrate the sort of philoso¬ phy that we need as criteria for evaluating our practises and as directive principles for developing a new program. What would it not mean for sec¬ ondary education and for the society that it serves if every member of this association should begin by earnestly attempting to make over his school on these or on similar principles! What would it not mean if the association threw the weight of its great potential authority to the formulation of some definite detailed program consistent with such principles! Out of such a be¬ ginning the inevitable larger movement would assuredly be born. EDUCATIONAL INTERPRETATION FOR THE SECONDARY SCHOOL BELMONT FARLEY, ASSISTANT DIRECTOR, DIVISION OF PUBLICATIONS, NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. The most widely employed media of interpreting the schools to the general public include the newspaper, the radio, bulletins published regularly for the specific purpose of going to the homes of students, letters written by students to parents, graduation exercises, addresses of faculty members before clubs or other public groups, parent-teacher organizations, addresses by students before local clubs and societies, exhibits of school work, the alumni association, school entertainments, school reports to the board of education, the observance of American Education Week and other special educational weeks and days, and inserts in the periodical grade reports to parents. School exhibits lead in frequency as a medium of interpretation, with 79 percent of the schools employing it. Previous studies of the interests of parents in school news show that the achievements of the pupils, and the methods of instruction rank first as topics of interest. Since school exhibits usually show what students are doing and how they are taught to do it, principals would seem to be justified in placing great emphasis upon this medium. The local newspapers rank second as a publicity medium, with 72 percent of the principals counting it as an important means of keeping the public informed. Within recent years the publication of school news has been Department of Secondary School Principals 497 greatl} increased, due both to the increased interest of editors and to greater activity in this direction by school officials. It s an (old American custom” to go to the newspapers for publicity. Kvery large commercial organization, every government department, every national association has developed a more or less elaborate means of promoting newspaper attention to its activities. No doubt these efforts have been inspired largely by the great success of commercial advertising in newspapers. There are more than 45,000,000 copies of newspapers issued daily in the United States and Canada. Nearly everyone reads one or more newspapers each day. The growing importance of the school paper as a publicity medium may be indicated by the fact that 52 percent of the 160 high schools and 64 per¬ cent of the junior high schools circulate the school paper to the homes of students. Forty-eight percent of the principals say the parent-teacher asso¬ ciation is one of the most important means of securing all kinds of coopera¬ tion from patrons and the public. Less than 2 percent say these parent organizations are a handicap rather than a help to the school. Graduation exercises rank third after school exhibits and city newspapers in the frequency with which they are employed as publicity media. Sixty- three percent of the principals make commencement a special period for school interpretation. The plans by which they are so used consist essentially in dispensing with outside speakers, and in presenting pupil activities which demonstrate or describe the methods, aims, or results of the schools as a part of the graduation exercises. Your attention is called particularly to the high schools in Durant, Oklahoma, and in Chanute, Kansas, for examples of success in the use of this medium of interpretation. The writer believes it fortunate that more direct methods of educational interpretation are supplementing the impersonal presentation of the city newspapers. The former methods offer the desirable opportunity of creating or arousing especially in patrons a sense of responsibility for the safe con¬ duct of our schools thru the present troublous times. In many states and communities there is at present a demand for the reduction of school services. In employing the publicity practises indicated above, school principals will be concerned with their effectiveness in helping to maintain the present high standards of the schools. Publicity may best do this by sharing the obliga¬ tion with fathers and mothers, and other citizens. If these times demand retrenchment let us ask our patrons to assume responsibility for the results of the cut. Let us ask them to show where the pruning knife shall fall. Let us ask of them such questions as these: If finally faced with the necessity of abridging the rights of children, which educational opportunity shall you first strike down? Will you lessen the efforts of the schools to promote sound health, and see the now declining death rate mount to higher levels? Will you decrease the effectiveness of training in citizenship and loyalty to national ideals at a period when the pinch of want and the blundering of well-intentioned leaders have already caused thousands to question the stability and justice of our government ? Will you ask the schools to abandon character education at a time when rapidly increasing numbers are yielding 498 National Education Association to despair, and to disrespect for law and the rights of others? Will you choose to weaken the work of the schools in preparing children for worthy home membership when many homes have become economically unstable, and when broken and unhappy families are on the increase? Will you decide to reduce vocational training in the schools when it is harder than it has ever been to make a living? Will you elect to abandon training in worthy use of leisure when forced unemployment aggravates a hundredfold the problem of wasted hours? Will you make your children pay tomorrow the price of your own mistakes today? The schools are not a vested interest to plead their cause for their own sake ; they belong to the people. Let us make the people feel accountable for their success; let us ask our citizens “Will you sacrifice your children?” AIMS AND ACTIVITIES OF SUPERVISORS ROY O. BILLETT, SPECIALIST IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION, UNITED STATES OFFICE OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. This progress report deals with the aims and activities of supervisors in a small number of schools carefully selected on the basis of the following criteria : First, each school should be recommended by some competent au¬ thority as having an unusually successful supervisory program ; second, the supervisory staff of the school should have some confidence in the merit of its program of supervision; third, the supervisory staff should be willing to assist the visiting member of the survey staff in collecting the necessary data; fourth, the schools selected should be representative of the various geographical areas of the country. The time and funds available for the project indicated that approximately thirty schools should be selected for intensive study. The staff member in charge planned to visit one school in each city. However, in a few cities two or three schools were included with the final result that thirty-six schools were represented. Certain salient facts concerning this project may be summarized. First, with the active cooperation of local supervisory staffs a small number of highly selected schools are being studied intensively. Second, all schools in¬ cluded in the study have been visited by a staff member of the National Sur¬ vey. Third, the project with which this progress report has been concerned has not emerged completely from the data-gathering stage. Fourth, the final report of the project will show: a. What the programs and activities of practical supervisors really are. b. The extent to which practical supervisory programs coincide with a composite program advocated by competent writers on the subject. c. The extent to which the real activities of supervisors coincide with a com¬ posite list of activities which competent writers have regarded as supervisory. d. The degree of success, as estimated by the supervisors, with which each su¬ pervisor has contributed to each of the major elements of the school s super¬ visory program. e. The nature, in considerable detail, of unique, innovating, or unusually success¬ ful supervisory practises of individual supervisors in individual schools. Department of Secondary School Principals 499 A PLAN FOR COOPERATIVE SUPERVISION ARTHUR M. SEYBOLD, HEADMASTER, OAK LANE COUNTRY DAY SCHOOL, TEMPLE UNIVERSITY, OAK LANE, PHILADELPHIA, PA. 1 here are so many approaches which have provided avenues of access to the supervisory problems that one wonders why we have waited so long to realize their worth. One of the most used devices of the present time is the study of the use of visual aids. A supervisor may be ostensibly interested in discovering how an opaque projection lantern may vitalize the teaching of the social studies in his school system. He will enter classroom after classroom with an enthusiasm for his device which will inspire the acceptance of its use in many recitation rooms, recitations which had been so lifeless before his genius touched the dull clay found there. Lantern slides, strip films, motion pic¬ tures, models, charts, and mounted specimens flow into the program as easily as timber upon a spring freshet, once the flood of interest has been aroused. The supervisor, all the while, has a concrete subject upon which his discussion may center. Teacher and principal are discovering new ways of making lantern slides for the school, but in the selection of the pictures needed, in the presentation of the photographed illustrations, in class situa¬ tions, and in the study of the best psychological use of these accessories, the participants are brought together upon an active cooperative basis. Teaching ability, routine, and physical conditions of the classroom, discipline, and all of the diversified subjects mentioned at the beginning of this discussion are not forgotten entirely. They now have meaning because discipline, class management, and ideal physical condition in the classroom must prevail so that the visual aids will have an opportunity for effective use. Visual aids might well be given the center of cooperative use and dis¬ cussion for a semester. Could this not be followed with the use of the field trip ? Every faculty has a number of teachers who have been taking student excursions into the industries of the community. Let the story of these trips be presented at teachers’ meetings and let the results of the expeditions be dramatized in demonstration lessons. Again this common problem will bring to all of its participants benefits comparable to those mentioned in the project described above. Follow this with the study of the unit presentation of subjectmatter. The ramifications of this topic might employ much of the creative energies of an able faculty for a whole year. Books will be read and their contents will find dynamic use in classroom experimentation. Teachers will pass with super¬ visors from room to room surveying different angles of the new experiments in which all are interested. Intervisitation? Surely, intervisitation with a real purpose. There is little thought here of inspectional supervision, con¬ flict of personalities, and all of the chimeras of our old pedagogical fears. We are now caught with the need of making our new cooperative project an efficient instrument in our teaching program. The radio is another avenue the reach of which we are just beginning to understand. Mass lessons in arithmetic, lessons taught by experts to large 500 National Education Association groups of children and observed by assisting teachers who will meet at the close of the school day and discuss the worth of the processes employed, have brought to us a most effective instrument of supervision. Study the project and the problem, experiment with the use of music in appreciation lessons, attempt the reproduction of whole lessons by mimeo¬ graphed reports or by actual sound recording, using these lessons as case studies, print and distribute exemplary recitations, study interest leads in large and in small classes measuring the results of the teaching in these classes, discover, if possible, the best interest leads for children of different intelligence abilities these are but a few of the many problems which might enlist the united efforts of a faculty or a group of teachers in a subjectmatter field for a period of years. Let a teaching group be subjected to such a barrage and not only will most of the dross be discarded but each teacher will have retained what was applicable to his individual needs. This has been done in many schools with but little of the stigma of ennui occasioned by the old approach, and with a high degree of faculty interest that has been a source of joy to the super¬ visors who have become most ardent devotees of the plan. GUIDANCE PROGRAMS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS W. C. REAVIS, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL. It is not the purpose of this report to evaluate the guidance practises found in the schools studied, but rather to describe the types of organizations and to indicate the extent and character of guidance activities carried on in school systems and in individual schools considered to have developed successful guidance programs. Five types of programs will be considered briefly in turn. 1. Programs carried on thru regular administrative officers in individual schools — In the schools which develop their guidance programs around gen¬ eral administrative officers guidance activities are often subordinated to ad¬ ministrative duties. Furthermore, in dealing both with individuals and with groups the administrative officer is sometimes inhibited in the performance of a guidance activity by the necessity of first performing an administrative activity. As a matter of fact administration may interfere with guidance and guidance may interfere with administration. This relation often renders guidance difficult by officers whose primary responsibility is administration. 2. Programs carried on in individual schools by homeroom advisers — The homeroom plan of organization makes possible the segregation of pupils in groups under the leadership of a regular teacher whose responsibility for the homeroom group is sponsorship rather than instruction. The plan enables the sponsor and pupils to establish cooperative relations as a means of realizing the purposes for which the type of organization exists. Whether the home¬ room groups remains with the adviser for a semester, term or during the membership of the group in the school does not matter greatly, provided the purposes of the organization are clearly conceived. Department of Secondary School Principals 501 Broadly speaking, the chief purpose of the homeroom is guidance and the specific activities carried on therein should come largely under that cate¬ gory. To this end the homeroom should be organized as a guidance labora¬ tory and not as another classroom. The atmosphere of the room should be democratic and should be conducive to self-discovery and self-revelation. To serve the members of the homeroom group the adviser must know them both as individuals and as members of a primary group. 3* Programs carried on by special counselors in individual groups — The development of the guidance program around the counselor in the local school makes possible a type of guidance often slighted in schools which de¬ pend chiefly on the administrative officers plus the services of outside special¬ ists available only on call. However, the success of the plan will depend on the limitations imposed. If the counselor is overloaded with pupils or is expected to divert energy to administrative work, the results accomplished may vary only slightly from those obtained thru other plans. 4. Programs carried on by bureaus or departments of guidance — The de¬ velopment of the central bureau of guidance in city schools and in large schools makes possible occupational research and the utilization of the find¬ ings in vocational guidance and placement to an extent scarcely possible under the other types of programs. However, the guidance activities that be¬ long in the individual schools are likely to be neglected unless complementary guidance programs are developed by the principals of the schools or are projected by the guidance bureau. The weakness of the guidance program under the control of the central bureau is not inherent, but rather the result of failure to overcome administrative difficulties to its complete functioning in the individual schools. 5. Composite programs — Some schools combine the features of the pro¬ grams previously considered into a unified guidance program. This requires that the administrative officers, director of guidance, special counselors, home¬ room advisers, and teachers take a part in carrying on the guidance func¬ tion. The projection of the composite program requires a careful analysis of guidance activities and the differentiation of duties to be performed in accordance with the functions of the officers to whom duties are assigned. The teacher as a guidance officer must necessarily play a large part in a guidance program. His interest in the welfare of the pupil is indispensable, if guidance is to bear fruit. He should sense the symptoms of maladjustment in a pupil in the incipient stages, bring the guidance organization to bear on the case, contribute to the diagnosis of the causes of maladjustment, and assist in the application of the corrective or remedial measures advised. Fur¬ thermore, the teacher may give specific guidance to pupils in the pursuit of intellectual interests, in the development of proper habits of study, and in the development of the proper conception of the processes of education and the opportunities for education provided thru the school. The foregoing analysis of the activities of guidance which can be provided thru a composite program indicates the comprehensive character of guidance 502 National Education Association as a school function. The neglect of any of the phases of guidance, either thru failure to give them proper emphasis or thru failure to assign them to the proper guidance officer for performance, may contribute to maladjust¬ ment and failure on the part of pupils. The development of a balanced pro¬ gram of guidance should therefore be encouraged in preference to the de¬ velopment of any single feature. AN ORGANIZED GUIDANCE PROGRAM IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS RICHARD D. ALLEN, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PROVIDENCE, R. I. An effective guidance program in the secondary schools must be organized to serve all pupils, not merely those who are problems of discipline or failure. In order to do this work effectively every member of the faculty must have his share in the program. But, everybody’s business is nobody’s business. Each must have his definite part in the scheme. The principal of even a school of moderate size must delegate everything that is not an administrative or super¬ visory responsibility. The subject teacher must arouse interests related to the subject, stress the occupational implications of the subject, arrange try-out projects, and meet individual difficulties and needs. The homeroom teacher must take a friendly interest in each pupil and make the school a home rather than a factory. But neither the homeroom teacher nor the subject teacher can be expected to do work which requires a special type of personality, special training, and continuous contacts with the same pupils over several years. These functions belong to the class counselor who should have the continuous responsibility for an entire group of pupils thruout their life in the school. The following duties can be performed effectively only by the class counselor : 1. The keeping of adequate personnel records and the carrying on of research in problems of individual differences and adjustments. 2. Individual counseling, both educational and vocational. 3. Orientation instruction in educational, vocational, and social problems. This should be a continuous course at least twice a week thru the entire three years in the junior high school and at least once a week in the senior high school, conducted by the same counselor with the same group of pupils. 4. The follow-up of all pupils after they leave the school: in the senior high school at the end of one, three, and five years, and in the junior high school at the end of one, two, and three years. 5. Utilization of and cooperation with special services such as health service, attendance, home visitors, psychological testing service, etc. It is useless to talk about making individual adjustments in the secondary schools if the school program is divided into several specialized curriculums one of which each pupil must select. Without a counseling program such a procedure may appear to be necessary, but with a properly organized guidance department in a secondary school, there is no excuse for such a clumsy ad¬ ministrative scheme. Each subject should stand upon its own feet and be elective under guidance. No pupil should be expected to study a subject that Department of Secondary School Principals 503 does not fit in with his needs, his abilities, and his prospects. The scrapping of specialized curriculums and the substitution of a program of individual electives under guidance is a first step in individualizing education. In the Providence school this program has been in effect for more than five years during which time no insuperable difficulties have appeared. In fact, it has simplified administrative problems, decreased the cost of instruction, decreased the percentage of failures, and resulted in a constantly evolving curriculum based upon the interests and needs of the pupils. TESTS FOR A CLUB SPONSOR EDGAR G. JOHNSTON, PROFESSOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION, AND PRINCIPAL OF UNIVERSITY HIGH SCHOOL, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN, ANN ARBOR, MICH. Clubs, like any other phase of school organization, are to be judged by their contribution to valid educational aims. The only possible educational results from the existence of inactive clubs would seem to be negative — the encouragement of a facile tendency on the part of pupils to “belong,” without a corresponding development of responsibility, initiative, and social-minded- ness. While a variety of circumstances accounts for the variable histories of high-school clubs, an analysis of the reasons for failure of those club pro¬ grams which were not successful would indicate that in most cases the decisive factor is to be found in the effectiveness of the club sponsor. Some reasons for club failures are listed below: 1. The practise of requiring students to become club members 2. The failure to provide school time for meeting 3. Overloading of the sponsor with other duties 4. Allowing a pupil to belong to too many clubs at one time 5. A lack of administrative encouragement 6. Lack by the sponsor of the ability to arouse pupil interest in the work of the club 7. Lack of a definite program 8. Tendency of sponsors to dictate to the club 9. Tendency of sponsors to abdicate their functions 10. Tendency of sponsors to overemphasize the importance of the club in proportion to that of other activities, resulting in a desire for special privileges and lack of interest when such privileges are refused 11. Lack of appeal of the club program to the interest of students 12. Insufficient student participation 13. Lack of preparation on the part of the sponsor 14. Appeal based on the attractive personality of the sponsor rather than upon the merits of the club program 15. Failure to adapt the program to the needs of the school, the pupils, and the community 16. Lack of interest on the part of the sponsor 17. Inability on the part of the sponsor to meet pupils on their own level 18. Lack of appreciation of the value of clubs on the part of the sponsor; he is not “sold” on the idea of clubs 19. The making of clubs “just another class” 20. An undemocratic basis of selection for membership 21. Careless selection of members 504 National Education Association 22. Too great expense involved 23. A too pretentious beginning 24. Lack of coordination with other activities in school and community, resulting in a conflict of schedules and interests 25. Too many (or too few) meetings 26. Allowing pupils to be merely nominal members; they belong but do not work 27. Too large a membership 28. The presence of cliques 29. Origin of the club in a fad which soon passes 30. The fact that the club has outlived its usefulness 31. Opposition by parents or others in the community. Of these thirty-one reasons suggested for club failure, it is obvious that the first five are a responsibility of the administration of the school and are largely outside the control of the individual club sponsor. Of the other twenty-six, fourteen seemed very definitely dependent upon the sponsor’s personality and interest. In the cases for which the other twelve reasons are given, the club may have failed because of a failure on the part of the sponsor. Certainly the situations are ones upon which he could have exerted a considerable amount of influence. It seems fair to state that in an overwhelming majority of the cases a club has failed because the sponsor has not lived up to his oppor¬ tunities. In a recent issue of the Junior-Senior Clearing House } Professor Fretwell presented “Ten Tests for a School Club.” The last — and certainly not the least — of these tests had to do with the club sponsor. The place of this advisor is so significant in the work of the club that it seems worthwhile to expand the consideration of his function. A number of tentative “tests for a club sponsor” are presented below. While it is hoped that the list may be of interest to all those bearing a functional relationship to the extracurriculum activities of the school, the tests are addressed primarily to the teacher who is actively sponsoring a club or who contemplates assuming such responsi¬ bility. On the assumption that he is eager to make the club a success and in particular to insure his own maximum contribution to pupil growth these tests are presented as a means of “checking up on himself.” 1. Does he really like to associate with boys and girls of high-school age? 2. Does he enlist the confidence of boys and girls? 3. Is he keenly interested in the world around him? 4. Has he contagious enthusiasm? 5. Does he seek to become expert in some of the fields of activity in which the club is engaged ? 6. Is he able to give constructive suggestions for activities of the club? 7. Is he able to guide without dictation? 8. Has he the ability to plan systematically? 9. Is he willing to give time and thought to making the club work a success? 10. Is he democratic in spirit? 11. H as he a sense of humor? 12. Is he able to find his chief satisfaction in pupil growth and not in expressed appreciation of his efforts? Department of Secondary School Principals 505 STUDY HABITS OF EXCELLENT AND OF DEFICIENT PUPILS FRANCIS L. BACON, PRINCIPAL, EVANSTON TOWNSHIP HIGH SCHOOL, EVANSTON, ILL. • A number of the high-school principals of the Chicago and suburban area became interested in the question of the habits of study of good and poor pupils. As these principals were members of the Judd Club, the study was made a project of the group. Direction of the study and compilation of the returns were achieved thru the aid of Professor W. C. Reavis of the Uni¬ versity of Chicago. Each of the thirty-two principals involved in the project selected two pupils from his senior class — one who was failing obviously because of poor studv habits, and one who was highly successful because of superior study habits — and made case studies of these pupils. Two forms were worked out so that procedure would be reasonably identical and in order that returns might be tabulated and compared. Form I was designed as the basis for an interview which the principal was to have with each pupil. In the interview the principal, as interrogator, was to search out all of the data called for by the form. Items 4-8 in Form I were supplied without interrogation. Before the principal began the interview, he first asked the pupil to write out an answer to the following question : How do you know when you have learned your lesson ? Also, before the interview took place the plan called for the principal to visit the classes in which the pupils were enroled, observe them at work, collect all the information possible about their habits of study, and then write out a full case report of each pupil giving a diagnosis of the causes of failure and success. The thought was that the interviews following this procedure would give a better opportunity to check certain doubtful points and furnish a background which would make for more intelligent follow-up in the interviews. It may prove interesting to point out the results of certain tabulations, altho space will limit the inclusion to only those items which seem to have larger significance. In the following returns there were 25 pupils in each group : 1. The superior pupils, as a group, were approximately one year younger in chronological age. This group also had an average intelligence quotient of 1 1 9— {— . The highest quotient was 182 and the lowest was 98. The failure group had an average intelligence quotient of 9 7 — . The highest in this group was 123 and the lowest 74. 2. In a reading test for comprehension the excellent group produced an average score of 43— with the highest at 68 and the lowest at 12. The deficient pupils had an average reading comprehension of but 29 — J— with the highest at 62 and the lowest at 9. In reading-rate the superior group scored an average rate of 1 23 — j— with a high score of 189 and a low one of 30. The inferior group scored an average of 1 1 0— J— with a high score of 1/4 506 National Education Association and a low one of 77. The low returns of the inferior group in reading give additional evidence to the much-emphasized need of greater attention to the problem of reading, especially in regard to pupils who are failing. 3. The better group had no failures in the elementary grades while of the poorer group 9 had failed one grade each. The superior group had 14 pupils who skipped a total of 21 grades. Two skipped 3 grades each and 3 skipped 2 grades each. In the inferior group 6 skipped 6 grades, and in no case was more than one grade skipped by one pupil. 4. When it came to regular employment outside of school the two groups were equal. 5. In reading habits 25 of the successful pupils reported regular reading for recreation, while but 20 of the failing pupils followed reading as a recreation. The higher group read a total of 72 books per month and the lower group but 51. The first group read a total of 67 magazines and the second group a total of 54. All of the first group and but 19 of the second group read the daily papers. 6. The superior group gave about 1^4 hours daily to home study, while the other group gave approximately one hour to home study. Help received at home was negligible in both instances. Eleven of the strong pupils had no regular time to study each lesson, while 14 used a regular time. Fourteen of the weak pupils did not study at a regular time, while 10 did. 7. Of the superior pupils, 20 chose to do a hard piece of work before doing an easy assignment. Eighteen of the poor group chose to do the hard work first. 8. Twenty-two of the better pupils read their lessons over rapidly more than once, while 20 of the poorer pupils followed this practise. Nineteen of the better group read their lessons slowly more than once and 12 of the poorer group followed this practise. 9. Of the superior pupils 24 read their lessons rapidly to get the general idea and then reread slowly, while but 10 of the deficient pupils used this practise. This particular item is outstanding in the sharpness of the difference between the two groups. The results as demonstrated by the standing of the two groups would indicate that the usual emphasis upon this type of study has been well justified. 10. Twenty of the superior group took notes on paper as they read and 16 of the poorer group used this method. It is, perhaps, surprising to learn that but 12 of the good pupils underscored words or lines to be used for ready reference in review. Fourteen of the poor pupils used underscorings. Of recent years the tendency has been to discourage underscoring, chiefly, because of the damage done to books owned by the school. Where private ownership of books was more common, this practise was quite universal. It is interesting to note that, apparently, the poor pupils did not conform as well to regula¬ tions against underscoring. 1 1. There were 13 of the excellent pupils who used the practise of closing the book after reading and then trying to recite to themselves. There were 12 poor pupils who used this method. Fourteen of the better pupils made up Department of Secondary School Principals 507 questions about their lessons, while 11 of the poor pupils followed this method. Only two for each group recited their lessons to someone other than themselves during study. 12. For the superior pupils 19 reviewed the previous lesson assignment be¬ fore beginning the study of the new lesson. Fifteen of the inferior pupils followed this practise. 13. The better pupils reported 18 favorable responses to the question, “Has anyone ever tried to tell you how you should go about studying other than to tell you to do it ?” Surprisingly, 20 of the poorer pupils responded favorably to this same question. Perhaps teachers have made a more conscious effort to teach failing pupils how to study. That would be a logical result. However, it is somewhat reassuring to know that the pupils themselves have been so largely conscious of the effort made. The superior pupils may not have felt the need of giving attention to material offered on ways of studying. The tendency for self-reliance should be a part of the evidence, no doubt. History is the favored subject for some reason. Ten of the superior pupils reported instruction in how to study in history classes. Seven reported English. Other subjects are negligible. Twelve of the poor pupils reported instruction in history classes and 7 reported English. Economics was men¬ tioned by 3, and 2 each reported civics, shorthand, and geometry. 14. The better pupils had a total of 60 study periods daily outside of regular class periods. The poorer pupils had a total of 56. 15. For the superior group 16 pupils reported a practise of following a program of study for their study periods. Fifteen of the inferior group reported a similar practise. OBSTACLES TO PUPIL ADJUSTMENT IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS CHARLES W. BOARDMAN, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, AND DIRECTOR OF STUDENT TEACHING, COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF MINNE¬ SOTA, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. A solution to the problems of pupil adjustment requires boldness and cour¬ age on the part of the educational administrator. If the knowledge of individ¬ ual differences is to be applied in order to insure better pupil adjustment, the following steps appear necessary : 1. Every secondary school should be equipped with a child study depart¬ ment, for the study of individual differences, without a knowledge of which any differentiation thru Choices of subjects, or methods and rates of instruc¬ tion, must prove ineffective. 2. Provision must be made in each school to insure the best possible articulation, continuity, and individual planning in order that individual aims and purposes may be recognized in the educational program of secondary schools. 3. The service of the child study or guidance department should be, not alone for the problem children who stand out because of failures, discipline, or other mal-adjustments, but for each and every child in the entire school. 508 National Education Association Such individual attention should require at least one individual interview each term with a skilled counselor. When we are spending from $125 to $200 per pupil per year in the secondary schools, and when so much of our effort may be wasted for the lack of definite objectives and adjustment, good busi¬ ness should require at least that much thought concerning the aims and adjustment of each individual. 4. The program of each school should be built upon a study of individual needs, interests, abilities, and prospects, and the subjects offered and the units of the curriculum in these subjects should be based upon the study of individ¬ ual differences and needs. 5. There should be no choices of subjects in the curriculum without: (a) Adequate preparation thru group guidance in order that each individual may understand the values that he may or may not expect to receive from such a study. Such preparation should be under the guidance of the class counselor rather than the subject teacher as a safeguard against the over¬ enthusiasm and extravagant claims frequently made by specialists; and (b) an individual check-up of each choice by a trained counselor in an individual interview in order to make sure of the wisdom of the investment in time and money. 6. All specialized curriculums should be abolished and each subject should stand upon its own feet. For this purpose every subject should be separately elective under adequate guidance. Such a program would not prevent the adoption of certain policies by the class counselors and the administration, or the grouping of subjects for certain general objectives, but the application of such policies would in every case be considered in connection with needs, interests, abilities, and prospects of the individual child — at that time and in that particular school. 7. The work of the counselors should be organized in such a way as to provide a continuous self-survey which would prevent mistakes from being repeated. In the past obvious errors in judgment and in choices have been repeated term after term, and there has been no administrative research for the purpose of ascertaining the facts and correcting the mistakes. Such meth¬ ods would not be tolerated in any business conducted for private profit and must not be tolerated in the public service. A critic of such a drastic reorganization might well ask what results may be expected from such a plan. The following results may be reasonably expected : 1. A considerable improvement in the effort and morale of pupils. They would not have to be driven along a road that they themselves have chosen. Instead of being forced to study and being driven by fear of failure, pupils should press onward under their own steam as a result of the desire to master a field of knowledge or of skills that will be useful in their general program of training and development. 2. When each subject is made elective under guidance, there are sure to come rapid changes in the enrolment for the different subjects. Much of the dead wood in the curriculum, as well as in the teaching staff, will be eliminated. Department of Secondary School Principals 509 3. Education will become less a training, imposed upon each individual, and will become more and more a service provided to assist each individual to make the most of his abilities and interests to prepare for his needs in the immediate future, to work toward his own goal, intelligently chosen under proper safeguards. 4. By such an administrative scheme, it should be possible to avoid factory jnethods and mass education, to secure greater continuity in education, and to insure greater responsibility on the part of pupils and teachers. Unneces¬ sary changes of subjects and teachers will be avoided. Obviously these admin¬ istrative changes cannot be accomplished without an adequate conception of the importance of individual differences, the need of adequate child study and guidance, and the need of continuously adapting the schools to serve the needs of individuals. Under such a plan the schools will not be for teachers but for children. CLASS SIZE S. N. EWAN, JR., PRINCIPAL, HIGH SCHOOL, LANSDOWNE, PA. The object of this study is to determine what effect class size has upon pupil achievement. For comparative purposes the progress of pupils in classes under fifteen in number has been measured against that of pupils in classes over thirty. Pupil achievement has been measured by standardized tests. The method can best be explained by showing the procedure used in one subject. Two classes in English satisfying the size requirements were selected. Both classes were under the same instructor, receiving the same kind and amount of instruction. After a definite period of instruction, such as a se¬ mester, a standardized test was given each class section. Pupils in the small class were then paired with pupils of equal I. Q. in the large class. After such pairing the average score of the pupils selected from the small class was compared to that of the pupils matched with them in the large class. Thus the chief factor accounting for any difference in progress of the two groups would seem to be that of class size. Fearing that other factors might possibly affect the validity of the study, a thoro background analysis was made of each pupil under observation. From the background studies a number of interesting facts came to light. These are not advanced as truths but are merely noted in passing. The I. Q. cannot always be trusted as a guide to results. One pupil with an I. Q. of 130 is doing a low grade of work and at the same time is in a small class. Another pupil with the next to the lowest I. Q. is doing excellent work. He is in the large class. In twelve of eighteen paired cases studied in a sophomore history class, grades obtained correspond with averages received for history in junior high school. Election of a subject would seem to be no definite indication of results. Of eighteen pupils in one class, seven elected the subject and the remainder were required to take it. Of the seven, only two are doing good work. Of the eleven others, three are doing excellent work. 510 National Education Association Pupils with no previous experience in a similar subject do as well as experienced pupils. Pupils carrying extracurriculum activities do as well and better than those not so engaged. Equal results were obtained in classes meeting the first and last periods of the day. The study has been in operation a year and a half and will be continued until it becomes a three-year study. The results at present seem to indicate that pupils in large classes achieve as well as those in a small class. Larger classes will materially reduce the cost of instruction. THE ADEQUACY OF THE MAXIMUM SALARY FOR SEC¬ ONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS IN A CITY SYSTEM WILLIAM F. EWING, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, OAKLAND, CALIF. The S an Francisco Bay Region of the Committee on Investigations in Secondary Education was organized about four years ago. Since the beginning of the organization, members have been meeting regularly three or four times a year. Several research studies have been undertaken and a few reports have been made. Early last fall, members of the group, interested in salary studies, determined to study “The Adequacy of the Maximum Salary for Secondary School Teachers in a City System.” In order to obtain evidence concerning living arrangements and teachers’ contributions to the support of dependents, “Cost of Living Inquiry Blanks — Teachers” were printed and distributed to every secondary school teacher in the system. Since teachers were told in advance that the data on the cards would be treated as confidential, no signatures were required. On the same day, in each school, teachers without discussion filled out the blanks, and a member of the faculty collected the blanks, placed them in a sealed package and delivered the parcel to the office of the superintendent of schools. These blanks were subsequently segregated and tabulated by the Bureau of Re¬ search. Out of a total of 873 teachers employed in the Oakland Secondary Schools, 858 (98 percent) replied. On the basis of sex, 232 (27.1 percent) are men teachers. Of this group, 202 (23.6 percent) are married men. Only 30 (3.5 percent) of the 858 teachers are single men. Of the 202 married men who filled out the inquiry blanks, 107 (approxi¬ mately 53 percent) reported that wives during the last three years had not been gainfully employed outside the home. Twenty-six (12.8 percent) re¬ ported that wives were employed at the time the report was made, but only 17 (8.4 percent) of these have had continuous employment for the last three years. The typical man teacher in Oakland is a married man whose wife is not employed. Department of Secondary School Principals 511 Six hundred twenty-six (72.9 percent) of the 858 teachers who replied are women. One hundred thirty-four (21.4 percent) of them are married. Of these, 62, or less than one-half of them, reported that their husbands had been continuosly employed during the past three years. Quite a large number reported that their husbands were in poor health and were employed as insurance salesmen, etc. The typical Oakland secondary school teacher is a single woman. The entire corps of teachers reporting have been divided into two groups, viz., one-income group, and two-income group. In the one-income group, there were 174 married men whose wives were not gainfully employed out¬ side the home. These men were supporting either wholly or partially 518 dependents. The single men were supporting either wholly or partially 50 dependents. Thirty-eight married women whose husbands were not employed were supporting 92 dependents. Four hundred fifty-seven single women were sup¬ porting 654 dependents. The 699 teachers reported in the single income group were supporting wholly or partially 1314 dependents. One hundred seventy-two married men reported that 393 total dependents living at home were solely dependent upon their incomes. Twelve reported that they wholly supported 17 dependents elsewhere. One hundred seventy- two men reported 410 total dependents. Eighteen reported 21 partial de¬ pendents living with them. Fifty-six reported 84 dependents living elsewhere. In the two-income group, 25 men teachers whose wives were employed and 92 women teachers whose husbands were employed were supporting 236 dependents. The total dependents included 174 wives, 295 children, and 46 other persons. The annual amount spent for dependents varied from $25 to $1980. All of the married men except one reported that they lived at home. Of the 30 single men, 13 were living with parents, 2 lived with other relatives, 2 at boarding houses, 6 resided at apartments, 3 had rented rooms, and 4 gave no data. Of the married women who were the only wage earners in the home (one- income group) 36 lived with their husbands, and in the two-income group (husband and wife both wage earners) 92 lived with their husbands, and 2 gave no data. Of the single women, 21 owned their own homes and were living alone, 137 were living at home with their parents, who were in most cases wholly or partially dependent upon the salaries of their daughters, 51 were living with other relatives, 2 with friends, 39 in boarding houses, 109 were living alone in apartment houses or flats, 81 shared apartments, 37 were living in rented rooms, and 15 gave no data. The cost of board and lodging for unmarried teachers varied according to types of living arrangements. In one group the monthly expenditures for room and board varied from $40 to $70. In another group, consisting mostly of those living in hotels, apartments, or flats, the cost of board and lodging was about $100 a month. 512 National Education Association Of the 202 married men, 107 are paying on home mortgages, the median payment being approximately $50 per month. Twenty-six own their homes unencumbered, and 66 rent living quarters. Of the single men, most of whom are living with parents, only 4 are buying homes. Of the 134 married women, 62 are making payments on home mortgages— the great majority of the group paying from $40 to $80 a month. Eleven own their homes without encumbrance. Sixty of the married women reported that they did not own their homes. Of the single women, 75 are paying for their homes, 61 own their homes without encumbrance, 356 do not own their homes. One hundred eighty-four of the 202 married men own their automobiles clear, 5 are making payments on cars. Of the single men, 20 own cars clear, 103 of the 134 married women own their cars clear, 4 are making payments! Two hundred sixty-two single women own their automobiles clear. Only 1 is making payments. Two hundred six do not own automobiles and 23 did not answer the question. THE REQUIREMENTS OF MENTAL HYGIENE IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL FRANK N. FREEMAN, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL. The first feature of our educational procedure, which has a bearing on the child s mental health and which is one of the important elements in the school’s program or the improvement of mental health, consists in the stand¬ ards and demands which are made upon the child. The first requirement we should lay down concerning the standards and demands we set before the child, is that they should mean something to him. It is obvious that he cannot grasp their full meaning, since this presupposes that he has had the later experience in which their meaning will be revealed to him, but it is certainly desirable that they should mean as much to him as is possible. Meaningless, routine drill is not of any value in itself. Drill is necessary, but the child should see as much of the purpose of the drill as his experience enables him to see. The child should be given as clear an insight into the whole process of his education as it is possible to give him. He should see education, in general, as one of the functions of society and should understand the part which he is playing in the whole mechanism of society when he goes to school. He should see the process of education both as general preparation for taking his share in the general undertakings of citizens and in performing his part by becoming a worker in one of the specialized vocations of the world. By thus seeing himself, and by seeing the process of education in its larger setting, he will see the meaning of the particular tasks which he performs in the school. The second requirement concerning the standards and demands which we place upon the child is that they shall be properly adjusted to the ability of children at the various levels and stages of advancement, and that they Department of Secondary School Principals 513 shall be adapted to the abilities of individual children. Improperly adjusted standards interfere with mental health in two ways. Standards which are too easy fail to awaken the child to vigorous activity and may even cause him to underestimate his powers. Standards which are too difficult, on the other hand, cause the child to fail and set up one of the most serious obstacles to mental health a feeling of inadequacy and inferiority. This feeling is not confined to the task which first produces it but may pervade the individual’s entire mental life. In adjusting demands to the individual, account must be taken not only of the individual’s general ability but also of his ability in special lines of endeavor. Particular care must be taken to observe any special disabilities which the child may have and to give him such education in overcoming these special disabilities that he may have a continuous sense of power and mastery. A second set of factors which have an important bearing upon the mental health of the pupil comes under the general head of methods of teaching, either general methods or special methods. A method which is very widely used and which forms an integral part of much of our education, but which is probably responsible for a good deal of anxiety and ill health, is competi¬ tion. Competition may, perhaps, be said to be the successor to punishment as a method of motivating school work. It may be argued that competition is present in all adult life and that the child should, therefore, be prepared to meet competition by working under competitive conditions in the school. But the argument may be turned the other way. If a non-competitive regime, or one in which competition is less emphasized than at present, is found to be more conducive to mental health and more satisfactory all around in the school, may the school not lead society in the direction of less emphasis on competition and more on cooperation? Many critics of modern social life believe that excessive competition is responsible for much of our distress and even some of our economic disorganization. It seems that the school should not merely follow society in matters of this sort which touch the funda¬ mental principles of behavior, but should freely experiment and lead the way to improved forms of social organization. Undue stress on competition undoubtedly leads to anxiety and to deep-seated feelings of inadequacy on the part of individuals who habitually fall behind in the race. While, there¬ fore, it may not be necessary or desirable to exclude competition altogether, it does seem desirable to substitute, so far as may be feasible, a sense of the intrinsic value of an accomplishment in place of the mere desire to beat somebody else. The teacher has a very large share in helping the child properly to evaluate the enterprises which he undertakes. On the one hand, the teacher, from his broader background, he’ps the child to grasp intellectually the significance of the courses of study which he is pursuing. In the second place, the teacher communicates to the child his enthusiasm by a sort of contagion. This means that the teacher must have a grasp of the meaning of what he teaches and also must be enthusiastic about it. No teacher who does not have intelligence 514 National Education Association or this enthusiasm is qualified to teach. We cannot expect the understanding or the enthusiasm to develop in the child by spontaneous generation. The child must contribute his part but the teacher must exercise the leadership. When it comes to the details of execution, as contrasted with the leading ideas, the teacher should also serve as a guide to the child ; but there is a danger that the teacher will attempt unduly to dominate the details of the child’s activity. This not only interferes with progress in learning but also endangers the child’s mental organization. Teachers are, as a class, rather inclined to control too minutely the exact procedure which the child shall follow in learning. The guidance of learning is a very delicate procedure, as the experiments in supervised study have shown. On paper it appears to be an easy thing to guide the child’s thinking step by step until he arrives at the goal of a certain procedure. This has been found, however, to be a very difficult thing to do in practise. This difficulty has been attributed to our lack of knowledge of the steps in learning and it has been thought that we could overcome the difficulty by a better understanding of these steps. Undoubtedly a better understanding of learning will enable us to guide the child’s learning more intelligently, but it is questionable whether we should ever set up as the goal a mechanical, detailed guidance of the child thru every step. The difficulty with the attempt to guide the child thru detailed steps is that we interfere with the organization of his activities in fairly large units. The best examples of the way not to guide the child’s activities is found in a certain type of physical training. The type of training I refer to is the one in which the group stands at attention and goes thru a series of move¬ ments, each one in response to a separate and sudden command. This military type of training is not, in my judgment, suitable even in physical education. The mechanical regimentation of the individual to group action, which is represented by this form of training, is not the kind of group activity which prepares the individual for cooperative undertakings. It prepares him only for a mechanical type of obedience. This type of training does not produce the sort of organization of his activities which the child will find necessary in our presentday civilization. One fact which we should keep in mind in our attempt to guide the child is that there are variations in tempo from individual to individual. Some modification may be made in this tempo by training and by general environ¬ mental conditions, and the average difference in tempo between city dwellers and country dwellers is an evidence of the influence of the environment. Nevertheless, individual variations exist and must be respected. A teacher with a very rapid tempo is in danger of disorganizing a child of relatively slow tempo by his impatient attempts to hurry the child unduly. Aside from this there is a certain continuity in the individual’s perform¬ ance which represents the following out of a course of action which he con¬ ceives in his own mind. There may be no real advantage in following out a succession of actions in one order rather than in another. But if the individual Department of Secondary School Principals 515 has projected his activities in one order it may disturb him considerably for another individual arbitrarily to break into this order and to attempt to modify his program. All this does not mean, of course, that the teacher should not help the child to learn to follow a more advantageous as distinguished from a less advantageous procedure. It means, however, that such help can be given better when the activity is being planned and the general program is being laid out than when the activity is being executed. It may be necessary at times to help the pupil in the midst of the execution of an activity in order to point out to him the exact point at which he is making a mistake, but this should be the exception rather than the rule. The child should be given the opportunity and encouraged to organize his activity in larger and larger units. The chief fault in the training of the individual by military methods is that when he is left to go on his own he is not capable of managing his own affairs. He, therefore, fails to meet many of the demands made upon him, and his whole behavior falls into a disorganized state. The only way a person can learn to organize his affairs is by being given opportunity and help in organizing his behavior in progessively larger units. The measures which I have been discussing thus far have to do with set¬ ting the general conditions which favor the proper organization of the child’s behavior. In addition to setting these general conditions, much particularized attention must be given to individual children. This attention is partly for the purpose of preventing the development of undesirable attitudes and habits and partly for the purpose of remedying undesirable attitudes or habits which have already been formed. This individual handling of the child is what we ordinarily designate by management. The teacher has a very large measure of responsibility for promoting the mental health of the student thru intelligent management. The purpose of such management is commonly conceived to be simply the establishment of good order and the attainment of externally acceptable behavior. Good order and acceptable behavior are, of course, important. But if we fix our attention only on external behavior, we shall overlook important conditions which have a large bearing upon the child’s mental health. From the point of view of mental health, we may, perhaps summarize the aims of management as being the development of a sense of responsibility, on the one hand, and of a sense of personal adequacy, on the other hand. If the child lacks the due sense of responsibility, he develops an attitude of ego-centricity. He overvalues his own concerns and his own desires in con¬ trast to those of others. This is the attitude of the spoiled child, and un¬ fortunately it is not confined to childhood. One who has not developed the proper sense or the due sense of his own adequacy, on the other hand, is dominated by fear and anxiety. He feels himself incapable of meeting the demands which are laid upon him. This attitude is frequently due to the fact that the child has been held under too strict domination by authority, perhaps the authority of a parent or of a teacher, or that demands have been made which he was not able to meet. 516 National Education Association The unwillingness or inability to meet the responsibilities which are laid upon the individual frequently result in evasions and in rationalization. The skilful teacher will be able to help the child in many cases to recognize his evasion and rationalization and to face reality more fearlessly. This is ac¬ complished partly, of course, by suiting the demands to the ability of the child — a procedure which has already been discussed. It is frequently neces¬ sary, however, to re-educate the individual, to develop in him a different attitude, and to build up thru gradual stages the ability to face his tasks and perform them without evasion. As a preparation for this type of guidance, it is desirable that the teacher should acquire some facility in detecting his own evasions and rationaliza¬ tions. He may, perhaps, make a start by learning to detect the rationaliza¬ tions which are made by other persons. It is always easier to see the other person’s rationalizations than one’s own. After a little practise in detecting others’ evasions, one may learn to detect his own. This will enable him better to deal sympathetically with the evasions of the pupils. I shall illustrate rationalizations from examples given by Goodwin Watson in the White House Report of the Subcommittee on Mental Hygiene in the Schools. Among some of the common evasions are : 1. Pretending or developing illness to avoid something unpleasant. 2. Outbursts of misbehavior to attract attention or relieve monotony. 3. Disparaging remarks about other pupils in the hope of raising his own status. 4. Bossiness, loud voice, domination to conceal inner trepitude. 5. Pretending not to want something which is desired but is not at once attainable. (The sour grapes attitude.) 6. Bullying younger children as compensation for inadequacy with own group. I recommend that the teacher study the entire list given in the original report. There are certain methods of management often used by teachers which are obviously contrary to the principles of mental hygiene. Such, for ex¬ ample, are the use of fear and punishment as a strong motive, the indulgence in sarcasm or nagging, the expressions of liking or aversion for individual pupils of the class, the holding up of a pupil to ridicule as, for example, calling him a dumbbell. It is surprising how often we will find otherwise skilful teachers using these discredited methods. They undercut the very root of effort by the child thru destroying his confidence in himself. I am afraid that they are sometimes compensations by the teacher for the feeling of his own inferiority. RELATIVE MERITS OF THE 6-4-4 PLAN OF ORGANIZATION GEORGE F. ZOOK, PRESIDENT, UNIVERSITY OF AKRON, AKRON, OHIO Most of the proponents of junior colleges believe that the field of their interest may properly be included in secondary education. I believe that to be true. What then is secondary education? To me it is that period of edu¬ cation which is devoted to a general broadening of one’s knowledge and con¬ ceptions of the physical and social world, which prepares young people with the tools of knowledge necessary for advanced study and which offers a com- Department of Secondary School Principals 517 pletion education to those who are interested in and fitted for the vocations and semi-professions. It is wellknown that the first two of these objectives comprise the main work of the first two years of college as well as the work of the high school. So far as content is concerned, there is no great difference between high-school chemistry, foreign language, rhetoric, biology, elemen¬ tary mathematics, and history, and the corresponding courses in college. Not only do they duplicate one another but in the transfer of students from high school to college there is an inevitable overlapping of subjectmatter which is impressive in amount and which, to say the least, is not wholly defensible. I believe that the practical identity or similarity of subjectmatter in the high school and junior college and the great likelihood of wasteful overlapping where a student passes from one independent educational jurisdiction to another, amply justify the belief that a close integration of junior-college work with the high-school program may ultimately prove to be more effec¬ tive than either the independent junior college or the first two years of the four-year college. Let us turn to the student himself for a moment for guidance in this matter. I know very little relative to the psychological argument involved in the situation. I think most of us are convinced, however, that the indi¬ vidual student goes thru a rather gradual development. Owing to differences in ages of students and to the different times at which these changes take place in individuals, it is obviously difficult to select any particular period when there should be a sharp break in educational units. Rather, this situa¬ tion seems clearly to indicate that the student should be subjected to the smallest possible number of such experiences. This situation is one of the chief reasons why I have always felt that a short unit as, for example, two years, is usually neither desirable at the junior college nor any other educa¬ tional level. The psychological argument, therefore, seems to me to point clearly to the smallest number of units, hence somewhat long in duration, which are consistent with the major psychological changes in individuals. Let us take the student’s choice of a future occupation as a problem. Sometime prior to his junior year in college he must make up his mind whether he will branch off into some form of vocational education, whether he will perhaps remain a little longer and prepare himself for one of the growing number of semi-professions, whether he will follow engineering, commerce, or veterinary science, whether he will prepare himself for the professions of law, medicine, or dentistry or whether as a liberal arts student he will major in certain fields of work with some possibility later of teach¬ ing these subjects in high school. In other words, the secondary school in¬ cluding the junior college is the great period of occupational selection for a student. In this process of selection he needs constant guidance and help. He needs to be studied as an individual over a series of years for trends and tendencies in his interests until with this help he has made an occupational adjustment for himself. Let us look at some of the practical situations arising out of the lack of integration. In our attempts to elevate and preserve the standards of college 518 National Education Association work we have, in the North Central Association, for example, insisted that college and high-school students be placed in separate classes whereas as soon as they are admitted to college they have considerable latitude to roam either below or above their class levels. We tell a junior college and high school that the two units must be separately organized and administered so that if a high school and junior college such as Tulsa, Oklahoma, wishes to unify its administration and curriculums it must ask the special consent of the Asso ciation. Next I am impressed with the implications of financial economy in some such plan as the 6-4-4. In these days we must needs take all of these possi¬ bilities very seriously. Experience and reason both tell us, I believe, that in a two-year junior college we are more likely to have a smaller total en¬ rolment than when the unit includes a longer program. Small units in edu¬ cation we know to be expensive. The little one-room schoolhouse is going because it is both ineffective and expensive. There seems to me to be a growing conviction among educators both secondary and higher that the subjectmatter of the junior-college curriculum is of the same general character as one finds in the high-school curriculum ; and that the arbitrary separation of high school from junior college leads inevitably to a considerable amount of unnecessary and wasteful duplication which could be avoided by a closer integration of the two programs of work. I believe further that the arbitrary separation of junior-college students from the upper level of high-school students is not defensible from a psycho¬ logical point of view and that it makes far more difficult than needs be the program of vocational guidance which ought to be one of the great accom¬ plishments of secondary education. I believe that the divorce of high school and junior college leads to uneconomical use of classrooms, laboratories, and equipment; uncooperative, or even unharmonious administration between the two units; uneconomical use of faculty; all leading, except perhaps in the largest junior colleges, to greater expense than the results probably justify. Finally, it seems to me that there is what amounts to an ardent desire on the part of most of those interested, and participating in the junior college movement, to get away from these conditions and to merge the administra¬ tion, the students, and faculty of these two units, integrate the curriculums, and develop the greatest economy in effort and money consistent with high standards of work. Personally I am convinced that altho progross has so far been somewhat slow, these objectives can be attained thru the establishment of not more than three administrative units in education up to and including the junior college. RELATIVE MERITS OF THE 6-3-3-2 PLAN OF ORGANIZATION WALTER CROSBY EELLS, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, STANFORD UNIVERSITY, STANFORD UNIVERSITY, CALIF. The junior high-school movement has been sweeping the country during the last decade, but even it is far from universally accepted. There are over two thousand three-year junior high schools in the country, with a philosophy Department of Secondary School Principals 519 and experience of their own, as they are successfully occupying a unique and valuable transitional region between elementary and high school. Does it not seem a bit unfortunate, to say the least, when the junior high-school idea is just getting into the consciousness of the educators and the taxpayers of the country, to turn now and say, “After all, the six-three-three plan which we have been promoting so confidently and enthusiastically, is all wrong. Don’t adopt it. Or, if you have adopted it, junk it. It is the six-four-four plan that represents the ultimate, the summum bonum of educational reorganization.” When the six-four-four plan was presented at Harvard University in 1922 it was Professor Inglis who urged that it should not be seriously proposed in the East, since they were only beginning to adjust themselves to the under¬ lying philosophy and practical application of the six-three-three-two plan, and that it would confuse and not clarify the situation to propose the six- four-four plan at the same time. Similar sentiments have been expressed more recently by other eastern educators. Ray Lyman Wilbur says that we are about ready to stop the “fetish wor¬ ship ’ of the numeral four in American education. In contrast with this ten¬ dency, the six-four-four plan proposes to intensify and perpetuate it. It is fortunate that we do not all agree on educational policies. Educational progress results from difference of opinion, from clash of points of view. It would be a drab, monotonous, uninteresting world if we all saw alike. There seems to be no immediate danger that the junior college world will be drab, monotonous, uninteresting ! Educational progress results from difference of opinion — if that difference of opinion is followed by constructive experi¬ mentation and scientific evaluation. If the six-four-four plan is best, it will win out. It will demonstrate its worth in spite of all arguments of university professors to the contrary. It is well, however, for us to examine all aspects of the question before entering upon such a far-reaching plan of educational reorganization. It is quite probable that we shall continue to have a wide variety of types of educational organization, both public and private, in different parts of the country. It is the glory of a democracy that our schools are not all poured in the same mold — and that they should not be. In my judgment the junior college is not to be merely an appendix to the high school — and not merely a prefix to the university. It can and should have a personality, an individuality, a mission of its own. Commissioner Cooper recently traced the junior college in California thru the periods which he designated infancy and youth to vigorous young manhood. Is it not time for this vigorous movement to make an educational declara¬ tion of independence from unjustifiable outside domination? It should be given certain rights of educational self-determination. It should, of course, work shoulder to shoulder with other units of the school system in achieving the democratic American ideal of full and adequate educational opportunity for all, but it also should be cognizant of the dangers of “entangling al¬ liances which, it is to be feared, may result from complete administrative 520 National Education Association amalgamation with the upper two high-school years. In my judgment, in its ultimate form, it is destined to occupy a unique position in the American educational ladder — unmistakably higher than a glorified high school; dis¬ tinctly lower than the scholarly specialization of the University — an ally of both, but avoiding “entangling alliances” with either. THE PLACE OF TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCA¬ TION IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS LEWIS A. WILSON, ASSISTANT COMMISSIONER FOR VOCATIONAL AND EXTEN¬ SION EDUCATION, STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT, ALBANY, N. Y. The nineteen industrial high schools and departments in New York State have an enrolment this year of approximately seventeen thousand boys and girls. The facilities provided for this work are inadequate to meet the demand. Thousands of boys and girls are refused admission due to the limited accom¬ modations. The schools offer forty-nine different industrial courses for boys and eight for girls. Each course has been planned to meet the local needs for young workers in carefully selected industries. The cooperative relationships between the school, the employer, and employees virtually insure every boy being placed in the occupation for which he has received special training. These schools do not turn out a completely trained industrial worker. They do, however, give the student a carefully planned training in the basic skills of an industry, a thoro understanding of the materials used, and excellent training in the mathematics, science, and technical theory of the occupation. These schools also enable students to determine, under the guidance of care¬ fully selected skilled industrial workers who have been specially trained to teach in these schools and in well equipped shops and laboratories, whether or not they like the work. If they do not, it is possible for them to transfer to another department. If they have found the work they like, the training is an invaluable aid in the preparation for a vocation . The technical high schools or departments provide a special training for the young men and women who wish to prepare for junior technical occupa¬ tions. They are open to those who have completed the work of the junior high school or the first year of the four-year senior high school. These schools are in service six clock hours daily. The courses are three years in length and the students carry the usual high-school work in English, history, civics, and more than the average high-school work in mathematics and science. In addi¬ tion, the pupils major in some particular technical subject, i. e., machine design, industrial chemistry, chemistry of textiles and dyes, building construc¬ tion, estimating, structural drafting. Only students who have ability in mathematics and science are qualified to take these courses as these subjects are essential in the training for technical occupations. No attempt is made to develop hand skills. The special training is in the technical subjects neces¬ sary for the preparation of a student for an industrial position requiring a technical training. The teachers of technical subjects are graduates of schools of engineering or architecture who have had at least three years of Department of Secondary School Principals 521 practical engineering experience in the work they teach. The graduates of these schools receive a state regents diploma in technical subjects. Several engineering colleges admit, without condition, the graduates who desire to continue their education. The majority who do not go on to college are placed, under normal business conditions, in positions affording excellent opportunities for further training, experience, and promotion. For the high- school boy who is interested in entering industry these technical courses of secondary grade offer a range and quality of training not known in our secondary schools ten years ago. Last year about 9000 students were enroled in the technical high schools and many sought admission who could not be accommodated. The Buffalo Technical High School, the Brooklyn Technical High School, the Textile High School of New York City, and the Technical Department of the Utica Free Academy are nationally known for the quality of their work. The facilities which these institutions have for secondary technical instruction are unequaled. Other technical high schools and departments in New York State while not so widely known are of high character and meet local needs. The work of the industrial and technical schools has demonstrated its value as a part of our secondary school program of education. It provides for large numbers of high-school boys and girls a type of training adapted to their abilities and needs. It has awakened a new interest in many boys and girls to continue their education. In one high school last year over 50 percent of the entering boys voluntarily elected an eight-period program of industrial and technical work in place of the four or five period programs in the other high-school departments. Both technical and industrial education have for their primary purpose the training of the individual. Unfortunately many people think of it as training for industry. While it is true that it is inti¬ mately related to industry, its primary purpose is to train the individual for one of his major responsibilities of life — that of economic citizenship. SECONDARY EDUCATION DURING THE NEXT DECADE FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF THE PRINCIPAL FRANK L. EVERSULL, PRINCIPAL, SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL, EAST ST. LOUIS, ILL. Due to the social and economic changes which have completely revolu¬ tionized society, it is necessary to plan secondary education for a decade or more in order that efficiency may result, and that the school give adequate preparation for all of the children of all of the people. There are a number of items which need very careful planning, over a period of years. In the first place, higher institutions of education and accrediting agencies must recognize the high school as a different institution from the one which called them into existence. Greater latitude must be allowed in selection of subjects, and the high school must enter into a period of educational inde¬ pendence. The next problem that confronts the administrator is a program of guid¬ ance which will be adequate to take care of the mental, moral, social, and physical needs of adolescents. 522 National Education Association In the third place, the secondary school needs to have an adequate per¬ sonnel, which can make use of scientific research in psychological and psychi¬ atric guidance, health, and the other subjects of education, and adapt these scientific researches to the school task in hand. In the next place, the curriculum needs to be revised in the light of how children learn and in accordance with the plans of our best curriculum experts. In the last place, it must be recognized that the next decade in secondary education will have to prepare adolescents for dynamic participation in civil¬ ization. To do this, educators must plan in terms of large units, and in terms of long periods of time. SECONDARY EDUCATION DURING THE NEXT DECADE FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF THE PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION FORREST E. LONG, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, NEW YORK UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. Our society has failed to understand the meaning of the good life. We have waged war to no decisive end, we have built a huge industrial machine which has collapsed, and in the face of overwhelming plenty we find millions undernourished and many starving. The next decade will see the schools working for a new economic order. Among other things this new economic order will provide for greater con¬ sumption of the real values of life; most of which will not call for the expenditure of money. The next decade will see all pupils of secondary school age actually en- roled in the school while at the same time the facilities of the school will be made available for the retraining of many adults for new occupations. We must recognize the importance of this retraining when we are reminded that during the next ten years ten million pupils now enroled in schools will be seeking employment. Add to this number the ten million persons now out of work and the employment task of the next decade appears almost over¬ whelming. The schools of the next decade will teach the futility of war. Minor adjustments will be made in secondary school organization and procedure. The “unit” will lose caste, independent study will be promoted, departmental barriers will feel the force of common sense, apprentice training of teachers and their selection on the basis of personality will prevail, and the junior college will expand. Schoolmen and women will do well to set up a constructive program of readjustment rather than to waste their substance on reactionary or con¬ servative propaganda. The schools must keep pace with social evolution. Department of Secondary School Principals 523 EXTRACURRICULUM ACTIVITIES DURING THE NEXT DECADE THEODORE S. ROWLAND, PRINCIPAL, NORTHEAST HIGH SCHOOL, PHILADELPHIA, PA. In many schools extracurriculum activity may be contrasted with cur¬ riculum passivity. It is well, perhaps, that these activities are extra and not curriculum. Once an activity has become a part of the curriculum, it remains regardless of its usefulness to the pupil. There is big advantage in having extracurriculum activities which may be born, live, prosper, weaken, and die as the need for them exists and passes. The activities which will continue during the next decade, in the opinion of the speaker are : ( 1 ) athletic, exercise, and sport clubs with less emphasis on expert and championship teams and more emphasis upon games for all ; (2) student associations and student government accompanied with more intelligent supervision; (3) dramatic, literary, and journalistic activities; (4) musical organizations; (5) clubs of all kinds which will differ in different schools and which will spring up, flourish, and die. The most important factors in the success of extracurriculum activities are the abi ity, skill, personality, motivating power, and character of the faculty sponsor. THE HIGH-SCHOOL TEACHER SURPLUS DURING NEXT DECADE WILLIAM H. BRISTOW, DEPUTY SUPERINTENDENT, DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, HARRISBURG, PA. There are a number of factors which complicate the present problem : 1. In most states during the past few years there has been a drive to increase the preparation of those entering secondary school teaching. 2. An increasing number of people are being trained for teaching. This is due to the fact that over a period of years the outlook in other professions has not seemed so bright, and young people felt that they at least had a chance to get a job as a teacher. 3. The problem is further complicated by factors growing out of the present economic depression. Unless steps are taken to retain the profes¬ sional gains which have been made, many high school positions will be filled by inadequately trained teachers who, altho having requisite credentials for certification, will not meet the criteria which are gradually being developed for a satisfactory secondary school teacher. Many who are in close touch with the school situation believe that while there is a large oversupply of certified secondary school teachers, there is no oversupply of adequately trained and qualified teachers. A review of the teacher certification requirements of many of the states indicates that prac¬ tically any college graduate, and very frequently individuals who have not 524 National Education Association met the requirements for college graduation, are potential candidates for teaching positions. We need also to ask another vital question — what curriculums and types of activities should constitute the work of the secondary school? If we are going to make changes in our plan of organization, certainly these changes should be reflected in our teacher-training program. Unfortunately, the teacher-training program has been developed with little consideration for the kinds of educational offering that should be given. In other words, an aggressive and influential young man placed in charge of a small college or a teachers college immediately proceeds to expand the institution without regard to what will happen to the graduate and without regard to the effect upon the profession as a whole. We can’t blame these men for wanting to make their institutions as good as possible. Such procedure is, however, waste¬ ful insofar as society in general is concerned. If education is a function of the state, then it naturally follows that the preparation of teachers is a function that in its major aspects, must be con- troled and governed by the state. This being the case, it is necessary and essential that a planned program be developed. Obviously training programs should be in accordance with the general needs of the school system for which poeple are being trained. It is not necessary that all of these matters, be done by regulation. The mere setting up of a summarizing agency for the dis¬ semination of information concerning the problem of teacher supply and demand would do much to solve the problem. Clark has suggested that this be done for all professions but so far little has been done with his suggestion. The teaching group should have the machinery, particularly with the results which will come from the national survey, for setting up a program for the dissemination of this information. With the material at hand college, uni¬ versity, and state authorities should draw such conclusions as to training policies and program. The task ahead is to insure : 1. A better program of secondary education for the United States, with the services which should be offered to secondary school pupils. 2. A planned program which will insure an adequate supply of properly trained and qualified teachers to carry on and intensify the program of secondary education. This should include: a. More carefully selected and prepared teachers b. A program of teacher placement which will insure that properly prepared teachers will remain sufficiently long in their position to get acquainted with the boys and girls with whom they deal, so that they may render to these boys and girls the best possible service. Department of Social Studies The department of social studies was formerly the National Council for the Social Studies and was created as a Department of the National Education Association by the Board of Directors at the Indianapolis meeting of the Association in 1925. The officers of the Department for the year 1932-33 are: President , D. S. Morgan, Arsenal Technical Schools, Indianapolis, Ind. ; First Vice-president, W. G. Kimmel, 1004 Physics Building, Columbia Uni¬ versity, New York, N. Y. ; Second Vicepresident, Howard E. Wilson, Graduate School of Education, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.; Secretary- Treasurer, Bessie L. Pierce, Associate Professor of History, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. ; Board of Directors: 0. M. Dickerson, Teachers College, Greeley, Colo, (term expires 1933) ; Burr Philips, Madison High School, Madison, Wis. (term expires 1933). Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier Proceedings as follows : 1926:652-663 1928:651-654 1930:597-606 1931:621-632 1927:679-695 1929:633-642 r 526 ] LOOKING AHEAD IN THE TEACHING OF CIVICS MABEL SKINNER, WASHINGTON IRVING HIGH SCHOOL, NEW YORK, N. Y. We are living in a time of transition and change. This is emphasized in much of our current literature. In our changing civilization many evils con¬ front us. One of the most serious is the economic paradox of a surplus exist¬ ing side by side with cruel, stark want. No wonder that G. K. Chesterton dubs this “The Age of Unreason” and suggests for its symbol a rotten apple at the foot of a tree. Let us take an inventory of the situation to see what assets we have. These include many physical, social, and economic conditions wThich are immeasur¬ ably better than those any previous generations have had. Also, there are certain advantages possessed by teachers which they may use as capital for productive work: One is a dauntless optimism fostered by their contacts wfith the energy, the joie de vivre and the self-confidence of youth ; a second is their perception of the need for “master planning for long swing opera¬ tions,” of which The Children’s Charter of President Hoover’s White House Conference is one example, and a third is a striking unanimity in regard to the objectives of our studies. Many problems, however, challenge us. Three which are outstanding are (1) how to adapt the school to the child; (2) how to fit the curriculum to presentday community needs; and (3) how to develop character. These problems must be solved if our schools are to fulfil their destiny. Social science teachers believe in the possibility of a better human world, and in the realization of freedom, justice, and goodwill in human relations. We may not see these things in our day, but surely even now we may catch thru the mists a glimpse of the world that is to be as we stand here looking ahead in the teaching of civics. FACT AND PHILOSOPHY FRANCES MOREHOUSE, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF HISTORY, HUNTER COLLEGE, NEW YORK, N. Y. Fifty years ago the American history taught in the schools, following that presented by leading historians, had two features now generally neglected : an utterly disproportionate emphasis upon military history, and a general air of noble abstraction about the doings of men. The leaders were all imbued with elaborate philosophies of human relationship, while the masses were divided into classes according to their construction of the Constitution. Then there arrived the economic interpretation of history, and the element of philosophy almost disappeared from standard histories and from their little brothers, the textbooks. It was so thoroly pruned out by the spirit of the age and by the fear of propaganda, that today the great majority of Americans seem hardly conscious that there ever was a great vitalizing and accomplishing force in America, that of prevising and supervising thought — idealization, formulation, rationalization — the folk philosophy of a nation. [ 527 ] 528 National Education Association Its loss causes good people to insist on a literal repetition of the very words and deeds of the fathers, however anachronistic. It makes them supine under economic stress — how could those who have been taught that economic conditions make events be otherwise? Bereft of any pattern for action, how can they mend and reconstruct what drifting and indulgence have destroyed ? Men are agreed that America needs a philosophy. How may she gain it? Teachers hold one remedy in their hands, good for future years. They may reinject into the story of the United States, the actual part that folk philosophy — idealization, theory, vision, and program, all dominated by a simple and potent faith, played in the epic. They may reapply those elements of social justice, democracy, balanced economy, and social control that have brought us thus far, to new conditions and to future needs. THE TEACHING OF CONTROVERSIAL ISSUES IN THE SOCIAL STUDIES WILLIAM A. HAMM, CHAIRMAN OF SOCIAL SCIENCE DEPARTMENT, WALTON HIGH SCHOOL, NEW YORK, N. Y. The teaching of controversial subjects presents the problem of how to minimize the influence of outside pressure; and the question of whether in our teaching of controversial issues we should indoctrinate. Despite the strong arguments advanced for the principle of indoctrination by Professor Counts of Columbia, I doubt if we should wholeheartedly accept this princi¬ ple because ( 1 ) it is scarcely to be expected that any given society would per¬ mit the schools to carry this doctrine to its logical conclusion — namely, the right to advocate the overthrow of a given society; (2) because, to be effective, it would imply a dictatorial and dogmatic control over the schools which would become a force for reaction rather than a force for progress; and (3) because it is inconsistent with much of our current philosophical thinking and contrary to the principle that we are living in a dynamic world. Rather should we so teach controversial subjects that we indoctrinate with a method rather than a solution; i. e., our objectives of intellectual curiosity, critical thinking, suspended judgment, etc., imply something more impor¬ tant than the imposition of a solution of controversial issues. Extra school environment imposes itself upon the adolescent mind to such an extent that it becomes our function to open up the mind of the student to new problems and new possibilities, to overcome the inertia to analysis and critical under¬ standing. Both sides of a question should, therefore, be presented as im¬ partially as human frailty permits. The teacher need not necessarily conceal his own opinion, but the whole attitude of the classroom should be that the text and the teacher may be fully examined and criticized. The opinion of the teacher should never be accepted as final. The very core of the problem seems to be the personality of the teacher — his background, training, experi¬ ence, and ideals. Department of Social Studies 529 It would seem that the best way to deal with the problem of outside pres¬ sures is for teachers to build up a strong professional spirit ; and this may in part be accomplished by accepting and practising the ideal that competence in the individual not dogma is our supreme objective. TEACHING OF CONTROVERSIAL ISSUES IN THE SOCIAL STUDIES RAYMOND R. AMMARELL, DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL STUDIES, BARRINGER HIGH SCHOOL, NEWARK, N. J. When the course in “problems of American democracy” was started it was to be taught in the interests of better citizenship. It was then regarded as a controversial course, and is still so regarded by many teachers. It was not an easy matter to decide what should be included in such a course, because those in authority were afraid that it was dangerous to discuss too freely in class some of the everyday problems of our democracy. More and more it has become possible to include controversial subjects in the outline of a problems course. The real danger in studying controversial subjects is not so much in includ¬ ing them in a course, but the way the discussion is handled by the teacher. The question of indoctrination naturally presents itself. Care must be exercised that the teacher will not force his views upon pupils. What we as teachers must do is to get our students to make a careful study of both sides of a controversial subject. For example, if we have pupils whose parents are employers, their point of view on the relations of the employer and the employee will be influenced by their environment. The same influence is at work on the side of the employee in the family of the intelligent laborer or mechanic. The teacher, therefore, must use tact in handling a presentday economic problem. I do believe that the teacher must at times use his ability and influence to make sure that pupils will not get a perverted idea concern¬ ing some of our problems. As an example, let me say that in using the case method to study some problems it is very easy to convey wrong impressions. We can find many examples in the press concerning corruption in public office. But it would be unfair to our large number of honest officials if we did not study the case of a servant in public life who has given of himself freely and honestly. Finally I believe that the course in “problems of American democracy” can be taught better as a separate course than in conjunction with American history. By this I do not mean to imply that we must ignore all the problems in teaching American history. I believe that we can develop a more thoro course in problems if we teach it as a separate unit. The ideal arrangement would be to combine economics and problems of democracy into one course and devote a year to it. The twelfth year would serve as an ideal place to make it a capstone social science course. 530 National Education Association THE OBLIGATION OF SOCIAL STUDIES TO THE RECON¬ STRUCTION OF OUR EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM L. N. MORRISETT, PRINCIPAL, CLASSEN HIGH SCHOOL, OKLAHOMA CITY, OKLA. Social studies must, if they are to make a real difference in the lives of boys and girls, deal with the real problems of current life — American eco¬ nomic, social, and political life. High-school students must know and under¬ stand the causes and effects of such problems and issues as prohibition, unem¬ ployment, government economy, inflation, farm relief, taxation, over-produc¬ tion, science and the machine age, the business depression, housing, marriage and divorce, law enforcement, public charity resulting in the community chest work, and the dole. Yes, it is our sacred obligation and patriotic duty to see to it that the youth of the land have a clear and intelligent under¬ standing of such problems, their causes and effects. But this is only a part of our obligation to society. We must see to it that high-school students form and have ideals regarding such problems and issues that will ultimately lead to a better economic and social order. Teachers of social studies must accept the responsibility of preparing boys and girls in our high schools to make social civic adjustments, to interpret economic life as it exists today, to distinguish between demagoguery and statesmanship, and the things that make a real difference in the philosophy, thought, and actions of American youth. Those of us who are responsible for the content of courses of study in social studies and for teaching them must purge our courses of such things as will not stand the acid test of “making a real difference” in the lives of those who come under the influence of our high-school teaching. In my opinion it is a deplorable fact that progress has been so dreadfully slow in the construction of functional units for the courses of study in the social sciences. Also, that progress has not been more rapid in methods of teaching employing functional and fused technic. True, some progress has been made in the junior high schools, the socalled progressive schools, in a few individual schools, and by a small group of inspired, tho widely scattered, teachers. However, the fact remains that by and large the great bulk of course of study construction and teaching in the social studies must be cataloged under the compartment method. Hopeful signs are visible. The very fact that this Department is asking for discussions on controversial issues is encouraging. Also, a survey of recent tendencies in curriculum construction and revision indicates progress is being made. Commissions of accrediting agencies are at work and are pointing the way ; the press reveals that the public is demanding an improved product ; there has been improvement in text and reference books and teachers are more liberal in their attitudes and thinking. Denver has announced three classes beginning in September on the 10th, 11th, and 12th grade levels (continuous thru the senior high school) in which there will be no study of chronological Department of Social Studies 531 history. All of the social science will be built around the world of today and what it is to be. History will be studied only as an interpretation of our own time and in the planning of a tomorrow. Since the prime need of our social welfare, national wellbeing, and inter¬ national goodwill is mutual confidence, mutual helpfulness, and mutual understanding, does it not follow that teachers of social studies have both a tremendous responsibility and the golden opportunity of helping high-school students to interpret intelligently the world in which they live and to formu¬ late ideals to which they will passionately cling? I conceive the ensuing school year as the usher of a new era in our educa¬ tional program. The public mind has rung up the curtain on a new edu¬ cational arena. Our program of the future must retain sound philosophies, effective methods, and worthwhile content and materials, but not to the neglect of the correct interpretation of the world today, not at the expense of an accurate evaluation of our civilization, nor to the despair of a more noble, beautiful, and glorious future. THE TEACHING OF CONTROVERSIAL ISSUES IN THE SOCIAL STUDIES ROBERT I. ADRIANCE, HEAD, DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL STUDIES, HIGH SCHOOL, EAST ORANGE, N. J. In most of our schools the emphasis can now be changed from the former question of “the teacher’s freedom of speech” to “uses and abuses of dis¬ cussion.” A danger today is the use of controversy just to “pep up” a class. Is class discussion a mere “swapping” of ignorant opinion? Is it a substitute for a carefully prepared plan by the teacher? Has it legitimate relation to the subjectmatter of the course? Teachers must not force their own views on a class. Teachers need not be colorless ; they must be fair, judicial. Furthermore, the discussion must not degenerate into a clash between teacher and members of the class. The debate method of handling controversial questions has dangers : ( 1 ) the combat interest is so strong that the class pays more attention to trivial retorts than to the soundness of the argument; (2) the student who is in the position of arguing or justifying his point of view is in danger of fixing his ideas and closing his mind to other views. In dealing with war causes, there is little or no merit in arguing justifiability; the student of history is trying to understand the differences in basic condition and the course of events that so aroused emotions of antagonism that force instead of reason¬ able negotiation was resorted to. Nevertheless, the teaching of controversial subjects cannot be avoided be¬ cause the study of man and society is full of man’s controversies ; it should not be avoided because education in citizenship must develop an intelligent attitude towards controversial subjects. The teacher must analyze his ob- 532 National Education Association jectives, then develop a constructive method. Fundamentally the objective is to understand the problem and attain reasonable attitudes leading to ulti¬ mate solution. The method should be one of scientific investigation, not one that encourages controversial discussion. SECRETARY’S MINUTES Atlantic City, New Jersey First Session, Wednesday Afternoon, June 29, 1932 The Department of Social Studies held its first session in the Renaissance Room of the Ambassador Hotel. There was an attendance of approximately 75 persons. W. G. Kimmel, first Vicepresident, presided. The program included: Looking Ahead in Teaching Civics, Mabel Skinner, chairman, Civics Department, Washington Irving High School, New York, N. Y. Fact and Philosophy, Frances Morehouse, professor of history, Hunter College, New York, N. Y. The Fourth Year of the Investigation of the Social Studies in the Schools, A. C. Krey, professor of history, University of Minnesota; chairman, Social Studies Investigation in the Schools, American Historical Association. Second Session, Thursday Afternoon, June 30, 1932 Approximately 100 persons were in attendance. Papers read were centered about the consideration of many aspects of the general theme: The Teaching of Controversial Issues in the Social Studies William A. Hamm, Chairman of Social Science Department, Walton High School, New York, N. Y. Raymond R. Ammarell, Department of Social Studies, Barringer High School, Newark, N. J. L. N. Morrisett, Principal, Classen High School, Oklahoma City, Okla. Discussion led by: Robert I. Adriance, Head of Department of Social Science, High School, East Orange, N. J. The discussion of the general theme, following the presentation of the formal program, revealed many diverse points of view, particularly with respect to the place and implications of indoctrination in the teaching of the social studies. Con¬ siderable agreement in the form of disapproval of secretive methods of removal of textbooks from approved lists and the intimidation of teachers, as well as the necessity of the treatment of important issues in accordance with an adequate presentation of materials and principles in a scholarly manner, was apparent in the general discussion. An informal business meeting followed the second session in order to consider proposals for the Third Yearbook. Officers of the organization elected at its sessions held in connection with the annual meeting of the American Historical Association in December, 1931, will continue to serve in their respective positions. (See Historical Note.) Department of Special Education A PPLICATION FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT of a Depart- \ ment of Special Education was made at the Atlanta convention in 1929. A petition bearing more than 250 names was presented at that time. The creation of the Department was authorized a year later at the convention in Columbus. In Los Angeles the group of teachers and adminis¬ trators interested in special education met on July 2 and final plans for the creation of the Department were made and a constitution was adopted. The fol¬ lowing officers have been elected for the year 1932-33 : President , Elise H. Martens, Senior Specialist in the Education of Exceptional Children, U. S. Office of Education, Washington, D.C. ; Vicepresident , Marion S. Clark, Teacher in charge of Lip-reading Classes, Cambridge Public Schools, Cambridge, Mass. ; Secre¬ tary-Treasurer , Lucy Quinn, Director, Department of Special Classes, Public Schools, Atlantic City, N. J. For a record of the first meeting see the 1931 volume of Proceedings, pages 633-644. [ 534 ] TRAINING TEACHERS FOR HANDICAPPED CHILDREN C. M. ELLIOTT, DIRECTOR OF SPECIAL EDUCATION, MICHIGAN STATE NORMAL COLLEGE, YPSILANTI, MICH. Notwithstanding the fact that the training of handicapped children is rapidly becoming an important part of public education, we find little uni¬ formity of procedure among the various states or among the various com¬ munities within the states with regard to it. A survey of the field shows great variability in the legislative provisions made for the handicapped classes in the several states, in the financial sup¬ port given them, and in the methods of organization and administration. The first requirement for any state, in this field, should be the adoption of a comprehensive program that should involve the several steps of finding, treatment, education, and placement of handicapped children. The training of teachers should be an integral part of such a state pro¬ gram and should conform to the standards established by the state depart¬ ment of education. One teacher-training institution in a state should be authorized to train such teachers, and teachers of all types of handicapped children should be trained in the same institution. Setting up more than one training center would result in duplication of effort, decreased efficiency, and economic waste. Reciprocal agreements should be entered into by institutions training teachers for the handicapped in the several states so that reasonable stand¬ ards should be established and maintained. In order that high standards of work may be established and teachers receive due credit for courses taken, all training courses for teachers of special education should be conducted or sponsored by recognized normal schools, colleges, or universities. Whenever any other institutions offer train¬ ing courses they should be under the direction of authorized teacher-training institutions which have authority to establish curriculum, maintain stand¬ ards, and issue credits. The curriculum for training teachers of special education should consist of three overlapping groups of courses: 1. Courses for all teachers, supervisors, and principals in the elementary schools 2. Courses for all teachers of handicapped children in addition to group 1 3. Courses for teachers of each specific type of handicapped children, in addition to those included in groups 1 and 2, but not to be pursued by teachers of the other types. Length of training courses should be determined by the requirements for teachers in general. In training courses of 3 years or less not more than one year of special training can be required. For longer training courses the amount of special training should be correspondingly increased. [ 535 ] 536 National Education Association CENTRALIZATION VERSUS DE-CENTRALIZATION IN THE EDUCATION OF EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN W. G. COBURN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BATTLE CREEK, MICH. Local communities should not expect the state institutions to accept com¬ plete responsibility for educating the handicapped children. There are certain social, educational, and financial advantages in having these children edu¬ cated at home. Michigan encourages the local community to help the orthopedic, sight and hearing cases by giving financial aid amounting to $200 per pupil. There are enormous numbers of handicapped children in the United States as revealed by the recent White House Conference on Child Health and Protection. The public must continually be informed and in sympathy with the value of providing special features for handicapped pupils. Battle Creek has been exceptionally fortunate in having a public which believes in helping the handicapped child in and thru the public schools. In addition to this we have an individual, Mr. W. K. Kellogg, who has made it possible for Battle Creek to have a school which takes care of all types of all handicapped pupils. He has also established the W. K. Kellogg Founda¬ tion, whose main objective is to assist communities in this type of work. The centralization plan is one which brings all types of handicapped pupils to one building in the city, while the de-centralization plan places different types in different parts of the city. To a certain extent Battle Creek makes use of some of the advantages of both plans in that there are special classes in all parts of the city while in the Ann J. Kellogg school are centralized the most urgent cases of handi¬ capped pupils. Advantages: 1. In having all specialists in one building to diagnose the difficulties and follow the pupil’s progress 2. Complete set of health and educational records for each pupil 3. Possibilities of having a program which is flexible enough to meet the individual needs of each pupil 4. Being able to discover all the handicaps which a child may have and to give him the attention and treatments necessary. An example of adjustment made for one type of pupils — the crippled chil¬ dren — is that some spend the major part of their time with the normal group, some with the mentally retarded, some with the feeble minded, some with the open air, some with the speech defective, the lip reading or with the sight-saving group. 5. There are also financial advantages to be considered such as economy in transportation and in the use of special equipment. Department of Special Education 537 Results : 1. Reduction in chronic cases of truancy 2. Provision for the best possible type of teacher-training center 3. A splendid means of selling education to the public 4. Relieves the regular teacher of the most difficult cases and thereby makes a larger teacher load possible in the regular grades 5. Helps to make potential tax producers out of children who otherwise may be only tax consumers. CENTRALIZATION VERSUS DE-CENTRALIZATION IN ONE SCHOOL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN META L. ANDERSON, DIRECTOR OF BINET SCHOOLS AND CLASSES, NEWARK, N. J. W e have believed that there is no alternative but to get good results with whatever type of organization we happen to have. If one type seems better than another, then we aim to compensate in the poorer one in some way in order to even things up, until the proper time comes to improve or eliminate it. Good results mean nothing less than successful training of the children attending the special schools and classes. Whatever type of organization is used, we believe that the children should be grouped according to their social needs — that is that the younger men¬ tally retarded children should be trained in that part of the school system where young children belong and that the older children should be trained in that part of the school system where they belong even if that means that they should be trained in the junior or the senior high schools. In some parts of the country courses for backward children have been organized in the junior high schools. Between the special classes for the men¬ tally retarded and the special classes in the junior high schools for the back¬ ward, there is not as close cooperation as there probably will be in the future. Therefore the education of older children in the special classes for the men¬ tally retarded has to be provided for in special schools or in special depart¬ ments in elementary schools. In Newark where we have both types of organization, we believe that the younger mentally retarded children are better cared for in special classes in the elementary school buildings and that the older children receive better training in a separate building which is equipped for the special needs of special children. We also believe that mentally retarded children can be well trained in a special department of the elementary, junior or senior high schools, altho we are convinced that the early plan of training the mentally retarded in separate buildings has enabled us to set higher standards of work than we otherwise would have been able to do. In our experience we do not find that the attitude of children or their parents toward special class placement is any different toward a special class or department in an elementary school building than to a special school entirely devoted to the interests of special children. 538 National Education Association THE CURRICULUM AND EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN— THE GIFTED CHILD 1. GRACE BALL, SUPERVISOR OF SPECIAL EDUCATION, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, PASADENA, CALIF. Individual responsibilities, proper group relationships, practise in social behavior — these we feel are vital things in the education of gifted children. Let us glance for a moment at some of the characteristics of gifted children so we can outline proper education for them : 1. High intellectual capacity 2. A high degree of intellectual curiosity which leads them to investigate what they do not understand 3. The desire to communicate to others their ideas — this makes for confusion in discussion periods 4. The power to manipulate ideas and see relationships 5. The ability to analyze, to evaluate, and to draw logical conclusions 6. A tolerant and impersonal attitude toward their problems — this makes it possible for them to accept criticism 7. The power of auto-criticism — they can evaluate their own behavior and achievements impersonally 8. High reading ability. Taking this into account, vacation for them should provide opportunities for research, for experimentation, for application, and testing knowledge gained. It should provide opportunities for self-direction, self-expression, self-control. It should provide opportunity for them to practise social be¬ havior. It should develop in them the courage to stand for what is right in the face of criticism or condemnation. We are thinking in terms of the child as a whole, the child physically, mentally, emotionally, and socially. So we have certain end points toward which we are working in order that each child may have a healthy personality. These end points are : 1. Physical hygiene thru physical and mental freedom, physical and mental cleanli¬ ness, proper luncheon die?, habits of rest and relaxation (pupils in each class rest half an hour daily on cots in a room arranged for that purpose), a happy and whole¬ some school atmosphere, and wholesome recreation. 2. Educational hygiene thru mastery of tool subject, gathering, organizing, and evaluating data to carry on their unit of work, finishing tasks begun, and creative expression. 3. Mental hygiene thru facing facts squarely, giving and receiving impersonal criticism, gaining self-reliance — training in clear and accurate thinking — avoiding rationalization, speaking with preparation and extemporaneously, exercising men¬ tally thru creative self-expression. 4. Social growth thru cooperating with individuals and the group (the only competition in which we are interested is competition with one’s self) ; appreciating the work and personality of others, and the interdependence of individuals upon one another, the group and peoples of other countries (world-mindedness) ; and thru creating interests which lead to a proper use of leisure time. What then is the proper curriculum? We have come a far cry from Doolley (on the curriculum) who said: “It doesn’t matter what you teach a child so long as he doesn’t like it,” to Burnham’s “A task, a play, freedom ; a Dfpartment of Special Education 539 task of the child’s own choosing; a play he has helped organize, freedom to carry it thru.” Each group chooses a unit of work for the year. The units of work are chosen from the fields of industrial arts or social science. Out of the unit of work the curriculum grows. Technics to further this program are specific. Each child is an active, participating member of his group. He shares the responsibility for the choice and planning of the unit of work ; for control of conduct thru group reaction — not teacher dictation tho under the guidance of the teacher. We have in our group all the different personality difficulties. There is the timid child, the aggressive child, the destructive child, the child with an in¬ feriority complex, and all the rest. Friction results. But friction in a social group is essential for the development of self-control, for growth in social adaptation, for practise in social behavior, and the evaluation of results. The teacher allows the child and the group to think things thru and solve their own problems. I quite sympathize with the irritation of John who, when the teacher helped him by suggesting he brace a frame he was making said : “Gee I was just going to do that myself. I wish you hadn’t told me”; and Billy when he stopped unsolicited supervisory help with: “Don’t touch it. I can do it.” The teacher also recognizes the right of the children to make mistakes and the growth which comes from seeing and correcting their mistakes. When a group of children over-eager to pick their figs, squeezed and bruised them, the figs spoiled ; and learning took place when precious money had to be refunded on sales made. Discussion, following research, and not recitation is another technic. In a changing world learning where and how to get information is, we feel, more important than the acquisition of any specific bit of subjectmatter. So we have reference books not textbooks. Libraries, departments of agriculture and education, American consuls, and producers in the industrial world are some of the sources from which children draw material and information to carry on their work. THE DEPARTMENT OF LIP READING OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION MARION S. CLARK, PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF LIP READING AND INSTRUCTOR IN LIP READING, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, CAMBRIDGE, MASS. The Department of Lip Reading stands upon this platform: (1) Many school children, the number in this country is reliably estimated at 3,000,000, are hard of hearing. (2) To discover them, scientific hearing tests, prefer¬ ably with the 4- A phono-audiometer, must be given at least annually. (3) Once found, these children must be given prompt otological examination and complete medical treatment. (4) Whenever such treatment cannot effect a cure or is uncertain of doing so, enrolment in lip reading classes must be urgently advised. 540 National Education Association These classes are held two or three times a week in certain school centers, pupils being excused from their regular work long enough to attend them. Lip reading cannot work all wonders but it can make possible much which had previously seemed unattainable. It can supply a new skill to compensate in large measure for hearing disability. It fosters a new attentiveness and a new concentration. It engenders a new self-reliance and a new self-respect. Such are the justifications, if any seem needed, for the existence of lip reading classes. The importance of accurate hearing tests and of medical treatment for hearing defects is surely apparent to all, but it may at least be stated here that many deafened adults of today would have escaped their handicap had their ear troubles been found and treated in child¬ hood, and that always the earlier a hearing defect is found, the greater is the chance of a cure. Ears are delicate things and their aches, runnings, and failures to function properly are not to be belittled or despised. I said some time ago that the psychological ramifications of partial deaf¬ ness are many. How, possibly, can this fail to be so when every conversa¬ tional exchange from the important one of the classroom or the occupational scene to the most trivial and casually friendly one on the playground or the street depends entirely upon the understanding of the spoken word? Failure to understand is a grave economic liability and often enough a social tragedy. Add to this the further fact that the existence of partial deafness, which cannot be seen, is often not only not recognized but not even realized. A child, or even an adult, when pressed will often say, “Why yes, I hear you but I don’t understand what you say.” And all too frequently that connotes to him not hearing disability but some uncomprehended inadequacy, some stupidity, some strange and shameful lack on his part which not to be acknowledged will still be brooded over in secret. Aloofness, absent-mind¬ edness, solitary-ness, shyness, low self-confidence, all these and many more undesirable traits are attendant upon poor hearing unrealized, unfaced, or un-dealt-with. I think that I have certainly relegated our Department, as such, to its properly secondary place. Of it now I want to say only that it was estab¬ lished after three years of preliminary effort under the leadership of Caro¬ line F. Kimball, pioneer public school lip reading teacher of Lynn, Massa¬ chusetts, at the National Education Association convention at Philadelphia in 1926 with Miss Kimball as its first president. It has met annually since then, having been part of the National Education Association gatherings at Seattle, Minneapolis, Atlanta, Columbus, Los Angeles and Atlantic City. Its records are in the cornerstone of the new Association building in Wash¬ ington. We are proud of its establishment and of its achievement but now as we give it up to become, as we expect, a Section of the new Department of Special Education we are proud to join with you all who have at heart the interests of one or another of our exceptional children and we are anxious to cooperate with you as best we may to give each one of them a helping hand and to cheer him on his way. Department of Special Education 541 CURRICULUM PROBLEMS IN SIGHT-SAVING CLASSES MRS. WINIFRED HATHAWAY, ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR, NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR THE PREVENTION OF BLINDNESS, NEW YORK, N. Y. The purpose of any educational curriculum must be the same for all groups — “To make school life meaningful; to provide opportunities for so¬ cial participation and personal responsibilities ; to find and release resources and creative possibilities.” It is evident that curriculum problems for sight¬ saving classes are concerned with adjustment rather than with the building of a new curriculum. The teacher’s aim is so to adjust the regular school cur¬ riculum that her pupils will get the greatest benefit, with the least possible eye use. The first step toward attaining this desired result is to divide subjects into groups, those requiring close use of the eyes, and those in which the other senses may be used, either in place of the sense of sight, or supplement¬ ing it to a considerable degree. Certain subjects of the curriculum naturally fall into the first grouping — reading, writing, and arithmetic. But even these fundamentals of education may be approached from different angles in the normally-seeing and in the partially-seeing groups. In the former, reading is encouraged not only for informative purposes but for pleasure; in the latter, it must be confined almost wholly to the informational side. Writing, also, requires close use of the eyes, but here again invention has come to aid. The touch system of typewriting offers a medium of written expression that makes communication possible with practically no use of the eyes. If the child is encouraged, just as soon as the mechanics of the machine are mastered, to do his original work on the typewriter — spelling, composi¬ tion, book reviews, he is freeing the sight he would have used to prepare these subjects in writing for other purposes for which he must use his eyes. Special typewriters with large type make it possible for the child to correct his own work, wisely spending his sight for short periods. That typewriting represents an economy of sight and of time for all pupils, is being demon¬ strated by the fact that experimental schools are teaching it even to first- grade children. The fundamentals of arithmetic require the reading and writing of num¬ bers, and the reading of problems. But here, again, invention has changed the whole aspect of teaching arithmetic. Adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing may now be accomplished by machine in much less time and wdth much less incidence of error than when done by human beings. Social studies, history, geography, science, fall within the second group since they must be taught largely thru the auditory sense. The White House Conference lays emphasis upon the fact that education must be founded upon strength and not upon weakness. Remedial measures may be, and usually are, necessary for the handicapped, but it is never upon their weakness that education is built. The first step in all modern educa¬ tion is to find wherein the strength lies and to build upon that as a founda- 542 National Education Association tion. In all curriculum making this is taking paramount place. It must be applied to the handicapped child as well as to the normal child, and just as under normal conditions, adaptations must be made, so in handicapped groups a curriculum suited to the individual need of the child will, in time, be developed. No longer are poets refused college degrees because they cannot work problems in differential and integral calculus, nor is the mathematician dis¬ qualified because he cannot write an “Ode to Sylvia.” In like manner, the sight-saving class boy can no longer be deprived of promotion or entrance to high school or college because he cannot make a mechanical drawing, nor can the sight-saving class girl be so deprived because she cannot sew a fine seam. Just as the poet may be permitted to substitute his ode for the mathe¬ matical problem, and the mathematician the solution of his problem for the ode, so the sight-saving class child may offer those achievements that lie along the line of his strength. So, too, may be developed his inherent qualities thru wise planning to meet each special education problem. First must come understanding of the problem; with wise understanding there will develop that cooperation that is essential to desired results. Was not this what Violet Alleyn Story meant when she wrote : Milton, the blind, who looked on Paradise! Beethoven, deaf, who heard vast harmonies! Byron, the lame, who climbed toward Alpine skies! Who pleads a handicap, remembering these? Department of Superintendence The department of superintendence — At the meeting of the National Teachers’ Association in Harrisburg, Pa., 1865, the state and city superintendents present decided to form an organ¬ ization of their own. Final action was taken in Wash¬ ington, D. C., in February, 1866. The new organiza¬ tion was called the National Association of School Superintendents. In 1870, the National Association of School Super¬ intendents merged into the National Education As¬ sociation as a Department. In 1921, the Department was reorganized and a fulltime secretary employed. It publishes a report of its annual meeting and a year¬ book which are sent only to members. The officers of the Department for the year 1932-33 are : President , Milton C. Potter, Superintendent of Schools, Milwaukee, Wis. ; First Vicepresident , Ed¬ win C. Broome, Superintendent of Schools, Philadel¬ phia, Pa.; Second Vicepresident , George Melcher, Superintendent of Schools, Kansas City, Mo. ; Execu¬ tive Secretary , Sherwood D. Shankland, 1201 Six¬ teenth Street, Washington, D. C. ; Executive Commit¬ tee: David E. Weglein, Superintendent of Schools, Baltimore, Md. (Term expires 1933) ; Charles B. Glenn, Superintendent of Schools, Birmingham, Ala. (Term expires 1934) ; Herbert S. Weet, Superintend¬ ent of Schools, Rochester, N. Y. (Term expires 1935) ; Carroll R. Reed, Superintendent of Schools, Minneapolis, Minn. (Term expires 1936). Facts relating to the establishment of this Depart¬ ment and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of Proceedings as follows : 1873 :244-271 1874:297 1875:291 1877 :253-261 1879 :223 1880:235-237 1881 :252 1882: 7-112 1883:131 1884 :281-292 1885:160-192 1886 :335-353 1887 :51 1 -538 1888:515-547 1889 :613-617 1890:367-545 1891 :379-527 1892:559-745 1894:252-592 1895:213-429 1896 :231-391 1897:195-317 1898:303-489 1899 :251-380 1900:183-297 1901 :189-349 1902:151-306 1903:139-301 1904:173-333 1905:155-271 1906: 29-215 1907:145-329 1908:129-329 1909:159-232 1910:143-307 1911:161-331 1912:329-499 1913: 99-355 1914:133-293 1915:253-527 1916:895-1099 1917:661-853 1918:473-685 1919:483-675 1920: 407-537 1921: 679-851 1922:1295-1465 1923: 881-1025 1924: 803-963 1925: 633-863 1926: 663-838 1927: 697-871 1928: 655-830 1929: 643-802 1930: 607-770 1931: 645-800 [ 544 ] SECOND GENERAL SESSION, MONDAY MORNING, FEBRUARY 22 Moral Values in Education President Broome: Since our last meeting together three of our most distinguished and beloved members have passed away : Jeremiah E. Burke, superintendent of schools of Boston, Massachusetts, died October 29, 1931. He was the original chairman of the Commission on Character Education, whose report will be presented this morning. William J. Bickett, superintendent of schools of Trenton, New Jersey, died November 18, 1931. He was chairman of the Subcommittee on Health and Physical Education of the Commission on the Curriculum, 1925-26, and was a member of the Committee on Resolutions at the time of his death. Randall J. Condon died December 24, 1931. He was president of this Department, 1926-27, and presided over the Dallas Convention in February, 1927. At the time of his death he was chairman of the Committee on Financ¬ ing Educational Research. May we rise for a moment in silence as a tribute to these beloved mem¬ bers. INTRODUCING THE REPORT OF THE CHARACTER EDU¬ CATION COMMISSION A. L. THRELKELD, CHAIRMAN OF THE COMMISSION, AND SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, DENVER, COLO. Character education is now being emphasized by the schools of our new civilization. In line with this tendency the Character Education Commis¬ sion was appointed by the Department of Superintendence to study and report on this problem. The first question considered by the Commission was: Shall we recommend a “character education plan” in any specific sense of the term? Shall we attempt to stereotype character? An affirmative an¬ swer would imply — 1. An agreement on the “good life” in specific terms 2. The acceptance of this agreement as a fixed goal 3. The fitting of individuals into the scheme, the maintenance of a static order 4. Disrespect of personality growth and of the whole evolutionary process. A negative answer to the above question is disappointing, no doubt, to any who are in the habit of wanting specific ways of doing things handed to them right “off the bat” from some “higher-up” or some external source of authority. Give us a textbook from which we can make definite, day-by-day, [ 545 ] 546 National Education Association hour-by-hour assignments ; give us a plan, a cult, a routine, is the cry of those who would not think for themselves. Mere “insect activity” has in too great a degree been the habit, not only in schools, but in life at large as well. This Yearbook presents no specific plan of character education as such, nor does it present a collection of specific plans from which one may choose. Who are we, that we should attempt to tell you what )T>u should do in order to be good ? Proceeding, then, from the decision not to attempt to present “a specific plan” or “set of specific plans” for character education, the Commission next faced the following dilemma: Character education seemingly must be dis¬ cussed in some way ; this is a character education commission ; it must publish a book on the subject; the subject is one that seemingly has to be considered and, therefore, should be given direct attention. On the other hand, what might be the result, were we to create a general situation (it would indeed be presumptuous to assume we could do such a thing) in which attention would be centered on personal self-improvement, even without a specific plan or collection of such plans for the purpose? President Wilson once said to a gathering of students, “There is no more priggish practise than the effort at self-improvement.”1 Wfliat thinking person wants to sanction priggishness? George Herbert Palmer issues the following warning: “No part of us is more susceptible of morbidness than the moral senses ; none demoralizes more thoroly when morbid. The trouble, too, affects chiefly those of finer fiber. The majority of healthy children harden themselves against theoretic talk, and it passes over them like the wind. Here and there a sensitive soul ab¬ sorbs the poison and sets itself seriously to work instating duty as the main¬ spring of its life. We all know the unwholesome result: the person from whom spontaneity is gone, who criticizes everything that he does, who has lost his sense of proportion, who teases himself endlessly and teases his friends — so far as they remain his friends — about the right and wrong of each petty act. It is a disease — a moral disease, and takes the place in the spiritual life of that which the doctors are fond of calling ‘nervous prostration’ in the physical. . . . The wise teacher will extirpate the first sproutings of the weed; for a weed more difficult to extirpate, when grown, there is not. We run a serious risk of implanting it in our children when we undertake their class instruction in ethics.” 2 Accepting this dilemma as real, the Commission, tho named a Character Education Commission and charged with the responsibility of publishing a yearbook to be known as a character education yearbook, has attempted to place the emphasis on the point of view, that any education worthy of the name is character education. Any good curriculum is a character education curriculum ; any good method of teaching is a character education method ; any good teacher is a teacher of character ; any good school provides the best 1 Department of Superintendence. Tenth Yearbook, Washington, D. C., National Education Association, 1932. p. 72. 2 Ibid. p. 75. Department of Superintendence 547 possible condition for character growth. This, by implication, avoids the necessity of dubbing a procedure “character education” and thereby risking the stimulation of the self-improvement centered attitude that results in priggishness and general moral morbidity; and on the positive side it places the emphasis upon a constructive reaction to a situation, the attitude being centered on the situation rather than upon the self. The reaction is assumed to be good if it seems to result in good for the total situation. Thus, “the good life” is maintained as the end, but it is to be achieved without the conscious effort at self-improvement as such. As to attempting to answer the age old question, “What is good?”, the Commission goes no further than to suggest that the objective remains the discovery or creation of a way of living which conserves and produces as many values as possible, for as many persons as possible, over as long a time as possible. Character education is the facilitation of this way of life. Surely this statement of what is good, of what is character education, leaves plenty of room for individual initiative. That is just what the Commission has intended to do. It has not attempted to evade, but it has refrained from any attempt to settle the question. The Commission has attempted to make a definite contribution of the means by which schools may think for themselves in dealing with the problem of character education by presenting, from the broad point of view of char¬ acter education above stated, a general analysis of American life, followed by a more specific discussion of the various social agencies that make up that life; an exposition of the various objectives and theories which have had or do have considerable following, many of which are in conflict with one another ; a report and criticism of research studies, tests, and measurements that have been made in this field ; a discussion of the relationship of the curriculum to character education; how classroom procedure, the general life of the school, and individual counseling may contribute; a statement on sex education ; the teacher, the organization and administration of a school system, home and school cooperation in connection with character educa¬ tion; the relation of the school to other organizations and institutions; and the reporting of pertinent bibliographies. As to whether that end has been accomplished, the Yearbook must speak. CHARACTER EDUCATION FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF PSYCHOLOGY FRANK N. FREEMAN, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL. The Commission on Character Education has taken a broad view of the meaning of character and of the scope of character education. This is the only sound view to take. It is impossible to draw a line around one group of actions which are supposed to represent character and exclude all others as having nothing to do with character. One’s character is made up of all one’s actions and attitudes. Character education, likewise, is made up of all 548 National Education Association those processes of education which influence pupils’ actions or attitudes. This adoption of a broad conception of character education means that the Commission has by implication set itself against the policy of seeking to produce character by means of panaceas or get-good-quick schemes. Such schemes are numerous. Some of these may have some value in themselves if they are thought of as touching only small portions of the problem and if too much faith is not put in them. But each such scheme must be con¬ sidered solely on its proved merits, taking into account remote as well as immediate results. While the educator refuses to place his confidence on any easy device for making children good, he is warranted in putting faith in the total process of education. Every educator who is alive to his problems must feel the challenge of the presentday situation. He must recognize that the difficulties into which our modern economic, political, and social lives have fallen present to the school a task which it cannot evade. This task falls partly, if not chiefly, within the field of character education. It is significant that a prominent his¬ torian has turned to ethics for the solution of our modern problems. Profes¬ sor Charles A. Beard is wellknown for his interpretation of history in terms of the interplay of economic forces. In a recent series of articles Professor Beard maintained that our salvation lies not in politics nor in economics nor in engineering nor in the easy solution of a dictatorship, but rather in a return to, and a reinterpretation of the age-old principles of conduct. He says: It will recur to first principles, to use a phrase discredited among intellectuals. It will be simple at bottom, as simple as the Sermon on the Mount, intelligible to people who cannot understand Kant. It will take the good life as its center, for the plain reason that there is no other immovable bench mark in the universal flux. It will proceed from that inescapable assertion of value. It will rise above parties, sects, and mass producers. It will distinguish between money “getting” and wealth creating, between honor and expediency, between obligation and right. What Professor Beard’s contention means is that we cannot make men either good or happy merely by means of social machinery. Machinery, of course, is not to be despised. Some forms of economic or political organiza¬ tion are better instrumentalities than are others, but none of the instru¬ mentalities will work themselves. They can at best serve as effective means for the execution of the worthy purposes by men of goodwill and of intel¬ ligence; but men of illwill and of stupidity can wreck any machinery no matter how well designed. We are, therefore, thrown back on education. We may call this education ethical or moral if we use the term in a broad enough sense, but it must include both the elements of intelligence and of goodwill. It must produce character in the broadest sense of the term, char¬ acter which is based on knowledge, which incorporates worthy sentiments, and which is effectuated in habits. This point of view enables us to evaluate the contention that the changed conditions of our modern social life demand an entirely new alignment of Department of Superintendence 549 education, including character education. No labored argument is necessary to prove that there is much that is new in our modern life. The changes are evident both in the external machinery of living and in the way of living itself. A fundamental question, however, is this : How far do the changes in the way of living involve the abandonment of fundamental principles; or if they do involve the abandonment of these fundamental principles, how far may this abandonment be regarded as progress and how far as decadence? There is a distinction between the external aspect or the machinery of life and the internal or psychological aspect of our living. Are the principles which govern our internal life as much subject to change as are our ways of dealing with the physical world or the machinery of our economics, our politics, and our society in general ? This is an important question for education ; for if everything changes with equal rapidity, our internal as well as our external life, the power of education to rebuild society is very limited. If the fundamentals of our be¬ havior can change several times in a generation, the results of education will be obsolete before they can be put into practise. Education, in fact, will be worthless because it will interfere with the ready adaptation of the individual to the new situation. The internal principles of behavior are not as variable as are its external forms. In spite of the diversity in the customs, in the conceptions of right and duties, and in the attitudes of mankind in different tribes or nations of the earth, and in spite of the changes in customs, conceptions, or attitudes which take place from age to age, certain fundamental issues appear wherever men live together; and the solution of these fundamental issues by men of all climes and all ages has something in common. The effect of a change in social conditions is not so much to change the issues or to change the solution of these issues, as it is to bring certain issues into peculiar prominence. As men adapt themselves to new demands and as they find in their hands new instrumentalities for the attainment of human ends, they are faced with the necessity of reinterpreting the old ways of life and of restating the old principles. I should like, by way of illustration, to mention briefly one such prin¬ ciple which is brought forceably to our attention in modern literature and life, and to discuss the ways in which our educational practises may take account of it. The principle I refer to is social cooperation. Its importance, perhaps, is most decidedly set forth by considering the consequences of the opposite principle, namely individualism. Individualism takes a number of forms. It is represented in the self-cen¬ tered attitude of the egoist. It is expressed in the insistence upon rights and the disavowal of duties. It is represented in selfish competition wherever it is found, in private relations, in business, in politics, and in war. It is opposed to the recognition of obligations, to the practise of cooperation, and to the spirit of loyalty to a common cause. All these types of individualism are rampant in our present age. In the words of Josiah Royce: “The people 550 National Education Association who have more rights than duties have gained a notable and distinguished ethical position in our modern world. The selfish we had always with us. But the divine right to be selfish was never more ingeniously defended, in the name of the loftiest spiritual dignity, than it is sometimes defended and illustrated today.” Modern individualism, in other words, is not put forth merely as a check or balance against the undue exercise of authority. It is preached rather as an ethical doctrine for which it would be worthy for a man to sacrifice, and even to give up his life. Besides the individualism which expresses itself chiefly in self-gratification stands the more warlike form which is represented in various forms of com¬ petition. This individualism is manifested in seeking for power, in greed for gain, in strife in all its forms in business and social life, in strife between groups, such as capital and labor, in the competition between industrial groups, in political turmoil, in national aggrandizement, chauvinism, and war. These forms of individualism may seem to be validated by their success, and they are sometimes supported by a specious appeal to the biological doctrine of natural selection and the survival of the fittest. In the long run, however, these forms of competition and strife defeat their own ends. As a matter of fact, social advancement has come, not thru the intensifica¬ tion of competition of any sort, but rather thru the wider and wider develop¬ ment of social cooperation. Cooperation was first confined to very narrow groups, but with the development of social and political organization, the elaboration of industrial processes, the development of trade, and the recog¬ nition of interdependence, have come the spread of cooperation in all its forms. Shortsighted men are continually trying to secure all the gain from cooperative activities for themselves and deny them to those of other groups ; but this policy, like all other policies of individualism, is suicidal. The school can counteract the spirit of undue individualism which is ex¬ pressed in our contemporary life in two ways. In the first place it may teach the value and necessity of cooperation. The advancement of the present movement to introduce into the curriculum of the schools the materials of the social sciences will lay the intellectual foundation for cooperative ac¬ tivity. When we have reared a generation of children who recognize the interlocking of interests of individuals, communities, and nations, and realize that improvement in human life comes thru large scale group activities, we shall have accomplished the first long step toward substituting unifying co¬ operation in place of divisive individualism. A generation which has a clear insight into this principle will work wholeheartedly to advance the inevitable process of social evolution instead of wasting its efforts in a futile effort to stem the tide. Besides giving the child a clear grasp of the central importance of coopera¬ tion in social life, we must organize the school so as to exemplify this prin¬ ciple and give the child opportunity and encouragement to act in accordance with it. We shall tear down with one hand what we build up with the other if we preach cooperation and practise competition. Department of Superintendence 551 Our school practises still give much encouragement to the competitive attitude and much opportunity for the practise of competition. Our system of the comparison of the work of different children with each other, of con¬ tests, and of prizes, and our system of marks, honors, and awards, have served to set one child against another and to define achievement in terms of excelling someone else instead of accomplishing something which is worth¬ while in itself. We have discovered that achievement can be stimulated by means of competition, and we have made use of this fact without consider¬ ing sufficiently carefully the broader social implications of our practise. It would probably be quixotic to set out to rule out all competition. Com¬ parison of our attainments with those of others is a means of measuring our success to which we naturally resort as a stimulus to activity. It makes a vital difference, however, whether we compete for selfish ends or for the common good. There is a vast difference between friendly emulation or rivalry in activities which advance the general interest, and that competition which sets one person’s good against that of another. Perhaps we may go even further, and venture to hope that we may place less emphasis even on emulation and friendly rivalry and more on the recog¬ nition by the child of the real value of what he learns and does in social terms. Is not an undue resort to competition in the school a confession of our inability to make the tasks of education seem worthwhile to the child in themselves, and may we not rely on other incentives than this? It is, of course, out of the question that the child should from the beginning see the vital significance to himself or to society of the forms of training which he receives in the school ; but if we have his confidence, we can rely in part upon his willing acceptance of the tasks laid upon him by society and by the school as the regularly constituted agent of society. As the child gains a comprehension of the nature and organization of society, he will be better able to see his own place in the social group and to see the significance of his own actions in his social setting. As the child ac¬ quires a clearer conception of his place in the world and in the smaller groups to which he belongs, he will be guided more and more by the idea of what is appropriate in his social relationships. The task of the school at the present time in respect to character educa¬ tion is set by the nature of those issues appearing in our contemporary life ; but the way in which the task is to be solved leads us back to fundamental principles of human conduct. The ever changing life about us alters the rela¬ tive urgency of this problem or of that, and we must study this changing life in order to learn which problems to emphasize. The events of our own time press home to us continually the folly of unrestrained individualism. This leads us to recognize with renewed clearness the necessity of cooperation. The evils of individualism are not new. What is new is the intricacy of our social organization which makes individualism peculiarly disastrous. The value of cooperaton is not new. What is new is the peculiar urgency of the need for cooperation under modern world conditions. Our civilization has come 552 National Education Association to the point where it is a fair question whether we must not learn to co¬ operate or perish. The task of the public school is to show the child that society is founded on cooperation and to give him that practise in cooperation which will fit him to take his part in society. This, in its deepest sense, is the meaning of character education. CHARACTER EDUCATION AND THE LIFE OF THE SCHOOL MRS. JOHN K. NORTON, ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR OF RESEARCH, NATIONAL EDU¬ CATION ASSOCIATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. The Yearbook of the Department of Superintendence begins with an analysis of current American life from the viewpoint of character education. With bold strokes it paints the picture of modern industrial life and con¬ trasts it with the old agrarian order and shows how new conceptions of right and wrong are being forged. Traditional objectives of character edu¬ cation are reviewed in the Yearbook, and their strengths and weaknesses pointed out. A new objective is formulated which brings together the insights and contributions of many points of view. According to the Commission the goal of character education is the discovery or creation of a way of living which conserves and produces as many values as possible for as many peo¬ ple as possible over as long a time as possible. Character education is the facilitation of this way of life in an industrial age characterized by rapid change, interdependence of citizens and of nations, and extraordinary power. Character education as described in the 1932 Yearbook is not a program to be “put over,” but an outcome — an outcome of our philosophy of educa¬ tion, our school organization, administration, and supervision, our selection of curriculums, our methods of teaching, our skill in living with, and guid¬ ing children, our ability to quicken and guide the growth of boys and girls. Character education is looked upon as an outcome of right living. It is, there¬ fore, as broad as life. This viewpoint centers attention not on some traits to be expressed, not on some rules of conduct, or on some ideal of truth or beauty, but on the situation. The need for character is all bound up in the situation that one is facing at the moment. Life is one situation after another, and each situation has possibilities of richer or poorer living. My assignment this morning is to review the Yearbook’s suggestions as to how teachers and principals may use the life of the school with all its re¬ sources — the buildings and grounds, the classroom organization, the school routine, the curriculum, the extra-curriculum activities, the school’s tradi¬ tions and its goals as a laboratory in which children may grow and develop their own best selves in relation to others. How can we use the physical resources of the school for character edu¬ cation? — First, by providing buildings and grounds appropriate for joyous living and learning. Children have real affection only for those places in which they have some opportunity for recreation. Department of Superintendence 553 Second, the physical environment of the school can best be used for char¬ acter education when it is made as beautiful and as useful as intelligence and care can make it and by seeing to it that the sanitary provisions are such as to encourage cleanliness, orderliness, and respect for privacy. One of the many significant studies reviewed in the chapter of the Year¬ book on “Research Related to Character Education,” shows that groups in certain unfavorable environments almost invariably produce large numbers of delinquents. A wholesome environment is a tremendous ally in establish¬ ing right habits and inner controls of conduct. Teachers have often been im¬ pressed with the change in the personal appearance and behavior of pupils after moving from a dilapidated and unattractive school building into a modern structure surrounded with adequate play space and attractive landscaping. Destruction of school property and the vandalism which constitutes a problem in many communities is not easily solved. One of the ingredients which must enter into its solution, however, is the provision of school build¬ ing and grounds which are worthy of respect and conservation. Children can be made to feel that they own the school building and grounds, with all the pride, interest, and thoughtful outlook that go with possession. This feeling of ownership for a modern, attractive school plant can be developed by giving pupils a share in its improvement and upkeep and by organizing the housekeeping duties of the classroom so as to develop pupil leadership. Under such conditions, pupils acquire the habit of assuming some responsibility for their physical surroundings, and a sensitiveness to better¬ ing them thru teamwork. How can the curriculum be used for character education? — Those who look upon character education as a division or subject of the curriculum will find little support in this Yearbook. It states that any good curriculum is a character education curriculum. To the extent that a curriculum makes a sincere, intelligent, and courageous attack on the real problems of living, it meets the requirements for character training. To quote the Yearbook: “It would be the most serious form of hypocrisy for the school to exhort pupils to be sincere, intelligent, and courageous in facing the world and then it¬ self to practice insincerity, ignorance, and cowardice in the making of its curriculums.” The good curriculum will center in the social studies, since these attack the problem of how people best live together and as individuals. The modern social studies course will be concerned not merely with ancient civilizations, but with contemporary issues, and planful control of the future. The cue for the teacher is not to dodge controversial social issues, but to face them. Lincoln Steffins points out in his thought-provoking Autobiography, that if the schools deal only in traditions and ideals and not realities, education is a hindrance to the pupil’s orientation in this present work-a-day world. A sensitive personality encounters no more disorganizing experience than the one which comes with the shattering of illusions built up by a too idealistic and unpractical schooling. 554 National Education Association The acceptance of this viewpoint does not mean that we should focus the attention of youth exclusively on such social problems as intrenched privilege, graft, war, political chicanery, economic depressions, vice, and disease. As Neuman points out in his new book, Lives in the Making , blind hero worship on the one hand and sophistication and cynicism on the other are twins. Both oversimplify. The challenge to the school is to help move the world up from bad and good to the better. Those who want their lives to count most will be neither contented nor discouraged but will continue to offer their best to the working out of presentday social, economic, and governmental prob¬ lems. Instead of letting youth become sophisticated and cynical, point out to them that presentday failures and neglects are chances for the young fel¬ lows coming along and looking for work. It was Huxley who wrote: “To learn what is true in order to do what is right is the summing up of the whole duty of man for all who are not able to satisfy their mental hunger with the east wind of authority.” In our secondary school and college classes let us give our students not merely a survey of the solved, but of some of the un¬ solved problems with which every subject bristles. From such study stu¬ dents may be inspired as was the poet who wrote : I have a vision Of a New Republic, brighter than the sun, A new race, loftier faith, this land of ours Made over. The Yearbook points out that every subject in the curriculum, to the ex¬ tent that it makes a sincere, intelligent, and courageous attack on the real problems of living and gives pupils an enriching interest, contributes to character education. I have mentioned the contribution of the social studies. Time permits the mention of but one other subject field, the natural sciences. When science is taught as a way of life it offers large opportunity for char¬ acter development, since it seeks to develop in pupils an appreciation of scientific methods of thinking and the habit of applying this method to social as well as to physical problems. Teaching science as a way of life makes mastery of subjectmatter subordinate to the development of habits and at¬ titudes which ultimately will bring about a better social order. There is a moral imperative on science teachers to analyze the scientific method of thought, to discover the characteristics which differentiate it from older types, to make pupils conscious of the method of science as well as the mere results of science, and to experiment in having pupils use this method in the solution of social problems, where observation, reflection, and com¬ parison should also precede the drawing of conclusions. The larger the conception we have of the school’s opportunities, the greater will be our inspiration for developing new curriculums. Curriculum is the Latin word for race course or chariot. We need to ask ourselves where the chariot is expected to take its riders and what knowledge, skills, and attitudes they will acquire enroute. The more delightful the journey, the more frequently we may expect pupils to take more and longer trips on their own initiative into the various subject fields of the curriculum. Department of Superintendence 555 How may classroom procedure contribute to character education? _ The Yearbook s answer to this question will be of interest to all thoughtful teachers. The Yearbook offers some empirical and experimental evidence which indicates that vital, moral teaching comes from the manner in which pupils meet the situations in which they find themselves from day to day. The implications of certain research studies reviewed in the Yearbook are important for classroom procedure. One study, for example, shows that there is an unmistakable tendency for children who attend modern schools, with a project approach and a turning of attention away from tests, grades, and marks toward the worth of the activity in and of itself, to become progressively less apt to cheat on school tests. Among other research findings reported which lead the thoughtful teacher to take stock of his classroom procedures are those which show the disagree¬ ment between psychiatrists’ and teachers’ reactions towards the behavior of children. Teachers regard talkativeness, smoking, laziness, and whispering as serious behavior problems. Psychiatrists are more disturbed by shyness, sensitiveness, suspiciousness, and over-criticalness of others. From the view¬ point of character education which group is right, teachers or mental hy¬ gienists ? The Commission throws out a challenge by asking to what extent teachers are responsible for cheating, slovenly work, and plagiarism on the part of pupils. According to the \ earhook, children do honest work, when they know how to do the work and get proper satisfaction from doing it honestly. For example, when citation of the ^source of information” is recognized equally with the information given, plagiarism goes out of style in a class¬ room. When boys and girls have been trained how to take brief notes, they see note-taking as a qualitative and not a quantitative assignment. How may extra-curriculum activities contribute to character education ? — School assemblies, dramatics, athletics, clubs, fraternities, school publica¬ tions, and student councils are all discussed at length in the Yearbook from the standpoint of character education. To show you what strong convictions the Character Education Commission had on the subject of extra-curriculum activities, I will quote four of the general principles which they set forth: First. Extra-curriculum activities should grow out of, and enrich the regular program of the school. Second. Extra-curriculum activities should be conducted for the education of children and not for the purpose of advertising the school or raising money for the school treasury. The practise of exploiting boys and girls on “winning teams” for the sporting element of the town cannot be too strongly condemned. Third. Participation in extra-curriculum activities should be voluntary, and yet the school s program should be so varied and so conducted as to interest all pupils. Fourth. Satisfactory scholarship record should not be made a prerequisite for participation in extra-curriculum activities. This statement will raise questions in the minds of many. Read the Year¬ book on this issue before you disagree with it. M easurement of results in character education — In the preparation of the Yearbook, the Character Education Commission dodged no controversial 556 National Education Association issues. Accordingly, there is an extensive chapter on the measurement of the results of character education, together with the most comprehensive list of measures, tests, and indices of character education, available in any one pub- lication. However, the Commission displays no characteristics of the enthusiast for the measurement of character education. It points out that there are no simple measures of all-around character and any wholesale adoption of char¬ acter tests by persons not specially trained would be exceedingly unfortunate. The Yearbook emphasizes the point that the complexity of human personal¬ ity will always make the measurement of character difficult. How can it be otherwise when as the Yearbook states, “Behavior involves adaptations to situations, but the same total situation never recurs. Precisely the same re¬ sponse cannot recur. A man may be cheerful in the morning, worried at noon, irritable in the evening, hilarious at midnight, and depressed the next morning. How shall we measure his pleasantness of mood by any cross sec¬ tion?” The exact measurement of character depends upon extensive, ex¬ pensive, and long-continued thoroness in observing and recording human behavior. After giving this warning, the Yearbook offers seven suggestions for the use of tests. Is there a magic formula for character development f — The answer of the 1932 Yearbook of the Department of Superintendence is emphatically, “No!” If the Yearbook does nothing else, it should help the superintendent of schools to warn off the faddist with a single plan for character develop¬ ment or with one cure for crime. The Yearbook should help superintendents of schools, principals, and teachers to realize that character education is not something which can take place only in a classroom hour, but is intimately bound up with mental inheritance, family life, group customs, economic or¬ ganization, community recreation, and a variety of concerns not usually labelled character education. In this complex of factors, which enter to determine good and bad con¬ duct, the Yearbook recognizes master teachers as a guiding force. The teacher who has understanding of the complexity of modern life, courage to face its issues, and faith in the possibilities which human personality has for growth will see to it that the school is always a place of growth. This does not mean that the teacher exudes good character habits for pupils. It means that he has scientific technics, such as the case-study method, for helping pupils develop good habits. Such a teacher will not only see boys and girls as they are, but as they are capable of becoming — as they possibly may be. Such a teacher unconsciously leads pupils to know that he believes in them. “And the fact that someone believes in any of us, thinks better of us than we have any right to think of ourselves, is in a way our anchorage in life.” This attitude is the foundation of the spiritual relationship between teacher and pupils. The 1932 Yearbook faces the hard facts of reality, but it also gives the reader new courage in the thought that “teaching gets its richest creative power from a living sense of an ethical life more nobly inspired than is yet the common practice.” Department of Superintendence 557 COMMEMORATING THE BIRTH OF GEORGE WASHINGTON President Broome: At 10:15 o’clock, which is the present hour, two hundred years ago today, George Washington, the Father of our Country, the anniversary of whose birth is being now celebrated thruout the length and breadth of this land, came into life. In honor of him and of the great mother who bore him, and in honor of the country which he so securely established, let us stand and give the pledge of allegiance to the flag of the United States and sing two verses of A merica. THE YEARBOOK AS A WORKBOOK CHARLES B. GLENN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BIRMINGHAM, ALA.1 Everywhere today interest in character education is growing. Special courses in the subject are being offered in normal schools, colleges, and uni¬ versities. Teachers and administrators, classes in civic education, in the principles and philosophy of education, are studying the relation of their work to the development and training of character. If the 1932 Yearbook of the Department of Superintendence on Char¬ acter Education is to be anything more than just another book, it will be necessary that it become the center of our thinking. Each superintendent of schools should come to know it well. Thoro familiarity with its contents may serve to make it a workbook in the schools of America. Let us then for a few minutes analyze it somewhat in detail. Those expecting to find in it a ready reference encyclopedia, to be con¬ sulted in emergencies, or when first aid is needed, will be disappointed. On the contrary, it sets up no hard and fast rules of procedure; it offers no maxims, codes, slogans, or recipes by which character, as if by magic, may be devel¬ oped. It makes no attempt to tell on a particular page or in a single sentence what to do if Edward persists in taking Marie’s pencils, or if Sylvia is caught cheating on examinations. What it does attempt to do, as indicated in the captions of its several chapters and as already outlined, is to set up the basic psychological prin¬ ciples underlying the development of character and to discuss these as ap¬ plied in school procedure. “This industrial civilization is making imperative a reappraisal of the entire system of values bequeathed from an age of toil, of poverty, and of bitter struggle with the elements . . . obviously in this age of rapid social transition the problem of moral education requires a very fundamental analysis.” Educators must face these facts if they are to build wisely. It might, there¬ fore, be helpful for us and for all teachers to know that the Yearbook at¬ tempts to supply this analysis as a background. That apparently there is practically no correlation between teachers and pupils in their knowledge of right and wrong, and that this fact suggests 1 Read by L,. Frazer Banks, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Birmingham, Alabama. 558 National Education Association that the role of the school in the realm of character education is far weaker than those who work in this institution are accustomed to think, is one of the challenging statements made in the chapter on “Agencies of Character Education.” Is not this a new challenge to make the school a more power¬ ful agency for character training? If you would know certain definite objectives of character education, eighteen are listed in Chapter III. A knowledge of the best known theories of character education as set forth in the chapter dealing with this subject, will tend to prevent needless and wasteful experiments in fields that have already been tried. Can character be measured ? The Yearbook states that much more has been accomplished than the average layman is aware of, and lists many tests now available and others which are being prepared. H ow far should we attempt to set up a character education curriculum? May it not be true that any good curriculum constitutes a character educa¬ tion curriculum? The chapter on “Curriculum” discusses this fully. Teachers will be most interested in the discussion of how classroom proce¬ dure may contribute to character education, and especially, in the statement that “there is no inherent conflict between procedures aimed at character education and those striving for scholastic goals.” If the best character edu¬ cation values are realized in the classroom, it is the teacher’s responsibility to have this purpose in mind as he sets the stage for the child’s activity ; and this chapter further suggests, to which, doubtless, all agree, that it would pay to give more attention to awakening the child’s interests and to training him in creative work. Nowhere does the Yearbook approach more nearly the ready reference book answering definite, specific questions, than in the chapter dealing with “Character Education in the Life of the School.” Here are found discussed such matters as “Using the Physical Resources of the School for Character Education,” “Discipline as a Means of Training for Character,” “Extra Curricular Activities as Training in Character.” If the teacher is to stand today as heretofore in loco parentis , then there will continue to be opportunity for individual counseling. How to make such counseling contribute to character education forms the subject of an entire chapter. This is a Yearbook of the Department of Superintendence, but it does not fail to recognize that tho adequate equipment, purposeful curriculums, thoro supervision, and scientific methods are all important, after all the in¬ fluence of the teacher should and does occupy first place in the character development of the child. This is strongly set forth in the chapter on “The Teacher in Character Education.” It is imperative that the entire school function as a vital experience thru which young people learn to live wholesomely together. In order to accom¬ plish this goal the school must shape its procedures so as to make desirable conduct the most likely outcome of childhood and adolescent training. Much depends on the organization of the whole school system, the organization Department of Superintendence 559 of the individual school, and the cooperation of parents and the public. An entire chapter is devoted to telling how some schools have been thus organ¬ ized for character education. The Yearbook points out that from a character education standpoint the administration of a school system is a matter of grave importance. If effec¬ tive character training is to be given in any school system, the set-up of the system, the administration itself, must exemplify it. Character in its unfold¬ ing and development follows the spiritual law of growth, “First the blade, then the ear, after that the full corn in the ear.” In each individual there are potentialities for good, which, in the right environment and under the proper conditions, develop. Administrators of school systems should create such environment and supply the necessary elements conducive to the develop¬ ment of character. The purpose for which the school exists, the choice of administrative offi¬ cers, the manner in which they deal with the pupils, the teaching personnel, and other factors of the school system, as well as of the community outside the school, these make up that pervasive, intangible thing we call school atmos¬ phere in which character is either dwarfed and thwarted or in which it expands and develops. No study of the character education of the child would be complete that did not give a prominent place to the influence of the home. A recognition of the fact that the home of the agrarian civilization of a hundred years ago — practically a self-sufficient social unit in itself — no longer exists, lends greater importance to the consideration of the subject. To what extent should the school go in its efforts to supply these important factors which have been relinquished by the home? Is there a limit? Has it been reached already? If so, in the interest of society should we not take care lest it be exceeded? These and similar questions are considered in the chapter on “Home and School Cooperation.” The final chapter is devoted to the “Relation of the School to Other Or¬ ganizations and Institutions in Character Education.” Recognition is given to the fact that character education is a twenty-four hour process and that the school has the child for only five or six of these hours. This fact alone would demand that any study of the character education of the child should include a consideration of these outside agencies. This sampling of the Yearbook conveys, I trust, some conception of its contents. Having familiarized ourselves with it, if we would have it be¬ come a useful workbook in the hands of teachers, we must, in the parlance of the shop, “sell it” to them, by seeing that teachers are supplied with copies, by having it reviewed and discussed at meetings of teachers, by securing its use as a textbook in extension courses and summer schools. We agree with Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler that “that democracy alone will be triumphant which has both intelligence and character. To develop them among the whole people is the task of education in a democracy.” The Commission, therefore, has endeavored constantly to hold in mind the audience for which this Yearbook was prepared. Not the large city 560 National Education Association school system alone with its supervisors and research departments, but the village and rural schools as well. The essence of religion permeates the philosophy and structure of the en¬ tire public school system. It has given rich content to the teaching of those principles of character which, by ennobling society, ennoble individual lives, and which, by ennobling individual lives, in turn ennoble society. Your Commission dreams and hopes that this Bicentennial Year in which much study and thought will be given to everything touching the life of that great Statesman who did so much to establish the high character of our nation in its beginning, may also be characterized by a renewed activity on the part of the teachers of America to do their part in the all-important task of developing the character of our youth. EDUCATION, THE NATION’S SAFEGUARD CHARLES H. JUDD, DEAN, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL. No words of mine can express the necessity of universal education in a country like ours as impressively as do the words of George Washington. In his farewell message addressed to the people of the United States near the end of his second term as president, he said : Promote, then, as an object of primary importance, institutions for the general diffusion of knowledge. In proportion as the structure of a government gives force to public opinion, it is essential that public opinion should be enlightened. I am sure that every member of this assembly accepts the statement of the founder of this republic as a commission from a great commander. It lays upon each of us the obligation to do whatever is necessary to promote educa¬ tion in times such as these, when all the institutions of our national life seem to be in process of re-evaluation and reconstruction — none more so than the educational system. The command of George Washington is even more urgent today than when it was first issued, for we find the governments of all countries giving ever-increasing attention to education. We observe the revolution which brought communism to Russia and find that schools flourish under the new regime as major instruments of social control. We observe the dictatorship of Italy, removed in theory and practise as far as possible from communism, and we note once more that education is the instrument used by the dictator to guide youth into the new ways approved for national life. We see the ancient civilizations of Western Europe, crippled by war and disrupted by economic stress and storm, opening new schools for the common people, making higher education free to increasing numbers, looking to the future for happier times when educated democracies shall be better able to cope with the problems of organized society. Even the Orient, aroused from its long lethargy, is organizing schools for the masses, seeking to overtake the Occidental world thru education. Department of Superintendence 561 When all the peoples of the earth are beginning to realize that a free universal education is the only sure guaranty of civilization, shall we falter and withdraw from an educational program which has been one of the characteristic features of our democracy? There can be but one answer to that question. We are gathered here today to counsel together for the better organization of American education, and our counseling shall not be in vain. The present emergency has done much to teach the American people that all their institutions are interrelated. There has been some disposition in times past to think of schools as detached institutions. Leaders in commercial, industrial, and political life have seldom considered it to be important for them to spend time and energy in improving schools. School people have too often looked upon business and politics as subjects entirely outside the circle of their interests. The economic crisis has made us all aware in a new and vivid way that schools are a part of the general social order and that the curriculums of schools and their methods of dealing with pupils are largely determined by the conditions of life outside the schools. Let us state in concrete terms the situation which now confronts this country. The industrial system has built cities. More than half the popula¬ tion of the United States has been crowded into limited spaces. These spaces are not adequate to provide children with the opportunities which nature intended they should have. A recent canvass of conditions in 257 representa¬ tive cities revealed the fact that in the seven years from 1921 to 1928 the percent of persons living in one-family houses decreased from 58.3 to 35.2. The narrow confines of an apartment, or even of a house, on a thickly popu¬ lated street do not permit the children to play and work as they should if they are to develop normally. The city has erected schools as a part of its building program. Mark that not a word is said for the moment about what is provided in the program of instruction. School buildings are abso¬ lutely essential factors in the solution of a city’s housing problem. As mere devices to keep children off the streets, school buildings are necessary. There could be no cities if there were no schools to supplement the narrow living quarters occupied by the majority of the people of this country. Are presentday schoolhouses too lavish in their equipment? The indus¬ trial system of the United States has erected great factories and warehouses. It has developed an elaborate system of highways. It has amassed great fortunes. This same industrial system has an obligation to erect for the young people schoolhouses which furnish ample light and air and space for study and play. Cities have taken something away from human beings, especially youthful human beings who are in process of developing. Cities must provide adequate substitutes for that which they have taken away. Without a school around the corner from every block of city apartments, the apartments would be intolerable. Let us be clear and explicit in our dealings with industrial leaders. Schools have a right to a substantial part of the earnings of industry. Let us consider the situation from another point of view. Formerly, in¬ dustry protected many children and housed them in its factories. The pro- 562 National Education Association tection which it gave was, to be sure, sometimes a fraud, because it exploited children and profited by their cheap labor. As industrial processes became increasingly complicated, industry found it less and less profitable to keep children in factories. Of late years industry has not wanted children; it has shut its doors to them. Sometimes it has offered to the public the pretense that it is filled with the spirit of philanthropy. Many a law compelling children to attend school has been passed in the name of charity, when it was in fact a law excluding children from industry. Go, if you will, today with the youth who has completed the curriculum of an elementary or secondary school, or, for that matter, of a college, and see him in the market place or at the door of the shop offering his services. See him ask for a place in the world of productive labor. You know how his application is received. More than five million young people were added to the school population of the United States during the decade from 1920 to 1930. Each decade from 1880 to the present, the population of our high schools has doubled. Since 1900 the population of institutions of higher education has increased fourfold — from 285,000 to more than 1,200,000. This social migration is not due to the caprice of youth. Great fundamental forces have been operating in American society. Those forces originated in an industrial system which has substituted machines for human hands and has become so complex and exacting that it no longer desires the labor of young people. The veritable avalanche of human life which has descended on the schools has precipitated in these institutions a whole series of problems more momentous for the welfare of the country than are any of the problems which have come with the present economic crisis. This crisis is a symptom of a new social order. The schools have been struggling for a generation to prepare for this new order, while those who lead in the operations of our modern machine industry have given little or no heed to the change which has been impending for years. The schools have sought to adjust themselves to new conditions of life. They have exercised an ingenuity of invention far beyond that of industry itself. How well we remember the arrogance with which business vaunted itself before October, 1929. How often we w~ere exhorted to learn from business management how to conduct schools. The fact is that business was then and is today far less effective in rendering genuine service to the nation than are the schools. I confess that I am filled with resentment when I hear the criticisms of those who say that the American schools are failures. There are the smug exploiters of society who have been driving communities to the brink of ruin by their greed and selfseeking. They have refused to adopt new taxing systems. They have refused to study social movements. They have been parsimonious with the schools, and they have had the effrontery to pass ad¬ verse judgment on the experiments which the schools have been trying in the effort to prepare society for its new day. There are the exasperating critics who belong to our own fraternity, seekers after a little cheap Department of Superintendence 563 notoriety, carping and complaining but doing nothing to clarify the situa¬ tion. If the worst that our critics say were true, there would still be ample ground for pride in what has been achieved. Very little imagination is required to frame an accurate picture of what has been happening. A short generation ago the upper grades of the elemen¬ tary school and the whole high school were attended by limited numbers of pupils, all of whom were seeking the same kind of education. The majority of the young people of the country were leaving the schools before they reached the seventh grade and were finding their places in industry. The community found it comparatively easy to support schools because the at¬ tendance was small, especially at the upper levels. Then came the change, not primarily in the schools but primarily in the industrial and social sys¬ tems. Great numbers of pupils of an entirely new type were sent to school. Teachers were called on to conduct classes made up of young people who had not the slightest interest in the traditional subjects. Altho the teachers had not been trained by society to give instruction in new subjects, they willingly tried as best they could to meet the situation forced upon them. Many teachers equipped to teach Latin or mathematics tried to organize courses in English and science and the arts. Society, be it repeated, made no adequate provision for the reception in the schools of the young people whom it crowded into those institutions. It was the teachers who met the situa¬ tion, not the industrial system. The United States Office of Education is authority for the statement that the high schools of 1890 taught nine sub¬ jects, whereas the high schools of today include in their programs as many as two hundred and fifty subjects. It is no wonder that some of the new courses are open to criticism. They are emergency measures intended to provide for young people who have been pushed out of industry. Even the elementary grades have been obliged to change the content of their courses in the effort to keep pupils interested and alert. The institutions of higher education have expanded their curriculums to include commerce and forestry, agriculture and engineering, and other new lines of information and train¬ ing wholly absent from their programs of instruction a generation ago. Some of the additions to school programs of instruction have been made because new bodies of knowledge have accumulated in recent years. It should not be overlooked, however, that the impulse which stimulates man to seek new bodies of knowledge originates in modern civilization itself. Knowledge grows in response to the demands of life. Every development of modern life has compelled the curriculums of the schools to expand. Of course, the introduction of new courses has been slow. Even today some schools are unable to offer suitable instruction to their pupils. I re¬ member going some years ago, as a member of the staff of a state school survey, to visit a small rural high school. I climbed up a steep hillside and found some eighty or ninety pupils in a school building which had no equip¬ ment but fixed desks and bare walls. The rooms of this school were obviously intended for textbook courses. There were three teachers, includ¬ ing the principal, a young and inexperienced college graduate. The school 564 National Education Association was in a continuous uproar. I stayed until school was dismissed, or, perhaps I should say, until the session broke up for the day. I sat down with the principal and asked him wdiat was the matter. He answered by saying that the pupils were not interested in their studies. “What are they interested in?” I asked. The answer was one of the most revealing I have ever heard. “What are they interested in?” he replied, “The bus ride.” The bus ride took those children out of their squalid homes. It gave them companionship. It carried them along one of industry’s new highways. It took them up the hillside and deposited them in a place where society unfortunately had made no adequate provision for their reception. Society sent them where there was none of the thrill of the bus ride, where there were no contacts with the productive industries which they were eager to enter. They were not interested. Who were to blame? The three teachers, the traditional subjects of the curriculum, or the industrial and social systems, which sent to the school erected for one purpose young people who were absolutely unadjusted to that purpose? Restless, uninterested pupils express emphatically, tho not intelligently, the demand of society for a new program of instruction. A new program of instruction cannot be developed in a day or a year. It requires the highest intelligence to prepare new courses adapted to the demands of a new type of life. Not only so, but, when schools begin to experiment in the organiza¬ tion of new courses, it always happens that some members of the older generation charge the schools with being full of fads and frills. In the city in which I live there has been much criticism of the schools because an industrial high school for girls teaches millinery. A very good way to answer this criticism would be, in my judgment, for the city to require the persons who object to millinery to interest the girls in that industrial high school in a traditional subject of unquestioned respectability, such as Latin or trigonometry. The schools stand between the generation which is passing out and has no adequate understanding of the new social order and the oncoming gen¬ eration, which is eager to take its part in the world and unwilling to be bound by the fetters of a narrow program conceived and established in a day when machinery was new and cities were uncommon. Perhaps I have spent more time than I should in discussing the past. Our meeting today is far more concerned with the future than it is with society s failure to recognize its duty to young people. Our present task is one of consolidation and organization, of improvement and amplification, of educa¬ tion. After all, there is a hopeful possibility of inspiring American society with enthusiasm for a new educational program. The individual parents of this country are eager to provide their children with opportunities which were denied to themselves. The increase in school population is the aggregate re¬ sult of many a domestic conference in which it was decided that the family must make a sacrifice in order that its younger members may be equipped as fully as possible for success in life. Even when the parents who send their Department of Superintendence 565 children to school pass thru the period of emotional disturbance which always attends the paying of taxes, they are eagerly desirous of securing advantages for their children. If we can keep the parent as taxpayer fully conscious of his duty as a parent, adequate support can be secured for the schools. A striking exhibition of the fundamental American attitude toward educa¬ tion has been furnished during the past few months by the citizens of the state of North Carolina. That state, which recently passed a new school law, has witnessed some fifteen referendums on school support. Each of these referendums was initiated for the purpose of reducing local taxes. Each referendum was made possible by a petition signed by 25 percent of the voters of the district. The campaigns which preceded the referendums were so clear in the issues which they presented that every one of the referendums resulted in a vote favorable to the continuation of local taxes and the main¬ tenance of the schools. With the assurance which such examples supply, school administrators can well afford to attack with new courage and zeal the problems of the schools. We have not yet reached the highest levels to which we can attain. We have developed many new courses to meet the needs of modern life. We can now ask whether it is possible to make the present courses better, and whether it is desirable to introduce into the curriculum new courses which will add essential elements to the program of instruction. I believe that we can reorganize instruction in high schools and colleges so as to provide more compact and therefore more useful courses. I venture the rough estimate that the two hundred and fifty subjects now taught in the high schools of the United States can be reorganized into some ninety or a hundred substantial courses. At the college level the process of rearrang¬ ing the contents of courses has made rapid progress in recent years. Orienta¬ tion courses, or general-survey courses, as they are sometimes called, have gathered up the scattered findings of specialists and are presenting to students the essentials of large fields of knowledge. The curriculum of the elementary school has been reorganized in such an efficient way that the lower grades cover adequately the rudimentary subjects. The upper grades are detach¬ ing themselves from the lower school and are taking on the pattern of the high school. All these changes are alike in that they are consolidating and systematizing the courses which were invented to meet the needs of present- day society. The reorganization, thus hopefully begun, calls for the best in¬ telligence of our profession. Not only so, but it is our duty to show com¬ munities how important it is for the young people of the nation that time and energy be expended in this labor of reconstructing the curriculum. Boards of education are in the habit of spending public money on teaching. They do not always understand that there is a function of the educational system quite as important as teaching, that is, the function of collecting materials to be taught and of arranging these materials so as to make them most valuable to pupils. If the world were static and if a subject of in¬ struction once introduced into the school program could always be taught 566 National Education Association in exactly the same way generation after generation, school boards might possibly be justified in asking teachers to devote all their energies to mere routine teaching. We all know, however, that the world is not static and that the schools cannot be content to repeat the same materials year after year. Therefore, school boards must be persuaded to provide for constant and vigorous reorganization of materials of instruction. My recommenda¬ tion, therefore, is that we enlist the cooperation of communities thru their representatives on boards of education in a better organization of the school program. I have tried to lay the foundations for a campaign looking toward this better organization by pointing out that society is responsible for the present state of the schools and that society in general is obligated to co¬ operate with school people in perfecting educational institutions and adjust¬ ing them to the needs of modern life. If I could have my way, I would bring it to pass that the leading citizens of every community would come together and discuss education, not as a political or financial issue but as one of society’s greatest undertakings. 1 do not believe that the community as a whole realizes its obligations to the schools. If we of the schools have been remiss in not seeing to it that the schools receive adequate public attention, let us resolve today that we will be more active in bringing together the leaders and informing them with regard to the experiments thru which we are reorganizing the schools. May I make a second recommendation. Man has been so busy compelling the material world to serve him that he has not taken time to understand the social institutions which he has invented. Especially is it true of our own nation that we have expended our energy in pioneering. We have swept across the continent and mastered its physical resources. Today, we are dis¬ covering that the material resources which we have accumulated may be our destruction unless we learn what government is and what transporta¬ tion and communication do to human beings. We do not know what money is and how it determines the progress or lack of progress of nations and of the world. It would, of course, be foolish to hope that we can overcome our ignorance regarding social institutions and social forces in a day. It is even more foolish to omit from the program of our public schools the study of social institu¬ tions. We teach pupils in the elementary schools to compute taxes, but we do not tell them about taxes. We teach pupils in the high schools the history of ancient states and their problems, but we dare not discuss the urgent presentday problem of who shall own public utilities in the cities of the United States. We seem to be afraid that some local banker or board member or the Federal Trade Commission will interfere if we discuss public utilities. The Federal Trade Commission has indeed in recent years prac¬ tically banished the topic of public utilities from the high schools of the United States. I do not have the honor of acquaintance with the gentlemen of this commission, but I am quite sure that the Federal Trade Commission is not so constituted that it can be trusted with the power to determine either positively or negatively what should be taught in the schools. Department of Superintendence 567 My recommendation is that we who are directly responsible for the schools be the first to recognize the obligation to introduce the young people of America to a fuller knowledge of social institutions than is now supplied by American education. If I had my way, I would bring it to pass that the center and core of the school curriculum at every level would be in¬ struction regarding the social order. I would teach pupils, when they use number, that they are enjoying the advantages of one of the greatest in¬ tellectual inventions that the race has ever perfected. When they study science, I would have them learn that knowledge is the product of long cooperative labor. When they study literature, I would have them realize that they are being initiated into the ideals of the civilization of which they are a part. It is no simple task to transform the curriculum of the schools into in¬ struments for the spread of social mindedness. I have referred to experi¬ ments in other lands. Communism has laid its hand on youth and has shown its determination to dominate society by compelling thinking to follow prescribed lines. Dictatorship has organized youth to perpetuate its un¬ democratic rule. It is our opportunity and our duty to evolve a plan of education that will provide every individual with that broad training which leads to freedom of the type guided by insight and understanding. If the freedom which our form of society boasts as its greatest virtue is to be con¬ served and fostered, our people must depend not on a political doctrine inculcated by drastic compulsion but on enlightenment. I have argued with such vigor as I can command for a consolidation of the school program and for the introduction of a new core into the cur- riculums of all schools. What I have advocated cannot be accomplished by any single school system or by any loosely integrated organization. This Department meets year after year, bringing together agencies which have great potential influence. After our meeting we scatter, and as single ad¬ ministrators we are comparatively ineffective in reconstructing the curricu¬ lum or improving the attitude of the public toward schools. Representatives of the natural sciences were able during the War to organize a foundation which has been powerful in promoting the cultivation of all the studies that have to do with material things. The schools of this country need an educational foundation which shall be the center of co¬ operative studies and of cooperative action. This foundation, if it is to be effective, will require resources at least as large as those now devoted to the promotion of the natural sciences. Should not this Department, to¬ gether with other educational organizations, be energetic in bringing into being an educational foundation the functions of which will be the study of the internal problems of the schools and the development of a clear understanding of the relation of the schools to industry, business, and politics? What the educational system of this country needs is organized and informed leadership. It is futile to wait for the government to move if the representatives of educational administration exhibit no power of concerted action. It is futile 568 National Education Association to duplicate efforts at scattered points. The wisdom of educational leaders must be focused, and their influence must be strengthened thru cooperation. If we say to pupils that the cultivation of intelligence is their highest privilege and duty, is it not doubly our obligation to organize for the pur¬ pose of bringing the highest intelligence to bear on our tasks? In every part of this nation individual school administrators are struggling to meet as best they can an emergency which threatens the institutions we serve. There is an abundant lack of guiding principles. There is a very general lack of understanding on the part of the people of the United States of the unique character of their educational system. We have come to a time of stress ill prepared to meet its demands. The emergency has revealed to us weaknesses which we must correct. Only thru concerted action can we effectively carry out the injunction of our great leader : Promote, then, as an object of primary importance, institutions for the general diffusion of knowledge. In proportion as the structure of a government gives force to public opinion, it is essential that public opinion should be enlightened. PILGRIMAGE TO MOUNT VERNON, MONDAY AFTER¬ NOON, FEBRUARY 22 WELCOME TO VIRGINIA ROBERT LECKY, JR., MEMBER, VIRGINIA BICENTENNIAL COMMISSION 1 Virginia welcomes to Virginia and to its most sacred spot, Mount Vernon, on this, the bicentennial of Washington’s birth, you who have made a pil¬ grimage to Mount Vernon as your tribute to the greatest of Virginia’s sons. Washington was a friend of education, possibly because of the lack of school facilities in his immediate neighborhood. He did not have the advan¬ tages to secure an education such as the boys and girls of the United States have at this time. He overcame that lack of training by reading the best authors and making contact with educated people; and as a result of his own efforts he secured for himself the benefits of a trained mind. Many in¬ stances are noted where he assisted young men to secure educational ad¬ vantages. It would be good for our nation and its people should the boys and girls in the schools and the men and women in the colleges and universities study the life of Washington and, if possible, visit Mount Vernon ; for a knowledge of the life and home of Washington will produce a better citizenship thruout our land. Mount Vernon today is as it was in the latter years of Washington’s life except that its hospitality, for which it was famous, is no more. The sys¬ tematic farming of the great estate is past. The spinning of wool and cotton 1 Mr. Lecky was the personal representative of Governor Pollard of Virginia. Department of Superintendence 569 is over. The songs of the slaves in the quarters are still. The laughter of grandchildren is missing. In their stead there has settled upon this spot a halo. Those who visit Mount Vernon with marked reverence, with soft¬ ness of tread, and with subdued voices pass along the ways which were known to Washington; for it is in this spirit that people come and go from Mount Vernon, being impressed with the loving care of the Mount Vernon Ladies Association for this sacred spot, the home and the tombs of George and Martha Washington. WELCOME TO MOUNT VERNON MRS. HORACE M. TOWNER, VICEREGENT FOR IOWA, MOUNT VERNON LADIES ASSOCIATION I have been asked to say something of the Mount Vernon Ladies Associa¬ tion which has in charge the home of Washington at Mount Vernon. This Association, the first patriotic organization of women in the United States, came into existence in 1853, thru the effort of Miss Ann Pamela Cunning¬ ham of South Carolina. The last private owner of Mount Vernon, Mr. John Augustine Wash¬ ington, had found it impossible to maintain the estate, and had, himself, offered it to the federal government and to the government of Virginia, both of which declined to consider it. Miss Cunningham became concerned lest Mount Vernon be lost to the people and she then began an organized effort to arouse the interest of the women of the country in saving the home of Washington. An association was formed consisting of a regent, who is the head of the organization, with representatives of the states known as vice¬ regents. Women in the various states were charged with the duty of raising the $200,000 which had been set as the purchase price. The payment of the purchase price was completed and the Association took charge on Wash¬ ington’s birthday, 1860, seventy-two years ago today. The work of the Association has been to restore the mansion and estate to its appearance in Washington’s time, to maintain it as a national shrine for all who revere the name of Washington, and to safeguard it from injury. GREETINGS FROM A PATRIOTIC SHRINE EDWIN C. BROOME, PRESIDENT, DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE, AND SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PHILADELPHIA, PA. The Father of Our Country is no mythical character. Our freedom is a testimony to his courage. His statesmanship is written into our organic laws. His vision of America’s future may be seen as today’s achievement. As we stand here today where he often stood, overlooking the great estate where he labored, we are impressed with his love of home and family. Surveyor, soldier, statesman, farmer, scholar, we honor him as a man of many human qualities, a genius of practical vision. 570 National Education Association Education not only conserves from the past that which is worthy ; it looks toward the future. The schools have also played an important part in the great progress which has been made since Washington’s time and which is so evident here today. The candle and the incandescent lamp, the family carriage and the limou¬ sine, the call bell and the radio, side by side here today, are reminders of the great strides which our nation has taken since Washington lived here in what was then one of the most comfortable and luxurious homes of the nation. Education increases and refines human wants. It helps train the hands and educate the minds which are able to satisfy these wants. Our country moves forward. No one would observe these changes with more joy than would George Washington if he were greeting his thousands of guests today. At this historic moment the present looks back with respect to a revered past, and forward to a glorious future. Such reverence and hope were inter¬ mingled in the spirit of George Washington. The schools will keep that spirit alive for those who are to come after us. A MESSAGE TO BOYS AND GIRLS FROM MOUNT VERNON WILLIAM J. BOGAN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CHICAGO, ILL. As a representative of the National Education Association I give this mes¬ sage to the boys and girls of the nation because the Association believes with Lord Fisher, former British minister, that education is the debt of maturity to youth. To the boys and girls of America, the training of the schools — private, parochial, and public — has brought a reverence for the memory of George Washington that has had a stabilizing influence upon government, both national and state. To very young boys and girls the stories of Washing¬ ton’s deeds are as exciting as fairy tales. They are fairy tales and, like fairy tales and Santa Claus, they probably serve a good purpose ; but to older boys and girls the schools direct attention to qualities of Washington that in our corrupt age seem almost as mythical as the love of truth revealed in the myth of the cherry tree. The qualities of honor, force, and good judgment which were daily exercised by him during his entire life, and especially during the war and his presidency, are the aims of citizenship which are placed daily before the millions of boys and girls maturing in the schools of this nation. The story of the cherry tree persists because many people love truth — in the abstract. Many hold it up to others as a great virtue, but few work at it. One of the tasks of the schools is to transform the great virtues of Wash¬ ington from beautiful abstractions of the book to prosaic facts of daily lives. The virtues of democracy cannot be made practical by mere talk or even by mere thought. Boys and girls under the direction of their teachers must work these virtues into their hopes and fears, their actions, and their dreams. No pupil can expect to become a good citizen until he has served a long Department of Superintendence 571 apprenticeship in citizenship. He must be introduced gradually to the re¬ sponsibilities, privileges, rights, and duties of the citizen and in his school life he should be given many opportunities to acquire experience in govern- ment — in governing his fellows and in governing himself — for today he is a child, a pupil ; tomorrow he is a man, a voter with the destinies of the people in his hands. The hope of the new generation lies in a new emphasis upon the theory and practise of citizenship as enunciated and practised by George Washington. Nearly every American child above the fourth grade knows that in our system of government supreme power rests in the people. They are the rulers. They elect nearly every official from town constable to president. They vote upon the most important policies of government. In every form of government success depends to a great extent upon the intelligence and character of the rulers. Therefore, in a democracy, where the people rule, it is necessary to give these rulers (the people) all the education and all the character training that they can possibly assimilate, in order that they may rule the nation wisely. Thru the encouragement of George Washington the state established a free public school system partly for its own protection, for the founders knew that a democratic state could not endure unless its people were educated. In autocratic governments like some of those in the old world where rules and regulations and laws have been handed down by officials chosen for birth or wealth, higher education for centuries was con¬ sidered necessary only for the leaders. The followers were easily managed. Hence education for them was considered unnecessary. The adoption of such a policy as this would be fatal to democracy. Therefore, our schools try to educate all the people. Since the days of Washington political and eco¬ nomic complexities have increased and their disentanglement demands higher standards of education. If the people are not educated these problems will be left to the political bosses for solution as they have been in the past and democracy will be looked upon as a fancy name for political self-delusion. History repeats itself again and again. All thru the ages, epochs of war have been followed by eras of goodwill ; periods of depression have been fol¬ lowed by booms; periods of prudery have been followed by periods of cor¬ ruption. Rome had its period of great virtue in government which was fol¬ lowed by a period of awful corruption. Like the republic of Rome, we suffer from luxury and extreme poverty and like imperial Rome we suffer from political corruption. Here the likeness ends, for, unlike that powerful state, we have the hope of salvation in our schools. Rome had no free public school system. Salvation lies in youth and the schools are expressing the hope today that youth, when it matures, may show more intelligence in the solution of social and civic problems than its elders have shown. One of the pathetic pictures which the schools present for the edification of prospective voters is Washington and His Ar/ny at Valley Forge; but the schools relegate to the attic the companion picture of contractor-profiteers burying in the swamps the shoes which the bare-footed army needed so badly. Washington fought corruption in civic life just as we should fight it and as 572 National Education Association the children must fight it if democracy is to survive. At times the task seems hopeless; but there is comfort in Paul’s lesson to the Corinthians: “From corruption comes incorruption.” He might have added, “From tyranny flows liberty,” as the following will show. For years, Louis XIV of France has been execrated for his foolishness, his despotism, and his cynical saying, “I am the state.” He was the state in a genuine sense and his will was im¬ posed upon millions of people in France and other countries of Europe, Asia, and America. At his command hundreds of thousands marched to death, until at last revolution showed the way to freedom. No one here would wish a return to the conditions of his day ; but if each citizen of this nation, each boy and girl, could honestly say : “I am the state, with father, mother, brother, sister, uncle, aunt, and neighbor,” democracy would become a glorious reality. From the beginning of recorded history down to the present day, progress in civilization has been made possible thru a continuous war for the rights of the common man against the forces of ignorance and greed. In some cases the charity of the rich became in time the right of the poor. This was espe¬ cially true of education in our own country. Free public education not so long ago was a charity handed down by the rich. Now it has become the most precious heritage of the poor which no social group or government can elimi¬ nate without destroying the foundations of society itself. The man above all men who deserves credit for this consummation is George Washington. GREETINGS HERBERT HOOVER, PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES It is a signal event that the representatives of teachers of our whole country should meet at Mount Vernon this day. Our teachers more than any other group have both the privilege and the duty to guide the steps of each new generation on the road of democracy, to instruct them with understanding and reverence for the spiritual benefits which flow from this history of this great man, and to instil our children with the accomplishments of the men who have made and guided our nation. We meet here today in one of the places which physically in itself is en¬ chanting and beautiful in its grounds, buildings, and associations, but it is not these which attract hither the steps or thoughts of millions of Americans. It is the memory and the spirit of the greatest man of our race which pervade these grounds ; it is a national shrine, the very name of which swells our hearts with pride and gratitude. It has been preserved and cared for, all these many years by the women of America, in whose trusteeship the nation can find no greater assurance of its meaning, its sanctity, and reverence. You have come from every part of our country, from home-towns, -cities, and -states unknown in Washington’s life, yet each and every one of which received untold blessings from his life and his public service. To you more •than to anyone else we entrust the translation of Washington to our children. Department of Superintendence 573 THIRD GENERAL SESSION A, MONDAY EVENING, FEBRUARY 22 National Commission on Enrichment of Adult Life EDUCATION FOR LEISURE1 L. P. JACKS, OXFORD, ENGLAND The question of education for leisure is now being actively discussed both in this country and in my own and indeed all over the continent of Europe. It has come rather suddenly to the forefront of educational questions. The suddenness of its appearance is largely due to the prevalence of un¬ employment. Unemployment has revealed to us in a startling way that when leisure is forced on masses of people thru the closing down of their jobs, the vast majority of them are utterly at a loss what to do with themselves and merely stagnate as human beings, their minds unequipped with any interests and their bodies untrained to any skill which would enable them to make a worthwhile use of the work-free time they now have to dispose of. This applies to the white-collar class as well as to the others. One of the white- collar class, a college man, wrote to me not long ago thus, “My education fitted me fairly well for my jobs, but now that I have no job, I am like an empty barrel.” Most of the unemployed are in that condition; empty barrels not only in the sense that they have nothing in their stomachs but that their minds are also starving. The realization of this has caused a good many of us to raise the question, “What is education doing to prepare the community for a good and enjoyable use of unemployed time in general?” The question has been brought to a focus, so to speak, by unemployment. But of course there are many other reasons for raising this question. You have only to study the leisure habits of the richer classes as you may see them at any pleasure resort, or as you may see them reflected by the articles in the shop windows of any city, and you can hardly escape the conclusion that many of them are fool habits, and betray an utter lack of intelligence in the use of leisure time. A great deal of their leisure occupation consists in flight from boredom. The conclusion is much the same if you study the leisure habits of the less rich or even the poor. They follow the same general direction as the leisure habits of the rich, which they imitate, tho of course they don’t go so far. In both classes there is a general search for external excitements and a general dependence on readymade pleasures. There is little originality, little creativeness, but dull folly without end. The element of creative activity, which makes leisure both enjoyable and humanly productive, is singularly lacking in the leisure habits of all classes, tho of course it exists in patches. The question is made more serious by the fact that in every industrial community the total amount of work-free time is rapidly increasing, owing to the displacement of labor by scientific machinery. The labor field is being 1 In the absence of Dr. Jacks this paper was read by Dr. James A. Moyer. 574 National Education Association reduced, the leisure field is being increased, the present unemployment being just a symptom of that process. How far it will go nobody can say, but there can be no doubt as to the general direction — towards a state of things when labor will be the short part of social life and leisure the long. We are un¬ prepared for such a condition. No adequate provision is being made for it either by education or by anything else. It is possible, of course, that increased employment at the labor end may be created by the rise of new wants at the leisure end. But what kind of wants? If they are fool wants, the industries needed to supply them will be fool industries. These may be profitable in terms of dollars, at least for a time, but they are humanly unproductive, and when there are too many of them, they provoke a sense that civilization is a fool enterprise. I am not sure whether candy and cosmetics are luxuries or necessities, but I am quite sure that when that is the only type of industry that flourishes, industrial civilization is in a pretty bad way both economically and morally. I think society ought to find some better way of spending its leisure than in the consumption of such like articles, of which there are hundreds to be bought on the market. And that raises the question of education for leisure — especially in view of the increase of leisure that is surely coming. At the same time it would be a serious mistake to regard education for leisure as a new department in education ; or as a special kind of education to be added on to the education' which is given for work. There is too much spe¬ cialization anyhow, in our present methods of education ; too much effort spent in teaching young people how to do a particular job in a particular way. I agree with a saying quoted by Dr. Abraham Flexner that “an educated person is a person who can do a job he never did before,” an original, creative, flexible person, whose all-round education has brought him to the point of finding out for himself the best way of dealing with the situation as it arises. That applies with special force to anything you may call education for leisure. It would be utterly futile to give any person detailed instructions as to how he should spend the particular portion of leisure he happens to have. It would cease to be leisure if he had to use it according to rule. All you can do by way of educating him for leisure is to make him familiar with the field where the finer opportunities exist — the field of skill in games, and still more in art and craft — and then train him as an all-around man, a good judge of values, capable of making his own choice and developing his own technic. But in training him on these lines you are doing more than training him for leisure. You are training him for labor as well. You are bringing him to a point where he can graduate in the Art of Life and work out for himself a worthwhile existence which nobody can plan out for him in advance. The advantage of discussing education for leisure is just that. It forces us back to the major question of educating the whole man as an essentially creative being whose nature hungers for skill and is never to be satisfied or content till his skill hunger is appeased. By educating him as a whole you educate him for leisure and for everything else. You turn him into the sort of man who can do a job he never did before, whether in labor or in leisure. Life as I see it consists largely in doing jobs we never did before. Department of Superintendence 575 LEISURE AND NATIONAL SECURITY WILLIAM F. RUSSELL, DEAN, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. It was during the last year of the War that I was crossing the Pacific. The old Empress of Japan , a very small steamer by current standards, was crowded with returning residents of the Far East, missionaries, business men, teachers, who had been held on the coast by the diversion of shipping to carry troops, munitions, and food across the North Atlantic. To this already overloaded vessel had been added a small party of newspaper men, motion picture operators, and publicity agents, who, as representatives of the Com¬ mittee on Public Information, were voyaging to sell America to the world. The Captain, in search of entertainment and talent for the inevitable ship’s concert for the benefit of the widows and orphans of those who sail the seas, failing to find vaudeville actresses or opera stars, hit upon the motion picture operators, and learned from them that they would gladly assemble a projector and give a show, provided that the materials could be brought forth from the hold and the films taken from the fire-proof vault. To this proposal there was joyous agreement, and the Captain ordered one of the forward holds to be opened and the boxes hoisted out. It was fortunate that the sea was calm and the weather fair for all day long from early morning until sunset, all thru the night, all the next day, some score of men toiled in the hold shifting boxes, barrels, bales, bundles, and crates ; all day long and all night engineers rattled the donkey engines, hoisting freight. The forward deck was piled high. Everything was turned over and examined, until away down deep, almost upon the keel, was discovered the boxed cinematograph, triumphantly to be brought to the regions above. It must have been loaded with the first freight. Because of these long hours of toil and struggle, the first class passen¬ gers were regaled with “Brown of Harvard,” “Scenes in Central Park,” and views of “Our Feathered Friends,” — so much labor for so little. I asked the Captain if he thought the game worth the candle. He replied that it did not make any difference. One of his chief jobs was to keep the crew busy. For emergency purposes, he said, a full crew was needed, but there was little to do in good weather at sea ; and the crew might as well shift cargo as to paint, scrape, and clean. He said that the danger at sea was as great from an idle crew as from fog or storm, and that every ship’s captain in the interest of order was compelled to keep every man at work all of his waking time. Without this there would be disorder and discontent. It seems to me that society in ages past has followed the idea of the Captain of the ship. A few people have been on the top of the pile. The great mass has had only to honor and to obey. By crude processes of manufacture (that is, making by hand) and by ancient and simple modes of agriculture, man has been able to maintain himself by the sweat of his brow; and if by this pro¬ cedure he has had his family and provided them with food, clothing, and shelter, he has generally been content. He may labor from dawn until dark, 576 National Education Association day after day, year after year. The yield may be sparse ; the rewards slight. But he is at work, his wife is at work, the children are at work. There is no mutiny in such a crew. There is no mischief done by idle hands. The society that is at work is secure. Now the ship sometimes comes to port and the men receive shore leave. Here they blow off their steam, but not on board. So in most societies there have been periodic cessations from toil. There is the seventh day of Jews and Christians, the Market Day in the East, Saturnalia, May Day, Christ¬ mas, New Year’s Day, Easter, the Emperor’s birthday. The farmer leaves his plough, the woodsman abandons his axe, the artisan drops his tools. All change their normal activities. There is a religious duty to attend, a patriotic act to perform, a traditional ceremony in which to participate, an old time game to play, an ancient tale to hear. Then the ear gives no heed to discon¬ tent, no attention is paid to conspiracy. In a secure society people do not idle. They are busy, busy at work, busy at play, busy at initiation ceremonies, busy at war. Idleness they abhor. Lethargy they abominate. Now occasionally as we look into the past, we find illustrations of groups of people who for one reason or another had nothing to do. Take the case of the victorious army one week after its return in triumph from a successfully terminated campaign. The parade is over. The captives have been exhibited ; the booty displayed. The enemies’ standards are in the museum. What are the soldiers to do? Years on the field of war displace a man from his normal walk of life. He has lived. He has seen. He has marched with Alexander. He has crossed the Rubicon. He has welcomed the sun at Austerlitz. He has suffered at Valley Forge. He is the idol of youth, the pride of the locality; and he likes to tell about it. How can he settle down to the placid, humdrum work that he used to do? It is so much more pleasant to sit around the stove at the store, tell of the wheat field at Gettysburg, and meet all the trains. Caesar rewarded his soldiers by grants of land. So did Napoleon. Washing¬ ton was solicitous that the heroes of the Revolution, away from home for eight long years, should be properly rewarded with grants of land in the Ohio Valley. It is at least worthy of note that all these soldiers’ grants were far away, weeks removed in travel time from the centers of government. Transportation is not the only method employed by societies troubled by the idle. The unemployed mobs that surged in the streets of Rome were a menace to the security of the state. They had to be fed ; and they were fed. They also had to be occupied ; and this is the explanation of the coliseums and stadia in which were held the contests, the races, the massacres, there to divert the idle and unoccupied and hold them in line. I have no doubt, looking at the problem from this point of view, that a part of the toleration of opium and narcotics, widespread drunkenness and gambling, horse races, sweep- stakes, and lotteries is due to the fact that these are all diversions for the idle. They may be bad, but they are better than revolution. We, in the United States, are at the moment in the midst of one of the times of economic depression which periodically seems to attack the type of 577 Department of Superintendence society in which we live. Just as in 1837 or again in 1857 or in 1873 or in 1892, factories are standing idle ; thousands, yes millions, of men and women are out of work ; bread lines are long and tales of distress and instances of hardship are on every hand. No one can tell how long this condition will last. All may improve in the near future. Recovery may be years ahead. But, if experience of the past is a guide to the future, we may expect before many years have passed that the depression will be over, that factories once again will open, that workers will be in demand, that the market will recover, that wages will rise, and that prosperity, fact or myth as Stuart Chase puts it, will be amongst us again. But I venture to predict that, even when prosperity returns, unemploy¬ ment will still be with us. I realize that I tread upon dangerous ground. I know that I am no scholar in the field of economics. Nevertheless there are many straws that point the way toward which the economic wind blows. It is apparent that we are entering upon a new kind of life, here in the United States, as well as in the rest of the world. In the opening chapter of Recent Economic Changes , the report of the Hoover Commission, Professor Gay of Harvard writes : The present situation of the United States, remarkable as it appears to the inquir¬ ing stranger, may be regarded in future times as but one interesting stage in a lengthening series of somewhat similar episodes characterizing the history of this and other modern nations. The Industrial Revolution, of which this stage is a part, was not merely a sudden burst of industrial and commercial activity, occurring in England just before the threshold of the nineteenth century, and spreading by trans¬ mission or diffusion at successive intervals to other countries. ... It was rather a new organic growth, utilizing new powers over nature, and expanding over the world with an uneven but continuing acceleration. . . . The successive phases of its development we have only begun to analyze. The Industrial Revolution is not a movement that is spent. The change from “that primitive, egalitarian, individualistic democracy produced by the log cabin, free land, and isolation,” began late in the eighteenth century and has steadily progressed since that time, and in the period since the World War has modified our society with increasing and heightened results. The full effects have not yet been reached. Important changes are still in the making. We are passing one of the great milestones of history. A society is developing, different from anything that man has ever seen. W e are entering upon a new world. Mechanical inventions of all types are increasing by leaps and bounds. Improved processes of manufacture are constantly being discovered. From a study of conditions of the past, as they have developed up to the present, we can at least make the following deductions as to trends : 1. hT e know that technological inventions have displaced many workers, and it is probable that much unemployment has come as a result of the machine. Studies have shown that new inventions cause unbelievable distress; that people are thrown out of work; and that in most lines of production each year sees fewer and fewer hours of labor needed per unit of production. It is true that lowered production costs decrease the price and increase the demand. It is also true that increased con- 578 National Education Association sumption of goods brings other jobs in its wake; but certainly shorter hours and periodic lay-offs and, in an imperfectly organized society, much unemployment are due to increased technological skill. 2. We know that the increase of mergers and the growth of intensive and quantity production have also increased unemployment. It is not only the machine that has displaced the worker. A hundred small factories scattered all over the country will employ more hours of labor per unit of finished product, than will be the case when these separate enterprises are combined into one huge plant in Bridgeport or Detroit. This process of concentration in industry has proceeded apace in the years past, and has contributed to unemployment. 3. The frontier is closed, and men, displaced by mergers or machines, no longer can pack up the covered wagon, take the gun, the axe, and the salt, and fare forth to a new start. There is no place to which to go. 4. The rapid tempo, the high speed, the quick reaction demanded by the new machine has put a premium on the younger worker. In many lines of work, there is no longer need for extended apprenticeship. One can learn all that one needs in a short time; and the young, the quick, the healthy, the strong, they are the ones in demand. The older worker is being displaced. 5. We are entering a society where men will be able to support themselves and their families, provide food, clothing, and shelter, not by long hours of toil, but by short. From the point of view of this paper, the problem is the same whether seventy men work twelve hours a day seven days a week, 105 work eight hours a day seven days a week, 147 work eight hours a day five days a week, or 294 work four hours a day five days a week. The same amount is accomplished. If by quan¬ tity production, by technological improvements, by scientific management seventy men can now produce as much as 294 once did, then the four-hour day for five days a week could supplant the old twelve-hour day every day. Fewer people working shorter time will be able to provide for our needs. In a sense, unemployment of this type is really to be classed with the Sunday rest, the Saturday half-holiday, the winter lay-off for the painter or the summer’s idleness for the coal-miner. With these factors in mind, it is not too much to speculate that we are entering a society in which in good times, not in depressions, many people will be idle. Young people will not be employed. Older people will be retired. Young people from twenty to forty-five, men and women, will indulge in brief periods of furious activity to be followed each day by hours of relaxation with two or three days off each week. Either we shall have a situation like this, or else the opportunity to work will be as at present unjustly distributed, or else there will be a deviation from the tendencies which have operated in the years just past. This means that the machine age will have brought upon us the condition dreaded not only by the ship captain, but by all societies in the past. We can¬ not deport those who are not at work. We have no distant frontier to which they can go nor free land to give to them. We cannot divert their minds by athletic spectacles. We will not tolerate opium. We have legislated against alcohol and lotteries. We have neither a body of ancient customs and games nor any organized set of religious observances. We do not want war. All the usual social medicines used to operate upon idle crowds are denied to us in the United States. Our only hope is education. We need a new kind of education when we are small. We schoolmasters should understand this world into which our pupils are to go, should realize Department of Superintendence 579 that getting a living will occupy not so great a share of time as it once did, and that far more time will be given to other pursuits. People can be lulled to repose by cocktails or by motion pictures or by radio or by riding in an automobile. But it will not last long. Faster and more furious excitement is demanded as the appetite becomes jaded. Our children from the time that they are small must not only come to understand but actually become habit¬ uated to the gateways to true and lasting enjoyment. It is a matter of music and art, of literature and drama, of plays and games, of politics, of supple¬ mentary hobbies and avocations. And for the adult, retraining with these ends in mind is quite as important. For our grown men and women were prepared for a society different from that in which we find ourselves today. The pieces must be picked up. We must lock the barn door before all of the horses are stolen. I realize the futility of trying to give education for leisure to those who are distressed, miserable, hungry, unhappy. I hold no brief for education for leisure to correct such a condition. This will come only when, by wise social direction, we shall have more perfect equality of vocational opportunity. My share of the program tonight makes no contribution to the means and methods of training for leisure nor to the proper enrichment of adult life. My thesis is merely this : that we are entering a new world — the world of the machine age, the beginnings of which are unfolding about us ; that in the days to come there will be more at rest than at work, and more leisure than labor ; and that failure to prepare for these conditions, as in the past, will bring disaster. For lethargy in mind and body is a fertile field for the seeds of discontent, dis¬ order, and disease. Thus education for leisure and the enrichment of adult life is no slight educational activity ; it is no peripheral problem ; nor is it an incidental task. It is rather a fundamental problem affecting the welfare of the state, and its perpetuity; and as such should receive major considera¬ tion. THE SAVING POWER OF LEISURE GEORGE B. CUTTEN, PRESIDENT, COLGATE UNIVERSITY, HAMILTON, N. Y. A biologist friend of mine recently said, “Of course, you know that man is doomed to extinction,” I said, “No, I didn’t know that; when did that happen?” He said that it had been happening a long time but that it was not recognized by others than biologists, and that it was undoubtedly true. When pressed for a reason for his opinion he said that man is undoubtedly a terminal twig. We have all heard members of our species called worse names than that, but this name piques our curiosity and we ask for further explanation. The figure of a tree is used, as we readily recognize ; the trunk of the tree runs up straight in the air and continues to grow and to develop. Branches go out to the side, from them go smaller branches, until finally we come to the terminal twig from which no other twigs emerge and this twig ultimately drops off and disappears. Not very encouraging, is it? 580 National Education Association But we refuse to be snuffed out without a struggle and we ask how our friend, the biologist, knows that we are what he calls us — a terminal twig. He stands ready with his answer: he knows we are a terminal twig because we are so over-specialized. The trunk of the tree is the normal, and is the normal because it has successfully conformed to its environment. The more we have specialized, the further we are removed from the normal, and the more difficult it will be to conform to our environment, and consequently the surer we are to become extinct. The history of life on this planet has shown, without a doubt, that over-specialized species have not endured. Well, we want to know the worst, so we ask him, “How are we over¬ specialized ?” He tells us that we depart from the normal of the order of primates to which we belong chiefly in three particulars. In the first place, we are oversize. One might think this a valuable asset in a struggle for existence, but, to the contrary, it has proved to be disastrous. Are we not digging up the bones of dinosaurs, ichthyosaurs, and numerous other saurians which lived and died thousands of years ago, and left no descendants? Does not one skeleton of such a gigantic reptile nearly fill a museum ? H is size was his undoing and he remains only as a curiosity ; his cousins, the lizards, which were less ambitious as far as stature and girth were concerned, are still with us in great numbers. The largest animals which ever existed are still extant but are going fast. Perhaps in the lifetime of some now living they shall see the last of the great whales. Much smaller animals, including man, are destroying them. The rhinoceros and the hippopotamus are other examples of large animals which are fast becoming extinct. The proboscida once covered the whole earth ; of these the mammoth and the mastodon are extinct, and only two small patches of elephants are left, one in Asia and one in Africa, with extermination im¬ minent. According to the biological classification, the genus homo, or man, belongs to the family of hominidae, the sub-order of anthropoidae, and the order of primates. We find that an average primate weighs about twenty pounds, some are only six or eight inches long. A primate weighing one hundred pounds is gigantic. The anthropoid apes are the largest, some weighing over four hundred pounds, but they are decreasing rapidly. Has not the Belgian gov¬ ernment recently set apart a reservation to try to save the gorilla? This is a protection against the guns of men, but apart from this danger he could not long exist. Natural enemies and natural conditions have doomed him. The orang-outang and the chimpanzee are also rare and becoming rarer. Man, says the biologist, will follow in their trail ; his oversize will be his downfall. Our second over-specialization is our upright position, and this is so radical as to demand and cause exceptional modification in our structure. Three examples of many modifications may be presented. The human foot is unique in nature. Here is the only case among all known animals where the inside digit is the longest. This excessive length of the great toe enables Department of Superintendence 581 man to stand upright and to maintain his balance. The second modification is in the pelvis. It has become bowl-shaped so as to contain the viscera while man is upright. Of course, he has had to pay for this in the misplacement and disfunction of many of his organs. Who ever heard of a cow having ap¬ pendicitis? Would man so suffer if he were still on all fours? The third modification to be mentioned is the change in the base of the skull so as to permit the head to remain upright on the spinal column. This upright posi¬ tion, which is man s pride and joy, is to contribute to his downfall because of his organs not being able easily or quickly to adjust themselves to this new position. Man’s third over-specialization is his huge brain. This is his greatest specialization and is burning up his life and destroying it. The biologist is only concerned with enough intelligence to prolong life and not enough to draw on vitality — hence the danger. The brain energy used by a moron would be as much as the biologist would care to risk in order for him to guarantee that man would not be injured by its use. One thing, however, the biologist does not seem to have taken into ac¬ count which may be fatal to his conclusion. In the animals which lived prior to man, intelligence was not a prominent factor, and this must be reckoned with when he tries to generalize from the lower animals, and apply the con¬ clusion to man. May not this specialization be his hope? Different from other over-specialization, the big brain with its accompanying intelligence should render a real service in helping man to conform to his environment. Our physical needs were never so easily met as now. There is not much struggle for existence, but in civilized lands there is a struggle for a certain high standard of living. In fact our real physical needs seem to be de¬ creasing as fewer and fewer demands are made upon the body. As to conformity to environment, if we cannot well conform we change the environment so that it conforms to us. Our intelligence enables us to do this. We no longer try to make our bodies change so as to stand the rigors of our winters, but by additional clothing and heated houses we change the environment to suit us, even to a fraction of a degree of tem¬ perature. It seems as tho this specialization — a large brain and increased intelligence — were to be our salvation if we use them. Our intelligence can well overcome the physical handicaps which our other specializations have brought on us and doom is not so certain, if we really wish to avoid it and if we are willing to pay the price. But are we ? I point out this ray of hope to my friend the biologist and what does he say? He replies: That sounds well, but history shows us that over-special¬ ized animals are doomed to extinction.” He will not easily admit that his rule can be violated. The biologist is inclined to keep within the confines of the limitations which he has set for himself and not to transgress on the fields of other sciences. If he cared to do so, he might borrow some facts from other sci¬ ences which would help to strengthen the position which he has taken. For 582 National Education Association example, the social scientist might tell him that education and civilization decrease the birth rate. The birth rate among morons who have been trained in our institutions is considerably less than among the untrained and un¬ educated. Whether this is from preference or disability has not been deter¬ mined. At any rate the fact remains. If this is progressive, may the species not become extinct by the simple method of failure to reproduce, espe¬ cially if the birth rate continues to be in inverse ratio to the advance in edu¬ cation and civilization? While still clinging to my optimistic position, I am confronted by a new danger — and, to me, a much more serious one. Man, to be sure, is conform¬ ing to his physical environment with much less strain than formerly, but the difficulty comes now in trying to conform to an entirely new environ¬ ment, the mental one — and this carries a far greater strain. Mental demands are increasing daily and seem to be getting too heavy to be borne. One has only to examine the statistics on insanity to see the results. We recognize, of course, the more careful and exact diagnosis given today as compared with yesterday, and we also realize that cases are now treated in institutions which were formerly looked after at home, but taking these and other facts into account we cannot fail to note the appalling increase in insanity. Formerly it was considered that most insanities had an organic cause, but there seems now to be a tendency on the part of psychiatrists to opine that some insanities of undetermined origin may be caused by a disorganization of function. What does this mean? It means that they are not caused by physical injury, by poison, by disease germs, altho these do cause insanity, but by the inability of the individual to meet successfully the intense de¬ mands made upon his mental machinery. Not long ago a leading psychiatrist in this country made the statement that he believed nine-tenths of our in¬ sanity today is functional. Dr. Harvey Cushing recently made the statement that gastric ulcer was probably caused by nervous and mental strain rather than by any physical factor, and another specialist recently made a similar statement concerning exophthalmic goitre. It has already been pointed out that man may successfully conform to his physical environment if he will use his intellect for that purpose, and the same may, we hope, be said about his mental environment, but here lies the greatest danger. There are many things which make us believe that he is refusing to use his intelligence. Take for example his attitude toward the Eighteenth Amendment to our constitution. Of all human activities perhaps there is nothing which has all the entries on one side of the ledger so much as the use of alcoholic liquors as a beverage. Physically and mentally, socially and morally they are harmful ; the place they held legitimately the longest they have now practically lost, and reputable physicians rarely prescribe them as drugs for internal use. Notwithstanding the fact that we know this, we use our intelligence so little as to refuse to let alone the things which endanger mental security. But we may go a step further to illustrate the danger we are facing: Is there any reason why a person drinks alcoholic Department of Superintendence 583 beverages except to escape from reality? Some may say it is the flavor of the particular beverage, and in a negligible number of cases that may be so, but in the great majority of cases it is the alcoholic effect which is sought. If not, why the propaganda? The flavor can be obtained from other sources. In the last analysis is it not the escape from reality which is sought? If so, then we have another discouraging condition ; man refuses to face the facts, and there can be no hope of a solution of his problems, either physical or mental, if he will not meet them, tackle them, and endeavor to solve them. Of course, there is always another escape (or a danger, as we choose to look at it) and that is in degeneration. It is nothing of which we should be very proud, but we might as well recognize it. The theory of evolution has made us a race of optimists — we have accepted it as a statement of inescapable advance, a thrust from below which is pushing us upward, whether we will it or not. Unfortunately this is not so! We are traveling a precarious road: there is an upward path slow and difficult ; but there is also the abyss from which we climbed and into which we may fall. Biologists tell us that more than half the life of which they know owes its present position to degenera¬ tion. It is evident that man has not escaped. We have been in the habit of thinking of the socalled lower races of mankind as our “contemporary ances¬ tors,” as races on their way up, but we are now not so sure of this. Sir Arthur Keith, the noted English anthropologist, recently described the Fish Hoek man of South Africa. He conforms to our ideal of the future super¬ man with large well-developed head and brain, and a small, lithe body — altogether he was a superior type. But who are his descendants? The South African Bushman, a much lower type and evidently a degenerate. Cases like this are waving a red flag to us, and we wonder sometimes if we are not running past our signals! Are we giving up the fight? Are we refusing to use our intelligence ? Are we on the toboggan ? If we are refusing the challenge of the present generation, what of the future? If the mental demands of the next fifty years increase as rapidly in proportion as during the last half century can we endure the strain ? When Einstein propounded his theory of relativity it was said that there were only twelve men who thoroly understood the theory and the method of arriving at it. Let us suppose that in fifty years this theory and its accompanying mathematics will be a part of the high-school curriculum. Shall we be able to stand a mental strain like that? The trouble is, the more problems we solve, the more appear, the greater the strain, and the more imminent the danger of downfall. There is no greater responsibility that is put upon us individually or as a race than the proper use of leisure. With the threatened calamity which is ever upon us, and with leisure the only method of escape, the most valuable asset that we have at the present time is our leisure. We cannot afford to squander it or to use it in a way that will be harmful. Above all things we must have intelligent direction if the race is to escape annihilation. Our leisure must take in two qualities, first, play in order to relieve strain — this must take the place of any artificial escape ; and second, recrea- 584 National Education Association tion to build up our bodies so that they will be prepared to meet the strain. In addition to this, there must be a certain mental satisfaction connected with these two elements, or with some third one, so that our lives can be harmonious and relieved of conflict and stress. In this third element is the opportunity for the enrichment of adult life. The program may seem to be a large one, but with the excessive amount of leisure which we now have and an additional amount which is in the offing, there seems to be little doubt but that we can find time to indulge in all three forms. For persons who are interested in creative work, time spent in intelligent use of leisure has been proved to be not waste time, but a valuable preparation and foundation for the correct fulfilment of the de¬ mands of business and profession. FOURTH GENERAL SESSION, TUESDAY MORNING, FEBRUARY 23 The Present Crisis and Public Education THE CRISIS DEFINED EDWIN C. BROOME, PRESIDENT, DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE, AND SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PHILADELPHIA, PA. The most important duty of society is the proper nurture and education of its children. President Hoover expressed this thought in much better language when he said of education : “It is our biggest business. It is our only indispensable business ... if we were to suppress our educational system for a single generation the equipment would decay, the most of our people would die of starvation, and intellectually and spiritually we would slip back four thousand years in human progress.” During the World War, a catastrophe that threatened the continuance of civilization itself, H. A. L. Fisher, minis¬ ter of education of Great Britain, with England’s back at the wall, courage¬ ously said: “Education is the eternal debt of adulthood to youth.” With thousands of their schoolmasters in the trenches, England’s schools carried on, and made a mighty sacrifice to meet their “eternal obligation to youth.” Minister Fisher made his statement in 1917. At no time in England’s history did the future look more dismal, but with undaunted faith in education, Eng¬ lish statesmen were at that critical time formulating plans for the expansion of the school system when peace should again return. Our country is passing thru a serious social and economic crisis. Shall we continue to discharge our eternal debt to childhood and youth, or shall we repudiate that debt, or declare a moratorium which will deprive the children of the depression of the advantages which the children of prosperity have of right enjoyed? During the last twenty years the people of the United States have begun to understand and appreciate the importance of education for all the people as the surest guarantee of our success as a nation. School attendance laws for Department of Superintendence 585 the protection of children have been adopted and enforced, and during this period illiteracy has been reduced to the vanishing point. The average at¬ tendance in the public schools has increased twice as much as the increase in the general population. As prosperity became more generally diffused, the demand for more edu¬ cation for the children of all the people increased; and the attendance in the high schools grew tremendously, over six times as fast as the increase in the elementary-school enrolment. The curriculum has been expanded to provide for the education of the whole child. To this end programs of health and physical education, of recreation activities, courses in music, art, and industrial arts have been estab¬ lished. Also education has been provided for adults who were so circum¬ stanced in childhood that they were unable to receive the complete educational opportunities that others enjoyed. Better, safer, and more attractive school buildings have been built and provided with modern furniture and equipment. The preparation of teachers has been greatly extended and the qualifica¬ tions of teachers increased. The value of the teaching service has been tardily recognized by substantial increases in salary; but when teachers’ salaries reached their peak, about 1928, the average salaries of teachers were still over 30 percent below the average salaries of all other salaried employees. At no time during the last twenty years has the average salary of teachers increased in proportion to the decreasing purchasing value of the dollar. During the last twenty years, with some setbacks, such as that of the World War, education has gradually grown in strength, in service, and in public recognition. By 1929 popular education was approaching the goal which was so hopefully set for it by George Washington and his farsighted contemporaries. Then came the economic depression. Practically every com¬ munity and every person in the country have become reduced in circum¬ stances. Bankruptcy faces many cities, and starvation faces thousands of people. What is happening to the public schools in which we have invested so much of our resource, our enterprise, and our faith? A brief survey of the conditions facing the schools of the country was made last November by the Division of Research of the National Education Association. This is what was found : 1. An unprecedented increase in school enrolment, due to lack of opportunities for employment, and a consequent increase in the demand on the public schools; but, in spite of a greatly increased demand, over two thirds of the city school systems are forced to operate on reduced budgets. 2. Many schools closed, especially in rural districts, and the school year was shortened in many other districts. 3. Educational services that have been regarded necessary have been discon¬ tinued or curtailed; for example, kindergartens, night schools, summer schools, health work, playgrounds and recreation centers, supervision, special classes for handi¬ capped children, and manual and industrial courses. 4. The replacement of experienced and competent teachers by inexperienced ones at lower salaries. 586 National Education Association 5. The reduction of teachers salaries in many places to a point from which they will not recover for a generation. 6. Increase in size of classes and of the teaching load to a point which threatens the efficiency of instruction. 7. The suspension of building programs sorely needed in many communities to relieve overcrowding and to give the children decent and safe housing. These are the most common devices that are being used at present to re¬ duce the cost of the public schools. Needless to say, if they are applied unwisely or continued long, the standards of our public schools will be mate¬ rially lowered, and the children will pay the penalty in impoverished educa¬ tional opportunities, and in an inadequate preparation for service in the generation to come. All sensible educators realize that in this time of national distress the public schools must bear their proportionate share in any program of economic re¬ trenchment. But the education of the children must not be the first point of attack, nor should the schools bear the major sacrifice. I was very happy to hear Governor Pinchot of Pennsylvania in an address last Saturday evening make that very same remark in almost the very same words. Mr. Alfred E. Smith in a syndicated article on January 17th eloquently and forcefully emphasized this thought in the following words : A state can afford to lose time on the construction of a road, a bridge, or a building and by speeding up construction at a later time possibly catch up, but education must be continuous. Time lost in preparing our children to take their places in the world cannot be made up. There are only certain years in which the great majority of them can attend school, and during that period it is the solemn duty of every state to provide full and complete education. A fine declaration of faith in our public schools is found in the resolutions recently adopted unanimously by the school directors of Pennsylvania at their annual convention. These resolutions express the conviction of the school board members of one of our greatest states thru their delegates at a regular convention. This is what they said : Social and economic unrest and uncertainty prevail thruout the world. The dis¬ turbed conditions of today can largely be charged to our inability to cope with, and effect a solution of the problem of civilization. With an ever increasing com¬ plexity of our problems, one thing is clear — the oncoming generation must be better prepared than we are to shape its own destiny and the destiny of man¬ kind. To do less than this for our children in the public schools is to invite utter and inevitable social collapse. Therefore, we urge that school boards all over the State of Pennsylvania not only maintain standards of education as they now exist but be on the alert to better adapt the schools to the needs of our time. Such a program does not necessarily involve more expense, but it does involve intensification of educa¬ tional thought and effort all along the line. It also means that the future of our chil¬ dren must not be turned over to an inferior brand of teachers but that the school system must continue to attract outstanding talent and character to its teaching force. The operation of the provisions of that part of the school code, commonly known as the Edmonds Act minimum salary law, has done more than any other legislation to improve the quality of teaching, to place teaching on a high professional plane, and to stabilize teaching as a profession. Therefore, we urge all school districts to observe not only in letter but in spirit the statutory salary regulations and view the circumvention of the Edmonds Act by indirection as equivalent to open violation of the Act. Department of Superintendence 587 Whatever retrenchments are made in public education should be made by the friends of children, and not by those who would sacrifice the welfare of the schools to serve selfish ends or to promote their own political fortunes or those of their party, or who in this period of distress, seek to gain temporary and cheap popularity with the over-burdened taxpayers by loudly denouncing the public school as costly and extravagant — to be led first to the sacrifice as the chief offender among our public institutions. Economies in the adminis¬ tration of schools are being made and possibly further economies may be effected, but they should be made only after careful and sincere study by those, both educators and laymen, who honestly believe in the truth of the theme of our convention: “Education, our guide, and our safeguard, and one of the chief sources of our cultural growth, and our material power.” With this end in view the members of the Department of Superintendence at its meeting in Detroit a year ago unanimously adopted a resolution pro¬ viding for the appointment of a joint committee of business men and edu¬ cators to make a study of school costs and report at the next meeting. This committee was promptly appointed and has been at work thruout the year. School superintendents are practical men, not often carried away by their imagination. They realize that it is their duty to the public to be prudent in school expenditures, even in prosperous times, and they understand the im¬ portance of carefully assaying the value of educational activities. They have an intelligent comprehension of the educational needs of their communities. Instances of actual extravagance in school expenditures are rare, and instances of the improper use of school funds are still rarer. A nation whose people spend more on tobacco and chewing gum than on schools for their children cannot be said to have an extravagant system of public education. We owe no apology to the taxpayers. They are getting good schools, but not too good, and at a cost that is reasonable in comparison with the cost of other forms of public services. Also the returns for money invested in schools are greater and of more lasting benefit to the community than the returns for an equal amount of expenditure for any other enterprise. We appreciate the difficult problem that public officials everywhere are facing in their efforts to finance all branches of government ; but we urge the citizens of every state and community to do their utmost to preserve the in¬ tegrity of their public schools ; and to give immediate consideration to needed reforms in the methods of securing and distributing school revenues. While we realize that sane economy in school expenditures is desirable in times of prosperity, as well as in times of adversity, we know, and the public should know, that arbitrary and drastic reductions in school revenues are really a form of extravagance, piling up a deficit in the shape of ineffective citizenship, wasted human resources, and lowered standards of health. The resolution which established this committee quite appropriately said: “Cur¬ tailment in some other branches of public service occasions only temporary discomfort which later may be compensated. Abridged educational service is an abiding misfortune to this generation of children, the evil of which may reveal itself only in the next generation of youth.” 588 National Education Association ADEQUATE SUPPORT OF EDUCATION, THE CONDITION OF AN EFFECTIVE SERVICE GEORGE DRAYTON STRAYER, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. There is need in the United States today for an aroused public opinion in support of education. Those who believe that the battle for free public schools was won by the middle of the last century are living in a fools paradise. That progress has been made, no one would deny. The reduction in illiteracy, the enrolment of more than one-half of our boys and girls be¬ tween fourteen and eighteen years of age in secondary schools, the increase in support of public education from less than $500,000,000 in 1910 to approxi¬ mately $2,300,000,000 in 1930, the introduction into the curriculum of science and of the fine and industrial arts, the expansion of the program to include kindergarten and nursery schools at the lower end and vocational education, continuation schools, and adult education on the upper levels, the greatly increased provision for higher education both liberal and technical — all are evidences of progress. There is danger that we may not be able to maintain the gains which have been made, much less develop the still more effective service which the present social and economic situation demands. Everywhere there is an attack upon public education expressed primarily in terms of retrenchment in the support of the schools. It is seriously proposed that we cannot afford the program of education already established. There seems to be little appreciation of the fact that the need of the hour is for a richer education to be provided for an increasing percent of the total population: The better we know the work that is done in our schools, the more certainly we are willing to acknowledge the necessity for the further development of our school system. In cities and in rural areas schools have been closed, terms have been shortened, teachers’ salaries have been reduced, classes have been increased in size, some of the more significant offerings have been eliminated from the curriculum, adequate educational supplies and books have been denied, health service and physical education have been dropped, the attendance service has been crippled, proposals have been made for the lowering of the standards for entrance into the profession, building programs which were to provide ade¬ quate housing have been abandoned, night and continuation schools have been closed — in short, the whole program of education is being curtailed, if not indeed placed in jeopardy. The realization in our practise of the ideal of equality of opportunity is the best single measure of progress in the development of our schools. Much has been gained, by way of providing for the personal development of boys and girls in skill, in knowledge, in appreciation, and in vocational efficiency. Our population is more literate, not only in the restricted sense in which we use that term, but also in ability to appreciate music and the graphic arts, and in the understanding of applied science. We have gained in the knowl¬ edge and in the practise of personal and community hygiene. We are a more Department of Superintendence 589 healthful people than were our grandfathers. We have applied science to industry, to agriculture, and to commerce. We are justified in making the claim that our potential economic productive capacity is in large degree to be attributed to the program of education and of research, which has been supplied in our higher educational institutions. We have achieved, primarily thru education, a social solidarity which has enabled us to act as a unit in times of crisis. We have achieved “likemindedness,” the fundamental basis upon which a working society must be constituted, due primarily to the teaching of common knowledge, ideals, and beliefs in our public schools. Much, however, remains to be accomplished. It is easy to point out the de¬ ficiencies in education if we measure them by the degree of social intelligence exhibited in our population. It is certainly true that learning to read, write, and cipher, and securing a smattering of the subjects commonly taught in the elementary and secondary schools are not an adequate preparation for those who would maintain and develop our democratic society. That education has not yet produced a people who insist upon integrity in their political life is commonly acknowledged. That we have not yet attacked seriously the issues involved in the rapid development of our industrial society, nor yet understood the necessary interdependence of the nations of the world, must be admitted. But the presentation of these facts, the argument that we have not yet secured these desirable results, is the best possible argument in support of the need for a more generously supported program. If our democracy is to endure, we must thru education provide men and women with the knowledge, the insight, and the ideals necessary to its perpetuity. We need not claim that the school alone is responsible, but we must acknowledge the fact that the school has been given a large responsibility in our society for the education of our people in the duties and responsibilities of citizenship. We must have schools that do much more than provide opportunities for individual initiative and achievement. We must develop a curriculum which, while it adjusts educational opportunities to the needs and capacities of in¬ dividuals, has for its objective the development of men and women who love liberty, who seek justice, and who are willing to sacrifice personal advantage to the wellbeing of the whole group. We may not think less of the importance of guaranteeing to the individual the right of security of his person and prop¬ erty, but we must seek to develop as well his devotion to social justice. With this responsibility thrust upon the schools, we do well to ask how well we are equipped to render this surpassingly important service. Accord¬ ing to the National Survey of the Training of Teachers now under way, 26 percent of the teachers in the schools of the United States have less than two years of education beyond high school. One out of every five teachers is new to the job which he holds during the current year. The program of re¬ trenchment which is everywhere being advocated, involving as it does reduc¬ tions in salaries of from 5 to 30 percent, promises to result in even less well- qualified teachers in our schools. Even more seriously, many of the more competent teachers already in the service are harassed by their inability to 590 National Education Association meet their financial obligations. Many of them view with uncertainty their economic security. Some of them have lost the high morale and professional enthusiasm necessary in those who would inspire the youth of the land. Never before has there been such need as there is today for men and women of high intelligence, of broad training, and of deep social sympathy and understanding to staff our schools. The situation demands teachers who are more than drill masters. The work of the teacher in our society must be measured by the degree of leadership which he is able to offer to young people in their attempt to understand our modern complex social life. He must be a student of society as well as a student of human nature. He must seek to lead boys and girls in their attempt to think straight with respect to the most difficult problems with which men have ever had to struggle. He must seek to develop those ideals which will make possible the regeneration of our society. Our plea is not for the maintenance of salaries but rather for the maintenance and development of our civilization and for the perpetuity of our institutions. It matters little in the long run what any particular teacher or group of teachers is paid, but we have, in the support of public education or in the lack of it, the destiny of our humanity. There is need to call attention to the importance of the continued educa¬ tion of those who are no longer spending their full time in schools. Surely if we are to maintain education at any level it should be for this group of young people and adults. Whether we like it or not, unemployment is here ; and, if we may trust the interpretation of the economists, is likely to continue and possibly to increase. There is an opportunity in the work with youth and adults for a more serious consideration of the problems fundamental to our political and social life than is possible with the lower age group. It is equally important during this period of economic distress that the services of the school be made certainly available to all of the children of the community. We must view with alarm any diminution in the effectiveness of the attend¬ ance service. Absence from the school is apt to contribute to delinquency. We need more certainly than ever before to inquire concerning the physical wellbeing of the children and to promote, by whatever measures the school may be able to take, their normal physical growth and vigor. Special oppor¬ tunities for those who are handicapped are more certainly required now than during periods of prosperity. The issue before the people of the United States is not “Can we afford to maintain the educational service?” but rather “Can we afford not to maintain and to improve it? It is only fair to call attention to the fact that there are cities, counties, and even states in which education is still being maintained at a high level of efficiency. Due to superior economic resources, and to better procedures in the financing of their schools and sounder systems of taxation, retrench¬ ment has not yet been found necessary in these more favored parts of the country. Even in these localities there are those who seek to reduce the sup¬ port of education and to restrict the program of the schools. The mainte¬ nance of these school systems will require the vigilant support of those charged with the responsibility of leadership in education. Department of Superintendence 591 A state superintendent of schools, in the professional journal issued by his State Teachers Association for the month of January, 1932, reports as follows : Our program of education, always inadequate to our needs and always more or less restricted, stands in jeopardy of further and serious curtailment. Already in certain rural areas there have been shortened terms of school. Already the alarm is sounding that schools must close. Already city school authorites are pleading desperately that the state come to the rescue. Salary schedules very generally have become inoperative. Following the old paths of least resistance, those in authority have already reduced salaries that were always low enough. More is the pity that teachers have gone unpaid, some of them for months. In the cities, in the rural areas, and at the institutions, our creditable building program has slowed up. Con¬ solidation, transportation, supervision, standardization, and teacher training, all on a praiseworthy and soundly progressive basis, if not in jeopardy, at least must await the return of a better day for further advances.1 I wonder in how many localities and in how many states the situation is described by the report which I have read ? I am persuaded that we are con¬ fronted with a serious crisis. I believe that we should go forth to proclaim to our public the necessity of maintaining the school service in order that we may preserve our social inheritance. I believe that we should call upon our people to bear the burden of taxation, and, if need be, to suffer privation, in order that we may insure to ourselves and to our posterity life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. HOW SHALL THE CRISIS BE MET BY SCHOOL OFFICIALS? DAVID E. WEGLEIN, CHAIRMAN OF COMMITTEE ON SCHOOL COSTS, AND SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BALTIMORE, MD. At the meeting of the Department of Superintendence held in Detroit in February, 1931, the Department, by resolution, authorized the President to appoint a Committee on School Costs, the committee to be composed of superintendents and laymen. At that time the situation confronting the schools of the United States seemed to be rather serious, but no one at the Detroit meeting could possibly have foreseen how critical the situation would become in the year which has elapsed. The emergency which has arisen calls for the united efforts of school administrators and everyone else interested in schools thruout the country. You are already familiar with what has happened in various sections of the United States. Part I of the Committee Report indicates what the general situation is at the present time. Indeed, no report, no matter how well prepared, can give an exact statement of what is being done because conditions are changing daily, and the informa¬ tion compiled by the Division of Research of the National Education As¬ sociation can be considered accurate only up to the moment at which it is 1 Harman, A. F. “Education and the Economic Depression.” Alabama School Journal, January 1932, p. 14. 592 National Education Association compiled. Additional information depicts changes which are constantly being made. Some of the curtailments may be indicated by the following: a. Complete closing of all schools in some localities b. Serious reductions in the length of school terms c. Closing of night schools d. Reduction or closing of kindergartens e. Larger classes f. Curtailment of phases of school health work. The Committee on School Costs has held several meetings, and it has given serious and earnest consideration to the problems which are confront¬ ing the schools of this country. What should school administrators do in the present crisis? The estab¬ lishment and operation of school systems are functions of general govern¬ ment. Whether a department of public schools is supported by funds form¬ ing a part of general expenditures for governmental purposes or is main¬ tained by taxes separately levied, the amount expended for schools must be included in any general consideration of public expenditures. The eco¬ nomic situation which has developed has necessarily brought forward for consideration and action the question of reduction in governmental expenses. Those who are connected with school systems must recognize clearly that the question of the amount to be expended for school purposes cannot be and should not be omitted when consideration is given to the problem of general governmental expenditures. School people generally do recognize their obligation to help meet the emergency which has developed. There are several facts, however, that should be kept steadily in view in the discussion of such questions: First, school expenditures constitute one of the largest, and in some locali¬ ties, the greatest single division of governmental expenses. On account of the large amount of money involved in the cost of school systems, there de\elops a tendency to use the school system as the place for greatest re¬ trenchment because of the possibility of reducing school budgets by large amounts. Here lies a source of danger to educational opportunity and educa¬ tional efficiency. Curtailment in the amounts to be expended for school pur¬ poses is an action to be taken only after the most careful study by those who are professionally qualified to pass judgment upon matters of such vital importance to the community. Hasty and ill-considered reductions in school budgets may do harm to the education of children which can never be over¬ come. It should be remembered that the boys and girls who are now in school have only this opportunity to secure their education. Whatever is eliminated for them at this time cannot be replaced later on. Second, the responsibility for determining what total amount of money or what relative expenditure shall be made for school purposes rests not upon the school people alone but must be borne by the entire community. Society has established these public school systems for definite purposes and to meet certain clearly defined aims. The public must, therefore, bear the burden of determining what is to be done in this time of emergency for Department of Superintendence 593 expenditures for schools. Those directly concerned with the administration of school systems are not only willing but eager to participate in these mat¬ ters of tremendous importance to every locality. There are two decisions to be made, (a) What total sum should be spent for schools? The final re¬ sponsibility for this decision is one which the entire community must assume, (b) The administration of the amount thus provided should be vested in the professional staff reporting to the board of education. Third, school systems while being confronted with reduced budgets must at the same time meet the problem of abnormal increases in enrolment. Not only has the usual normal increase in school population to be provided for, but the present economic situation itself has caused more than the ordinary number of pupils to remain in school beyond the time at which they would in the usual course of events withdraw. Since school budgets are being reduced in many localities, the question of possible economies must be faced. It is at once apparent that no one answer can be given which may be applied satisfactorily to all school systems. Each of such systems should be a subject of study in itself in order to determine what procedure is best. In the process of reducing expenditures, it will be necessary to consider carefully not only the absolute value of items included in school work, but also the relative value of the several activities included in the system. A branch of work may be rated very high in relative value in one locality, while in another school system the same department may be placed much lower in rank for equally weighty reasons. In a time of enforced economy, such as exists at present, the opportunity may present itself to derive even some benefit from the situation, serious as it is. Educational administrators and other members of school systems are com¬ pelled to study more closely than ever the validity of certain assumptions which have been taken for granted, the value of certain types of school or¬ ganization, the results of educational procedures, and many other items which are included in the complex educational system. As has been said, what we need at this time is “creative retrenchment” rather than “destruc¬ tive retrenchment.” Care should be taken that there should be the least pos¬ sible curtailment of educational advantages. One cannot emphasize too strongly the necessity for adopting sound budgetary procedure. A school budget expresses financially what the main educational policies of the school system are. It should be based not only upon what the expected needs of the schools may be, but also upon a care¬ ful analysis of what the expenditures have been in preceding years. Budgets should be prepared in considerable detail, and no departure from a given item should be made without due consideration and approval by the board of education. In suggesting possible economies which may be made in school systems in order to meet the present emergency, it should be borne clearly in mind that what may be advisable and desirable in one system may be of totally different value in another school system. Here lies a serious danger. Hasty and ill- 594 National Education Association considered action may be taken which may do great harm unless retrench¬ ment is conducted under careful auspices by people who are thoroly trained and well-experienced. The Committee has considered four general items : I. Capital Investment a. Utilization of school plant — Close study should be made of the greatest possible utilization of the present school plant. In providing for its maximum use, the necessity of additional expenditures may be reduced to a minimum. b. Postponement or curtailment of building programs — This is a very difficult situation to meet. On the one hand, school systems are faced with a steadily increasing enrolment calling for the extension of the school plant. There is, moreover, the opportunity to secure new buildings at this time with less expenditure because of the reduction in the cost of many items entering into building construction. On the other hand, there is the present difficulty of meeting capital expenditures either thru bond issues (when in¬ terest rates are extraordinarily high) or thru the tax levy which is already bearing a great burden. Local conditions must necessarily determine the solution of this problem. c. Planning of new buildings — Careful study of plans of new buildings should be made so as to reduce the cost. There is no doubt that considerable saving may be effected by a thoro checking of the size and arrangement of corridors, size of rooms, height of ceilings, exterior decorations, etc. Con¬ sideration should be given to the cost of maintenance and operation as well as to the expense of initial construction. d. Size of units — New construction should be planned in large enough units to make efficient administration possible. The erection of several small buildings in place of one large one should be discouraged if careful study of local conditions should indicate that greater educational efficiency and economy may be secured by the construction of a large school plant. Espe¬ cially is this the case in areas where the population is rather congested. e. Purchase of sites — Postpone the purchase of new school sites where the local situation makes such procedure advisable. On account of the fact that new construction is being curtailed, there is not the pressing necessity for the acquisition of new school sites to take care of future development. f. Refunding of debts — Thoughtful consideration should be given to the possibility of refunding obligations which mature at the present time or in the near future. In this way the burden placed upon the current tax rate may be postponed until economic conditions improve. II. Improved Business Administration The business departments of school systems may be studied with a view not only to secure a reduction in costs, but also to promote efficiency in conduct¬ ing the various operations included. Some possible fields of investigation and improvement are: a. More careful preparation of specifications for the purchase of equipment and supplies Department of Superintendence 595 b. More rigorous inspection of deliveries in regard to both quantity and quality c. A close study of purchases of equipment and supplies as to their necessity d. A thoro study of the efficiency and necessity of office and business personnel e. A scientific study of the insurance on school property, as to amount carried, rate, etc. f. Ample protection for school funds, in bank or elsewhere, by proper safeguards. III. School Service Rendered The present situation affords an opportunity to make a close study of edu¬ cational organization, administration, and curriculum offerings for the pur¬ pose of securing the maximum possible in compactness and efficiency. It should be borne in mind that the concept of economy cannot be separated from the concept of efficiency. Many services, moreover, have been included at the urgent request of community organizations and groups of interested citizens. It is impossible to state details which will be equally applicable to every school system. Local situations, which vary so widely among dif¬ ferent school systems, will necessarily determine the advisability and the necessity of changes to be made. Great danger arises when a plan of proce¬ dure which is very well-adapted to one school system is arbitrarily applied to another system in which the conditions are quite different. Here is a field for thoroly trained and experienced school people, and they should not only take the initiative to secure adjustments looking to economy but should also inform the public of the damage which may result from any ill-considered proposal. The decisions that must be made as to desirable and undesirable forms of economy should be based upon expert professional knowledge. An extensive professional literature on economical school administration exists. IV. Teachers’ Salaries There is one irreducible minimum for effective education. This one basic requirement is good teaching. Such service can be expected only from men and women of broad training and high personal qualities. Such people are everywhere and always in demand. If the schools cannot complete with other agencies to secure this type of teacher, the most important single element of educational efficiency is lost. Retrenchment in teachers’ salaries tends ulti¬ mately to retain the poorest teachers and to drive the best teachers into other careers. At the same time, desirable candidates for teacher-training in¬ stitutions are discouraged by the economic unattractiveness of the field. Teaching has not yet attained a satisfactory position when the importance of the service and the comparative earnings of other occupational groups are considered. The average salary of teachers is still less than three-fourths as much as the average salary of gainfully employed persons. Meanwhile, requirements for certification and appointment to the teaching service are steadily increasing. If the nation expects to secure progressively better equipped teachers for its children, it must not consent to a reduction of teachers’ salaries. At the same time, the educational profession must demonstrate that the maintenance or advancement of salaries means finer educational opportuni¬ ties. Standards for certification must be kept high, and in many states must 596 National Education Association be lifted higher than at present. Processes of rigid selection must exclude the incompetent from the ranks. Increases in salaries must be accompanied by earnest effort on the part of the entire teaching staff to improve in pro¬ fessional skill and academic background. Efficiency must be the prerequisite for continued employment and for advancement. More attention must be given to the scientific study of the problems basic to salary scheduling. In the last analysis the people will secure just as good schools as they are willing to pay for. The teaching profession, on its part, must show the pub¬ lic that better salaries actually do purchase better teaching service. Summarizing the views of the Committee, the following may be stated : 1. The determination of how much shall be spent for the support of the public schools is a responsibility which rests upon the entire community, and not upon the school people alone. After the determination of the total amount which may be expended has been made, it is the duty and the obligation of the school administrator to study carefully every item of school procedure so that no retrenchment in any item will be made without careful considera¬ tion and study. 2. School people recognize that the establishment and operation of school systems constitute only one function of government. In this period of re¬ trenchment, school systems will cooperate in meeting the emergency which has arisen. In no case, however, should schools be expected to stand more than their share of the necessity for retrenchment. School administrators, on the one hand, should cooperate in bringing about an equitable adjustment of the financial burden ; and on the other hand, they should not hesitate to call the attention of the people of the community to possible harm which may be inflicted upon the children on account of ill-considered or inequitable reductions which may be contemplated. 3. No matter what adjustment may be made in the present emergency, it is clearly evident that the present systems of taxation in most places are not adequate, not only for the support of the public schools but for the carrying on of governmental functions in general. School administrators all over the country have been face to face with financial problems of a most difficult nature. It is a source of gratification that they have met the situation up to the present time so well. We are con¬ fident that in the days which lie before us, the people of this country can rely with certainly upon the zeal and the efficiency which all the members of the teaching profession will show in dealing with extraordinarily trying situations. TAX REFORM IN RELATION TO THE FINANCING OF EDUCATION ROBERT MURRAY HAIG, MC VICKAR PROFESSOR OF POLITICAL ECONOMY, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. Being an optimist, inclined by nature to look for the silver lining of the dark cloud, I am constantly on the outlook for compensating factors even Department of Superintendence 597 in a situation so serious as a business depression. In a crisis like the one thru which we are now passing, let each of us not fail to take such comfort as he can in the blessings of adversity. I would call your attention to two such compensations. First, I would cite the interesting fact that it is in times of depression that greatest progress is usually made in the direction of tax reform. It is when stocks are falling, banks are failing, and schools are closing that the reluctant politician is driven to consider means to place the revenue system in order. The second compensation I mention with apologies because it is one which affects me personally. Each business depression seems to bring to me the great honor of an invitation to address the Department of Superin¬ tendence on the subject of “Tax Reform in Relation to the Financing of Education.” Nine years ago, when this country was painfully dragging itself out of the slump of 1921, an address from me on this topic was considered to be in order. Again today I stand before you prepared to speak on the same topic. In a country not overrich in history and traditions, this record is sufficient to establish this periodic appearance before you as an institution. The reason for the periodicity in the interest in the subject of taxation is not far to seek. Public finance is the ugly stepdaughter of the dismal sci¬ ence of economics. It is natural that she should not be sought as a companion when we “a-Maying go” on the high and sunny slopes of prosperity. Her presence is grateful only when we wander lost and confused among the rocks and thorns in the dark vale of depression, but the ugly step-daughter is grateful even for this degree of attention. At the very outset, it will be well to recognize the fact that the problem of the financing of education is a tax problem in only a minor degree. The distress which is being experienced today has many more fundamental causes than the shortcomings of the revenue systems. The shortage of tax revenue is due chiefly to a shrinkage of the fund from which taxes are drawn. The aggregate income of the people of the United States for the year 1929 was nearly ninety billion dollars.1 Preliminary estimates for the year 1931 indi¬ cate that this figure has shrunk to approximately fifty billion dollars." One must go back to the year 1917 to find a time when the income was so low, and this is true whether or not one ignores variations in the value of the dollar. Here, of course, is the seat of the difficulty. As I pointed out to you in my address nine years ago, “A tax system is not in itself productive in the economic sense. . . . At best, it is only a pump and a new pump is no cure for a dry well.” * 3 The level of the water in the well has dropped nearly 45 percent, and if we are wise we will recognize this fundamental fact. Taxes which are easily borne when the people are receiving ninety billion dollars in income may become intolerable when that income drops to fifty billions. The real cure for the situation lies in the readjustment of our economic mechanism. It is truly a pitiful and shameful spectacle when a * *ThtBu}in™s Week (February 17, 1932. p. 17-18) places the estimate at $52.4 billions 3 National Education Association, Department of Superintendence. Official Report, pp. 56-57. Washington, D. C. 1923. 598 National Education Association country as rich as this in economic resources and as abundantly supplied with capital equipment falls into a state of disorganization in which millions are thrown out of employment and the production of economic goods is re¬ duced to a mere fraction of potential capacity. In certain quarters the problem of financing education is complicated by a breakdown of the political mechanism. For example, while it is not easy to secure a coherent explanation of the strange happenings in the city of Chi¬ cago, it is apparent that taxation is by no means the whole story, altho it is obviously an important part of it. Here, in the second largest city of the country, a combination of circumstances has brought about a situation in which the ultimate control of the city’s finances has been in effect withdrawn from the regularly constituted political authorities and vested in a group of bankers. The decisions as to what may and may not be done are apparently made not by the regularly elected representatives of the people but by a group of private individuals to whom the city must look to advance funds, which are not forthcoming from the usual channels, not merely because of the depression, but because of a lack of confidence in the civil administra¬ tion. This is political bankruptcy. It is quite possible that in this city tax reform must await an adjustment of the community’s political arrangements. However, the topic assigned to me is neither the solution of the problem of the business cycle nor the development of a plan for the revision of our political mechanism, altho both subjects have a bearing on the question of tax reform. The changes in the tax system which are appropriate cannot be determined without making assumptions regarding the future economic outlook of the country. May we look forward to becoming a hundred billion dollar country in the course of a few years or must we reconcile ourselves to the fifty billion dollar level? Can we evolve a scheme of representative government which will operate satisfactorily even under conditions such as those which apparently exist in Chicago? Only when answers can be supplied to these questions, can we intelligently approach the rather narrow and technical problem of tax reform to which this paper is primarily ad¬ dressed. A tax system is a series of devices for transferring purchasing power from private pockets to the public treasury. Viewed broadly, the tax systems in force in many of our states are ill-adapted to the tax imposed upon them even in normal times. In times of depression their faults are greatly ac¬ centuated. The traditional philosophy of state and local taxation in this country is that of the general property tax. Justice and equity in taxation are supposed to be adequately served when taxes are apportioned according to the posses¬ sions of the individual citizens. However, the recognition has gradually been dawning upon the consciousness of the American people that the general property tax cannot be successfully administered under the conditions which exist in these United States; and even if it could be, the result would be far from desirable from the point of view of justice and equity. Department of Superintendence 599 Students of the problem have for many years insisted, upon the futility of attempts to assess and tax personal property, and particularly intangible personal property by the same methods and at the same rates as real estate and have conceived the true course of tax reform to lie in the direction of developing personal and business taxes in substitution for taxes on part or all of the personal property. The programs of reform contemplate, in addi¬ tion, the development of other sources of revenue, such as death duties, spe¬ cial assessments, and fees of various sorts. Illinois has long been notorious for her imperviousness to influences in the direction of tax reform. There the old discredited general property tax has persisted in a pure form, alike an object of curiosity to the financial antiquary and a source of satisfaction to the politically-minded administra¬ tor. All personal property, tangible and intangible, is legally taxable and practically none of it is actually subjected to tax. Experience elsewhere indi¬ cates efforts to administer such a law are foredoomed to failure. A few weeks ago the country was startled by the news that the assessment rolls of Chi¬ cago for the years 1928 and 1929 had been held invalid by the courts and was even more startled by the information that the basis for the invalidation was the failure of the assessors to reach personal property. Apparently Chi¬ cago cannot have a valid assessment under her law unless the assessors ac¬ complish the impossible and succeed in finding and listing for taxation the hundreds of millions of personal property which are technically subject to tax It requires no gift of prophecy to anticipate precipitate action in the direction of tax reform in Illinois. In the meantime the Mayor invites and cajoles the citizens to contribute voluntarily to the city treasury such sums as to each person seems “fair!” When one surveys the developments thruout the country during the last decade one is impressed by the substantial and gratifying progress which has been made. The personal income tax, whose establishment normally involves the abandonment of the effort to compel individuals to list their stocks, bonds, and other intangibles is being widely adopted. It now exists in twenty states. The significant fact about this movement is that no less than eight of these twenty states have adopted the personal income tax since 1929. Moreover this winter in the legislatures of at least a dozen more states the personal income tax is under consideration. Only a few weeks ago the state of Illinois fell into line, but, with what amounts to a positive genius for financial error, she has attempted to reform one of the world’s worst tax systems by passing one of the world’s worst income taxes. The new Illinois statute contains a property tax offset and it refrains from taxing capital gains. The corporation income tax has had an expansion similar to that of . the personal income tax. Twenty states also now use this form of tax, and eight have adopted it within the last three years. The adoption of this tax normally carries with it the abandonment of efforts to tax the personal property, oi at least the intangible element in the personal property of corporations. 600 National Education Association Public roads, which with public schools, share the distinction of being the most expensive of the functions performed by our states and localities, have found financial salvation thru the gasoline tax. Fifteen years ago this tax was unknown. Nine years ago, when I last appeared before this group, it existed in thirteen states. Today it is universal. The secret of its popularity undoubtedly lies in the fact that the tax base, motor fuel, offers an oppor¬ tunity to measure fairly accurately the use of a governmental facility, the road, which is in great demand by the public. The success of the gasoline tax has caused it to be cited by those who favor the establishment of sales and consumption taxes as a demonstration of the wisdom of the widespread adoption of such taxes. These persons, how¬ ever, have been unable to suggest a suitable basis, similar to gasoline, upon which to base a tax for schools or for police. The consumption of cigarettes offers no measure of the use of the schools, and the consumption of lipsticks in these days is no measure of the need of police protection. Whatever jus¬ tification there may be for the use of such taxes, it is certain that the analogy of the gasoline tax is not to be taken seriously. Another significant tax development of recent years has occurred in the field of the death duties. Nine years ago the inheritance and estate taxes in this country were chaotic. The taxes of the various states were com¬ pletely unarticulated. Double, triple, and even quadruple taxation of the same property was possible under the laws as they existed. There was a strong agitation for the repeal of the federal law. Today the problem is practically solved. By the enactment by the states of reciprocal provisions, whereby the estates were equitably divided among the various taxing juris¬ dictions; by the enactment by the federal government of the 80 percent credit provision, whereby an estate could discharge its liability for federal tax by crediting state death duties up to 80 percent of the federal tax due ; and by a fortunate series of Supreme Court decisions clarifying the question of situs, the death duties have become fairly uniform and universal thruout the country. Even Florida, which formerly advertised herself as a refuge for decrepit millionaires, ” has joined the states in imposing death duties. Today only Nevada, long noted for her non-conformity to general standards in the field of marital relations, is the only state in the Union which does not impose death duties. If proper control of gifts and trusts can be evolved, it would seem the part of wisdom to increase substantially the rates of our death duties. There is much to be said, moreover, in favor of the retention of the 80 percent provision now in the federal law. In the proposal now under consideration in Congress for an increase in the federal estate tax the benefit of this provision is not extended to the states. Finally there should be mentioned a development, which, while not a tax device, has nevertheless had a profound effect upon the character of the tax devices which have been deemed suitable for adoption in recent years. It can fairly be said that one of the beneficent effects of the work of the Educational Finance Commission was a reexamination of the general, question of state aid for schools and the development of the mechanism for Department of Superintendence 601 distributing state money in a logical and defensible manner so as to promote the equalization of educational opportunity. This conception has literally swept the country during the past decade. From the tax point of view the point of greatest significance connected with this device is that it makes possi¬ ble the transfer from the local governmental units to the state of a maximum of financial support with a minimum of disturbance to local functions. It has definitely encouraged the adoption of such taxes as the personal income tax whose success requires state administration under circumstances where the gravest need for tax relief was not state but local in character. The fact is that practically all the taxes which can be seriously con¬ sidered for adoption in most of our states are taxes which demand state ad¬ ministration. The money consequently flows in the first instance into the state treasury. On the other hand, the functions for which the money is most needed are those now performed by the localities. Thanks to the exist¬ ence of the plan of distributing state aid for schools mentioned above, edu¬ cation stands in a favored position as compared with other governmental functions, for it can offer to undertake the distribution of the proceeds of these new state taxes whose distribution otherwise would have to rest on some more or less arbitrary basis, only approximately related to local needs or local economic strength. To supplement and to illustrate this rather general discussion, I shall summarize briefly the program of tax reform recently submitted to the New York Legislature by the Commission for the Revision of the Tax Laws. As a result of its review of the tax situation this Commission, which was widely representative in character, unanimously recommended new taxation which will produce 151 millions of dollars. Of this sum approximately one- third ($49.5 millions) will come from increased taxes on motor transport, which will result in charging a more substantial portion of the cost of roads and streets to the users. Nearly half ($73.4 millions) is to come from the personal income tax. The remaining one-sixth is to be raised by a tax on the income of unincorporated business ($9.7 millions) and by an increase in death duties ($5.5 millions). . . No other revenue proposals received the unanimous and unqualified sup¬ port of the Commission. However, there were listed as next in the order of desirability, in case of need, an increase in the tax on insurance premiums,, an increase in the stock transfer tax, and a new tax on notes and other similar documents. By a divided vote and against the opposition of a minority, the Commission suggested the addition of a small tax on the gross sales of corporations as an alternative to the tax on the net income of these concerns. Altho thoroly considered by the Commission, selective sales taxes on such articles as tobacco, soft drinks, cosmetics, and chewing gum were not recom¬ mended. The proceeds of the new taxes are intended for the relief of local taxa- tion. Special methods are suggested for distributing the yield of the new taxes on motor transportation; but for the taxes not thus provided for, a majority of the Commission recommends that the yield be used to enable 602 National Education Association the state to take over a larger share of the support of public schools by means of the system of state aid introduced in 1925 and designed to promote the equalization of educational opportunity. One of the interesting features of this Commission’s report is its sugges¬ tion that reserves be built up for the purpose of equalizing the yield of the more variable sources of revenue, such as the income taxes and the death duties. What is believed to be a practicable plan is developed which promises to be of great help in future economic depressions by eliminating the neces¬ sity of imposing additional heavy taxation to balance the budget at just the time when the taxpayer has least with which to pay and when the addi¬ tional taxes have the most seriously repressive effects. Before closing, permit me to revert for a moment to the point made at the beginning that the tax problem should not be overemphasized in the analysis of the present problem of educational finance. There are plenty of technical devices for abstracting the money from the taxpayers’ pockets if there is any money there. There is little excuse for public poverty when it is caused by antiquated and ineffective tax laws. By all means let us make sure that the interests of education are not sacrificed to other less important things. Let us also not take the position that all other things are unimportant. Education has enjoyed a tremendous expansion in the last decade. In my state of New York the expenditures for public education in 1920 were $130 millions. In 1930 they were $390 millions. This is evidence of the commu¬ nity’s faith in what we have to offer. If the present reduction in the social income persists for any considerable time, severe retrenchment in dollar out¬ lay for education is inevitable. If the present level of prices persist for any considerable time, the maintenance of existing salary scales will amount to a substantial increase in compensation. In the course of any retrenchment which may be necessary, the intelligence and skill of the administrative officers of our school system must be exercised so as to preserve what is most valuable, and standards of compensation stand high in the scale. This is no time for a truculent show of political power. Let me bespeak at this juncture a spirit of helpful cooperation with the harassed public official and the distressed taxpayer. I conclude as I concluded nine years ago with a confession of faith that our resources, intellectual and material, will prove to be adequate to over¬ come the obstacles which lie in our path. I believe that the tax problem will be solved. Surely we can hope to reap where we have sowed. Surely after a century of free public education we can confidently count upon a citizenship intelligent enough to grasp and analyze the problem, energetic enough to grapple with it, and wise enough to work out a sound solution. HOW ONE STATE HAS MET THE PROBLEM OF FINANCING EDUCATION RUSSELL, DEARMONT, STATE SENATOR, CAPE GIRARDEAU, MO. I esteem it a privilege to have this opportunity of speaking to the educa¬ tional leaders of the country, concerning the progress which has been made Department of Superintendence 603 recently in the state of Missouri in the matter of more adequately and equitably financing public education. > . The problem of properly and adequately financing public education in the United States is one that has become acute in the period of economic depression, in which we now find ourselves. Such a period offers a fine oppor¬ tunity for the intelligent solution of important problems of government. In times of great prosperity the able leadership of the country is too much en¬ grossed with the intricate problems of our complex modern business affairs, to give much heed to the need for improved and modern methods of ad¬ ministration in government. When business is not flourishing the situation changes. Waste and inefficiency in government, with the resultant burden of excessive taxation upon business and people generally, challenges the serious consideration of the best leadership of the country. It is to be expected, there¬ fore, that at this time improved methods of financing public education should be receiving the careful and intelligent consideration of our people. No function of government so vitally affects the welfare of our country, so earnestly challenges the enthusiastic interest of all our citizenry, so funda¬ mentally insures the preservation of our republican form of government, as does the universal public education of our youth. The zeal of the American people for adequate public education cannot be questioned. So important have they considered public education that they have been willing to, and have, almost pauperized themselves to support it. With the direct property tax, the chief source and means of supporting public education, the burden has fallen, too often, upon those least able to pay. Relying chiefly upon the property tax for the support of our schools has also resulted in gross inequali¬ ties in educational opportunity. We face, therefore, the pressing, insistent demand for greater equality of opportunity in the matter of education and a more adequate and equitable financing of public education. The solution of the problem clearly lies in acceptance of the doctrine, that free public education is essentially and primarily the function, and its finan¬ cing the obligation and responsibility of the state. In the early period of our country’s history, education was provided for a comparative few, thru in¬ dividual effort and private support. A century ago support of education by the local community began, and has largely continued to this time. In recent years, state governments have begun to contribute to the support of public education in an attempt to better provide equality of educational opportunity. With few exceptions our states have not as yet accepted the duty, clearly placed upon them by specific provision of most state constitutions, of main¬ taining free public schools at the expense of the state government. In my opinion, it is clearly essential and necessary that they should. If we are to accomplish this objective we must finance our state govern¬ ments more adequately and equitably. Dependence upon a direct tax, placed upon tangible property, will not meet the situation. Partly due to general economic conditions, but in no small part to the excessive and unequal por¬ tion of the tax burden which it bears, tangible property values have diminished, its income producing ability has been reduced until it can no 604 National Education Association longer be depended upon to bear the chief burden of supporting education and other fundamental governmental activities. It was thru a realization of this situation that the General Assembly of Missouri, in May 1929, passed an act creating a State Survey Commission. This Commission was composed of seven prominent and able citizens of the state, appointed to membership on the commission by the Governor. Under the terms of the creating act, the members of the commission were charged with the duty of making a general survey of the financial and revenue re¬ sources and needs of the state, its departments, institutions, and public school system ; of making recommendations for improvement of same, with esti¬ mated cost and recommended source for securing the additional revenue needed. An appropriation of sixty thousand dollars was made to care for the expenses of the commission, the members of which served without pay, and they were required to submit their report to the Governor, by Novem¬ ber 30, 1929. The time limit placed upon the commission was short but with the aid of some of the leading financial, educational, and governmental experts of the country, the commission completed its work within the allotted time. A little more than a year intervened between the date the Survey Com¬ mission filed its report and the date the next General Assembly convened. During this period there was general discussion thruout the state, in the press, and in numerous public meetings, of the findings and recommendations of the commission. The General Assembly convened in January, 1931, and for the next four months much of its time was given over to the consideration of the Survey Report. Two measures, one generally referred to as the “School Bill,” and the other as the “Income Tax Bill,” were given chief considera¬ tion. Both were finally passed, after numerous hearings by committees of the House and Senate, and after a bitter and extended discussion in the Senate, which consumed about three times the period that any measure had ever taken for its consideration in the history of the state. The report of the Survey Commission and the proponents of the school and tax measures took the position that under the constitution of Missouri, the prime responsibility for the education of the youth of the state rested upon the state government and not upon the local governmental subdivisions of the state. Section 1, Article 11, of the Constitution of Missouri provides: A general diffusion of knowledge and intelligence being essential to the preserva¬ tion of the rights and liberties of the people, the General Assembly shall establish and maintain free public schools for the gratuitous instruction of all persons in this state between the ages of six and twenty years. The position was further taken that the constitution and statutory law of the state recognized the principle, that it was the duty of the state to give to all of its children of school age an equal educational opportunity. The most casual examination of then existing conditions disclosed clearly that the state was not meeting its responsibility. The records disclosed that the total Department of Superintendence 605 annual expenditure for the support of the elementary schools and high schools in Missouri was approximately $42,000,000, of which sum the state contributed only $4,067,188.65 in the year 1928. It was further interesting to note, that while the total expenditures for elementary and high-school education in Missouri had increased approximately eleven million dollars, during the period from 1921 to 1928, the contribution of the state govern¬ ment to this fund had decreased about three hundred thousand dollars, dur¬ ing the same period. The report of the Survey Commission disclosed that not only was the state government in Missouri contributing less than 10 percent of the total cost of maintaining its elementary schools and high schools, but that Mis¬ souri was not measuring up to proper standards in expenditures, considering her wealth and ability to pay. It was found that Missouri was spending the sum of $66.66 per pupil, while in the United States the average expenditure per pupil was $80.49, and the average in eleven fairly comparable states was $86.03 per pupil. On the question of whether equal educational opportunity was being given the youth of the state, the report of the Commission disclosed clearly that there was not even an approximate equality of opportunity under existing conditions. Of the 8300 rural school districts in Missouri, it was found that 50 districts provided a school term of less than four months, 270 districts provided a term of from four to six months, 972 districts provided a term of from six to eight months, and only 240 districts had a term exceeding eight months. Nine hundred and fifty-two school districts had assessed valua¬ tions of from $10,000 to $50,000, which with the tax limit of 65 cents per $100 assessed valuation seriously limited their ability to properly support their schools. The inequalities in local tax levies for school purposes were further shown by the fact that in the year 1928, 30 districts made no local school levy, 271 districts levied less than 20 cents, 2084 districts levied be¬ tween 20 and 40 cents, 1499 districts levied an even 40 cents, 1557 districts levied 40 to 65 cents, and 3446 districts levied 65 cents and more. In summarizing its findings in this connection the report of the Survey Commission states: A study of the present system of taxation or rather the rates of same and the present machinery for apportioning the state public school money, by way of special aids and general distribution, reveals that equal educational opportunities cannot be given to the school children within our borders in accordance with the mandates of both our constitutional and statutory laws. Gross inequalities result, and as here¬ tofore shown, nearly half of the school districts are now taxing themselves to the constitutional limit for school purposes, and under present conditions are not main¬ taining an eight months school, and could not further expand even if they so desired. The Commission then made the following recommendation: By taking into consideration the ability of Missouri to pay for education, it was found that equal educational opportunities can be most equitably given by setting a minimum standard of education for the elementary and high schools, and providing the machinery under which such minimum standard of education can be guaranteed 606 National Education Association to every elementary and high school in the state, regardless of location and assessed valuation. That under present conditions in Missouri such standard minimum pro¬ gram can be set at $900 per teaching unit for the elementary schools, other than high schools, and for high schools such standard minimum cost of education can be guaranteed to the amount of $1200 per teaching unit. It was further found that Missouri is able to provide the additional funds necessary to meet such standard with a contribution of 20 cents on the $100 valuation of real and personal property in such school districts by local assessment, and by including therein all funds of any school district derived from county, township, and present state aid; that the amount of the local levy in order to properly equalize this standard minimum program of education of $900 per elementary teaching unit and $1200 per high-school teaching unit, and to throw an equal proportionate burden on local units thruout the state, should be placed at 20 cents on each $100 valuation for school purposes. The report of the Commission further recommended, an increased in¬ come tax, as the principal source from which the additional funds necessary to carry out the program, should be secured. It was with the foregoing recommendation that the General Assembly proceeded to consider its legislative program. It soon became apparent, as the legislative committees held hearings upon the socalled Survey Commis¬ sion Bills, that the principal attack of the opposition would be levied at the income tax bill, which was the principal increased revenue producing measure. It was realized, by the proponents, that it would be impossible to intelligently write the school bill without knowing in advance the approxi¬ mate amount of state revenue that would be available to carry out its pur¬ poses. In view of this fact the revenue measure was advanced and was finally adopted by both branches of the General Assembly before the school bill was finally considered. From the report of the Survey Commission and facts developed during the discussion of the revenue measure, it was conceded that, aside from spe¬ cial taxes, receipts from which were dedicated to special limited purposes, the general property tax was the major source of state revenue. It was found that the total of federal, state, and local taxes paid by Missourians amounted annually to about $212,000,000. Of this amount a little over one-third went to the federal government, approximately one-half to local subdivisions of the state, and one-sixth to the state government. The tax payers of the state, therefore, were found to be contributing more than twice as much to the support of the federal government as they were contributing to the support of their own state government. They were found to be contributing three times as much to the support of local government as they were to the general revenue of the state government. An analysis of taxes paid to the state and its local subdivisions developed the fact that approximately 94 percent of all the revenue received by the state and its local subdivisions was property tax. In considering the proportionate relationship between tangible and in¬ tangible wealth in the state, it was generally conceded that not less than 50 percent of the total wealth of the state was represented by intangible prop¬ erty. By many it was contended that 80 percent of the total wealth of the state was represented by intangible property. Accepting the lowest esti- Department of Superintendence 607 mate as to value of intangible property in the state, it was conceded that at least one-half of the total wealth of the state was bearing less than 6 percent of the total tax burden of the state and its local subdivisions ; and that the other half or less of the total wealth of the state represented by tangible property was bearing approximately 96 percent of the total tax burden. It was very apparent to most students of the problem that the unfair portion of the tax burden being borne by tangible property was seriously reducing the value of this type of property and in many cases destroying its sale value. This loss in value, coupled with the fact that income from farm lands and town properties as well had been seriously diminished dur¬ ing recent years, had resulted in an accumulation of delinquent state, county, and city taxes, which was seriously crippling the activities of the state and its local subdivisions. It, therefore, seemed not only fair to at¬ tempt to equalize the tax burden in the state, but it was also apparent that if additional funds were to be secured the tax must come from the source of intangible property. At the same time it was apparent that if the value of tangible property in the state was to be increased, its excessive burden of taxation must be reduced. With these conclusions in mind and following the recommendation of the Survey Commission, a bill, amending the income tax law was proposed increasing the state income tax rate upon corporations from the old rate of 1 percent to 2^4 percent and increasing the rate upon individual in¬ comes from the old level rate of 1 percent to a graduated rate of from li^ percent to 5 >4 percent. It was estimated that the measures introduced would produce over a period of ten years $103,000,000 of additional revenue for the state. One of the principal objections presented against the adoption of the increased income tax schedule was that industry and wealth would be driven into Illinois on the east and Kansas on the west, as neither of these states collected a state income tax. It might be interesting to note here, that the state of Illinois has recently adopted a graduated income tax law with a maximum rate of 6 percent, and that the General Assembly of Kansas has proposed a constitutional amendment providing for a simi¬ lar graduated income tax law in that state. The lower house in Missouri passed the income tax bill with the rates recommended by the Survey Commission. The Missouri Senate, however, after more than two weeks debate upon the measure, fixed the rate on cor¬ porations at 2 percent and provided for a graduated rate upon individual incomes ranging from 1 to 4 percent. TThe Senate amendments weie ac¬ cepted by the House, and the measure, as amended, was finally approved by the Governor on the 16th day of April, 1931. In addition to the increased income tax rates provided by the measure, it further added provisions for more effective collection of the tax by in¬ creasing the number of field deputies in the department charged with the collection of the tax, and by requiring the tax payer to submit with his state income tax return a certified copy of his income tax return made to 608 National Education Association the federal government. It was estimated that this measure would increase the annual state revenue at least $6,500,000 as efficiency in administration of the law and business conditions in the state improved. The new school law was then taken up by the Senate and passed by both houses of the General Assembly and approved by the Governor on the 23rd day of April, 1931. Briefly, the law provided that the board of directors of each school district in the state should be empowered and required to maintain the public school, or schools, of such district for a period of at least eight months in each school year. It further provided that when any school district had legally levied for school purposes a tax of not less than 20 cents on each $100 of the assessed valuation of property therein that such district should be allotted out of the public school fund of the state an equalization quota which would give to the district a minimum of $750 for each elementary teaching unit and $1000 for each high-school teaching unit. The act further provided that as increased funds were made available for payment of the equaliza¬ tion quota, the basis for distribution should be increased to $900 for each elementary teaching unit and $1200 for each high-school teaching unit. The act further provided for optional consolidation of districts and for the payment of tuition by each school district not maintaining an approved high school for pupils from said district who attended an approved high school in another district of the same or an adjoining county. There was a further provision of the Act which provided that the school tax levied in any district should not exceed 20 cents on the $100 assessed valuation for school purposes except by majority vote of the tax-paying voters of the district. The Act contains a provision that there shall be paid by the state, to any consolidated or enlarged school district in which a new school building has been erected in accordance with approved plans, the sum of $1000 for each school building abandoned, on account of such new building. And the Act finally provides that districts with an average at¬ tendance of fewer than fifteen pupils may be required to transport its pupils to another district and pay transportation and tuition costs. I have tried to give you as briefly as possible the important provisions of the recently adopted program in Missouri which had for its purpose the equalization of the tax burden in the state and the more adequate and equitable financing of education costs, to the end that as nearly as pos¬ sible equal educational opportunities might be afforded every school child within the borders of the state of Missouri. The reaction of the public generally to the newly adopted program has been most favorable. Those who professed to see little in the movement, except greatly increased pay for teachers and an extravagant and wasteful increase in school expenditures are beginning to realize their fears were not wellfounded. They are coming to see that the new program will even¬ tually mean a more adequate educational system in Missouri ; financed by a sound and reasonable budget ; and insuring universal and equal educa- Department of Superintendence 609 tional opportunity for all of our children. Our State Department of Edu¬ cation has estimated that the new program will add not less than one-half million school days, annually, in Missouri. In my opinion, the most equitable means of securing the necessary finan¬ cial support for education is thru the income tax. No other method of reaching those best able to pay, of taxing all property, tangible and in¬ tangible, upon an equal basis, has yet been devised. It is from this source that the state must secure a principal part of the income which it devotes to the support of education and other general and primary activities. To protect state funds thus secured there must be a united and intel¬ ligent effort made to reduce and eliminate incompetence and waste in gov¬ ernment. The ever increasing tendency of government to enter fields of activity not essentially, necessarily, or fundamentally functions of govern¬ ment, has resulted in a serious drain upon available governmental funds. This tendency has seriously crippled the state in its ability to properly support education and its other important activities. The field of activity of the state must be restricted to the things that are recognized as clearly essential. We must further jealously guard against the tendency of the federal government to claim, to preempt as it were, the most available and certain sources of income for the state. By acceptance of the doctrine of state responsibility for providing free public education ; by recognition that a general property tax can no longer be depended upon as the chief means of supporting public education; by adopting other more available and equitable means for securing govern¬ mental funds ; by eliminating the drain from the public treasury due to waste, inefficiency, and improper expansion of governmental activities; public education can be adequately and equitably financed and the youth of our country may be insured equality of educational opportunity, which is necessary and essential if free government is to continue, is to be pre¬ served. FIFTH GENERAL SESSION, TUESDAY EVENING, FEBRUARY 23 American Education — Past, Present, and Future FROM PAST TO PRESENT FRANCIS G. BLAIR, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, SPRINGFIELD, ILL. It was in 1671 that Sir William Berkeley, the autocratic colonial Gov¬ ernor of Virginia, made his famous statement on free schools and print¬ ing. He was reporting to his superior officers sent from England and after setting forth some of the objectionable features of the situation, he uttered this pious prayer: “But thank God there are no free schools, nor print¬ ing, and I hope there will be none these hundred years, for learning has brought disobedience, heresy, and sects into the world and printing has 610 National Education Association divulged these and other libels against the best of governments. God keep us from both.” 1 find myself wishing that Governor Berkeley might have returned to the capital city of Virginia just 105 years after he made this statement, and that he might have been sequestered somewhere in the legislative halls during the long session of the House of Burgesses in 1776. He would have seen a certain red-headed delegate day after day, week after week, month after month, presenting bills before that legislative body which were to make Virginia as different from what Berkeley desired it to be as freedom is from tyranny. On one day in amazement he would have heard this dele¬ gate proposing a bill to abolish the established church of England, which Berkeley considered the cornerstone of aristocratic government, and propos¬ ing in its stead freedom of conscience and freedom of worship. On another day he would have heard challenged the entailment of property, that right arm of aristocracy by which the large estates of the ruling classes were to descend from generation to generation without legal impairment ; and the abolishment of primogeniture, that other method of preserving its copyright nobility by passing these large estates into the hands of the elder son, who, in his little kingdom, ruled over his brothers and sisters as a lord over his vassals. But the Governor would be more amazed, I am sure, to behold this same delegate offering a bill with a preamble that speaks of all men being created equal and endowed with certain inalienable rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. It is in fact a new code of laws on civil and political liberty guaranteeing the right of habeas cor¬ pus, the right of trial by jury, freedom of speech, and freedom of the press — rights abhorrent and repugnant to tyrants only. And if the Gov¬ ernor could have looked into one of the committee rooms he would have found this delegate hard at work upon a series of bills which were to abolish the slave trade and provide a method for automatic abolition of slavery, thus wiping from the escutcheon of Virginia its blackest spot which the British slave traders helped to place there. But of all the bills proposed I am sure the one that would have given the Governor the worst shock was the one that proposed the founding of free public libraries and the establishment and maintenance of a state sys¬ tem of free public schools extending from the primary grades up thru the state university — an institution which was destined to come, Governor Berkeley, in spite of your prayer of a hundred years ago. You have recognized in this delegate to the House of Burgesses, Thomas Jefferson who, after he had written the Declaration of Independence and had seen it adopted, resigned his place in the Continental Congress and hastened back home to do what he could to bring his beloved Virginia in line with the principles of that great Declaration. I have read rather carefully into the statements of the founders of this nation to see what they thought about public education. I have been pleased to discover that nearly every outstanding man believed that the new type of government which they had created demanded a new type of general free Department of Superintendence 611 education. But of all of these founders I believe that Thomas Jefferson saw the matter more clearly and acted more directly and more effectively to bring about the establishment of this wideflung system of free schools than any other one man. Listen to a few of his statements: “If a nation expects to be ignorant and free in a state of civilization, it expects what never was and never will be.” “Ignorance and bigotry, like other insanities, are incapable of self-government.” In a more extended statement he declared that as in autocratic govern¬ ments the heir apparent to the throne is educated broadly and thoroly in the history and aspirations of other countries in order that when he comes to rule his despotic hand will be guided by intelligence, so in America, where every child is heir apparent to the throne, there should be a sys¬ tem of education which would make it possible for every child to know the history of his own country and of the nations of the world, thus enabling him to exercise his powers intelligently. Thomas Jefferson’s zeal for this new form of general education was stimulated by a fear that the thirteen original colonies were still more or less under the influence of aristocratic ideals. His experience in trying to enact a new code of laws in the Virginia House of Burgesses had con¬ vinced him of this lurking danger. He feared that in time European in¬ fluences would determine the type of education and the social and politi¬ cal thought unless new territory could be opened up beyond the Allegheny Mountains where his idea of free public education extending from the primary grades thru a state university could be established. It was no doubt with this thought in mind that he urged Governor Patrick Henry to send George Rogers Clark into the Northwest Territory to wrest that vast tract of land from the British. Moved by the same consideration he, as Governor of Virginia, urged effectively the legislative body to cede all that region extending westward from Pennsylvania along the northern boundary of the Ohio River and northwest to the Great Lakes to the federal government. Later as a member of the Continental Congress he urged the acceptance by the federal government of this land and was himself appointed on the committee which was to fashion the Ordinance of the Northwest Territory. I have no doubt it was his own hand which wrote into that great ordinance “Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude except as a punishment for crime shall exist in said territory,” and “Reli¬ gion, morality, and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall for¬ ever be encouraged.” Who can doubt that the five great commonwealths carved out of that territory — Ohio, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, and Wisconsin — have in a large measure realized his dream? Have they not established systems of government and schools free from the aristocratic restraints and conven¬ tions of the old world ? Have not their newer and freer institutions re¬ acted favorably upon those older states lying along the Atlantic sea¬ board ? 612 National Education Association Jefferson’s effort to add new territory to the area of the United States did not end here. Altho he believed in strict conformity to laws and was a stickler for the literal interpretation of the Constitution, his greatest offi¬ cial act, his greatest administrative achievement in extending the sphere of free government, was performed without constitutional authority, if not in direct violation of its provisions. Like every really great statesman, he refused to allow an opportunity to effect a supreme and permanent good for his country to be lost thru technical obstructions. He saw that that vast and fertile region stretching from the Gulf to the Canadian line along the western bank of the Mississippi River might be rescued from Spanish and French control and civilization, and dedicated to Ameri- can-Anglo-Saxon civilization and culture. The purchase of the Louisiana territory, the peaceful acquisition of an area greater than the combined areas of England, Scotland, Ireland, Wales, Belgium, Norway, Swe¬ den, and Denmark, added to the Netherlands, added to Germany and Austria, added to France, added to Spain and Portugal and Switzerland and Italy — an empire greater in extent than all of western Europe — with¬ out the firing of a gun or the rattling of a saber, was sufficient alone to carry Jefferson’s name down thru the ages as one of the world’s great, farsighted, courageous statesmen. If we add to this the Oregon territory which the United States acquired mainly upon the ground of Lewis and Clark’s expedition — which must be accredited to the insistent and per¬ sistent effort of Thomas Jefferson — we have a combined territory out of which have been formed the states of Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, Oregon, and Washington — sixteen great commonwealths which, added to the five states carved out of the North¬ west Territory, had a population in 1930 approximating 50,000,000, a school enrolment of 10,500,000, and an assessed valuation of approxi¬ mately $70,000,000,000. Would that Jefferson might look down upon this vast stretching empire, with its teeming millions of intelligent, happy, in¬ dustrious, free people, and see the fruition of his hopes ! Jefferson was not content with mere acquisition of this wide expanse of rolling prairies, of mountains and valleys. He was intensely concerned about the way it should be organized, the conditions which should be created to promote human welfare and happiness, the kind of institutions, political and educational, which should be established. He had become in¬ terested in the New England plan of giving one lot to every town for educational purposes. He had also become convinced that the rectangular system of survey was the only practical one to apply to this newly acquired territory. It is easy to understand how in the states that were formed from the Northwest Territory the sixteenth section of each township was given for public schools and a township of land for seminary purposes and one township of land for a college or university. In 1848 the federal govern¬ ment increased the amount of land given to each state for public common schools to two sections in each township and in one or two of the newest Department of Superintendence 613 states the amount was raised to four sections. If we were to add these grants of land by the federal government to those for colleges of agri¬ culture given under the Morrill acts signed by Abraham Lincoln, and could assemble them all together, we would have a territory four times greater than the area of the state of Illinois. However, the intense desire of Jefferson to see something actually done led him to see that land was the cheapest of all commodities at that time. What was needed in order to establish free schools was ready money. It was with this in view that he lent his aid in the establishment of the states out of the Northwest Territory to a plan by which a certain percent of the sale of public lands should go to the state for establishing public schools. But it did not take him long to realize that the gifts of land and the amounts given to the states from the sale of public lands were wholly insufficient to realize his dream. Therefore, during his presidency he went before Congress repeatedly with recommendations that they make direct appropriations to the states in order to encourage the establishment of such a system of schools as he had tried to establish in the state of Virginia. He proposed taxes upon luxuries, but was informed that the Constitution stood in the way of the federal Congress in making such appropriations. Finally he secured a favorable report from one congressional committee. The committee approved the plan of raising and appropriating to the states annually large sums of money for the encouragement and promotion of education, but in such a manner that it should in no wise “infringe upon the municipal regulations that are, or may be, adopted by the respective state authorities on the subject.” How long it has taken some of our wellmeaning but enthusiastic and war excited educational leaders to reach this point of view expressed by the fathers of the plan of national encouragement to education. How much of our time and energy it has taken to hammer out of that first war- born bill for nationalizing our state school systems its dangerous fallacies founded upon a lack of historic background. President Grant, confronted by the problem of 4,000,000 ignorant, free men in the southern states, again recommended to Congress a constitutional amendment to make possible large federal aid to meet this great emergency, but the effort failed. While Jefferson believed in gifts of land and gifts of money to encourage education within the states, it was his fundamental principle that the states themselves should control the organization and the administration of their schools and this principle has never been violated except in the provisions of the Smith-Hughes acts. What the states needed was federal encourage¬ ment and not federal control, an appeal to their loyal pride and initiative rather than direction and domination from Washington. It was logical and just that if the control and management of these school systems should reside in the state, the state should pay, thru local taxation, the major part of the cost, and one of the most outstanding facts in the development of these states has been their generous local taxation laws for the support of public edu¬ cation. 614 National Education Association Jefferson believed that the United States would one day occupy all of the North American continent and spoke of the United States of North Amer¬ ica. Fortunately, as I believe, this dream of his did not come true, but the United States of America has spread from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean. From three millions of people in thirteen colonies along the Atlantic seaboard at the time of the adoption of the Constitution we have become a nation of forty-eight great commonwealths, with a population of over 122 millions of people, each one of these forty-eight commonwealths with a complete system of public education extending from the kindergarten thru the state university or the state college, with a total enrolment in the kindergartens of 700,000, in the high schools approximately 4,000,000, in the junior colleges approximately 30,000, in the teachers colleges and normal schools approximately 240,000, the total enrolment in the common schools in 1930 being approximately 27,000,000, with 919,584 teachers, and at a total cost of approximately two billion dollars. This represents in only a gross objective form the growth of public education in these two hundred years. The differentiations into kindergarten, elementary school, junior high school, senior high school, junior college, senior college, and universities are mere organization features which stand as an index to some of the quali¬ tative changes that have gone on in the course of study and in the methods of teaching. I am leaving to the speakers who follow me on this general topic the discussion of these questions that relate to the qualitative features in the development of our free public school system. I cannot more than refer to that development in textbooks, the change from the log school building down to the present well-lighted, well-heated, well-ventilated school buildings. Nor can I more than mention the great development in the field of physical educa¬ tion which has been followed by playgrounds, athletic fields, and gymnasiums. Nor to that greatest of all qualitative developments, the preparation of the teachers thru the state and privately endowed normal schools and teachers colleges. But I cannot avoid speaking of one development in education which has taken place in the last fifteen years. We have reviewed Mr. Jefferson’s plan of giving every boy and every girl that kind of an education which would prepare him to perform his civic and social duties. We have been asking our¬ selves whether it really means every boy and every girl. We found a scrap heap of humanity accumulating along the highway of human progress. In that scrap heap were children with distorted bodies, with blind eyes, with deaf ears, with palsied tongues, children with feeble minds. They were call¬ ing to us asking if they belonged in the “every child” category; and the ques¬ tion constantly recurred, what obligation does the nation and the several states owe to these unfortunate children? The last fifteen years have seen a marked expansion in the opportunity afforded by public education to this group of physical defectives. We have established classes for the blind and the near blind, for the deaf and dumb, for the infirm of body, in most of our commonwealths. We are trying to make every child mean every boy and girl, Department of Superintendence 615 whatever may be his physical condition, and we have not stopped with the mere youth. The states have made provision for the education of the adult blind and the adult deaf. Thus gradually we have been approaching tlje conception that education in a democracy is of all of the people, by all of the people, and for all of the people. And in concluding, how I wish that we might in this two-hundredth anni¬ versary of the birth of the great Washington call him and the Revolutionary fathers and the founders of this government back to our sides as this republic struggles in the worst financial crisis that the world has ever seen ! How I wish that we might have Washington and Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton, the Adamses, the Morrises, the Pinkneys, the Rutledges, the Lees, standing around about us, to infuse into us some of that vision and courage that it required in the dark days of the Revolu¬ tion, to inspire us with some of the constructive thinking and prophetic vision which helped them to arise out of that most critical period following the Revolutionary War, to build the Constitution and to launch this new repub¬ lic upon its career. How much we need to have them by our sides to encourage us to stand by the system of public education which they believed so essem tial to the existence of the republic and which now in these trying times is facing the grave danger of such serious retrenchments and impairments as may seriously abridge the educational opportunity of the children of Amer¬ ica and render more insecure the foundations of our great republic. AMERICAN EDUCATION TODAY FRANK P. GRAVES, STATE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, ALBANY, N. Y. Superintendent Blair has recounted the high spots in the development of American education during the past two centuries. He is a historian. Presi¬ dent Suzzallo will forecast the forms that education in the United States is destined to take in an indefinite future. He is a prophet. What may be the status of a speaker who attempts to describe present education in the United States is more doubtful. Strictly speaking, there is no such thing as the present. It passes as we are discussing it. One who undertakes a descrip¬ tion must view it from the standpoint of trends and tendencies, and reach back into the past and forward into the future for both his facts and fancies. Such an expositor of the present is bound to be thought of by the two other speakers as a trespasser, poaching upon their grounds, while his standing with his hearers will largely depend upon their own attitude. In no case can his account of what is actually going on be entirely pleasing and satisfactory. To the traditionalist, who lives entirely in the past, he will seem a dangerous innovator and radical; to the visionary, who dwells perpetually in Utopia, he will appear a hopeless standpatter and reactionary; and both are likely to describe him by a short and ugly word somewhat out of harmony with the repute of the immortal Washington. Nevertheless, the present speaker is forced to occupy this very anomalous position, if he is to speak at all. He must endeavor to view existing tenden- 616 National Education Association cies in the light of the past and the future, slurring some facts and stressing others, and to make an interpretation of principles underlying the" general lines of educational activity now at work. From such a point of view, then, it may fundamentally be said that education in the United States is at pres¬ ent tending to realize the ideals and aspirations of democracy. The form that it takes may somewhat change from time to time, but its spirit always re¬ mains the same. It primarily aims to establish institutions that will safe¬ guard a free society, but at the same time it endeavors to afford each citizen the opportunity to lead a more significant life. These two contrasting ele¬ ments — the preservation of democratic society and the expression of the in¬ dividual — are most conspicuous in our present educational activities. Both implications should be made more explicit. Let us turn first to the significance of American education as a means of preserving democratic so¬ ciety and of enabling all members of the community to cooperate effectively for the common good. We have definitely accepted the principle that edu¬ cation is necessary to perpetuate our free institutions and self-government, and we have come to regard our public schools as a form of insurance against despotism on the one hand and anarchy on the other. We maintain that democracy is always associated with freedom of action, but that complete liberty in conduct without capacity for thinking inevitably leads to chaos. Where external compulsion has been removed, the internal light of truth and reason must be substituted. The continued existence of a nation based upon the exercise of popular suffrage, therefore, is dependent upon intelligent action on the part of its people. We are not only thoroly convinced that education is essential to the endurance of democratic society, but that even the prosperity of a democracy is indissolubly connected with the efficiency of our public schools. The degree to which these institutions provide for the development of skills, informa¬ tion, and character traits in their pupils largely determines the wealth, cul¬ ture, and influence of our country. If only from the standpoint of material welfare, therefore, we have determined to provide opportunities for the enlightenment of all and in most states we are coming to require a test of literacy, intelligence, and character as a prerequisite for the ballot. We fully understand, however, that the situation is not as simple as this sounds. Before undertaking to train for democracy, we must further analyze the meaning of the term. Democracy is a quality of the human spirit. It is not merely a form of government or a grant of the ballot to all, but rather the realization of a social ideal and a mode of living. It is as much concerned with social, economic, religious, and cultural relationships as it is with po¬ litical, altho it is not uncommon to find an adherent of democracy in politics utterly condemning a democratic reformer in some other field. In order to make clear this comprehensiveness of democracy and interdependence of the various phases of the democratic movement, we have come to find a co¬ ordinating center for them in the training of our public schools. Hence in curriculum revision we are everywhere extending the materials so as to in¬ clude all important attitudes, generalizations, and appreciations, and a full Department of Superintendence 617 understanding of life’s institutions and problems, as well as those conven¬ tional skills and facts which so long composed its exclusive content. Moreover, the form that a democracy takes is constantly changing, and American education has to be correspondingly modified from time to time, that it may prepare girls and boys to live in a democratic society. Hence great efforts are now being put forth to teach our young people how to decide ethical and civic matters for themselves unselfishly, preferring general to private good. Hence we are greatly concerned about an education for char¬ acter, and we are undertaking to train all our public school pupils in how to meet and solve independently the sort of civic problems with which they are likely to be confronted in adult life. No one can completely predict what they will need under the democracy of their times, but we believe that the best preparation that can be given them must be derived from a training for independent thinking. So we are coming to insist with such leaders in curric¬ ulum philosophy as Dewey, Kilpatrick, and Bode, that neither the parents nor the teachers of the children should attempt to hand out ready-made solu¬ tions or determine what they are to think or do. Much less are we willing to concede that right to the unskilled members of some legislature. We realize that only thru training its coming citizens to think for themselves and to solve problems independently can a democratic society successfully assume the difficult task of reshaping itself so as to fulfil the demands connected wit new forms of cooperation. Now we may turn to the other element that is so patent in our presentday democratic education. This embraces all efforts to develop adequately every individual in the nation, and is quite as essential as the preservation and pros¬ perity of democracy itself. In general, public education is strenuously en¬ deavoring to reach every one and to furnish all with equal opportunities for development. From the standpoint of individual right, as fully as of national welfare, we have come to realize that our public school systems should pro¬ vide for the enlightenment of each child, without regard to the locality in which he may chance to have been placed. The state and, to a certain extent, the federal government are more and more endeavoring to fit all children to lead happy and useful lives — those residing in the rural districts as much as those in the city, and in the poor states as well as in the rich. The battle- cry of the day is the equalization of educational privileges. These efforts at improvement, however, apply not merely to equalizing differences in percentages of enrolment and attendance, length of school year, type of building and equipment, convenience of access to school facilities, and educational expenditures, important as these factors are. For the sake of giving every one an equal opportunity, we further recognize the need of adaptation in the materials of the curriculum and the methods of the class¬ room and of adjustment to mental and physical handicaps and. to types of intellectual ability. The course of study is constantly being revised and re constructed, and firsthand experience, problems, methods, and active par¬ ticipation are taking the place of formulas, summaries, and the results of adult thinking. Nor does the modern American school longer confine its 618 National Education Association training to a recitation from books, for it has invented a variety of classroom methods to enable each pupil to express himself — the socialized recitation, problem method, project lesson, supervised study, Dalton plan, Winnetka system, creative teaching — and efforts are everywhere being made to afford all pupils the opportunity to develop in keeping with their individuality. Likewise a training is being furnished to meet the demands due to differ¬ ences in physique, mentality, vocational interests, and social outlook. Junior high schools and junior colleges are furnishing a million pupils with educa¬ tional guidance, and special schools for the mentally and physically handi¬ capped, neglected adults, partime adolescents, and refractory and atypical young people are springing up everywhere. Even more striking are the various efforts made, thru psychological and achievement tests, to discover the intel¬ lectual level and to provide ample facilities for every degree of intelligence and for the classification and adjustment of pupils according to their in¬ dividual ability and need. As a matter of fact, in the effort to adapt educa¬ tion to the development of all, we seem of late to understand that even “homogeneous grouping” does not go far enough, and are insisting more and more upon a special adjustment for each and every pupil. In the case of the teachers, too, complete development of individuality has come to be more fully stressed. Administrators now realize that teachers should not have their individuality suppressed, but that the power of initia¬ tive and constructive endeavor, so necessary to the proper fulfilment of the teaching function, should be encouraged in them. It is recognized that the extent to which they are enabled to develop their understanding of child nature, their thoroness in analyzing all the factors relating to the case of each pupil, and their ability to make individual adjustments, will largely determine whether the schools are to meet democratic demands or become mere cogs in the educative process. We now understand that, while it may be the business of the superintendent to illumine and vitalize the burden¬ some details of classroom method in teachers’ conferences, the teachers them¬ selves should always be conscious of the end to be attained and be given complete freedom in realizing their ideals. A similar independence is being granted teachers in curriculum revision. The superintendent may formulate general policies and plans for guidance, leadership, and coordination of all factors, but the initiative in determining the details of the course of study is being granted to the teacher. In administrative matters, likewise, emphasis is no longer placed upon the acquiescence and conformity of teachers. We are learning to invent regular devices and procedures, such as those of the various educational associations and the teachers councils, thru which teachers may participate in adminis¬ tration and register their judgments upon all matters of importance. The superintendent can no longer afford to play the part of an autocrat and set out exactly what the teacher is required to do, but is generally expected to develop in him a capacity for self-direction and a feeling of joint responsi¬ bility for the educative process. Department of Superintendence 619 Thus the two principles underlying democracy in education — the safe¬ guarding of a free society and the complete development of the individual • are today being rendered more explicit in the United States. Both of the factors, the social and the individual, are tending, as they should, to be carefully balanced to secure proper equilibrium in all democratic situations. When we stress the individual to the exclusion of the interests of the group, chaotic conditions will correspondingly ensue; while if the in¬ dividual is neglected in emphasizing the group, the opposite extreme of com¬ munism will result. Only as there is a nice adjustment between the in¬ dividual and society can the balance be achieved that is essential to a suc¬ cessful democracy. Happy indeed should we be that these integrated ele¬ ments of democracy are so fully permeating presentday education in the United States and enabling us clearly to realize and justify the function of the public schools in America! A PROGRAM FOR TOMORROW HENRY SUZZ ALTO, PRESIDENT, CARNEGIE FOUNDATION FOR THE ADVANCE¬ MENT OF TEACHING, NEW YORK, N. Y. In the midst of unrest, multiplied by the easy contagion of troubled minds, it is for us to pause and take a calm view, to make an accurate appraisal of the strategic place of education in American life, and to readjust its opera¬ tions. Our changing times compel us to consider it carefully as a funda¬ mental instrument of our civilization. History and current criticism — There is no better way to appreciate the unique greatness of American education than to view its past, and per¬ ceive its fine responsiveness to the expanding and heightening aspiiations of the American folk. How far we have come thru education! There is no better way to comprehend the inadequacies and the defects of American education than to compare what we have done with the hopes we have held for service to civilization. Flow far we have yet to go thru educa- tion! Our past makes us praiseful and appreciative, and our present critical and somewhat unsure. Yet it is only out of a past projected thru the present to a future, only partially predictable, that we can discover accuiately the burden which America once more places upon its schools. What, then, is to be the educational program for the bearing of tomorrow s burden, Future program a projection — The educational program for tomoriow will not be so new that it will be startling or revolutionary ; nevertheless its consequences may and ought to be trefriendous. Tomorrow s program will be born of today’s practise, criticism, and reconstruction as today’s was born of yesterday’s. Education will improve as it has always done in Amei- ica, as a continuous process, now accelerated, now retarded, continually revalued and continually redirected. 620 National Education Association The rapid change in educational methods in America is not a discredit to the teaching profession as some laymen suggest. It is a fact to our credit. It expresses a brave effort to meet the new problems of a shifting world and to incorporate in teaching and administrative procedure our new scientific knowledge of human behavior. The democratic spirit controls — There is one large factor which endures and will continue to endure. It hovers over the whole scene of American life and education. It is the persistent democratic aspiration of Americans to give themselves a more kindly civilization and to train a nation of co¬ operative men and women to operate it. The cornerstone of tomorrow’s program is this democratic aspiration. Democracy, a way rather than an end — It must be remembered at the outset that a democracy focuses its attention on a way of going rather than on a fixed destination, and that it knows better the manner of life which it wishes to lead in its social journeyings than it does the end of its journey. Democracy is a system of aspirations, of reigning values, of essential proce¬ dures. These must be incorporated in human carriers or good citizens if they are finally to become part and parcel of the social organization process which we call American civilization. And it is thru the educative process of the school and other institutions that we shall transform raw humans into civilized men and women. The educative process is central — The central item in tomorrow’s pro¬ gram of education is the educative process. All other items are secondary, being either supplementary or reinforcive. It must be considered first, and the other items afterward. Until we know how we shall want to change or educate men and women we cannot organize, administer, or supervise, arrange our health program, provide the needed physical facilities, or equip the schools with aids, material or human. Since there is no time to deal with all the aspects of needed reform we shall consider the prime aspect, the educative process, discussing only infer- entially the other changes which must go with it. 1. Motivation : social service and individual success — The first step in the improvement of the educative process is to democratize the psychological processes which constitute it. We must make the school’s main business, that of developing an effective social person rather than a successful individual. The fruits of education must be more largely public than private. We can justify taxing all for the education of all only when the results are more social than personal. This is not a new conception in theory but its full and effective acceptance in practise will be new, and its consequences far- reaching. It will change radically the traditionally individualistic and academic bent of all schools below the senior college and the professional schools — that is, of common, liberaf schooling. The current school too largely gains its successes by using individualistic motivations. It stresses unduly personal success and competition, where it ought to place more emphasis on the services and satisfactions which come from achieving the social objects of the group, whether that group be a 621 Department of Superintendence team, a class, a school, a club, a neighborhood, a community, a state, a nation, or a humanity. The new social psychology gives us ground to believe that the thrill of doing one’s part in a larger task may be made as powerful a motive for work as doing the whole of a small job better than someone else In the school of the future the altruistic thrill of participation should be used more often than the self-satisfactions of egoistic successes in ranking one in the class, in having better marks, accumulating more credits, more rapid promotions, more honors, more degrees than the other fellow. The pursuit of school distinctions which involve odious comparisons with most of our neighbors is strong motivation for sharpening the intellectual fangs and claws of a few, but it discourages the many and leaves all who learn in sue a regimen without adequate education in the appreciative ways needed foi democratic cooperation. The school system should gradually get rid of the whole artificial orgam- ation of egoistic motivations which have had a long traditional use amongst us displacing them one bv one as the profession learns how to use stimula¬ tions and rewards which are social rather than individual, therefore per¬ sonally more enduring and satisfying. The aim is not to make the school an isolated heaven of perfect social motives which would unfit its human products to live in an imperfect social world from which a sensitive sou would finally seek to escape. The aim is a new relative emphasis, the gradual displacement of a poor motive by a good one, the steady substitution of a good citizen for a bad or indifferent one. 2. Scope: total humanization and intellectual achievement--What has just been said about the new emphasis and quality of school motivation sug¬ gests another farreaching implication already sensed by effective and experi¬ enced teachers. The school must be concerned with the whole personality o little men and women, each and every aspect, and must neglect none. The school’s new approach thus becomes wholly human. The body and the mind, the soul and the intellect are alike its concern, not at separate moments but all at once as coincident aspects of a healthy, normal, integrate personality. _ . . The school as an institution originated in a narrow task a merely in¬ tellectual one. Pupils were fortunate if their schools rose above an informa¬ tional function. Beginners were in fact not much informed ; they were absorbed in gaining the tools for acquiring information. We have not yet wholly escaped the momentum of that narrow tradition tho we have been steadily breaking away, enlarging our concern with more and more of human nature. The new program makes the whole jump. From now on we are con¬ cerned to aid children and youth to become wholly human; to develop every aspect of body and mind, intellect and soul ; to relate and integrate feeling, knowing, and doing; to perceive the values of character and the efficiency of action or expression as equally important with the full rational uses ot The acceptance of such a statement has farreaching complications for all moments of the period of common schooling wherein liberal education with 622 National Education Association its humanizing or civilizing purpose reigns — that is, from the nursery school to the end of the junior college. 3. The broadened reach of the curriculum — The broad curricular offer¬ ing of the school will remain. The public school is not going to retreat to a narrower curriculum of either old type or new. The enriched curriculum is here to stay. The school that is to train for life cannot be narrower in resources than the civilization it serves. From primary grades to junior college years it will widen so as to touch all the problems of our time. It will give understanding of all the aspects of our present and our oncoming life. It will foster appreciation of the social tools thru which individual men become socially cooperative — the institu¬ tions in which each and all of us must learn to play an effective part. Nothing that is a concern to American civilization can be of less con¬ cern to the American school. Economics and technology will be just as respectable as school studies as they are insistent as social affairs. Educational valuations will tend to coincide with genuine social valuations. In the new program the socially important cannot be educationally inferior, suffering underemphasis or neglect. In all the reconstruction of the curricular offering, the emphasis will be put on the meeting of life as it surrounds us then and there. The past that persists in the present and is likely to continue in the future is still history, but it is part of a vital present. The culture that was European before it became American is still European but it concerns us because it is now Amer¬ ican. The problem of another land and its people is still their own, but if their affairs touch our own American life spiritually or economically it is vitally our problem and we must be concerned with it. America, with its present and immediate future, is conceived in no narrow national sense or as a narrow slit of time. It cannot be so dealt with in real living. Rut the emphasis here placed gn our own American civilization and our own time, broadly conceived, is meant not as an excuse for detailed study of everything, but as a fairly stern standard of selection and omission in curriculum making which will give no warrant to the retention or in¬ clusion of subjectmatter which has only a remote connection with the student’s genuine and urgent needs. 4. Fewer and more inclusive subjects — Nothing that is implied in an enriched curricular offering should give warrant to the idea that there will be a still further multiplication of studies. On the contrary, the curric¬ ulum with a wider reach over contemporary civilization will consist of fewer and more inclusive units of study. They will organize knowledge into intellectual vistas which emphasize rather than exclude, learning approaches which permit the student’s mind to move as freely as curiosity and thought impel him, down all the highways, the crossroads, and the side lanes of thought, adventure, and learning. Th is is the meaning of the oft repeated attempt of the elementary school to approach its work in larger and more flexible units, such as nature study, civics, language study, and industrial art. This is the significance of the Department of Superintendence 623 urge behind the secondary school when it labors to introduce science as general science, to correlate the social sciences as social study, or to teach general literature. This is the meaning behind every orientation, gateway, comprehensive survey, or general introductory course now offered in the college system. It means more continuous and responsible study of main things from the nursery to the end of secondary education, where liberal schooling con¬ cludes its provision for seeing the world as a related whole and places the student before the many gateways to higher specialization that he may make a definite choice of the special service he will render to mankind. In liberal education we are about done with the futile attempt to make each student a jumbled imitation of a whole university faculty of specialists. Every great university specialist that I know is first a man of culture and then a specialist, first a virile and sympathetic character and then a skilled and knowing expert. We have been working hind end to, and the new program will reverse the process. Hereafter we shall begin with breadth and end with pointedness, for breadth is something more than a vast collec¬ tion of points, and pointedness requires something broad enough to be brought to a point. 5. School tasks psychologically graded— The problems of the child’s expanding life must be graded to his ability. This is the only sense in which grading at school means anything vital. Each day s task must be above the child’s immediate grasp but still within his growing reach. Only thus can life be kept dynamic. But no day s task should be a monotonous routine of repeated tasks, conquered days before. Tasks too difficult are discouraging, and those that require no intelligence are boring. Boredom and discourage¬ ment are twin killers of human drive or interest. The present method of school grading, as we know it, ought to be taken out of the daily consciousness of public, parents, children, and fellow pupils ; and whatever is valuable in recorded grading and appraisal, particularly that which we have acquired thru new scientific technics, should be put into the professional and confidential records of the school as an aid to diagnosis, guidance, and the redirection of the process of education. A perpetual individual record card full of pertinent information of all types is a better record than a mere set of term marks, and parents will be better served by a diagnostic and advisory letter based on the perspective of a whole career than by a routine report card based on the term s work. The older system of grading and reporting was born of the earlier school system which tried to treat all children not equally but identically. It was the offspring of the competitive motivation of the older school which tiled to spur every child by competitive ranking, some thru the satisfactions of victory over others and a far greater number thru the personal shame of various degrees of failure. We now know that the sense of successful achievement is more powerful than that of failure in evoking and directing a persistent creative energy of the mind and spirit j that reward is bettei than punishment as a psychological method in learning and teaching. 624 National Education Association 6. Adjustment to individual differences — The psychological grading of school tasks will at once bring to mind the greatest signal fact of our new scientific knowledge of human beings — that is, their individual differences. The new program must be fully based on that fact, but with a right and true attitude behind its applications. It is not to be assumed, as has often been the case in the past, that the individual differences which confront us in the school room are largely to be accounted for in terms of natural inheritance. That is too simple a way to dismiss many of the facts; it leads to grievous mistakes. The limitations of a child may, indeed, be due in the first instance to certain inherited limitations, but they may also be due to an underprivileged institutional environment operating powerfully in the preschool age or exercising a con¬ stant influence parallel to school life. Whatever the facts are — and they are difficult to know accurately in any instance — it is safer to err on the side of ascribing too much to environ¬ ment and too little to heredity, than vice versa. When heredity is not unduly summoned as an explanation, teachers are prone to exhaust all the versatile technics they possess and to seek some correction of obstructing conditions outside the school life. This is far more fair to the pupil and tends to bring the school into cooperative relation with the other educational institu¬ tions and forces which affect the development of youth. When the profession recognizes that actual differences in children are often due to the accidents of early or present environment, to ill health, and to acquired interest or disinterest, then no deadly fatalism enters into the judgments of teachers. Whatever nature has done to limit a child, we can¬ not help ; whatever environment has done, we may ameliorate. And it is bet¬ ter to assume too much where we can be of help, than too little. Practical justice lies on that side of error. In our adjustments to individual differences it is necessary to set up a flexible standard. The simple standard of the new program is the one which asks with regard to the next step in the teaching of a child : Will it conduce to the pupil’s greater personal development? If the answer is “yes,” the step is right. If it is “no,” the step is wrong. We may then arrive at judgments and procedures that will shock our academic sensibilities, as when a girl is allowed to forego the next course in mathematics or a boy more interested in modern life than ancient is allowed to proceed with his interest without repeating a preceding course in which he may have failed dismally. But the business of the school is to educate as far as it can. And it is conceivably better to get more education in a lop¬ sided way than very much less in a regularized way. What we do now is something mechanical and rigid. When the result, in certain extreme cases, is too dramatically bad for human impulses and good judgment to tolerate, we make an exception. We do this when we promote on a basis of years or subjects. We do it again in making out the requirements and elections for students’ study cards. It is all a roundabout Department of Superintendence 625 pedagogical process which corrects only the major injustices. We should abandon the system altogether in favor of direct personal judgments which are likely to achieve minor as well as major justices. Initial right treatment is better than wrong treatment corrected. Fortunately the trends of thinking and practise are generally favorable to the new attitude. We regard our schools, particularly those which stretch across the compulsory school attendance age, as periods of enriching experience wherein the best development possible is the goal, and we no longer make students reiterate their failures by repeating a course when more is to be gained by going ahead with another. Considerable investiga¬ tion shows that our dogmatic assumptions about the preparatory value of courses which we make prerequisites are wrong as often as they are right, and half wrong far more than half the time. It is probable, too, that segregations of classes on the basis of ability will not be so popular as was once the case with us. The intellectual advantages have not proven to be so large as we had expected and the unsatisfactory emotional consequences have been far greater than we had anticipated. Probably a school class should be a society as mixed as cooperating groups are in life generally. Leadership and followership alternate in every group, and they are alternate roles in every personal life, shifting with the situa¬ tions, problems, and persons present. Careful observation of the way in which the world actually carries on in a democartic society confirms the policy, and it may well be adopted by schools as a way to give persons with different qualities a chance to practise the skills of leadership and the appre¬ ciations of followership. At any rate the world seems to be in need of just this sort of social education. 7. Self-education, a continuing process in school and life — Teachers do not actually believe it, but in fact they are prone to act in their dealings with children as tho education begins and ends with schooling. How other¬ wise could we feel that we have an overcrowded curriculum. All we have is overpressure due to a badly constructed curriculum. From now on the school must be regarded as mingling with life, fore and aft, port and starboard! Education must hereafter be regarded as covering the length and breadth of life itself. The school is only the swifter and more controled central current of education. Education begins in¬ formally before the child enters school and, if the contemporary movement for adult or continuing self-education has any genuine significance, it goes on long after schooling is over! To conceive of schooling as a mere part of the whole and continuing process of education will do more than correct some of our hurtful, false assumptions, such as worrying unduly over the fact that a child does not learn here and now and as fast as we wish, all that we have set up for him to acquire on the basis of some average or standardized expectation. It will put the emphasis on learning rather than teaching. Schooling will become mere self-education under teacher stimulation and assistance, n 626 National Education Association fact, the teacher under the new regime will become a supervisor of learners. What a revolution would result from this changed attitude and point of view! No need for teachers to be omniscient — merely omnipresent! Teachers and learners would then be permitted to learn something together. The teacher’s ignorance would not have to be concealed, shamefully, and too often deceitfully. The effect on the pupil would be even greater. He would have a new responsibility and feel a new challenge. The initiative would be his. The responsibility would be his. With each passing month and year his self- reliance and his capacity for independent inquiry and study would increase. There is not one of these qualities that does not represent a highly desirable trait in the citizen. Finally, the transition from schooling to adult or con¬ tinuing self-education would be bridged more easily than it ever has been before, and the ominous gap between the education which the school gave and that which life now needs would not frighten men. Self-education can keep uptodate, while schooling probably never can. With this new conception of the school’s process we might be tempted to ask why the number of students assigned to a teacher should grow steadily less and the cost steadily more from the primary school to the college. It might seem that the better trained, the more mature and independent the student, the greater service he could render himself in a process which is mainly one of self-education. 8. A new type of teacher and teacher training — As a last item that can now be mentioned in a program for tomorrow, let me say that one has only to review the various concepts laid down in this program for tomor¬ row’s education to realize that we shall need a new type of teacher and a new kind of professional education for his preparation. Hereafter the teacher’s human interest, sympathy, and understanding will be just as important a part of his equipment as his academic and technical training, and probably more fundamental. In the best modern and demo¬ cratic sense the new type teacher must be a thorogoing humanist regardless of his special field of scholarship. He will not be so much a teacher of sub¬ jects as a moulder of men and women. He will need to be a civilized person if he is to bring all the resources of civilization to bear upon youth, which is to say he will be liberally educated. There are too many academic specialists in our public schools who know very much about a little field of study and nothing much about the wide ranges which make up the rest of life. And unfortunately they have been given preferment in appointment, promotion, and remuneration. And with what result? Steadily thru the years departmentalized teaching has been in¬ troduced further and further down and it has not been particularly good for the child to be treated in uncorrelated bits. Effective humanization of a child requires that every teacher that influences him have regard for his whole personality. In no other way can education fully humanize. Now it must begin to be clear that teacher training will need to be reorgan¬ ized. The teacher himself must be a characterful person, interested in people Department of Superintendence 627 as well as in books — a man of this world, in the best sense, and not an academic recluse, avoiding and escaping it, standing aloof from and dis¬ daining it. The whole world is open to him nowadays thru books, conversa¬ tion, and the other means of communication which makes vicarious experi¬ encing more largely possible than ever before. The teacher should be liberally educated in all the arts and sciences. He does not need to “know it all,” but to appreciate it all. Hereafter no teacher should be admitted to an American teachers college who has not completed his secondary education — the period of liberal schooling. And the quality of that liberal education should be scrutinized to see that it is a liberal under¬ standing of the twentieth century that has been acquired and not merely that of the nineteenth, eighteenth, or seventeenth century worlds. If I were the state commissioner or superintendent of public instruction, I would not license or certificate a teacher for my state on credentials from any other state without applying the same rigid test of liberal appreciation of and liberal outlook on our current civilization. It is time enough to begin academic concentration and specialized train¬ ing with the senior college level. Specialization has no place below. What professional training in the narrower technical sense ought to be is too large a subject for present discussion. Only a few large hints can be given now. It should certainly not aim more or less exclusively at the mere high mastery of a single aspect of knowledge and the collecting of the pedagogical technics for transmitting it at only one restricted grade or level of education. Certainly, at the outset, the prospective teacher ought to see the place of the institution of education in our whole scheme of civilization. Certainly he ought to see all the aspects and parts of the educational system in a related and cooperative whole. Certainly he ought to know what other kinds of educational folk are doing under our system of subdivided services. I am fearful of certain conspicuous trends among the teacher-training group of professional educators. Of all educators they should have fewer of the diseases of academic scholars and more of the virtues of humanized teachers. But just now they are advocating more pay and more promotion for mere training of the type we do not most need. Just now they are playing into the hands of the ancient foe — the specialists of the academic life — try¬ ing to revamp their curricula so as to make entrance to candidacy for academic degrees easier for their graduates, so that their institutions will be not educationally and socially more useful, but academically more respect¬ able. They have so many new problems to solve and so many new efficiencies to meet that one wonders how they can afford to be so concerned about something that academicians are growing less concerned about every day. It seems a strange reversal of conditions. Most of all we need the coopera¬ tion of the teacher-training profession if the educative process is to be the potent spiritual instrument of American civilization in its program for to¬ morrow. * 628 National Education Association SIXTH GENERAL SESSION, WEDNESDAY MORNING, FEBRUARY 24 Education as a Source of Our Spiritual Life and Our Cultural Growth INTANGIBLE VALUES FLORENCE HALE, PRESIDENT, NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. We are drawing to the close of this wonderful week of this Department of Superintendence. Tomorrow we go our several ways to take the mes¬ sage that this convention has brought over the country, at a time when we need joy and encouragement and practical common sense as we have never needed them before. I am thinking as we listen to these fine thoughts and this beautiful music, that tomorrow The tumult and the shouting dies ; The captains and the kings depart; Still stands Thine ancient sacrifice, An humble and a contrite heart. Lord God of Hosts, be with us yet, Lest we forget! Lest we forget! This morning as we go forth from a program full of those splendid sug¬ gestions to meet these perplexing problems that have made it necessary for us to dwell on the economic and practical side of this question more than perhaps we have ever done before, we must not forget that greater even than all these important things that we have discussed with so much enthusiasm and so much brilliancy of thought, are those things that may be considered, as our program says this morning, the intangible things of life. Last Sunday morning I saw in one of the Washington papers a piece written by some of those who were interested in certain matters coming before a Congressional committee concerned with the schools of this city of Washington, D. C. I noticed that some of those men, unacquainted with the practical value of intangible things, were talking of the advisability of beginning to make economies with music and art, because those things, they said, are luxuries, nice enough if you have the money, but we must now conserve and keep the practical things of life and let the luxuries go where they will. That has been said in other portions of this country. You have met it in your own school systems, but it is important as a trend of the times when such a sentiment comes out of a great capital city to which we look for inspiration in every city and town of this country. For that reason I think it especially important this morning that we shall consider the practical value of those intangible things of life which we all know, when all is said and done, are the only things that will endure. In this day, when it is something of a burden for some people to live at all, when the noise and the struggle and hectic problems are confusing us all, Department of Superintendence 629 it is a time as never before when we need to build up for these children in the schools “cities of refuge,” as Henry Turner Bailey used to say, to which they may repair and come forth refreshed on the morrow to meet their problems with courage and with joy. In a family here in Washington was a little eleven-year-old boy who had heard his father and mother talking a great deal about this thing known as the depression. No speech would be complete here unless we spoke respect¬ fully of that part of our civilization today. The parents little noticed that this boy was drinking in everything that was said, but they noticed that very soon he didn’t eat very well and at night he tossed about and wouldn’t go to sleep when he should. One night his father, almost in a scolding mood, was called by his mother to wrestle with the boy and make him go to sleep. He said, “What is the trouble? Why is it that you are so naughty and that you won’t compose your mind and go to sleep and let your father and mother have some peace?” He said, “Why, Daddy, you don’t understand. I am worried.” “Why,” his father said, “what is it? What is it that is worrying you?” “Oh,” he said, “it’s this awful depression, and the schools going to pieces. Daddy, does that mean the buildings are all going to fall down pretty soon, and aren’t we going to have any place to go to school at all?” We little realize how the generation that is with us now is going to bear a shadow, unless we are very careful to keep the beauty and the song and the joy before them and keep the worries and the perplexities and sorrows somewhere in the background for those of us whose shoulders are broad to bear burdens. There is a bright side to that story I have just told you, because it shows that children love to go to school, and that they worry when they think the door of the schoolhouse might be closed, contrary to some of the public superstition that prevails against that thought. What are some of these cities of refuge? For each of you, I suppose, there is a different city, a place to which you may go. All of you, like myself, have times when you work under conditions, perhaps, that seem unappreciative of all you are trying to do. You often ask yourself the question,” Is it worth¬ while for me to plan and sacrifice? Shouldn’t I be selfish? Shouldn’t I look out for myself? Does it pay to keep my mind on the welfare of my com¬ munity, when sometimes they seem unappreciative?” Now in this world none of us can carry on even in prosperous times, unless we lead two lives, it seems to me: one life with the people we have to deal with on the street, who often hurt us, who often criticize us and make the burdens of the day seem many. The other world is the one to which we go, perhaps, in the evening, where we shut out the critics, shut out the enemies, choose our friends, and there they are, and we say, “At last I have come into my own. In this quiet room where my true friends are ever waiting, I will have my real day and my real life, and the other is only incidental to it.” 630 National Education Association For some people this life, this city of refuge, this hope of the soul, is found in music. We are the music makers, And we are the dreamers of dreams, Standing by lone sea waters, And wandering by desolate streams, World losers and world forsakers, On whom the pale moon gleams. Yet we are the makers and shakers Of the world forever, it seems. For many others art is the city of refuge to which we go when the world presses too heavily upon our souls: Work thou for pleasure; paint, or sing, Or carve the thing Thou lovest, tho the body starve; Work for the work’s sake, and it then may be That all these things shall be added unto thee. For many of us this city of refuge, this place of the soul, is literature — the fine classic things of prose and the beautiful sections of poetry. When the day grows dark we still are humble and we still come to those words, “Faith of our fathers, known of old,” that thru these generations built up this country and made this city possible. I was very much interested in the discussion that I heard among some people of very high renown in educational circles about how mediocre some of the poems that we recite are. So I was interested to know what a truly great man, head of one of the greatest universities in this country, selected as his city of refuge ; for when he was asked what poem had helped him most thruout all his life, Nicholas Murray Butler, one-time president of this great National Education Association and now president of Columbia Uni¬ versity, did not select high, mysterious thoughts. He selected that beautiful poem of love and childhood, “In School Days.” May I refresh your mind just a minute? Still sits the schoolhouse by the road, A ragged beggar sunning. Around it still the sumachs grow, And blackberry vines are running. Within, the master’s desk is seen, Deep-scarred with raps official; The warping floor, the battered seats, The jack-knife’s carved initial. Long years ago a winter sun Shone over it at setting Lit up its western window-panes, And low eaves’ icy fretting. Department of Superintendence 631 It touched the tangled golden curls, And brown eyes full of grieving, Of one who still her steps delayed When all the school were leaving. For near her stood the little boy Her childish favor singled ; His cap pulled low upon a face Where pride and shame were mingled. Pushing with restless feet the snow To right and left, they lingered While restlessly the tiny hands The blue-checked apron fingered. ‘I’m sorry that I spelt the word, I hate to go above you, Because,’ the brown eyes lower fell, ‘Because you see, I love you.’ Sweet memory to a gray-haired man That dear child face is showing. Dear girl, the grasses on her grave Have forty years been growing. He lives to learn in life’s hard school How few who pass above him Lament their triumph and his loss, Like her, because they love him. And that was the poem, full of sweetness and love of childhood and remembrance of the happy days of school, that the great leader of one of our great universities chose for his city of refuge, even in these days when his fame has spread from one part of the world to the other. So I think this morning when these wonderful people that we have as representatives have finished their addresses we shall have decided that along with our practical deliberations we will take back over this country the spiritual values — the sense of beauty and the loveliness of life — as expressed in music, and art, and literature. When the intervals of darkness come, as come they must, when the soul see’th not, when the sun is hid, and the stars withdraw their shining, we repair to the lamps which were kindled by the race to guide our steps to the East again, where the dawn is. 632 National Education Association LITERATURE IN EDUCATION JOHN H. finley, OF the New York Times, NEW YORK, N. Y. Literature back in the early days of English meant acquaintance with letters or books, humane learning, and literary culture. Later it came by a figure of speech (which we used to call synecdoche) to be applied to the writings themselves which have claim to consideration on the ground of beauty of form or emotional effect. Then, tho this high definition continued, it came in colloquial use to mean “printed matter of any kind.” (Even that which is not fit to print is sometimes called literature.) There is now a “literature” for everything under the sun — from horse-shoeing to health. But before I begin to speak of its part in education, I make a petition not to the Muses, as was the wont of the makers of literature in ancient times, but to the Parts of Speech (once called the Parts of Reason) without whose assistance literature in any of its definitions could not exist: O Parts of Speech, whose number is that of the Muses — Nouns, Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs, Adjectives, Prepositions, Conjunctions, Interjections, and Articles (for the Articles have been given independence) : You who preserve our laws so that they are written as on tables of stone; who remember what is forgotten even by our bodies, by the pictures that fade, and by the cairns that crumble; who can portray thoughts so subtle, so profound, so exalted that no artist, no architect, no musician even can interpret them; who can endow the human voice with a speech small and quiet and yet mightier than that of the hurricane, earthquake, or fire; whose syntax can work changes more wonderful than those of synthetic chemistry, and whose etymology is more discerning of human spirit than is the analytical chemistry of earthly elements; whose miracles of com¬ position are beyond those of synthetic chemistry; and whose printed pages, like the oak leaves of Dodona, whisper the oracles of the gods and like the books of the Sibyl contain the destinies of States! Grant that those who daily avail of your declensions, inflections, and conjugations may be enabled to use them to glorify God, benefit man, and approach that perfection which, according to Saint James, is promised to those who stumble not in word. It is fitting, too, that this greatest of educational bodies in the world should also remember those who gave us the alphabet without whose letters even the parts of speech could carry no message beyond the range of the human voice and oral tradition. Especially so this year, for since last you met it has been discovered that a mine foreman in the region of Mt. Sinai formed the letters which Cadmus later carried to Greece. The name of this Bedouin foreman was Sahmilat, who invented an alphabet in order to keep his ac¬ counts. These crude letters became the ancestors of all our Western alpha¬ bets and so of all our written literature. Thus Mt. Sinai gave us both our letters and our Commandments and later, by reason of the transporting service of Cadmus, gave us also the epics of Homer, the Dialogues of Plato, and all the addresses of this conference. So we may say, “Praised be God and His Servant Sahmilat!” As to Cadmus, I once had converse with his shade during the War, out on the coasts of Greece, and heard him in this monologue express his doubt whether his alphabet had after all been useful to humanity: Department of Superintendence 633 When I contemplate the ravage Of my alphabetic lore ; See the neolithic savage Waging culture-loving war, Using logarithmic tables To direct his hellish fire, Preaching philosophic fables To excuse his mad desire; Hear a litany invoking Hate in God’s benignant mind ; See men shooting, drowning, choking Bayonetting humankind; See the forest trees transmuted Into lettered pulp while man, With a brain deep convoluted, Takes the place of primal Pan And, instead of finding pleasure In a simple life with song, Spends his planetary leisure Reading how the world’s gone wrong — Seeing, hearing which I’ve wondered, ’Mid this murder, greed, and fret, Whether I have sinned or blundered Giving man the alphabet. I saw him in later years when I attended the opening of a library in Athens, built by American funds, and found him in other mood, for he had repented and was quite content that he had saved the alphabet. For, except for the alphabet and the written parts of speech, their descendants, man would still be in a lower state of civilization, unable to pass on thru litera¬ ture from generation to generation the wisdom learned of experience, the aspirations of the mind’s desire under discipline. For literature is but life become immortal in the word — the flesh become spirit. I have often thought of life as a verb, the vital part of speech, which the Almighty has given us to conjugate, whether transitive or intransitive. Born we all are into the first person, singular number, present tense, passive voice, imperative mood. Gradually we begin to put in the past, out of our parents experience, supplemented by literature’s memories of the race, till we come to the infinitive of the eternity behind us and then inflect the future fiom the first periphrastic, the about to be, to the other infinitive. We are largely dependent upon this help from literature for what we have from the past and in hope for the future, because we are assured that there is no trans¬ mission by inheritance of what we, with so great effort, acquire. Piofessoi McDougall of Duke University has faith that his rats or mice will demon¬ strate that acquired character might be tranmitted. I expressed the hope that they would succeed in doing this by a year ago last December, the cen¬ tennial of the death of Lamarck, who died in faith that this would yet be proved. As it is, we have still to depend upon literature to help our children to learn again what we have learned ; otherwise, as Cicero said, they will ever be children, being ignorant of what happened before they were born. “For what is a man’s lifetime unless the memory of its events is woven with those of earlier days?” 634 National Education Association What is literature s part in education ? I have been hoping that in this Washingtonian year one phase of the celebration would be the leading of all alien tongues into the literacy of this land. If we set about it, we could, in America, have a nation of the highest literacy in the world despite the poly¬ glot charactei of our population. There was in wide use a century ago a primer, speller, and reader combined called The Only Sure Guide to the English Tongue. Such a book Secretary Wilbur’s committee is ready to put into the hands of every illiterate. Beyond this I turn for advice to one whose book is ever at my elbow— The Torch , by George Edward Woodberry, who describes literature’s office in the development and immortalizing of the race mind, which is the sole thing that is permanent in history, the epitome of all the past, and contains . human energy, knowledge, experience that survives, the resultant of mil¬ lions of lives whose earthy power it stores in one death force. The race mind, building itself from immemorial time out of the mystery of thought and passion, as generation after generation kneels and fights and fades, takes unerringly the best that anywhere comes to be in the world holds to it with the cling of fate, and lets all else fall to oblivion. It has a marvelous economy. It wipes out the barriers of time, language, and coun¬ try. It undoes the mischief of Babel and restores to mankind one tongue in which all things can be understood by all men. It fuses the Bibles of all nations in one wisdom and one practise. It knocks off the tribal fetters of caste and creed; and, substituting thought for blood as the bond of the world, it slowly liberates that free soul which is one in all men and common to all mankind. To free the soul in the individual life , and to accomplish the unity of mankind — that is its work.” To share in this work is the peculiar and characteristic office of literature. This fusion of the nations of the earth, this substitution of the thought-tie for the blood-tie, this enfranchisement of the soul, is its chief function ; for literature is the organ of the race-mind. That is why literature is immortal. How is this association with the race mind to be enjoyed by the individ¬ ual ? The parent and the school must make the beginning, and the library, with other agencies of adult education, must carry on. I am sure that we can learn to use letters in less time than is usually taken so that literature may begin its work earlier. But to incite the boy or girl, the youth, the man or woman, to make the highest use of literacy, so that wherever the flame of God may be lit, it has been lit — that is the most important labor in the world, the supreme labor of the school. I began to parse Paradise Lost when I was ten years old ; but I remember most vividly the day when as a college freshman I first read Lycidas with never-to-be forgotten joy. That day one sheep at least who looked up was fed. As on another day the same shepherd-teacher, whose photograph I keep on my desk, suggested my reading of Parkman’s Oregon Trail , a suggestion which changed the whole course of my life. My memory of that day is not like Matthew Arnold’s Oxus in Sohrab and Rustum: forgetting the bright speed he had in his high mountain cradle in Pamere. Department of Superintendence 635 It was the same teacher who became the escort of Virgil, Dante, and me thru the Inferno and Purgatorio into Paradiso. A dark corner in an old print shop where I learned my trade as a printer in my free hours in college was where Prometheus was bound, and I was with him for all the rest of my life until he was free as I put into type my translation from Aeschylus, that I might be ready for the next day’s recita¬ tion. These are but illustrations of what I owe to the teachers who led my feet into paths trod by men who have made most precious contributions to the world mind. “Education is merely the process by which the individual enters the race mind, avails himself of it, absorbs it.” A man is a man by participating in it. What is true of men of genius on a great scale and in high degree is true of every man born into the world. Literature (to repeat) is the organ of the race mind ; education the process by which the individual enters it and be¬ comes more and more man. He attains this in spiritual life mainly by means of literature, where the chief end is the freeing of the soul and the unity of mankind. James Truslow Adams in his Epic of America ends his remarkably dis¬ criminating story of the past of America with the lines which tell us the task that clearly lies before us is to Rebuild in beauty on the burnt-out coals, Not to the heart’s desire, but the soul’s. In his epilogue describing the American dream, a dream in which life should be richer and fuller for every man with opportunity for each accord¬ ing to his ability — not a dream of motor cars and high wages merely, but a dream of a social order in which each man and each woman shall be able to attain the fullest stature of which he or she is innately capable and be recognized for what each is, regardless of the fortuitous circumstances of birth or position — he finds that dream exemplified by the Library of Con¬ gress, our chief library of libraries, our national House of Letters, in which, out of the common treasury, democracy, the people themselves have pro¬ vided the literature in which not only America, but the entire human race has written its history, sung its songs, expressed its longings for the ineffable, in every language — in all pursuing the mystery of the mind’s desire, the desire which is the evidence of man’s divinity and the hope of his immortality. This library is the symbol of a nation in which silent readers, old and young (no longer young alone), rich and poor, black and white, the execu¬ tive and the laborer, the scholar and the school boy, all read together in their own home the literature of man’s struggle upward, of his faith and his inextinguishable hope. For why, he continually says to himself, should he have been led so high if he can go no higher? His literature in its high¬ est definition, to whose glory thousands of libraries have been built by vil¬ lage, town, and city, and in microcosmic form put even in the district school- houses, is the evidence of things not seen, save by poet and seer, the substance of things hoped for. 636 National Education Association There sat opposite me at table one morning an astronomer who was com¬ ing from his night s work as I was going to my day’s work, and we at once began to talk shop” — his “shop,” that is, about the stars which were in his shop s ceiling. He informed me in the course of the conversation that there are now known to be worlds whirling in space 375 quadrillions of miles away. In rising from the table I found that I had been sitting back to back to Herbeit Putnam, Librarian of Congress, who asked as I passed, “Do you generally begin the day with such cosmic conversation?” With the assistance of a real teacher or a skilled librarian, one might begin every day with cosmic conversation and find one’s world made new out of the long past ! Those who are gathered here, teachers, librarians, editors — teachers all — are the representatives of the cosmos in a very proper sense; so much of the cosmos, at any rate, as is articulate and to such part of humanity within your reach as is spiritually literate. I look forward to the day when we shall have a system of adult education in every state which will reach every man and woman as it is now reaching every child. And the librarian will be as important a factor in that place as the foimal teachei or lecturer, perhaps the most important and inspiring factor. The freedom of the soul and the unity of mankind — these are the aims of literature in education. Of the way to the soul’s freedom 1 have made suggestions. As to the other aim: some months ago I heard a voice from across the ocean speaking about the moratorium say, “We have at last learned that the earth is round.” It was Pythagoras, the mathematician and teacher, and Eratosthenes, the librarian at Alexandria, who first proclaimed the sphericity of the earth. But we are coming to realize as never before the oneness of the race that is held to this round globe by gravitation and by the mind s desire. Planetary consciousness, which is more than international- mindedness, is the second great aim of literature in education. Pythagoras was right: the earth is round, Tho’ smaller than he estimated. To its circumference we all are bound And can’t be wholly isolated. Its two ^r is our predestined lot Till we become at last tangential — That is till, sun and moon and stars forgot, Alone we fly to our Sequential. That Sequential is the future perfect tense of the things here in the body by the soul in its conjugation of life in all its moods and tenses with the aid of literature. ART IN EDUCATION LORADO TAFT, SCULPTOR, CHICAGO, ILL. One of our greatest writers has said that art is the ark of the covenant in which all ideals of beauty and excellence are carried before the people. I believe that earnestly. However, another wise man, somewhat more cynical, Department of Superintendence 637 has made the observation that with most of us the chief preoccupation of life is its continuance ; in other words, we are so occupied with the desperate task of making a living that most of us forget to make a life. I formed a sort of confession of faith in a few words which I have often quoted. It is, first, that we are in a world of beauty, immersed in beauty, as Emerson put it, and most of us Americans are missing it. I mean the beauty of nature about us, which might be such a solace and such a joy in our lives of hasty, rushing toil. Second, that we have a glorious inheritance from the past, the great thoughts and ideals of men, to which we Americans are particularly indifferent, to which we are oblivious. Third, the corollary that follows, that there is talent in every school, in every community. There are everywhere some who are called to a special vocation, adapting themselves to achievements in these lines, and this talent, as a rule, is allowed to spring up, gladly, like the plants from the seed in the Scripture parable, only to wither away because of lack of appreciation and lack of sympathy. I read an expression recently that fits in here, an expression of Lowell s, that it is the world that one carries about inside himself which is important. He says that the world without is colored, receives its grace, its color, its value, by this world within. It reminds me of that expression of one of the Jameses — was it William or Henry? When they were boys, they carried on quite a correspondence and one wrote to the other : “After all, it is the amount of life that a man feels that makes you respect him.” I like that expression : 4 It is the amount of life that a man feels that makes you respect him.” I have always been glad that my people were poor. It gave me an oppor¬ tunity to gain so many things that I might not otherwise have known. In the winter, in the coldest weather, the kitchen was the diningroom, and the study, and the family sittingroom, and a right cheerful place it was, with the teakettle humming away on the big stove. I look back with great joy on the evenings of study there. In the morning we completed our hasty toilet around the stove, interrupted by visits to the window to see what Jack Frost had painted there. You people who grew up in houses that have dry heat cannot realize the beauty of some of those works of art. We children had our attention called to those things very, very early ; in fact, the sun rose in the east and gave us prismatic pictures thru those frost scenes. You would think, with the same teakettle and the same amount of moisture in the air and the same tempera¬ ture, that every morning would give you the same picture. Nothing of the sort! One morning it would be a mountainside with pine trees and imaginary travelers there, and we children delighted in that. The next morning it might be a rich, elaborate scene in the jungle of South America or in Africa or somewhere similar. I am so grateful that we had to live around the tea¬ kettle. I have always had the idea that I should like to have a new kind of museum with all plaster casts which should be kept clean and be piopetly 638 National Education Association lighted with a carefully studied placing, each with its own light which might be turned off until the moment you wished to see it. Then also I have had the thought, which seems never to have occurred to any curator of a museum, of placing these things in historical sequence, so that as you walked down the aisles of my cathedral — it would be as big as you could afford to make it or as small as this platform — you would see the unfolding of the ideas of a nation, and, if you wanted to study and lead your children thru the development of Egyptian art thru the ages, you would follow it as on a screen, the budding and blossoming in a movie, of a plant or a flower. If you are interested in a certain period, you would take a transcept right across and see what was happening in the fifth century before Christ in Egypt, in Persia; see the building of the Parthenon, the culmination of the most beautiful thing man had ever dreamed and the most beautiful dream that ever has found fulfilment. Those aie some of the things that might be done with the humble plaster cast if it were used with discretion and proper intelligence. In every community there are some with peculiar gifts, some waiting expectant to find themselves. That explains why I feel such enthusiasm about that prosaic subject of Ivory soap. What an amazing thing it is for a child to work eagerly at a bar of soap and bring something out of it besides the hated use of washing! I have felt a romantic enthusiasm about the discovery of the sculptural uses of soap. I see five thousand sent in — each year increasing in number and increasing in skill and I think of the joy that has come into the lives of the little people, and perhaps the increasing recognition of their toil even by the parents at home. I had the good fortune to discover in Decatur, Illinois, a young coal miner with a gift direct from heaven. At the end of my demonstration in modeling a schoolteacher theie told me about him, a boy of eighteen, and brought him up to me, and said, “This is a French boy, a coal miner who has come here recently with his parents. They are too poor to send him to school. He spends his daylight hours in the coal mine, in the depths where he never sees the sunlight except on Sundays, but on Sundays he comes to my studio and paints, and draws, and plays the violin.” I liked the boy. There was an earnestness, a sweetness, a modesty there which was delightful, and he understood my French, which was very tact¬ ful on his part. I went back to Chicago. We were building the World’s Fair there, and finally I could resist no longer. I wrote to him, starting a career of mingled altruism and other things which has kept me poor ever since, and the boy came to Chicago. I was in charge of a department at the World’s Fair Building, creating socalled art, and we set him to work. I said, Leonard, I don’t know whether you have any talents in this particular direction or any desire for it, but I should like to give you a Department of Superintendence 639 chance.” He took hold with a right goodwill. He cleaned pans and carried water and plaster and played his part there well, meantime keeping his eyes open. How little I realized what he was learning at the time! There was much going on and it was an inspiring occasion. Some weeks later he went home on a vacation for a few days, and when he came back he brought a little head wrapped in a great bundle of newspapers. We stood by as he began to shuck these papers off. Finally he came to the head, the head of the home baby which he had modeled, a little head so appealing, so tender, so beautifully molded that it reminded me of the work of those smaller masters of the Renaissance. We said, “Leonard, did you really make that head?” “Yes,” he said, “is it good?” So simple, so naive! Recently he did a very noble figure of Lincoln for Dixon, Illinois, and when we praised him and told him that it was going to take its place among the great portraits of Lincoln, he said, “I hope it is good.” That is the way he sizes himself up. “Leonard,” we said, “that is the work of an accomplished sculptor,” and I proved it to him by sending it to one of the expositions, the one at Atlanta, where it received a silver medal. They thought it was the work of an accom¬ plished sculptor — and it was. I said, “How do you account for yourself? Where did you get this talent anyway?” He said, “I owe it to my mother.” No deprecation. He didn’t say, “I am no good”; he said, “I owe it to my mother. You can tell by the names she gave us. (I hadn’t heard them.) My name isn’t Leonard. It is Leonardo.” “You mean after Leonardo da Vinci?” “Yes.” And his brother was named Raphael, and the next brother was named Michelangelo, and the next brother was — well, that is pretty nearly enough, isn’t it — Andrea (I suppose Andrea del Sarto). Tho I cannot follow her taste altogether, it came to me as a revelation that that poor peasant woman had been vouchsafed the miracle of all time. She had been able to give to her child what she did not herself possess, merely because of her love. She adored the stories of the great masters of the past. Michelangelo is digging in a coal mine in Illinois — or it may be Raphael — but Leonard has become one of our great sculptors, whose name you would know except that he is so modest he never goes out and gives lectures. I want to end with a quotation. It is from the great philosopher Spinoza. I am not informed as to his theories or beliefs ; I only know this one quo¬ tation which struck me years ago as magnificent. He said, “I cannot believe that the good of this life can lie in the possession of those things which for one man to possess is for others to lose, but rather in those things which all may possess alike and where each man’s prosperity increases his neigh¬ bor’s.” If that does not apply to the great and beautiful world of art, I don’t know for what it was intended. 640 National Education Association MUSIC IN EDUCATION WALTER DAMROSCH, NEW YORK, N. Y.1 It seems unnecessary at this late date to stress the cultural advantage of music. Greek mythology is full of it. Plato stresses it. Shakespeare empha¬ sizes it. Today, when we wish to emphasize the cultural position of a coun¬ try, we define the importance of its poets, sculptors, painters, and musicians. Of all these arts, music is the one which appeals most strongly to those emotions with which Providence endows us at our birth and which may be developed into a blessing or a curse. When I speak of music I naturally mean the music given to us by the great master composers, for in their hands our emotions are ennobled and spiritualized. Who shall deny that Bach and Beethoven often give us glimpses of the mysterious world beyond the every day which surrounds us, and in that way connect us with the hereafter which religion holds out to us as a hope, if not a certainty? It is interesting to note that the importance of music, as a necessary part in the education of the young, has come to our school authorities within recent years. I can remember that in the “seventies,” when I was a boy in a New York school, music had absolutely no place in the daily curriculum; and those few children who, like myself, had a strong love for it, had to satisfy this need after school hours. The rest of the school grew up as bar¬ barians, so far as an interest in art was concerned. But almost overnight the miracle happened, and what was but a little plant, springing from the soil of twenty years ago, has now grown into a veritable rose bush, with branches and flowers stretching over all the states of the union. Today, literally thousands of schools and millions of pupils, under the guidance of welltrained music supervisors, are making the study of music a part of their curriculum. They are taught not only the grammar of music, not only how to sing in tune and with properly modulated voices, but thousands of high-school orchestras have been formed, and the study of the various orchestral instruments, eagerly pursued, helps to develop the esthetic and emotional part of these youngsters in the best possible way. The invention of the radio — of the highly perfected microphones and loud speakers which today transmit the most delicate qualities of voices and instruments with magic fidelity — has had much to do with this quick development. The radio has enabled me to reach millions of young students in my Friday morning Music Appreciation Hour, and as I give my listeners some idea of the various musical forms employed by the masters and illus¬ trate them with my orchestra, and as I show them the tone qualities of the different orchestral instruments, I am able to develop not only a great love for good music, but to stimulate the children to self-expression. For the first time in the history of our country, the children who live far away 1 In the absence of Dr. Damrosch this paper was read by Ernest LaPrade, assistant to the Musical Counsel, National Broadcasting Company. Department of Superintendence 641 from the great cultural centers, on the farms and ranches, in the small country towns and villages, are brought into intimate personal contact with the music of Mozart, Beethoven, and Wagner. A new world has been opened to them, and their response has been phenomenal. As I said a moment ago, the teaching of music in our public schools has now attained a high degree of efficiency, and it is characteristic of our music educators that they should wish to test the results. To this end the Music Supervisors National Conference, in cooperation with the National Broad¬ casting Company, has arranged a Music Discrimination Contest which is to be held during the biennial meeting of the Conference in April. A program of music cv various kinds — classic and modern, instrumental and vocal — will be broadcast under my direction, and students all over the country will be invited to identify the style and form of each composition presented. This is a most significant project, the outcome of which will, I am sure, be of great interest to you, as it will be to me. I am convinced that the foundations of a great musical culture are now being laid. Thanks to the radio, I can indicate and stimulate the zeal of the young builders, but the actual planning and erection of the building is in your hands, ladies and gentlemen. You are the master builders; you are in con¬ stant personal contact with these little bricklayers and stone masons. I implore you to continue this work, to see that the best of musicians are employed in the schools as teachers in singing and as conductors of the school orchestras. Under your kind and sympathetic hands these children will grow up into manhood and womanhood with an intimate knowledge of this beau¬ tiful art of music. It will be a companion to them during their later years. It will ennoble their lives, soften their days of adversity, and help to prepare them for the life everlasting. SEVENTH GENERAL SESSION, WEDNESDAY EVENING, FEBRUARY 24 Education for a Changing Social, Economic , and Political Jf orld EDUCATION FOR A CHANGING SOCIAL WORLD DAVID SNEDDEN, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. All wellinformed Americans are aware that very significant, changes are taking place in our own societies as well as in those of other regions. We are not wellagreed as to how momentous, how critical for the futuie wellbeing of ourselves and our children these changes are likely to prove. More than any earlier people in history we are convinced of the desirability and prac¬ ticability of at least affecting, if not controling, many of these changes in the interests of human wellbeing — by more science or better social machinery, by legislation or education. 642 National Education Association For purposes of this discussion, it is important to note that one very important social change of our times, especially characteristic of Americans, is that of iegarding our educational systems themselves as agencies which can and should move and readjust with the times. In order to avoid triteness and repeating what are platitudes, it is my intention to select for discussion here what seem to me certain very rele¬ vant findings of my sociological studies as to which widely varying opinions are properly to be held because of our insufficient scientific knowledge. It is hoped that some of the topics will incite to further thinking, as presented under five heads: (a) The need of very discriminating thinking about social changes; (b) recognition of the enormous potentialities of America’s greatly expanded educational facilities; (c) certain rapid shiftings of our educational purposes and objectives; (d) certain needed shiftings of our educational means and methods; (e) certain probable shiftings of our emphases on school personnel. It is proposed in the following paragraphs to give fairly dogmatic expressions to the writer’s present convictions on these points. Need joy discriminative thinking about social changes — Economic depres¬ sions and 1 rars, the headlines of our newspapers, the urgent messages of our magazine ontributors, some few of the new mechanisms of communication and of p' kver distribution, are all undoubtedly intensifying a variety of crowd-mi vded, heavily emotionalized reactions among modern peoples which greatly disturb both their sense of perspective and their appreciation of fund ament al human values. Young persons and ardent persons and disillusioned persons are especially prone greatly to exaggerate both the substance and the probable consequences of what may well turn out to be minor fluctuations in the collective life of peoples. In spite of the varied assortment of history studies now offered in our schools and colleges, it seems very doubtful whether most young Americans 3Tet acquire anything like adequate appreciations of how great, even cata¬ clysmic, have been the social changes of past eras, whether we think of the expansions of the Roman Empire, the spread of Christianity, the invasions of the barbarians, the rise of the feudal system and its consequent collapse, the Hundred Years’ War, the ruinousness of the Thirty Years’ War, the effects of the discovery of the New World, the inventions of gunpowder and print- ing, the French Revolution, or the spread of British imperialism. Like some modern catastrophic events, or huge marches of particular peoples, or the transforming powers of new inventions, all of the foregoing entailed some changes in civilized societies of great import, whilst in many other respects working no momentous changes whatever. Not a few modern writers of note seem to think that historic civilization is to be swept from its moorings because certain new agencies of destruction have been brought into warfare, or because certain types of production have learned to employ new science and new mechanisms, or because certain vener- Department of Superintendence 643 able religious beliefs or moral standards no longer evoke devoted adherence, or because governmental agencies of the collective actions of great numbeis seem to become partly paralyzed, or because revolting youth becomes impa¬ tient of the achievements of the elders. These heavily emotionalized disturbances of men and women of good native powers of intelligence and of sensitive altruistic spirits seem fiequently to reflect a new type of herd-mindedness and herd-panic deriving from sev¬ eral sources. All those of our modern peoples who read newspapers, listen to the radio, and have access to libraries have, obviously, increased enormously what may be called their collective or social nervous systems. A slight shock, a momentary disturbance, anywhere in the world is almost instantly trans¬ mitted to the sensoriums of millions, already sensitive and raw from countless other shocks which even a century ago would hardly have been perceived at . . Ml Again, large proportions of the more sensitive spirits of our time— possibly, above all, those who have shared deeply in the advantages of our secondary and collegiate schools of learning— seem to have fallen victims of great expectations.” They seem somehow to have come to believe in visions of pain¬ less life, enduring prosperities, widespread goodwill among men, controls of the adverse conditions of nature, and other good things which neither human nature nor outward nature nor deity itself were capable of producing. . Inevitably, disillusionments of many kinds and degrees were certain to overtake these sensitive souls. They have tried hard to escape from old condi¬ tions which seemed bad. They have hoped much from pending changes Hut they soon learn also to apprehend much from changes which practical men promote and control. They often speak with terror in their voices 1 heir disappointments, apprehensions, and angers are not dissimilar to those ex¬ hibited ages ago by men who had hypnotized themselves into believing that the gods would give succor and salvation which it was later found the gods could not or would not give. > . ... If, then, educators are to take drastic action in shifting educational policies and practices, either to adapt them to pending social changes or to enable the men and women equipped by our educational agencies the better to adapt themselves to such changes, or even in degrees to control them towards in¬ crease of the goods of life for men, they must very discriminatingly study such changes and rely for advice especially upon the really sane and com¬ petent evaluators of such change. These educators must resist piesent wi e spread dispositions to become either panic-stricken or fascinated by par¬ ticular types of change or by novel doctrines of what religion or govern¬ ment or industry or even education should do about it. Perhaps above all they should strive to remain clear-headed and cool-headed in the presence of the numerous subtle propagandistic movements which are everywhere openly or secretly on foot. < . Perhaps we need frequently to remind ourselves in these days of intense dynamic enthusiasms among educators that in most of the vital aieas of socia .change it is always difficult, and often impossible, for schools and colleges, as 644 National Education Association such, as well as for the professional personnel conducting the instructional and other educative functions, to originate findings of importance. Schools and colleges, like newspapers, libraries, and other sources of endless possible learnings, are primarily agencies of diffusion of findings. One man can make an invention, write a splendid new book, or discover a novel means of social control thru research. Then thousands of teachers in schools can make the new discovery available to millions. Even in the crucial matter of deciding which among new inventions, in¬ terpretations, valuations, explorations, and foundations of creeds, every day being made, should be incorporated into the curricula of offerings of our schools, few educators can afford to rely upon their own judgments alone. Here, too, they must often defer to centrally placed specialists, even in the new increasingly critical areas of social or endemic valuation. America s splendidly expanded material and personnel foundations for education Educators, social scientists, political policy makers, and others strongly convinced of the possibilities of our collective obligations of mak¬ ing education serve the changing needs of our time far more effectively than it >et does, should not fail to appreciate how splendidly our people have in iecent )eais expanded the material and personnel facilities for effective education. Upon our public elementary and high schools are now being expended some three billions of dollars of public monies annually. Nearly five million of our ablest-minded youth are voluntarily attending high schools. Our colleges and universities are enroling something like a million students. Relatively few public schools are now in session fewer than thirty-two to thirty-six weeks a year. Compulsory fultime school attendance prevails in substantially all states, while in many, partime or fultime attendance becomes obligatory to sixteen and beyond. Nowhere else in the world are there educa¬ tional systems with such large proportions of non-teaching officers and other specialists as with us. Nowhere else in the world are so many and varied types of research and other inquiry toward the improvements of education being prosecuted as with us. And certainly in few other countries are public faiths in the socially ameliorative potentialities of school and college educations anywhere nearly as widespread and persistent as with us Americans. At the session of this Department held two years ago in Atlantic City, the general subject for discussion was “Achievements of American Education.” Impressive exhibits of achievements were then made — in such areas as build¬ ings, attendance, teacher-training, staffing, equipment. Unfortunately, we possess as yet but few reliable measures of the final social efficiencies resulting from our gigantic achievements in material and personnel. We can clearly evaluate literacy as one of the precious end-prod¬ ucts of school educations. And educators can hold that in general America is now nearly completely a literate people. But other end-values — superior moral character, better health, high voca¬ tional competencies, fine personal cultures, approvable civic behaviors in Department of Superintendence 645 conforming to law and order, the civic initiatives of our abler men and women — all these are as yet nearly impossible of appraisal. We know, indeed, that the physical health of the American people is steadily improving in certain decisive respects ; and there are good reasons for holding that our elementary schools have had an important share in bringing such results to pass. But as respects criminality and vagrancy, political incompetency, crude¬ ness of culture, moral greed, fickleness of taste, civic rectitude, family morality, and popular regard for scientific interpretation, it is obvious that we still fall far below our aspired-after and our education-promised goals. One must wonder that the faiths of Americans in the virtue-produc¬ ing powers of their schools and colleges still hold so firm as they do. Upon this note we can take up what the present writer believes to be by far the most important specific topic of the present discussion. Shifting our educational objectives with the changing social world — The efficient educations of tomorrow, whether conceived as stabilizing and per¬ petuating a valuably functional part of the social inheritance, or as equipping men and women to adapt themselves to changing needs and conditions in their societies, must more and more find and define their guiding purposes in terms of proven social values, tangible things of worth in the large and small societies now or prospectively functional. The concrete objectives of our school and college educations — that is, the actual goals of learning, not only qualitatively defined but also quantitatively delimited — must be more and more related to socially valuable purposes ; otherwise the chances of miscarriage of effort, of missing the mark, are far too great. The ostensible purposes of America’s secondary and liberal college educa¬ tions are still far too much of the nebulous and aspirational order. Com¬ monly there exists an unbridged gap of unknown breadth between our senti¬ mentalized expressions of purposes at these school levels and the actual objectives of learnings of algebra or ancient history or written composition or chemistry or home economics or Latin as actually achieved. Especially are we under obligations to discover and delimit the purposes of our school educations in terms of proven concrete social utilities if we wish such educations to serve and better to serve the changing, the evolving, needs of our dynamic world. Let us take a concrete example from that easiest of all departments of school education in which to define really functional objectives; namely, that of health conserving education. Three generations ago, the dangerous and destructive diseases of these United States included cholera, yellow fever, and typhus fever. If the schools and colleges of that time had undertaken serious responsibilities for health conserving education, they would surely have made much use of whatever science, practical art, and other means of prevention and cure of those dis¬ eases might have been available. Today, our programs of hygienic education need never mention such ailments except as, for our country, historic curi¬ osities. 646 National Education Association A generation ago the dread children’s disease, diphtheria, ran every year thru our population like a fire in the undergrowth. Like the infantile paraly¬ sis of today, it prowled “as a thief in the night,” it struck savagely, it could seldom be prevented and not often cured. Of its hygiene there was little to teach the rank and file of either children or parents. Science had not yet learned to prevent or cure diphtheria. Teachers could only describe it and pass on. Today, what a difference! Modern medicine is equipped to banish diph¬ theria from our land, along with yellow fever and cholera, so soon as it can have the general cooperation of parents. Even very young children can be authoritatively told things about the prevention and cure of this disease which they can and will remember, even to the extent of changing the hygienic and expert-service-using habits of parents. The opportunities of our schools from the lowest to the highest to contrib¬ ute to really functional education toward the further personal and social control and improvement of the health of our people multiply as medical science advances. Here, indeed, are we in the midst of social change! Here, truly, we can yearly be off with some of the old and on with something new — provided we educators do not so much claim empty powers of originating as we yield ourselves to the expert guidance of specialists in this field. If advances in modern medicine and other controls of personal health and community sanitation obviously require that we should frequently readapt our educational objectives in that field, how even more urgent are our obli¬ gations to change and improve with the times as respects that education which is supposed to prepare for effective political citizenship! It is the present writer’s conviction that America’s systems of public schools and colleges are weakest in just this division of social needs and values. In part this weakness is due to the absence — perhaps a necessary absence — of a single, simple focusing center for civic education, such centers as are clearly in evidence, for example, in France, Japan, Italy, Russia, and some other patriotically well-oriented peoples. Because of the traditional devotions of our people to the flexibilities and individualisms of democracy; because of America’s divisions of sovereignty between state and nation ; be¬ cause of the meager and halting political experience of our teachers ; and because, above all, our educational policy has never yet been able to agree upon definitive philosophical foundations for programs of effective education for wholesome political membership — because of these things most of our innovations and current practises in the field of civic education have been and still are indeterminate, feeble, and, probably, of nearly zero measures of actual functioning, if we except our achievements in education for literacy. Where in the United States have we even yet set out seriously to train spe¬ cialist teachers for this supremely important division of educational values? The shifting of educational means — If we contemplate the reconstructing of educational objectives as necessarily entailed by the new demands of a changing social world, we become, of course, prepared to accept corre¬ sponding changes in the means and methods of our educative processes. Department of Superintendence 647 But a changing social world calls for even more than that. Efficient sys¬ tems of education will constantly search for improved methods of achieving long-established values no less than will medicine, engineering, or transport. Take, as an example, that area of common cultural educational values which embraces scientifically discovered knowledges of hundreds of kinds of the physical world about us. It is the writer’s opinion that all our courses in natural science, from the first to the twelfth grades, are doing enormous amounts of grandmotherly fussing over topics and items here which were indeed of vital importance to learners two or one or half a century ago, but which are now so much a matter of the omnipresent social heritage that we no more need to teach them in schools than we need teach in schools the family vernaculars or the household moralities of our peoples. To this critic, at any rate, some two thirds of the instructional units set up as concrete means and methods of natural science instruction in the just published Thirty-first Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education have no more functional significance for school education than the pot-hook methods once used in teaching handwriting, or the “a” “b,” ab, method once used in teaching reading. As another example, take our presentday elementary-school courses in the geographical and historical studies. Enthusiastic specialists in both those fields are so constantly enriching them, as elementary-school studies, that they have become in effect masses of fruit-cake offerings, certainly calculated to produce chronic indigestion if the intellectual tummies of our children are seriously induced to try to assimilate them. Our high-school courses in history, with their encyclopedic inclusiveness and unapperceivable interpre¬ tations, are certainly no better. In that respect they are not greatly worse than most of our other secondary school studies. Now the objectives set up by the supporters of these studies, especially in the areas of cultural values, are valid and important enough. (The persistent allegations and hopes of history specialists that any except the most recent of histories can be made vitally functional towards realization of genuine civic values are probably fantastic.) But the means employed are too frequently antiquated, out-moded. Much of our encyclopedic history and geography instruction with its endless recounting of detail is little better than the old verbally memorized subjectmatter. Letting small children grow naturally — There are widespread beliefs, some supported by men of superior scientific insight, that not a few of the changing social conditions of the world tend steadily to impose increasing, or at any rate novel, burdens upon the nature-given human machine — that is, the human body, the human nervous system, the human brain. 4 he highly specialized works of the modern world, the large proportions of indoor work, the widely needed subjections of certain types of primitive emotional expres¬ sion, the increasing solicitudes of men for their futures, the complexities of social adjustments required, at least from those holding responsibilities of leadership — all these, it is contended by many authorities, are steadily increas¬ ing the nervous strains under which adults must be and are leading in ex¬ traordinary numbers to cases of premature breakdown. 648 National Education Association If these surmises are correct — and they probably are to some degree — one inference of great importance is that children in their early, physically plastic years, should have conserved to them in every practicable way the conditions of optimum nutritional, nervous, emotional, and other basic growths. Civilized societies now generally forbid specialized or routine vocational employment for children even as mature as fourteen. It is here contended that civilized societies must learn to withhold their children from the artifi¬ cialities of school environments and persisting immediate control, especially during the tender years under nine years of age. We speak often of a “good start in life” for our children. One of the most precious of all kinds of “good starts” is that of a sound, slowly matured, normally grown physical body, and especially those parts or components of the body which we somewhat differentiate as the nervous system affecting and affected by our more emotionalized and intellectualized experiences. In some degree, doubtless, all our urban or suburban reared, automobile- driven, radio-entertained, household-guarded, much cleaned babies and young children are today the victims of our stimulation, premature ripening, exces¬ sive socialization. If to such artificializations there be added those of the hothouse nursery school, or the socially exciting and experience-congesting kindergarten, or the inevitably regimented primary school, then, in all prob¬ ability, we are still further handicapping the affective natures especially of gifted people for the long strains of successive civic, vocational, cultural, and other adjustments needed by our changing civilization. EDUCATION FOR A CHANGING ECONOMIC WORLD ROBERT M. LA FOLLETTE, UNITED STATES SENATOR FROM WISCONSIN In discussing briefly the broad subject assigned to me, it is neither fit¬ ting nor possible — nor am I equipped — to outline to this distinguished group of American educators any sweeping or detailed educational program to meet conditions in a changing economic world. However, it is my earnest belief that the economic crisis thru which this country, as well as the whole world, is passing, brings new responsibilities to our institutions of learning as well as to our economic and governmental institutions. In a period such as this we are prone to re-evaluate all of our institutions ; and, so far as I am concerned, I am ready to accept the doctrine that those which no longer serve the best interests of all the people are no longer justi¬ fied in their existence. To me, one of the amazing features of this great indus¬ trial, financial, and economic crisis is the bankruptcy of leadership in finance, industry, and government throughout the world. And while I do not place entire responsibility on the educational institutions of the world, I say in all seriousness that educators and educational institutions must accept at least partial responsibility for the lack of courageous leadership in this crisis. The severity of this depression in our own country is reflected in various of the statistical indices which I wish to touch on briefly. Department of Superintendence 649 Industrial production in the third winter of the depression is down 45 percent; freight car loadings have fallen 38 percent; manufacturing employ¬ ment is down 33J/3 percent. The net income of 550 of the largest industrial corporations in the United States in 1929 amounted to $3,500,000,000, while their estimated income for 1931 was $1,100,000,000. In normal times defaults on bonds in the United States average between $150,000,000 and $200,000,000 a year. In 1931 bonds in default were estimated at $2,000,000,000. The paper loss on all issues of listed bonds amounts roughly to $3,000,000,000. Altho we have no complete or entirely accurate statistics, conservative estimates indicate that at least eight million men and women — in the richest country in the world — are at present totally unemployed. Eminent econ¬ omists have estimated that there are at least another eight million who are working partime and for reduced wages. The wage and salary loss since this depression began, according to the statements of Dr. Leo Wolman of Colum¬ bia University, amounts to approximately $18,000,000,000. Agriculture, one of America’s great basic industries, was deflated in 1920 and since that time has been fighting a losing economic battle. So far as agri¬ culture is concerned, the recent industrial and financial crisis merely intensi¬ fied a depression of ten years’ duration. The purchasing power of the people of the United States is gradually being wiped out. Thirty million people dependent upon agriculture for their maintenance are unable to buy the products of the factory ; forty million dependent upon wages for their in¬ come are unable to buy the products of the farm and the factory. The roots of this evil lie deep in a system of irresponsible and speculative business, heedless of the sound development of the nation’s resources, which has resulted in a tremendously unjust distribution of wealth. Even at the height of the period of prosperity, twenty-two million of our people were living at the barest necessity level or below it. The doctrine of laissez faire in our national affairs has, during the last decade, resulted in unparalleled economic disaster. In meeting the present crisis and planning for our future economic security, I contend that the inherent power of the government must be exercised to prevent the domination of our economic life by concentrated and despotic wealth. Obviously, the immediate problem is to prevent starvation and mal¬ nutrition. A ou, as teachers, are fully cognizant of the effects of under-nour¬ ishment upon the physical and mental development of children, to say noth¬ ing of the definite undermining of physical stamina in adulthood as a result of long-continued malnutrition. This is a phase of the problem which very deeply concerns those entrusted with the welfare and the quality of the oncoming generation of citizens of this republic. Our next responsibility, as I see it, is the re-creation of purchasing power thru the medium of a farreaching public works program ; and then so to plan our future national economy as to mitigate these swings in the business cycle and to achieve an ever-rising standard of living for all people. It would 650 National Education Association indeed be a gieat tragedy if we should go thru this depression without learn- mg the lesson that is to be learned from it and without endeavoring in the future to attain a more regularized economic structure. The future generation must be trained to think independently and to view the problems ahead with intelligence and courage. I his involves a great 1 esponsibility on the part of education and educators. There never was such necessity for leadership as there is in this hour. EIGHTH GENERAL SESSION, THURSDAY MORNING, FEBRUARY 25 Education as a National Enterprise THE INTERDEPENDENCE OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS ROBERT M. HUTCHINS, PRESIDENT, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL. I wish to insist upon a paradox. The first half of it is that there is an educational system in the United States; and the second half of it is that the parts of that system should be independent of one another. Iheie is an educational system in the United States. The separate origin of its various parts has obscured the fact of its existence. We have heightened the impression of its non-existence thru that mutual disdain with which we have customarily treated one another. That you have asked the presidents of two pnvately endowed universities to address you on education as a national enterprise suggests that we here today, at least, realize that our work is inter-dependent, that our financial interests are identical, and that our problems are the same. In this sense, the sense of joint occupation in a common enterprise, we are all parts of the educational system of the United States. Our work is inter-dependent. The universities may develop ideas in higher education of striking symmetry and beauty; they are futile unless they pene¬ trate the public schools. At seventeen, or eighteen, or nineteen, the student is, fiom my point of view at least, far too old to effect radical changes in his habits and attitudes. The schools may experiment to their hearts’ content ; then accomplishment must fall short of complete success if they are unable to dislodge the ancient prejudices of universities. Even privately endowed universities have been able to restrict the scope of high schools managed by then own depaitments of education thru solid indifference to their work and rigid adherence to requirements framed as tho they did not exist. There is, moreover, a twilight zone between the college and the high school, the zone of general education. We do not know what to do with it. We shall never find out unless we are prepared to engage in a cooperative attack on its prob¬ lems. The integration of the elementary school and the high school has resulted in great savings of time and money. Only thru similar integration of the high school and the college can the problems of general education be solved. If we can regard the educational system as a unit, we can expedite and direct this process. Department of Superintendence 651 Our financial interests are identical. If the schools are cut to pieces this year, the state universities will be next year. If the schools are crippled now, the colleges will be later, either thru reductions in their funds or thru gross defects in the preparation of their students. If our work is inter-dependent, the universities cannot without protest watch a major operation performed on the schools which, to judge by its present rate and direction, seems more likely to kill the patient than to profit him or the community. The president of the University of North Carolina has taken a position for which he deserves the thanks of everyone in education. He has said that since the university is part of the educational system of the state, it must receive in this emergency the same financial treatment as the public schools. This posi¬ tion is as sound as it is courageous. In self defence the universities must defend the educational system of which they are a part. Undoubtedly in the hysteria of inflation the schools, like the colleges and universities, did some things that they can now do without. But the things that communities propose to do to them in the hysteria of economy far sur¬ pass the wildest aberrations of bull-market days. We hear a great deal about frills. What are frills? Teachers’ salaries appear to be frills in some cities. The health of school children is a frill in others. Since night schools are a frill in one community, we close them and throw 75,000 people into the streets. The plain fact is that the schools are under attack because it is easier to get money from them than it is to correct the fundamental iniquities and antiquities of local government. Only a people that has no conception of the place of education in its national life could contemplate the ruin of the next generation as the best remedy for governmental insolvency. Our work is inter-dependent ; our financial interests are identical ; our problems are the same. The present effort of universities to solve their prob¬ lems is comparatively new. In the flood of money and students that has poured into these institutions in the past thirty years the intellectual proc¬ esses of administrators have been almost wholly directed to accommodating the students and spending the money. As long as both continued to roll in we did not have to care very much what we did with them. Now that the flow of both is diminishing, we are wondering about our methods, our stand¬ ards, our organization, our curriculum, our research work, our building programs; and some people are even beginning to wonder about athletics. The consequence has been all kinds of experiments, studies, and surveys. They have revealed principally how little we know about what we are doing. The public schools face the same problems for the same reason. The tre¬ mendous increase in student numbers, the vast amount of new equipment they required, the money that came in almost unsought all these things have diverted schools, colleges, and universities from the main issue, which is, what are we trying to do? We must admit that our own inability to answer this question with a unanimous voice, our very divergent views of what we are about, seriously weaken our efforts to enlighten the public and to secure from it the support that education deserves. W^hat is the place of the piivate university, the state university, the college, the junior college, the high 652 National Education Association school, the preparatory school, and the technical institute in our educational system ? We can only find out by breaking down the barriers that separate those in charge of these various units. We can only find out by recognizing our community of interest, and by facing our problems as the problems of us all. We can only find out, in short, by starting with the assumption that theie is an educational system in the Enited States, and that it is our business to run it as a system for the benefit of the community as a whole. I must at this point insist on the second half of my paradox: the parts of this sy stem must be independent of one another. Because students at different stages require different treatment, separate organizations of specialists have grown up, each designed to care for the special needs of students at a given stage. Each of these organizations requires complete freedom to work out its own program. It must devote itself to meeting the needs of its students rather than to meeting the demands of some other organization. One reason why there is confusion in universities as to the function of the junior college, the senior college, and the graduate school, is that no one of these groups has had this freedom to work out its own program. The tendency is always for the organization above to regard the organization below as merely preparatory to its own efforts. The organization above, therefore, will always seek to dominate the organization below in order to secure students who will fit readily into its machinery. But it must be clear that as long as the junior college is controled by the senior college and the senior college by the graduate school, no one of them can make its full contribution to the advance of education in America. No educational institution can flourish unless it is free to determine its own ideals and its own methods of achieving them. It follows that the public schools must have this freedom. The forces of experiment and progress latent in them can never be released if they are compelled to think chiefly of meeting the requirements imposed upon them by institutions of higher learning. If one thing is clear it is that the primary purpose of the high school is not to prepare students for the colleges and universities. By behaving as tho it were, the colleges and universities repress the high schools, and to that extent weaken themselves by weakening the educational system to which thev themselves belong. The great task of educational administration in America is to take the organization above off the neck of the organization below. Our slogan must be cooperation, and not domination. The problems of education are more complex and baffling than they have ever been before. The elaborate structure that has been rapidlv erected is in danger from misunderstanding without and disagreement within. Much of the misunderstanding without results from the discord within. If we can envisage an educational system in the United States, built on cooperation and not on rigid central control, if we can grant to each organization that independence which its full development requires, we shall illuminate the educational scene for our people and for ourselves and in the light of a new day perform our common task. Department of Superintendence 653 MAKING DEMOCRACY SAFE RAY LYMAN WILBUR, SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR, WASHINGTON, D. C. A family party was being entertained by a visitor playing the accordion. He noted the keen interest of a little boy in everything that he did and thought he saw in him the early signs of musical ability. Finally the boy could restrain himself no longer and spoke to his mother. Desirous of know¬ ing what this aspiring embryo musician had revealed, the curious player asked for this first evidence of vocational aptitude. The mother replied: “Johnnie says he would like to get his hands on that thing, he bet he could pull it apart.” When one looks at our democratic form of government playing a wide variety of tunes in many parts of the earth, he is conscious of how many Johnnies there are who do not know how the instruments have been made, how hard the tunes are to play, or even what music is, but who want to get their hands on them to see whether they can be pulled apart. Fortunately, there is much cohesion in democracy. Fundamentally, we are group or herd animals with the planning instinct and with the necessity of continued care of our progeny over many years before they attain self-supporting maturity. This has made us cautious. Part of our planning is to create or develop a proper social feeling in our children. We cultivate loyalty, fair play, decency and “playing the game,” not only for our comfort, but as necessary insurance against disaster. Roughly speaking, popular government is a response to an inherent desire for participation in the life about us. Up to date, in spite of obvious defects and many failures, it is the best expression of human unity in herd management that has yet been devised. We say we have faith in democ¬ racy, faith in the people. Is there a secure basis for that faith ? If not, are there safeguards that can be found and used to give security ? It makes one shudder to see the effects of mass emotion and hysteria. We need no longer go back to the French Revolution for evidence of the bru¬ tality, blind action, and the destructive qualities of the unleashed savage latent in all men. There is danger, too, in the excess of power of intercom¬ munication which science has given us with our growing control over that force to which we have given the name “electricity.” To capture and put to work the lightning of the heavens is one of our chief human accomplish¬ ments. Will it bind democracy or explode it? It can spread evil as rapidly as good. It widens the attack on the emotions by the demagogue just as it per¬ mits the intellect to acquire information. In simpler days the quack spoke only to those he could gather about the end of his wagon, now his voice may reach every fireside. WFether his selfish aim is to cater to human ills or economic disorder or to breed dissatisfaction, is immaterial. Unless his audience is immunized by education and disciplined in selfcontrol, he may be the percussion cap of the explosion. We have had the safety of isolation in our broad country with its dis¬ tances. We face now the danger of a needed national and even world unity. How can we build our central government out of strong individual units 654 National Education Association each solid and self-contained? We must remember the Titanic. Built of steel, organized to the last word, centralized with a complete unit control, she carried her crew and passengers boldly across the Atlantic. Out of the mists looms an iceberg — a crash, and down she goes. Democracy can afford to be somewhat sloppy to be safe. As Bryce said, “It is like a raft, hard to navigate but harder to sink.” A ship with forty-eight compartments is hard to wreck. In this era of too rapid growth, of amalgamation, of centralized power, we must fight for safety thru effective local government and local control. It is bad enough to have more people on the payroll than on the land without making it worse by over-centralization in Washington. So complete is the mastery of the nervous system over our bodies that the prick of a knitting needle in one place in the upper spinal cord means death. We want no such mastery of our central government over the welfare of the people of a continent. 1 he school teacher writes the insurance policy of democracy. To him or her must come democracy’s new recruits, a motley group but each one charged with potentialities for good or evil. What a responsibility to take a large share of that time, which is really life, of all our youth up to about eighteen years of age and use it in such a way that democracy will be safe. For each child must go thru the process of unfolding, or developing person¬ ality, of making a success. The number of children depends upon the birth rate. 4 he quality of children depends upon chance combinations of chro¬ mosomes. The birth of a child gives civilization a new recruit with unknown potentialities. Organized society must work with what it has. It must use every resource to see that with growth each child becomes self-supporting and a contributor to the general social welfare. Inevitably, there will be a number of those who are handicapped or who will become handicapped with the years. The school, with its broad functions, must deal with children in such a way that they will acquire a sense of service to their fellow man and to society in general. There must grow up in their minds the concept of a country to serve, not a government upon which to fatten. To be useful citizens, they must be successful individuals. This means that their inherent capacities must be studied and that training given which will permit them to fit into the social structure. The most unfortunate person is the one who is all dressed up educationally and has no place to go. To have been prepared and then not be wanted is a tragedy. The duty of the school is to evaluate the child, to study society’s needs, and thru education to make the child fit in somewhere. Devotion to curriculums instead of preparation for the activities of life makes many misfits. Disappointment twists minds, replaces love with malice, develops suspicion, and fosters discontent. The child must look within instead of without for success, but the set-up of society must not hold him off from a chance to live and eat from the work of his hands or brain. Each child must fight all of the way thru the gradual ripening process of the human mind and the development of the body. Over-protected children Department of Superintendence 655 are apt to become poor citizens. While some may escape the fight against poverty, all must struggle against disease, dirt, drugs, bad social contacts, faulty habits; and all must seek to achieve a rounded citizenship. There can be no safety for democracy without the religious or spiritual impulse. Personal and group ideals can only be maintained at the expense of that selfishness, a normal amount of which is required for simple existence. Our greatest confidence as educators must be in the presentation of the truth and in the development of an intellectual receptiveness as distinguished from flash emotional reactions. The only way to meet falsity is with facts. The passions of men play freely around government. Democracy can be swayed by lies as well as by truths. Misinformation travels on the same enchanted wings as truth. An intemperate lie seems to have a higher velocity and greater powTer of peneration than the sober truth. Just like a dumdum bullet, it leaves a ragged hole which festers and is slow to heal. Confidence in the group is basic if democracy is to be safe. Change is a part of growth, and democracy must grow to survive, but education should give us some assurance that these changes will be based upon the use of the intellect rather than of the passions and emotions. It terrorizes us sometimes to see how the American people respond to the play of passions and emotions, and how long it takes the central nervous system to begin its allotted work. The teacher as the guardian and trainer of the mind of the child must share with the parent the responsibility of secure and stable government. Education must be motivated by a high patriotism. The flag over the schoolhouse is the right combination. The person who sneers at patriotism, who is cynical of service to the community and nation, helps to make democracy unsafe. We will never be able to make democracy trim and shipshape. If democracy becomes too efficient we run the risk of a Titanic disaster. We can keep it safe in the world by making the most of our opportunity to build in our schools strong, selfreliant, independent men and women united in sound small units of selfsupport and selfgovernment. Except in temporary emer¬ gency or war, we can never keep democracy safe by imitating autocracy and the tyrant even tho that tyranny be a grant of democracy itself. THE NATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE AND THE OFFICE OF EDUCATION WILLIAM JOHN COOPER, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. The National Advisory Committee on Education formulated its report on Tuesday, October 6, 1931, and shortly thereafter transmitted it to the president. It was released to the general press on November 16. In it are the findings and recommendations with regard to education of a committee of fifty-one persons, professional and lay. These I would consider with you briefly and try to show in what ways the plans outlined have been so far realized. It was found that there are seven important relationships of the federal government to education. They are: 656 National Education Association (1) The relationship to education of the people in the various states , a matter which has had a long and changing history — Beginning with land grants without any restrictions whatever, each great war in which we have been involved has witnessed an ever increasing federal control. In 1862 the congress charged the Interior Department and the Federal Office of Edu¬ cation with the administration of moneys granted colleges by the Morrill Act. Thru this act and acts amendatory thereto at the present time we dis¬ tribute to the land grant colleges in the various states and territories $2,550,- 000. As a matter of fact, the office is only the custodian of these funds and passes them on when the terms of the law have been met, a matter largely cared for by affidavit. Much of the statistical work of our office is concerned directly with this topic. It was assumed when the law creating the Department of Education was passed that if the people of each state knew what other states were doing they would do similarly. Consequently we publish statistics, first, on univer¬ sities and colleges; second, on the school systems of states; third, on city school systems ; and fourth, on high schools. In 1917 during the World W ar, the Smith-Hughes Act was passed under which the Federal Board for Vocational Education distributes to the states at the present time about ten millions of dollars. The Smith-Hughes Act was responsible for the creation of new administrative organizations — both federal and state. Thus there has developed — separate from the land-grant college system with its subordinate experiment stations and exten¬ sion work — a second important federally-aided administrative system.1 In accordance with this act all plans of vocational education which expect to receive federal funds are subjected to the approval of the Board. In addi¬ tion to this approval there must be an equal sum raised by state or local taxation. (2) The education of persons resident on special federal areas such as government reservations , the national capital } and other districts lying out¬ side of the various states — The constitution itself gave Congress exclusive control over a district not to exceed ten miles square for the seat of govern¬ ment. This district is governed under a commission of three persons. A board of education consisting of nine members is appointed by the courts to operate a system of schools. The budget for the support of these schools is prepared by the superintendent and his deputies, adopted by the board of education, passed on to the commissioners of the District of Columbia, and then by the Budget Board and Committee on Appropriations of the House of Repre¬ sentatives. Each body feels free to cut off something. Even so a rather good school system is now provided for the approximately half a million people who live under the jurisdiction of the District of Columbia. Likewise in the Panama Canal Zone there is a central system of schools organized according to the act of 1914 and having complete accountability to Washington rather than dependence upon local initiative. Altho the white 1 Federal Relations to Education. Report of the National Advisory Committee on Education, Part II. “Basic Facts.” p. 55-56. Department of Superintendence 657 population has two high schools in the Zone, the colored have none and the Columbia University survey reports a serious situation for those children who graduate from the eighth grade and are not allowed to work until they reach the age of twenty-one. In the other federal possessions, involving a population of over thirty-three thousand people, no provision whatever is made by the federal government for the pupils who are in the 481 lighthouse reservations, nor tor those on the fifty reservations of the Bureau of Fisheries, nor for such persons as are employed by the Departments of State, Treasury, War, Navy, and Com¬ merce in various parts of the world. The Office of Education in an effort to minister to these children has sought the right to give them correspondence instruction but so far Congress has not seen fit to give either the appropria¬ tion or the authority. (3) Education of the American Indians and other indigenous peoples within the national territories — This is cared for by the federal government. Until recently the Office of Education provided the school system for the native peoples of Alaska. Since the fifteenth of March, 1931, this has been turned over to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, who also handles the schools for the natives in the western states. It is recommended that these Alaskan schools be handled by the Territory of Alaska in line with the plans to have all Indian affairs handled locally. (4) Education of the people of the territories and outlying possessions — This has been a duty of the federal government until the people have been organized on a regular territorial basis. In both Alaska and Hawaii schools are operated in accordance with territorial acts. In the dependencies gen¬ erally the matter of education rests with appointees of the governor who is appointed by the president. (5) The training of persons in the service of the national government — Almost every department maintains some schools. In the State Department is a foreign service school; in the Treasury Department are some schools designed to train personnel for the peculiar work of the department ; in the War Department there is a National Academy at West Point, the War College in Washington for the training of officers, and some fifty schools for the training of men attached to the different posts. This does not include the school work done in the civilian military training camps. In the Navy Department also are about a hundred schools for the training of different vocations in the navy. There are also training stations at Newport, R. I., Hampton Roads, Va., San Diego, Calif., and Great Lakes, Ill., for new recruits. All of these are in addition to the Academy at Annapolis for the training of officers for the United States Navy and a War College at New¬ port, R. I. In fact, some schools are maintained by each of the departments of the federal government excepting the Labor Department. (6) Scientific research and the collection and diffusion of information regarding education — Scientific research is conducted primarily by the De¬ partments of Agriculture, Commerce, and Labor. The diffusion of informa¬ tion is carried on extensively by all departments. In the Interior Department, 658 National Education Association reseat ch and diffusion of information regarding education are the chief responsibility of the present Office of Education. At the present time the cost to the government of the Office of Education proper is higher than at any previous date in its history. The regular staff costs about $290,000 for salaries, approximately $25,000 for general expense, and some $62,000 for printing. At the beginning of the present administration the Office of Edu¬ cation was without a librarian. Shortly thereafter the editor died, and more lecently the chief of the Division of Colleges and Professional Schools re¬ signed to become Professor of Higher Education at Ohio State University, and the chief of the Statistical Division transferred to other government v\oik. Now all of these places have been filled and in addition to them the following offices have been created : 1. An assistant commissionership has been created, freeing the commissioner from much of the routine work of the office and permitting him to devote his time and energies to the nationwide surveys and to work in the field. This place is ably filled by Miss Bess Goodykoontz, a graduate of Iowa State University and a pro¬ fessor of education in Pittsburgh University. She is assisted by Dr. J. F. Rogers, M. M. Proffitt, and Dr. David Segal, the latter an expert on tests and measurements who came to us the first of last November. 2. A section on the Education of Negroes, which was only beginning to receive attention in 1929 in the Survey of Negro Colleges. There are in this office at the piesent time Di. Caliver and his secretary on regular status and two temporary employees. 3. A section on special education. A year ago we created this section with Dr. Elise Martens, wellversed in the education of those mentally deficient and sub¬ normal. This year we have added another specialist in the education of those physi¬ cally handicapped, the blind, the crippled, the deaf, etc. This specialist is Miss Beatrice McLeod. 4. The section on foreign schools, which was formerly in the Division of Adult Education, has been taken out and raised to a division in charge of Dr. James F. Abel. To it has been added Dr. Alina M. Lindegren, who has a working knowl¬ edge of the Germanic languages. There should be added to this division two more specialists, one an authority in the languages of China and Japan, and the other an authority on the languages of Latin America. 5. A section on radio education. This section, which was created when the Na¬ tional Committee on Education by Radio reported, was run for a year and four months on partime basis thru the generosity of the Payne Fund. It is now operat¬ ing on a fultime basis with Dr. Cline M. Koon as specialist. In addition to these changes the following are worthy of note: Mr. Timon Covert has been assigned the position of Specialist in School Finance. He is now working with the Survey of School Finance. Miss Mina M. Langvick has been assigned to a position in charge of elementary education in the American Schools Division. Miss Edith A. Lathrop has been put in charge of the relationships which should exist between the school and the library and is this year holding a grant in aid from the Carnegie Corporation which takes her most of the time in the field. With just a few more specialists scat¬ tered thruout the divisions the Office will reach its maximum enrolment. In addition to this, there are three surveys of major importance: (1) A Survey of Secondary Education was begun in 1929 and finished Tune 30, 1931. This survey has been under the direction of Dr. L. V. Koos of Chicago’ Department of Superintendence 659 and will bring to the front all the new practises in secondary education. (2) The Teacher Education Survey, which was begun a year later than the sec¬ ondary survey and will be completed a year from this June, will bring out all approved practises in connection with the education of teachers. Dr. E. S. Evenden is in ‘charge. (3) The Survey of School Finance, begun last July under the direction of Dr. Paul R. Mort of Teachers College, Columbia University, is expected to run four years. On this study there have been but two meetings of the consultants, one held only last week. (7) Intellectual and educational cooperation of the United States with other nations — There are now several committees at work on intellectual cooperation, some with the European nations and some with Latin America. In the State Department the Divisions of International Conferences and Protocol have charge of our dealings with other nations. We have had very pleasant relations in the Office of Education with this division of the State Department and have received a great many bulletins from it. Also the Pan American Union has a division of intellectual cooperation which handles the matter of international cooperation with the republics to the south of us. In order to accomplish the recommendation of this report, Mr. Reed of New York has introduced into the House of Representatives a bill, H. R. 4757, which creates a Department of Education with a secretary and three assistant secretaries. There is transferred to the new department from the Secretary of the Interior the Office of Education, the authority over land grant colleges, Columbian Institution for the Deaf, and Howard University. The Federal Board for Vocational Education is abolished and its offices are entrusted to the Department of Education. In order to coordinate activity there is also created an Interdepartmental Council on Education which will consist of one representative and an alternate appointed by the head of each department. ECONOMIC LEGISLATION AND THE SCHOOLS SIMEON D. FESS, UNITED STATES SENATOR FROM OHIO I have been concerned, as you have been, over what is likely to be the effect upon the work of the teacher and upon the pupils of the schools of the modern economic breakdown in the world where retrenchment is the order of the day in every line. I agree that we are very slow to respect the position in our civilization of the teacher who is dealing exclusively with the future citizen of the country. There is no difficulty to receive favorable considera¬ tion of appropriations if you can give some material argument on their behalf ; but when it comes to consider the spiritual element, the question immediately arises whether that is a function of the government. It is always difficult to get a favorable response to some of those elements which we recognize as the fundamental foundation principles of our civilization. I do not think that the greatness of the land can be properly estimated by the dollar mark, by what has a commodity price. I am of the opinion that all people soberly will admit that the things that are the spiritual qualities of a nation largely stimulated in the school, are of vastly more importance in the 660 National Education Association long range view than the mere ability to make money and to profit materi¬ ally ; but congress is confronted by a staggering deficit that reaches $2,140,- 000,000 this year and will be a little less than that next year. The order must go out to cut every appropriation to the limit of efficiency in govern¬ ment. What cannot be made up by the retrenchment must 'be made up by additional taxation. Both of those forces are unpopular and difficult. We aie in the position of answering letters, half of which ask for increased ap- piopiiation and the other half ask for decreased appropriation. 1 have a lively interest in not seeing the school work of the country in any degree injured. I am quite hopeful that this period will not be unduly extended, and that the better thought both in state and nation will be to make the retrenchments the last resort as applied to this work. I think that I can see some symptoms of it not being necessary to cripple school work. We aie in a peculiar situation. We have all the basic elements of a pros¬ perous people present. The farms are just as fertile as ever before and they aie productive in the same proportion as ever before. The singular situation is that we seem to suffer from a superfluity of production. The same thing can be said exactly about transportation. We have the facilities unharmed and even multiplied so that transportation, which is one of the basic elements, is somewhat embarrassed by a multiplication of agencies. The same thing is tiue about the employment of labor in manufacturing. We have the plants. They aie all ready for work, waiting for opportunity. Here, not far from where you are sitting, the United States Treasury has stoied in a single building half the known gold of the world and about two- thirds of the supply is within the limits of our own country— more banking resources than any other country; in fact, more than all the balance of the countiies combined, and yet it is not at work. Banks in New York carry neai ly 80 peicent of theii deposits liquid, but are unable to loan because no¬ body knows what will be the demands on the banks. Here we are, with the finest skilled labor of any country in the world, with the greatest managerial ability of any country in the world, with all the basic elements intact. What is the difficulty? Well, you can’t kill ten million of the best people of the youth of the land, permanently cripple fifteen million more, destroy sixty billions of the wealth of the world, and obligate countries of the world to an equal amount and expect to get over it right away. . ^hat is °ur situation. It is the effort on the part of the government here in the capital, in which all political parties are cooperating, to unloose this situation, to make it possible for the lifeblood of the country to flow again I here has been an effort in the face of bank after bank closing, not because they did not have the assets, but because of a condition that nobody can con- tiol, not even the banks. Only a few of them had to go into liquidation because of bad management, but simply because they loaned on a scale of price increasing and the payments must be made on the scale of price decreasing, which made it impossible for them to operate. Department of Superintendence 661 Now the energies of the nation are being organized and mobilized to ascertain whether it is possible to obtain normal conditions again thru gov¬ ernment service or aid. If that is possible, and I think it is, you will have no difficulty in facing this exaction that all of us have been fearful of. There has been an honest effort to preserve the purchasing power of the people. It is difficult to do it because of the unliquidity of the credit system of the country. The first step that was taken was to create a pool of five hundred millions of dollars which was a voluntary concern, to loan to these banks that had runs started on them, and their deposits withdrawn because of fright. That was done last November. It had some effect. The next move was to create a finance corporation of reconstruction with an initial capital of five hundred million, with an additional possibility of the issuance of bonds to a billion and a half. This made two billions of dollars ready for use in the industries of the country: to relieve the situation of the railroads and enable them to continue employment ; to relieve those banks that have sound assets but, with fear of a run, dare not loan to pro¬ ductive industry. That is now in operation, and it is hoped that it will start the industries of the country again. Today will be reported out of conference the proposal to liberalize the Federal Reserve System so that the Federal Reserve, with plenty of funds, can be permitted to discount paper that under the present law they are not permitted to do. There ought to be a freedom in the exercise of the powers of the Federal Reserve, to thaw out these frozen credits that are locked up in the banks unable to be loaned because of the danger of a run. There is pending another movement known as the Home Loan Mortgage Bank, creating a system like the Federal Reserve System, to do for the home owner what is being done by the Federal Reserve for commercial paper. Th is will ultimately be enacted into law. There is also what is known as the Glass Bill, an amendment to the Federal Reserve Act to cure some of the defects that are not touched upon by these special measures that I have mentioned. I am speaking to you not as an educator, but as a legislator, looking at our problem from the standpoint of making it possible to avoid unnecessary retrenchment, for unless we can accomplish something of this sort, the schools will inevitably suffer. I think we can avoid it, but it must not be expected to be too speedy for the reason that I have mentioned. Coming out of the World War, that has thrown a shadow over the world like a huge eclipse, it is a most difficult problem to solve, with one half of the govern¬ ments of the world gone into revolution as a method of improvement. Ours is proceeding along constitutional lines, and I am quite certain that as we were the last to get into the difficulty, we ought to be the first to get out of it. This is mv message to you from the standpoint of one who is trving to do for the people at large, especially the children of the schools, what I think is basic ; to make it possible again for the currencies of the country to float easily thru business channels, and to avoid the retrenchment that is now threatened. 662 National Education Association AN ORGANIZED RECREATIONAL PROGRAM FREDERICK W. MARONEY, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. Some two thousand years ago the great Teacher said “Suffer little chil¬ dren to come unto me,” and since that time, to greater or less extent, mankind has been interested in the care, training, and education of boys and girls. Great national organizations have been endowed and supported, leaders have been trained, and parents have been appealed to in the cause of child¬ hood. During the past two years many of us have been privileged to work, as members of President Hoover’s committees, on the White House Con¬ ference for Child Health and Protection. Men and women from the ranks of parents, business and professional life, and education gave of their best in the study of present conditions, proposing legislation and in general edu¬ cating the public at large to the importance of this great business of life. Lord Fisher, of Great Britain’s war time Cabinet, said that “Education is the eternal debt that maturity owes to youth.” To great masses of people the word education connotes only the things of the brain. To them, muscle tissue is something associated with fighting, wrestling, athletic teams, per¬ spiring bodies, and gymnasium dressing rooms. They are pleased either to forget or not to understand that we walk, see, read, write, and are moved to great emotions or great effort by the whole body. To this group, recrea¬ tion means play, games, and athletics as the necessary outlets for restlessness. Most of us at one time or another have sat, studied, recited, and been bored beyond all disciplinary restraint in overheated, under-ventilated, unattrac¬ tive classrooms presided over or “kept” by teachers who had died at the age of thirty without being conscious of it. To those teachers — and fortunately their number is growing less in wellorganized school systems — the recreation or, as it was called in those days, the “recess” period was a time when the young heroes and heroines were turned loose on a vacant yard or unused plot of ground. It would be unfair to call it a playground. The teacher remained inside where she reigned supreme. She believed that the teaching of good hygiene and the values of outdoor exercise were covered in the lesson assignments. The curriculums pointed out the inherent social and charac¬ ter values of play, games, and all that sort of thing. “Hers not to reason why” or to take any real responsibility for it. Get the children out; let the law of the survival of the fittest work out as it would. Let them get rid of that superfluous energy so that they would come back and sit quietly, speak when they were spoken to, learn to be little ladies and gentlemen by reading about King Arthur’s Knights of the Round Table and other in¬ spiring books. In 1889 a group of noted educators met in the city of Boston. The sub¬ ject of physical education in the schools was discussed. There was seemingly a need for physical activity as a part of the regular school program. Experts in the field of physical education were called in to give advice and help. Department of Superintendence 663 The educators wanted a program that could be adapted to classrooms, would be inexpensive, taught by the classroom teacher, and require little in the way of equipment. The physical education experts, flattered that the general educators were at last seeing the light, enthusiastically accepted the challenge, believing that if they could but have their subject included in the course of study the first real victory would be won, and that it would only be a matter of time and education when the superintendents would really understand the importance of a complete physical education program. The physical education experts devised a graded series of marching steps, folk dances, classroom games, and calisthenics or freehand exercises. The condi¬ tion of many schools made it impossible for the children to have rhythm work including marching and running games. Many of the classroom teachers accepted the new style as an added duty, an imposition. They were too old, too tired, or too welldressed to lead a class of vigorously alert youngsters in exercises that were to them uninterest¬ ing and meaningless. There was some good work done, it is true, but in the main the children of America were handed a “gold brick” as far as a free, active, joyful par¬ ticipation program was concerned. The effects of this well-intended move¬ ment on the part of our leading educators can be demonstrated any time by one who is interested. Ask any ten men or women you meet on the street what their interpretation of physical education is, and six or more of them will first flex and then extend their arms sideward or upward as they count one, two, three, four. It was the I-yell you-jump system of physical educa¬ tion. They were never taught that physical education included mass games, recreational activities, athletics, gymnasium practise, swimming, skating, hiking, the arts of selfdefense, tennis, and golf. Physical education should be purposeful, educational, and measurable. It should teach the game, athletic, and dancing skills that the child will use on the playground. It cannot take the place of the latter. It should go hand in hand with it and the wise superintendent will insist upon a close tie-up between the school and the outside play activities of school children. Among the outstanding reports approved by the Department of Super¬ intendence was the one dealing with the Cardinal Principles of Educa¬ tion. Health was the first principle named, and one has reason to believe that the committee members who submitted the report intended health to mean physical, mental, and social health. That is, not the mere absence of dis¬ ease, the knowledge of hygiene, or even the ability to recognize deviations from normal health, but rather health growing out of activities and these activities motivated by health skills, habits, and attitudes. Health ideals and practises come from or may be attributed to the inspired leadership of a sympathetic teacher, a teacher interested in boys and girls rather than in subjectmatter alone. To this leadership and stimulus must be added the actual doing of something on the part of the pupils, the doing of healthful acts over and over again until they become a subconscious part of the child’s everyday life. 664 National Education Association The lessons of the draft, the physical unfitness of young men in the prime of manhood, strengthened the hands of our educators. It is to their credit that an aroused general public opinion stimulated legislators to pass manda¬ tory and permissive laws pertaining to the teaching of physical education in the schools. Today some 90 percent of the school children of the United States are benefited by these laws. Taken by and large, education has gone fai in these United States. Beautiful buildings, excellent equipment, good teachers, helpful supervisors, fine principals, and superintendents who are leaders of public opinion in the cause of boyhood and girlhood are the rule rather than the exception. Some people ..are still in the “teach them the fundamentals, never mind the fads and frills” mental attitude. They talk about and solemnly bow their heads when someone says, “As the twig is bent, so will the tree grow.” “Play is God’s way of teaching children how to work.” Few would disagree with that excellent statement of Joseph Lee, “The boy without a playground is father to the man without a job.” The Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, Y. M. C. A., Y. W. C. A., and comparable organizations are doing and will continue to do fine work, but no school system is sound and no educational procedure can be justified that does not accept the responsibility for and the operation of an activity program that will inspire, intrigue, and captivate the interest of all the school children. We must not “pass the buck” and hope that the relatively small percentage of children who can and do take advantage of the privileges offered by these private organizations will bring something into the life of the schools that will be wholesome and healthy for all. It is true that few, if any, normal adults would actually deprive children of their birthright: the right to run, jump, climb, swing, throw; the right to be happy, gay, and carefree during the formative period of their lives. But all too often in the busy whirl of daily existence, with its urge to achieve in the accumulation of wealth and power, with its greed and selfishness in the world of politics, the actual doing of something for the children in the way of a wellorganized physical education and recreation program is either neg¬ lected or put aside for consideration until some later day. The taxpayers have a right to be proud of their civic buildings, schools, museums, libraries, and public parks. But it is the exception rather than the rule to find a system of playgrounds worthy of the name in many of our communities. One dictionary defines recreation as “refreshment of body or mind.” The appreciation of good music, art, and literature are, no doubt, recreative, but the purpose of this paper will deal with recreation as we think of it in terms of body refreshment — play, games, athletics, hiking, and swimming — that is, activities engaged in outside of school hours. Granted that all of these are natural activities and granted also that normal, healthy children love to take part in them, how should the program be organized and adminis¬ tered ? Organize, deputize, and supervise are terms known to all school men. Organize in terms of time, space, and equipment; deputize in terms of well- Department of Superintendence 665 trained, loyal, cooperative instructors who understand and love children ; and supervise in terms of helping the teacher in service to reach higher standards of performance as measured in the responses of the children to the program. Every school should have adequate play space. The yards, playfields, and courts may be artistic in arrangement, beautiful in appeal. Trees, bushes, grass, flowers, streams, and hedges may be used to impress upon the minds of children and parents the importance of good taste, pride in ownership, and civic responsibility in care and operation. However, a playground of loose gravel enclosed by a wire fence instead of trees or by a welltrimmed hedge does provide opportunities for recreation. It at least meets the requirements of space. The equipment should be adequate and adapted to the age of the children using the playground. Slides, swings, sand boxes, space for team games, wad¬ ing and swimming pools, shady spots for basket-weaving, story-telling, and such other activities as space and the ingenuity of the teacher deem necessary, should be provided. It goes without saying that the equipment should be durable to withstand the weather and frequently examined to insure safety. Its use should be carefully supervised. Teachers should be welltrained and their appointment made on the basis of merit and personality rather than political affiliation. These teachers should not follow a rigid program. They should allow for individual differ¬ ences, welcome in the program itself ideas proposed by the children, and be guided by immediate local needs rather than routine practises. They should lead children into wholesome activities and keep in mind that “he who cannot oppose a strong will to the everchanging desires of young children will soon become the plaything of their restlessness.” The teacher should look his job, be neat and clean in appearance, be clean in speech, and win the confidence of his pupils thru frankness, honesty, and ability to lead and direct them in their activities. He should keep the public advised of his program, invite parents to visit at frequent intervals, and when possible en¬ courage them to take part in the games of their children. The supervision may well include consideration of the following quali¬ ties in the playground teacher: 1. Ability to retain the fundamental principles of healthful body building tho his method may depart from old tradition. 2. Ability to weigh all new ideas carefully in the light of experience and pupils’ needs before including them in a regular program. 3. Readiness to meet the individual needs of all pupils. 4. Firmness in accepting nothing but the pupils’ best in performance after desir¬ able goals of achievement have been set. 5. Resourcefulness in providing opportunities for joy and happiness in every lesson. 6. Consciousness of the social and educational outcomes in the program. Adequate play space, good equipment, and a fine teacher will not im¬ prove defective teeth, diseased tonsils, or the several organic conditions to 666 National Education Association u hich man is heir. Taking part in the program may not make a gentleman out of a cheat oi a scholar out of a boy who isn’t interested in learning j but the activities will offer opportunities for him to develop the best that there is in him. He will learn to play the games, help others, to sacrifice himself for the good of the team, to be loyal, resourceful, dependable. He will learn the benefits of leadership and followership. He will note the tactics of the bully and the fine qualities of those to the manor born. He will lose him¬ self in the activities ; win with joy and lose with courage. The importance of mental health is increasingly recognized. At the twenty-fiist annual clinical congress of the American College of Surgeons held October, 1931, in New York City, Dr. Charles H. Mayo of the Mayo Clinic at Rochester, Minn., said, “We pass thru more of the wonders of life in for ty^ years than was possible for old people in the past. The world has moved ahead so fast as regards material civilization that man has almost, foi the moment, got behind in his power of adaptation. Every other hospital bed in the United States is for mentally afflicted, insane, idiotic, feeble¬ minded, or senile persons. That’s worry. It is worry that breaks down the brain, not work.” Mental ill health is a challenge to our civilization. Economic pressure, war in the Far East, unsettled conditions in Europe, fear of what may happen this year, next year, and in the years to come are all taking their toll of young and old alike. Mental health is dependent upon physical health. We can and should provide for this need. A well-organized program of recreation will not prevent all mental ills, but what better preventive is there than the for¬ getfulness of self and the joy and renewed vitality derived from wholesome recreation ? Not only to prevent mental illness, but to contribute positively to the health and happiness of the well is a debt to youth. Superintendents and others in authority should plan, not tomorrow, not next year, not when the depiession is over, but now for adequate play areas, wellequipped and in charge of efficient teachers. Plan to give to the children in your charge not the advantages * you may have missed in your youth, but the right to u hich they are entitled, the right to a strong, healthy body cooperating with an alert mind. An adequate recreation program is neither frill nor fad. It is a fundamental necessity. To the “three R’s” of tradition has been added a fourth recreation. Reading, Riting, ’Rithmetic, Recreation — let not this last be least ! Department of Superintendence 66 1 CLOSING CEREMONIES President Broome: Now I have the pleasure of introducing the newly elected officers, which is not a formality. I wish that the entire organization were here to see who are going to run the show next year. The newly elected member of the Executive Committee takes the place of Superintendent Paul C. Stetson of Indianapolis, Indiana, who has served four years. I want to express to Mr. Stetson our appreciation of his long and very valuable service as a member of the Executive Committee. I also wish to express to Superintendent George C. Bush of South Pasadena, Cali¬ fornia, the appreciation of the Department for his service during the past year as second vicepresident, and to Superintendent Norman R. Crozier, of Dallas, Texas, who has served us for the last year as first vicepresident, and who has worked side by side with the president and has helped us to make this an effective convention. They are retiring and we are ready now to receive those who are to take their places. I should like to introduce Superintendent Carroll R. Reed of Minne¬ apolis, Minnesota, who will be the new member of the Executive Commit¬ tee ; Superintendent George Melcher of Kansas City, Missouri, the newly elected second vicepresident, and last, but not least, our good friend, Superin¬ tendent Milton C. Potter of Milwaukee, who will be the president and guiding star of the organization for the next year. It gives me great pleasure to present Mr. Potter and to turn the responsibilities of his office over to him. I know they are in safe hands and will be guided by one of the most loyal and enthusiastic members of the Department of Superintendence. Milton, I congratulate you! President-elect Potter: I am grateful to the survivors for standing by the ship to this solemn ceremony. If I did intend to say anything, I know you would all pray that I would be struck dumb ; but I want to assure you that this is going to be a very, very happy year, and I shall rattle around in the large footgear of my pedagogical predecessor with more joy than you can imagine. I hope I can render a little service to the young people and to you. President Broome: “Beautiful on the mountains are the feet that bring us good tidings.” Superintendent Crozier: At this point I will take matters out of the hands of the president and will continue the custom that we started at At¬ lantic City, and present to the retiring president a key as our token of ap¬ preciation of his services. Dr. Broome, this is not a key to the future. It is a key to the mournful past, because you are now numbered among the ‘has-beens.’ President Broome: Thank you! I certainly appreciate this gift. I shall wear it with a great deal of joy and with pleasant memories of a year of the finest kind of cooperation by the finest group of men I have ever known. This meeting is adjourned. 668 National Education Association DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE WASHINGTON, D. C„ FEBRUARY 20-25, 1932 OFFICERS No«!«CpBrOME' President Superintendent of Schools . GsoRGfi CRr£?wZIS' FYSr/-VlCeprTdeni’ Superintendent of Schools. Sherwood 5 J Vicepresident Superintendent of Schools . o her wood D. Shankland, Executive Secretary . 1201 16th St., N . Philadelphia, Pa. . Dallas, Texas . South Pasadena, Calif. W., Washington, D. C. executive committee; Paul C. David E). Charles Herbert Stets°n, Superintendent of Schools (term expires 1932) WEglEin, Superintendent of Schools (term expires 1933) q wt^NcSUP^rVlte?dent f°t Schools (term expires 1934) o. VVeet, Superintendent of Schools (term expires 1935).. Indianapolis, Ind. ...Baltimore, Md. Birmingham, Ala. .Rochester, N. Y. SECRETARY’S MINUTES February 20 The sixty-second annual meeting of the Department of Superintendence was held m Constitution Hall, Washington, D. C. On Saturday afternoon, February 20, 1932, at four oclock, the officers and past presidents of the Department of Superintendence and of the National Education Association officially reviewed the exhibits which were housed in the Washington Audi¬ torium two blocks from Constitution Hall. The reviewing party, which consisted of thirty-one members, visited every part of the exhibit in which two hundied eighteen firms and organizations were represented. February 21 Patriotic pilgrimages to the Washington Monument, Lincoln Memorial, romb of the Unknown Soldier, and Old Christ Church at Alexandria were held Sunday afternoon, February 21, at two oclock. These pilgrimages were followed by the annual vesper service in Constitution Hall at four oclock. February 22 After the convention was called to order Monday morning, Frank W Ballou, Superintendent of Schools, Washington, D. C., presented a gavel to President Edwin C. Broome. The gavel was made by pupils of the Wash¬ ington public schools from wood taken from the original roof of the White House. President Broome announced that the general theme of the conven¬ tion was Education , our guide , and our safeguard , and one of the chief sources of our spiritual life, our cultural growth , and our material power. The president asked the convention to stand while he announced the deaths during the past year of three officers of the Department of Superintendence : Jeremiah E. Burke of Boston, Massachusetts, William J. Bickett of Trenton, New Jersey, and Past President Randall J. Condon, chairman of the Committee on Financing Educational Research and former superintendent of schools at Cincinnati, Ohio. Department of Superintendence 669 On Monday afternoon the Department made a pilgrimage to Mount Vernon where wreaths were placed on the tombs of George Washington and Martha Washington, after which appropriate ceremonies were conducted from the porch of Mount Vernon. President Hoover participated in the pil¬ grimage and spoke to the audience assembled in front of the mansion. February 23 Superintendent David E. Weglein of Baltimore, Maryland, submitted the printed report of the Committee on School Costs and on behalf of the Committee offered the following resolution which was adopted : Whereas, The current emergency reemphasizes the fact that the financing of public education is a responsibility which should involve the technical advice of experts in taxation, the cooperation of professional school people, and the educa¬ tional policy of the public, Be it resolved, That the Department of Superintendence recommends that there be constituted in every state a group of citizens, including expert economists, com¬ petent school people, and representative laymen, to make a careful study of the existing system of taxation, and Be it further resolved, That since a comprehensive national study of school finance is under way under the direction of the United States Office of Education, the utmost cooperation should exist between such groups as may be established in the several states and the National Survey of School Finance. Superintendent Frank W. Ballou of Washington, D. C., presented the report of the Committee on Financing Educational Research which on mo¬ tion was approved and adopted. Nominations for officers were made as follows: For president, Milton C. Potter, Superintendent of Schools, Milwaukee, Wisconsin ; for second vice- president, George Melcher, Superintendent of Schools, Kansas City, Mis¬ souri ; for member of the Executive Committee for four years, David Mal¬ colm, Superintendent of North Berkshire School Union, North Adams, Massachusetts, and Carroll R. Reed, Superintendent of Schools, Minne¬ apolis, Minnesota. February 24 Superintendent Charles S. Meek of Toledo, Ohio, submitted the report of the Committee on Lay Relations, which on motion was approved and adopted. Associate Superintendent Louis Nusbaum of Philadelphia, Penn¬ sylvania, presented the report of the Committee on Audit, which was re¬ ceived and ordered printed. February 25 The report of the Committee on Resolutions was presented by Paul C. Stetson of Indianapolis, Indiana, and on motion was unanimously adopted. Superintendent George W. Wannamaker of Griffin, Georgia, offered from the floor a resolution which was amended on motion of Associate Su¬ perintendent Louis Nusbaum of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The amended resolution was then adopted. It read as follows: Resolved, That hereafter all resolutions pledging this Department to any national policy be submitted not later than the third day of the convention, and that all such 670 National Education Association resolutions be printed and distributed one day before a vote is taken; provided, how¬ ever, that the Executive Committee be authorized to make necessary adjustments to provide for practical difficulties, with a view to carrying out the spirit of this reso¬ lution. Superintendent A. L. Day of Commerce, Texas, presented the report of the Board of Tellers which was as follows: REPORT OF THE BOARD OF TELLERS WASHINGTON CONVENTION February 24, 1932. To the President, Executive Committee, and Members of the Department of Super¬ intendence : We hereby certify that the election of officers of the Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association was held this day and conducted in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution and Bylaws. The following received a majority of the votes cast and were elected: President for one year — Milton C. Potter, Superintendent of Schools, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Second Vicepresident for one year — George Melcher, Superintendent of Schools, Kansas City, Missouri. Member of the Executive Committee for four years — > Carroll R. Reed, Superintendent of Schools, Minneapolis, Minnesota. The retiring president, Edwin C. Broome, Superintendent of Schools, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, by provision of the Constitution, automatically becomes first vice- president for the ensuing year. Respectfully submitted, A. L. Day, Chairman M. J. Abbett J. M. Burnett Lyman C. Hunt Glenn O. Swing President Broome then introduced the newly elected president of the De¬ partment, Superintendent Milton C. Potter of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, after which Superintendent Norman R. Crozier presented to Superintendent Broome a past president’s key similar to those which have been awarded to other former presidents of the Department of Superintendence. At the final session of the convention on Thursday evening, a beautiful Folk Masque of America entitled “Wakefield” was presented thru the courtesy of the George Washington Bicentennial Commission. Department of Superintendence 671 REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS Adopted February 25, 1932 Committee on Resolutions Paul C. Stetson, Chairman, Superintendent of Schools . Indianapolis, Ind. George A. Bowman, Superintendent of Schools . Marion, Ohio George N. Child, Superintendent of Schools . Salt Lake City, Utah John C. Diehu, Superintendent of Schools . Erie, Pa. Charles F. Dienst, Superintendent of Schools . Boise, Idaho Lawton B. Evans, Superintendent of Schools . Augusta, Ga. R. C. Hall, Superintendent of Schools . Little Rock, Ark. J. Stevens Kadesch, Superintendent of Schools . Medford, Mass. Worth McClure, Superintendent of Schools . Seattle, Wash. Rose A. Pesta, Assistant Superintendent of Schools . Chicago, Ill. Merle Prunty, Superintendent of Schools . Tulsa, Okla. Belle M. Ryan, Assistant Superintendent of Schools . Omaha, Nebr. Harold Steele, Superintendent of Schools . Jackson, Mich. J. W. Studebaker, Superintendent of Schools . Des Moines, Iowa Because we believe that our convention theme: Education , our guide, and our safeguard, and one of the chief sources of our spiritual life, our cultural growth, and our material power, expresses the ideals, the scope, and the function of the work which the Department of Superintendence fosters, and because we believe that this theme, to be of real value, should find expression in the policies of our Department, we offer the following resolutions for your approval : Need for national leadership — Because of the serious situation with which boards of education and administrators are faced, there is a wide¬ spread demand and need for a continuance and an extension of national edu¬ cation leadership by the National Education Association, by the Department of Superintendence, by all other departments of the National Education As¬ sociation, and by the Office of Education. Altho the many and fundamental differences in the administration of our local public school units make uni¬ formity of action during this crisis neither possible nor desirable, there are many services which these agencies could and should render. Therefore, we recommend that the Executive Committee of the Depart¬ ment of Superintendence, as a temporary and emergency measure, be author¬ ized to request of the National Education Association such additions to the Division of Research of the National Education Association necessary to assure the active members of this Department constant, accurate, and timely information on practises and trends in administrative procedures arising out of our present financial situation ; and that the officers of our Department confer with the officers of other allied organizations of the National Educa¬ tion Association and with the Office of Education for the purpose of deter¬ mining what further national services these organizations can and should render. Social studies curriculum — We recommend that the Executive Com¬ mittee appoint a committee which shall prepare and send to the active 672 National Education Association members of this Department at the earliest practicable moment suggestive changes for such adjustments in the social studies curricula in our junior and senior high schools as our present social and economic situation has made necessary and vital. School and business — Because of the interdependence of our social, economic, and educational life we urge that, when feasible, boards of educa¬ tion and administrators cooperate with other state, county, and municipal officials to the end that, during this period of economic distress, ways may be found to effect economies in governmental administration which will not cripple the education of the children. Education of youth shall not be sacrificed — The welfare of the nation demands that the education of its youth shall not be sacrificed. To this end we call the attention of boards of education and of all legislative bodies who find themselves confronted with the necessity for economy, to the im¬ perative need for the maintenance of instructional standards. Let economies be made in the material programs of government, but let America not falter in the training of her youth. Financial support for Office of Education — We urge that increased financial support be given to the Office of Education in order that it may con¬ tinue to render its valuable services to the schools of this country. We partic¬ ularly wish to commend the present Commissioner of Education for his keen, active, and intelligent interest as shown by the commissions appointed to con¬ duct research in various phases of public education. The National Advisory Committee on Education — The report of the President’s National Advisory Committee on Education has pre¬ sented to our profession and to laymen an adequate consideration of federal relations to education. Their report is a document which deals with fundamental principles which should govern the relations of the federal gov¬ ernment to the several states in the establishment and development of our system of public education. It is a state paper of first importance. It proposes that the control and administration of education be left to the states, and that there be established in the federal government a Department of Education with a Secretary of Cabinet rank. We concur in these proposals and recom¬ mend the study of their report to the members of our profession and to the lay public. Citizenship training — Your committee endorses the resolution relative to citizenship training adopted February 28, 1929, at the meeting of the De¬ partment at Cleveland, Ohio: Again we remind ourselves that our state systems of education were estab¬ lished in accord with the proposals of Washington, Franklin, Jefferson, and a long line of farseeing statesmen for the purpose of preserving and improv¬ ing our political institutions. Again we recall that our wages are paid and our equipment provided by a tax on all the people whether or not they be parents. Thus reminded, we pledge ourselves anew to the direct teaching of the duties of citizenship in all the school grades. Not culture, not scholarship, not selfsupport, not compliance with the entrance requirements of more ad- Department of Superintendence 673 vanced schools shall turn us from the duty of teaching our youth the needs of our civic life and from inspiring our citizens with a determination to im¬ prove it.” W e recommend that increased emphasis upon citizenship training be given in all curricula reorganizations. History teaching — We believe that true patriotism is not served by ignorance and refusal to face facts and problems. Therefore, the history taught in our public schools should include an intelligent effort to arrive at essential facts involved in the significant crises of the past in order to prepare our people to deal intelligently and justly with such crises in the future. We urge that instruction in history and other social studies shall present impar¬ tially the chief factors and influences operating in domestic and world affairs, and producing problems in peace and war. Because we believe that only an enlightened public opinion, based on ac¬ curate information arrived at after a full and free discussion of facts and issues, can give to our nation real and adequate security, we feel that the dissemination of vital facts with honest discussion of the issues involved, is a responsibility of the nation’s schools. Respect for Constitution of the United States — The Department of Superintendence urges teachers to continue to impart respect for the Consti¬ tution of the United States and for all of its various amendments. We urge the continued, vigorous, and impartial enforcement of the entire Constitu¬ tion of the United States as the supreme law of the land and we reaffirm our belief in the principles of the Eighteenth Amendment and in the habits of life and conduct which it is intended to inculcate. Children’s Charter — We trust that the influence of this Department and of those organizations with which we are allied will be directed toward the realization of the high ideals set forth in the “Children’s Charter,” adopted by the White House Conference on Child Health and Protection, so that our educational system may insure “For every child these rights, regard¬ less of race or color or situation, wherever he may live under the protection of the American flag.” Parent- teacher organizations — The Department of Superintendence acknowledges with gratitude the splendid spirit of cooperation and of help¬ fulness shown by the national, state, and local parent-teacher organizations and urges upon boards of education and superintendents of schools the necessity for even closer relationships with this splendid organization. Standards of other departments — We commend the high standards set by the Department of Secondary School Principals; the Department of Elementary School Principals; the Department of Classroom Teachers; and other allied organizations and departments of the National Education Association and the Department of Superintendence ; and we pledge to them our cooperation to the end that the high ideals of preparation before and during service of the members of these departments may be encouraged and maintained. If education is to realized its ideal as one of the “chief sources of our cultural and spiritual life,” it will be realized only thru the type 674 National Education Association of services rendered by the principals and teachers in the buildings and classrooms of our public schools. Department of public relations — At no time in the history of public education has it been more important that the relationship between the public and the schools shall be one of sympathy, cooperation, and understanding. We recommend, therefore, that extraordinary efforts be made to continue courteous, tactful, and considerate public relationships; that administrators gain and keep the confidence of the community thru the increased efficiency of the school system, the impartiality of its officials, and the farsightedness and justness of the policies of boards of education; and that departments of public relations, whether in a system so small that the superintendent is the department, or in a city large enough to have its own organization, be established. Such a policy will be a legitimate and necessary source of friend¬ liness between a public school system and the community which it serves. Relationship between boards of education and superintendents of schools — We go on record again as approving the findings and recom¬ mendations of the committees on relationships between boards of education and superintendents of schools as reported at earlier meetings of this Depart¬ ment by the late Dr. Charles E. Chadsey and Dr. E. C. Hartwell. Because we feel that the theme of this convention will be realized more effectively thru a re-definition of these relationships, and because thruout the country there is still a wide difference of procedure in this important matter, we recommend that the Executive Committee of the Department of Superinten¬ dence be asked and authorized to have compiled by its secretary a statement of these relationships as reported by these committees and to have such state¬ ment included in the next Official Report of the proceedings of this Department. Committee on Lay Relations, methods for protection of mem¬ bers of Department of Superintendence — Other professional bodies have adopted and put into practise methods of procedure which have been a safeguard to those in other professions against unjust assaults from within and from without their own membership. We recommend that the Com¬ mittee on Lay Relations be charged with the formulation of such practicable methods of procedure as will give to the active members of the Department of Superintendence the same adequate protection now afforded to the mem¬ bers of the legal and medical professions and to the professors in our uni¬ versities and colleges. Committee on Lay Relations, size of annual convention — We acknowledge with gratitude the work of the Committee on Lay Relations and subscribe heartily to its findings. It is our belief that the best interests of the Department of Superintendence are served when the number of affil¬ iated groups is reduced so that the “Department itself may be assured of its own place in its own national convention.” The point has been reached where it is scarcely possible for any city to supply adequate facilities for the annual winter meeting with any degree of comfort to its own membership. Various social functions; numberless breakfasts, luncheons, and dinners; and Department of Superintendence 675 a wide variety of extraneous interests combine to defeat the purpose of our annual meeting. We protest against the practise of those organizations not affiliated with the Department of Superintendence, of holding their meetings in the same city and at the same time as the annual meeting of the Depart¬ ment of Superintendence and thus, still further, increasing the problem of taking care of the winter meeting. We ask that the Executive Committee forward to each unaffiliated organization a copy of this resolution. Commercial and semi-commercial enterprises — Commercial, semi¬ commercial, and philanthropic enterprises have long sought, and in many cases gained access to the school children and teachers thru the schools. The schools should promote only those enterprises which represent the best in¬ terests of the children in their charge and should refuse to allow them to be exploited in any way whatever. Contests — We view with disfavor the tendency toward the multiplica¬ tion of district, sectional, state, and national contests. These contests now embrace every conceivable activity — some conducted by professional organ¬ izations with a high purpose, but many representing only thinly veiled com¬ mercial interests. Regardless of sponsorship these state contests involve almost certain disorganization of school work, solicitation of funds for their financial support, special preparation, and great nervous strain on the part of the contestants. Therefore, we feel that such district, state, and national contests should be discouraged, and eventually, unless of proved social and educational benefit, abolished. We also go on record as opposed to prize essay contests and other individual competitions for material rewards. Observance of special days and weeks — The increasing demand upon the schools for the observance of special “days,” “weeks,” holidays, and half-holidays has increased to the extent that it presents a real problem in school administration. Many of these observances have little or no educa¬ tional value and represent an attempt of commercial interests to advertise in the schools. Others, with more respectable sponsorship, do not make a con¬ tribution to the educational life of the schools commensurate with the effort and the energy required properly to administer them. When the relatively short time that pupils are in school, the cost of each school day, and the difficulty of finding time to carry out the school program are considered, it is apparent that administrators and boards of education must take steps to discourage such encroachments upon the work of the schools. This Depart¬ ment recommends that school administrators set up standards by which to measure the value of these requests and that a definite limit be placed upon the number of school projects to be undertaken in any one school year. Exchange of students and professors; international conferences — We endorse the resolution adopted by the National Education Associa¬ tion in July, 1931, favoring “the exchange of students and professors, the formation of international education associations, and the holding of inter¬ national education conferences, for all of these promote world understand¬ ing, friendship, cooperation, and peace.” 676 National Education Association World Federation of Education Associations; World Court — We commend and endorse the World Federation of Education Associations program for world understanding. The Department of Superintendence once again goes on record favoring the prompt adherence of the United States to the Permanent Court of International Justice as a means of stabiliz¬ ing world relationships. Appreciation of teachers — In closing we pay tribute to those teachers, principals, and others connected with our public schools who, under most difficult and trying conditions and at great self-sacrifice, have demonstrated unusual devotion and loyalty to their tasks. In spite of an uncertain future, of reduced salaries, of payless pay days, they have remained at their posts; they have performed their duties conscientiously; they have, from slender savings, given generously to the support of public relief measures ; and they have provided thousands of school children with food and clothing. Their 'example is an inspiration to all of us. They have proved anew that the true teacher is concerned primarily not with money, but with the vrelfare of the children under his care. Appreciation of hosts — To the President of the United States for his graciousness in appearing on the program at Mount Vernon ; to the citizens of Washington for their hospitality; to the local and national press for their splendid publicity service; to the National Broadcasting Company, Columbia Broadcasting Company, and Station WRC, Washington, for their very effective cooperation in broadcasting our programs; to the Boy Scouts, the cadets, and all allied organizations; to Superintendent Frank W. Ballou and his assistants for the effectiveness of the arrangements made for this con¬ vention; to President Broome for his inspiring leadership and for the high plane upon which he has placed this meeting ; for all of these things and to all of these people and organizations, and to many, and many more, we express our deep appreciation and our gratitude. RESOLUTIONS RECOMMENDED BY THE COMMITTEE ON SCHOOL COSTS Adopted February 23, 1932 Whereas, The current emergency reemphasizes the fact that the financ¬ ing of public education is a responsibility which should involve the tech¬ nical advice of experts in taxation, the cooperation of professional school people, and the educational policy of the public, Be it resolved. That the Department of Superintendence recommends that there be constituted in every state a group of citizens, including ex¬ pert economists, competent school people, and representative laymen, to make a careful study of the existing system of taxation, and Be it further resolved, That since a comprehensive national study of school finance is under way under the direction of the United States Office of Education, the utmost cooperation should exist between such groups as may be established in the several states and the National Survey of School Finance. Department of Superintendence 677 REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON LAY RELATIONS Washington, D. C., February 24, 1932 A. Textbooks — The Committee on Lay Relations, to which the Execu¬ tive Committee referred the question of textbooks, concurs in the opinion expressed in items 7, 8, and 9, of the chapter entitled “Conclusions and Recommendations of the Committee,” in the 1931 Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. These conclusions were considered and approved in a conference held in Buffalo, N. Y., where representatives of the publishers, the National Society for the Study of Education, and the De¬ partment of Superintendence were present. The conclusions were: (1) State publication of textbooks is unwise, uneconomical, and educationally un¬ sound. (2) The Committee does not believe that the state is a desirable unit for the adop¬ tion of textbooks. It recommends that the unit for adoption be the local unit of school administration and supervision. (3) Free textbooks should be provided in all public schools in the interests of bet¬ ter educational opportunities for the children. B. Character Education — The Committee on Lay Relations commends strongly the principles set forth in Chapter XV of the Tenth Yearbook of the Department of Superintendence, on “Character Education,” and urges continued and more extensive cooperative relations with organizations and institutions interested in character education, under control of the principles there set forth. Charles S. Meek, Chairman Nicholas Bauer Louis P. Benezet Albert S. Cook W. H. PlLLSBURY ' ♦ ‘ - 1 Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction The department of supervisors and directors of instruction was created by the Board of Directors at its meeting in Minneapolis, July 4, 1928. The Board of Directors took the following action as shown by its minutes : President Adair in¬ formed the Board of Directors that requests had been made for a Department of Supervisors and Di¬ rectors of Instruction ; that the necessity for such a department had been substantiated by much data; and that the Department had complied with all the necessary rules for its creation. Mr. Rogers moved that a Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction be created. The motion was seconded and carried. It was then declared that the new department had been duly created. The officers for the year 1932-33 are : President, Ernest Horn, Professor of Education, State Univer¬ sity of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa; First Vicepresident, Arthur Dondineau, Director of Instruction, Board of Education, Detroit, Mich.; Second Vicepresident, Julia L. Hahn, Supervising Principal, Raymond School, Washington, D. C. ; Secretary-Treasurer, James F. Hosic, Professor of Education, Teachers College,. Columbia University, New York, N. Y. ; Executive Committee: The officers of the Depart¬ ment, ex-officio; Elizabeth Hall, Assistant Superin¬ tendent of Schools, 305 City Hall, Minneapolis, Minn. ; Elma A. Neal, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, San Antonio, Texas ; J. Cayce Morrison, As¬ sistant Commissioner for Elementary Education, State Education Department, Albany, N. Y. Facts relating to the establishment of this Depart¬ ment and the record of its meetings may be found in earlier volumes of Proceedings as follows : 1928:831-832 1929:803-826 1930:773-800 1931:801-824 [ 680 ] A PROSPECTUS OF THE FIFTH YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT ELMA A. NEAL, FIRST ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS In good supervision both supervisor and teachers produce. The present committee feels that the greatest future for supervision lies in the principle of creativity. It is hoped that this yearbook will so stimulate those occupying supervisory positions that the efforts of all types of supervisors will be directed toward stimulating teachers to become creative producers and to¬ ward a balanced conception of creativeness in life and in education. The yearbook gives emphasis to case studies of supervisory procedures used in releasing the creative energies of teachers. Altho many supervisors and teachers will wish to evaluate these studies in the light of their own experi¬ ences and philosophy of education, some conclusions consistent with the principles set up in the yearbook are given : 1. Supervision is a cooperative enterprise in which all share alike in the develop¬ ment of an educational program which is based on a sound philosophy of edu¬ cation, on sound principles of teaching, and on a knowledge of how learning takes place. 2. The general aim of creative supervision is the continuous growth of the teacher into the most efficient person she is capable of becoming. 3. Every activity in school has creative possibilities. The more creation the supervisor and teacher put into their work, the greater the satisfaction to both, and the richer their possibilities of growth. 4. The purpose of liberating the latent abilities of the teacher is to permit her to make her contribution to the school in increased ability to think, to originate, to evaluate her own work with the children. 5. A genuine cooperative relationship with teachers implies a situation where teachers are given time to do their own thinking, to form their own judg¬ ments, and to discover their own finest interests and abilities. Development of the habit of creative teaching is a long process, requiring patience, insight, and courage. 6. The supervisor attempts to open up to teachers their own abilities and the richness of their world by placing them in an environment where they may experiment with materials and ideas. The teaching environment should thus provide a wealth of materials to work with, since activity comes thru learning. 7. Learning is an active process, therefore learning takes place best under stimu¬ lating conditions of real life, in which the learner participates in activities which he helps to initiate and for which he feels a need. 8. Since experience is the keynote of the new education an attempt must be made to establish an atmosphere that will encourage the creativeness of teachers. Much waste in education may thus be eliminated by enabling the teacher to express herself creatively. 9. The growing teacher is actively and creatively grappling with her own prob¬ lems, progressing under the guidance of the supervisor toward self-supervision. The supervisor’s philosophy is revealed in her guidance of the teacher; guid¬ ance not as external imposition but the freeing of each individual teacher to propose, to plan, to execute, and to judge her own activities. 10. The supervisor who works most effectively with teachers will apply the same educational principles that the teachers apply in their teaching of children, therefore independent thinking, initiative and cooperation so carefully culti¬ vated in children, must be stimulated also in teachers. [681] 682 National Education Association 11. Supervision tends toward the integration of the teacher’s personality, toward the development of a sound philosophy of education, and toward a knowledge of the learning process as an aid in the selection of the materials and methods of teaching. 12. The progressive supervisor accepts the obligation of developing all the capaci¬ ties of the individual for wholesome, fruitful living. She must exemplify growth and freedom in her own work in order to develop these qualities in others. 13. The teacher s growth is measured largely in terms of increasing participation in school activities and in the use of appropriate teaching procedures. Adapta¬ tions in classroom work, to meet the needs of changing educational ideals, are necessary to the growth of the teacher. IT The administrative machinery of the school is becoming subordinated to the needs of children. It is becoming a means to an end, rather than an end in itself. It is becoming an expressive machinery sensitive to the changing needs of the school, capable of reflecting an educational philosophy, consistent with the democratic organization. 15. Education for a changing world and society should stress thinking and a method of work. Teachers are undoubtedly thinking and working along new lines. A desire to stimulate and encourage the creative efforts of teachers and children is apparent in these studies. PRINCIPLES OF STIMULATING, RELEASING, AND CAP¬ ITALIZING THE CREATIVE ENERGIES OF TEACHERS PHILIP W. L. COX, PROFESSOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION, NEW YORK UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. Creative energy does not necessarily differ dramatically from any other kind of energy. With reference to teachers’ professional activities the adjec¬ tive creative is used chiefly to differentiate those efforts that are directed to considered innovations or experiments from those energies that are spent in continuing or repeating classroom and other institutional behaviors to w hich the teachers have become accustomed, or in mere conformance with specific directions given by supervisors. Studies by Knight, Charters and Waples, Barr, McLaughlin, Cox, Irvine, and Jacobs all point one way. Teachers do not help pupils to advance toward the goals of education by means of their own erudition or by teaching them facts and skills. Teachers affect youths beneficently by being what they are and by encouraging children to become all that they can attain to. Eight principles may be stated as follows : 1. Supervision for creative teaching consists in helping teachers to set up for themselves teaching objectives which are, for them, dynamic, reasonable, and worth¬ while, in helping them, so far as possible, to achieve these objectives, and in assuring them adequate securities, approvals, and rewards for their endeavors. In the begin- ning, at least, the quality or quantity of the children’s creative productions are of minor importance. 2. Supervision for creative teaching is always directed toward the stimulation, guidance, and reward of endeavors now in process or about to be undertaken. Thus supervision for creative teaching should emphasize activities to be undertaken rather than incidents that have passed. Hence, analyses of former shortcomings should be sparingly and tactfully made and then only as a step in planning better lessons to come. Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 683 3. The integration of the teacher’s personality is fundamental. Hence, a positive program of encouragement and the promotion of self-confidence must underlie all contacts between supervisor and teacher. 4. In its early stages supervision for creative teaching is usually directed to proj¬ ects which are not unlike those which each teacher and class are now completing with reasonable success; it generally promotes minor innovations and capitalizes the successes which result and thereby helps in the creation of confidence and readiness for more unusual and higher types of activities. 5. Self-supervision is an inherent quality of the creative artist. To the degree that the creative supervisor is successful, his abler and more self-reliant teachers will progressively free themselves from the need of direct supervisory assistance. Their further growth is best promoted by persuading them to accept a functional leader¬ ship among their colleagues. 6. Consciousness of the purposes of creative activity grows slowly and the skills and moods involved in creative teaching are complicated; both must develop pro¬ gressively as successive practise, study, discussions, and conferences ensue. 7. Advocacy of and support for creative teaching are potentially present among influential community groups and administrative officers. Whether or not such advo¬ cacy and support become actual depends upon the tactful persistence and resourceful¬ ness of the supervisor, both in his personal efforts and in his direction of the campaign of education of the public thru the instrumentalities of those teachers, fellow supervisors, and patrons who are already enthusiastic supporters of creative teaching. 8. The creative teacher must receive the rewards for creative teaching. The super¬ visor should help the public to know such a teacher as the begetter of results, as an authority in his field. The supervisor should be content to receive such credit as may come to the competent guide, lest he seem to be appropriating to himself credit for results which were obtained thru the interactions of teacher and pupils. This discussion of principles of stimulating, releasing, and capitalizing the creative energies of teachers has promised the assumption that super¬ vision functions (a) in the improvement of methods of instruction, (b) in the progressive modification of the curriculum, (c) in the stimulation and direction of student activities, and, most permanently significant, (d) in the promotion of teacher cooperation in supervision. Such functioning re¬ quires that the supervisor himself must have a dynamic steering philosophy of education and of life. Our first step is, therefore, the development by each one of us of an educational platform. The principles as stated are not applicable by any supervisor who has not first created within himself a phi¬ losophy of life which conforms to them. Only as he has faith in the potentiali¬ ties of every individual teacher, pupil, and parent to grow toward perfection ; only as he feels sure that such growth is best promoted thru democratic processes; and only as he has patience and resourcefulness and enthusiasm can he lead teachers to be creative agents of a democratic society. SUPERVISORY PROCEDURES FOR RELEASING THE CREATIVE ENERGY OF TEACHERS FRED C. AYER, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION, UNIVERSITY OF AUSTIN, TEXAS Teachers rarely display creative energy without frank encouragement to do so from superior officers and favorable recognition of meritorious creative acts. Formal procedures for the encouragement of creative teaching 684 National Education Association may best begin with professional reading and study devoted to obtaining a clear concept of the value and meaning of creative acts ; and, under favor¬ able conditions, may lead to the adoption of an official routine which sets up, guarantees, and rewards freedom and facility in connection with new and original endeavors. The encouragement of creative work is justified even tho it has no in¬ fluence beyond the teacher immediately concerned, but many pieces of cre¬ ative work deserve more general recognition than they are now receiving. The most effective procedures for extending the use of commendable creative activities include : 1. The use of auditorium programs 2. School exhibit featuring creative work 3. The visitation of creative teachers 4. Special demonstration of original teaching 5. Publication of successful creative methods. SUPERVISORY PROBLEMS INVOLVED IN CHANGING FROM THE TRADITIONAL TO THE NEW ELEMENTARY SCHOOL MARTHA PECK PORTER, SUPERVISOR OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, ROSLYN HEIGHTS, N. Y. Actual experience in introducing the new education into the public schools provides the material upon which this discussion of specific problems is based. Among the first problems which must be solved are those of general proce¬ dure, curriculum making, pupil participation, and individualized work. It has been found desirable to introduce the new methods gradually. A well-founded understanding of new ideas can come only with time, and any type of work done without understanding is certain to be superficial and of little value. Informality in group meetings, providing opportunity for friendly interchange of ideas, has been found to be the greatest aid in the problem of general procedure. The aim in curriculum making has been to meet actual group needs, par¬ ticularly thru a study of the environment. Some teachers are capable of a good deal of independence in curriculum making. Others, however, must have such guidance as is given in a suggestive course of study. Where the course of study proves inadequate to meet certain group needs, it has seemed best, as a first step, to revise carefully rather than to reject this guide. The emphasis in such revision has been on unification and integration of subjectmatter. An effort has been made to bring about pupil participation by offering each one responsibility and firsthand experience. Pupils’ questions and proposals help guide the direction which the class progress takes. In order to replace mass instruction with individual pupil activity, the teachers are helped to discover individual needs and to provide materials to meet these needs. Among these materials books are of primary importance. Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 685 THE SUPERVISION OF PRACTISE TEACHING FOR THE NEW SCHOOL ROXANA A. STEELE, ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR OF TRAINING SCHOOLS, WESTERN STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, KALAMAZOO, MICH. There is a steadily increasing demand for constructive, forward-looking teachers to train the youth of the land for their present and future needs in an everchanging world. In order to prepare teachers adequately for such a task, the teacher-training institutions need to be reorganized on the basis of the new philosophy of education. The program of education for the pros¬ pective teacher should develop in the student ( 1 ) scholarship and cultural background; (2) a progressive conception of education; (3) an inquiring, creative, constructive, open-minded attitude; (4) an understanding of the behavior, means of growth, and needs of children; (5) training in the tech¬ nic of teaching under professional guidance. Practise teaching should be done in a child-centered school where a supe¬ rior faculty is working with an experimental attitude toward the same general objectives. The critic teacher should demonstrate in her relationship with the student, the principles of education which she expects the student teacher to use with the pupils. The practise should provide rich and varied opportunities for knowing and understanding children, and for selecting, organizing, directing, and evaluating pupils’ activities in terms of worth¬ while growth. The student teacher should be encouraged to make choices, to try out ideas, and to grow in self-criticism. By the end of her practise teaching, she should be aware of her strengths and weaknesses, and have developed a desire to grow personally and professionally, and have worked out technics for such growth. No matter how well the student may do in her practise teaching, her training is only well begun. Her first experience in the field is a crucial time. Beginning teachers should be placed in an environment conducive to happy growth. Teachers trained for the new school should be assigned to the schools where the philosophy of the new education is accepted and practised under intelligent guidance. Dean Emeritus James E. Russell, who has many times proved himself an educational prophet, describes the probationary period of teaching in the future as follows: In the pedagogical millennium every school and school system will accept one novice for every ten teachers in service. These novices will be given some teaching to do — say, half-time service for half pay — but whatever they do will be done under the eye of a master who will be responsible for the inculcation of right habits. Those who measure up to acceptable standards will be assured of permanent positions; those who fall short will be spared a life of misery in an occupation for which they are not fitted. The result in either case must be to the lasting advantage of the pupils in our schools, and indirectly to the profession as a whole. . . . The greatest obstacle, I am convinced, lies within the profession itself. It tends to become static because it accepts the dictum that what has been will be, despite the visions of 686 National Education Association reformers. But once get the vision of a school in which all the teachers are as good as the best are now an ideal not beyond the range of idealism — then reformers look like practical schoolmen. SUPERVISION IN THE PROGRESSIVE SECONDARY SCHOOL BURTON P. FOWLER, PRESIDENT, PROGRESSIVE EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, TOWER HILL SCHOOL, WILMINGTON, ILL. The main object of supervision at any level is to secure on the part of a whole teaching staff both a cooperative and scientific attitude toward the solution of its educational problems. The old idea of a supervisor as a whip- cracker is out of date. What is needed in supervision is a very large amount of self-direction under expert guidance. The outstanding problems of supervision at the high-school level are: piomoting the growth of boys and girls thru the growth of teachers, investi¬ gating the mateiials and methods thru which teachers achieve their purposes, and the means of evaluating supervision. Changes may be brought about in teachers by attention to their own physical and emotional health so that they may be nearly always at their best, by learning how to examine themselves, as well as their children, not to provide a score for the files of the supervisor but as a constant means of avoiding destructive personality traits and bad habits of teaching; teach¬ ers meetings representing a continuous effort on the part of a staff to develop a philosophy of education and analyze its major problems by reading more both in the special and general fields ; and by new ideas and new experiences affording fresh stimulation. In addition to the teacher, supervision concerns itself with the curriculum, the relation of parents to the school, and how to meet the needs of the indi¬ vidual child. The effects of the kind of supervision that develops from the cooperative efforts of supervisors and teachers may be measured in the attitudes of the teachers, the degree of intelligent cooperation on the part of parents, the learning interests and social intelligence of the pupils, growth in the super¬ visor, and the effect upon the community itself. Successful supervision is bound to be revealed in school morale, in public confidence in the school, and in better forms of behavior on the part of its pupils. THE RESPONSIBILITY OF SUPERVISION FOR THE USE OF THE SILENT AND SOUND MOTION PICTURE THOMAS E. FINEGAN, EASTMAN TEACHING FILMS, INC., ROCHESTER, N. Y. . Wlthln last decade, the rapid extension of the use of motion pictures into new fields, solely for instructional purposes, including industry, mechan¬ ics, business enterprises, research, and educational institutions, has revealed the potentiality of the film as a teacher’s aid or tool in classroom instruction. I his use of motion pictures has brought to their support a large group of Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 687 men of affairs and influence in every populous center of the country. The press is practically unanimous in support of motion pictures as an educational agency. This constantly increasing prestige of motion pictures in education makes it incumbent upon all teachers and supervisory authorities associated with the schools, to obtain a professional and comprehensive knowledge of the possibilities in the use of this agency of power in the classroom. The reports of the English studies, as well as those made in our own country, point out specifically that the usual criticism that films lead to intellectual inactivity, a mere passive mental attitude of looking at the pic¬ ture, is unfounded. They show that the direct opposite effect is produced. The attention of the children is not only held, but their mental alertness is aroused to a greater degree than when the subject has the usual oral presen¬ tation. The questions asked by the children, their discussion of the subject after the film has been shown, and the reading pursued by them in their eagerness to obtain a more comprehensive knowledge of the subject, are proof of the stimulating effect of the film. The film , therefore , increases the desire to learn, and stimulates the pupil to increased effort. Such reports further show that motion pictures have demonstrated their ability to aid children to express orally and in writing exactly what they have seen in the picture. The facility to express what the children had visualized was not only stimulated, but accurate observation of what oc¬ curred in scenes, processes, and situations was cultivated. The ability to see things precisely as they exist or occur, and to describe them clearly and concisely is a quality of classroom work that pupils need to practise and that teachers need to emphasize. The film, therefore, stimulates accuracy of observation and facility of expression. But these reports state that the film brought remote events and interesting objects of olden times nearer to the pupil. It presented these in the natural order, environment and process of their being. It created a setting that gave the subjects pictured a realistic value. It provided the material which induced the child to reconstruct these affairs into a living reality and enabled him to visualize in a comprehensive manner the basic thought, the very heart of the lesson, which, without the film, must be brought within his mental grasp by the use of the textbook or other printed material and such verbal explanation as the teacher deemed wise to make. The motion picture, there¬ fore, develops the imagination and aids interpretation. Furthermore, one of the most general results revealed thru these studies was the stimulus which the film gave in the development of the initiative of the children. The self-activities of the pupils were set into operation at once. The suggestion of the teacher was not required, but of their own volition, the children began to reconstruct at home and in school, not only scenes of native life, of landscapes, of animals in their natural habitat, of machines in action, and various enterprises, but they also began to build original scenes and objects suggested to their minds by the motion picture. The film proved, therefore, to be a potent agency in the development of the creative powers of the child. National Education Association The supervisory and teaching staffs of the schools of the country should e as capable of selecting and using motion pictures as they are competent in selecting and using textbooks. The teaching profession should develop the type of film which will be most helpful in their work. The profession will soon exercise this influence in the making of films if all the interest and obligations which I have specified are discharged in the study, the use, and the adaptability of films to their intended purpose. There is great need of extensive research in the technic o.f making films and in their use. When the film is given adequate supervision and the teachers of the nation have centered their attention on it, much valuable information on these questions will become available. Films will then be given much largei use in the schools. When they are generally used in the schools, we shall have films affording richer teaching material and at much lower prices. Many of the problems involved in this type of service can be solved in no other way than by the practical use of motion pictures under adequate supervision of the profession of the country. For instance, what type of film provokes critical ability? When should a film be used as an introduction to a subject? When should it be used for review purposes? How extensive should be the comment of the teacher? How often should a film be used? When should the film be stopped for comment by pupil or teacher? How extensively should subtitles be used ? What feature of a film makes the strongest appeal to the pupil ? Do boys and girls have similar interests in a film ? There is great need of reliable and scientific information on these and scores of other questions relating to the technic in making films, and also in relation to their use. The trained, effective, resourceful teacher is the one who must determine the solution of these problems. There should be adequate check on the use of films. The film should not become the slave of the teacher. Time should not be wasted in viewing films. The film should be used only when it serves a classroom need. It is not to be used to relieve pupils of work. It is to be used to stimulate interest and work. No film or other agency should ever be taken in the classroom which lessens in any way the influence of the teacher. The most vital influence in the classroom is the teacher. The prestige of the teacher with her pupils should never be diminished. The commanding respect for and the influence of the teacher must always be supreme if the teacher is to remain a powerful force in the development of character. THE RESPONSIBILITY OF SUPERVISION FOR THE USE OF OTHER VISUAL AIDS TO INSTRUCTION A. W. ABRAMS, DIRECTOR, VISUAL INSTRUCTION DIVISION, STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT, ALBANY, N. Y. . Therf are common problems in the use of all forms of visual aids to instruction. Fundamental objectives and procedures are of more consequence than the peculiar advantages of particular forms. Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 689 No commercial or industrial concern could survive if its activities were not thoroly supervised. The factory works upon inanimate materials; the school is supposed to work with self-active minds. If it is essential that busi¬ ness concerns should supervise their activities, it is certainly advantageous that the educational use of picture expression should be under the intelligent guidance of persons who are thoroly familiar with the aims, advantages, and limitations of visual instruction. There are special reasons for supervising visual instruction at the present time. Picture expression is a comparatively new tool in classroom instruction. It is important to recognize that pictures are a distinct type of expression. Their use cannot become fully effective until teachers recognize what sort of facts are represented by pictures and the mental processes by which pupils acquire mental experience thru them. The successful use of pictures in teaching involves a technic that is quite different from that followed when relying wholly upon language expression. It is necessary that teachers should become familiar with this technic. It is folly to assume that teachers know how to use pictures in conducting class exercises without having given careful consideration to the matter and having been guided by a trained supervisor. Visual instruction should be directly and immediately associated with the content of the school course. Only very meager results should be expected if pictures are shown occasionally and independently of regular classroom work. Visual instruction necessitates physical equipment. In this connection expert guidance is absolutely essential to insure economical expenditures of money and a selection best adapted to needs. Teaching practises in the use of picture expression need to be carefully supervised in order to insure growth of understanding of visual instruction on the part of the teachei ; to stimulate and enforce adequate specific prepa¬ ration for observation and interpretation of pictures; to make sure that pupils acquire correct habits in reading picture expression; to obviate the tendency merely to present thru the eye objective facts and to fail to secure expression of ideas gained from them ; to see that pictures are used at the proper stage of instruction and that time is not consumed in using pictures after pupils have acquired ability to visualize a given class of phenomena from language description ; and finally to make certain that pupils are really visualizing, that is, imaging phenomena under consideration. For class instiuction no form of pictures is in general so satisfactory as those properly projected upon a screen of adequate size and proper quality. There are, however, other classes of pictures the use of which in schools is greatly in need of supervision. It is a common practise of teachers to display on bulletin boards and elsewhere in the classroom prints of various kinds. Such displays are often quite purposeless. T oo many pictures are exhibited at one time. They are left on display long after the occasion for their use has passed. The walls of the room are cluttered with them in direct viola- 690 National Education Association tion of principles of art the school is supposed to inculcate. Perhaps most serious of all the teacher does not secure positive, specific observation on the part of pupils and fails to hold pupils responsible for giving evidence that knowledge has been acquired thru this means. Too often textbook pictures serve merely as decorations of the printed page. They are given no such close and purposeful attention as might be given even where the pictures have been selected for their richness of signifi¬ cance and excellence of quality. Most schools provide certain reproductions of works of art for wall decoration. It is exceptional that the pupils of a room are led to make any purposeful study of such pictures. It is in fact rarely true that any consider¬ able number of the pupils know even the subject of the picture or the name of the artist or have derived any conception of the artistic values of these pictures. Maps are a graphic representation of geographic or historical facts. They are visual aids that it is practicable for any school to possess. Expert super¬ vision is veiy largely lacking in both the selection and the use of such teaching aids. Most of the wall maps now in use fail to meet the most elementary standards essential in visual expression. The use of pictures in education should be provided for officially by the board of education upon the advice of the administrative head of the school or school system. Under no other condition will it succeed long or to a large extent. It is wasteful of time and money to provide visual equipment unless its use is officially and adequately supervised. THE RESPONSIBILITY OF SUPERVISION FOR THE USE OF THE RADIO C. M. KOON, OFFICE OF EDUCATION, DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, WASHINGTON, D. C. The ultimate place that radio will occupy in the American school system will be determined by the educators themselves. As leaders in educational theory and practise, the supervisors and directors of instruction must assume a large share of the responsibility of determining what is to be broadcast for schools; what methods of broadcasting are to be employed; and how the broadcast lessons are to be used in school. If supervisors will seriously apply themselves to the solution of the problems in the field — and they are princi¬ pally problems of education rather than problems of radio transmission — broadcasting and centralized radio facilities may become an important aid in the supervision of instruction, as well as in direct instruction. Considered educationally, radio is not a separate entity but is simply a conveyor of sound. Its value depends upon what is broadcast and how the broadcast material is used. Many of the radio problems being discussed are essentially problems of education rather than problems of radio. While it is important that educators possess an intelligent appreciation of the art of broadcasting, it is more Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 691 important that they be thoroly familiar with the primary purposes and best practises of education. If radio is to be applied to education, education must first be applied to radio. Even tho the radio has formed some unfortunate associations in the minds of many educators, it has a number of noteworthy achievements to its credit. It has already become the principal source of economical entertainment and last-minute news. Steadily, it is breaking down the barriers of isolation as it broadens the horizons and enriches the lives of countless millions of people. It has become an important social factor in nearly every country in the world. If educational leaders accept a broad social conception of education, they will realize with ever-increasing significance the importance of harnessing radio and putting it to work to help bear the constantly growing burdens of education. Numerous school officials are willing to bear witness to the educational power of radio. By means of broadcasting and centralized radio facilities it appears that supervisors are able to check the work of the teachers and the classes. Important announcements and instructions may be given, and superior work can be made generally available. But above all, radio broad¬ casting is peculiarly well-suited for the improvement of instruction by means of demonstration lessons. Supervision, being a cooperative enterprise for the improvement of in¬ struction, can be especially helpful in the securing of suitable radio-sound equipment, in selecting broadcast programs, and in devising methods of integrating them into the curriculum of the school. If the classroom teacher will bear her share of the burden in the three-way teaching arrangement, it appears that the radio may be used in many ways to advance the educa¬ tional process. It can enrich the curriculum and vitalize instruction. The throbbing present may be brought into the classroom and the dead past made to live again. It is the responsibility of supervision to determine how radio can be efficiently used. If the radio cannot assist in realizing the commonly- accepted purposes of education more effectively than they could be realized otherwise, it has very little place in the school. SUPERVISORY PROBLEMS IN THE SCHOOL ORGANIZED ON THE COOPERATIVE GROUP INSTRUCTION PLAN LAWRENCE S. CHASE, PRINCIPAL, SPAULDING SCHOOL, MONTCLAIR, N. J. The one-room, one-teacher school has gradually fallen into disfavor with many of the more progressive educators because this type of school has too many handicaps. Yet most of our elementary schools today are one-room, one-teacher in spirit. No matter how many teachers there may be, each works independently. The Platoon and Gary Schools have done something to change the tradi¬ tional organization of the elementary school but the country at large clings to the century-old Lancastrian plan. Teachers in the main have been trained 692 National Education Association to teach everything. This in some schools amounts to as many as fifteen sub¬ jects. The present emphasis upon the creative arts, music, and recreation finds the elementary school teachers poorly prepared. The cooperative group plan proposes that three, four, or five teachers plan their activities together and all work with the same children. It suggests that teachers be used as they are and thru cooperation, supervision, and study they be raised to the new required level of efficiency. The principal works with the teachers in planning the units of work, each teacher being responsible for certain activities only. Each room is equipped to do some special thing. Children go from room to room. The great problem of supervision is teamwork. Teachers readily take to this change as they become specialists in a sense. They become more profes¬ sional and more highly expert and receive a greater degree of respect from their colleagues, the children, and the home. The school becomes more cre¬ ative in spirit and more experimental and scientific in planning. The school, because of its organization and supervision, has the possibility of being better suited to the complicated demands of the present than the one-room, one-teacher plan. CREATIVE ASPECTS OF SUPERVISION HELEN HAY HEYL, RURAL EDUCATION BUREAU, STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT, ALBANY, N. Y. Some teachers, at least, have begun to think of education in terms of new objectives the needs of the individual child squarely met. I submit that such a development suggests the need for new procedures in supervision and possibly for a new emphasis in teacher training as well. The fiist step then is to focus supervision upon learning and the needs of children, rather than upon teaching. A simple device may assist us. Let us throw over fixed patterns and return to principles and objectives in each act of evaluation. One group of super¬ visors with whom I am acquainted record their classroom observations with questions like these in mind : 1. Did I see any child in this class learning to practise a desirable social relation¬ ship ? 2. Did I see any child discovering and developing his own desirable individual aptitudes ? 3. Was any child thinking critically? 4. Did any child have a chance to learn to appreciate and desire some worthwhile activity ? 5. Were these children developing physical health and right mental attitudes? These are all hopeful signs and we wish we had more of them. Attention should center upon children’s activities and learning as the main focus. In the second place, we must learn that the creative aspects of supervision take time. We must learn to wait until the teacher’s motivation, originally impelled from without, perhaps, comes finally from within ; to understand Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 693 that a thinking, growing teacher is our primary objective — not a fixed per¬ formance. We must practise self-control in the matter of imposing ourselves and our ideas upon teachers and be willing occasionally to deliberately turn our backs and walk away from a situation that is relatively inefficient, be¬ cause we know that we can afford to wait until we are able to stimulate the right interests, to get this teacher to undertake a problem, to help her all we can in its solution, but to guard her carefully lest, in our over-zealousness, she be denied freedom to attack it in her own way. And finally we, ourselves, must be willing to learn thru that teacher’s experiences. We can afford to do this, for supervisors are not so much concerned with how much a teacher knows, as with how much she grows. We want her to grow thru an inner motivation, to act under self-direction? rather than to arrive at any particular place at any particular time. This attitude and spirit in supervision, however, rests upon dynamic growing personalities filled with the democratic ideal. Finally, a program of creative supervising and teaching involves the setting up of common goals cooperatively arrived at. Such a path as I am attempting to point out is fraught with many difficul¬ ties and dangers. Creative supervision permits teachers to make mistakes, to go slow, to resort when necessary to trial and error methods. It implies ex¬ perimentation. It requires courage and calmness of outlook. But we cannot escape the challenge, if we try to live our philosophy. One other word remains to be said. As Dr. Brim pointed out in one of his recent articles, we also “face the problem of protecting our child mate¬ rials.” He illustrates thus: In art we formerly assumed that a child must be taught certain technics before he could paint a picture. We now know that if a child is given paper and paints and is encouraged to try, his growth in ability moves on apace. Strange as it may seem, his technic improves almost unconsciously, or if need for some technic arises, it is mastered quickly in its functional setting. Given freedom to do crude work, to mess around, to waste materials, he comes thru with marvelous results. Such a program is visioned for teachers, but in their case the material is too precious to be wasted or crudely handled. Yet only thru trying under the guidance of her own intelligence to solve the problems of teaching will the kind of teacher we want emerge. My answer to this is one of agreement ; but I think that we should also remember that we already have teachers in our schools who are bungling and wasting the precious materials in their hands. They are already poor teachers. Their inefficiency may not stand out so sharply under traditional methods of supervision, because our eyes are dulled to them. But they are nonetheless real on that account. And I think there is comparatively little danger that teachers will become less efficient than they already are because we encourage them to center their efforts upon the fundamental realities of life instead of dealing with petty trivialities. - • *■ ■ . Department of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics AT THE Atlanta meeting of the Association in 1929 the necessary petition for the formulation of a Department of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics was presented to the Representa¬ tive Assembly and to the Executive Committee. This petition was presented by the National Conference of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics. In 1930 at the Columbus, Ohio, meeting the Department was created by formal vote. The former home eco¬ nomics organization has had a history rich in accom¬ plishments. Its good. work will continue as a depart¬ ment of the Association. The officers for the year 1932-33 are: President, Carlotta C. Greer, Head, Home Economics Depart¬ ment, John Hay High School, Cleveland, Ohio; Vice- president, Ada Kennedy, Supervisor of Home Eco¬ nomics, Board of Education, Pasadena, Calif. ; Secre¬ tary, Alice Currier, Supervisor of Home Economics, Board of Education, Pawtucket, R. I.; Treasurer, Mary M. Buckley, Supervisor of Home Economics, Board of Education, Paterson, N. J. For the record of the first meeting see the 1931 volume of Proceedings, pages 825-844. [ 696 ] HOME ECONOMICS AND LIFE ATTITUDES IRA S. WILE, PHYSICIAN, AUTHOR AND LECTURER, 264 WEST 73rD STREET, NEW YORK, N. Y. What is the function of education in preparation for life? Certainly it involves giving facts, but the facts can be of service only in terms of prac¬ tical absorption for the purposes of practical utilization. Education has a function in setting forth processes and inducting children into their mean¬ ing and service. The values of processes are not inherent in themselves, but only in their application. Education naturally is interested in the creation of ideals, but here again, ideals as an abstraction have little dynamic value until they are concretized in life. Home economics possesses a special function insofar as it contains a par¬ ticularized material content, and insofar as it aims to deal with the specific problems of girls, for the most part, in terms of economic demands and social approvals. To a large extent its special function in terms of utility is based upon the idea that woman’s place is in the home. The courses of Philadelphia are said to be “planned to lay the foundations for happy par¬ ticipation in household activities and intelligent solution of the problems of home management and family relationships.” The employment of the word “happy” is perhaps the keynote indicative of the emotional content of the curriculum. H ome economics, thus, is not merely a matter of skills ; life attitudes are concerned with persons, places, and situations as well as with things. They enter into the home attitudes towards the self, towards parents, grandpar¬ ents, visitors, strangers, children — and society as a whole. There is bound up in homemaking, attitudes towards a place, towards home habits, home trials and efforts, home work, home beauty, home relationships, home visitors, and home life. The English expression of a “homey person” carries with it a wealth of implication. The report of the Cooperative Studies Committee on Family Relation¬ ships, under the chairmanship of Miss Goodspeed, indicates that out of 213 questionnaires returned from 40 states and the District of Columbia, only 39 reported family relationships as a separate course. Thirty-five percent re¬ ported work on family relationships in the junior high school; 68 percent reported topics on the senior high-school level. It is interesting to note the first ten objectives of the family relationship courses listed in order of frequency : 1. Healthy home membership 2. To develop spirit of cooperation in all life relationships 3. To help girls and boys to find themselves and to make wholesome adjustments to living 4. To prepare for married life 5. To encourage happier home life [ 697 ] 698 National Education Association 6. To develop desirable personality traits 7. To point out the contribution of the home to the community 8. To acquire higher ideals 9. To guide in the healthy use of leisure 10. To create an abiding interest in the welfare of children. Of this group of objectives I would ask whether the sixth, namely, “To develop desirable personality traits,” is not basic to the securing of all the other objectives mentioned? Without desirable personality traits, which in¬ clude life attitudes, wholesome adjustment to living is difficult,* healthy home membership is unlikely; and the acquisition of higher ideals is difficult. Cabot said that men live by work, play, love, and worship. Indeed, the attitudes towards work, play, love, and worship determine how men live. Men live by their attitudes; they live thru their attitudes; and many live for theii attitudes towards life. The home as a whole is determined mainly by the personalities who enter into it. The economics of the home are deter¬ mined mainly by society. Society may determine the weekly wage but the home itself is determined by the atmosphere created by the attitudes towards that weekly wage, and towards the society that pays it. Society may deter¬ mine the housing that is available for a definite weekly or monthly rental, but the house is not the home. That is constituted by the attitudes of those living within the house. One’s life attitudes as a whole represent what one is. Attitudes are habit¬ ual modes of regarding things, whether objects or ideas, persons or prin¬ ciples. They are complicated psychological trends suggesting settled be¬ haviors, indicating opinions and purposes which enable one to evaluate life. They facilitate the evolution of one’s characteristic individuality. They enable one to know where to stand upon a question, how to stand upon a principle, and why one stands either for or against a particular group or idea. Wherever man is, his life’s attitudes bespeak some purpose of mind, some outlook, some interest. They reflect his health and vitality, his intellectual capacity and imagination. They indicate his ’ability to direct his emotional mechanisms and they reveal his inherent and acquired capacity for social relationships. It is this idea which Dr. Eliot expressed when he commented that education in a democracy will teach: “The intimate dependence of each human individ¬ ual on a multitude, not in infancy alone, but at every moment of life — a dependence which increases with civilization.” It is most significant that the word “attitude” was derived from the word “aptitude.” Attitude, as aptitude, represents the state of being apt or fitted for something. Home economics has a primary relationship towards life atti¬ tudes, because its major objective is to fit people for the home, and that fit¬ ness can be secured only insofar as there is the ultra-major objective of fitting people for life and for living. The essence of home economics lies in aptitudes and attitudes, aptitude in economics, attitudes in the home, and each per¬ meates the other. Department of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics 699 TEACHING FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS IN THE PRESENT CRISIS NEWELL W. EDSON, AMERICAN SOCIAL HYGIENE ASSOCIATION, NEW YORK, N. Y. In the present crisis there are other than economic challenges to family stability. The family is being openly challenged concerning its value to its members. Talk about the failure of the family, the breakdown of family in¬ fluence, the rising tide of divorce, and substitutes for the family not only reaches many pupils but gives uncertainty to you who teach them. All too frequently we analyze what has been taken away from the home and put almost no stress on what is left. We emphasize family changes without re¬ iterating family stabilities. Meanwhile the movies are blatant in their interpretations of the family. They often show marriage as a lightweight relationship, flippantly entered into and broken with wisecracks, a hindrance to personal desires in sex re¬ lations and therefore to be disregarded, a step in social climbing, a scheme for getting-rich-quick, or an ennui to be postponed until one has exhausted the gamut of celibate amusements. Another factor that intensifies the present family crisis is the rather com¬ mon uncertainty about our philosophy of sex. The sureness of our codes of a generation ago has weakened under the assaults of new data from physiology, psychology, psychiatry, and sociology. New and partly formed theories based on a half truth or modicum of fact become acceptable grounds for new codes by some, but profoundly shock others. If this present crisis ended in adult puzzlement alone, we might be little disturbed by it. But its contagion has caught our youth. They think and feel deeply, and they are frankly puzzled about the family. Home traditions, so¬ cial contacts, and sexual maturity combine to urge them on toward marriage and homemaking. They want to know how to meet life situations on the way to marriage and parenthood and family relationships. They want the best of our long human experience in meeting these situations. They want understandings and ideals and guidance in their situations. So I venture to state what I think are some of the needs of the growing child as he or she leads toward the building of his (her) own family: First, the child should have a gradually increasing and effective under¬ standing of the home and homemaking. The child needs to know what homes are for, in what ways they serve family members, how the latter in turn serve the home and in that service grow in character, how the home reflects the character of its members, and the essentials of the successful and happy home. He needs to know much about home members, their differences in personality, their different roles in the family, their interrelations and in¬ fluence on one another, the bonds that grow out of these interrelations, and the privileges and responsibilities that go with these bonds. He needs to feel and build the essential spirit of the home and the personal contributions to 700 National Education Association that spirit. He can t get all this in one term or one year. Perhaps he can’t get it all from the school or his own home. But get it he must, if he is to be a successful homemaker. Second, this growing child needs to acquire a variety of home skills and to appreciate their value in personal and family expression. He needs to kno\v what his personal skills and those of other members contribute to family happiness and to his own. He needs to know the essential skills of a father, a mother, a brother, a sister, as part of his standards regarding these people. He should have much practise in the arts of housekeeping in order that he may make the house the ideal place for the expression of the life of its membeis, adjusting it as their life and personality change. Pie needs equal practise in the art of getting along with people, the skills of personal adjustment to others, and especially the skills of adjusting others to their various life situations. This involves an understanding of personality factors and of sex diffeiences. Boys need this practise in personal adjustment even more than gills, and many families suffer because they are lacking in this skill. Third, the growing child should understand thoroly the steps in his transition from adolescent maturing to marriage, because these concern his more active pieparation for marriage and largely determine its success or failure. He should be familiar enough with puberal and adolescent develop¬ ment in its physical and emotional and social aspects and with sex differences in these particulars, so that he will thoroly understand the human machine he must operate for the rest of his life and its relation to other human ma¬ chines. (We should not omit here a pretty thoro understanding of the other sex, foi family ciises prove all too conclusively that men don’t understand women, nor women men.) He will need to know much about affection and love and the interweaving of the sex impulse with them, as they progress into mainage and paienthood and family relations. He will need some stand¬ ards for mate choice, courtship and engagement, and mate adjustments. These needs will take him beyond school age, so if the school is to help him in them, it must give him some long looks ahead. Fourth, I feel that the growing child should get a clear understanding of the father-mother background of the home. Children can come to learn something about the factors that draw and hold parents together — common mtei ests and purposes, mutual confidence, the ability to adjust sex, hunger for parenthood, the capacity for bringing out the best in each other, per¬ sistence, and the other common ties of mates. Children need to learn some of the myriad adjustments parents have to make and the effect of these on the family. They need to learn the values of everlasting teamwork in the home partnership, whether there is love or not. And they need to learn the effect of this father-mother bond on the whole spirit and achievements of the family. Fifth, these candidates for homemaking should have the training in child care that gives an understanding of the growth and development of the Department of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics 701 child, both prenatal and postnatal, and practise in the supervised care and education of children. This is only a partial summary of the needs of potential homemakers. It is a huge program. Yes, but then homemaking is a huge affair; that’s why without training there are so many failures in it. Too big you say, for the school ; but not too big for life, and the school is attempting to prepare for life. The needs are there, whether the school meets them or not. PLANS FOR NUTRITION INSTRUCTION IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS CARLOTTA C. GREER, CHAIRMAN, COOPERATIVE STUDIES COMMITTEE; AND HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF HOME ECONOMICS, JOHN HAY HIGH SCHOOL, CLEVELAND, OHIO As stated in the February meeting in Washington, the Cooperative Studies Committee decided a year ago to direct their work toward the study of nu¬ trition education in the public schools. The results of the first aim of their work viz., to determine the status of nutrition education in the public schools, was given in a report presented in the February meeting. A beginning regarding the second aim of the nutrition study, i. e., to at¬ tempt to bring to every child the fundamentals of good food practises, was made this spring. A plan for the accomplishment of this aim is as follows: 1. Formulate reliable statements regarding the best use of food that are comprehensible to pupils of different grade levels. It may be advisable to prepare three sets of statements or health' rules involving food — one for elementary pupils, another for junior high, and a third for senior high-school pupils. These statements should include the minimum food cost of an adequate diet. 2. Formulate educationally sound incentives and plans for making habit¬ ual practises that lead to optimum nutrition. 3. (a) Send copies of this material to school superintendents asking that, if possible, the information be made available to every school child in the system. (b) Secure the cooperation of the home economics teacher or super¬ visor in carrying out the educational program outlined. (c) Suggest that a local committee be appointed to put the suggestions in operation and that names of the persons on the committee be sent to the chairman of the Cooperative Studies Committee. 4. (a) Suggest ways of making the information available to pupils, such as presentation by home economics, health, or biology teachers in class¬ rooms or in assembly gatherings; educational films; rat-feeding ex¬ periments ; letters to parents. (b) Suggest methods of checking wholesome food practise that may be evaluated by the teacher. 702 National Education Association OPPORTUNITIES FOR INDIVIDUAL SELF-EXPRESSION AND SATISFACTIONS IN HOME LIFE TODAY MRS. MARION M. MILLER, ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR, CHILD STUDY ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA, NEW YORK, N. Y. I \\ ant to discuss particularly the right of each family member, even the vei\ youngest, to be considered as an individual not only worthy of respect but expected to command it, as an idea which has wrought profound changes in our practical home life day by day. This is in truth the century of the child and it rests with those who can see the implications to make it also a century of progress both for the child and for the family group. The first essential for wholesome family living is an understanding on the part of the parent of the individual differences within the group and respect¬ ful recognition of the specific needs of each family member, so that each in¬ dividual and the group as a whole can function, with self-respect and with mutual respect, on the highest level possible for them to attain. This means that we must cast aside our ready-made patterns of family behavior. We hear on all sides that family tradition is breaking down. Much of family tradition rested on very insecure foundations and it is right and proper that it should bieak down. Traditions based on pride of race prestige, or money tradition , or on vanity, have no place in a world where each individual is entitled to respect, not only for what he is but for what he hopes and strives to become. The leavening process has perhaps been too rapid and we may have thiown aside much that was valid in getting rid of an irksome and ugly super-structure. Our hope, then, must be in the future. The satisfactions that we derive in and thru the family group will depend more and more upon the collective inspiration of the group and less upon arbitrary fortune. The child’s first need, therefore, is that he be understood and respected, and this holds true whether he is six months old or an adult. It means that he cannot be used primarily as a means for his parents’ enter¬ tainment or as a shock absorber for the parents’ domination ; he is entitled to the benefit of the social heritage which the family, and in particular, his parents have accumulated. The home is the place where the child must have his second, his third, and fourth chance. He must be privileged to make mis¬ takes, to profit by them, and eventually to arrive at a degree of maturity without being burdened by an irreparable sense of failure. Perhaps the very greatest need of the young person of today is preparation foi change. We are living in an era whose most outstanding characteristic is fluidity. In order to accept change with confidence, with interest, and with tolerance, there must be some security in personal relationships— this the home must supply. Where confusion reigns within the family, where the child is pulled emotionally this way and that, he can never hope to derive satisfaction either within his home or elsewhere. On the other hand, if the home is characterized by too great rigidity or too great a degree of protec¬ tion from the world at large, then the child is living in fairyland and can¬ not cope with real situations. Department of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics 703 This brings us to a consideration of authority and discipline as a funda¬ mental basis of family living. It is inevitable that for the small child the parent should be the arbiter of right and wrong. Parental authority, how¬ ever, must rest on principle and not on force. To expect obedience from a child is permissible only in terms of what is, according to the parent’s best understanding, the wisest course of action at the time. This precludes the personal appeal. We can no longer, if we follow this line of thought, expect obedience because “I say so,” “because I am your father,” or even “because you love me.” The parent is the interpreter, not the cause. “I, the parent, am older, more experienced, and therefore presumably wiser.” Insofar as the parent commands respect thru his understanding, his wisdom, and his fair minded consideration, the child will be obedient. The child has the right to expect* of the parent reliability and steadfastness without dogmatic rigid¬ ity; honesty, tolerance, and open-mindedness in discussing matters that in¬ volve decided change in viewpoint from that which was current in the parent’s youth. What then are the satisfactions inherent in the family ? 1. Each family member has within the family group a sense of belonging, of being of worth by virtue of his family membership. Elsewhere he has to fight for position. Rank in the outside world may be obtained by influence, but it must be maintained by merits. Within the family this is not so; here the anchorage is inherent in the relationship. 2. Thru a recognition of individual differences, of particular capacity, and special handicap, each family member should be enabled to develop along the lines of his capability, his needs, and his interests. We presuppose, of course, a high degree of understanding of personality needs and an honest recognition of individual varia¬ tions. There should be no arbitrary goal of achievement within the family as there necessarily is in the business and professional world. 3. Within the family the child should have his first taste of success. No one thrives on failure and it is within the family circle that tasks can be graded in a way that the child is constantly strengthened and revivified by success with an ever receding goal which leads toward further effort. SATISFACTIONS OF SOLVENCY HOWARD F. BIGELOW, WESTERN STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, KALAMAZOO, MICH. Solvency is that condition of a business in which its current funds exceed its current liabilities. A family is solvent if it has funds available with which to meet its obligations as they fall due. The satisfactions of solvency are intangible. At the present time most of us are either families with the satisfaction of being able to keep two jumps ahead of the sheriff, or know only too well the difficulties insolvency in¬ volves. Solvency is the only satisfactory economic foundation on which to erect a satisfying family life. It is difficult for a family to maintain its solvency for a number of reasons. For most of us neither income nor expenses come with exact regularity. For most of us solvency can be maintained only by careful planning considerably 704 National Education Association m advance. Such planning is difficult nowadays. Living as we do in a chang¬ ing world,, we have been getting into difficulty because we have been acting on the basis of knowledge that is no longer so. Our recent difficulty in main¬ taining solvency has been due in part to our tardy recognition of the change from a rising to a falling secular price trend, in part from failure to make the adjustments incident to changing from a scarcity to a surplus economy, in part to our losing sight in our enthusiasm for collectivism of individual family wellbeing as the end for which our social and economic organization was created. We will be better able to insure the solvency of American families in years to come, if we get back to the original Greek meaning of economics which concerned itself primarily, not with piling up wealth for its own sake, but in the proper ratio of goods to needs ; if we realize that we live to consume and not to produce, and that it is possible for the first time in hu¬ man history, living as we do in a surplus economy, to adjust our production to our consumption needs ; if we provide an adequate body of uptodate infor¬ mation and of sound principles to guide us in our personal economic life ; if we come to look upon the home not primarily as a place to consume, but as a going business concern which in the interests of solvency frequently pro¬ duces for use what its members cannot afford to buy in the way of goods and services. If we are to be able to adapt ourselves quickly, positively, and surely to the changes which progress inevitably entails, we must have, then, broad infor¬ mation, knowledge of specific principles, plus instruction as to their proper application in a wide variety of situations. And above all we need a whole¬ some and positive philosophy of life. For we have been passing thru years in which fear has been holding sway in the world. It is up to us to make it possible for the men and women of tomorrow to face life with the confidence that can come only from adequate preparation for the task at hand. It is up to the home economist to take the lead, which the economist and the psychologist should be only too glad to follow, in developing a new “domestic science” which shall concern itself only incidentally with the development of technic and primarily with what¬ ever principles are fundamental to successful living. The materials we need are all about us. It is up to us, economist and home economist alike, to make the satisfactions of solvency available for the gen¬ erations that are to come. HOME ACTIVITIES FOR GENERAL EDUCATION IN AN INTEGRATED SCHOOL PROGRAM CORA M. WINCHELL, PROFESSOR OF HOUSEHOLD ARTS EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. A proposal for the extension of education for homeliving and homemaking by means of its integration with the work of the classroom is bound to stimu¬ late two questions: (1) If such a program is introduced into the schools, Department of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics 705 what preparation should be given to the general classroom teacher in home- life activities? (2) If such a plan is developed in a school system, what then will be the field of work for the home economist? In response to the first question the answer is obvious : the general class¬ room teacher should be equipped to teach with accuracy and with a degree of skill the essential activities concerned with food, clothing, and home fur¬ nishings. She should become cognizant of the resources of the field of home¬ living and homemaking in order that she may select from it those activities which may be valuable in the solution of problems and the building up of units of work for the age level and interest with which she is concerned. It will be found that in most instances the state or local course of study in the schools is richer in suggested content and experiences in this field than is the program of studies in the normal school or college in which the teacher was prepared for her work. Such courses offered in the teacher-training institution should be de¬ veloped for two purposes: First , they should serve the prospective teacher personally , in building up an intelligent basis for healthful and wholesome living; and second , they should provide her with an intelligent background of available resources, of points of view, facts and technics from which she may draw as the need arises and the opportunity presents itself to introduce home-life content into the work of her classroom. Essentials in the various home activities should be selected as a basis for the course ; and the findings of research and the most acceptable procedures should be incorporated. The plea for enriched training in the field of home-life content is stated with poignancy in the following quotation:1 Greeting his pupils, the master asked: “What would ye learn of me?” And the reply came: “How shall we care for our bodies? How shall we rear our children? How shall we work together? How shall we live with our fellowmen? How shall we play? For what ends shall we live?” And the teacher pondered these words, and sorrow was in his heart, for his own learning touched not these things. In answer to the second inevitable question, “If home-life content is to be incorporated into the general school program what will be the field of work for the home economist?” there is a definite response: Home economics, either in the integrated or in the subject-division pro¬ gram, has a content which is its own, a body of facts, appreciations, art rela¬ tionships, social and economic implications, and specific skills which should be organized coherently around fundamental problems of homeliving and homemaking. Only as the specially trained home economist with a breadth 1 Chapman, J. Crosby and Counts, George S. Principles of Education. New York: Houghton, Mifflin Co., 1924. 706 National Education Association of educational vision becomes a member of the teaching group can this field of work be adequately offered in the junior and senior high school. Homeliving and homemaking, as in the case of other school subjects, may be adapted to different age and grade levels as significant content ; but when the boy and girl reach the junior and senior high school they need the type of education which has involved advanced and intensive teacher training. The work of the integrated elementary school program will be a valuable back¬ ground for organized home economics education in the junior high school. Without doubt the junior high school, at the present time, offers the best opportunity to teach homeliving and homemaking, organized units of work, within this field. In the senior high school, the woman trained in some spe¬ cific aspect of the field rather than in the general aspects of homemaking, will find her most effective field. The teacher of foods and nutrition, of clothing and textiles, of home management, of art in the home, of child de¬ velopment, will find her opportunity at this age level. The teacher and supervisor of home economics in the school system should also make herself increasingly valuable as a consultant and an aid to the ele¬ mentary school teacher under the “integrated” plan. Her more intensive training and her willing cooperation should serve to enrich the work as planned by the classroom teacher. # Such a teacher of home economics will be recognized as one ( 1 ) with a comprehension and grasp of general education and its changing needs; (2) with a flexible personality; (3) with the most comprehensive preparation for her field of service which she can afford. The trend in education seems unmistakable toward greater cooperation, more integration, fewer divisions between subjects. It would seem essential that we in home economics keep our eye on the changing social and educa¬ tional scene ; that we emulate the fine men and women who have preceded us in the development of our field of work — bending it, molding it, re-evaluat¬ ing our purposes and goals in terms of the work and its needs today. Only thru a conception of home economics as a phase of the entire educational program for boys as well as for girls, within and without the school, can we hope to promote education in home-life activities for all. SECONDARY EDUCATION DURING THE NEXT DECADE FORREST E. LONG, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, NEW YORK UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. The only hope for a thoro-going reconstruction rests with the schools and very largely with the secondary school. If the American dream, so ably de¬ fined by James Truslow Adams in The Epic of America, is to come true we shall recognize that poverty must be driven from our midst. A more ade¬ quate and equitable system of production and distribution will be evolved. The program of the high school during the next decade undoubtedly will allow for much discussion and planning along this line. Social economy will take a more prominent place in the curriculum than it has known heretofore. Department of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics 707 T he items which appear below will, I believe, furnish the major em¬ phases of secondary education during the next decade: 1. We must attack the problem of economic life and help to give direction to a trend that is being forced upon us. 2. As a concomitant of economic readjustment will come the need for increased capacity for consumption of the real values of life. This ability must be de¬ veloped by the school. 3. We shall accept and provide suitable instruction for all pupils of secondary school age. 4. The secondary school has an opportunity for service in the retraining of adolescents and adults to provide them with the skills required to meet the demands of a rapidly shifting vocational world. 5. The teachers of America will lead the way to a better understanding of peace and will aid young America to appreciate the futility of war. In addition to the above trends which we may expect the secondary school to follow during the next decade there are numerous less significant adjust¬ ments which undoubtedly will be made. Some of these adjustments are likely to take place in order to make possible the larger role of the secondary school as outlined above. There is considerable evidence which indicates that one of our educational atrocities is to lose cast. The socalled Carnegie unit — unknown elsewhere in the world — has become so inflated that it is no longer respected as academic currency. Today no one knows what a unit is and no one maintains longer that two units are approximately of equal value. The best we can say for the unit today is that it represents time served. With the influx of larger numbers of pupils representing the lower levels of academic accomplishment, there seems to be reason enough for recasting our bookkeeping system. Un¬ doubtedly the unit will remain with us for a long period of time, but we shall come to recognize that there is little relationship between the accumu¬ lation of units and the education of children. With the breakdown of the time-to-be-served theory will come a new emphasis on independent study and independent investigation. Closely associated with the movement to encourage independent study and independent investigation will be a realignment of departmental bar¬ riers. Pupils making independent studies in homemaking, for instance, will soon learn that homemaking involves infinitely more complex adjustments than those required in the kitchen or the sewing room. Economics, sociology, hygiene, the esthetic arts, vocational education of all sorts, and hosts of other divisions of accumulated knowledge will be drawn upon to solve its problems. Pupils doing independent work will soon recognize how futile our attempts have been to pigeon-hole human knowledge. These pupils will not be concerned over departmental jealousies. They will be seeking answers to their own questions. There is a very obvious movement in the secondary schools to break down the tyranny of college domination. Increased numbers of pupils of the non- academic type will surely make the secondary schools even bolder during 708 National Education Association the next decade. We may be able to force the hand of the colleges and thus secure their cooperation in the training to be given to selected individuals while they remain in high school in preparation for their work in college. Some of the additional problems which should be attacked during the next decade are: 1. Apprenticeship training of teachers and their selection on the basis of per¬ sonality and creative ability. 2. The extension of the high-school library, especially the library service during vacation periods. 3. The gradual reduction of the social distance between teacher and pupil — the teacher to become a guide, counselor, and friend to the pupil. 4. The incorporation of the junior college into the public school system. Uninformed, indeed, is the individual who can face with complacency the next ten years in the secondary school. There is every reason to believe that violent readjustment will be made. Our function, it seems to me, is to aid in charting the course which this readjustment shall take. When dealing with social phenomena we cannot forecast movements with great accuracy. But if professional groups will spend their time, during these trying days, in shaping progressive readjustments rather than in holding the line for the old order it is likely that we may be permitted to shape the future of the school. If we stand too conservatively, our lay population will be forced to take charge of the reorganization without even consulting us. It is better that we lay down a constructive program. FIRST THINGS FIRST IN EDUCATION EDWIN W. ADAMS, ASSOCIATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PHILADELPHIA, PA. The question might well be raised as to whether there is anyone who is really in position to know just what are the fundamentals in education. There has never been a time in the history of education when we have been so uncertain as to just what our aims and objectives really are. We have be¬ come enmeshed in a tangle of facts and near-facts j of theories and practises j of proposals and counter-proposals ; until we are, at times, bewildered with the complexity of the whole situation and find ourselves in danger of losing faith in some of the essentials of our work. We have seen so many of our sup¬ posedly solid propositions break down under the application of the principles of scientific research, that we look with question at practically everything. One after another educational plans and devices have been heralded that have promised to revolutionize the whole educational process. Organic edu¬ cation, Dalton plan, Winnetka, and others too numerous to mention have held the limelight for a time only to be outshone by other and newer devices. Popularity has followed in the wake of successful advertising. Mere accept¬ ance has in some circles been assumed as a guarantee of the value and effec¬ tiveness of the system. Each has had its bright day, only to fall short as a solution to the eternal question. Department of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics 709 Even educational measurement which was so eagerly welcomed as a key to the situation, if not a cure-all, is not without its limitations. As an instru¬ ment of research — for the determining of facts — for diagnosis and prog¬ nosis, it is serving a most valuable place. It is, however, merely an instru¬ ment — a means to an end. Insofar as it draws us away from fundamentals, it too is fraught with danger. The conditions which we find in the school but parallel the conditions in the social, economic world about us. A rapidly changing civilization has produced a rapidly changing school. Within the span of the lives of many of us, there began a revolution which has rocked the very foundations of social, economic, political, and even moral life. Change, rapid and sweeping, came over civilization. In every field of endeavor, science, hand in hand with industry, began a series of developments which have changed entirely our living and our outlook on life. Today it would take a brave man, indeed, to predict conditions of life even a decade hence. The older knowledges and skills may not be so service¬ able as we think. New, radically changed conditions may demand new and adjusted ways of looking at life. It is for life in such a changing civilization that the school must prepare its pupils. Education has confronting it the task of determining what shall constitute the objectives, the methods, and the procedures. We have recently come to regard normal progress as an essential in edu¬ cation. We desire for every child a progress that will conform to a normal stage of physiological and social as well as intellectual development. We have tried ability grouping in an effort to bring about group individ¬ ualization. The increase of pupil achievement in subjectmatter has been dis¬ appointing. We need individual individualization. This will require the de¬ velopment of methods of individualization within class groups. We have, in the past, in our zeal to secure for every child that which we thought to be best and most essential, operated such standards of promotion as resulted in an inordinated amount of failure with the consequent repeti¬ tion and eventual elimination. 71 oday we see developing a philosophy which believes in the right of the child to succeed — a philosophy which would so organize the educational forces and procedures as would make for success¬ ful progress thru the grades without failure for practically every child. It presupposes a flexibility of organization, a wide variety of curriculum offer- ings, and a mastery of the technic of teaching with emphasis on individual¬ ization. We know now that if we had all the twelve-year-old pupils in the sixth-grade, we would have no greater range of abilities than we now have with our present system of grading. The school of yesterday was built on the assumption that knowledge was power, and that if children knew they would do. We have come to realize that the mere possession of knowledge will not in itself insure right action. We have set up today as the foremost goal in education the objective of good citizenship, and have coupled with it as the prime essential, good character. 710 National Education Association On our way toward the goal to good citizenship and good character, we are beginning to recognize the necessity for developing in each child those inner resources which can alone insure right action in the face of the new and constantly changing environment in which the pupil finds himself. We are endeavoring to develop in each pupil, as far as possible, a broad range of interests, a willingness to welcome new problems, and an honest desire to solve them. T he ability to think for oneself, to face new and unusual situa¬ tions fearlessly, and an attempt to work out the solution of the problems which arise, constitute by far the largest responsibility of the school. I he school of today is increasingly becoming, in the language of Dr. Suhrie of New \ ork University, “a place where boys and girls, young men and young women come together to educate themselves and one another with the help of some good teachers.” SECRETARY’S MINUTES Atlantic City, New Jersey Business Session, June 27, 1932 President Goodspeed welcomed the group and announced that the February meet¬ ing would be at Minneapolis. The secretary read the minutes of the Washington meeting. Upon a motion made by Miss Jacobs and seconded by Miss Case, the minutes were accepted as read. Miss Goodspeed appointed members of the Resolutions Committee as follows: Dorothy Stone, teacher of home economics, South Norwalk, Conn. ; Emma Pierce, Home Economics Normal School, Jersey City, N. J. ; Ruth Sanger, supervisor of home economics, Toledo, Ohio, chairman. The treasurer’s annual report was read and accepted. The president then called for reports of special committees. Carlotta C. Greer, chairman of the Cooperative Studies Committee, made a report of the Committee on Nutrition in the Public Schools. The report is filed in full with the secretary. Alice R. Wallin, chairman of the National Progress Committee, could not be pres¬ ent. The secretary was asked to include a statement of the work of this Committee in her report. Emma S. Jacobs moved that the report of the Progress Committee be referred to the Executive Committee to decide which problem could be studied the next year. Seconded by Miss Whitcomb. Carried. The report is filed in full with the secretary. Miss Jacobs, a member of the National Council of Education, reported the meeting of that organization. There was considerable discussion of the report. Mrs. A. G. Green, Pennsylvania state supervisor of home economics, moved that it be accepted. Carried. The membership chairman, Mary M. Buckley, read her report. She emphasized the fact that membership had dropped very little regardless of conditions. There were 238 renewals and 237 new members. The report was accepted. A problem concerning changes in the bylaws had been laid over from the Wash¬ ington meeting. In this connection Emma S. Jacobs presented the following: To amend Article III, Section 1 to read as follows: Section 1. Number of officers — The regular officers of this Department shall be President, Vicepresident, Secretary, and Treasurer. Such other officers may be added by the executive committee as are deemed necessary. Also to amend Article IV, Section 3 to read as follows: Section 3. Duties of secretary — The secretary shall keep a full and accurate record of the proceedings of the general meetings of the organization. He shall Department of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics 711 keep a list of members; shall revise said list annually and shall carry on the formal correspondence with the members considered necessary for announcing meetings, etc. He shall be custodian of all the property of the Department. At the expiration of his term, he shall transfer to his successor all books and other property in his possession belonging to the Department. At the expiration of his term, he may be called upon to act for the ensuing year as an advising member of the executive committee. Also to add Section 4 to Article IV as follows: Section 4. Duties of treasurer — The treasurer shall receive or collect all moneys of the Department; shall pay the same upon order of the president; shall keep an exact account of his receipts and expenditures, and shall render an account to the executive committee. At the expiration of his term, he shall transfer to his successor all books and other property in his possession belonging to the Depart¬ ment. The treasurer shall act as chairman of the membership committee. At the expiration of his term he may be called upon to act for the ensuing year as an advising member of the executive committee. Miss Jacobs then made the motion that the changes be accepted. Miss Whitcomb seconded the motion. Carried. The president, Miss Goodspeed, then asked for a report of the nominating com¬ mittee. As none of the committee were present, the secretary was asked to read the report sent by Mrs. Erma Christy, chairman. The secretary read the names of the officers, listed on page 696, and they were declared elected, there being no other nominations. Meeting adjourned. Business Session, June 28, 1932 Miss Goodspeed called attention to the fact that it had been suggested that a Com¬ mittee on Economics be formed in order to help crystallize the suggestions of speak¬ ers and of the Progress Committee. Miss Jacobs made the motion that a Committee on Economics similar to the Committee on Nutrition be named. Miss Whitcomb suggested that Dr. Benjamin Andrews be asked to act as chairman of this committee. Miss Jacobs accepted the suggestion. Carried. Miss Ruth Sanger reported for the Resolutions Committee: Whereas, thru the untiring efforts of Miss Ethel M. Powell, Miss Jean P. Case, and the teachers of home economics in Atlantic City and New Jersey as a whole, we have enjoyed splendid and worthwhile programs and charming hospitality, be it Resolved, that we hereby acknowledge our indebtedness to them and extend our sincere thanks for their many courtesies; be it further Resolved, that the secretary transmit in writing to them, to all the speakers, to the members of the Advisory Council in Nutrition, the representatives on the National Council of Education, our appreciation of their efforts in our behalf; be it further Resolved, that special thanks be tendered to our chairman, Helen C. Goodspeed, for her outstanding work, and to the other officers who have so ably served us; be it further Resolved, that this Department lend its support and cooperation to the further¬ ing of research dealing with home and family and to the application of such find¬ ings along lines so ably indicated by our speakers, Dr. Wile and Mr. Edson. W^hereas, in the death of Martha Van Rensselaer all Home Economists have lost a faithful friend and fellow worker, be it Resolved, that this Department include in its minutes this brief expression of its appreciation of her work and sorrow at her passing. The resolutions were adopted. 712 National Education Association Report of Progress Committee, June, 1932 Since the last report of this committee, an effort has been made to narrow down the statement of the needs and problems of public-school home economics. The list as first obtained was sent out to the members of the committee and they were asked to make a selection of the problems which they rated first, second, and third in importance. Those committee members who responded were then asked to select from the list secured the one problem they considered the most urgent. The follow¬ ing were reported: 1. Define outcomes and goals for home economics 2. Development of courses of study based on the family rather than subject- matter in foods and clothing 3. What is the maximum number of pupils for satisfactory laboratory work in one-hour periods if the standard of work on a high level is to be maintained? Does this number vary with intelligence levels? 4. What may home economics do that it is not now doing to train for leisure time ? 5. Means of acquainting the community with the purpose and content of home economics courses, or ways of educating the general public as to the real value of home economics. Number 1 and number 2 each received two votes. In the previous vote six out of eight agreed on number 1 as being their first, second, or third choice, while three out of eight agreed on number 2. From this it would appear that the most urgent need of public school home economics today is to define the outcomes and goals for home economics. The Progress Committee recommends that the Cooperative Studies Committee take up the study of this problem. Alice R. Wallin, Chairman. Annual Report of Treasurer Income Balance at N. E. A. headquarters Sept. 1, 1931 . $130.00 Balance in bank at Paterson, N. J . 9.00 Membership dues . 475.00 13 membership dues for N. E. A . 26.00 N. E. A. allottment for year . 25.00 Sale of bulletins — received from Miss Jacobs . 8.10 Sale of bulletins thru office . 1.30 Total . $674.40 Expenditures Printing and multigraphing letters — letter heads, envelopes, and officers’ programs for departments . $119.10 Office Expenses Clerical help . $54.25 Mailing, Express, Telegrams, Specials . 76.13 Check to Miss Jacobs . 1.20 Los Angeles Meeting . 20.77 Washington Meeting . 28.88 Printing and mailing of “Occupations” . 33.70 President Goodspeed . 13.40 Conference travel for two meetings . 10.92 253.25 Research Committee Expenses — Oct. to June . 25.47 Total . 417.82 Balance July 2, 1932 $256.58 Department of Teachers Colleges The department of teachers colleges takes the place of the Department of Normal Schools, which was formed at the Cleveland Meeting, August 19, 1870, by a reorganization of the Amer¬ ican Normal School Association, which had been organized in 1858. See Proceedings , 1870:176; 1906:524. In 1924 it was voted to appoint a com¬ mittee to discuss the possibility of combining with the American Association of Teachers Colleges. See Proceedings , 1924:614. In 1925 the combination was effected. It was arranged that the National Edu¬ cation Association take over the publications of the American Association of Teachers Colleges, includ¬ ing its yearbook, in 1926. The officers of this Department for the year 1932- 33 are: President , H. A. Brown, President, Illinois State Normal University, Normal, Ill.; First Vice- president , John W. Withers, Dean, Department of Education, New York University, New York, N. Y. ; Second Vicepresident , J. A. Pitman, President, State Normal School, Salem, Mass.; Third Vicepresident , H. H. Cherry, President, Western Kentucky State Teachers College, Bowling Green, Ky. ; Secretary- Treasurer, Charles W. Hunt, President, Cleveland School of Education, Cleveland, Ohio. 1870: 1- 88 1873:164-199 1874:214-254 1875:138-153 1876:157-211 1877:139-174 1879:113-135 1880:176-193 1881:199-218 1882:173-181 1884:236-258 1885 :223-248 1886:389-423 1887:467-604 1888:465-515 1889:557-613 1890:717-759 1891 :709-741 1892:407-435 1894:819-871 1895:672-718 1896 :642-666 1897:709-736 1898:728-757 1899 :835-904 1900:480-491 1901 :635-646 1902:529-649 1903 :539-595 1904:567-593 1905:517-557 1906:707-711 1907:739-759 1908:703-739 1909:547-597 1910:563-595 1911:695-709 1912:809-897 1913:523-553 1914:497-565 1915:763-815 1917:383-417 1918:209-235 1919:221-259 1920: 237-263 1921: 515 1922:1063-1085 1923: 737-744 1924: 613-637 1925: 863 1926: 838-947 1927: 873-950 1928: 833-948 1929: 827-937 1930: 801-911 1931: 845-945 [714] PRESIDENT’S ANNUAL ADDRESS SAM H. WHITLEY, PRESIDENT, EAST TEXAS STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, COMMERCE, TEXAS Retrospective view of 1931-32 — The work of teacher training during 1931-32 has been subject to all the handicaps, drawbacks, and inconveniences of the economic depression which is worldwide in its scope. Notwithstand¬ ing this fact, however, the teacher-training institutions of the United States have made commendable progress. Salaries of some institutions have been reduced ; building programs have been curtailed ; and expansions have been made impossible by action of legislative bodies, boards of control, and ad¬ ministrative authorities of colleges themselves. The reports of the member institutions of this Association, however, to the various committees have been, indeed, encouraging. The work of the President of the Association has been pleasant and appreciation is hereby expressed for the splendid co¬ operation extended by the committees and the membership generally of the Association. A brief review of the teacher-training situation in the United States is thought to be apropos at this time. Physical pla?its of teacher-training institutions — The growth and develop¬ ment of teachers colleges and normal schools in the United States during the last five year period, for which figures are available, reads like a romance. This growth and development fully justifies the friends of teacher training in feeling that the American people regard the training of teachers as being one of the most important functions of the state and national governments. This growth and development may be considered from the standpoint of scholarship, curriculum, professional technic, student personnel, faculty growth and development, financial support, cost accounting, and increased value of physical plants. It cannot be gainsaid that a college is judged by a great many people upon the value of its buildings, grounds, and equipment. As much as the general public disclaims this basis for evaluation, it remains nevertheless true that the majority of people judge institutions very largely by the general appear¬ ance and value of their physical plants. Handsome, well-appointed dormi¬ tories, fine college buildings finished in marble and terrazzo, library build¬ ings highly decorated and adorned with the greatest pieces of art money can purchase, student unions with all modern appointments, grounds artistically laid out and beautifully decorated with trees and shrubbery, all have their influence, justly or unjustly, in determining in the general opinion the value of an institution. Perhaps, some institutions have gone too far in the matter of spending money for physical plants. No doubt others have not gone far enough. It is believed that the teachers colleges of America are occupying a middle ground in the matter of providing physical equipment. At any rate the progress made during the five year period beginning in 1925-26 and ending in 1929-30 shows wholesome advancement in the matter of provid¬ ing adequate physical plants for the training of teachers. [715] 716 National Education Association Information was sought of the teacher-training institutions that are members of the American Association of Teachers Colleges on thirteen points, all of which are quantitative and refer only to such things as can be easily measured. Replies were received from one hundred thirty-four institutions, and Table 1 represents a compilation of figures from this number of institutions. These figures tell a story all their own and one which emphasizes possibly more than anything else the fact that the Ameri¬ can people are coming more and more to appreciate the teachers colleges and normal schools, which are really the universities of the common people. 1---THIRTEEN ITEMS OF INFORMATION CONCERNING THE PROGRESS OF 134 TEACHER-TRAINING INSTITUTIONS AND A COMPARATIVE STATEMENT FOR 1925-26 1929-30 1925-26 1929-30 Amount of increase Percent of in¬ crease Percent of de¬ crease 1. Value of buildings and grounds. | 2. Total salaries, of faculty and employees . | 3. Number volumes in library. .. . 4. Total number of faculty members 5. Faculty members with no degrees 6. Faculty members with Bachelor’s degree . 7. Faculty members with Master’s degree . 8. Faculty members with Ph. D. degree . 9. Degrees conferred regular ses¬ sion . 10. Degrees conferred summer ses¬ sion . 11. Degrees conferred regular and summer sessions . 12. Students enrolled regular session 13. Students enrolled summer session $86,915,396 $15,697,301 1,806,934 4,453 1,079 2,009 1,827 351 3,729 1,826 5,555 99,076 88,408 $122,791,925 $21,699,301 2,839,831 6,295 471 1,713 3,286 838 7,844 4,098 11,942 115,976 104,842 $35,876,529 $6,002,000 1,032,897 1,842 608 296 1,459 487 4,115 2,272 6,387 16,900 16,434 41 38 57 41 74 139 110 124 115 17 17 60 17 j Standards of the American Association of Teachers Colleges — This year there has been a great deal said concerning the standards of the American Association of Teachers Colleges. In accordance with a resolution passed by the Association at its meeting in Detroit in 1931, the Committee on Standards for 1931-32 was increased from five to ten members. The ad¬ ditional members of this committee understood when they were appointed that they would serve only for one year. It is quite likely that the work of the enlarged Committee on Standards and Surveys can hardly be completed in one year. It is recommended, therefore, that these temporary members of the Committee or others who may take their places representing the various sections of our country and the various types of institutions in the Association, be continued. The five additional members of the Committee on Standards and Surveys for 1931-32 are: J. A. Pitman, principal, State Normal School, Salem, Massachusetts C. L. Phelps, president, State Teachers College, Santa Barbara, California Department of Teachers Colleges 717 C. C. Sherrod, president, East Tennessee State Teachers College, Johnson City, Tennessee M. P. Shawkey, president, Marshall College, Huntington, West Virginia O. R. Latham, president, Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa It is hoped that the work and efficiency of the American Association of Teachers Colleges will be maintained by a wise revision of the standards. Standards are, of necessity, matters of growth, and growth is something that cannot be hastened. The hope is expressed, therefore, that those members of the Association who feel that changes ought to be made will insist that changes be made slowly and that nothing may be done hastily in the desire to secure a revision of standards that will handicap the great work which the American Association of Teachers Colleges has accomplished during the past two decades. The Association is now one of the greatest factors in America in developing ideals and standards in the work of teacher prepara¬ tion, and the Association can render much service in the future if it has the complete cooperation of teachers colleges and normal schools thruout the nation. Association magazine — The Association began this year the publication of a magazine which is the official mouthpiece of the Association in matters of publication. The magazine has been ably edited and has made a most ex¬ cellent beginning. This has been done notwithstanding limited financial resources and great distances separating the editorial staff. It is recom¬ mended that the Association consider carefully the question of more ade¬ quate financial support to be derived from sources other than the member¬ ship income of the Association, and the additional question of making it possible for the editorial staff to get together at least twice annually. The Magazine Committee, appointed by the Executive Committee in accordance with a resolution passed by the American Association of Teachers Colleges at its Detroit meeting February, 1931, is as follows: E. J. Ashbaugh, dean, School of Education, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio (1 year) Chas. Finley, dean of instruction, State Teachers College, Montclair, New Jersey (2 years) F. L. Whitney, director, Research, State Teachers College, Greeley, Colorado (3 years) E. C. Higbie, president, Wilson Teachers College, Washington, D. C. (4 years) Samuel P. Duke, president, State Teachers College, Harrisonburg, Virginia (5 years) Executive Committee — The Executive Committee of the Association under the constitution and bylaws of the past has functioned but very little. There has been nothing for the Executive Committee to do except to ap¬ prove the budget. Inasmuch as the Association passes upon the budget itself and in many instances approves items of expenditure in advance, there is really nothing for the Executive Committee to do. Attention of the Asso¬ ciation is called to the fact that if there is to be an Executive Committee it ought to have some functions assigned to it. No doubt, the Committee on 718 National Education Association Constitution and Bylaws, which is to report at this meeting, will take care of this question. The making of the program for the annual meetings of the Association — This is one of the most difficult assignments made to the president of the As¬ sociation. It is a tremendously big job to arrange a program that will be satisfactoiy to all the member institutions. Perhaps the president of the Association should be charged with the main responsibility for making the program. There are many reasons, however, why the president of the As¬ sociation should have the assistance of a program committee who will assist each year in drafting programs for the meetings of the Association. Perhaps a committee of three could render valuable help in this direction. It is felt that a piogram should be projected by the Association that will cover in a logical way the problems of teacher training instead of leaving the matter to be determined in a more or less haphazard way as has been the case during the past few years. It is, therefore, recommended that a committee be au¬ thorized whose duty will be to determine a general program of work to be covered by the meetings of the Association for the next three years. Many requests have been made this year by teacher-training agencies not yet affiliated with the American Association of Teachers Colleges for places on the program. If the Association desires these related teacher-training agencies to participate in its annual program, authority should be given the incoming president to make such arrangements. Survey of teacher-training institutions — By act of Congress the United States Office of Education at Washington, E). C., is making a survey of teacher-training institutions in the United States. This work is directed by Doctor E. S. Evenden, of Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. Two of Doctor Evenden s assistants, Doctors Gamble and Rugg, will make reports at this meeting of the Association. The prompt coopera¬ tion and assistance of all members of this Association with the survey staff is urgently requested to the end that complete data will be secured. In this way only will the results of the survey be of any significance to the public school interests of the United States. Department of Teachers Colleges 719 WHAT CONSTITUTES AN EFFICIENT STATE PROGRAM IN TEACHER TRAINING FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF THE STATE? A. B. MEREDITH, NEW YORK UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. The drama that is about to be enacted is a bit unique in its conception and arrangement. It has for its theme the insuperably difficult task of mak¬ ing available to every child in the Republic the services of a devoted teacher who is well-born, well-educated, and professionally equipped for his work, and of supplying this teacher with a type of administrative and supervisory assistance which is, as yet, altogether too rare in most communities. The first speaker is to personify the state. His name is State School Commissioner. He is cast in the role of stage manager. He is expected to show you how the theatre and all its “properties” may be so ordered, man¬ aged, and manipulated as to support and if possible insure a successful per¬ formance. The second speaker is to personify the individual professional school for teachers. His name is Teachers College President. He is cast, quite naturally, in the role of the star performer. He is expected to demonstrate the fine art of transforming the typical prospective teacher, age seventeen, into the successful professional educator and to show you the way in which this fine art can somehow be geared up to an American machine designed for quantity production. The third speaker is to personify the American public. His popular name is School Superintendent, but his real name is Taxpayer. He is assigned the part of dramatic critic.. He is expected to pass judgment on the whole per¬ formance — to tell you whether the stage manager’s part was efficiently per¬ formed or was merely obtrusive, whether or not the star performer’s appeal was genuine, whether or not he placed his emphasis with discretion and avoided “sob stuff.” He will tell us what the weary theater-goers in this age of deep depression are rightly demanding in return for their money (or scrip), and what kind of performance they will applaud and continue to patronize. The fourth speaker is to personify international prudence. He has been employed as special adviser to the stage manager, the star performer, and the dramatic critic. He will tell all of us — and in the presence of the audience — how in the future we may avoid the colossal mistakes which all other nations have successfully made. While I am not an advocate of the centralization of administrative functions, except insofar as it is an effective means to wholly desirable ends, I find it impossible to conceive of a well-coordinated and well-unified state program of teacher preparation without strong, independent, and profession¬ ally efficient leadership in the state central office of education. That office may exist as some form of inclusive state university organization, or as an executive department of the state government. Given such leadership, almost 720 National Education Association an> one of our states will, in due time, be likely to develop a set of teacher¬ training policies well-suited to its particular needs. Among the principal administrative divisions of a well-organized state depaitment of education, the teacher bureau occupies a position of com¬ manding importance. This bureau is in charge of a director who is responsi¬ ble for the development of statewide policies of teacher preparation and i e-education, and for the general supervision and coordination of the teacher- training efforts of all the institutions in the state which are authorized agencies for the professional education of teachers. He is in charge of the issuance of all forms of certification. He is also in charge of academic creden¬ tials and of teacher placement. He reports his recommendations on policy to the state commissioner of education or chief executive educational officer, who in turn makes recommendations to the state board of education or to the regents in the case of an inclusive state university organization. These recom¬ mendations, when approved by said board, have the force of law. In accord¬ ance therewith, the director, after consultation with executive officers of state teachers colleges and with other public school officers concerned, sets up programs intended to carry such policies into effect. In general his functions are to standardize and stabilize the teacher-training services, to up-grade the minimum requirements for certification as rapidly as conditions may warrant, and to assist in bringing available candidates to the attention of local school officers in any part of the state who are in need of their services. In carrying out these functions the teacher bureau with assistance from the division of research is continuously engaged in assembling such statistical data as may have bearing upon desirable revisions of policy and correspond¬ ing modifications of program. Studies are made anew each year of the number of new teachers needed in each of the different kinds of school positions, for example: teachers in kindergai ten, in grades 1 to 3 inclusive, in grades 4 to 6 inclusive, in grades 7 and 8, in junior and senior high schools; and special teachers of every distinctive type; also principals of elementary schools, of junior high schools, of senior high schools, and general and special supervisors. These studies are made to asceitain the increase or decrease in the number of new teachers actually needed from year to year in each type of position for the state as a whole and for each administrative unit. Complete information is also gathered concerning the supply available in each classification from sources within the state and concerning the academic and professional preparation of all educational employees of the state. With definite and dependable information concerning the state’s needs and the sources from which the supply has been or may be recruited, the bureau is in a position to measure the one against the other and to adjust certification standards and policies of admission to teacher-preparing institutions accordingly. Definite information concerning actual demand, available supply, and levels of training makes it possible for the bureau ( 1 ) to determine whether the state’s teacher-preparing institutions individually and collectively are Department of Teachers Colleges 721 maintaining the proper ratios in the number enrolled in each of the several curriculums offered, or are piling up an unnecessary surplus in one branch of the service, for example, high-school teachers, while there is an actual shortage of persons trained for some other branch of the service, for example, elementary school teachers; (2) to determine whether new and additional institutions or enlargements of existing institutions are imperatively called for to meet the legitimate needs of the state for new and better educated teachers. As the potential supply of teachers increases without a corresponding demand, all high-school training classes and county normal schools can and should be abandoned as rapidly as possible, and all certification based on short term preparation confined to cases that are distinctly of the emergency type and of limited validity. The requirements for admission to standard normal schools and teachers colleges can be raised and selection within the school refined. In due time the minimum requirement for certification can be up-graded from two to three and ultimately to four years of post-high-school education of an acceptable sort. The state department of education, however set up, must have the legal authority to inspect the equipment and staff of all private as well as all public teacher-preparing institutions seeking to have their curriculums accredited for certification purposes. No institution should be accredited as a teacher¬ training institution unless it has a satisfactory layout of laboratory schools for observation, participation, apprentice-teaching, and experimental teach¬ ing easily accessible for the purpose intended, adequately staffed and equipped, and under the full control of the teachers college for the purposes indicated. Such inspection and accreditation are legitimate functions of the teacher bureau and its director. The progressive revision of the curriculums of the teacher-preparing in¬ stitutions of the state should be a work of collaboration in which committees organized on an inter-institutional basis work in cooperation with and under the general direction of the head of the teacher bureau. These curriculums must be thoroly professionalized, that is to say, the subjectmatter and activi¬ ties included must be taught with a view to the use to which they are to be put in the schools, and not merely with a view to the general education of the teachers who pursue them. Furthermore, the curriculums for the elementary schools should be dif¬ ferentiated so as to provide for kindergarten and primary positions as well as for the upper elementary grade. Equally obvious is the necessity for specific preparation for the junior high-school and senior high-school grades. In the curriculums of the teachers college or normal school, the material of the professionalized subjectmatter courses should be essentially that which appears in the suggested or prescribed elementary or secondary schools of the state. These latter courses, as for example in arithmetic, should be prepared jointly by representatives from the field, and from the teacher-preparing institution and under the general supervision of the director of the teacher bureau. Only in this way can the professionalized subjectmatter courses be 722 National Education Association so organized and administered as to avoid gaps between the preservice and the inservice training of teachers. For the effective functioning of the preservice preparation in teachers colleges and normal schools and the inservice growth of teachers, the courses of study in the laboratory schools should exemplify for the state the practi¬ cability of the individual courses in the various subjects. In other words, teachers, principals, and superintendents have a right to expect that the state couises of study will be given thoro trial in the laboratory schools. Visits to these schools for observation and for conference should be a common practise. The state has an obligation to provide experimental classes or schools wherein there may be developed new adaptations of material to differing pupil needs and new methods of teaching as well as to provide for the dis¬ covery of pertinent facts in relation to the processes of learning and of teach¬ ing. Fuithermoie, such classes or special schools should afford an opportunity for trying out methods that may have been developed in the other schools of the state. Thru the publication of results of experimental work, thru visitation, and by other means of publicity, the experimental schools will be an agency for raising the general level of teaching thruout the state. In order that all teacher-preparing institutions may work cooperatively and effectively in a common cause, the teacher bureau should provide for periodic conferences to be attended by the faculties of all normal schools and teachers colleges. Teachers in laboratory schools are, of course, included. One of the purposes of these conferences would be to discuss the reports of committees which have been at work on various phases of the problem. It is only thru such conferences that the professional morale of a state may be created and maintained. The right and obligation of the state to select those whom it will train for later public service in its schools must be apparent to all. This selection is a very difficult task and calls for the full cooperation of public school officials with the teacher bureau and with the individual teachers colleges and normal schools. In order that there may be a full understanding of all factors involved, conferences of teacher-training faculties may well be held from time to time with school superintendents, high-school principals, and voca¬ tional guidance directors to discuss the difficult problems related to the piogiam of selective admission to the normal schools and teachers colleges, and to devise ways and means for making improvements in the processes of selection. The state has an obligation at least to provide information as to available candidates for educational positions both for beginners and for teachers of experience. Hence the placement office should be attached to the teacher bureau. Such an office will function most effectively as a bureau of informa¬ tion rather than as an agency for the actual placing of teachers. Department of Teachers Colleges 723 The normal schools and teachers colleges are henceforth to have an in¬ creasingly important part to play in the inservice education of teachers. The faculty of the teacher-preparing institution must work out in conference with superintendents definite technics of supervision for novice teachers, so that hereafter the mere fact of employment may carry with it some assur¬ ance of continued professional growth. In as far as it is feasible, all teachers inservice in every part of the state must have the opportunity to go forward with advanced study without giving up their positions or their income to do so. With the gradual stabilization of our profession thru increasing length of tenure and with the growing tendency on the part of teachers to continue some form of systematic study either voluntary or by requirement, our teachers college faculties must be prepared to offer a wider range of practical courses for teachers already inservice. In this program of systematic courses ample opportunity must be given to participate in teaching clinics on the campus and as frequently as possible at other points as well. In order that individual members of teachers college faculties may prepare themselves to render this service acceptably, they must be given ample opportunity for advanced study and for visits to public school classrooms to acquaint them¬ selves with the best of current educational practise in elementary and sec¬ ondary schools and to learn to meet public school teachers and officers on the level of common experience. Now I am in danger of trespassing on the topic of the next speaker, who is adequately equipped by native ability, training, and experience to speak his own lines without any prompting by the stage manager from the wings. In conclusion may I say that I would under no circumstances deny to the president and faculty of the individual teachers college any part of the autonomy which is necessary to the integrity of institutional service. I would regard the state office as the only agency which is in a position successfully to unify the teacher-training institutions of the whole state and effectively to identify their interests with those of the public school system at large. I would exalt the teacher-training service by freeing it from the limitations which have in many places been imposed upon it by the lack of coordinating leadership. Efficient individual teachers colleges and normal schools will not alone suffice. We need in each state a well-coordinated and well-unified system of professional schools for teachers. In a report recently issued by the East¬ ern States Association of Professional Schools for Teachers, the president says: An adequate state program for the professional education of teachers is one which so effectively coordinates the services of the several individual teacher-preparing institutions and agencies as to make of them collectively a system in fact and not merely in name, in a word so completely unifies teacher preparing effort in every part of the state system that each individual institution actually supplements the services of all other institutions — avoiding unnecessary duplication and wasteful competition. 724 National Education Association Such a system of teacher training in each of our states is “a consummation devoutly to be wished.” Some states are already on the high road toward its realization. WHAT CONSTITUTES AN EFFICIENT STATE PROGRAM IN TEACHER TRAINING FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF THE TEACHER-TRAINING INSTITUTIONS? ROSCOE L. WEST, PRESIDENT, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, TRENTON, N. J. The first issue of Educational Law and Administration,” a new digest of matters of interest to higher education, carries the statement that in thirty- two states public education of teachers is controled to a more or less extent by a single state official or by a single board. This would seem to indicate that there is a state program of preparation of teachers in two-thirds of the states. Detailed investigation would undoubtedly show that this control varies widely both in legal power and in actual operation. Sometimes central control is confined to certain matters while other matters are left to local officials or boards. Sometimes control is checked by laws which make the single institu¬ tion responsible to school authorities for some of its functions and to authori¬ ties of general government for others. In New Jersey, for example, the com¬ missioner of education is by law responsible for the administration of the teacher-training institutions with the proviso that general policies must be approved by the state board of education. No one quite knows just where administration ends and general policy begins. Furthermore, the head of each institution carries on the purchasing activi¬ ties of the institution thru the state purchasing commissioner and not at all thru the state education officials. He must engage all of its employees not on the faculty from civil service lists which often are made up on qualifications not in accord with the requirements of educational institutions. He must buy its food for dining halls on the same contracts used to feed prisoners and epileptics. He finds that there are two grades of dishes and silver, one for the ‘ officers” and the other for the “inmates.” Faculty are classed as “offi¬ cers and students as “inmates.” To a certain extent the institution must share in the political measures applied to all state agencies regardless of its own particular merits or needs. Some who see these difficulties are inclined to look with disfavor on cen¬ tralization of control and to feel that under such conditions an institution can never develop a virile individuality. To the president of a teachers col¬ lege, it is certain that freedom does have an attractive sound. Sometimes he feels that if he could be free from the red tape of government, from the prejudices of people who know nothing of changing practises in education, from the standardizing influences of modern society, from the necessity of getting his proposals approved by a half dozen agencies, he might have an in¬ stitution which could cast out the driftwood ideas which now encumber it and lead the way to a new conception of the possibilities of teacher education. Department of Teachers Colleges 725 No one can deny that independence carries with it certain definite advan¬ tages. When independence is given up, some of these advantages will have to be lost. It is also true that independent units gain other advantages when they are a part of a larger whole. Sometimes these advantages are not ap¬ parent at first sight and institutions and even states have fought against a loss of their independence. It is also possible for independent units to be out of tune with the needs of the whole with the result that the very strength of the single unit may be harmful to the harmonious development of the whole. It ought to be possible to develop a plan of operation whereby there could be a proper separation between those issues which must be settled on the basis of the good of the whole and those which are of importance only to the unit. I am assuming in this discussion that we are agreed that public education of teachers is a state and not a local function and that there should be a program of teacher preparation to fit the needs of the entire state. I am assuming that separate institutions wish to fit into the state program and that they feel that an effective program will, in the long run, strengthen them individually. If this is to happen, an institution has the right to expect that the state program will be of such a purpose and such a nature that it will do for the institution what it could not do as well for itself. Is it possible to find a principle which will fulfill these ideas — which will enable the state to have a unified program and the separate institutions to develop strength and prestige? I suggest that such results can be obtained if two things are recognized ; first, the desirability of centralization of the formation of general policies ; and second, the desirability of decentralization of administrative action. Centralization of policy-making is necessary in order to make a program which is statewide, all-inclusive, forward-looking, non-duplicating, and fitted to the needs of the state. Decentralization of administrative action is necessary in order to make the work of a single institu¬ tion efficient, direct, and dignified. Failure to recognize the distinction be¬ tween these two functions raises constant annoyances and barriers. An insti¬ tution that does not wish to fit into the general state pattern becomes a barrier to proper policy-making; and on the other hand, a system that makes the institution refer minor questions to state authorities for decisions is destructive of administrative efficiency. Those things that affect the state as a whole should be subject to central control and those things that relate to the individual school should be delegated to that school. On the basis of this platform there are a number of definite ways in which an effective state program can promote advance better than can the in¬ dividual institutions themselves. First, it should aim to develop in the minds of the general public and also of the school people of the entire state the paramount importance of teacher preparation in the general program of educational advance. Even those who have the good of their local schools at heart are not aware of the intimate connection which exists between the teacher-training school and the effi¬ ciency of their own schools. They should be made to realize that as a rule, 726 National Education Association nearly 70 percent of their school budget is being expended for the salaries of teachers; and their local pride in new buildings, good equipment, and upto- date courses of study will avail little if the teachers whom they secure are not w elltrained. It is difficult for people to think in statewide terms and they must be educated to see how closely the efficiency of the state institu¬ tions affects their own children. Legislators do not adopt statewide patterns of thinking just because they come to the state capital for a few weeks in the year. In fact, legislators represent local groups and are thinking of how to please those groups rather than of the state as a whole. Only a very few legislators are resident in the communities where teachers colleges exist. Con¬ sequently, it takes more than the public opinion of those few communities to get the legislature to pass proper laws and make adequate appropriations. Here is where an effective state program carried on by a state board and its propei depaitment officials can build up the favorable sentiment which will be reflected in the support given to the separate institutions. In fact, I believe that the state educational agencies themselves ought to make teachei pieparation the most important item of their entire program. In practically all of our states, the major powers of educational progress aie delegated to local authorities. The state can encourage, assist, and pro¬ mote. It can set up minimum standards and distribute monies. And it can also waste a tiemendous amount of energy trying to get backward local communities to do things that they have no intention of doing. Above a certain minimum level, the state’s control over many items of the local edu¬ cational program is very weak. But, by adopting teacher preparation as its major work, the state can advance standards in a direct and immediate way. Second, the state should carry on an active campaign to establish the prin¬ ciple that pieparation for the teaching profession is not a right but a privi¬ lege. Progress is being made on this matter but the principle of selective admission is not as yet definitely recognized. The high school is now a cos¬ mopolitan institution offering all kinds of courses to the youth from approxi¬ mately fourteen to eighteen years of age. This is entirely desirable in our democratic society but it does not follow that every one of these curriculums or every person in them is fit to take up preparation to be a teacher. We have i ecognized that such special curriculums as music and physical education demand special talents. No one would think of applying for the music cur¬ riculum if he did not have some special talent in music. The same principle must be applied to general curriculums, and regulations should be set up re¬ quiring a certain amount of liberal study as a background for entrance into the general curriculums either for the elementary-school teacher or the more specialized high-school teacher. In some states this principle is being recog¬ nized by the requnement of a certain number of high-school units in general fields. We know little now about the methods of determining the personal and social qualities that go to make a good teacher. When our knowledge in this matter is improved, we should have the right to apply this to exclude undesirable candidates. Department of Teachers Colleges 727 Third, this recognition of teacher preparation as the most important func¬ tion of the state educational agencies should produce a harmony of the pol¬ icies of teacher certification with the policies of teacher preparation. In spite of the surplus of teachers which exists everywhere, it is still possible in many states for persons to secure certain types of certificates on preparation much lower than that required by the teachers colleges for graduation. In the years following the war, when it was impossible to secure a sufficient number of properly trained teachers, there may have been some excuse for conducting summer courses which enabled a certain number of persons to enter the teach¬ ing profession without the full amount of normal school preparation. We may even admit that the state had to grant rights to private and semi-private institutions which were obviously not up to the standard set by the state institutions themselves. To continue these makeshift arrangements now is to deliver a body blow at the standards of the state institutions. It allows persons of inferior training to compete with those of much higher training as far as the state certificate is concerned. A period of surplus of teachers is a time to raise standards. The state can do a marked piece of service to the individual by refusing to countenance back door methods of entering the profession. The state also has the power to set up such standards as will prevent pri¬ vate institutions from continuing inadequate policies and by means of spe¬ cious advertising making the public believe that its products are as well-fitted as the graduates from the state institutions themselves. For example, sup¬ pose that a state is convinced that socalled liberal education is not sufficient preparation for a teacher, but that this teacher should have had some train¬ ing in psychology, principles of education, and should even have had some practise in handling a classroom before taking his first position. The institu¬ tions of the state may be attempting to carry out these ideas conscientiously. On the other hand, liberal arts colleges, which make no pretense of setting up a curriculum for the training of teachers but who wish their graduates to have the opportunity to teach if they wish to do so, can be brought into line only by state regulations. Even then the individual institution is not pro¬ tected unless the state department is active in insisting that the private in¬ stitutions give a course in practise teaching which is well-supervised and of real merit. Thus, the state can guarantee to those who have prepared for teaching the right to positions instead of putting them in competition with some who will have to learn their technic after they get on the job. Fourth, quantity and type of teacher preparation should depend to a large extent on the condition of demand existing within a state. One of the best contributions which a state program can make is a continuing investigation of supply and demand and a development of policies which will fit these conditions. The present surplus of teachers could have been avoided in many states if state departments had made such surveys and had lengthened cur- riculums and adopted selective entrance requirements to meet the discover¬ able facts concerning teacher demand. No single institution of a state is in a position to make effective statewide studies of this sort or to keep them in 728 National Education Association process of continuous development. Such studies can be used to allocate the curriculums to the different institutions and to make clear the reasons for such allocation. Under proper state leadership there should be no rivalry between institutions but a clear understanding of the relation of each in¬ stitution to the .entire program and the work which it is expected to do. Special curriculums which should exist in only a few institutions can thus be set up in relation to the area served, number of graduates needed, other opportunities available, etc. Extension areas would be mapped out so that unnecessary traveling could be avoided. From the standpoint of an institution an effective state program can do its gieatest service by general education, by planning for the future, by allocat¬ ing function, by securing funds, by prevention of inferior work by private institutions, by setting proper certification standards, by conducting re¬ search. These points are mainly legislative and have to do with general policy making. As far as detailed administration is concerned, an effective state program should recognize the autonomy of the institution, should allow it wide freedom within the general limits which have been set up, and should not hamper it by requiring approval of details of purchasing and of internal management. A centralization of those items of policy which are of impor¬ tance to the state as a whole and the other institutions of the state and a decentralization of those items of administration and even of policy which concern the single institution would seem to be the principle under which an institution can become strong, both as a part of a large, state program, and as an entity in itself. WHAT CONSTITUTES AN EFFICIENT STATE PROGRAM IN TEACHER TRAINING FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF THE PUBLIC? EDWIN W. ADAMS, ASSOCIATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PHILADELPHIA, PA. I presume that the reason for assigning to a superintendent of schools the discussion of the topic, “What Constitutes an Efficient State Program in Teacher Training from the Viewpoint of the Public,” was because of the relationship which the superintendent bears, on the one hand, toward the schools in which the product of the teachers college functions; and, on the other, toward the public whose representative the superintendent must necessarily be. The superintendent, in a peculiar sense, represents the public in the schools since it is he who has direct contact with the officially elected or appointed representatives of the people, the school board. The superintend¬ ent is in a position to know at first hand what the product of the teachers college is doing in the schools. From his point of vantage he should be able to know whether or not the teachers in his schools are functioning faithfully and effectively; what are the especial difficulties they encounter in their work; and whether or not their preparation has been adequate to meet the demands made upon them. I have, therefore, taken the liberty of attempting to interpret the attitude of the public toward the teacher-preparation insti¬ tutions as this attitude is evidenced by the opinions of the school super¬ intendent. Department of Teachers Colleges 729 It seemed to me that the best way of finding out what the superintendents thought about the teacher-preparation institutions would be to write to a number of school superintendents in various parts of the country requesting a frank expression of opinion as to the estimate they were placing upon the work that is being done by these institutions. In my letter I called attention to the fact that as superintendents of schools they were dependent upon the teacher-preparing institutions for the preparation of the teachers who were to take up service in their schools. I explained that I had been invited by your president to interpret the superintendents’ viewpoint to the presidents and faculties of the teachers colleges of America, and that I wanted to make a frank and unequivocal statement as to what the school superintendents of the country think is wrong with the policies and practises of the normal schools and teachers colleges, as well as to state the commendable features of their service in preparing teachers. To assist the superintendents in the preparation of their replies I enclosed a brief inquiry sheet containing a number of points which I believed would be helpful in the analysis of the problem. It is not my intention in this paper to weary you with a statistical interpre¬ tation of the replies received but rather to attempt, on the basis of these replies, to give you some idea of how the superintendents regard the work of our teachers colleges and normal schools. The letters and inquiry sheets were sent to some six hundred superintend¬ ents from a mailing list which covered every state in the Union. The list included state, county, district, and city superintendents. Replies were received from superintendents in forty-two different states, including re¬ plies from nineteen state superintendents, sixty-five district and county superintendents, and seventy-one city superintendents. The number of re¬ plies is comparatively insignificant, yet because of the wide distribution of these superintendents and the representative nature of the group, their opinions may serve to suggest lines of thought which may be of value to us in our schools. It would be interesting, if time permitted, to give a fairly detailed analysis of all the replies received, and to consider the distribution of the favorable and unfavorable comments in relation to the type of superintendent replying and the geographical location of the district represented. It will be more profitable, however, to consider certain of the suggestions and criticisms which have been made since they throw light on many of the problems which are constantly confronting the presidents and faculties of the teachers colleges. The general reaction of the superintendents toward the present service of the teacher-preparation institutions was favorable. State superintendents and county superintendents were, on the whole, better satisfied than were the city superintendents. Approximately 70 percent of the state and county superintendents expressed themselves as entirely satisfied with the work of the teacher-training schools, while but 52 percent of the city superintendents so expressed themselves. 730 National Education Association An outstanding feature in practically every reply received was the empha¬ sis placed upon the problems of selective admission and elimination. The opinion was almost unanimous that the school superintendents of the country would give their hearty support to determined efforts on the part of the authorities of our teachers colleges, first, to raise the standards of selective admission; second, to eliminate (by advisement or, if necessary, by compulsion) all those who after a fair trial fail to give satisfactory promise of becoming successful teachers; and third, to raise the standards of professional-achievement requirements,” as distinct from mere class marks for graduation. The elements which stand out most strikingly in the sug¬ gestions relating to selective admission are : first, character and personality ; second, background ; and, third, health. The elements which stand out among the suggestions for elimination are character and personality. A county superintendent in Maryland writes, “The teacher-training institutions must become more and more selective as well as training insti¬ tutions. They must adopt some means of determining the personality and aptitude of prospective teachers so as to throw into other occupations those who do not have the ability to stimulate and control the growing child ” California suggests, “Better selection— and the elimination of the unfit.” An Alabama superintendent demands that we “raise the standards of selec¬ tive admission, while from Pennsylvania comes the statement, “The policy of these institutions to which we object is the lack of intelligent selection used in the selection of their candidates for admission, and the frequency with which students with a low degree of ability are graduated and Not all of the criticisms were entirely negative as is evidenced by the following from a New Jersey superintendent. He writes, “Our training institutions in — and — are better than they have ever been. They have gone far toward weeding out undesirable personalities. They might still do more along this line and eliminate some more of the “weak sisters” who nave little more than a high scholarship record.” Not until we have developed reasonably effective standards of selective admission that will refuse admission to any who are physically, mentally, or moral y unfit, and vigorous standards of elimination which will make im¬ possible graduation and certification of any who give evidence of unfitness for teaching, shall we be in a position' to boast either of our particular insti- tutions for teacher preparation or of the efficiency of our state programs. 1 here is much criticism of the tendency toward mass production. I use the term because it appears so frequently in the replies. From Wisconsin comes the following statement, “The big error of the teachers colleges has been the insatiable desire for enrolments, bigness, college rank, accrediting by accrediting associations, and so forth. Degree granting power, too has made them size-conscious and class-conscious ”A North Dakota county super¬ intendent says, Our schools are too anxious to increase enrolment and thus fear the results of too close elimination.” A Nebraska superintendent makes the following charge: “All who enter apparently receive certificates. They Department of Teachers Colleges 731 operate on a quantity rather than a quality basis.” Again from North Dakota comes the following: “My greatest criticism is that our normal schools are too much interested in numbers in enrolment, and not enough interested in turning out a high type teaching product.” There is a pronounced tendency to demand four years of preparation be¬ yond high school as the requirement for elementary school teaching. One superintendent advocates four years of liberal arts followed by one year of graduate professional training. This demand for a longer period of training is voiced by a state superintendent who says, For progressive schools of today a teacher needs a broad background of cultural education. Many of our graduates come from environments which have not tended to help and their short course at college cannot make up for this. In a short time we expect to have only a four year training course for all prospective elementary and secondary teachers. There is considerable criticism of the graduate of the teachers college from the point of view of lack of knowledge of subjectmatter. There were a large number of complaints and suggestions regarding this. A county superintendent in California makes the following statement, “Graduates are not as thoro in the knowledge of subjectmatter they are to teach as might reasonably be expected.” From Tennessee comes the suggestion that “There should be an examination to determine whether the young teacher has sufficient knowledge of the subjectmatter he or she is preparing to teach. Method and theory of teaching, without sufficient knowledge of subject- matter, cannot function.” One of the severest criticisms was from a county superintendent in Idaho who states that the graduates of our schools “can’t adapt their training to the school. These teachers have not sufficient general education to instruct the pupils. They are lacking in all the branches taught in the school and must rely too much upon the text.” The most general criticism directed against the teacher-preparing institu¬ tions was that the graduates failed to show in their work that in their training theory and practise have been properly correlated. Nearly one-third of all the superintendents reporting stated that in their experience this represented the principal fault that they found with the teachers colleges. There is a marked tendency toward the feeling that the normal school courses are entirely too theoretical, that they deal only with ideal situations, and that teaching theory is emphasized to the neglect of showing the students how to apply the theory. From a western state superintendent comes the following statement, “I feel that there has been a tendency for teacher-training institutions to overemphasize professional and methods courses to the neglect of adequate training in subjectmatter.” The practise teaching situation comes in for a considerable amount of criticism. Emphasis is placed upon the fact that practise teaching is so often done with such small groups and in such artificial situations that the begin¬ ning teacher is unprepared for the teaching situation as it is found in the schools. It is felt in certain quarters that the practise teaching provided is inadequate. There are many suggestions that practise teaching should be 732 National Education Association clone, so far as possible, under practical conditions, and emphasis is laid upon the necessity for the closest supervision by the institution of the practise teaching of its students. A county superintendent in Tennessee states, “First, more practise teaching is needed. This practise teaching needs to be done with modern equipment, and then it also needs to be done where there is no equipment, thus showing the one teacher how and what to do if he is placed in a rural school, in, a poor county, where there is nothing but a ackboard and a few desks.” From Illinois comes the statement, “I feel that there should be more practical practise teaching under ordinary school situations. Not ideal model school situations.” A state superintendent in one of the ^southern states expresses his feeling in regard to this subject as fol¬ lows, Approximately 70 percent of the teachers will work in the rural areas. Six thousand at least will work in one and two teacher schools. Re- gaidless of the fact, practise facilities are not provided in typically rural situations. Many-room training schools are in operation on each campus but not more than two one-room schools are provided for practise in any of the teachers colleges.” It is interesting to note that a number of superintendents are suggesting the development of the practise of internship in teaching. They would have the student teacher at some time, either during the last semesters of his col¬ lege work, or during the semester following the completion of this work, carry on that which for all practical purposes would constitute full responsi¬ ble teaching under the direction’ of the college. A Pennsylvania superintend¬ ent writes: T e writer does not believe that it is possible to apply the theory of teaching and to develop the desirable technic while prospective teachers are in the teacher-train¬ ing institution. The model school of the institution and the practise teaching in the held are not doing what was hoped for. An improvement over the present situation might be to spend more time in teaching content in the teachers colleges and then have the candidate enter a school system on an intern basis under a very careful supervision provided by the teachers colleges or jointly by the school districts and teachers colleges. Several superintendents took occasion to comment on the need for better teaching in the teacher-training schools. There was some criticism of the fact that instructors in our institutions do not practise the methods which they advocate. Three superintendents seemed to feel that the reason for tins was at least in part, due to the fact that some of our teachers have not had teaching experience in the field for which they are attempting to pre- pare the student. One Massachusetts superintendent writes: Very frequently graduates tell me that those who taught them how to teach used in their own teaching none of the principles they were seeking to instill. It is my experience and observation that those who conduct courses in education do so with little regard in their practises to the principles they are teaching. The thought was also expressed that there was need for closer contact on the part of the college teachers with the field, and suggestions were made that thru followup work with their graduates, highly desirable and bene- Department of Teachers Colleges 733 ficial contacts could be had with superintendents and others in the field from which might develop something of value, both for the field worker and the teachers college instructor. This suggestion is closely related to the one that training schools need field representatives to study local conditions and that members of the faculty should visit schools. By this method it is suggested better work could be done and more cordial relations be developed. There seems to be a decided feeling that much more should be done by the college along the line of followup work with its graduates. It can hardly be denied that some kind of continuing contact between the beginning teacher and the training school is desirable. Ideally, the training school should have its field workers who would keep closely in contact with the teacher during his first few years of teaching, and who would work with the local superin¬ tendents in the development of inservice training programs. Such field workers, cooperating with the superintendents, could render invaluable assist¬ ance to the beginning teacher, especially during those times of discourage¬ ment thru which most teachers pass. It will not do for us to say that the wTork of our school is completed when the student graduates, and that the responsibility for inservice training must rest with the superintendent. An adequate program of teacher preparation will require the best effort of both training school and superintendent’s staff if it is to be successful. The atti¬ tude of a number of superintendents is well represented by the following statement from a county superintendent in Indiana: I am sure that each normal school and teachers college should have two represen¬ tatives, a man and a woman, who would devote their entire time in field work, studying the problems of the schools of the state by actually going into the schools. Any county or city superintendent would be glad to spend several days each school term in his schools with field workers of this kind. After three years in office I have had only one normal school representative call on me. Certain of our schools seem to have laid themselves open to criticism thru apparent carelessness in making recommendations of teachers. Instances were cited where students who had specialized in one type of work were recommended by the college for distinctly different types of position. Such conditions, if true, are unfortunate since they place both the teacher and the employing superintendent in a difficult situation. Failure on the part of the training school to supply the employing superintendent with complete information in regard to the graduate is likely, even when occurring in comparatively few instances, to develop an attitude on the part of the super¬ intendent toward the college which is decidedly unfavorable. An especially severe criticism comes from a county superintendent in one of our western states. He writes: “My superintendents say that — College recommends everybody they graduate and they graduate everybody that attends the institution.” Another county superintendent condemns the teachers college for “recommending teachers for positions for which they are unfitted. They recommend a teacher with a music major to teach a rural school. They graduate all who attend the institution regardless of their ability to instruct.” National Education Association Less caustic and certainly more constructive is the statement of a city super¬ intendent in Illinois. He says: I believe that one of the solutions lies in a better basis of selecting graduates from these institutions. Too much emphasis has been placed upon A grades in the past and not enough on good judgment. I realize that judgment is a gift, but it certainly is necessary for good teaching. The possession of high ideals is another prerequisite that needs to be emphasized more than it is. It again is intangible, I know, but students not showing such possession in their everyday life might not be recom¬ mended for positions. After two or four years of association, placing officers could be of great service to schools if they would frankly state what their decision is. Many superintendents expressed the thought that the needs of the rural schools were being neglected. To illustrate this let me quote from the reply of a New York superintendent. He says: My chief criticism is that the normal schools give the pupils a wrong attitude toward rural school work. In their endeavor to place teaching upon a professional basis, they have forgotten that conditions in the country have not advanced as far as in city and village schools. The few normal graduates we get complain loudly of the working conditions, the number of classes, grades, and subjects and thereby arouse antagonism of the school trustee who then gets the older and less prepared teacher who is content to follow the rut. From a county superintendent in Indiana comes the following, “Courses are piepaiing teachers for large schools only. The needs of the small rural school are neglected. ” In their replies a number of superintendents referred to the faculties of the normal schools and teachers colleges. In addition to stressing the need foi more frequent contact with the field for which they are preparing teachers, emphasis was placed on the type of person who should train teachers and on the training and experience essential for effective service in a teachers college. The importance of personality is stressed in a statement made by a county superintendent in Pennsylvania, He writes: I am convinced that a higher standard of the selective process for members of the teaching staff of teacher-training institutions should be emphasized. Very fre¬ quently we assume that outstanding scholarship is a guarantee of satisfactory service. But other qualities such as personality and the power to inspire students must also be considered. In other words we need members on our staff about whom our young teachers will talk with enthusiasm. Other superintendents stress the need for practical experience on the part of the instructor in the teachers college in the field for which teachers are being prepared. It might be well to mention at this point that recency of contact is highly desirable. It may be that some plan can be worked out by which at least some of our faculty may have from time to time opportunity to renew their ac¬ quaintance with the field by personal contact. The rotation of supervisors of student-teaching so as to provide at regular intervals opportunity for these teachers to teach classes in the college, has already been successfully employed. It has also been found possible to bring into the teachers college for a semester teachers from the campus practise school to teach certain Department of Teachers Colleges 735 methods courses, and to send out into the practise school certain members of the normal school faculty to teach the classes of these practise teachers. There is much work to be done in this field. An efficient state program in teacher training is one which results in the teachers colleges and normal schools of the state rendering satisfactory professional service to the schools of the state. It makes provision for the manning of the professional staff of the college with men and women who have a clear notion of the proper functions of a publicly supported teacher¬ training institution, and demands that the educational policies and practises of these institutions command the respect and approval of the best pro¬ fessional elements in the teaching and supervisory staffs of the state public school system. It encourages and whole-heartedly supports the faculties of these colleges in the establishment of clean-cut and reasonably high standards of selective admission. It provides the necessary means for the operation of an effective system of elimination of all those who, after a fair trial, fail to give satisfactory promise of becoming successful teachers. It supports the faculties of these institutions in their efforts to raise the standards of “professional-achievement requirements,” and stands firmly with the college in its refusal to graduate students who fail to measure up to these standards. It encourages and facilitates the staff members of these institutions to become acquainted with school conditions in their service areas. It looks to these faculties for leaders in every important movement for public school improve¬ ment. It makes possible the development of adequate facilities for apprentice teaching, and provides for an effective system of followup work by the institution, and the development in cooperation with the several school systems of the service area, of an effective program of inservice training. It provides for such supervision of the work of the institution as will insure a high quality of instructional work on the part of the members of the faculty. It makes provision for the development of curriculums that will provide for a reasonably satisfactory relative emphasis on breadth of general education and the mastery of the technics of teaching and management. It visions the entire educational program of the state and makes provision for the wise guidance of students into the several fields of education, having always in mind, not only the problems of the local districts both urban and rural, but also the problems of the entire state. The results of changes in state programs of teacher training and improved efficiency in particular institutions are not immediately evident. The graduat¬ ing class of today is slowly assimilated. Changes in attitudes, strengthened professional spirit, improved technics as brought by each individual teacher, must slowly but surely affect the work of the school. In spite of the many criticisms which I have presented, replies of the superintendents from all over the nation, by and large, bespeak improvement and growth. The fine professional spirit of the faculties of our teacher¬ preparing institutions, their devotion to the cause of public education, and their love for the important task which is entrusted to them, are evidences of the dawning of a new and better day for the schools of America. 736 National Education Association WHAT MAY TEACHER-TRAINING INSTITUTIONS IN THE UNITED STATES LEARN FROM SIMILAR INSTITUTIONS IN OTHER COUNTRIES? THOMAS ALEXANDER, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N. Y. The progress of teaching toward a dignified status as a learned profession has been slow but it forms one of the most interesting chapters in modern history. Tho slow, the status of the teaching profession in Europe has now arrived at a point where teaching is actually looked upon as an honorable thing to do, and commands the respect of the community and state at large. Two hundred years ago teaching was not a profession even in Germany. A law was passed in Prussia in 1738 which forbade anyone but tailors from teaching in the elementary schools, which reveals quite clearly how low a condition prevailed before and at that time. I am sure that many of us know the odium that is attached to the term school teacher. I wish to examine with you the bases for a sounder teaching profession and status in Europe than in the United States with the hope of pointing out one or two things which may show us a partial solution here. Without question we have been running in a vicious circle of low salaries, inadequate training, lack of social approval — lack of social approval, inadequate training, and, consequently, low salaries. Now why is it that European states can make such demands upon entrance to the teaching profession ? The answer is in a sense easy to find but ap¬ parently difficult for us to attain. The fundamental bases upon which such high requirements for teaching rest are economic security and social status , the latter rests upon the respectability which comes from being in a profession difficult to enter and which pays a dignified adequate reward. Once a teacher has passed all the difficult hurdles set before final accept¬ ance in the profession of teaching, the teacher and his family are assured an existence on a high plane which will enable them to live decently for the rest of their time. For such a competence high requirements may be demanded . and obtained. The basic principle involved in setting the salary is that the state guarantees the teacher, in exchange for all of his time and his undivided and untroubled endeavor in educating the youth of the land, a salary — includ¬ ing pension for himself and family, rental compensation, free education of his children, and a compensation based upon the number of children in the teach¬ er’s family — large enough to enable the teacher to live in a style similar to that maintained by the groups with whom he must labor professionally. The teacher can live like a human being and does not have to leave the pro¬ fession in order to provide for his old age and his family’s existence, nor worry about having enough money to educate his children. He does not have to sell life insurance or run a side business to eke out an existence — in fact, he is not allowed to earn money outside the teaching profession in a way that takes time or effort from his school duties. Economic security and respectability are the first steps toward social ap¬ proval of the profession. But the career of teaching commands respect in Department of Teachers Colleges 737 European countries because it is difficult to enter, and successful admission signifies intellectual ability of a high order for which the state is willing to guarantee a lifelong existence in exchange. No one begins to prepare for teaching except with the expectation of remaining in the profession. The course is too long and arduous to turn back or to change over after once in the career. This long preparation is, there¬ fore, rewarded by permanent tenure — and except for grave charges of moral turpitude or mental or physical incapacity, a teacher once permanently ap¬ pointed cannot be removed from office or even transferred without being promoted. One can be retired but one’s salary keeps right on — so the number of enforced retirements is very small. It is possible, therefore, to carry out a constructive program without petty interference from politicians or adminis¬ trative heads. One of the most striking differences between teacher training in the United States and in Europe is that in the more progressive countries in Europe teacher training of every grade is being put on the university level ; meaning that the training of teachers is paralleling the training of the other learned professions, and that the method of study and work is distinctly university in character, in sharp contrast to the normal school education of former decades. It is safe to say that in Russia, Germany, Sweden, and England, in the future the entrance requirements for teacher training will be the same as the requirements for all the other learned professions which demand gradu¬ ation from the European secondary school, which corresponds largely to completion of two years of American college work. It is very evident, however, that the days of the normal school, even in Latin European coun¬ tries, are numbered. In recent years in America we have developed normal schools and teachers colleges in which we have attempted to fuse general academic training and professional training. This movement has not met with great success; the academic work definitely suffering as well as the professional work being inadequate. Our other professional schools, such as law and medicine, have long made no attempts to combine academic and professional training. So in Europe, in recent years, the normal school has lost ground rapidly, and has even been abolished in some countries ; and it is a more or less accepted principle that academic and professional training cannot be fused without virtually destroying the value of both. In other words, the Europeans reject flatly the principle of organizing teacher-training institutions which try to provide both academic and professional training at the same time. The academic instruction is thoroly academic ; this is followed by a varied period of two to four years of study devoted entirely to professional fields and allied sciences. In sharp contrast to American teachers colleges, where one finds 20 percent of the time devoted to professional subjects and 80 percent to academic fields, the German teachers college devotes 100 percent of its time to professional fields, assuming that the general academic training has been taken care of before entrance into the professional school. 738 National Education Association We must not pass over the importance of continuing the professional training of teacheis on the basis of university study. In fact, the more pro¬ gressive countries of Europe are modelling their new teacher-training pro- giams upon the plan which is used in the training of medical physicians. University study in Europe means independence and freedom to the student in learning. It means guidance thru seminar and practise in the general and special fields of education, but where the student learns to think and act for himself in the way in which he will have to think and act once he has taken up his professional work. There is a vast difference between results secured from independent study in the university, where the methods of learning demand creative learning and abilities on the part of the student, and the typical normal school procedure, which is usually a textbook method of train¬ ing and where the student is expected to assimilate a large body of devices and methods which become his professional equipment. The next item which I wish to call to your attention is a matter which is very trite but very important. I am sometimes led to believe that the Ameri¬ can public lays little value upon having a thoroly educated teacher in the classroom. Let us consider, for example, the training of the secondary teacher in Sweden, Norway, or Germany, as contrasted with the training of the American high-school teacher. In America we would require college gradua¬ tion for teaching in high school, but there are thousands of high-school teachers who have never finished col’ege. However, we can assume that that is our standard. This ordinarily means that the beginning teacher is twenty-two or -three years of age and possesses a bachelor’s degree. The European secondary teacher usually has the following training: completion of the secondary school at nineteen or twenty years of age ; a general academic training which corresponds to the entrance in the junior year of college; an average of five or six years at the university, majoring in two or three sub¬ jects; and this followed by a period of internship or practise teaching of one or two years without salary. He is usuaUy twenty-seven or -eight years of age, meaning in general that he has to his credit about six years more of training than the corresponding teacher in the American secondary school. The typical teacher of French in the United States has less than two years of college French as his basis of preparation, in addition to what he may have had in high school. The corresponding teacher in Sweden or Germany would have had eight or nine years of the foreign language in the secondary school, at least six years at the university in this subject, devoting half of his time to his chosen field and usually a half-year or more of resi¬ dence in the foreign country concerned. After all this he puts in two years of piactise under supervision. I think it is evident from this contrast that there is a difference of standards existing in the leading European countries and. the United States with reference to the academic training of a teacher. It may sound somewhat foolish, but the Europeans seem to believe that rich knowledge is not a handicap to a teacher. That leads us to say that the most outstanding difference between Europe and the United States in the case of teacher training is that teaching in Department of Teachers Colleges 739 Europe is a profession, and it is only becoming one with us, although, I hope, quickly and surely. 7 here are a number of factors which go to make teaching in Europe a leal profession and among them I shall name long and adequate training, both academic and professional ; economic security; sound certifica¬ tion , respectable social and political status ; freedom from interfering supervision. Curious as it may seem, the European teachers, and I shall refer from now on to German teachers as furnishing the best example, are economically more secure and better paid than teachers in the United States. The average salary, for example, for the elementary teacher in Germany is $1,500, plus pension rights and differential for rent and a subsidy depending upon the number of children he has in his own family. The secondary teacher in Germany receives an average salary of $2,800 in addition to the perquisites mentioned in the case of the elementary teacher. If one will keep in mind that the purchasing power of the dollar in Germany is one and six-tenths times its value in the United States, we can see how much better the teachers are paid there than here. This economic security brings with it several very impoitant values. It makes possible the long period of training which I have described. It makes the teacher permanent in his position, so that the instruc¬ tion in the school is not constantly interrupted by a rapidly changing teaching staff. And lastly, this adequate salary permits him to devote all of his energies to the work of the teacher, and he does not need to concern himself with pro¬ viding thru outside earnings for his family, since his family is adequately protected in case of his death or retirement. It would be difficult to calculate how much loss is entailed American schools by the constant worry of the teacheis over economic and financial problems. The European principle of teachers salaries is a full and satisfactory livelihood in exchange for the teachers’ full mental and spiritual abilities. The next striking point in contrast is the different social and political status of teachers in Europe and here. The very fact that the teacher is economically independent and has demonstrated high intellectual ability, determined by the rigid requirements for certification, assures him of a posi¬ tion which commands respect in his community. In other words the matter runs in a circle — rigid training which demands intellectual superiority, brings with it adequate economic compensation, followed by a respectable social status. When one adds to this the fact that the teacher thus trained, com¬ pensated, and respected remains permanently, one might say, in a com¬ munity, there is given to him the leadership which he ought to have. He moves socially in the best circles, because his salary permits him to. He can educate his children at the university. He can travel. He can have a fine library. All of which tends to establish his social standing among his neighbors. On a somewhat different score we may point out another phase of the teaching profession which is radically different from the situation in our own country. This deals with the problem of certification and also with the prob¬ lem of over-supply of teachers. It is wellknown that it is customary in 740 National Education Association America to recognize several grades or ranks of elementary-school and high- school teachers whose certificates are valid for varying periods of time, from one year to life, and schools are often ranked by the type of certificate held by their teachers. In practically every European country we find only one grade of certificate in the elementary schools or in the secondary schools. All ele¬ mentary teachers are required to have the same amount of training, which is likewise true in the secondary field. This uniform and simple method of certification guarantees an A-grade school to every child in every country regardless of the accident of his place of residence. Naturally uniformity in certification brings with it uniform salary schedules which guarantee teach¬ ers of equal training and experience, equal salaries, regardless of the location of the school in which they teach. Another important item with reference to certification is that in practically all European countries the number of teachers trained and certified to teach does not greatly exceed the number of available positions. So another point of contrast has to do with conditions of certification and appointment. We know of no European country which does not require a probationary period between the period of preservice training and final appointment. This period of probation varies from one year to five years and is usually concluded with an examination before final certification for appointment is granted. It is almost impossible, therefore, for a poor teacher to secure appointment in a European school, due to the system of probation and certification. This very careful scheme of safeguarding the profession is of tremendous importance. It prepares the way for the type of freedom in teaching which is practically unknown in our country. In Europe, during the period of probation rather close supervision is exercised over the young teacher. After final appoint¬ ment the teacher is usually left to his own initiative so far as classroom pro¬ cedure and methods are concerned. Consequently, we find the European teacher much freer from supervision than is true in our own country. Our supervisory system, which is somewhat top-heavy and rigid at the present time, grew up largely because in former days our teachers were poorly trained and supervisors were necessary to secure the type of instruction in any sense adequate at all. The principle of freedom in teaching, which is so important for any sort of creative effort, is thoroly established among the European teaching profession. Another interesting point of contrast is that practically all European teachers are appointed for life following the examination and probationary period. This life tenure, carrying with it an assured salary, is the backbone of the teaching profession in the European countries. Naturally tenure is not given without adequate preparation of the teachers. It is largely because of the inadequate preparation of teachers in America that tenure in our schools is so insecure, tho at the present time many highly trained teachers suffer because of lack of permanent tenure in most of our states. In times of de¬ pression teachers long in service are discharged without notice, a thing which would not appear in any European country. Department of Teachers Colleges 741 One very important phase of tenure in European countries is the security which teachers have, in that the teacher cannot be discharged for trivial or insufficient reasons. The European teacher is always a state official and is not subject to removal because of whims of disgruntled parents or because of arbitrary supervisors or superintendents. The security of position reacts very definitely upon the nature of the teacher’s work and upon the teacher’s character. One vicious result of teachers’ insecurity in this country is the destruction of a teacher’s confidence, independence, and fundamental honesty, since practically every teacher knows that free expression of opinion on social and political questions or even honest treatment of children of influential people in the school may lead to discharge or loss of position. American teachers are in a very definite sense deprived of full suffrage and of many other political rights. In sharp contrast to this we find teachers in European countries free to participate in political activities, hold office, and behave like normal human beings. We have brought out in a somewhat sketchy way some of the outstand¬ ing differences between the teaching profession in Europe and in the United States. These points of difference indicate very clearly some of our great problems in the development of the profession in this country, the two most important of which are (1) adequate academic preparation, and (2) eco¬ nomic and political freedom of the teachers. WHAT SHOULD BE THE ATTITUDE OF TEACHERS COL¬ LEGES TOWARD REGIONAL RATING AGENCIES? EUGENE FAIR, PRESIDENT, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, KIRKSVILLE, MO. The relation of an incident in connection with the teachers colleges of Mis¬ souri, when they sought accreditment in the college group of the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, together with a bit of subsequent history of their experiences in the North Central, suggests most of the attitudes which I care to discuss. During the year 1928, the Missouri state teachers college presidents were considering seriously attempting to change from the teacher-training group in the North Central, to the college group. Our connections with the Uni¬ versity of Missouri were close and cordial. We knew that there was an outstanding individual who was prominent in North Central circles, namely, Professor J. D. Elliff. One of our group was designated to represent us all in a conference with Professor Elliff. The question put to him was this: “Shall we undertake to change from a teacher-training group to the college group?” His advice was very definite. We should undertake to change. Acting upon his advice we sought, therefore, in 1928 to have ourselves measured by what we believed to be the most efficient and powerful accredit¬ ing agency in our region. We dared, and wished our qualifications for mem¬ bership in this group measured by those in the very citadels of exacting scholarship. Our attitude was that of eagerness and enthusiasm to measure up to those exacting standards. We did not desire to ape the liberal arts colleges, but we did believe that for years we had been giving quite as good work in the National Education Association liberal arts field as had the standard liberal arts colleges (standard, as measuied by the Noith Central). We sought membership on the very terms of this gi oup, thinking that association with them on equal terms would be mutually beneficial. In doing this, we felt that we were not abating one jot of interest in our more purely vocational studies, but rather reinforcing these studies with a wide range of more general liberal arts studies, which we believed absolutely essential for a well-prepared teacher. Again, getting ready to enter this gioup and undertaking to keep up to the standards or better was a great stimulus, and a powerful lever on faculty members who might other¬ wise have become somewhat stagnant about improving their scholarship. Basing oui infoimation on the above, and numbers of other experiences, we believe that one attitude of the teachers college should be that of keen appreciation toward the original controling powers in these regional rating agencies, in that they were liberal enough to welcome teachers colleges which desired to be members. These regional accrediting agencies, such as the Southern and the North Central, evidently feel that the large bulk of the courses given in the teachers colleges, whether professionalized or not, are not so different from the large bulk of those given in the liberal arts colleges. Fuithermoie, can it be conclusively stated that the education courses are not at the same time, substantially, good liberal arts courses ? In other words, these associations have not tried to make a distinction without a difference! They lecognize conditions as they are, and welcome to their membership the colleges in their respective regions which meet their standards. There is a catholicity of spirit about this which appeals to the teachers colleges, and stirs them to have still more scholarly faculty members, and to insist on outstand¬ ing teaching within the faculty. Another attitude which I think most of us have, who are members of these regional rating agencies, is that our very membership enhances and dignifies the piofession of teaching, among liberal arts colleges in the associa¬ tion. We are there as a constant challenge to those who would acclaim that if you know subjectmatter you can teach it. It is wellknown that a goodly percent of those who graduate from liberal arts colleges teach. Have they adequate professional preparation to do so? Our very presence is a challenge to them in that respect, just as their very presence challenges us to equal or surpass them in the scholarly preparation of our faculties. Again, the manage¬ ment of any kind of a college has much in common with any other kind. Association with, in an organic way, many different kinds of colleges, tends to make more tolerant the views of all concerned, and gives a wide range of observation and contact, which would hardly be possible otherwise. Every college, whether teacher or liberal arts, has many problems with which to deal which are similar to those in any other college. In fact, most of the problems are similar. So it would seem to be a benefit all around for colleges of the same part of the country to be working together in a regional association. Another reason for a favoiable attitude on the part of the teachers colleges toward regional agencies is found in the relations of these agencies toward Department of Teachers Colleges 743 high schools. Using the North Central Association again as an example, there are hundreds of high schools belonging to this organization. Once a teachers college becomes a member of the association in the regular college group its graduates bear strong credentials in seeking a position in one of these high schools. This is no mean advantage. It is quite wellknown, too, that some liberal arts colleges, before the teach¬ ers colleges had membership in the regular college group of the regional association, made comparisons unfair to the teachers colleges. Membership in the same group has made impossible these comparisons, and, I am sure, has done away with many petty institutional annoyances. Of course, the women graduates of teachers colleges may not, as such, have membership in the American Association of University Women. However, in time, understand¬ ing may come, even to that organization. Again, in spite of all that may be said to the contrary, numbers of students will continue to attend the teachers colleges who do not intend to teach. They seek either a general college education, or pre-professional work in professions other than teaching. Accreditment on the part of these regional agencies in general puts the stamp of approval upon the pre-professional work of the teachers colleges. This is a great convenience to students who seek to enter professional schools other than graduate schools of education. Looked at from another angle, the attitude of teachers colleges toward regional rating agencies should be one of respect and confidence. The most influential ones of these agencies had made great headway in both college and secondary fields, before the emergence into power of our own association ; and they had set up standards and practised them, quantitatively, tho most of them were much higher than teachers colleges as a rule were then following. They had gained the respect and confidence of many well-organized profes¬ sional groups, such as the American Medical Association. In other words, what they had done gave us something toward which to aspire, and insistence upon scholarly faculty members is a case in point. I believe that most of us in the Middle West cannot agree with Professor Alonzo F. Myers, who has stated that our colleges are handicapped by the standards of the North Central Association — especially the one regarding preparation of faculty. In fact, the North Central Association has been a benefit, not a handicap. Why shouldn’t the school education, degrees and all, of the faculty mem¬ bers in teachers colleges and normal schools measure up to the standards in good liberal arts colleges and universities, whether these faculty members are teaching prospective high-school or elementary teachers, or both? To be more specific, why should not the faculty members of the New England normal schools, in preparation, meet the standards for the colleges of the New England Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools? Professor Myers says: “I cannot imagine the normal schools of New England ever trying to do that thing.” By cooperating with their powerful nearby inde¬ pendent colleges and universities, and their commissioners of education, it seems to me that they might do much more than try, to the end that they would place the training of elementary teachers on a university leve1, and 744 National Education Association thereby have just as welltrained teachers for the elementary schools as for the high schools. We are in the midst of much thinking about our own standards. We are all wanting to get beyond what are mostly minimum quantitative stand¬ ards, to some rather definite qualitative standards. Similar thinking is going on in the regional associations. To have an integral part in both associations seems to me to be an advantage to the teachers colleges. To be inspected, sur¬ veyed, visited, and questioned by the representatives of two associations in¬ stead of one, appears to me to be most helpful. Such contacts are bound to help teachers colleges, not only to maintain minimum quantitative standards, but to wish to go far beyond these. Lastly, let it be remarked, that as one listens, in his own regional associa¬ tion, to the messages of representatives in other regional associations thruout the United States, and notes the close understanding and cooperation mani¬ fested, an awareness comes that the teachers college is not only performing an important part of the work of the particular region where it is located, but that it is a nationally recognized educational institution, working with equals, toward a common end. WHAT SERVICES MAY BE EXPECTED OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF TEACHERS COLLEGES AS A RATING AGENCY? WALTER P. MORGAN, PRESIDENT, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, MACOMB, ILLINOIS The services which I have thought the American Association of Teachers Colleges may perform as a rating agency depend very largely on the attitude it takes towards its own standards and the degree to which it undertakes to enforce them. If the Association takes the view that its standards have now been in operation long enough to be pretty well established, and if its member in¬ stitutions show that they believe that these standards have proven useful tools in their hands to improve their faculties, to build up their libraries, to establish thorogoing laboratories, to build satisfactory plants for their use, to improve the scholarship of the students and the reputation of the college ; in fact if each administrator of an institution in this Association is willing to abide by our standards and recommend them to others, then this Association may be very useful as a rating agency. If, on the other hand, many of the administrators of the institutions in this Association give the impression that our standards have operated to the disadvantage of their institutions; that these standards are negative and not constructive ; that they seriously doubt the value of trying to hold the Association together ; that they believe every institution has its own problems which the standards aggravate ; or that at least the Association ought to be broken up into sections such that each may have standards of its own, then its service as a rating body is nil; for the reputation of any member insti¬ tution is likely to be little better than that which is warranted by the Department of Teachers Colleges 745 standards of the weakest section in the Association, and the Association has little service it can render as a rating agency or otherwise. If the United States were about to enter an international war its service would be increased if there were confidence on the part of all of the states that our war ships were adequate and our army wellclrilled and properly equipped ; but if the officers of these war vessels and these companies of men continually held up to themselves and their men and to our enemies the defects of our naval units and the inefficiency of our army, the morale of our fighting force would be broken, other nations would discredit our strength, and such enemies as we have would launch a concerted attack on every front. In what I shall say further I am going to assume, and I believe it to be a fact, that the president of every member institution in this organization believes in it and the work it is trying to do, else he would withdraw his institution from its membership and start it on its course without fetters or hindrance, for if he were to do otherwise he is neither fair to his institution nor honest with himself. In my opinion the American Associa¬ tion of Teachers Colleges has helped every one of its members and set standards of accomplishment which institutions still outside the fold would do well to emulate. Therefore, I am fully convinced that this Association can do great service as a rating body. First, as a rating agency it can render a service to its members in two ways at least. It can, thru one of its standing committees, continually point out the standards with which each institution is in conformity, and likewise the standards from which it falls short. This is a most important rating service to each institution and must be frankly and justly rendered, for every institution must be fully aware of its strength and its weakness. As I have observed the work of this committee from year to year, I believe it has tried with considerable and with growing success to administer our standards without favor and with a minimum of fear. At times I have thought that perhaps it would have been better for our institutions had the standards been applied more strictly; but when I survey the progress that our institutions have made in the last five years, I have little but praise for the procedure that has brought this about. May I add, however, that even now no force nor instrument of this Association must hesitate to perform its function nor falter in doing its duty if we are to avoid a moral depression in educational achievement equal to that which we are experiencing in other lines. Let us not make this an excuse for laxity in standards or effort and thus give just reason for the criticism which up to the present has been directed at us only because of fallacious assumptions on the part of our accusers. Teachers, teachers colleges, and other educational institutions and educational efforts have not contributed to world chaos and disaster; they have prevented national insanity. In the next place, thru another of its standing committees, the members of this Association may have pointed out to them the improvement which our standards should undergo. Thru surveys and investigations which this 746 National Education Association committee undertakes from time to time, we may study the trends in our educational held and adjust our standards so that they will be an inspira¬ tion to every member to emphasize the better things which are being done by other members. This is a kind of rating which is a distinct service to the weaker members by pointing out the high road, while at the same time it encourages the stronger institutions to even greater performance. This is a time when inspiration and encouragement are needed on every side. As I have watched the Committee on Standards and Surveys develop our standards and have seen changes proposed by that committee approved by this Association, I have occasionally felt that our standards were too low. Many of the presidents of institutions here represented have expressed them¬ selves as thinking our standards needed to be given strength and also teeth. I still think our standards were low in the beginning but a redeeming feature was attached to them in that an institution accredited under them had to show definite improvement each succeeding year. I believe also that our standards are somewhat lower now than they should be ; but when I see the steady improvement which they have stimulated our member institutions to make in the past seven years, it gives me the highest regard for the work of the committee and for the support which the committee has had from the institutions in this Association. Nevertheless I am deeply concerned now as to whether we shall pursue our past policy and thus assure further improve¬ ment or whether we shall halt and stand by while our institutions recede from the respectable heights which they have achieved. This Association can also render a distinct service as a rating agency to institutions which are not members, that is, accredited members, but wrnuld like to be. By keeping our house in order we reap certain benefits thru the placement of our graduates. Outside institutions observing these benefits desire the same for their graduates and inquire how they may be had. Our president, our secretary, the chairmen of our committees, and even our in¬ stitutional representatives can quote our standards which are fast becoming the ten commandments, the keeping of which entitles a teacher-training institution to educational life and its graduates to a fair chance to ply their profession in the educational fields of the states or municipalities. In this way our Association renders a real service as a rating agency by pointing the wray that weak institutions may well hope to travel if and when they have met our standards. This organization can also furnish a service as a rating agency in con¬ nection with other rating agencies. Rating agencies all over this nation are beginning to observe wThat we are doing. This Association has come to their attention largely thru the work we are doing as a rating agency. These other rating agencies have first of all been interested in our academic stand¬ ards because these are the type of standards which they in the main use as rating bodies. When these agencies have discovered that our academic stand¬ ards are as exacting as theirs, they look to see wherein our standards differ from theirs. This difference is found in our standards for our professional work. In my opinion, herein lies the greatest value of this Association, the Department of Teachers Colleges 747 service it renders as a rating agency. This service is great because from the time some of our institutions first became four-year colleges we were mis¬ understood and were accused of seeking to become institutions of the liberal arts type. In fact some of our members were accused of deserting the very fields for which they were granted charters by the states. A more subtle charge against some of these institutions was that while they might intend to train high-school teachers in that anyone who takes a four-year college course can teach in high school ; nevertheless these four-year teacher-training institutions, socalled, must have deserted the field for training elementary teachers, for who had ever heard of an elementary teacher taking a four-year college course ? My opinion is that when this Association drew up its stand¬ ards so that many of them applied to the professional work its members offered, and thereafter began to enforce these professional standards; and as a rating agency began to rate institutions that applied for a classification on basis of the degree to which they met our standards, both academic and professional, we forever convinced the educational world that we were not intent on making liberal arts colleges out of our institutions but that we meant to continue them in their professional trend. By the application of these professional standards as a rating agency we entered a field not explored by other rating agencies and likewise a field in which other rating agencies admitted their incompetency. Herein our As¬ sociation rendered a real service, not only in directing our institutions to their professional responsibility, but in guaranteeing to other rating or accrediting agencies that the members of this Association are high-grade institutions professionally as well as academically. It has reached a point now where some other rating agencies will not accredit a teacher-training insti¬ tution which is not accredited by this Association. Hence as a rating agency our Association renders a distinct service to other rating agencies as well as to its own institutions. The final service rendered as a rating agency is an indirect but distinctly valuable one. The fact that it is a rating agency makes the Association and its members conscious of standards or rules under which rating may be ac¬ complished. At the same time it creates a pride and responsibility for those standards on the part of the representatives of the member institutions. To my mind this general attitude of the institutional mind has done much to improve the members in proper directions. I marvel at the things which have been accomplished under the Association as a rating agency. I feel sure not half as much improvement in its institutions wTas shown in the life of this Association and its predecessors prior to its becoming a rating agency as has been demonstrated since that time. It seems to me, therefore, that it would be a distinctly backward step were w’e to deprive institutions and other agencies of the service of this Association as a rating agency. Its greatest service has been in developing its standards and in the use it has made of them in rating its members. There were, at the beginning of this year, forty members, who had not been ac- 748 National Education Association credited and classified. This Association owes them a distinct service in bringing them up to its standards so that they may be accredited. This Association is now taking its place among other rating agencies with just reason for pride. Its field is welldefined and its problems are clean cut. I look backward upon the course it has pursued with great satisfaction. I look forward upon its possibilities with the highest hope and a definite determination not only to support it in its successes, but to defend it in the face of all who would speak disparagingly of its service to teacher-training institutions as a rating agency. This service may not have been perfect, but it has been good. The real problem now is : Shall we continue to profit by its service, or shall we begin to plead for lenience when the road becomes more difficult? Institutions, like men, show their real fiber in the presence of impending difficulties. Hence I hope this Association, which is made up of nearly two hundred of the finest institutions I have seen anywhere, will take on the strength of these institutions and display a confidence in our program and a deter¬ mination to march forward warranted by the good which it has already achieved and stimulated by the opportunity for service which lies just ahead. OUR STANDARDS OF ACCREDITING JOHN LINCOLN ALGER, PRESIDENT, RHODE ISLAND COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, PROVIDENCE, R. I. It would be a difficult thing to reply exactly to President Whitley’s re¬ quest for a discussion of the relative merits of qualitative standards, for it is impossible to get entirely away from the fact that some quantitative stand¬ ards are necessary. I interpret the necessity of this occasion rather as a re¬ quest for suggestions as to how we may answer the call for more standards of the qualitative type. The eastern states will heartily agree that the present standards were necessary when adopted, and that they have accomplished much in building up a powerful organization and in enforcing improvement. We shall also agree that for some sections of the country these standards, as they may from time to time be revised, will continue to be necessary. At the same time it seems to be increasingly evident ( 1 ) that in many respects these standards represent an undesirably low minimum, (2) that they offer too little oppor¬ tunity for developing personal or regional ideals or experimentation, and (3) that in some cases commendable results are being secured without con¬ forming entirely to the present forms of measurement. The old battle for recognition by other colleges is already practically won. The need for today seems to be for the selection of great teachers rather than for an accumulation of advanced degrees, and for a stronger insistence upon ideals rather than a mere conformity to regulations. I submit as evi¬ dence a bulletin of the results of a survey of a school which would not meet your requirements for degrees, but is nevertheless worthy of your study as the work of master teachers. Rhode Island would not attempt to replace these teachers unless others could be found who can do better work. Department of Teachers Colleges 749 Again, there seems to be little reason for the minimum standard as to the number of students necessary to insure recognition. One of the recent gradu¬ ates of Castleton was accepted at Boston University School of Education, in spite of the smallness of the number of students at the normal school. Last year he graduated at the head of his class at the University. I could tell you much more about the valuable work of this school for its state, or of the worthy achievements of Hyannis and other normal schools which would fall below the present artificial limits. We seem to need today a protest against excessive numbers and the worship of bigness, rather than an attempt to rule out a worthy school simply because of its smallness. That some of us have held aloof from active participation in standardizing does not mean that we have not believed the work to be necessary. Today, however, we are inclined to think that what is needed is not a set of mini¬ mum requirements of the present type, but a series of ideals towards which each should strive in his own state. Frank E. Spaulding, of Yale Univer¬ sity, has well said that ‘‘the really important thing is not a uniform measur¬ ing rod which will determine whether the staff of a school or college is to be accredited or not ; the important thing is the improvement of instruction in all normal schools and teachers colleges.” As you know, the April meeting of the Eastern States Association was largely given to a discussion of the present standards of the American Asso¬ ciation ; thus furnishing a valuable set of opinions as to what our standards might be. Its yearbook is full of suggestions, some of which I have not hesi¬ tated to include in this report. In other papers you have read of the work of colleges in New York, New Jersey, Massachusetts, and Connecticut. If you could visit these institutions you would be still more impressed with the value of their achievements. Yet each institution is developing in its own way, and no two ways are alike or like the work in Rhode Island. We all have a hearty respect for each other, yet each believes that for his own field his work is best, and that it would be unwise to attempt to standardize on a single pattern. In my belief it would be useless to attempt to agree upon standards which limit the value of an institution in its own field, if only its work is on the high level expected of state colleges for teachers. From the discussions of the Eastern States Association, and from my own belief as to what the American Association might well stand for, I have attempted to rewrite some of the present list of standards in such a way as to make them represent more fully an expression of possible qualitative standards, or ideals, in place of minimum requirements. PROPOSED STANDARDS FOR ACCREDITING TEACHERS COLLEGES I. Definition of a College of Education A. Within the meaning of these standards a teachers college is a school or college of approved standing, which is supported for the purpose of preparing teachers for service. It may be supported by a state, a municipality, or an incorporated private foundation, but it must have at least one approved unified curriculum devoted ex¬ clusively to the preparation of teachers. 750 National Education Association B. Its rating is to be determined by the length of its curriculum as approved by this Association, and by the criteria established in these standards for the determina¬ tion of the quality of its work, and it shall not be discriminated against on account of its name or its degree granting power. Its curriculums may be approved for two or more years of college credit, but no curriculum of less than two years shall be considered for approval by this Association. II. Requirements for Admission A. Candidates for admission to the college should be selected on the basis of fit¬ ness for admission to the teaching profession, including high character, approved personality, scholarship, and physical fitness. Candidates should be graduates of secondary schools approved by the college and by the department of education in the state in which the college is located. A physical examination should be given by an authorized college physician. Experienced teachers of promise may be admitted for such work as they are qualified to pursue, but shall meet the full entrance re¬ quirements before receiving the diploma or degree of the college. High-school work shall not be counted as a part of the college course. B. Equivalence for entrance or secondary school work shall be determined only by regularly scheduled written examinations, which shall be of such a character as to satisfy the committee on admission of the college. C. Experience in teaching shall not be accepted as credit for entrance or for college work, except that demonstrated ability may be accepted as an equivalent for a part of the required teaching in the training schools. III. Standards for Graduation and for Certification A. The quantitative requirement for graduation with a degree shall be the suc¬ cessful completion of at least 120 semester hours of credit, or its equivalent of ap¬ proved work. If less than four years of work is offered, the standard shall be at least 30 semester hours of credit for each year. B. No degree or diploma shall be issued to a student who has not spent at least one year (30 semester hours) in residence or in the regular classes for teachers maintained by the college. C. Classes for teachers, to meet the approval of this Association, shall be con¬ ducted by members of the faculty, or by regularly appointed teachers who meet all the qualifications expected in members of the faculty; and the work of these classes shall be on the same high plane as that expected for the regular work of the college students. These courses should also, so far as possible, meet the re¬ quired standards for sequence, prerequisites, etc. IV. Size of Faculty There shall be a reasonable ratio of faculty to students in all departments. V. Preparation of Faculty A. The faculty should be made up of men and women of high character and education, and of proved ability for service as teachers of teachers. It is expected that as a rule these must hold advanced degrees from outstanding colleges, and must have had sufficient experience in teaching to warrant their selection for this work. No college is justified in discharging an excellent teacher merely on the ground that he has not received the expected degrees. It is expected that every college will be alert to secure for its faculty teachers of broad training and experi¬ ence, and of the highest ability and purpose. No college can expect approval if it is not meeting the spirit as well as the letter of these requirements. B. The same ideal shall be maintained in the laboratory school and in the train¬ ing schools. The quality of the teaching in these schools should be the best that it is possible to obtain. Department of Teachers Colleges 751 C. Annual reports as to the standing of all members of the faculties should be made to the secretary. D. It is recommended that, so far as possible in the spirit of these standards, new teachers for all positions shall have at least 30 semester hours of undergraduate and/or graduate credit in the field in which they are to teach, including profes¬ sional courses in the subjectmatter of this field. VI. Teaching Load of Faculty A. The average teaching load for the faculty of the college shall not exceed 15 hours a week, or its equivalent. For shop, laboratory, or physical education, the average should not exceed 20 hours a week of class work. VII. Training Schools and Student-Teaching A. It is expected that as rapidly as possible each college for the professional preparation of teachers shall have, under its own control and as a part of its organization, a laboratory school for use as follows: 1. For the development of its ideal public school. 2. For studies in the improvement of public school education. 3. As a school with which every student may become thoroly familiar thrucut his course, and in which he may make his first beginnings at teaching. 4. As a meeting place for theory and practise, and as a background for the discussions in the college classes. 5. As a demonstration school, not only for the students, but for teachers and school officials thruout the field of service. B. In addition the college should have abundant access to the public schools in all parts of its field, where students may serve as interns for a full semester, if pos¬ sible, under the best obtainable critic teachers. Such students should have a pre¬ liminary preparation sufficient for carrying a large share of the work and of the responsibility for an entire class. The following comments are made regarding the remaining standards: VIII. The Curriculum Dr. Douglass wisely recommends that each institution should strive for con¬ tinuous development, and should be allowed to contribute its best. Also that the first two years be made general, and that specialization begin in the third year. IX. Health President van den Berg calls attention to a statement by Dr. DeWeese that “it is obvious that the value of the health examination depends in a measure upon the followup and subsequent examinations.” XIV. Classification of Colleges I commend Dr. Pitman’s able treatment of the subject in the Eastern States Asso¬ ciation Yearbook. Section XV. It is my opinion that we have more machinery than we need. There seems to be no necessity for an expensive personal investigation for every college. Some sec¬ tions of the country should have it for their own protection. The Eastern States could easily handle their own problem, with investigation only in case of need. In my opinion the National Committee should act as a clearing house for regional groups. The Association can do a great work, but it is doubtful whether it can ever bring every section of the country to accept the same standards. 752 National Education Association At the risk of being misunderstood I have ventured to set down here a few of the ideals of Rhode Island College of Education, which seem to us to have a greater importance for our own work in this state than a mere adherence to the present standards could offer. 1; A careful selection of students according to proved ability, and by quotas assigned to all parts of the state. Each community should share in the enlistment and selection of its own future teachers. A large oversupply of skilled teachers is worse than useless. 2. A faculty of real teachers, with the faculty load adjusted to the subject and to the teacher. 3. Libraries adequate to needs, and librarians who are more than custodians of books. 4. A liberal and well-balanced course of study or not less than four years, with professional subjects and specialization largely in the last two years. Specialization should be with the advice and consent of the faculty, and should be based on the need for teachers as well as on probable ability. Students should be prepared for the positions they are likely to fill. 5. The laboratory school should be doing constructive work of a type suited to the public schools. Its classes should contain the usual types of public school pupils, and the classes should be of normal size. These classes should be taught for at least four-fifths of the school day by the regular teachers, who should be selected for their ability as directors of learning rather than for their advanced degrees. This school should be used for training purposes only for the first directed efforts of the young teachers. It should be a laboratory for the evaluation, development, and demonstration of new or approved methods. Every student should have some opportunity to know and to come into contact with this school during every term and nearly every week of college life. Teachers and school officers- thruout the state should be familiar with its processes and its results. 6. The training schools should represent actual school conditions in the public schools in all parts of the field served. Usually not more than two student teachers should be assigned to any building. Training should come in the latter part of the college course, but there should be at least one semester at the college after the period of training. For the sake of the student teachers, as well as for the good of the pupils under them, the period of service should be a full half-year in a single position. No student should be allowed to begin this work without a previous dem¬ onstration of probable ability. One of the great aims of this period of teaching is that of securing a genuine love for teaching based on an assurance of success. It must provide also for the development of personal power and professional ability, thru close and continued contact with a sympathetic and discriminating critic. 7. Regular college or graduate courses for teachers inservice should be offered after school hours and on Saturdays thruout the school year. To have many of these teachers, including recent graduates, continuing their professional study under the college faculty is of value to the college as well as to the teachers in the field. The expense of these courses should be paid by the state. 8. Emphasis in all departments of the college should be placed on success rather than on marks or honors. No lists of high-ranking students should be used in any way. With a careful selection of students for entrance, and with inspiration from friendly teachers and from frequent contact with the children, there should be few failures. With adequate preparation for the training period, failures in training or in the later teaching should be rare indeed. This college expects good work of all its students in any class. In January, 1932, failures in any subjects were reported for only 14 percent of all students in college. This same ideal holds in the laboratory school, which serves a regular city district. Here the failure of any pupil to secure promotion is almost unknown. The published report of recent surveys of this school Department of Teachers Colleges 753 shows that even the pupils with I. Q. records below 100, who had begun their work in the children’s school of this institution (a total of 50, ranging from 64 to 99, with an average I. Q. of 90.5) averaged 9.4 months younger than the standard median age for their achievement, and had gained a median E. Q. of 108. In conclusion, my point is just this: There are many ways by which a college can express its individuality, and some of these may be worth de¬ veloping. You are not expected to agree that our ideals should be yours. We believe it is possible, however, that important results might occasionally be secured if each college were more free to develop its best, instead of feel¬ ing constrained to accept any set of minimum standards as a final basis for judgment. WHAT CRITERIA, IF ANY, FOR SELECTING STUDENTS FOR TEACHER-TRAINING INSTITUTIONS SHOULD BE SET UP? M. E. TOWNSEND, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, NEWARK, N. J. I am going to state at the outset that, while the title of this paper admits of the possibility that there should be no criteria for such selection, in my opinion, as a result of a recent study conducted under the auspices of this Association, admission to a teacher-training institution should be selective, and probably highly so. It is my opinion that only by guaranteeing to the teacher-training institu¬ tion a student personnel of exceeding excellence can we hope to overcome an all too evident lack of respect on the part of the layman for the prac¬ titioners of our profession. Indeed, I think evidence is not lacking that the willingness to attack public education as a dispensable service in times of eco¬ nomic and social stress is quite largely due to the small regard given teachers as public servants. No doubt the present low status of public school teaching is partly to be expected as a result of our own low standards of admission into the profession. With this in mind, what criteria are proposed? Since I am strictly limited as to space, I will be able only to state the criteria I believe to be possible and desirable, and refer you to my forthcoming publication on Student Person¬ nel Services for the discovery of those technics necessary for the accomplish¬ ment of the criteria. The first criterion is basic. Criterion 1 — The selection of students for preparation as teachers should proceed upon the assumption that teacher training is on the plane of higher education, at least of college level. In other words, this criterion rejects the undertaking of teacher-training efforts on the secondary school level as neither adequate nor valuable to presentday society, and assumes that gradu¬ ation from an approved secondary school course is a basic prerequisite for further consideration of candidates for entrance into teacher training. Criterion 2 — Only those candidates should be admitted who exhibit evi¬ dence of native mental ability very considerably above the average, when measured by the most competent instruments available. 754 National Education Association What evidence we have would indicate that it is exceedingly doubtful if a person with a competently determined intelligence quotient of below 110 can do wTork of college rank. Criterion 3 — The teachers college should inquire into the ability to do competent academic work on the secondary level, and should restrict its entrants to those whose position in the high-school graduating class indicates distinctly above average academic status. In this connection it should be noted that intelligence alone does not always measure academic competency. There is evidence to support the claim that the critical percentile should be set somewhere near the 75 percentile of a graduating class, and probably always above the 50 percentile point. This, of course, assumes the ability on the part of the teachers college to obtain this information reliably. It is my recommendation that the teachers college apply a carefully con¬ structed battery of entrance tests, not only to confirm and substantiate the status already referred to, but further to satisfy itself of the breadth of in¬ formation of the candidate on questions of presentday pertinence. Criterion 4 — The teacher-training institution should satisfy itself by in¬ dependent investigation of the physical fitness and health history of the can¬ didate, and should admit only those whose condition of physical make-up and health is normally promising. No mere certificate of health of a “blanket” character, signed by the can¬ didate’s family physician is indicated here. The responsibility rests with the teachers college to inquire in a searching way as to health of candidates. Criterion 5 — The emotional stability of candidates should be investigated by competent experts on the staff of the teachers college, to insure the exclu¬ sion of those giving evidence of serious emotional abnormalities and dis¬ abilities. While it must be evident that a frequent cause for unhappiness and mal¬ adjustment in college and in teaching is due to emotional disturbances of the personality somewhat predictable and extremely difficult of correction, reli¬ able investigation of these factors has been almost totally lacking up to the present, so far as selection is concerned. Criterion 6— A teachers college should inquire into the cultural, social, recreational, and occupational interests of candidates, to the end that it shall have proper evidence that these will serve as assets rather than liabilities to the candidate in the major professional enterprise he proposes to enter. Criterion 7 — The teachers college should set up administrative procedures whereby it shall admit students only in the light of competent predictions of the probable demand for the graduates at the termination of the course. Here, more is indicated than the mere matter of numbers. We need frankly to face the problem of selecting on those numerical, racial, cultural, or other bases known to be operative in the territory served as conditioning success¬ ful placement. Some sort of quota procedures are indicated here, and most teachers colleges have or should have the necessary statistical and descrip¬ tive records upon which to make this criterion effective. Department of Teachers Colleges 755 Criterion 8 — The teachers college should use the criteria above men¬ tioned as a battery, and so bring about a successive delimitation of all fac¬ tors as they bear upon each separate case presented. Much has been recently said of the desirability of having in our teachers colleges and in our profession itself, men and women of superior person¬ ality. But personality is a complex, not a unit trait. Criteria of selection must cover the fields of inquiry above mentioned if we are to have in the teachers colleges youth of superior personality, since this thing called good personality is the resultant of a coordinated, integrated pattern of behavior functioning thru native intelligence, scholarly ability, health of mind and body, broad and universal interests, and an appreciation of the problems of society. Thus will a great profession be recruited. WHAT CAN BE ACCOMPLISHED DURING THE PERIOD OF TRAINING IN ELIMINATING THOSE UNFIT FOR THE TEACHING PROFESSION? C. C. SWAIN, PRESIDENT, NORTH DAKOTA STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, MAYVILLE, N. D. The first approach to a consideration of this problem is the recognition of its seriousness, both to the teaching profession and to public education in general. At the present rate of a growing over-supply of certified but some¬ times mediocre teachers, there will ultimately be a growing under-supply of superior teachers. We cannot continue to have an increasing number of teachers for a steadily decreasing number of positions. At this rate we may again go back to the days when unfitness for any other occupation was one qualification for the public school teacher. This was not such a serious matter when other institutions carried much of the burden of preparing youth for manhood and womanhood, but it is serious today when everybody and every¬ thing waits upon the public schools. Not only do we give certificates to many who are unfit for successful teaching, but we seem often to give them first consideration when it comes to employment. There is much truth in the statement, “There is a teacher and a half for every school; but the half teacher gets the job.” As long as many school boards, especially in village and rural communities, continue to let expedience, sympathy, and economy be the guiding principles when employing teachers, it becomes necessary, in order to save the situation, that we eliminate those, who, under no consideration, should be employed. Mindful as we must be of the great progress that has been made in public education, let us not forget that the best means of improving a school sys¬ tem is to improve the teachers. In the teacher is the ultimate influence for better living and the inspiration for higher ideals among our boys and girls. In spite of all our educational progress, there can be no real improvement as long as we permit the misfits of society to teach some of the youth of the land. 756 National Education Association There is a common belief that teachers are born, not trained. The diffi¬ culty lies in the fact that the Lord does not provide enough by this method. Fortunately, we have ample evidence of the fact that, given reasonably good human material, our teacher-training institutions can prepare a satis¬ factory teacher. Let not only the blessing of a good teacher, but the curse of a poor one, burn into the consciousness of our people, and they will give the necessary backing to an effective program of eliminating the unfit and also give our teacher-training institutions adequate means for more efficient serv¬ ice. The problems of a democracy, both in prosperity and depression, are the opportunities of education. Ours is the problem and the opportunity of providing a satisfactory teacher for every classroom in the nation. I have briefly indicated that the first step in this direction is to sense the nature and importance of the problem. The unfit must be eliminated. Our first attack upon this problem is thru selective admission to profes¬ sional courses. In simple language, eliminate the unfit before they enter. It is equally important that we encourage superior boys and girls to come to teachers colleges. Our colleges are making progress in this direction. But, if I may review just one point made in the preceding address, let me say that we are entitled to more cooperation from the city superintendent and should utilize his office more than we do so that the unfit for teaching may be elim¬ inated at the beginning, and that a fair share of the nation’s brightest youth may be encouraged to enter teacher-training courses. It should be apparent to any superintendent that as is the grist, so is the flour. No city superintend¬ ent should recommend for entrance into a teachers college a girl whom he would be unwilling to employ as a teacher when she has satisfactorily finished the teacher-training course. All this, of course, presupposes that teachers colleges will also, on their own merits, attract superior students. Many of our superintendents and high-school principals are graduates from denominational colleges and state universities. Frequently they are found urging the brighter high-school students to go to the institutions from which they were graduated. Witness the gusto with which they pre¬ sent honor students with socalled scholarship certificates at commencement exercises. Again I fear that some superintendents and principals are not sufficiently sold on the profession of teaching nor on teacher-training institu¬ tions, as such, to encourage the superior students to attend teachers colleges. Moreover, the teaching profession itself must be made more attractive to modern youth, especially to men, if we are to get the best material into our schools. America never had a better opportunity to improve her public schools thru better teachers than it has just now. A program of selection is feasible now, but the taxpayer, in order to save an unjust and antiquated system of taxation, will take it out on the teacher thru salary reductions and our present advantage will be lost. Let us all unite our efforts so that teach¬ ing may become increasingly more attractive, especially to those who should remain in the profession. May we hope that those who guide students thru high school will paint a more pleasing picture of the opportunities in the teaching service. Let us, therefore, speed the day when teachers colleges Department of Teachers Colleges 757 shall come into full academic respectability and when the science of educa¬ tion, as well as its rewards, shall make teaching a real profession, so that a large number of promising young men and women may be attracted to teacher-training institutions. The excellent work that many states are now doing in the way of limiting the number of students admitted to their teacher¬ training institutions, and the effective work of many high-school administra¬ tors in acquainting their students with the requirements and the rewards of the teaching profession, are indicative of what can be accomplished in any state. In this whole problem lies a responsibility that city superintendents must recognize as their very own. However, in spite of all that we can do in the way of guidance and selec¬ tion before students enter upon teacher-training courses, we shall still have a heterogeneous group in our freshmen class. Any one who has given freshmen tests will know that there is a wide range of ability among incom¬ ing students. This was true at our college last fall. The next step, therefore, in the elimination of the unfit is to discover, after they have entered college, those who were not eliminated by the city superintendent. In the main, this can be accomplished in two ways: First, by securing the cooperation of high-school authorities in filling out a well- prepared admission blank. This confidential statement should be sent direct to the registrar. In the second place, the college should organize its staff in such a way that sufficient tests and followup work will give an accurate pic¬ ture of each and every student. Perhaps the first thing we should know is the student’s health and physical fitness for the arduous task of teaching. It is obvious that people with certain physical handicaps, for their own sake as well as for the sake of the public school children, should be excluded from the teaching service. Again, other students should be selected for special observation and treatment. In the second place, our freshmen tests should reveal a student’s scholastic achievement. Graduation from an approved high-school course is, in our state at least, no guarantee that the student is equipped with an adequate founda¬ tion for teaching. Here again we need a further application of the principle of selectivity. The third question upon which we need more light is the student’s gen¬ eral intelligence and fitness for college work. We know from observation, if not from scientific studies, that mental capacity is an extremely important factor in the equipment of prospective teachers. Next, we come to a factor that we talk and write much about, namely, personality and character. I doubt if we can escape the conviction that educa¬ tion is, in the main, but the influence of one personality upon another. But character and personality are such indefinable things. However, considerable progress has been made in determining the factors involved, but there is so much room for improvement here. We never seem to tire of Mark Hop¬ kins. To me, Mark Hopkins is just another name for personality and char¬ acter. 758 National Education Association We are all blind until we see That in the human plan Nothing is worth the making If it does not make the man. I doubt if we can do much in determining personality and character at the time of registration. We study carefully the character and personality rating sent in from high schools, and we meet a student in conference and get a general picture of him, but we hesitate to send anyone away, for often have we seen a fine upstanding young man get his degree and have remem¬ bered how utterly hopeless he looked on his first registration day. Yet I want to say with all the emphasis I can, that some time before graduation, we must either have eliminated the undesirable traits of character and person¬ ality or we must have eliminated the student who has them. The following resolution was passed at a recent meeting of our governing board : That we eliminate from the list of candidates for certification, all students who are^ (a) morally unfit, (b) have physical defects which will interfere with their success in teaching, (c) are addicted to the use of alcoholic liquor, naicotics, or other drugs, or (d) have shown financial irresponsibility. To be sure, we can all say that students of this type are usually dismissed long before they come up for graduation thru the natural elimination that results fiom failures and low grades. But what are we doing to give every graduate that outlook upon life, that reverence for his calling, that common sense, and that stability of character that will not only sustain him in temp¬ tation, but make him a positive influence for right living in the classroom and the community? Finally, we come to a factor that I feel is destined to play an important part in this problem of elimination, namely, directed observation and student teaching. Students should not be admitted to practise teaching unless they have a certain average in scholarship. Likewise, they should be recommended foi student-teaching by a committee of the faculty appointed for that pur¬ pose. We find a few capable individuals who leave nothing to be desired so far as scholarship is concerned, and yet we are positive that they will not succeed in dealing with children. For these, no amount of practise teaching will avail. Again, students must not be recommended for a teacher’s certifi¬ cate unless they have shown a reasonable command of skill in teaching technic. We have then the following setup for the elimination of those unfit for the teaching profession : 1. We recognize that we can have both a negative and a positive program. The former will eliminate the undesirable student from the institution. The latter will seek to remove those elements that would make a person unfit for teach¬ ing. This positive constructive program is worthy of our very best. It is a chal¬ lenge to any teachers college faculty. Let us not shirk our responsibilities. This constructive program calls for the highest type of teaching in our college class¬ rooms. It calls for an organization of the student body that will encourage crea¬ tive effort. It calls for a scientifically built curriculum. It calls for proper guid¬ ance and counseling, so that every student may find his rightful place. It calls for Department of Teachers Colleges 759 a college atmosphere of culture, industry, and reverence; and it calls for skilful supervision of student teaching. 2. Both the positive and negative program pre-supposes a well-organized system of selection and admission of students to the freshmen class. Those obviously not fitted for teaching are to be eliminated at the beginning. 3. A system of freshmen tests, consultations, and followup work to discover the weakness and strength of every student. 4. The distribution of all entering students into the following classes: a. Those who are advised not to attend college b. Those who are advised to enter the junior college c. Those who are admitted on probation d. Those admitted to full standing in teacher-training courses I believe it is possible and advisable for every teachers college to have a junior * college department. Students who insist upon their right to attend your state supported institutions may be advised to enter and do non-professional junior college work if it is thought that they are not going to be successful in teacher¬ training courses. If a student finds himself and proves his worth, he may be transferred to professional courses. Those admitted on probation will, first of all, be those who are deficient in general educational achievement. They should be required to take non-credit courses in order to make up for any deficiency that they may have in English, mathematics, etc. Other students who will probably have difficulty in doing regu¬ lar college work will be admitted on probation so that they may have an oppor¬ tunity to prove by their progress from month to month, that they can do satis¬ factory work. The old plan was to let students shift for themselves, and the rea¬ son for failure at the end of the course was not understood. The special probation system means a weekly or monthly report from the instructor, with his reasons for the student’s failure to do satisfactory work and suggestions for improve¬ ment. The student is properly notified and given special attention. Thru his own self-analysis and the official help and guidance from the dean or assistance from a teacher selected by the student himself, he either will be able to improve or will withdraw from the course. This system of special probation is especially well-organized at the Ball State Teachers College, as reported to me by Dean Noyer. 5. In order to build up scholarship at an institution it is a common practise to use the socalled honor point system. By this we mean that students must have as many honor points as credit hours in order to graduate from the college. For the successful operation of this system one must have a faculty prepared and willing to grade students properly and to adhere in a general way to a normal distribution of marks. On this particular point I feel that at our college we need to loosen up our grading in some quarters and to tighten it up in others. It is obvious that our institutions must also continue to pay considerable atten¬ tion to the removal of all such causes for inferior work as too many outside activities, too many social obligations, unsatisfactory living conditions, and poor study habits. Just now we need to be on guard so that students do not spend too much time working for board and room or doing light housekeeping. 6. Successful experience probably receives more weight than any other criterion in the selection of teachers by superintendents. The returns of a questionnaire from 98 of the classified schools of North Dakota revealed that 60 of the 98 superintendents of these schools who responded to the questionnaire, in select¬ ing new teachers, gave greater weight to experience than to additional training beyond the regular two year period. Roughly, this is 2 out of every 3 superin¬ tendents. The trouble here is that there is little agreement as to what constitutes successful teaching or the extent to which the student may be expected to im¬ prove. It would seem, however, that in the period of student practise teaching, a considerable number of the unfit might be eliminated. 760 National Education Association Frankly I feel that prospective teachers should have much more time for directed observation of superior teaching and more time for actual practise teaching. Especially do I think the student should have more of a supervisor’s time. This would eliminate some of the trial and error method that obtains in our training school of today. 7. As another means for eliminating the unfit we would recommend more frank¬ ness and better cooperation between colleges to prevent undesirable students from migrating from one college to another. 8. Finally, teachers colleges must be a little more careful in recommending stu¬ dents for graduation, and especially in approving them for a certificate. If the unfit have been removed, then we are ready to recommend only those who are satisfactory in scholarship, excellent in health, and worthy in character and personality. Those who have no defects that will interfere with teaching suc¬ cess, those who have given satisfactory evidence of possessing that type of character and personality that school boards invariably require, and, finally, those who, as the result of actual practise we have a right to believe will do the technical job of teaching in a satisfactory manner. This whole discussion culminates in two fundamental requirements i First, a faculty, both in the college and the training school, that works as a unit to one end, namely, the preparation of teachers, not the development of departments, not extra courses. Secondly, a public that will judge an institu¬ tion entirely on the quality and not the quantity of its output. If we have much to do before every child in the land shall have a teacher with an abundance of health and physical vigor, sound scholarship, excellent char¬ acter, and sufficient technical skill, yet may we take comfort in the words of Robert Louis Stevenson : No man is so unhappy as one who has had his dream come true and to travel hopefully is better than to arrive.” Educa¬ tion is God’s precious gift and man’s debt eternal to childhood. HOW MAY TEACHER-TRAINING INSTITUTIONS BEST SERVE THE PUBLIC IN TEACHER PLACEMENT SERVICE ? A. M. ROYCE, PRESIDENT, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, PLATTEVILLE, WIS. It would seem that the best service to the community is also the best service that can be rendered to the graduate who has prepared to teach. TThere are too many cases of young people who are trained for high-school work accept¬ ing places in primary grades. It is easy to find students well-prepared to give secondary instruction but ignorant of the best methods of teaching grade children, who are floundering around in an attempt to teach in the grades. Boards of education and superintendents of schools are being educated to the fact that graduation from a teacher-training institution does not auto¬ matically qualify the graduate for teaching in any and every position. The same thing is true when it comes to the placing of young teachers in secondary school positions. Surveys reveal that many students who have prepared along the lines of some major and minor subjects are scheduled to teach matter concerning which they know little. Such illustrations can be found in surveys in many states. We spend millions of dollars to educate teachers. Yet we find our students, after specific training for definite grade positions or definite work Department of Teachers Colleges 761 in secondary schools, attempting to teach subjects for which they have been inadequately prepared. This produces a large economic loss, much serious injustice to the children, and certainly an unfairness to the graduate. This is, in part, a result of our system of licensing, placement, and assignment of work. All of these illustrations simply point to the fact that the wise placement of teachers is best both for the community and for the graduate. Every effort should be taken to make it possible and probable that teachers instruct the children in the work for which they themselves have been prepared. More and more is it necessary that the teacher have specific train¬ ing in the materials and methods of the work done in elementary grades and secondary schools. The pupils need teachers who have studied thoroly the curriculums and the best procedures of presenting them to growing children within certain age limits. The fact that a person has a degree or degrees, for instance in advanced mathematics, does not assure a teacher well-prepared to present mathematics to extremely young children. Neither is a student who has prepared thoroly in primary work and has a degree in elementary education necessarily prepared for the presentation of English in secondary schools. Tragic instances of the misplacement of teachers are all about us. This is particularly true during the days thru which we are now passing in our economic distress. Teachers are often themselves to blame for this condition. They are over-anxious to have positions and some income. They profess not only a willingness but a preparation to handle fields of work for which their courses of study and experience have not pre¬ pared them. Placement bureaus are under the constant urge of the young graduate, his family, and his friends, to get these young people placed. Boards of education and superintendents are under the same illogical stress. Teacher-training institutions should, therefore, make the rectifying of this condition one of their main objectives. In the second place, there has been too little effort made by teacher-training institutions to find out definitely the number of well-prepared teachers avail¬ able, the positions which they could best fill, the probable openings along these lines, and the possible number of teachers who will be needed to fill the gaps. Surveys indicate that practically no work is done by teacher-training institutions thoroly to digest this situation and properly to instruct and guide their students in this great vocational need. Here again many factors help to deter teacher-training institutions in what would be the best for com¬ munity and graduates. Families, for instance, feel that their children should be given an opportunity to have their chance as well as any other young men or women of the state. Again, there is a constant call for large enrolments. School heads are under the stress and strain of making a fine showing in this regard, irrespective of the ultimate outcome. We talk loudly of two things which help to contradict one another. One is a select and excellently prepared teacher-graduate, and the other is a large enrolment. As long as these two aims are in conflict the latter will control. There should be a genuine and impartial survey of teacher needs made each year by each state. Schools are in a constant flux and flow. The survey of 762 National Education Association one year will not answer for many years following. The essential facts must he ascertained so that young people prepared to teach may articulate their pieparation so as to place them best when graduation time comes. This is a question of supply and demand in relation to the preparation and wise place¬ ment of teachers. In the third place, much work must be done by the teacher-training au¬ thorities to know truly their students and their teaching possibilities. This means the preparation of new blanks for the gathering of information from all possible sources: elementary school, secondary school, teachers, and ex¬ perts, as to the student’s early, training, ideals, general education, tempera¬ ment, character, qualities of leadership, mental ability, and teacher prepara¬ tion. Many schools are moving forward in these matters, but the general situation is today not what it should be in this regard. Even teachers’ agencies, where the proper placement of teachers is a commercial venture, have not placed in their records entirely thoro and reliable information from all possible sources regarding candidates. Teacher-training institutions must meet this need in a thoroly scientific and professional way if they are best to serve the communities where their graduates are to be placed. I here should be a wide range of reference material relating to the young candidate. Not only should the senior name his references, but the teacher-training institutions should obtain from school authorities, teachers, and acquaintances the most definite information possible relative to all traits of the student concerned. In the fifth place, isn’t this the logical time for teacher-training institu¬ tions to raise their curriculum standards and length of years, quality of subjectmatter, and courses offered ? This has a close selationship to serving the best interests of the student and the community. Is not this the time when teacher-training institutions should largely do away with courses shorter than three and four years in length for training all kinds of teachers? The courses for the training of rural teachers are far too short thruout the entire length and breadth of the land. Probably no teacher needs a more thoro training than does the rural school teacher. In the sixth place, teacher-training institutions should have a definite followup program completely planned and vigorously carried out. Blanks similar in content to information blanks used in the recommending of teachers should be sent out over a considerable period of years as a checkup on the product’s placement and success. Supervisors and superintendents should be assured that the blanks filled out and returned will be held strictly con¬ fidential. The slightest betrayal of the information on these blanks is a breach of confidence capable of leading to the worst consequences, both to the community and to the teacher. Visitations should be made by credited and well-prepared members of the faculty to beginning teachers, especially wheie this can be done with the cooperation of local supervisors, principals, and superintendents. The first year of teaching in a graduate’s life is ex- tremelv impoitant in his ultimate success. Meetings should be organized, suggestive material should be distributed, school observation days planned Department of Teachers Colleges 763 and held, and the school should maintain a generous attitude of helpful suggestion and inspiration covering at least three years of the teacher’s work after graduation. In the seventh place, there should soon appear among the teachers colleges a regular placement bureau with fulltime people in charge of the work. The placement of teachers, the gathering of the necessary information, the time necessary for wise consultation and advice, the gathering of the neces¬ sary information about communities and openings, demand much greater extension along these lines than most teachers colleges have as yet undertaken. The bringing of prospective employers in touch with prospective teachers should not be a side-line job. It is a matter of prime importance to all parties concerned, and teachers colleges have been unnecessarily slow in adopting the broader policy. It should not be in charge of men or women who have more important work to do as faculty members. The placement bureau should be in charge of a thoroly well-prepared, obliging, and wisely sym¬ pathetic man. In the past our appointment bureaus have been inadequately supported and have been in position to give only a minimum of service. The bureau should be maintained without expense to the graduates of the in¬ stitution. The service of this bureau should be open to teachers of many years experience as well as to the graduating classes. The above suggestions are briefly stated in rather a dogmatic and sum¬ marized form. They come as a result of more than a quarter of a century of experience in four teacher-training institutions, as a result of much reading and study of reports and surveys, and as a result of much discussion with directors of training schools, students, superintendents, principals, and board members. A wise placement of graduates is of tremendous importance to three interested parties: the graduate, the school, and the community. Fortu¬ nately, these interests are common. It is hoped that the suggestions made may help to bring about a greater appreciation of some possibilities in im¬ proving this tremendously important service. WHAT MAY BE DONE BY TEACHERS COLLEGES AND NORMAL SCHOOLS IN FOLLOWUP WORK WITH THEIR GRADUATES TO INSURE THE BEST TYPE OF SERVICE TO THE PUBLIC? G. W. DIEMER, PRESIDENT, TEACHERS COLLEGE, KANSAS CITY, MO. Only during the last few years have teachers colleges recognized any re¬ sponsibility for the success of their graduates in the field. With the rise, however, of the supervision movement and the development of better methods and technics in teaching, there has been a growing recognition that there is a distinct obligation on the part of the teachers college to give assistance to its graduates in the field. I did not, however, realize the extent of the followup movement until this question was given to me, and I wrote letters to the members of the American Association of Teachers Colleges requesting in¬ formation as to practises. Of 184 institutions to whom letters were written, 764 National Education Association replies were received from 126 schools. Only two or three presidents or deans indicated that their institutions were making no efforts along followup lines. All others are doing something, ranging from estimates or reports re¬ ceived from superintendents or other supervisory officers, to fully organized and developed probationary or followup departments. In many cases, the president was inclined to apologize that his institution was not doing more ; and many institutions are planning more adequate followup procedures for the future. In no case did a president or dean indicate that he was unfavor¬ able to such programs. In two or three cases, questions as to the legality of this service were raised, and several indicated that such service could not be carried very far in their particular situations because superintendents and school boards might resent “outside” supervision. One president expressed himself as favorable to a limited followup program, but added that “too much followup is liable to smack of that unpopular thing which the mother- in-law does.” While these dangers were suggested, no case was reported where school authorities objected to the followup work being attempted; in fact, letter after letter indicated that superintendents welcomed such assist¬ ance. Objectives Some of the purposes of followup procedures suggested or evident from the replies received are the following: (1) To help the teachers college more effectively to connect theory and practise thru a study of the elements of strength and weakness of graduates in the field. (2) To insure better teaching from the beginning teacher by cooperating with school officials in giving him such help and guidance as is needed in the solu¬ tion of his problems. (3) To inspire and enthuse the beginning teacher for his chosen profession and to encourage continuous growth. (4) To encourage the teacher to have an experimental, exploratory, and open- minded attitude toward teaching. (5) To confer with superintendents, principals, and teachers, individually and in groups, in an effort to solve cooperatively the problems, both of the teachers college and of the public school. (6) To establish cordial relationships between the college and the schools that it serves, to the end that the college may have a clearer understanding as to the educational needs in its territory and have a better opportunity to aid in supplying these needs. Types of followup service — The followup service being rendered by teachers colleges replying to my letter ranges all the way from reports on the teaching success of the graduate, furnished to the placement office by the superintendent or principal, to a very complete supervisory program carried out by a probationary or followup department. The types of followup service used might be indicated in outline form as follows : (1) Reports or estimates usually made to the placement committee of the col¬ lege by school officials. (2) Reports or questionnaires filled out by the graduate in the field in which teaching conditions are described. Problems are listed and suggestions are offered as to weaknesses in the work of the college. Department of Teachers Colleges 765 (3) Literature sent out from the college in the form of circular letters, bulletins, school papers, or magazines. (4) Visitations: Some institutions have an organized visitation program; others make miscellaneous or chance visits to their graduates. In either case visita¬ tions are by regular members of the faculty, by critic teachers, or by field supervisors especially assigned to do field work. (5) Conferences, both individual and group, either in the field or at the college. (6) Demonstrations either in the field or at the college. (7) Extension courses offered by regular members of the faculty at strategic points within the territory of the institution. (8) Library service thru which teachers within the territory of the institution may obtain books from the college library. (9) Cooperative supervision in which the college cooperates with the county superintendent in a joint program for the improvement of teaching within the counties included in the territory of the institution. (10) Departmental followup thru which the head of each special department keeps in touch thru reports, correspondence, visitation, etc., with graduates teaching in the special field represented by the department. Some followup practises described — Many institutions have rather com¬ plete followup procedures. Space and time, however, will permit of very brief descriptions of only a few of those which appear to be the most com¬ plete set-ups now being used. Placement and Followup Committee — At the New Haven Normal School, followup service is in the hands of the Committee on Placement and Followup composed of three members of the Normal School staff and three training-school teachers. The program includes the following steps: (1) Sending of rating sheets to employing agents in January. (2) Sending of data sheets to graduates also in January. These data sheets ask for a statement of teaching problems in specific subjects, management prob¬ lems, and suggestions for the improvement of the preservice training. (3) Visitation between February 1 and April 1. Every person on the normal school staff participates in the visitation program. So far as possible, each training-school teacher concerned visits only the graduates whom she has trained. (4) Reports from employing agents and from graduates are very carefully studied in connection with the visits by faculty members. (5) A Saturday conference is held early in May, to which the graduates are invited. At this conference, chief attention is given to the problems stated by the graduates on the data sheets. The San Francisco State Teachers College carries out a fairly compre¬ hensive scheme of followup under the direction of the Recommendation and Placement Committee. The program includes reports from superintendents and supervisors, questionnaires filled out by the graduate, field visitation by members of the faculty, and correspondence with graduates needing help in the solution of their teaching problems. The questionnaire which is sent to the student is rather comprehensive and in it the student is given the op¬ portunity to evaluate and criticize practically all phases of his preparation while a student in the Teachers College. Personnel office — The Western Kentucky State Normal School at Bowl¬ ing Green has a rather complete plan of followup under the direction of the personnel office. Faculty members from the department of education and National Education Association fiom the extension department are giving assistance to former students in -S counties. Ciicular letters of supervision are sent out at various times and all of the teachers in ten counties are being personally visited by members of the faculty. One fulltime supervisor is devoting her entire time to super¬ vision in three counties. Two men are devoting a large portion of their time to field work without supervisory authority. President Cherry reports that all of the work has been entirely satisfactory and has given splendid results. Followup council— The Southeastern Teachers College in Durant, Okla¬ homa, has twelve counties in its district. An executive council, made up of twelve men from the faculty, has been organized. Each man on this council is responsible for the supervision in one county and is allowed two weeks during the year off campus for supervisory duties with all expenses paid. I he faculty member arranges with the county superintendent to visit the schools of the county with him. The first duty of this council supervisor is to know all the teachers in his county and to become familiar with their prob¬ lems. A fulltime lural school supervisor is employed who puts in all of her time in the field assisting beginning teachers. A very definite center of emphasis is selected each year. During the current year an effort is being made to im¬ prove reading. This supervisory program includes, first, visitation ; second, the on-campus week of discussion of problems that in the opinion of the teacher, county superintendent, and supervisors need consideration. Thruout this program chief attention is, of course, given to graduates or former students of the institution, altho all teachers in the county receive such assistance as time permits. ^ Followup by training school staff— For the past three years, the La Ciosse, Wisconsin, State Teachers College has been carrying out a series of projects that have for their purpose the bringing of the teachers college more closely in touch with actual field conditions and, in turn, bringing the school men and women in the field into closer touch with the college. The plan includes, first, visitation to field schools by members of the faculty. The visiting group usually includes the director of training, one elementary school supervisor, one secondary school supervisor, and one other member of the faculty. These people spend one day visiting together in the field schools, giving special attention to graduates of the La Crosse Teachers College, but also visiting teachers from other institutions. In the afternoon a conference is held with the superintendent in which problems that might be mutually helpful to the teachers college and to the local community are considered. A second project is the visitation of the superintendents and the principals in the teachers college for the purpose of observing in the training school and conferring with the director of training and members of his staff. The main purpose of the conference is to evaluate the teaching procedures ob¬ served. A third type of project is the visitation of superintendents and principals in the school of a fellow superintendent rather than in the training school of Department of Teachers Colleges 767 the college. Arrangements for the visit are made in advance, and the local superintendent selects the classes and teachers to be visited. After the visit, the superintendents and principals and members of the college faculty meet for a conference. Other types of projects carried out at La Crosse include field visits of special supervisors or specialists and general conferences of field teachers at the college. A short time ago one of these general conferences was held at the college on Saturday and was attended by 180 field teachers. The train¬ ing school was in session during the forenoon, and arrangements were made for visitation and conferences. As will be noted, the La Crosse plan, which I have in part outlined, is be¬ ing carried out without the employment of additional supervisors to do field work. The projects are being carried out by Mr. Emery W. Learner, direc¬ tor of training, and members of his staff and of the regular college staff. Departmental followup — The Trenton, New Jersey, State Teachers College is this year carrying out a rather extensive followup plan thru the Department of Education. First, a letter was addressed to the superintend¬ ent or supervising principal of each school system in which graduates have been placed. In this letter the purpose of the followup service is explained and permission is requested to visit former graduates teaching in the local school system. The second step is to send a letter to the graduate explain¬ ing the followup plan and requesting a copy of the program of the teacher. The next step is for the member of the faculty under whom the student did his major work to visit the graduate. Following the visit, a report is made covering the significant observations from the visit. Strong points and weak¬ nesses are noted, and constructive suggestions for the teacher are made. A copy of this report is sent by the faculty member to the teacher herself, a copy to the building principal, and a copy to the superintendent. This work is under the direction of Dr. Forrest A. Irwin, head of the Department of Education and viceprincipal of the Teachers College. In a letter, Dr. Irwin states, “We believe in the plan most heartily as a way in which our faculty members can keep in touch with the school situations of the state and by which they can make the work of teacher training in our institution more successful.” In the East Carolina Teachers College at Greenville, North Carolina, an interesting plan of followup by the instructor in primary education has been used for some time previous to the present year. Briefly, the plan was this: Two teachers of primary education were employed. During the first year one teacher taught education classes in the college and the other teacher did field work with graduates of the department. The second year the work of the two faculty members was interchanged, thus making it possible that each would have the opportunity to supervise her own graduates teaching within the territory of the institution. President Robert H. Wright reports that this followup work was as helpful as anything that the college has done, but it has been abandoned this year because of lack of funds. 768 National Education Association In the larger institutions it would seem that the departmental followup plan is the one most generally used. The situation at Teachers College, Co¬ lumbia University, will serve to illustrate. In the first place, the Bureau of Educational Service largely handles placement problems and attempts to keep in touch with its graduates in the field. However, because of the num¬ ber of graduates and their wide geographical distribution, it is, of course, impossible for the Bureau to maintain a very complete followup. The more intensive followup work is done by the heads of the various departments. T he work of the health and physical education department, headed by Dr. Jesse F. Williams, will serve to illustrate. First, an active list of former students of the department in the field is maintained. Second, extensive cor¬ respondence, much of which is initiated by the student, is carried on from the department. Third, an effort is made to keep in touch with what former students of the department are doing in the field. Members of the depart¬ ment avail themselves of the opportunity to see former students and gradu¬ ates at various national, district, and state meetings. Fourth, former stu¬ dents and graduates are encouraged to use the department in any way that it can assist in the solution of problems that may arise in the field. Similar procedure is followed by other departments at Teachers College. The Department of School Administration under Dr. Strayer and Dr. Engelhardt maintains a complete alphabetical file of all majors, running back to the establishment of the department. They respond to any inquiry from a former student in helping him to solve a problem or to make an adjustment in a position. Members of the staff visit as many of the gradu¬ ates as possible when in the locality of the students. A few years ago the De¬ partment inaugurated a short course of two weeks in length to give students an opportunity to come back to catch up with the field. Del Manzo, in summarizing, states that while the college does not main¬ tain a special followup service, it does a tremendous amount of followup work thru the faculty and the Bureau of Educational Service. Special supervisors in rural schools — The Northwest Missouri State Teachers College at Maryville last year carried out a program of field su¬ pervision in four counties within the district of the institution. One fulltime field supervisor was employed. She met with the superintendent of each county and planned the work very carefully. The supervisor spent one week each month in each county. The program as carried out by the field super¬ visor included the following: (1) The work of the teacher was observed and notes were made as to the expe¬ rience, training, and points of strength and weakness. Approximately 250 visits were made in 167 schools. (2) As a result of the visits, an effort was made by the supervisor to analyze the cause for any weaknesses that might have appeared in the teaching and defi¬ nite work was planned with the teacher for the purpose of correcting such weaknesses. (3) Nineteen group conferences were held in the four counties, at which a wide range of teaching problems was considered. Department of Teachers Colleges 769 The plan met with enthusiastic support from county superintendents and teachers but has been temporarily abandoned because of lack of funds. The State Normal School at Lewiston, Idaho, employs two faculty mem¬ bers who are experts in elementary and rural school supervision. These two supervisors give practically all of their time to the rural and village schools. Their work is under the guidance of the director of rural education. Before the opening of the school year, the supervisors meet with the director and outline the work for the year. Each year special stress is given to the teach¬ ing of one or two subjects. The entire territory of the institution is covered by visitation twice each year. The supervisor on going into a county first makes contact with the county superintendent and in cooperation with him arranges for a series of demonstrations in conveniently located centers. A day is spent in each center, in demonstration classes, and in round table dis¬ cussions. The remaining time is spent in visiting schools and especially with graduates of the Lewiston Normal School. Opportunity is afforded the young teacher to present problems to the supervisor for advice and discussion. Dr. John Ely Turner, president of the Lewiston Normal School, in com¬ menting upon the plan, makes this statement: We look upon this work as an obligation which the Normal School owes th,e graduate. . . . Within the Normal School we give definite and thoro instruc¬ tion in subjectmatter. To be sure we also give instruction in the teaching process and with it all we furnish a certain amount of actual teaching experience in the training school. But it is still the obligation of the Normal School to furnish an opportunity for the young teacher in the field to learn how to bring the subject- matter, the teaching process, and the pupil into harmonious relationship with a minimum of loss of effort and time. This is the real function of the supervisor. The probationary plan in cities — Three cities of the United States that are probably carrying out the most complete followup plan with graduates of the municipal teachers colleges are Cincinnati, Detroit, and Kansas City, Missouri. Since I am most familiar with the plan used in Kansas City, I shall, as briefly as possible, describe our set-up. Previous to the fall of 1925, gradu¬ ates of the Teachers College of Kansas City had been sent into the school system without further responsibility so far as the college was concerned, all of their supervision coming from the superintendent’s office. While most of our graduates were succeeding, it was found that many of them who had made good records as students and practise teachers seemed unable to make the adjustment as regular teachers. In some cases the teacher failed; in other cases he merely did mediocre work. Recognition of this condition led the superintendent of schools and the board of education to adopt a plan of probationary service for graduates of the Teachers College. Briefly, the plan as adopted and as it has been carried out for the past six years is as follows : Graduates of the college are each year recommended to the superintendent of schools and the board of education carefully grouped on a quartile basis. Definite recommendations are made as to grade and type of situation in which it is felt that the graduate will do the best work. These graduates are appointed as needed on provisional contracts for one year or 770 National Education Association longer as probationary teachers. During this time, the teacher is under close supervision by supervisors sent out from the college. At the present time, the probationary department is made up of a member of the education staff of the college as chairman, and three field supervisors — one for kindergarten-primary, one for upper-primary, and one for inter¬ mediate-upper grade. Other members of the faculty, of course, are permitted to visit the probationary teachers, but the supervisory program is in charge of the four people designated. This probationary committee meets once a week following the faculty meeting to consider the field situation and to plan the program of supervision. The program of supervision which is carried out includes visitation, de¬ monstration teaching, individual conferences, and group conferences. Dur¬ ing the first week of the school year, the visits are largely inspectional with a view to finding out the special needs and to giving encouragement and help when needed. After the field supervisor has surveyed the general situation, additional visits are made upon call or as the supervisor may deem it wise. In her visits, a supervisor goes as a helping teacher and not as a critic. Follow¬ ing each visit, a conference is held, and such assistance is given to the teacher as may be needed. Sometimes when the young teacher is having difficulty with organization or planning, he may spend part of Saturday forenoon go¬ ing over organization problems or plans with the supervisor. Group conferences, which are held approximately once a month, have three fundamental purposes: (1) To give inspiration,* (2) to discuss the problems of the given grade in the light of accepted principles of teaching; (3) to give practical illustrations thru demonstrations or exhibits. Demonstrations may be given either in the room of the teacher needing assistance or before a group after school or on Saturday morning. Demonstra¬ tions for a probationary group may be given either by some member of the group whose work has been especially satisfactory in the particular subject or type of teaching that is to be demonstrated, or by the supervisor herself. Each year in April a report is sent to the superintendent’s office in which report a careful analysis is made of the work of each probationary teacher. If a teacher’s work has been unsatisfactory, he is held on probation for the following year or, if a failure, is recommended for dismissal. All of the field work from the College is done with the cooperation of the principals of the buildings and as far as we know, there is not a principal in the school system of Kansas City who does not welcome the help from our department. In fact, many of the principals say that they prefer our gradu¬ ates because the assistance which we can give them gives reasonable assur¬ ance of efficient service during the first year of teaching. The results of our plan of followup are summed up in this statement by one of the probation¬ ary teachers, of two or three years ago : Thru the personal conference in my own room, thru the demonstration lessons given, thru the helpfulness of the field supervisor’s suggestions, thru the probation¬ ary meetings held, and thru the great encouragement which came from commenda¬ tion of what was worthwhile in my own procedure, my field supervisor helped me to grow in such a way that I in turn was able to help my children to a fuller de- Department of Teachers Colleges 771 velopment. In addition to all this I had a greater appreciation of the responsibility of the teacher, of the high ideals which are ever kept before us, and of the joy which comes from putting forth one’s best efforts in the service of others. Conclusion — As nearly as I have been able to judge from the letters and reports which I have as to followup service, there is a general feeling that the right kind of followup is a logical step in teacher training. It is the feel¬ ing, as nearly as I can make out from my study of the question and from reports from the field, that all parties concerned — superintendents and prin¬ cipals, beginning teachers, and college faculties — are favorable to such serv¬ ice from the teachers college. What has been done thus far has done much to raise the level of teaching in the United States. We must always remem¬ ber that the one purpose in all of our efforts as school people, is the welfare of the child. Whatever, therefore, may be necessary in the way of coopera¬ tion among all the parties concerned in the improvement of teaching cer¬ tainly should be carried out. We have accepted the principle that supervision is a cooperative undertaking. Followup service is only another extension of that same principle thru which the teachers college has the opportunity to assist in the supervisory program and at the same time to discover weaknesses in its own program of teacher preparation. WHAT EXTRA-MURAL RELATIONSHIPS OF TEACHERS COLLEGES AND NORMAL SCHOOLS SHOULD BE DEVEL¬ OPED? GRADY GAMMAGE, PRESIDENT, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, FLAGSTAFF, ARIZ. It is somewhat difficult to establish a definite line of demarcation between intra-mural and extra-mural relationships of a state teachers college. Activities and reactions in each of these spheres are influenced by and reflected in the activities and reactions in the other. Regardless of the interrelationship and possible overlapping existing between these types of relationships, there are a large number of possible and to some extent necessary contacts which may be defined as extra-mural or off-campus. Some of these institutional relationships are as follows: (1) with the local community, (2) with the general public, (3) with the service area in the form of extension work, (4) with professional organizations, (5) with other state institutions, (6) with the public schools, (7) with parents of students. It is probably true that the average student and non-administrative faculty member does not appreciate the extent, number, and importance of these relationships. Local community relationships — The relationship between an institution and the community in which it is located is a vital one. Perhaps less so with a large institution in a large community where the shocks of conflicting interests may be more easily absorbed. Yet in some respects the local community inter¬ prets the college to the other sections of the state. If the people here lose con¬ fidence in the college, its administration, faculty, students, or program, in due time this will be felt elsewhere. 772 National Education Association The merchants in the community where a state college is located are re¬ quested in many ways to give support to the institution. This takes the form of advertising in student publications, buying tickets of a dozen varieties, advancing money for housing facilities, furnishing transportation for this organization or that, or contributing to a loan fund ad infinitum. This being the case the local business men who must bear the brunt of these special requests naturally feel they should occupy a preferential position when the college purchases supplies or equipment. It would seem that giving a small margin of preference to local or state firms as against outside firms is a sound and justifiable principle. In other words if two firms, one in the state the other outside, are bidding within 2 or 3 percent of each other, the state firm should be given the business regardless of who is the low bidder. Of course there are limits to this principle and the margin of diffeience should not be great. Those who invest their money in the institution have a right to demand wise and efficient expenditure of that money. However, one who makes efficiency the primary consideration must recognize the importance of local goodwill and cooperation which would not prevail if all or a great share of purchases were made from outside concerns. The administration should, of course, always insist that neither the institution nor the students be exploited for the benefit of any individual or group. General public relationships — State teacher-training institutions are main¬ tained for practical and definite purposes. The people who administer them are usually dealing with practical problems. They are not shut behind cloistered walls. They are working for the public and the public has a vital interest in what they are doing because it pays the bills and the teachers of its children are trained there. Since this is true the administration of a teachers college is not meeting its responsibility nor its opportunity if it fails to keep the public informed. The administration that takes the attitude of “let the public be damned” may find itself being damned by that self-same public, especially so in times of depression. It is therefore desirable and necessary that the college and its service be fully, honestly, and accurately interpreted to the public. This may be done in a variety of ways : Perhaps the best single avenue of reaching the public is the press. Most newspapers are friendly to education and are glad to give space to news about state institutions. The problem is in knowing what to present and how to present it. Here it is desirable if not quite necessary to have some one on the staff who has a “nose for news” and the ability to write it up in newspaper style. This publicity should not center around one or a few individuals and activities, but should attempt to present the life and purpose of the whole institution. In a recent article in The Journal of Higher Education , Thomas E. Ben¬ ner pointed out that: Two principles will serve to define limits within which publicity and public- relations programs may be carried on in the most conservative institution. The first principle is that each item in these programs must be, in context and in connotation, Department of Teachers Colleges 773 an honest report of the activities, aims, methods, achievements, or needs of the institution. The second is that the total of these programs must reflect the relative emphasis which, in the life of the institution itself, is placed on the several phases of that life. To illustrate the first principle he mentions Harvard University’s recent refusal to allow Rudy Vallee to popularize as a dance number the song “Fair Harvard.” Many institutions publish bulletins regularly. However, fewer teachers colleges than universities publish such bulletins. This is probably due to the fact that teachers colleges as yet have not developed research activities to any great extent. Bulletins may not be read as widely as newspaper articles ; how¬ ever, they may be the means of making powerful and worthwhile friends for the institution. In them real contributions may be made to education and the best interpretation of the work of these institutions may be presented. There are many other activities of a teachers college which might be classi¬ fied as publicity. For example, public addresses and programs presented at clubs and other public gatherings by college organizations undoubtedly have public contact value. These, however, may be more properly classified as exten¬ sion activities. They are somewhat cheapened when presented under the head¬ ing of “publicity.” In publicity as in all public relationships sincerity of purpose and an abund¬ ance of common sense are very necessary. It is no place for “four flushing,” exaggeration, or the beating of “tom toms.” Neither is it wise for one institu¬ tion to reflect in any way on other institutions ; nor is it the place for high powered promotional tactics to be used. A bank must have, in addition to capital, the confidence of the people. If rumor destroys this confidence the bank which otherwise might be sound will crash. A state teacher-training institution is quite as sensitive as a bank and it is just as necessary for it to have the confidence of the people of the state. In its relationships with the public it has an opportunity to develop in whole¬ some fashion that confidence and goodwill out of which will come its support. Extension relationships — Under the heading of extension some teachers colleges list all outside activities. Others seem to think of extension work as courses given either by correspondence or in off-campus classes. Teachers col¬ leges didn’t enter this field until about 1917. Out of 90 colleges recently inves¬ tigated, 53 maintained organized extension departments. An examination of catalogs reveals the following types of work and activi¬ ties promoted under the name “Extension.” A. Off-Campus Instructional Relationships 1. Off-campus classes 2. Correspondence courses 3. Irregularly scheduled classes on campus 4. Visual education 5. Library extension 6. Boy Scout work 7. Rural education 8. Boys and girls clubs 774 National Education Association 9. Conducting teachers institutes 10. Helping teacher 11. Public addresses, clubs, commencements, etc. 12. Radio. B. Relationships with School Districts 13. Advisory and informatory service to teachers and administrators 14. Group conferences held with school officials 15. General survey of schools 16. Measurement programs 17. Surveys concerned with special school problems— building surveys, etc. 18. Educational research bureaus 19. Placement service 20. School exhibits supplied, directed, or judged 21. Supply judges for contests of various kinds 22. Conduct music, scholastic, and athletic contests for high schools on college campus 23. High school visitation. C. Miscellaneous Relationships 24. Public entertainments 25. Alumni organization 26. Participation of faculty in outside educational activities of the state 27. Assist in forwarding legislative programs for the schools 28. Assist in formulating certification requirements 29. General correspondence — information bureau. One good measure of professional relationships between a college and its set vice aiea is the spirit of mutual service and helpfulness existing between it and the public schools and other groups and organizations in that area. Col¬ leges, of course, vary greatly in the amount and number of extension contacts, just as the necessity and desirability of these contacts vary according to circum- stances. The two most common types of this service are extension classes and correspondence courses. Extension classes are given to groups of students gathered in some place off the campus. The teaching is usually done by regular faculty members. Yet some colleges have followed the doubtful policy of allowing principals and superintendents to give such courses. There are many instances of this system not working out successfully. Because of this the American Association of Teachers Colleges and other associations have established regulations for the conduct of these courses and have placed limitations upon the amount of such credit to be applied on a degree. Regardless of any weakness in these courses there can be no question about their serving a real purpose in many communi¬ ties. Extension classes are based upon the idea that education continues for the whole period of life. This is especially applicable to teachers. There seem to be two methods of organizing and financing extension pro¬ grams. One of these regards extension work as outside of an instructor’s regu¬ lar load and is, therefore, not covered by his salary. This plan permits the in¬ structor to increase his income thru these classes. In turn he may increase his teaching load to a point where his value on the campus is lessened. This system has several disadvantages. It lacks centralized institutional control. The Department of Teachers Colleges 775 quality of the instruction either on or off the campus cannot be safeguarded. The second plan provides that extension courses be handled in the same way as other courses. The college collects the fees and pays the expenses of the instructor and he is permitted to carry only the amount of work consistent with his campus load. In many of the best colleges and universities correspondence courses are offered by the regular faculty members. Where there is a regularly organized extension service, the arrangements for correspondence courses are handled in the same manner as arrangements for extension classes. An examination of teachers college catalogs indicates that a comparatively few have well organ¬ ized correspondence courses. Some of the colleges are giving radio courses for credit. This type of exten¬ sion work is not well established and it remains to be seen whether this is a medium for conducting standard college courses for credit. Teachers colleges have not done much in developing visual education or in cooperating with the public schools in the distribution of visual aids. This field has to some extent been preempted by the universities, and, too, no doubt the expense has made colleges slow in taking it up. If a teachers college is a vital force in its state it is constantly receiving re¬ quests for speakers for clubs, commencements, and for every other conceivable occasion. The college that fails to respond to these requests is missing a rare opportunity to serve and to create respect and goodwill. It may be true that the average college professor isn’t so good before a general audience. How¬ ever, every college should make an effort to have a few men who can respond to these occasions in an acceptable way. Each college will, of course, have to determine its own sphere of activity in the field of extension. This is true of the phases briefly discussed here as well as the others mentioned such as library service, rural education, club work, etc. Any program must be fitted to local needs. It seems, however, a sound principle that teachers colleges should go just as far as finances and conditions warrant. Public school relationships — As indicated in the above outline each teachers college must necessarily have a large number of relationships with the school districts of its state. These, of course, take the form of conferences, surveys, conducting contests, judging contests and exhibits, school visitation, place¬ ment of graduates, etc. The one large objective of a teachers college is to serve the schools of its area. Therefore, the most friendly spirit should exist between the college and the public schools. Unless this is true the work of the college will be limited at every turn. Every teachers college should have as a part of its program the cultivation of goodwill between the public schools and the college. This should result in the frequent presence on the campus of school people and frequent visits into the schools by the college faculty. This should bring about not only goodwill but should also stimulate the college faculty. The type of student coming into the teachers colleges will be largely in¬ fluenced by the high-school faculties. For this reason they should be thoroly 776 National Education Association informed on the work of the college and should be acquainted so far as pos- sible with the college faculty. There is no more important service than that of placement. Since a teach¬ ers college is a specialized type of institution it is not justified in training a great number of people who cannot be placed. However, it should pursue an aggressive policy of enlisting capable young people in the teaching service until it is supplying a large share of the teachers of its area. The vitality of an educational program in the public schools may be kept at a high point thru the introduction of outside blood. This to some extent is desirable but should not prevent the local teacher-training institution from furnishing a large share of the training for those teaching in its territory. The placement service of a college must establish a reputation with school men for frankness, promptness, and efficiency in evaluating candidates for positions. It cannot afford to recommend those who will not make good. The college has a responsibility both to its graduates and for its graduates. It has a responsibility to the employer as well as the prospective employee. This responsibility should be discharged by a professional and not merely a cler¬ ical organization. There are many miscellaneous relationships which a teachers college should carry on for the service of the state and for the promotion of educa¬ tion and its own best interests. Among these may be mentioned entertain¬ ments and programs for communities and organizations. These will give the students and faculty experience in performing and should create a desirable attitude toward the college. The relationship existing between the college and its alumni is an oppor¬ tunity for mutual service. The college can often assist in the promotion of a umni to better positions. It should keep a continuous record of their per¬ formances and should help to improve the service they are rendering. The alumni in turn can serve the college in helping to create an attitude of friend¬ liness which will help the college. The statement of the college president who expressed the hope that some day he might be at the head of a penitentiary because the alumni would not be coming back home, seems unjustified. The faculty of a state teachers college should join hands with the public school forces and assist in carrying out their program. The college authori¬ ties should exercise great influence in the matter of certification. This is so vital in teacher-training programs that state teacher-training institutions should be on the alert constantly to see that proper standards are maintained. Relationship with professional organizations — Every professional train¬ ing institution should be closely identified with the organizations of that profession. For a teachers college these would include the American Asso¬ ciation of Teachers Colleges, the state and national education associations. Then there are other more specialized organizations centered around sub- jectmatter fields or specialized types of education. Teachers colleges and teachers college faculties who are not in touch with these organizations will be ignorant of much of the current thought in the educational field. There is Department of Teachers Colleges 777 no more vital contact for a teachers college than the contact with those in the field and with schools as they actually exist and are actually run. There are other regional associations with which the colleges of the vari¬ ous regions should be identified. Some of these are organizations of teacher¬ training institutions. Others are accrediting associations. Membership in the latter is generally compulsory if the college wants to train certain types of teachers. This is true of the North Central Association with respect to the training of high-school teachers. Relationship with parents When students leave home for college the interest of parents seems to center around three points, (1) conduct, (2) health, (3) scholarship. Students who go to college are approaching maturity and may be pre¬ sumed to have sufficient judgment to take care of themselves with reference to the three points mentioned. As a practical proposition we know that a teachers college cannot be operated on this basis. The institution assumes a very definite responsibility when parents send their sons and daughters to it. They are entitled to the assurance that there is a program within the college to take care of these items. In addition to this, they should be informed as to scholastic records and when necessary as to conduct and health. No student should be dropped without parents being notified and none should become dangerously ill without such notification. The greater the degree of cooperation with parents the better the results accomplished and the greater will be their support of the college. Relationship with other institutions There is always a chance for rivalry between state institutions. Whether the field is divided geographically, academically, or not at all, the most cordial feeling should always exist. It would seem desirable that these institutions have at least one annual con¬ ference on their plans and policies. This is especially desirable where unity of control is lacking. The above suggestion is not only good common sense but is wise policy. These institutions must go to the same legislature for funds. If they fight among themselves the legislature naturally becomes skeptical and if it is inclined to do so has an excellent opportunity to cut the budgets of all. It would seem wise then that any program of public extra-mural relation¬ ships for a teachers college or normal school should be based upon considera¬ tion of the local community, the general public, extension activities, alumni, parents, professional organizations, and other state institutions. These rela¬ tionships should be carried out in a spirit of service and predicated upon the realization that goodwill is an institutional asset of paramount importance. The purpose of it all is the improvement of the product of the teacher¬ training institutions, the enlistment of superior individuals in the profession, and adequate financing of teacher training. 778 National Education Association STANDARDS FOR ACCREDITING TEACHERS COLLEGES AND NORMAL SCHOOLS Adopted at Washington, D. C., February 20, 1932 I. Definition of a Teachers College Teachers College (Four \ ear Institution Granting Degrees). A teachers college, within the meaning of these standards, is a state, municipal, or in¬ corporated private institution, or an independent unit of a recognized col¬ lege or university having at least one four-year unified curriculum; which is devoted exclusively to the preparation of teachers ; which has legal author¬ ity to grant a standard bachelor’s degree; which has granted and continues to grant such degree; and which requires for admission the completion of a standard four year secondary school curriculum, or equivalent training ap¬ proved by this Association. Normal School. A similar institution offering curricula of two or more years in length but not granting a degree. II. Requirements for Admission The quantitative requirements of admission to a teachers college or normal school accredited by this Association shall be at least 15 units of secondary school work or the equivalent. These units must represent work done in an accredited secondary school or must be evidenced by the results of examinations. Evidence of a program of selective admissions should be submitted to the accrediting committee. Experience in teaching shall in no case be accepted for entrance, or credit toward graduation. III. Standards for Graduation The quantitative requirement for graduation from a teachers college shall be the completion of at least 120 semester hours of credit, or the equivalent in term hours, quarter hours, points, majors, or courses. The requirement for graduation from a normal school with a two-year curriculum shall be at least 60 semester hours or the equivalent ; and from a normal school with a three-year curriculum, at least 90 semester hours or the equivalent. Not more than one-fourth (f4) of any curriculum leading to a degree or a certificate or a diploma in a teachers college or normal school shall be taken in extension classes or by correspondence. These classes shall be con¬ ducted by regularly appointed teachers who meet all the qualifications of Standard IV, Preparation of the Faculty. If extension teachers are regu¬ larly employed on a part-time basis and hold educational administrative or supervisory positions, they shall not be permitted to offer courses enrolling individuals who are under their administrative or supervisory jurisdiction. No courses shall be offered for credit either in extension or by correspondence which are not also offered as part of the regular residence work. These Department of Teachers Colleges 779 courses should likewise meet the standards of sequence, prerequisites, etc., set forth in Standard VII, Organization of the Curriculum. No degree or certificate or diploma shall be issued by a teachers college or normal school to a student who has not spent a minimum of one year (30 semester hours) in regular residence work in the institution issuing the degree, certificate, or diploma. One year of residence vcork shall be under¬ stood to mean one year of full time study, or two half years, or the equiva¬ lent of one year in summer sessions. IV. Preparation of Faculty The minimum scholastic requirement for members of the faculty (college and training schools) shall be the possession of a master’s degree or its equiva¬ lent. Preparation should include at least 24 semester hours of undergraduate and/or graduate work in the field taught and also professional courses in that field. Because of local conditions, and because of the difficulty of securing de¬ grees in some of the special subject fields, an institution may be considered to have met this standard if not more than 15 percent of the teaching faculty does not have the master’s degree or its equivalent. The quality of instruction and the professional spirit of the school, to the extent that they can be determined, should be considered in applying this standard. V. Teaching Load of Faculty The following teaching load shall be the maximum for a teachers college or normal school faculty: 16 recitation periods not exceeding 60 minutes each per week or its equivalent. Equivalence shall be based upon the ratio of one class period to one and one-half class periods in shop, laboratory work, and physical education. VI. Training School and Student Teaching Each teachers college or normal school shall maintain a training school for purposes of observation, demonstration, and supervised teaching. The use of an urban or rural school system, under sufficient control and super¬ vision of the college, will satisfy this requirement. In the training school there shall be at least one full time training school teacher in charge of at least 30 children for every 18 college students each of whom does, during the year, a total of 90 clock hours of student teaching or an equivalent load. When affiliated urban or rural schools are used as training schools, the institution shall provide supplementary supervision to maintain standards comparable to those of the institutional training school. The minimum amount of student teaching required of every graduate of a teachers college or normal school shall be 90 hours of supervised teaching. 780 National Education Association At least two-fifths of the teaching in the training school should be done by regular teachers of the training school or by other members of the faculty. VII. Organization of the Curriculum The curriculum of the teachers college must recognize definite require¬ ments with respect to sequence of courses. Senior college courses must not be open to freshmen who have not taken the prerequisites for these courses. Programs consisting mainly of freshman and sophomore courses carrying full credit shall not be available for students in the junior and senior years. Every teachers college must, therefore, adopt an organization of its cur¬ ricula which will provide in its junior and senior years courses which require prerequisite courses in the freshman and sophomore years or courses which are open only to juniors or seniors. The number of such courses taken by a student in the junior and senior years must total at least one-third of the requirements for the completion of a four-year college curriculum. In a normal school with a three-year curriculum, two-thirds of the work of students in the last year shall consist of advanced courses to which freshmen are not admitted. VIII. Student Health and Living Conditions Health Service: Provision shall be made, by means of suitable organiza¬ tion, for the following phases of student health service: (a) physical exam¬ inations, (b) consultations on health matters and dispensary treatments, (c) correction of remediable defects, and (d) hospitalization or infirmary care. (This type of service, (d), may be provided through cooperative ar¬ rangement with independent hospitals.) The student health service shall be rendered by qualified physicians, nurses, dental hygienists, psychiatrists, and others on such basis and in such manner as local conditions require. Offices and rooms of the health service department or organization shall be equipped with modern scientific appa¬ ratus and provision shall be made for essential clerical services. Health Education: Suitable courses in health education shall be offered and provisions made in the training school department for observation and practise teaching in health education. Physical Education: Facilities shall be provided for instruction in physical education and for indoor and outdoor physical recreational activities. Each teachers college or normal school shall make definite provisions to insure for its students living conditions which provide proper safeguards for health, morals, and mental efficiency, and shall foster a responsible type of citizenship and leadership on the part of individuals. AVhen dormitories are maintained these shall be of fire-resistive construc¬ tion, shall be kept in wholesome, sanitary condition, and shall be under re¬ sponsible supervision. Department of Teachers Colleges 781 IX. Library, Laboratory, and Shop Equipment Each teachers college library shall have at least 15,000 volumes, exclusive of public documents and bound periodicals. For normal schools offering only two and three year curricula the minimum shall be 10,000 volumes. In computing the number of volumes in a library not over 15 percent shall be allowed for duplicates. Each teachers college library shall provide not less than 150 periodicals appropriate to the academic, cultural, and profes¬ sional needs of the institution. Institutions offering curricula not more than three years in length shall have not less than 100 periodicals. It is recommended that other items essential to an efficient library, such as: the number of books in different classifications; training-school libraries; training of library staff; budgetary provisions; and physical equipment should approximate the recommendations published in the 1931 edition of the A. A. T. C. Standards. Each teachers college or normal school shall be provided with laboratory equipment sufficient for instructional purposes for each course offered, in¬ cluding suitable shops and shop equipment ; gymnasiums for physical edu¬ cation ; equipment for courses in commerce ; suitable kitchens, dining-rooms, and laboratories for household arts ; and adequate farm buildings and demon¬ stration farms for work in agriculture. X. Buildings and Grounds The location, size, and care of campus ; the location, construction, and care of buildings, including maintenance and effective operation of service systems, shall be such as to insure hygienic conditions for students and teachers. XI. Financial Support Each state or municipal teachers college or normal school shall have an annual appropriation sufficient to maintain the standards herein established. If the teachers college or normal school is a private incorporated institu¬ tion, it must have a minimum annual income of $50,000 for its teachers college program. If such teachers college or normal school is not tax-sup- ported, it shall possess a productive endowment of $500,000 or more. Membership, Accrediting, and Classification These standards shall be administered by the Committee on Accrediting and Classification provided by the Constitution. The character of the curriculum, the efficiency of the instruction, the scholarly spirit and the professional atmosphere of the institution, the standard for granting degrees, and the general tone of the teachers college, shall be factors in determining eligibility for accrediting. It is understood that carefully planned experiments dealing with the education of teachers should be encouraged by the Committee on Accrediting and Classification. 782 National Education Association The secretary-treasurer of the Association shall be the executive secretary of the Committee on Accrediting and Classification. Each teachers college accredited under these standards shall file annually with the Committee on Accrediting and Classification a report on a blank provided for that purpose by the Committee. The Secretary shall publish two lists : (1) A list of member institutions, arranged alphabetically by state?, and desig¬ nated by the length of the longest curriculum offered as follows — 2 year, 3 year 4 year not granting degrees, 4 year granting degrees, and graduate. (2) A list of accredited institutions arranged alphabetically by states and desig¬ nated by the length of the longest curriculum offered as in the membership list. To be placed on this accredited list an institution may fail to meet not more than two standards, provided these shall not be Standards I and XI, but all institutions failing in any standard shall show satisfactory progress rom \ ear to year and meet all standands within five years. . number of the Standard or Standards which an accredited institu¬ tion fails to meet shall be listed after the name of that institution. The Committee on Standards and Surveys may authorize investigations and lesearch concerning standards and the improvement of the education of teachers which it deems necessary or desirable, and may make such pro¬ vision for the financing of this work as may be approved by the Executive Committee. Department of Teachers Colleges 783 AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF TEACHERS COLLEGES LIST OF ACCREDITED INSTITUTIONS— 1932-33 Longest curriculum indicated in number of years before each institution. G indicates graduate work offered. The Roman numerals refer to Standards not fully met by the institution. Location Alabama Florence . Jacksonville . Livingston . Troy . Arizona Flagstaff . Tempe . Arkansas Arkadelphia . Conway . California Fresno . San Diego . Colorado Greeley . Gunnison . Georgia Athens . Collegeboro . Milledgeville . Valdosta . Illinois Carbondale . Charleston . Chicago . DeKalb . Macomb . Normal . Indiana Indianapolis . Muncie . Terre Haute . Iowa Cedar Falls . Kansas Emporia . Hays . Pittsburg . Wichita . Kentucky Bowling Green . . . Bowling Green . . . Morehead . Institution President 4/State Teachers College, IX . 4/State Teachers College . 4/State Teachers College, X . 4/State Teachers College . 4/Arizona State Teachers College.. . . 4/ Arizona State Teachers College, VI 4/Henderson State Teachers College 4/Arkansas State Teachers College.. . 4/State Teachers College . 4/State Teachers College . C/Colorado State Teachers College.. . G/Western State College of Colorado 4/Georgia State Teachers College.. . . 4/South Georgia Teachers College, V, X . 4/Georgia State College for Women 4/Georgia State Womans College. . . . 4/Southern Illinois State Normal University . 4/Eastern Illinois State Teachers College . 5/Chicago Normal College, IV . 4/Northern Illinois State Teachers College . 4/Western Illinois State Teachers College . 4/Illinois State Normal University, IV . H. J. Willingham C. W. Daugette G. W. Brock E. M. Shackelford Grady Gammage Ralph W. Swetman J. P. Womack H. L. McAlister Frank W. Thomas Edward L. Hardy George W. Frasier C. C. Casey Jere M. Pound Guy H. Wells J. L. Beeson R. H. Powell H. W. Shryock L. C. Lord Butler Laughlin Karl L. Adams W. P. Morgan H. A. Brown G/College of Education, Butler Uni¬ versity, X . W. L. Richardson, Dean 4/Ball State Teachers College . L. A. Pittenger G/Indiana State Teachers College.. . . L. N. Hines 4/Iowa State Teachers College, VI O. R. Latham G/Kansas State Teachers College. . . . G/ Fort Hays Kansas State College. . . G/Kansas State Teachers College. . . . G/College of Education, University of Wichita . Thomas W. Butcher W. A. Lewis W. A. Brandenburg Leslie B. Sipple, Dean 4/Bowling Green College of Com¬ merce, X, XIII . G/Western Kentucky State Teachers College . 4/Morehead State Teachers College, VI . J. L. Harman H. H. Cherry J. Howard Payne 784 National Education Association Location Institution President Murray . Richmond . Louisiana Lafayette . Natchitoches. . . . Maryland Towson . Michigan Detroit . Kalamazoo . Marquette . Mt. Pleasant. . . . Ypsilanti . Minnesota Bemidji . Duluth . Mankato . Moorhead . . St. Cloud. . Winona . Mississippi Cleveland . Hattiesburg . Missouri Cape Girardeau . . Kansas City . Kirksville . Maryville . St. Louis . St. Louis . Springfield . Warrensburg . Montana Dillon . Nebraska Chadron . Kearney . Peru . Wayne . New Hampshire Keene . Plymouth . New Jersey Newark . Trenton . Upper Montclair.. New Mexico Las Vegas . Silver City . New York Albany . Buffalo . 4/Murray State Teachers College. . . . Rainey T. Wells 4/Eastern Kentucky State Teachers College . H. L. Donovan 4/College of Education, Southwestern Louisiana Institute, VI . 4/Louisiana State Normal College. . . W. S. Dearmont, Dean W. W. Tison 5/Maryland State Normal School, V. C/Detroit Teachers College . 4/Western State Teachers College. . . 4/Northern State Teachers College. . 4/Central State Teachers College. . . . 4/Michigan State Normal College. . . Lida Lee Tall, Principal W. E. Lessenger, Dean D. B. Waldo J. M. Munson E. C. Warriner Charles McKenny 4/State Teachers College, X . M. W. Deputy 4/State Jeachers College, VI . E. W. Bohannon •J/State Teachers College . Frank D. McElroy Wctate ieachers College . R. B. MacLean 4/ State Teachers College . Geo. A Selkp 4/State Teachers College . G. E. Maxwell 4/Delta State Teachers College . W. M. Kethley 4/State Teachers College . Claude Bennett 4/Southeast Missouri State Teachers College . 4/Teachers College of Kansas City. . 4/Northeast Missouri State Teachers College . 4/Northwest Missouri State Teachers College . 4/Harris Teachers College . 4/Stowe Teachers College, V . 4/Southwest Missouri State Teachers College . 4/Central Missouri State Teachers College, IV . Joseph A. Serena G. W. Diemer Eugene Fair Uel W. Lamkin J. Leslie Purdom J. Leslie Purdom Roy Ellis E. L. Hendricks 4/State Normal College . Sheldon E. Davis 4/Nebraska State Normal College. . . Robert I. Elliott 4/Nebraska State Teachers College, / / at Y1 ‘ o - ™ . George E. Martin 4/Nebraska State Teachers College. . W. R. Pate 4/Nebraska State Teachers College. . U. S. Conn 4/State Normal School . Wallace E. Mason 4/State Normal School . Ernest L. Silver 5/New Jersey State Normal School. . M. Ernest Townsend 4/New Jersey State Normal School. . Roscoe L. West 4/State Teachers College . H. A. Sprague C/New Mexico Normal University, IX, X. . . J-J# Gossard 4/New Mexico State Teachers College A. O. Bowden C/ State College for Teachers . A. R. Brubacher 4/State Teachers College . Harry W. Rockwell Department of Teachers Colleges 785 Location Institution Fredonia . 3/State Normal School, IV, VI Geneseo . 3/State Normal School, IV. . . New Paltz . 3/State Normal School, IV. . . New York . Oswego . North Carolina Cullowhee . Greenville . North Dakota Dickinson . Ellendale . Mayville . Minot . Valley City Ohio Athens . (z/School of Education, College of the City of New York, VII . 3/State Normal and Training School, IV, VI . //Western Carolina Teachers College, X . //East Carolina Teachers College.. . . //State Normal School . //State Normal and Industrial School, X . //State Teachers College . //State Teachers College, IV . //State Teachers College . C/College of Education, Ohio Uni¬ versity . Bowling Green. . . //Bowling Green State College . Cincinnati . //Teachers College, Athenaeum of Ohio, IX, X . Cleveland . //School of Education, Western Re¬ serve University . Dayton . 3/Dayton Junior Teachers College.. . Kent . //Kent State College, VI . Oxford . C/School of Education, Miami Uni¬ versity . Oklahoma Ada . //East Central State Teachers College Alva . //Northwestern State Teachers Col¬ lege . Durant . //Southeastern State Teachers Col¬ lege . Edmond . //Central State Teachers College, IV . Tahlequah . //Northeastern State Teachers Col¬ lege . Weatherford . //Southwestern State Teachers Col- Pennsylvania Bloomsburg . //State Teachers College, X. California . //State Teachers College, V. East Stroudsburg. //State Teachers College. . . . Edinboro . //State Teachers College, X. Indiana . //State Teachers College. . . . Kutztown . //State Teachers College. . . . Lock Haven . //State Teachers College. . . . Mansfield . //State Teachers College. . . . Millersville . //State Teachers College, IV Shippensburg . . . . //State Teachers College, VI Slippery Rock. . . . //State Teachers College, VI West Chester. . . . //State Teachers College. . . . President L. R. Gregory, Principal W.A. Holcomb, Principal L. H. van den Berg, Principal Paul Klapper, Dean J. G. Riggs, Principal H. T. Hunter Robert H. Wright C. L. Kjerstad R. M. Black C. C. Swain George A. McFarland C. E. Allen Thomas C. McCracken , Dean H. B. Williams Francis J. Bredestege, Dean Charles W. Hunt, Dean Maude J. Slaght, Princi¬ pal J. O. Engleman E. J. Ashbaugh, Dean Adolph Linscheid W. W. Parker Eugene S. Briggs M. A. Beeson M. P. Hammond E. E. Brown Francis B. Haas Robert M. Steele T. T. Allen C. C. Crawford C. R. Foster A. C. Rothermel Dallas W. Armstrong W. R. Straughn Landis Tanger J. S. Heiges, Acting J. L. Eisenberg Norman W. Cameron 786 National Education Association Location South Dakota Aberdeen . Madison . Spearfish . Springfield . Tennessee Johnson City . Memphis . Murfreesboro. . . . Texas Alpine . Canyon . Commerce . Denton . Huntsville . Nacogdoches . San Marcos . Utah Salt Lake City. . . Virginia East Radford .... Farmville . Fredericksburg. . . Harrisonburg . West Virginia Athens . Fairmont . Huntington . Shepherdstown . . . Wisconsin Eau Claire . La Crosse . Menomonie . Oshkosh . Platteville . River Falls . Stevens Point .... Superior . Whitewater . Institution President 4/Northern Normal and Industrial School . ^/Eastern State Normal School . 2 /State Normal School . ^/Southern State Normal Schooi, X 4/State Teachers College . 4/State Teachers College . 4/State Teachers College . 4/Sul Ross State Teachers College. . . C/West Texas State Teachers College 4/East Texas State Teachers College 4/North Texas State Teachers College 4/Sam Houston State Teachers Col¬ lege . 4/Stephen F. Austin State Teachers College . 4/Southwest Texas State Teachers College . C/School of Education. University of Utah . . 4/State Teachers College . 4/State Teachers College . 4/State Teachers College . 4/State Teachers College . 4/Concord State Teachers College, VI . 4/Fairmont State Teachers College. . 4/Marshall College, VI . 4/Shepherd State Teachers College. . 4/State Teachers College . 4/State Teachers College . 4/The Stout Institute . 4/State Teachers College, VI, IX. . . . 4/State Teachers College, VI, IX. . . . 4/State Teachers College, VI . 4/Central State Teachers College, VI 4/Superior State Teachers College. . . 4/State Teachers College . David Allen Anderson E. A. Bixler, Acting E. C. Woodburn C. G. Lawrence C. C. Sherrod J. W. Brister P. A. Lyon H. W. Morelock J. A. Hill S. H. Whitley R. L. Marquis H. F. Estill A. W. Birdwell C. E. Evans Milton Bennion, Dean J. P. McConnell J. L. Jarman M. L. Combs Samuel P. Duke J. F. Marsh Joseph Rosier M. P. Shawkey W. H. S. White H. A. Schofield G. M. Snodgrass B. E. Nelson Forrest R. Polk A. M. Royce J. H. Ames F. S. Hyer J. D. Hill C. M. Yoder Department of Visual Instruction The department of visual instruction was organized at the Oakland-San Francisco meet¬ ing in July, 1923. See Proceedings, 1923:85-A. The officers of this Department for the year 1932-33 are: President, C. F. Hoban, Director, Visual Education Division, State Department of Education, Harrisburg, Pa.; First Vice-president, F. D. McClusky, Director of Scarborough School, Scar- borough-on-the-Hudson, N. Y. ; Second Vicepresi¬ dent, W. W. Whittinghill, Assistant Director, Visual Education Department, Public Schools, 9345 Lawton Avenue, Detroit, Mich. ; Secretary-Treasurer, Ells¬ worth C. Dent, Director of Visual Instruction, Uni¬ versity of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans. ; Executive Com¬ mittee: A. G. Balcom, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Newark, N. J. (Term expires 1933) ; Abra¬ ham Krasker, Director of Visual Instruction, Quincy Public Schools, Quincy, Mass. (Term expires 1934) ; Daniel C. Knowlton, Associate Professor of Educa¬ tion, New York University, New York, N. Y. (Term expires 1935) ; John A. Hollinger, Director of Nature Study and Visualization, Pittsburgh Public Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. (Term expires 1936) ; Wil¬ liam H. Dudley, 736 South Wabash Avenue, Chicago, Ill. (Term expires 1937) ; Mrs. Grace Fisher Ramsey, Associate Curator, American Museum of Natural History, 77th Street and Central Park West, New York, N. Y. (Term expires 1938). This Department meets once each year, in July. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of Proceedings as follows : 1923 :85-A 1926:947-963 1928:949-970 1930:911-930 1924 :963-985 1927 :951-970 1929 :937-944 1931 :947-963 1925:864-871 [ 788 ] THE VALUE OF VISUAL-SENSORY AIDS IN THE SOCIAL STUDIES AS A MEANS OF PROMOTING INTERNATIONAL UNDERSTANDING LAWRENCE R. WINCHELL, INSTRUCTOR IN VISUAL EDUCATION, RUTGERS UNIVERSITY, NEW BRUNSWICK, N. J. The hope of our nation is based on the fact that our pupils will have an appreciation of the meaning of tolerance and an understanding of other peoples upon which to base some of the decisions which they as the next generation will be called to make. We know that the wise use of visual-sensory aids, stimulates thought and imagination and provides an environment for expression. They will not func¬ tion alone ; it should be the teacher and the pupils, plus the materials. Nearly every European country is represented in a town which is a typical New Jersey community. The pupils are able to see differences between them¬ selves and the people of their town, as to the mode of living and the style of dress. In a school classroom there is a large map of Europe drawn on white Bristol board with snapshots of the children’s faces placed on the country from which they, their parents, or ancestors have come. This proved to be one of the most successful visual-sensory aids they have used. At a later date a family tree was used, the roots of which represented the different countries of Europe. The top branches represented America. The children’s pictures were placed on the branches. The first country studied was Great Britain. They found that many of our necessities came from Great Britain and that it carried on a valuable trade with us. Samples of these trade materials were then collected and placed in a cabi¬ net museum. In nearly all cases these materials were collected without ex¬ pense from commercial organizations, and each country in turn was repre¬ sented in this school-made cabinet. The international work was continued thru pupil correspondence with pupils in many foreign countries. One girl in the sixth grade corresponds with a sixth-grade girl in France. They are planning to visit each other in the future. This spring a letter came to the school from two Cuban boys whose school had exchanged scrap books with the pupils several years ago, thru the American Junior Red Cross. The sixth grades are taking care of the correspondence and have sent them a book they made containing views of the town and other interesting places in New Jersey and the United States. The still film, slides, and motion pictures have been a source of great help. The sets include pictures of the geography of the entire world. A picture trip around the world is a vicarious experience which is almost as real to the children as if they had actually visited these countries. The blackboards and bulletin boards contain newspaper clippings and pictures from the rotogravure section of papers, which provides a wealth of information on home, national, and international events. [ 789 ] 790 National Education Association In the domestic science department menus were planned from products or the country studied. The use of visual-sensory aids in the social studies has the possibilities of both the humanities and the sciences. While on the one hand, it deals with the influence of nature on man, it does, on the other, emphasize how men in r l ent ^art* of 'he world 1,ve and work, and the essential interdependence ot humanity for the raw and manufactured products of the world. f the pupil passes out of the school with a realization that civilization has been a collective achievement, in which his nation has borne a proud share along with others, he will have gone far toward a realization of inter¬ national understanding which implies the recognition of a common humanity based on common knowledge and devoted to common ends. CORE COURSE OF A VISUAL-SENSORY AIDS PROGRAM WILBER EMMERT, INSTRUCTOR IN VISUAL EDUCATION AND SCIENCE, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, INDIANA, PA. The purpose of this report is to submit to the Department of Visual In¬ struction of the National Education Association a “Proposed Core Course in Visual Instruction,” as developed by a committee appointed by the organi¬ zation for that purpose. .The report is divided into four major parts. It deals with (1) the sig¬ nificance of the report, (2) how the course was developed, (3) some insistent declarations, and (4) the course itself. The title of the report embodies several significant implications. Only two of the implications will be mentioned here. First , it indicates that visual in¬ struction has become an integral part of the school curriculum. Visual in¬ struction teachers and school administrators no longer need argue for a visual-sensory aids program. It is an accepted reality. The problem now is to determine those common elements of the course and perfect suitable technics for carrying out the program. Second , it indicates that the merged organiza¬ tions of visual instruction contemplate carrying out the far-reaching resolu¬ tion set forth at the Los Angeles Meeting of the Department of Visual Instruction : Resolved, That the Department of Visual Instruction of the National Education Association earnestly recommend that a course in visual and other sensory aids in teaching be required of all persons preparing for the profession of teaching and that teacher-training institutions in every state be required to organize and offer such courses beginning with the scholastic year of 1931-1932. su£Tested Core Course in Visual-Sensory Aids” represents the com¬ bined judgments of the leaders of visual instruction in the United States as to what a core course in visual-sensory aids should contain.” A tentative outline of a “core course” was submitted to twenty-seven visual instruction teachers in a total of twenty-five states, representing all sections of the United States. The letter which accompanied the outline Department of Visual Instruction 791 asked that the person go over the material and add or delete anything his judgment dictated. Eighteen usable replies were received. In addition, a number of printed and mimeographed courses of study in visual instruction were used in this study. After the replies were in, the tentative outline was set up and a tabulation of frequencies of common elements for the course was made. This, then, gave a representative topical outline for the core course. It is based upon what is being done at the present time, and in addition some elements to be intro¬ duced in the near future. Content and method of all school subjects are the product of an evolution thru (1) authority and opinion, (2) speculation, and (3) research. Visual instruction is no exception to this rule. In many places and in a variety of its phases visual instruction is in the first stage. In other places and in certain phases it has arrived at the third stage. The ultimate goal is to determine scientifically, by research, the content and technics for all the various phases of visual instruction. While the replies submitted are “judgments,” these judgments in many cases are based upon research studies made by the various individuals sub¬ mitting the suggestions and criticisms. They, therefore, lend weight to and assist in justifying the elements included in the outline of study. If visual instruction is to maintain its present standing and to take the forward strides warranted, then a determined stand must be taken upon certain questions. From this point of view the following declarations are made. 1. The initial core course in visual instruction should be mandatory, and every person in teacher training for public school work should be required to take a laboratory course in visual-sensory aids. 2. The core course should contain those elements common to practically all subjects. 3. The core course should carry three semester hours of college credit. In the conduct of the course due consideration should be given to (a) the philosophy and psychology of visual-sensory aids, (b) a technic for their use, and (c) skill in the use of the various visual-sensory aids. 4. The Department of Visual Instruction of the National Education Association is justified in an aggressive program which will see, within the next decade, a core course in visual instruction in every progressive state. 5. A course for directors and supervisors is in the offing, and special courses, such as visual-sensory aids in science, etc., will be popular. 6. If other courses are developed, the core course should be insisted upon as a separate course before the special courses are given. I. Name of Course: Visual-Sensory Aids in Education 3 hours per week (Core Course) 3 semester hours credit II. General Description of the Course This course is based upon the philosophy that sensory experiences and mental activities parallel each other in the learning process. Visual and other sensory aids, therefore, should hold a major place in the teaching of practically all subjects and on all levels of learning. To be a. well balanced course, and of the greatest value to prospective teachers and the teachers in service, it should give training in and an effective technic for the use of all types of visual-sensory aids. 792 National Education Association This core course should be mandatory on the part of every person preparing to each m the public schools. The course is designed for the preparation of teachers every subject JeC'S’ Sh°U'd C°main th°Se e'ementS Common *» Practically III. Objectives L T.0n'p;n mea”ing of common terms used in visual-sensory educa- , — ? ? ® the student a concrete and meaningful vocabulary. 2. The development of skill in selecting the suitable teaching aids from those available for the teaching of a specific subject. 3' oTfhaei|drIOPmefnt,°f a.pr°jec!i 2 3 4 5°Yechnic which wil‘ assure an efficient use a the essential projectors in classroom work. 4. To provide the prospective teacher with a body of knowledge as well as a irect acquaintance with the useful sources of information which will be helpful in the teaching of the various subjects of the curriculum. 5. l o give training in the organization of the visual-sensory aids for the various subjects so that the aids may be on hand, available and usable in the classroom. 6. The development of a proper technic for the efficient use of all the teaching 7. To acquaint the prospective teacher with the value of research in deter- mining educational materials and methods. 3. To acquaint the prospective teacher with the psychological aspects under- lying visual-sensory aids. 9. To acquaint the prospective teacher, or the teacher in service, with mini¬ mum standards for visual-sensory equipment; and standards for evaluating the various visual-sensory aids. “ IV. Method The lecture-demonstration, discussion, and laboratory method will be used thruout the course. Certain phases of the work can be best presented by the instructor in lecture demonstration form. Other phases of the work lend them¬ selves to other methods of instruction. Projects suitable for the various grades will be worked out by the group. Emphasis will be placed upon suitable methods of presentation and ways of further stimulating the interest of the student. The student will be taught how and when to use visual and other sensory aids. Maps specimens, objects, models, the blackboard, projectors, slides, films, field trips’ etc., will constitute the materials of the course. P ’ V. Outline of the Course 1. Research-summary of research investigations in visual instruction 2. Historical background 3. Psychological aspects and verbalism 4. Projectors and projection technics Still and motion projectors; housing, care, technics 5. The school journey Organizing, conducting, checking results 6. Museum procedure 7. Pictorial materials Standards for evaluating, mounting, and filing of flats Housing and care of stereographs Making lantern slides Mending films and film-strips Housing and care of slides and films Technics for all 8. Object-specimen-model Assembling, housing, care, sources 9. Photography Still and motion picture technics Department of Visual Instruction 793 Developing films and making prints Standards and sources 10. Blackboard and bulletin board technics 11. Administrating and budgeting visual materials 12. Radio-vision Apparatus, procedure, programs 13. Bibliography VI. Brief Bibliography 1. Cameron, J. R. “Motion Picture Projection” 2. Dorris, Anna V. “Visual Instruction in the Public Schools” 3. Educational Screen “Educational Screen” (a magazine) 4. Freeman, Frank N. “Visual Education” 5. Johnson, William H. “Fundamentals in Visual Instruction” 6. Merton, Elda “Visual Instruction” 7. Routzahn, E. G. “A.B.C. of Exhibit Planning” 8. Pa. Dept. Public Instruction: “The School Journey Bulletin” “The Object-Specimen-Model Bulletin” 9. Weber, J. J. “Picture Values in Education” 10. Wood and Freeman “Motion Pictures in the Classroom.” TEACHING ARITHMETIC COMBINATIONS WITH STILLFILM CLAIRE ZYVE, PRINCIPAL, FOX MEADOW SCHOOL, SCARSDALE, N. Y. The advantages of stillfilm material for the teaching of arithmetic combi¬ nations are numerous. I wish to call attention to the following points affecting the practical side of the problem : 1. The technic of making the strips is simple and the materials are in¬ expensive. 2. A school may prepare its own library. 3. The attachment making possible the projection of stillfilms is inexpen¬ sive to buy or can easily be made. 4. Any projection lantern may be used. 5. The correct order in the steps of teaching the combinations, from con¬ crete to abstract, is more controlable thru use of stillfilms than with slides. 6. The same amount of material can be filed in more compact form on stillfilms than on slides. 7. The width of the stillfilm (2j4") gives the same size projection with a lantern as does a glass slide and gives a better projection with a lantern than does a 35-mm. film slide. THE VALUE OF VISUAL-SENSORY AIDS IN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION LEONARD A. WILLIAMS, DIRECTOR, VISUAL AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, ST. CLOUD, MINN. At the St. Cloud State Teachers College four out of the twelve courses required for graduation from the degree course in Industrial Education have a direct value to teachers wishing to do some special work in visual education. The first work required of those entering this field of visual instruction is a 794 National Education Association course in Industrial Activities for Elementary Schools. This course offers the greatest number of opportunities for a teacher in training to gather first¬ hand knowledge and skill in many forms of expression. A study of primitive and modern industrial life offers a background to measure the development of the fine arts and how they may be fitted to school u ork ln a sane manner. In the course we begin by bringing to the teacher a realization of the value of words in putting ideas across to children. A com¬ mon understanding must be brought about first to show the relation of word ideas to illustrations and material things. Briefly stated, first, we visualize with the use of words the thing we wish to illustrate or make. Second, we go about the making of working sketches of the thing we picture in our mind. . ™rcb we gather materials and go about constructing our dream or word idea. From this three-angled experience teachers as well as pupils soon begin to sense the power back of a training in balanced expression, which they have gone thru, and a new form of confidence creeps into their personality. The second course required for training in the use of visual aids is Prin¬ ciples of Drawing. This course deals with free-hand sketching and drawing as applied to everyday uses in the trades. The history of lettering is studied to show its relation to drawing as a language or form of thought expression I he laws of perspective which govern all outline drawing; light and shadows; reflections; and color are worked out in problems that arise in school and in the trades. The course covers a brief history or study of the fine and industrial arts and how they are applied to modern commercial life and the home. The third course we require of teachers going into the visual instruction held is a course which deals with Industrial Photography. The purpose of this course is to give a general working knowledge of the best methods used by leading commercial and industrial photographers in publicity and record forms. After finishing all the work of the three courses described above, the student takes up a study of Visual Aids in Teaching. The course deals with a study of observation and how it may be applied for instructional purposes to supplement the work of the textbook and field trips. The work covers seeing, searching, and selecting ; pencil sketching ; chalk drawing ; model mak¬ ing, cameras; projectors; planning observational lessons; teaching from pic¬ tures and models; planning exhibits ; and creating and using a museum. This course rounds out the meaning of visual aids and how they may be applied to school work so that the student, after he leaves school, will continue to use the conditions and things of life in a fair, honest manner. REPORT ON TEACHER-TRAINING WORK IN MUSEUMS GRACE FISHER RAMSEY, AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, NEW YORK, N. Y. To learn what the various types of museums thruout the country are doing in the line of teacher training, I started last December, to make a survey of Department of Visual Instruction 795 the courses which the museums of our country are offering, both to teachers in service and to student teachers. A questionnaire was mailed to 208 museums including even small one- room museums, altho I realized that they could hardly be expected to carry on such work. The returns showed that twenty-nine museums in 14 states are offering cultural courses for teachers. When the museum is an integral part of a university or art school, the courses, as we should expect, form a part of the regular curriculums. In many cases the museum staff is not large enough to enable the directors to offer such work, but I found that 102 out of 103 directors expressed themselves as heartily in favor of teacher-training courses. Now let us look at a few of the courses that are being offered by museums in different parts of the country. In the Cincinnati Art Museum a course is being given in Principles of Art — 2 hours for 17 weeks. Two credits are allowed for this work by the University of Cincinnati. The head of the edu¬ cational department of this museum writes: “The field of education is one of the most important phases of museum work. We are preparing another course for teachers on appreciation and how to use museum collections.” In the Museum of Natural History connected with the State University of Iowa, a course for teachers is given to aid in the preparation of materials for classroom use and in building up small museums in their schools. In the Museum of Northern Arizona at Flagstaff, a course is given to teachers in Southwestern Archeology. This is a 12 weeks course, 4 hours per week, with 4 credits given by the Arizona State Teachers College. The Director, Harold S. Colton, writes, “It seems essential that the training of teachers for rural schools in Arizona should include some knowledge of the prehistoric peoples of the region whose habitations are found everywhere in this state.” The Washington State Museum in Seattle lists a course entitled “In¬ dians of the Northwest Coast,” which is also descriptive of that particular community. A course in Ornithology of 33 weeks, 2 hours per week, with one-half point credit offered by Denver University is being given in the Colorado Museum of Natural History. The Director, J. D. Figgins, writes “Nature courses given by museum educational departments are of the greatest im¬ portance to give teachers a fund of authentic information. Too often is the knowledge gained solely from books and not reliable books at that.” A course in Museum Appreciation is given at the Carnegie Museum. It runs for 32 weeks, 1 hour per week, and 2 credits are granted by the Uni¬ versity of Pittsburgh. Nineteen different courses are being offered to teachers, according to Dr. Arthur H. Graves, curator of education. He writes, “Aside from the un¬ doubted informational and disciplinary value we feel that for the best interests of the children it is important for the teachers to become thoroly acquainted with our museums, botanic gardens, and other institutions. This will enhance the usefulness of both institutions and teachers to a very great 796 National Education Association degree. A teacher who is thoroly at home in our public museums, or botanic and zoological gardens, and our aquarium, can direct her pupils how to find exhibits of interest in connection with the children’s studies, and can herself conduct them intelligently about these institutions.” In summarizing this survey, I find first, that there is considerable confu¬ sion in the minds of some museum directors as to just what is meant by teacher-training work. Second, insofar as the size of the staff allows, the majority of our larger museums are carrying on some kind of teacher train¬ ing. Third, there is no uniformity in the courses as to the number, of weeks given or the hours per week. The length of the course and the amount of credit allowed depend upon the standards of the state teachers college or university granting such credit. Fourth, the type of course offered varies with the collections in the museum and the needs of the community. The small general museum offers a basic course in museum appreciation. In addition to this, there is usually also offered a specialized course for which the museum collections present unusual opportunities in original research. The large museums extend their teacher-training work to many specialized and advanced university courses in comparative anatomy, anthropology, archeology, Italian painting, and others. The more I study these reports of teacher-training work by museums and the replies from some museum directors stating that they are anxious to institute work of this nature and wish I would write them more about it, the more convinced I am that museum directors thruout the country are awakening to the opportunities in such work. So far as their budgets will permit, they are endeavoring to acquaint teachers with the educational value of the treasures in their keeping, which form such an interesting part of our heritage of the past. REPORT OF RESOLUTIONS COMMITTEE A. G. BALCOM, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEWARK, N. J., C hair man I. Resolved, That the thanks and appreciation of the Department of Visual In¬ struction of the N. E. A. be extended to: (1) Hotel Jefferson for the building and facilities that were made available for the meeting; . (2) The speakers on the program whose messages were rich in content and timely in character; (3) The New Jersey Visual Education Association for its hospitality; (4) Those who presided at the meetings with grace and skill; (5) The officers of the organization for their untiring efforts to make the meet¬ ing a. success. IL Whereas, Experimental studies, research, and surveys have revealed definite and important values for visual-sensory aids; and III. Whereas, Knowledge of these visual-sensory aids and a technic for their use requires special preparation; be it Department of Visual Instruction 797 IV. Resolved, That teacher preparation institutions of the country be requested to require from everyone preparing to teach in the schools of the country, a lab¬ oratory course in visual-sensory aids; and V. Whereas, We believe that much confusion and duplication of effort will be avoided by a mandatory course; VI. It Is Therefore Recommended, That the core of such a course shall consist of the following elements common to practically all subjects: Research, historical background, psychological aspects and verbalism, projectors and projection, school journeys, objects, specimens, models, museum procedure, pictorial materials as slides, film slides, stillfilms, motion picture films, stereographs, and proper care of same, still and motion picture camera technics and blackboard and bulletin board technics; and be it further VII. Resolved, That we recommend to school officials of the United States that they encourage teachers in service to take visual-sensory courses, wherever such courses are available, and that we recommend to those responsible for educational programs, for state organizations and otherwise, to include the subject of visual instruction on their programs. SECRETARY’S MINUTES ELLSWORTH C. DENT, UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS, LAWRENCE, KANS. First of all, your secretary desires to report that the combined membership of the Department and Academy, including only those who were paid members of the two organizations during the past year, is now five hundred seventy (570). This is much greater than has been the combined membership of the two organi¬ zations at any time in the past. The number of those who have paid dues to the Academy, at the former fee of $3, or to the combined organizations at the present fee of $2, is somewhat below this number. It is but logical to suppose, however, that the majority of those who were members of the Department of Visual Instruc¬ tion last year will be ready to come into the merged organizations in September. Since the meeting of the Academy last February in Washington, D. C., at which time the merger was finally approved, many things have taken place. These are listed below, somewhat in outline form, and almost in chronological order. Magazine merger — Perhaps the event next in importance to the merger of the Department and Academy was the merger of the two leading magazines in the field, The Educational Screen and Visual Instruction Nevus. This merger provided a single publication for the unified field and copies of the April, May, and June issues were distributed among those whose names appear in the 1931 Directory and supplement for 1932. Each issue carried two or more pages of news items and other information concerning the activities of the merged organizations. To the knowledge of your secretary, this is the first time a systematic publicity program for either the Department or the Academy has been planned and carried thru as planned. Each issue of the magazine contains an application blank to be used in applying for membership in the Department. Several new memberships have come to us as a result of the Screen and News publicity, and we have every reason to believe that the returns in the fall will be much greater. Some of you will be interested in knowing more of the arrangement which will govern the publication of the combined Screen and News in the future. The magazine will continue to be published in Chicago, by the Educational Screen, Incorporated. Mr. Nelson L. Greene will continue as editor and your secre¬ tary has the title of “manager,” which seems to cover a multitude of responsibili¬ ties. The magazine will be furnished to members of the Department and Academy without extra charge, as in the past. 798 National Education Association In the past, some of the prominent visual instruction directors and workers have suggested that the Screen was unbalanced in favor of information concerning mo¬ tion pictures. The reason for this has been quite simple. Mr. Greene’s desk has been flooded with information concerning the developments in the motion picture field, announcements of new photoplay releases, reports of experiments with motion pictures, and the like, while he has received but very few worthwhile discussions of the practical use of the many other visual-sensory aids. It has become almost an axiom that those who complain most about the way the magazine is handled are the ones who offer least in cooperation or constructive criticism. If you have read the past few issues of the magazine, you have noticed, perhaps, that there are articles concerning the use of all types of visual aids. It is planned that an editorial board shall be established, composed of members of this organiza¬ tion, which will be authorized to direct the arrangement of the magazine content. T he members of this board will be selected from the various branches of the field, including classroom teachers, city directors, state service directors, federal ser\ ice directors, museum workers, and the like. Each of these persons will be expected to give assistance, not only in determining the policies of the magazine, but also by providing at least one article each year from his or her special field. Announcement folder — One of the early tasks, after the merger in February, was the preparation of a folder to be distributed among present and prospective members. The majority of those present at this meeting have received one or more of the folders and copies are available for those who have not. The first order to the printer was for 7500 of the folders. It happened that the combination of type and paper stock used was not correct and several of the first printing were not suitable for distribution. About 5000 of the first printing were salvaged, but the printer duplicated the first order without extra charge, giving us a total of ap¬ proximately 12,500 usable folders. Of these, about half have been distributed, leav¬ ing some 6500 on hand to use in the fall. It will be necessary, perhaps, to reprint the folder early in the school year and suggestions as to needed changes in its content will be appreciated. Circularization— As soon as the printed folders were ready for distribution, form letters and folders were sent to all those whose names appeared on the various directory lists. The letters were invitations to become members of the combined organizations. This campaign indicated quite clearly that the results of such a campaign late in the academic year are much less satisfactory than the results of similar effort in the fall or in mid-winter. Membership cards — The membership cards, which all members have received, were prepared and sent to those who had paid dues to the Academy or to the merged organizations. In the past, the membership cards of the Academy have been mailed to members, accompanied by a statement of dues, at the expiration of the membership year of each member. The Department, on the contrary, has sent the membership cards only to those who have paid dues. The latter plan seemed best and, in the absence of instructions to do otherwise, will be followed in the future. The membership year does not cover any stated period but extends for twelve months from the date of receipt of the application for membership. Each membership card has a space provided for indicating the expiration date and that date is indicated clearly on the card. Membership committees— Approximately thirty letters were mailed to as many of the leading visual instruction workers and directors in the states and cities which are most active in the use of visual aids, soliciting their assistance thru the organization of state and city branches of the combined Department and Acad¬ emy. The response to these letters was most encouraging. Almost without excep¬ tion, a willingness to assist was expressed and, in some situations, plans are now well laid for the membership campaign to be started with the opening of schools in September. Department of Visual Instruction 799 Summer programs — The small printed programs which you have received thru the mail or at the registration desk were prepared about a month ago and approxi¬ mately 2000 have been distributed. Publications — The only bulletin published since February is the booklet, “Simple Directions for Making Visual Aids,” which is a reprint, somewhat revised, of a series of articles in the September, November, January, and March issues of Visual Instruction News. This bulletin was announced a short time ago and sev¬ eral who are in charge of visual instruction courses have ordered quantities suffi¬ cient to provide one for each student. Some are placing orders for fall and winter classes, which indicates that the first printing of 2000 will not be sufficient to take care of both summer and fall requests. The bulletin is offered for sale at twenty- five cents the copy, postpaid, with a discount of 20 percent applying to quantities of ten or more for class use. Complimentary copies were mailed to all those in charge of visual instruction classes during the summer, as indicated by the Key¬ stone list of summer courses. If it should be that any. present are offering courses and have not received complimentary copies, they will be furnished upon request. Fall plans — The distribution map of embryo branches of the combined Depart¬ ment and Academy will give some indication as to plans for the fall. It is expected that an extensive membership campaign will begin about September 1 and continue thru the year. Committees are being organized in each of the cities and states as indicated and it is hoped that other committees in other sections will be devel¬ oped. These committees will be in charge of branch organization activities, until such time as the branch membership may meet and elect its officials for various duties. Each of these committees has been asked to send to the secretary a list of one hundred to five hundred of the visual instruction workers, teachers, and school ex¬ ecutives in the territory of the branch, including those who should be most inter¬ ested in membership. The September and October issues of the recently merged Educational Screen and Visual Instruction News will be mailed without charge to all such persons whose names have been submitted. The persons in charge of the local activities in each prospective branch territory will, during these two months (September and October), concentrate upon a membership drive. It is expected that the magazine will assist materially in this program as space will be provided for special information concerning this meeting and announcements of new developments in the meantime. Those of you who have been receiving the Screen and News regularly have noticed, perhaps, that the center spread has been used regularly for announcements concerning the combined Department and Academy. It is expected that this section will be increased to eight or more pages, including, first, news items and other information concerning the national organization; and, second, a half page or more of information provided by each of the branch organizations. The embryo branch in California has been sending in material regularly and the membership in Cali¬ fornia is increasing steadily. Those in charge of local branch organization activities will be furnished a liberal supply of the membership folders and will be given the assistance and cooperation of the secretary’s office. Minneapolis meeting — As many of you know, the winter meeting of the Depart¬ ment of Superintendence of the N. E. A. is to meet in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Your secretary was in Minneapolis last month and made tentative arrangements for suitable meeting space in the headquarters hotel — Hotel Curtis — subject to the approval of the executive committee of this organization and of the officials of the Department of Superintendence. A branch of the Department is well under way in Minnesota and that branch desires very much to assist with local arrangements. Present plans provide for the 800 National Education Association preparation of a rather complete exhibit of visual instruction activities in that state. Minnesota is now one of the most active states in the development of visual instruction among its schools. The Junior College of the University of Minnesota is launching a very extensive visual instruction program. The Extension Division at the University of Minnesota is offering loan service to the schools and is ready to increase that service as the demands from the schools may warrant. Cooperation needed— The principal need of the combined Department and Acad¬ emy is a marked increase in membership. Plans have been rather carefully laid for such development. However, it cannot be accomplished with the efforts of the officials alone; it will demand the cooperation of every member. If each member would but secure one new member each month from now until February, 1933, we should be able to report, at the Minneapolis meeting, a total membership of considerably more than 10,000. With such a membership, the possibilities of con¬ structive direction of visual instruction activities in this country would be unlimited. Department of Vocational Education The department of vocational education was organized as the industrial section at Minneap¬ olis, Minn., 1875. See Proceedings, 1875:100. The name. was changed in 1890 to the Department of Industrial and Manual Training. See Proceedings, 1890:758. In 1899 the name was changed to the De¬ partment of Manual Training. See Proceedings, 1899:556. In 1914 the name was changed to the De¬ partment of Vocational Training and Practical Arts. See Proceedings, 1914:565. This Department coop¬ erates with the National Vocational Guidance Asso¬ ciation and with the National Society for Vocational Education. The officers of this Department for the year 1932- 33 are : President, Henry H. Hagen, Principal, Crane Technical High School, Chicago, Ill. ; Vicepresident, Gerald D. Whitney, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa. ; Secretary, F. E. Moore, State Direc¬ tor for Vocational Education, State House, Des Moines, Iowa. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are to be found in earlier volumes of Proceedings as follows : 1914:565-625 1918:249-271 1922:1465-1483 1926:963-996 1930-931-954 1915:815-847 1919:271-281 1923:1025-1043 1927:971-1006 1931:965-994 1916:461-517 1920:269 1924: 987-1015 1928:971-1003 1917:431-473 1921:851-858 1925:872-913 1929:945-972 [ 802 ] TRENDS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION J. D. BLACKWELL, PRESIDENT, ASSOCIATION OF STATE DIRECTORS OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION, BALTIMORE, MD. One of the most noticeable trends in vocational education is the changing attitude on the part of leaders in education, industry, business, and govern¬ ment. A decade ago, a limited number of leaders accepted vocational edu¬ cation as a definite part of certain systems of education. Other leaders op¬ posed vocational education in any form, largely because of their misunder¬ standings as to the objectives of, and their failure to realize the possibilities of vocational education. Such leaders felt that vocational education had as its chief purpose the developing of manipulative skills without sufficient knowledge of the underlying scientific principles. Today, most of the leaders in education, industry, business, and government are beginning to agree that one of the first requisites of a good citizen is the capacity for self-support ; that each individual is entitled to such preparation as will enable him to make the most of life’s opportunities; that equal educational opportunities should be provided for all the people of a nation ; that individuals should be given the opportunity to select that training which is demanded by their re¬ spective interests and needs; and that every public school system should therefore include adequate provision for vocational education. As a result of the changing attitude on the part of leaders, as well as the masses, toward vocational education, wre now have an ever increasing amount of participation by local and state agencies. According to the 1931 report of the Federal Board for Vocational Education, $3.03, as compared with $2.17 in 1919, of local and state money for each federal dollar was expended. Of the $32,139,192 expended, less than one-fourth ($7,978,929) was federal and more than three-fourths ($24,160,263) was from state and local funds. The $7,978,929 federal funds used was 97.5 percent of the amount available. The enrolment in all day, partime, and evening classes in agriculture, home economics, and trades and industries during 1931 was 1,125,000 pupils of all ages. The total increase in 1931 over 1930 was more than 60,000. The period of industrial depression, caused by social and economic dis¬ turbances, has been responsible for most of the unemployment. The indi¬ vidual worker has had little or no control over conditions. While vocational education cannot deal directly with the causes of unemployment, it may aid the worker materially by fitting him for employment under different con¬ ditions, thus aiding in the solution of the problem of unemployment. Un¬ employment brings new responsibility upon local school authorities and ad¬ ministrative agencies. There is a growing tendency on the part of leaders to recognize that the training and placement of physically handicapped persons is a social respon¬ sibility. The passage of the Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1920 and sub- [ 803 ] 804 National Education Association sequent legislation is an evidence of this change in attitude. Despite the economic depression, the number of persons rehabilitated in 1930-31 in¬ creased by 13 percent over the number rehabilitated in 1929-30. Investigations made during recent years indicate that the trend in com¬ mercial education is along the line of formulating statewide programs for the training of commercial teachers, extending state programs to include retail selling and salesmanship, and providing more effective training for adults. Agricultural educators have had to face the recent unfavorable trend in the economic situation which has led the farmers’ purchasing power on the percentage basis to drop from 89 in 1929 to 80 in 1930, and to approximately 61 in 1931. The farmer has, of course, been forced to become more co¬ operatively minded in order to save his business. He is looking more and more to organized agricultural agencies for the solution to his problems. The industrial depression has caused many to look with favor upon farming, one advantage of which is that farmers are becoming better satisfied with working conditions and earnings on the farm. That the tendency is to give emphasis to the economic phases of home¬ making, stressing the best use of limited incomes, is evidenced by the follow¬ ing statements taken from the Federal Board report for 1931. The importance of the adult homemaker in the solution of economic problems that are of such significance at the present time, is being increasingly appreciated, and more and more intelligently interpreted by those who are responsible for public school education. ... Much attention is being given in adult classes to the teaching of home management, the effective feeding, clothing, and housing of families at low income levels, and the building up of sound family morale. Much of the federal, state, and local funds has been used in developing organized apprenticeship. Attendance has, in some cases, been voluntary, while in others it has been compulsory. The trend is that more and more apprenticeship training is being considered an essential part of the prepara¬ tion needed in learning a trade, and credit for school attendance is essential before completing the apprentice course. Since the passage of the Smith-Hughes Act providing funds for vocational education in agriculture, homemaking, and trades and industries, there has been an increasing amount of state legislation for vocational education. In fact, each of the 48 states now has at least a law accepting the federal funds made available by the passage of the Smith-Hughes Act. The Smith-Bank- head Act of 1920 provided federal funds for vocational rehabilitation, while the George-Reed Law of 1929 provided additional funds for agriculture and homemaking. The bills affecting vocational education now before the present Congress include, beside the two bills dealing with unemployment, two bills for the education of crippled children ; two bills for vocational rehabilitation ; one bill for the creating of a federal department of education ; and another which provides for the creation of a department of home and child. The two Department of Vocational Education 805 bills for the education of crippled children and the two providing funds for vocational rehabilitation, designate the Federal Board for Vocational Edu¬ cation as the agency for administering the funds made available. The last two bills, however, propose that the present Federal Board shall be discon¬ tinued and the administration of funds for vocational education be placed in a Department of Education with a secretary in the President’s Cabinet. The action of Congress on pending legislation will materially affect the trend of vocational education in the future. SOCIAL TRENDS IN AMERICAN LIFE THEODORE B. MANNY, SENIOR AGRICULTURAL ECONOMIST, U. S. DEPART¬ MENT OF AGRICULTURE, WASHINGTON, D. C. The developments resulting from widespread popularization of numerous inventions and discoveries affecting practically every phase of life are the major forces responsible for most of the profound social changes that have occurred in America. Three general trends, each of which involves a whole series of social and economic readjustments, are discussed. Society exists not merely because there are people but because channels of communication are open between them. Spacial distances between people have been much reduced by changes in transportation and communication. Psychical distances, including such lines of separation as are produced by dif¬ ferences in speech, ideals, modes of dress, unequal distribution of wealth, education, etc., in some instances at least, have become more noticeable barriers to free human intercourse as the handicap of spacial distance has been reduced. Urbanization is a complex of socio-economic changes, in part a result of improved transportation facilities. The process of urbanization involves some major changes in human conduct and in the mental processes that underlie and accompany behavior. Crowds, ceaseless changes of many kinds, noise, quick tempo, specialization, decentralization of interests within families, com¬ mercialized recreation, cut-throat competition, and more limitations upon individual freedom, are evidences of an expanding urbanization. Many of them are being infused into rural areas by more or less unconscious adoption on the part of rural people. More recently, certain advantages of rural life are being brought into the urban picture. In the areas whose populations ex¬ ceeded 100,000 each in 1930, only 43 showed increases in the number of children under 5 years of age, while 90 showed increases in total population since 1920. Any large growth in population of school age in certain parts of the country will be increasingly offset by declines elsewhere. On the other hand, the increasing proportion of older adults who are unemployable in many lines of work brings increasing demands for vocational rehabilitation for this group. In the light of these trends, vocational education appears to have some expanding opportunities. Its teaching technics are well adapted to the de¬ mands of the sophisticated “teen” age student both in urban and rural areas. 806 National Education Association Vocational education can provide training to city people who desire to under¬ take hobbies as a more constructive use of their increasing off-work time. The gieatei need for vocational rehabilitation has been indicated already, and finally, vocational education seems to afford an enlarged possibility in helping people make the increasing readjustments that seem to be a product of our rapidly changing civilization. SIGNIFICANT TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FIELD OF HOME ECONOMICS ADELAIDE S. BAYLOR, CHIEF, HOME ECONOMICS EDUCATION SERVICE, FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. In the last decade, trends and developments in the field of home economics education have taken on a definiteness that makes it possible to speak of them in fairly assured terms as significant and as permanent, probably, as most situations today in a rapidly changing social and economic life. Among those of most significance and those that are really ushering in a new era in home economics education may be mentioned the following i 1‘ A better interpretation and utilization of all available resources for purposes of securing a. Functioning information — a kind of information that is of value in defining the local needs for education in the field of home economics b. A content from these resources as well as from the generally accepted field of home economics that will be of service, and will make the definite field of home economics content function better c. Cooperation with other agencies working for home betterment, that can offer usable information on local conditions and needs d. Acceptance and use by the instructor of certain experiences and information from the learners, not hitherto in her possession. 2. An application of content to real conditions with a view to tangible betterment in home and family life: a. Foods taught in closer relation to local and racial standards of living and local and racial usages b. Selection and construction of clothing taught in closer relation to actual wardrobe needs and possibilities c. Individual and family tastes and actual budgets made a larger factor in teaching home planning and furnishing d. Actual and desirable contacts of students with children used in applying principles of child care and training e. All types of school instruction supplemented with the carrying out of such piojects as are a normal part of home and family life and conducive to home improvement. 3. Making definite and successful attempts to really apply the adage, “The whole people must take upon themselves the education of the whole people, and must be willing to bear the expense of it.” (James Madison.) a. Expansion of program in adult education, with better organization of con¬ tent and methods of instruction b. Greater interest in the education of employed youth with clearer objectives, better organization of content and methods more applicable to their back¬ ground and needs c. More flexible programs for girls in fulltime schools to provide for these groups where school mortality is high. Department of Vocational Education 807 4. Greater realization of the necessity for ascertaining to what extent the home¬ making instruction is of real service to individuals and communities. a. Seeking to discover desirable changes in pupils in relation to food and clothing habits, attitudes, and conduct in the domain of child life, and interest in problems of home and family life b. Establishing standards for determining whether there has been improve¬ ment in home sanitation, health conditions, care of the sick, expenditure of incomes, and family relationships c. Attempting to ascertain to what extent parts of communities, neighbor¬ hoods, or larger sections where homemaking is taught, have been notice¬ ably affected by the instruction. 5. A more serious consideration of “Who should be who” in the field of home economics teaching. a. Earnest endeavor to set up some standards other than those merely scholas¬ tic, for entrance to pre-employment teacher training courses in home eco¬ nomics b. An actual charting of the problems involved in the responsibilities of the homemaking teachers in order to determine types of individuals and train¬ ing that will make effective the discharge of these responsibilities c. A setting up of summer school courses for the training of home economics teachers in service, that are based on an actual study of needs in the field of teaching home economics and not on advances in technical content for a degree d. The employment of state and local supervisors and of itinerant teacher trainers whose specific duties are those of studying the status of instruction in home economics, the capabilities and deficiencies of teachers, noting those who can and will be served by an in-service training and what it shall be, and directing if possible into other fields of work those who cannot and will not be served by such training e. That the “Whos” in the field of home economics teaching should have had certain very definite fundamental training as a preliminary to teaching, such as (1) Facilities for rounding out thru application in a home-management house the various courses pursued in the teacher-training curriculum and integrating the various types of content and experiences in relation to home and family life (2) Opportunity for potential teachers to do supervised teaching in schools and classes of the type they will enter when the pre-employ¬ ment teacher-training courses are completed, and of living for at least a brief time in the localities in which these schools and classes are located. 6. A decided promulgation of the principle that training for the teaching of home economics does not cease with a bachelor’s or master’s or a doctor’s degree but continues thru the entire teaching life because a. Science and invention are making new and effective and vital discoveries in home economics content and appliances b. Conditions — physical, social, and economic — are changing c. New methods of teaching are being developed d. New points of view are coming to the front as to the ultimate goal of all home economics instruction e. New relationships with other fields of content are being disclosed and developed f. The service of home economics instruction not only to the home but to all fields of material production is being sensed by the business men in manu¬ facturing and commercial fields. 808 National Education Association These situations call for new and modified training of teachers not only in service, but for a preservice training that is flexible and lends itself to adaptation in changing conditions. CHANGING PROBLEMS IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION WESLEY A. O LEARY, PRESIDENT, AMERICAN VOCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, TRENTON, N. J. Since the days of the Civil War the tempo of industrial life has greatly increased and radical changes in the organization of industry have taken place. Many of the older occupations such as cabinet making, wheelwright- mg, and blacksmithing have disappeared. At the same time, new industries and neu occupations have come into existence and other industries such as the making of shoes and men’s clothing have materially changed their char¬ acter. 7 he most impressive thing about many of the newer industries is their size and the rapidity with which they have developed. Modern industry is so complex that the factors responsible for change are not always easily identified. Among these factors are research, refinement of measurement, and the development of power. As a result of industrial change there has been a marked increase in recent years in unit production per worker and this in turn has enabled industry to increase its output in many fields and do it with fewer workers. Another result of industrial develop¬ ments is socalled technological unemployment. Still another result is the specialization of the worker. The changing conditions of industry raise many new questions for voca¬ tional education, among which the following are of special importance: 1. The cultivation of more practical and effective methods of pupil guidance 2. The development of training that will result, as far as possible, in greater adaptability on the part of the worker 3. Elimination of obsolete practises and disappearing occupations 4. More careful selection both of pupils and subjectmatter for the highly skilled and the technical occupation. More effective education for those who enter the lower levels of industry 5. Wider extension of retraining for workers thrown out of employment because of technological or economic changes 6. More attention to the social significance of industry and the implications of changing industrial conditions. OUR JOB— STANDING AT THE CROSSROADS R. L. COOLEY, DIRECTOR, MILWAUKEE VOCATIONAL SCHOOL, MILWAUKEE, WIS. The threshold out of school is the threshold into life. When the young people tioop out of school into life, they have come to a critical time. The great waste in our economic life, greater than any other, is the human material that is junked early because of the irrational, wasteful, unintelli¬ gent method of orienting our young people into their life’s work. As they Department of Vocational Education 809 come out of school they look like children, but they are, nevertheless, our joungest stratum of adults. They, themselves, unconsciously take the pose of adults, adopt the psychology of adults as well as youth can do it, lacking experience, and in great need of counsel, educational prescription, and guid¬ ance — not the kind of guidance that comes from a single interview, but the kind of guidance that comes from continuous association thru a period of months or years. The need is for a plan for each life. The school must from its inception apply the idea of individual counsel and assistance thru years. In so doing, the institution will grow in its capacity to meet intelligently and effectively the guidance needs of the juvenile work- ing population of the city. It must become natural and logical for the students to look to the school for aid in securing employment, and for employers to endeavor to secure their young workers thru the school. This work must be the foundation of the school. Ample physical facilities must be developed parallel with department personnel. Placement, field co¬ ordination, follow-up, apprentice promotion, assignment and transfer, and guidance thru the classroom teacher, seems the logical plan. In order to get the job well done, it must be made one certain person’s lesponsibility to organize. As the plan includes greater numbers, and as its functions extend, increasing complexity makes it imperative to delegate the responsibility for all aspects of guidance. The program must develop so that every faculty member participates, and the central office must be merely a unifying agency calculated to conserve the energy by obviating duplication, overlapping, and disorderly procedure. The central office must be merely a service to the teachers, each of whom must be a tentacle of the guidance and placement department, and seriously feel his responsibility for this function, unified thru the central office. Leadership of the department must result in improved practises; the pro¬ grams must be shaped so that the guidance will actually be achieved ; the faculty must be imbued with the necessity of this guidance work ; funda¬ mental principles must be formulated ; defects of present and future trends in guidance procedure must be interpreted ; and the whole organization must be inspired to make guidance live, vivid, and forceful. . The guidance office can be compared to a service station where informa¬ tion, directions, and motive power are obtained. At the school’s service sta¬ tion, information may be secured on new occupations, trends or develop¬ ments, on child labor laws, on methods dealing with stubborn cases, and on juvenile employment opportunities. Without this service, each instructor would be required to collect all this information, or, failing in this, would be only partially meeting the needs of his students. All records can be cen¬ tered in this office, all reports made here, all clerical work and correspond¬ ence disposed of, and as much as possible of the burden of routine work transferred from the teaching force. The central office cannot be dismissed without a reference to the necessity of maintaining harmonious and businesslike relationships with outside in¬ terests of the community. The staff of the office can assist by ( 1 ) making 810 National Education Association appointments for instructors desiring to make field calls, (2) arranging fac¬ tory visits, (3) clearing up misunderstandings, (4) correcting cases of mal¬ adjustment, and (5) making contacts leading to the placement of unusual pupils. The department must be used as a medium to connect the school with the outside, and to interpret the one to the other. Thus only can our job be accomplished. MEASURING EFFECTIVENESS OF INSTRUCTION IN VOCATIONAL AGRICULTURE Z. M. SMITH, STATE DIRECTOR OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION, INDIANAPOLIS, IND. The problem is concerned with the pupil rather than with the teacher. “What are the results of instruction as evidenced by the effect produced upon the learner?” is the viewpoint in this study. The problem is concerned with instruction of the pupil from the begin¬ ning of his enrolment in a vocational class until his final withdrawal from the direction or supervision of a vocational agriculture teacher. Thus it is possible in this study to follow a student thru an indefinite period of mem¬ bership in succession in all-day classes, partime classes, and evening classes. On the other hand the study may be limited in any given case to the period of the student’s membership in only one type of class. There are three major phases of this study: 1. The task of stating in specific terms the goals to be attained by the learner. 2. The task of setting up adequate and approved criteria by which to determine from time to time the progress the learner is making toward specified goals, and by which to determine whether and when the learner attains one or more of these goals. 3. The application of these criteria to scientifically selected cases constituting a sufficient percentage of the total number of cases in a school, a county, a state, the United States, to justify the statement of definite judgments and conclusions. The criteria and technic evolved for these three major phases of the study should be such as to be applicable to one school, one county, one state, and to the United States as a whole. The data obtained should be classified under headings designating the various methods of instruction employed by vocational agriculture teachers, if such classification is feasible. It is important that the relative effectiveness of different methods of instruction be determined. In the study of either all-day, partime, or evening-class students, the same kind of data that is secured on these students should be secured on an equal number of persons in the same community, of approximately the same age and amount of farm experience, who have not received and who do not re¬ ceive instruction in vocational classes. Provision must be made for taking full account of the native and acquired assets of the individual learner. Mental surveys, prognostic and achievement tests should be used in the study of each individual, because it is not only necessary to know what the learner is expected to achieve as the minimum Department of Vocational Education 811 and maximum goals in a given job or responsibility, but it is equally neces¬ sary to know how far on the road to the achievement of the given goal the learner has progressed at any stage of the process. It is important to ascertain what the learner knows and what he can do at the beginning of his instruc¬ tion in agriculture and to ascertain the degree of progress he reaches from time to time. It is important to know the learner’s potential ability to achieve, and to know how his environment has affected his learning and achievement in agricultural enterprises. In this study, data should be secured that will provide for taking due ac¬ count of the influence upon the learner of other types of agricultural instruc¬ tion such as is secured thru agricultural extension, farmers’ institutes, 4-H clubs, farm bureau or grange activities, agricultural publications, and similar agencies. This study should deal with both the economic and the social aspects of citizenship. The teacher of vocational agriculture is responsible, primarily, for in¬ struction dealing with the economic aspects of the learner’s responsibilities. The social aspects of citizenship are equally important and must not be im¬ paired by instruction that either over-emphasizes the importance of economic factors and aims or under-emphasizes the importance of social factors and aims. While the major responsibility of the vocational agriculture teacher is to direct the student in attaining economic objectives in the business of farming, yet he should direct him in such a manner as not to impair his prepa¬ ration for meeting in full his social responsibilities. The preceding paragraphs contain the essentials of the first report of the committee which is directing this study on “Measuring the Effectiveness of Instruction in Vocational Agriculture.” With the problem and some of its essential aspects thus defined, the committee proceeded to develop the study in its three phases. Phase one is the task of clearly defining the goals to be attained by the learner. Phase two is the task of providing criteria by which to determine whether and when the learner shall have attained a given goal. Phase three is the task of applying the criteria to a sufficient number of cases to justify a statement regarding the demonstrated effectiveness of the in¬ struction given. In accordance with the recommendation of the committee that the study be self-contained for each state, Indiana proceeded with the study. The phases of the three-fold problem as applied to Indiana were set up definitely as follows: 1. The economic objective to be attained by the learner in vocational agriculture in Indiana is a profitable business in farming 2. The criterion by which to determine whether or not the farm business of a given farmer is profitable is his annual labor and management wage The factors considered as determining the annual labor and management wage are: (a) size of business ; (b) balance of the farm business; (c) production efficiency; and (d) efficiency of operation 3. Indiana has taken preliminary steps for applying the above specified criteria to the farmer-training program of students in all-day classes. 812 National Education Association We believe the learner will not have attained a given goal in a given operative or managerial job until he habitually puts into practise in actual tarm activities the best known information and performance for that par- ticular job. In other words, the learning process will not have been com¬ pleted relative to a given job or group of jobs until the learner knows and Goes, habitually, everything necessary to achieve his possible maximum attain¬ ment m that job or group of jobs. Habitual performance on the highest level obtainable for a given learner is the only valid evidence of completed learn¬ ing. Mere possession of information is not learning. Correlative performance is required. What the learner “knows and does” determines the annual labor and management wage he realizes from his farm business. Therefore, in laying out a student’s farmer-training program adequate provision must be made for his securing practical experience with real farm problems and jobs. WHAT CONSTITUTES A SANE PROGRAM OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR RURAL AMERICA? H. V. HOLLOWAY, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, DOVER, DEL. The complexity of our civilization has put preparation for life for children eyond the teaching ability of the average family and made it a concern and obligation of the whole community. Life consists not only in knowing how to live but in knowing also how to make a living. Our public education pro¬ grams must keep both of these aspects in mind for both present real needs. We think of vocational education as apart from other phases of education only because it has come as a result of our realization of our former educa¬ tional shortcomings. Another decade will, we hope, make the teachers of agriculture and home economics, for instance, realize everywhere that they are as much a part of our educational system as are the teachers of history and mathematics. In endeavoring to answer the question which has been assigned to us, we shall assume that whatever the program, it is meant that it is one to be publicly supported, principally, at least, by taxation. To be sane, any educational program so supported must have the follow¬ ing characteristics: 1. It must be justified by its contribution to the public welfare 2. There must be a real need for the program, both from the standpoint of the community and from that of the individual for whom it is planned 3. The cost of the program must be reasonable 4. It must be in keeping as far as possible with the principle of equality of educa¬ tional opportunity 5. It must contribute highly to the welfare and happiness of the persons who take advantage of its provisions 6. It must be adapted to individual differences as well as to individual needs. By vocational education we mean “the specific training of individuals for some useful employment” (Cubberley), in such activities as trades and in- Department of Vocational Education 813 dustries, agriculture, commerce, home economics, and callings based thereon. In our discussion, vocational education will be understood as limited to the secondary school ; that is, grades 7 to 12, inclusive. The term ‘‘rural” in connection with vocational education always sug¬ gests agriculture for boys, and perhaps home economics for girls. Inasmuch as practically all girls will in the nature of things have need for some knowledge and, perhaps, some skill in home duties, it seems quite obvious that every girl should be given some opportunity somewhere in her course of instruction to acquire the desirable facts and skills required for homemaking. But to require all boys born on the farm to study agriculture with the idea of becoming farmers would be bad both for the boys and the industry. A hoy should be given an opportunity of entering that vocation for which his natural abilities best fit him. To require farm-born boys to be farmers is as bad as to require the sons of doctors to be doctors. Besides there are already too many farmers — particularly too many poor farmers, and poor farmers make farmers poor. The term “rural” in connection with schools generally suggests the notion of small institutions of few teachers and limited opportunities outside of the merest book essentials of an education. Where such conditions exist, only the most elemental prevocational activities are possible and then only with the most outstanding types of teachers. Larger vocational opportunities are possible only where children from large rural areas are brought together in consolidated schools. In some sections of our country this is impossible, and consequently equal educational opportunity for such is, and perhaps always will be, an unattainable goal. There are over 3000 different occupations by which men and women earn their livings. It is obviously impossible for even the largest urban schools to give specific training for such a variety of callings. There are, however, some activities more fundamental than others, the learning of which will give an insight into many others more or less closely related thereto. A sane program of vocational education for rural America should give every child in the country the opportunity of attending a secondary school in which there is provided : 1. A course in vocational agriculture 2. A course in the practical arts including woodwork, metal work, and mechanical drawing 3. A course in home economics 4. A course in commercial subjects 5. A teacher or teachers specially prepared for vocational counseling or guidance. In this program for the children, there should be opportunities for partime classes in agriculture for boys between sixteen and eighteen who have left school, and evening classes for boys above eighteen, and men. There should likewise be made available similar opportunities for girls and women in home economics. With the increased amounts which the federal government and the several states are appropriating to schools, the above activities can become National Education Association a part of the curriculum of the large schools in rural sections without burdening the local taxpayers to a point beyond the value of the services rendered. We speak of good citizenship as the prime purpose of public education, but to be a good citizen requires more than skill in the three R’s; more than knowledge of the history and government of our country; more than a mind favorably disposed towards our institutions; more than appreciation of the beautiful in art and literature; more than ability to adjust one’s self socially with his fellows. To be a good citizen, one must add to all of these things the ability to make a living, an ability, the development of which democracy owes to its citizens for its own preservation and its highest welfare. HOTEL SERVICE TRAINING WILLIAM L. CALEY, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY, MONROE COUNTY CHAMBER OF COMMERCE, STROUDSBURG, PA. Hotel sei vice training is probably the newest vocational undertaking of the Vocational Bureau of the Department of Public Instruction of the Com¬ monwealth of Pennsylvania. In the brief period of time allotted to me to discuss this subject, I would like to give you some idea first of all as to why we asked for this training and why the state provided it, and then how the work was set up and carried forward. Monroe County is located in the northeastern part of Pennsylvania and while, of course, the name of the county is not so very important, I would like you to remember the names of the Pocono Mountains, Delaware Water Gap, and the Stroudsburgs. It is in this resort region that the state put forth its first venture in hotel service training. In a country where the hotels mean so much as they do to us everything should be done to help further their interests because what is to their ad¬ vantage is an advantage to all of us. After making a very brief survey of employment in our hotels we found that the majority of the employees were coming in from other parts of Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, and New England. The reason for this wras because local citizens were not trained. We found that the yearly turnover was approximately 500 employees. Some day we hope to be able to stop this, and also, thru providing training, to stop the great influx of hotel employees. Just think what it will mean to our entire region when we can take care of that employment. The State Council of Education carefully studied the matter and finally decided to authorize the establishment of hotel service training classes. During January of this year John D. Storm was appointed to the State Department of Public Instruction and given charge of the supervision of this new educational project. Immediately in conjunction with L. D. Dennis and Mrs. Edith D. Davidson of the Department of Public Instruction they set out to organize the work. Department of Vocational Education 815 After making an exhaustive search for available material we found the supply to be meager, consequently it made the work much more difficult. By having a meeting with a group of hotel people we found out what they wanted taught and then at a series of meetings of a few of us and home economic teachers we decided how to teach it. After many corrections and revision a series of courses was finally drawn up. The hotel service training courses gave instruction for the following positions: waitresses, waiters and bus boys, bellmen, maids, linenroom women, and assistant cooks. In -a majority of the courses fourteen lessons were given at each center by the regular instructors. There was also a very interesting lecture on the importance of good health and the health certificate by a representative of the State Department of Health, another lecture by an employee of one of the hotels, using a trained waitress to talk to the waitress classes and a bellman to the bellman classes and so forth and a lecture by the manager of one of our large hotels giving his ideas of hotel operation. These courses held in the high schools were augmented by a series of training under actual conditions in the hotels. Some of the courses required more hotel experience than others, consequently the number varied. The Monroe County Chamber of Commerce has set up a placement bureau and we are trying to find positions for as many of these trainees as possible. So far we have secured positions for over one hundred of them and as time goes on we hope to do better. It is the fondest hope of the hotel men and the Chamber of Commerce that the State Council of Education will grant permission for this work to be carried on from year to year. We believe it will be a great benefit to the citizens, hotel people, and region in general both from an educational and an economic standpoint. . Associational Records and Information Associational Records and Information 1857—1870 The National Teachers Association Organized August 26, 1857, at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Purpose — 7 o elevate the character and advance the interests of the profes¬ sion of teaching and to promote the cause of popular education in the United States. The name of the Association was changed at Cleveland, Ohio, on August 15, 1870, to the “National Educational Association.” 1870—1907 National Educational Association Incorporated under the laws of the District of Columbia, February 24, 1886, under the name, “National Education Association,” which was changed to “National Educational Association,” by certificate filed November 6, 1886. 1907- National Education Association of the United States Incorporated under a special act of Congress, approved June 30, 1906, to succeed the “National Educational Association.” The charter was accepted and bylaws were adopted at the Fiftieth Anniversary Conven¬ tion held July 10, 1907, at Los Angeles, California. ACT OF INCORPORATION AN ACT TO INCORPORATE THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled: Section 1. That the following-named persons, who are now officers and direc¬ tors and trustees of the National Educational Association, a corporation organized in the year eighteen hundred and eighty-six, under the Act of General Incorpora¬ tion of the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, viz: Nathan C. Schaeffer, Eliphalet Oram Lyte, John W. Lansinger, of List of Pennsylvania; Isaac W. Hill, of Alabama; Arthur J. Matthews, Incorporators of Arizona; John H. Hinemon, George B. Cook, of Arkansas; Joseph O’Connor, Josiah L. Pickard, Arthur H. Chamberlain, of California; Aaron Gove, Ezekiel H. Cook, Lewis C. Greenlee, of Colorado; Chari es H. Keyes, of Connecticut; George W. Twitmyer, of Delaware; J. Ormond Wilson, William T. Harris, Alexander T. Stuart, of the District of Columbia; Clem Hampton, of Florida; William M. Slaton, of Georgia; Frances Mann, of Idaho; J. Stanley Brown, Albert G. Lane, Charles I. Parker, John W. Cook, Joshua Pike, Albert R. Taylor, Joseph A. Mercer, of Illinois; Nebraska Cropsey, Thomas A. Mott, of Indiana; John D. Benedict, of Indian Territory; John F. Riggs, Ashley V. Storm, of Iowa; John W. Spindler, Jasper N. Wilkinson, A. V. Jewett, Luther D. Whitte- [819] 820 National Education Association ore, of Kansas; William Henry Bartholomew, of Kentucky; Warren Easton, of FHntS,aM 5 J°Hn M "A ame; M- BatCS Stephens> of Maryland; Charles W. lot Maiy H Hunt , Henry T. Bailey, of Massachusetts; Hugh A. Graham, ^,hailes, G. White, William H. Elson, of Michigan; William F. Phelps, Irwin ePaid, John A. Cranston, of Minnesota; Robert B. Fulton, of Mississippi; F. Louis So Id an, James M. Greenwood, William J. Hawkins, of Missouri; O^car T CiaiI’ °'M“; George L* 'Towne, of Nebraska ; Joseph E. Stubbs, of Nevada; cTl E'™ ^ uf Hampshire ’ James M* Green, John Enright, of New Jersey ; Chailes M. Light, of New Mexico; James H. Canfield, Nicholas Murray Butler, William H. Maxwell, Charles R. Skinner, Albert P. Marble, James C. Byrnes, of New York, James Y. Joyner, Julius Isaac Foust, of North Carolina; Pitt Gordon vnowlton of North Dakota; Oscar T. Corson, Jacob A. Shawan, Wells L. Griswold, o Ohio; Edgar S. Vaught, Andrew R. Hickham, of Oklahoma; Charles Carroll Stratton, Edwin D. Ressler, of Oregon; Thomas W. Bicknell, Walter Ballou Jacobs of Rhode Island; David B. Johnson, Robert P. Pell, of South Carolina; Moritz ™ i£ ^ Jranger’ of.South Dakota; Eugene F. Turner, of Tennessee; Lloyd E. Wolf, of Texas; David H. Christensen, of Utah; Henry O. Wheeler, Isaac Thomas of Vermont; Joseph L. Jarman, of Virginia; Edward T. Mathes, of Washington* T. Marcell us Marshall, Lucy Robinson, of West Virginia; Lorenzo D. Harvey of Wisconsin ; Thomas T. Tynan, of Wyoming; Cassia Patton, of Alaska; Frank’ H. a I, of Porto Rico; Arthur F. Griffiths, of Hawaii; C. H. Maxson, of the Philip¬ pine Islands; and such other persons as. now are or may hereafter be associated with them as officers or members of said Association, are hereby incorporated and declared to be a body corporate of the District of Columbia by the name of the National Education Association of the United States,” and by that name shall be known and have perpetual succession with the powers, limitations, and restrictions herein contained. Sec. 2. That the purpose and object of the said corporation shall be to elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching and to pro¬ mote the cause of education in the United States. This corporation shall include National Council of Education and the following depart- urpose and ments, and such others as may hereafter be created by organi- Departments zation or consolidation, to wit: The Departments, first, of . Superintendence; second, of Normal Schools; third, of Elemen- ary Education; fourth, of Higher Education; fifth, of Manual Training; sixth, of rt Education; seventh, of Kindergarten Education; eighth, of Music Education; ninth, of Secondary Education; tenth, of Business Education; eleventh, of Child fourtcen'iT iVi, ^f!'®.1 Education ^ thirteenth, of Natural Science Instruction; uiteenth of School Administration; fifteenth, the Library Department; sixteenth, of Special Education; seventeenth, of Indian Education; the powers and duties ant the numbers and names of these departments and of the National Council of Education may be changed or abolished at the pleasure of the corporation, as provided in its bylaws. Sec. 3. That the said corporation shall further have power to have and to use a common seal, and to alter and change the same at its pleasure; to sue or to be sued in any court of the United States, or other court of competent jurisdiction, Powers of t0 make, b^laws not inconsistent with the provisions of this Corporation a and a11 its rights, contracts, claims, and property of every kind and nature whatsoever, and the several officers, directors, and trustees of luch Associational Records and Information 823 last-named Association, or any other person having charge of any of the securities, tunds, books or property thereof, real or personal, shall on demand deliver the same to the proper officers, directors, or trustees of the corporation hereby created. Pro¬ vided, That a verified certificate executed by the presiding officer and secretary of such annual meeting, showing the acceptance of the charter granted by this act by the National Educational Association, shall be legal evidence of the fact, when filed with the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia; and, provided further, That in the event of the failure of the Association to accept the charter granted by this act at said annual meeting then the charter of the National Educational Asso¬ ciation and its incorporate existence shall be and are hereby extended until the thirty-first day of July, nineteen hundred and eight, and at any time before said date its charter may be extended in the manner and form provided by the general corporation of the District of Columbia. Sec. 10. That the rights of creditors of the said existing corporation, known as the National Educational Association, shall not in any manner be impaired by the passage of this act, or the transfer of the property heretofore mentioned, nor shall any liability or obligation, or payment of any sum due or to become due, or any claim or demand, in any manner, or for any cause existing against the said existing corporation, be released or impaired; and the corporation hereby incorporated is declared to succeed to the obligations and liabilities, and to be held liable to pay and discharge all of its debts, liabilities and contracts of the said corporation so existing, to the same effect as if such new corporation had itself incurred the obligation or liability to pay such debts or damages, and no action or proceeding before any court or tribunal shall be deemed to have abated or been discontinued by reason of this act. Rights of Creditors Sec. 11. That Congress may from time to time alter, repeal, or modify this act of incorporation, but no contract or individual right made or acquired shall thereby be divested or impaired. Sec. 12. That said corporation may provide, by amendment to the powers of the active members exercised at the annual meet¬ ing in the election of officers and the transaction of business shall be vested in and exercised by a representative assembly composed of delegates apportioned, elected, and governed in accordance with the provisions of the bylaws adopted by said corporation. - Amendments to Charter its bylaws, that Creation of Representative Assembly Sections 1-11 were passed by Congress and approved by the President, June 30, 1906. They were accepted and adopted as the constitution of the National Educa¬ tion Association of the United States by the active members of the National Educa¬ tional Association in annual session at Los Angeles, California, July 10, 1907. Section 12 was passed by Congress and approved by the President of the United States, May 13, 1920, as an amendment to the original act of incorporation. It was accepted and adopted as an amendment to the constitution of the National Education Association of the United States by the active members thereof in annual session at Salt Lake City, Utah, July 9, 1920. 824 National Education Association BYLAWS AS AMENDED AT THE ANNUAL BUSINESS MEET ING OF THE REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY MINNE¬ APOLIS, MINNESOTA, JULY 6, 1928 ARTICLE I— MEMBERSHIP Wherever the word “State" appears in the proposed amendments to these by- aws it will be understood that State, Territory, or District of the United States Membership Defined Section 1. The membership of the National Education Asso¬ ciation of the United States shall consist of three classes: Active, Associate, and Corresponding, whose qualifications, rights, and obligations shall be as hereinafter prescribed. Sec. 2. Active members of the Association shall be those actively engaged in the profession of teaching or other educational work. Sec. 3. The annual dues of an active member shall be $2, which shall entitle him to attend all meetings of the Association and its several Departments; to receive The Journal free and on application, to secure all publications of the As¬ sociation at a Price fixed by the Executive Committee, which Obligations shall be the approximate cost. By the payment of annual dues and of $5 an active member shall receive in addition to The Jour- Privileges nal, without application or other condition, the volume of Pro¬ ceedings and all other regular publications of the Association, including reports of Committees and all special bulletins and announcements when issued. Life Members and Life Directors Sec. 4. All life members and life directors shall have all the rights and privileges of active members without the pay¬ ment of annual dues, and shall receive free without applica¬ tion or condition the publications of the Association. Sec. 5. Associate members of the Association shall be persons who are not ac¬ tively engaged in the profession of teaching or other educa¬ tional work, but who are otherwise interested in the promotion of education. The annual dues of an associate member shall be the same as the dues of an active member and he shall have the same rights and privileges, except the right to vote, to serve as a delegate in the Representative Assembly, and to hold office. Associate Members Corresponding Members the publications of Sec. 6. Eminent educators not residing in America may be e ected by the Board of Directors as corresponding members, lhe number of corresponding members shall not at any time exceed fifty. They shall pay no dues and may receive free the Association. Membership Year Sec. 7. The membership year shall be from September 1 to August 31. All membership dues paid during the mem¬ bership year shall be credited to that year unless otherwise requested. Sec. 8. The annual dues of members shall be sent to the Payment of Secretary on or before November 1. An active member fail- Dues inS to Pay his dues as herein provided shall forfeit the privi¬ leges of membership and after being in arrears one half year be dropped from the list of members. Associational Records and Information 825 Sec. 9. The Secretary of the Association shall furnish each Membership member of the Association a Membership Card, declaring him Card to be a member of the National Education Association for the year for which his dues are paid, and as such entitled to all the rights and privileges granted by the charter and bylaws of the Association. Sec. 10. The right to vote, to serve as a delegate in the Representative As¬ sembly and to hold office in the Association or in any depart¬ ment thereof, shall be limited to active members whose dues . are paid. The right to vote and to hold office in the Council Right to ote shall be limited to members of the Council whose dues are paid. ARTICLE II— ELECTION OF OFFICERS, REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY, AND AFFILIATED ASSOCIATIONS Section 1. The election of officers and transaction of business at the annual business meeting shall be by a Representative Assembly composed of delegates apportioned, elected, and gov¬ erned as hereinafter provided. Sec. 2. At the first business meeting of the Representative Assembly on the second day of the annual meeting of the Association nominations for the follow¬ ing offices shall be made: President, Vicepresident, and Treasurer. Candidates for said offices shall be nominated from the floor upon roll call of the states. On the first day of the annual meeting of the Association the delegates of each state, territory, and district of the United States shall nominate one person for member of the Board of Directors and the name of such person shall be reported to the Representative Assembly at the first business meeting upon roll call of the states. On the fourth day of the annual meeting officers shall be elected from the candi¬ dates by the delegates to the Representative Assembly by ballot. Said ballots shall be printed and shall contain the names of all nominees as provided above. Polls for voting shall be open from 8 A. M. to 6 p. m., at such place or places as the President of the Association shall designate. The candidates for President, Treasurer, member of Board of Directors from each state, territory, or district, respectively, and the eleven candidates for the office of Vicepresident receiving the highest number of votes shall be declared elected. The President of the Association shall appoint tellers and complete all arrangements for carrying out the election. The results of the election herein provided shall be announced at the final business session of the Representative Assembly. The officers thus chosen shall continue in office until the close of the annual meeting subsequent to their election, and until their successors are chosen, except as herein provided. The Secretary and the Treasurer shall enter upon their duties at a date which shall be determined by the Board of Trustees and which shall not be later than the first of October and shall continue in office during the term for which they are separately chosen and until their successors are duly elected. Sec. 3. The State Teachers Association or Educational Association of a state, territory, or district, may become affiliated with the National Education Associa¬ tion and shall be designated an Affiliated State Association. Each Affiliated State Association shall be a state unit in the organization of the National Education Association and as such shall be entitled Affiliated State to representation in the Representative Assembly as herein- Associations after provided. The annual dues of an Affiliated State Asso¬ ciation shall be $10 for each delegate to which said state shall be entitled, with a maximum of $100. Said Association shall receive without application, or other condition, all regular publications of the National Education Association, includ¬ ing the volume of Proceedings , reports of committees, and all special bulletins and announcements when issued. Election of Officers 826 National Education Association Sec. 4. A Local Educational Association or Teachers Organization within a state, territory, or district, may affiliate with the National Education Association and shall be designated an Affiliated Local Association. Each Affiliated Local Asso- AffiUo + i Ration shall be a local unit in the organization of the National miiatea .Local Education Association and as such shall be entitled to rep- Associations resentation in the Representative Assembly as hereinafter pro- , „ , _ L. vided- The annual dues of an Affiliated Local Association s a be $5, which shall entitle said Association to receive without application, or other condition all regular publications of the National Education Association, in¬ cluding the volume of Proceedings , reports of committees, and all bulletins and announcements when issued. Sec. 5. Each Affiliated Association, both state and local, shall be furnished a certificate of membership and shall be entitled to the active assistance and sup¬ port of the National Education Association in promoting the interest of such . Affiliated. Association and its members insofar as such interest Relationship : comes within the purpose and object of the National Educa- National, State, tion Association as set forth in its charter. The Secretary of and Local the National Education Association shall, with the advice and approval °f the Executive Committee, make such arrangements tor mutual cooperation between the National Education Association and the tate and Local Affiliated Associations as will promote the welfare of all and advance the interests of the teaching profession. Sec. 6. Each Affiliated State Association shall be entitled to elect one delegate and one alternate to the Representative Assembly for each one hundred of its members, or major fraction thereof, who are active members of the National Edu- cation Association, up to five hundred such active members, and State Delegates thereafter one delegate and one alternate for each five hundred of its members, or major fraction thereof, who are active mem¬ bers of the National Education Association. Such delegates shall be designated State Delegates. Sec. 7. Each Affiliated Local Association shall be entitled to elect one dele¬ gate and one alternate to the Representative Assembly for Local each one hundred of its members, or major fraction thereof, Delegates who are active members of the National Education Association! Such delegates shall be designated Local Delegates. Sec. 8. Only active members of the National Education Association shall be eligible to be delegates to the Representative Assembly, and to vote in the elec¬ tion of delegates in a State or Local Affiliated Association. An active member . shall be permitted to vote for the election of delegates in but Selection of one affiliated Local Association. For determining the appor- Delegates tionment of delegates, an active member may be counted in two Affiliated Associations, and no more; and that one of these shall be the State Association. Sec. 9. The officers of the National Education Association as named in the charter and the State Superintendent or Commissioner of Education of each state, . territory, and district, shall be ex officio delegates to the Rep- x Ufhcio resentative Assembly. The President of the Association shall Delegates preside at the annual meeting of the Representative Assembly, and the Secretary of the Association shall keep the records thereof. In case of a tie the President shall cast the deciding vote. . S?c- 10* Delegates shall file their credentials with the Secretary of the Asso¬ ciation on blanks furnished by him for that purpose not later than ten days be- Associational Records and Information 827 fore the beginning of the annual meeting. The Secretary shall turn over such credentials to the Credential Committee, when appointed, with such information thereon as may be obtained from the records of the Association. The Representative Assembly shall be the final judge of the qualifications of delegates. The delegates shall have equal rights and each shall have one vote. Meet¬ ings of the Representative Assembly shall be open to the active members of the Association who shall be privileged to address the Assembly on subjects pertaining to the Association. The Representative As¬ sembly shall adopt rules of procedure which shall not conflict with the charter and bylaws of the Association. It shall recommend an equitable plan for pay¬ ing the expenses of delegates to the annual business meeting of the Association. Sec. 11. The officers shall be permitted to hold meetings other than for busi¬ ness purposes and expenses therefor shall be provided. ARTICLE III— DUTIES OF OFFICERS Section 1. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association and shall perform the duties prescribed by the Act of Incorporation and these Bylaws, and in addition such duties as usually devolve upon the Chief Executive of such an Association. In the absence of the President, the ranking Vicepresident, who is present, shall preside and in the absence Duties of the of the President and all Vicepresidents a Chairman pro tempore President shall be elected under the direction of the Secretary of the Association. The President shall prepare the program for the general sessions of the annual meeting of the Association and shall have power to confer with the President of the Council and the heads of the several Departments and to make such recommendations in regard to the program of the Council and the several Departments as will, in his opinion, promote the interest of the annual meeting. The President shall be a member ex officio of the Board of Trustees and Chairman of the Board of Directors and of the Executive Committee. He shall sign all bills approved for payment by the Board of Directors and all bills ap¬ proved or authorized by the Executive Committee acting for and under the in¬ struction of the Board of Directors. On the expiration of his term of office as President, he shall become first Vicepresident for the ensuing year. Sec. 2. The Secretary shall keep a full and accurate record of the proceedings of the general meetings of the Association and all meetings of the Board of Directors and of the Executive Committee, shall conduct the business of the As¬ sociation as provided in the Act of Incorporation and these Bylaws and, in all matters not definitely prescribed therein, Duties of the shall be under the direction of the Board of Directors or of the Secretary Executive Committee acting for the Board of Directors, and, in the absence of instructions from the Board of Directors or the Executive Com¬ mittee, shall be under the direction of the President. He shall receive or collect all moneys due the Association and pay the same each month to the Treasurer. He shall countersign all bills approved for payment by the Board of Directors, or by the Executive Committee acting under the authority of the Board of Directors or by the President acting under authority of the Board of Directors or of the Executive Committee. The Secretary shall have his records present at all meet¬ ings of the Association, of the Board of Directors, and of the Executive Commit¬ tee. He shall keep a list of members and shall revise said list annually. He shall be Secretary of the Board of Directors. He shall be the custodian of all the property of the Association not in charge of the Treasurer and the Board of Trustees. He shall give such bond for the faithful performance of his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees. He shall submit his annual report to the Executive Committee not later than fifteen days before the annual meeting Delegates ; Credentials ; Voting; Freedom of Floor 828 National Education Association of the Assoc, ation, which report shall be transmitted to the Board of Directors at its annual meeting. At the expiration of his term of office, he shall transfer o is successor all money, books, and other property in his possession belonging to the Association. The Secretary shall not print, publish or distribute any official report or other document without the approval of the Board of Directors or of the Executive Committee acting under the general instruction of the Board of Direc¬ tors. Sec. 3. The Treasurer shall perform the duties prescribed by the Act of In¬ corporation and these Bylaws. He shall receive from the Secretary and, under t e direction of the Board of Trustees, shall hold in safe-keeping all moneys paid Duties Of the ‘r „ Asfoc‘ation 1 shal1 Pay the same only upon the order of Treasurer h the Board of Trustees, shall notify the President of the Asso¬ ciation and the Chairman of the Board of Trustees whenever the surplus funds in his possession exceed $500; shall keep an exact account of his receipts and expenditures with vouchers for the latte/ Z . rr endinf- °n the thirt>'-first day of May each year, he shall to the Executive Committee not later than ten days before the annual meeting of the Association, and when approved by said Committee, these ac¬ counts sha 1 be transmitted by this Committee to the Board of Directors at its meeting held in connection with the annual meeting of the Association and a copy of the report shall be transmitted to the Representative Assembly for its informa¬ tion. r he Treasurer shall give such bond for the faithful performance of his ilT T !Ty u reuqUnred by the B°ard °f Trustees- A< the expiration of his ‘ ™ °v ?®"’ he sha." transfer to his successor all moneys, books, and other pioperty in his possession belonging to the Association. Sec. 4. The Board of Directors shall have such powers and perform such duties as are prescribed by the Act of Incorporation and by these Bylaws, shall elect corresponding members as prescribed in Section 6 of Article I of these Bylaws' Duties of the Sha" ■?'?. mTbetS °f the Nati°nal Council of Education ai Boa d of fTn '10n 3 °f Artide IV °f these Bylaws; shall Directors ™ r VaCJ,nc(le°‘n ,ts “wn body and in the Board of Trustees, directors The Board of Directors shall approve all bills incurred by itself . , , °r by the Executive Committee, or the President or the Secretary current' 7 a i a;!th0rity °f ^ B°ard °f Directors; shall appropriate from the rent funds of the year the amounts of money ordered by the Representative r ssembly at the annual business meeting of the same for the work of all special committees of research and investigation authorized and provided for at the annual business meeting, and for all other needs of the Association; shall make ull tepott of the financial condition of the Association including the reports of the Secretary, the Treasurer and the Board of Trustees to the Representative Assembly at its annual business meeting, and shall do all in its power to make the Association a useful and honorable institution. fjh,h B°a,d °f Direct0[s shaM aPP°int at its annual meeting a budget committee th e”SUin® Par> whose duty it shall be to prepare and present a budget to the Boa, d of Directors at its next meeting. The budget committee shall have authority to secure the support of the auditing committee in preparing this budget. The Board of Directors shall meet in connection with the annual meeting of e Representative Assembly, and may meet in connection with the annual meet- g of the Department of Superintendence and at such other times and places as may be determined by the President or requested in writing by a majority of the elective members of the Board of Directors. Associational Records and Information 829 Sec. 5. The Executive Committee may recommend to the Representative As¬ sembly at the annual business meeting the appointment of special committees for investigation or research, the subjects for which may have been suggested by the National Council or by the active members of the National Education Association or by any of its Departments; it shall Duties of recommend the amount of money to be appropriated for such Executive investigations. When such special committees are provided Committee for and duly authorized by the Representative Assembly and appropriations for them have been authorized by the Board of Directors, the Executive Committee shall, under the instructions of the Board of Directors, have general supervision of them. The Executive Committee shall receive and con¬ sider all reports made by the special committees and shall print these reports and present them, together with the reports of the Secretary, the Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees, and the recommendations of the Executive Committee thereon, to the Board of Directors, which shall transmit the same with recommendations to the Representative Assembly at its annual business meeting. All such special committees shall be appointed by the President of the Association. The Executive Committee shall fill all vacancies occurring in the body of officers of the Association, except as otherwise provided for in the Act of Incorporation or in these Bylaws. Sec. 6. The Board of Trustees shall have such powers and perform such duties as are prescribed by the Act of Incorporation, shall require of the Secretary and Treasurer bonds in such amounts as may be determined by said Board for the faithful performance of their duties; shall make a full report of the finances of the Association to the Executive Committee Further Duties not later than ten days prior to the annual meeting of the of Trustees Association, which report shall be transmitted by the Executive Committee to the Board of Directors at the first regular meeting of the Board held in connection with the annual meeting of the Association. It shall annually choose its own chairman and secretary. Function of National Council ARTICLE IV— THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION Section 1. The National Council of Education shall discuss educational ques¬ tions of public and professional interest; propose to the Executive Committee, from time to time, suitable subjects for investigation and re¬ search; have a report made at its annual meeting on “Edu¬ cational Progress during the Past Year”; and in other ways use its best efforts to further the objects of the Association and to promote the cause of education in general. Sec. 2. The National Council of Education shall consist of one hundred twenty regular members, selected from the active membership of the National Education Association. Any active member of the Association is eligible to membership in the Council and each member shall be elected for six years and until his successor is elected. In addition to the 120 mem¬ bers thus selected from the active membership the National Council may in its bylaws provide for the admission to mem¬ bership of representatives from the several departments of the Association on the basis of equal representation from each department. Sec. 3. The annual election of members of the Council shall be held at the time of the annual meeting of the Association. The Board of Directors of the Association shall annually elect ten members and the Council ten members, and each body shall fill all vacancies in its quota of members. No state, territory or district in the United States shall have at one time more than seven regular members in the Council. Membership in Council Election of Committee Members 830 National Education Association Loss of Membership Council Officers Bylaws and Powers of Council Time of Sec. 4. The annual meeting of the Council shall be held dur- eeting ing the week of the annual meeting of the Association. Sec. 5. The absence of a regular member from two successive annual meetings of the Council shall be considered equivalent to his resignation of membership. Persons whose regular membership in the Council has expired shall be denomi¬ nated honorary members of the Council during the time of their active membership in the Association with the privilege of attending the regular sessions of the Council and partici- . pating in its discussions. A member who discontinues or for- Coimcd aCtIVC membership in the Association forfeits his membership in the Sec. 6. The officers of the Council shall consist of a President, a Vicepresident, a secretary, and such standing committees as may be prescribed by its bylaws, all of whom shall be regular members of the Council. The Secre- taiy of. the Council shall, in addition to performing the duties pertaining to his office, furnish the Secretary of the Association a copy of the proceedings of the Council for publication. Sec. 7. 1 he National Council of Education is hereby authorized to adopt by¬ laws for its government not inconsistent with the act of incor¬ poration or the bylaws of the Association; provided, That such bylaws be submitted to, and approved by, the Board of Directors of the Association before they shall become operative. Sec. 8. The powers and duties of the Council may be changed or the Council abolished upon a two thirds vote of the Representative Assembly taken at the annual meeting of the Association; provided, That notice of the proposed action has been given at the preceding annual business meeting of the Association. ARTICLE V— DEPARTMENTS Section 1. The following Departments are now (1932) in existence, to wit: The epartments, first, of Superintendence; second, of Vocational Education; third of indergarten-Primary Education; fourth, of Secondary Education; fifth, of Business education; sixth of School Health and Physical Education; seventh, of Science In¬ struction; eighth, of Rural Education; ninth, of Classroom Teachers; tenth of Deans of Women; eleventh, of Adult Education; twelfth, of Elementary School Pnncipals, thirteenth, of Visual Instruction; fourteenth, of Social Studies; fifteenth o Teachers Codeges; sixteenth, of Lip Reading; seventeenth, of Secondary School Principals; eighteenth, of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction; nineteenth, of Educational Research; twentieth,, of Special Education, twenty-first, of Supervisors and teachers of Home Economics; twenty-second, of Administrative Women in Education. There is also the National Council of Education. Sec. 2. Each Department shall have the right to fix the qualifications of its members for the purpose of electing officers and transacting the other business of the Department; provided, Active members of the Associa¬ tion, and no others., shall be eligible to such Department mem¬ bership, and provided also that all active members of the Association shall be permitted to attend the professional pro¬ grams and discussions of any Department. Sec. 3. Each Department shall hold an annual meeting at the time and place of the meeting of the Association except as otherwise provided in these bylaws or as directed by the Board of Directors, or by the Executive Committee acting under the general instruc¬ tions of the Board of Directors. Members of Departments Department Meetings Associational Records and Information 831 Sec. 4. The object of the meetings of the Departments shall be the discussion of questions pertaining to their respective fields of educational work. The pro¬ grams of these meetings shall be prepared by the respective presidents in conference with, and under the general direction of, the President of the Association. Each Department shall be limited to two sessions, with formal programs, unless otherwise ordered by the President of the Association, except that a third session of business or informal round-table conference may be held at the discretion of the Department officers. Object of Department Meetings Sec. 5. The officers of each Department shall consist of a President, a Vice- president, a Secretary, and such other officers as may be deemed necessary by the Department, who shall be elected at the last formal session of the Department to serve one year and until their successors are duly elected; and who shall, at the time of their election, be active mem- Officers of bers of the Association. Each Department shall provide for Departments the creation of an Executive Committee, and assign to it any duties consistent with the purposes of the Department and the Act of Incorpora¬ tion and Bylaws of the Association. In case there is a vacancy in the office of President of any Department, it shall be filled by appointment made by the Execu¬ tive Committee of the Department. Any other Departmental vacancy shall be filled by appointment made by the President of the Department. Sec. 6. The Secretary of each Department shall, in addition to performing the duties usually pertaining to his office, furnish to the Secretary of the Association a copy of the proceedings of the meetings of the Department for publication. No Department shall establish an office outside of Department the general headquarters of the Association without the con- Headquarters sent of the Board of Directors. Sec. 7. All Departments shall have equal rights and privileges, with the ex¬ ception stated in Section 3 of this article. They shall be named in Section 1 of this article in the order of their establishment and shall be dropped from the list when discontinued. Each Department Rights of may be governed by its own regulations in so far as they are Departments not inconsistent with the act of incorporation or these bylaws. Sec. 8. Upon the recommendation of the Board of Directors a new department may be established by vote of two-thirds of the delegates to the Representative Assembly present at any annual meeting; provided, that a written application for said Department with title and purpose of the same shall have been made at the regular meeting of the Assembly next pre- How ceding the one at which action is taken by at least 250 mem- Established bers engaged or interested in the field in the interest of which the Department is proposed to be established ; provided, that no group shall be admitted to Departmental status until it shall have held constructive meetings for at least three successive years. A Department already established may be discontinued upon a two-thirds vote of the Representative Assembly at any business meeting provided that announce¬ ment of the purpose to discontinue has been made at the preceding annual busi¬ ness meeting. The Board of Directors may recommend to the Representative As¬ sembly the discontinuance of any Department. Upon the recommendation of the Board of Directors a Department which has failed to hold a regular meeting for two successive years may be discontinued by a vote of two-thirds of the delegates to the Representative Assembly present at any annual meeting. 832 National Education Association Sec. 9. Any Department, by a two-thirds vote of those voting at any regular busmess meeting, may levy a membership fee to supplement its allowance from the Association. Such membership fees shall be paid to the Secretary of the De¬ partment who shall transmit them monthly to the Secretary of the Association. Such funds shall be added to the Department’s allowance from the Association and shall be used for the work of said Department only, and shall be disbursed upon the rec¬ ommendation of the executive officers of the Department in the same manner as other funds of the Association are disbursed. Fees for Department Members ARTICLE VI— COMMITTEES Section 1. Not later than five months before the end of the fiscal year, the Presi- dent shall appoint an Auditing Committee, consisting of three active members of the Association, no one of whom shall be either a Trustee or a Director; to this Committee shall be referred the report and audit of the expert accountant or accountants, together with the communication of the President transmitting the same as provided in Section 5 of this Article; and the Committee shall report its findings to the Board of Directors. Auditing Committee Sec 2. On the first day of the annual meeting of the Association, at such time and place as shall be designated on the annual program by the President of the Association, the accredited delegates to the Representative Assembly from each state shaM elect one member and one alternate who are active Delegates Meet members of the Association for each of the following commit- by States tees, to serve for the ensuing year: Credentials, Resolutions, and K . . .. , , , NecroI°gy- The Committee on Credentials shall receive the official list of delegates from the- Secretary and report thereon to the Representa¬ tive Assembly. Sec. 3. The Committee on Resolutions shall report at the annual business meeting o t e Representative Assembly, and except by unanimous consent, all resolutions shall be referred to said committee without discussion. This committee shall receive and . consider all resolutions proposed by active members, or referred Resolutions to it by the President; some time during the second day of the annual meeting of the Association the committee shall hold a meeting, at a place and time to be announced in the printed program, for the pur¬ pose of receiving proposed resolutions and hearing those who may wish to advo¬ cate them. Necrology Sec. 4. The Committee on Necrology may prepare for the published Proceedings brief memorial tributes to members who have died during the year. Sec. 5. Within thirty (30) days prior to the time of the annual meeting of the ssociation, the President shall appoint a competent person, firm or corporation, licensed to do business as expert accountants; the accountant or accountants so Examinatirtn appointed shall examine the accounts, papers, and vouchers of OfTccou^ SeCrCTy’ thG Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees and Ut Accounts compare the same, shall also examine the securities of the permanent fund held by the Board of Trustees. The report of said accountant or accountants shall be filed with the President not less than ten days before the opening day of the annual meeting of the Association, and shall be by him submitted to the Auditing Committee with such comments as he may think proper. Associational Records and Information 833 ARTICLE VII— MEETINGS Section 1. Stated meeting of the Association, of the National Council of Education, and of all Departments, except as other- Meetings to be wise provided, shall be held at such time and place as shall be Held determined by the Board of Directors or by the Executive Com- Annually mittee acting under the instructions of the Board of Directors. Sec. 2. The annual business meeting of the Representative Assembly shall begin at 9 oclock a. m., on the second day of the annual meeting of the Association. A regular meeting of the Board of Directors shall be held in connection with the annual meeting of the Association. The time and place of such meeting shall be designated in the program. The Secre¬ tary shall notify the members of the Board of Directors of the time and place of meeting, not less than thirty (30) days before the meeting. The first regular meeting of the new Board of Directors shall be held as soon as practicable and within twenty-four hours after the close of the last session of the annual meeting. The place and time of this meeting shall be announced in the printed program. The Board of Trustees shall hold its annual meeting at some convenient time and immediately following the meeting of the new Board of Directors. Special meetings of the Trustees may be called by the Chairman and shall be called on request of a majority of the Board of Trustees. Due notice of all meetings of the Board of Trustees shall be given to every member of the Board by the Secretary thereof. Meetings of Assembly, Directors, and Trustees ARTICLE VIII— PROCEEDINGS Section 1. The proceedings of the Association, of the Council, of the Depart¬ ments, and of all commissions and committees, shall be published at the discretion of and under the direction of the Executive Publication of Committee provided that such publication has been approved Proceedings and the money therefor appropriated by the Board of Directors. Sec. 2. No paper, lecture or address shall be read before the Association or any of the Departments in the absence of the author, without the approval of the President of the Association, or of the President of the Depart¬ ment interested; nor shall any such paper, lecture or address be published in the Proceedings without the approval of the Execu¬ tive Committee. ARTICLE IX— QUORUM Section 1. Elected directors from twenty-five states shall con¬ stitute a quorum of the Board of Directors. A majority of all the accredited delegates, representatives of not less than twenty- five states, shall constitute a quorum of the Representative Assembly. ARTICLE X— AMENDMENTS Section 1. These bylaws may be altered or amended at the annual meeting of the Representative Assembly by unanimous vote, or by a two-thirds vote of the Rep¬ resentative Assembly if the alteration or amendment shall have been proposed in writing at the annual business meeting next Amendments preceding the one at which action is taken, and due announce- to Bylaws ment of the proposed action shall have been made in the official publication of the Association. Absence of Author Formation of Quorum 834 National Education Association NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION NOW KNOWN AS THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES CERTIFICATE of Acceptance of Charter and Adoption of Bylaws under the Act of Congress approved June 30, 1906. We, the undersigned, Nathan C. Schaeffer, the presiding officer, and Irwin Shepard, the Secretary of the meeting of the National Educational Association held at Los Angeles, California, on the 10th day of July, 1907, said meeting being the annual meeting of the Association held next after the passage of an act of Congress entitled “An Act To Incorporate the National Education Association of the United States,” Do hereby certify, that at said meeting held pursuant to due notice, a quorum being present, the said Association adopted resolutions of which true copies are hereto attached, and accepted the charter of the National Education Association of the United States, granted by said act of Congress, and adopted bylaws as provided in said act and selected officers; and the undersigned pursuant to said resolutions, Do hereby certify that the National Education Association of the United States has duly accepted said charter granted by said act of Congress, and adopted by¬ laws, and is the lawful successor to the National Educational Association. In witness whereof, we have hereunto signed our names this 20th day of August 1907. ’ Nathan C. Schaeffer, Presiding Officer Irwin Shepard, Secretary VERIFICATION RESOLUTIONS ADOPTED BY THE ACTIVE MEMBERS, JULY 10, 1907 1. Resolved, That the National Educational Association hereby accepts the char¬ ter granted by an act of Congress entitled “An Act To Incorporate the National Education Association of the United States,” passed June 30, 1906, and that the President and Secretary of this meeting be authorized and directed to execute and file with the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia a verified certifi¬ cate showing the acceptance by the Association of the charter granted by said act. 2. Resolved, That the proposed bylaws of which notice was given at the annual meeting of the Association held on July 6, 1905, which are printed in full in the Journal of said meeting, be and the same are hereby adopted to take effect im¬ mediately. 3. Resolved, That the Association adopt as its corporate seal a circle containing the title “National Education Association of the United States,” and the dates “1857-1907.” 4. Resolved, That the Association do now proceed to elect officers, and to or¬ ganize under the charter granted by the act of Congress. Filed in the office of the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia, Septem¬ ber 4, 1907. Associational Records and Information 835 CALENDAR OF MEETINGS NATIONAL TEACHERS ASSOCIATION, 1857-1870 1857— PHILADELPHIA, PA. (Organized) James L. Enos, Chairman. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. 1858— CINCINNATI, OHIO Z. Richards, President. J. W. Buckley, Secretary. A. J. Rickoff, Treasurer. 1859— WASHINGTON, D. C. A. J. Rickoff, President. J. W. Buckley, Secretary. C. S. Pennell, Treasurer. 1860— BUFFALO, N. Y. J. W. Buckley, President. Z. Richards, Secretary. O. C. Wight, Treasurer. 1861, 1862 — No session. 1863— CHICAGO, ILL. John D. Philbrick, President. James Cruickshank, Secretary. O. C. Wight, Treasurer. 1S64— OGDENSBURG, N. Y. W. H. WELLS, President. David N. Camp, Secretary. Z. Richards, Treasurer. 1865— HARRISBURG, PA. S. S. Greene, President. W. E. Shelton, Secretary. Z. Richards, Treasurer. 1866— INDIANAPOLIS, IND. J. P. Wickersham, President. S. H. White, Secretary. S. P. Bates, Treasurer. 1867 — No session. 1868— NASHVILLE, TENN. J. M. Gregory, President. L. Van BokkelEn, Secretary. James Cruickshank, Treasurer 1869— TRENTON, N. J. L. Van BokkelEn, President. W. E. Crosby, Secretary. A. L. Barber, Treasurer. 1870— CLEVELAND, OHIO Daniel B. Hagar, President. A. P. Marble, Secretary. W. E. Crosby, Treasurer. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, 1871-1907 1871— ST. LOUIS, MO. J. L. Pickard, President. W. E. Crosby, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1872— BOSTON, MASS. E. E. White, President. S. H. White, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1873— ELMIRA, N. Y. B. G. Northrup, President. S. H. White, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1874— DETROIT, MICH. S. H. White, President. A. P. Marble, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1875— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. W. T. Harris, President. M. R. Abbott, Secretary. A. P. Marble, Treasurer. 1876— BALTIMORE, MD. W. F. Phelps, President. W. D. HenklE, Secretary. A. P. Marble, Treasurer. 1877— LOUISVILLE, KY. M. A. Newall, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. J. Ormond Wilson, Treasurer. 1878 — No session. 1879— PHILADELPHIA, PA. John Hancock, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. J. Ormond Wilson, Treasurer. 1880— CHAUTAUQUA, N. Y. J. Ormond Wilson, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. E. T. Tappan, Treasurer. 1881— ATLANTA, GA. James H. Smart, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. E. T. Tappan, Treasurer. 1882— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. G. J. Orr, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. H. S. TarbEll, Treasurer. 1883— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. E. T. Tappan, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. N. A. Calkins, Treasurer. 1884— MADISON, WIS. Thomas W. Bicknell, President. PI. S. Tarbell, Secretary. N. A. Calkins, Treasurer. 1885— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. F. Louis Soldan, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. N. A. Calkins, Treasurer. 1886— TOPEKA, KANS. N. A. Calkins, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1887— CHICAGO, ILL. W. E. Sheldon, President. L. H. Canfield, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1888— SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF. Aaron Gove, President. J. H. Canfield, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1889— NASHVILLE, TENN. Albert P. Marble, President. J. H. Canfield, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1890— ST. PAUL, MINN. J. H. Canfield, President. W. R. Garrett, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1891— TORONTO, ONT. W. R. Garrett, President. E. H. Cook, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 1892— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. E. H. Cook, President. R. W. Stevenson, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 1893— CHICAGO, ILL. (International Congress of Education.) Albert G. Lane, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 1894— ASBURY PARK, N. J. Albert G. Lane, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 836 1895 1896- 1897- 1898- 1899- 1900- 1908— 1909— 1910— 1911— 1912— 1913— 1914— 1915 — 1916 — 1917— 1918 — 1919 National Education Association -DENVER, COLO. Nicholas Murray Butler, Pres. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. -BUFFALO, N. Y. Newton C. Dougherty, President. Irwin C. Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. -MILWAUKEE, WIS. Charles R. Skinner, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. -WASHINGTON, D. C. J. M. Greenwood, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. LOS ANGELES, CALIF. E. Oram Lyte, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. CHARLESTON, S. C. Oscar T. Corson, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Carroll G. Pearse, Treasurer. 1901— DETROIT, MICH. James M. Green, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. L. C. Greenlee, Treasurer. 1902— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. William M. Beardshear, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Charles H. Keyes, Treasurer. 1903— BOSTON, MASS. Charles W. Eliot, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. W. M. Davidson, Treasurer. 1904— ST. LOUIS, MO. John W. Cook, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. McHenry Rhodes, Treasurer. 1905— ASBURY PARK and OCEAN GROVE, N. J. William H. Maxwell, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. James W. Crabtree, Treasurer. 1906 — No session. 1907— LOS ANGELES, CALIF. Nathan C. Schaeffer, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. J. N. Wilkinson, Treasurer. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES, 1908 — —CLEVELAND, OHIO Edwin G. Cooley, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Arthur H. Chamberlain, Treas -DENVER, COLO. Lorenzo D. Harvey, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Arthur H. Chamberlain, Treas. -BOSTON, MASS. James Y. Joyner, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Arthur H. Chamberlain, Treas. -SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF. Ella Flagg Young, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Durand W. Springer, Treasurer. -CHICAGO, ILL. Carroll G. Pearse, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Katherine D. Blake, Treasurer. -SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH. Edward T. Fairchild, President. Durand W. Springer, Secretary. Grace M. Shepherd, Treasurer. -ST. PAUL, MINN. Joseph Swain, President. Durand W. Springer, Secretary. Grace M. Shepherd,, Treasurer. OAKLAND, CALIF. (International Congress of Education.) David Starr Jordan, President, Durand W. Springer, Secretary. Grace M. Shepherd, Treasurer. NEW YORK, N. Y. David B. Johnson, President. Durand W. Springer, Secretary. Grace M. Shepherd, Treasurer. -PORTLAND, ORE. Robert J. AlEy, President. Durand W. Springer, Secretary. Thomas E. Finegan, Treasurer. PITTSBURGH, PA. Mary C. C. Bradford, President. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. A. J. Matthews, Treasurer. -MILWAUKEE, WIS. George D. Strayer, President. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. A. T. Matthews. Treasurer. 1920— SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH. Josephine Corliss Preston, Pres. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. A. J. Matthews, Treasurer. 1921— DES MOINES, IOWA. Fred M. Hunter, President. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. Cornelia S. Adair, Treasurer. . 1922— BOSTON, MASS. Charl Ormond Williams, Pres. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. Cornelia S. Adair, Treasurer. 1923— OAKLAND-SAN FRANCISCO. William B. Owen, President. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. Cornelia S. Adair Treasurer. 1924— WASHINGTON, D. C. Olive M. Jones, President. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. Cornelia S. Adair, Treasurer. 1925— INDIANAPOLIS, IND. Jesse H. Newlon, President. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. Cornelia S. Adair, Treasurer. 1926— PHILADELPHIA, PA. Mary McSkimmon, President. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer. 1927— SEATTLE, WASH. Francis G. Blair, President. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer. 1928— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. Cornelia S. Adair, President. J. W. CrabtrEE, Secretary. Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer. 1929— ATLANTA, GA. Uel W. Lamkin, President. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer. 1930— COLUMBUS, OHIO. E. Ruth PyrtlE, President. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer. 1931— LOS ANGELES, CALIF. Willis A. Sutton, President. J. W. CrabtrEE, Secretary. Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer. 1932— ATLANTIC CITY, N. J. Florence IIalE, President. J. W. CrabtrEE, Secretary. Henry Lester Smith. Treasurer. Associational Records and Information 837 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OFFICERS— 1931-32 Florence Hale . President . State Director of Rural Education, 15 Melville Street, Augusta, Maine J. W. Crabtree . Secretary . 1201 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C. IIenry Fester Smith . Treasurer . Dean, School of Education, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana Executive Committee Florence Hale . . President . State Director of Rural Education, 15 Melville Street, Augusta, Maine \\ iLLis A. Sutton . Vicepresident . Superintendent of Schools, Atlanta, Georgia Joseph H. Saunders . Chairman, Board of Trustees, Superintendent of Schools, Newport News, Virginia Henry Fester Smith . Treasurer. . Dean, School of Education, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana Joseph Rosier . Member by Election .... President, Fairmont State Normal School, Fairmont, West Virginia Board of Trustees Joseph H. Saunders . Chairman .... Superintendent of Schools, Newport News, Virginia Florence Hale . President . State Director of Rural Education, 15 Melville Street, Augusta, Maine J. M. Gwinn . Superintendent of Schools, San Francisco, California Kate V. Wofford . Seth Fow Hall, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Edgar G. Doudna . Secretary, Board of Normal School Regents, Madison, Wisconsin Vicepresidents Sadie M. Alley . 13351 Prest Street . Detroit, Michigan George C. Baker . Superintendent of Schools . Moorestown, New Jersey Ernest W. Butterfield. ... Commissioner of Education . Hartford. Connecticut J. G. Collicott . Superintendent of Schools . Columbus, Ohio Edith Fouise GrosvEnor. . . Apt. 73, The Iowa . Washington, D. C. Oren E. Fong . Department of Public Instruction . Honolulu, Hawaii W. T. Fongshore . Greenwood School . Kansas City, Missouri Elizabeth McCormick . Principal, Timothy O. Howe School . Superior, Wisconsin Charles Priest . Supt., Carson City Public Schools . Carson City, Nevada George W. Wannamaker .. .Superintendent of Schools . Griffin, Georgia Caroline S. Woodruff . Principal, State Normal School . Castleton, Vermont Board of Directors Florence HalE . President . State Director of Rural Education, 15 Melville Street, Augusta, Maine Willis A. Sutton . Vicepresident . Superintendent of Schools, Atlanta, Georgia Henry Fester Smith . Treasurer . Dean, School of Education, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana Joseph H. Saunders . Chairman . Board of Trustees, Superintendent of Schools, Newport News, Virginia J. W. Crabtree . Secretary . 1201 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C. State Directors Alabama . Alaska . Arizona . Arkansas . California . Colorado . Connecticut . Delaware . District of Columbia Florida . Georgia . Hawaii . Idaho . Illinois . Indiana . Iowa . Kansas . Kentucky . . J. D. Williams, Principal, Avondale School . Birmingham . A. E. Karnes, Superintendent of Schools . Ketchikan . D. M. Hibner, Superintendent of Schools . Ray . C. M. Hirst, State Supt. of Public Instruction . Fittle Rock . F. F. Martin, % Board of Education . Santa Monica . W. B. Mooney, Secretary, Colorado Education Association, 530 Commonwealth Building . Denver . Gordon C. Swift, Superintendent of Schools . Watertown . H. V. Holloway, State Supt. of Public Instruction . Dover . Edith f. GrosvEnor, 73 The Iowa . Washington . James S. Rickards, Executive Secretary, Florida Education Association . Tallahassee .*.... M. F. Duggan, State Superintendent of Schools . Atlanta . Oren E. Fong, Deputy Superintendent of Public Instruction .. Honolulu . Raymond Snyder, Superintendent of Schools . Idaho Falls . A. F. Whittenberg, Secretary, State Examining Board for Teachers’ Certificates . Springfield . Charles O. Williams, Secretary, Indiana State Teachers Assn., Room 205, Hotel Fincoln . Indianapolis . Mary A. Ford, Woodrow Wilson Junior High School . Sioux City . ...,M. E. Pearson, Superintendent of Schools . Kansas City . ...R. E. Williams, Secretary, Kentucky Education Association, 1317-18 Heyburn Building . Fouisville 838 National Education Association Louisiana . Maine . Maryland . Massachusetts . . Michigan . Minnesota . Mississippi . Missouri . Montana . . Nebraska . Nevada . New Hampshire . New Jersey . New Mexico . New York . North Carolina . . North Dakota . . . Ohio . Oklahoma . Oregon . Pennsylvania . . . . Philippine Islands Porto Rico . Rhode Island . . . South Carolina . . South Dakota , . . . Tennessee . 1 exas . Utah . Vermont . Virgin Islands . . . Virginia . Washington . West Virginia . . . Wisconsin . Wyoming . . \nnie T. Bell, Louisiana State University . Baton Rouge . William B. Jack, Superintendent of Schools . Portland . William Burdick, State Supv. of Physical Education, 7 East Mulberry Street . Baltimore . Annie C. Woodward, 144 School Street . Somerville . Webster H. Pearse, State Supt. of Public Instruction . Lansing . Alice F. Sullivan, Spalding Hotel . Duluth • ••••H. V. Cooper, Superintendent of Schools . Vicksburg . Thomas J. Walker, Editor , School and Community . Columbia ■ • . • «R* J. Cunningham, Secretary, Montana Education Association, 7 Kohrs Block . Helena ....Dwight E. Porter, Principal, Technical High School . Omaha ....Donnell C. Richards, Fernley Union School . Fernley ....Dana S. Jordan, Supt. Supervisory Union No. 34 . Lisbon ... .Alexander J. Glennie, Principal, Miller Street School . Newark ....Raymond Huff, Superintendent of Schools . Clayton ....Harry W. Langworthy, Superintendent of Schools . Gloversville ....T. W. Andrews, Superintendent of Schools . High Point ....L. A. White, Superintendent of Schools . Minot • • • .R. E. Offenhauer, Superintendent of Schools . Lima ....M. E. Hurst, Central High School . Tulsa . . . .C. A. Rice, Superintendent of Schools . Portland . . . .J. Herbert Kelley, Executive Secretary, Pennsylvania State Education Assn., 400 N. Third Street . Harrisburg ....Camii.0 Osias, Resident Commissioner from the Philippines, House Office Bldg . Washington, D. C. ....F. Rodriguez Lopez, Department of Education . San Juan • * * .L-HARLES Carroll, 122 State House. ................... .Providence ....A. C. Flora, Superintendent of Schools . Columbia • • • • S. B. Nissen, Editor, South Dakota Education Association Journal, Perry Building . Sioux Falls ....b. L. Ragsdale, 659 N. Manassas Street . Memphis . . . . L. W. Rogers, First Asst. State Supt. of Public Instruction. . .Austin ....Arch M. Thurman, 1042 Ramona Avenue . Salt Lake City - Caroline S. Woodruff, Principal, State Normal School . Castleton ....Arthur E. Lindborg, Director of Education . St. Thomas ... .Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, Principal, Washington and Gatewood Schools . . J . Norfolk ....Mabel V. Wilson, Principal, Laurelhurst School . .'...Seattle - W. C. Cook, State Supt. of Free Schools . Charleston - E. G. Doudna, Secretary, Board of Normal School Regents. .. Madison - Mrs. Katharine A. Morton, State Capitol Bldg . Cheyenne Life Directors Cornelia S. Adair . Robert J. Aley . Francis G. Blair . Board of Education . Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford Elmer Ellsworth Brown. Nicholas Murray Butler. P. P. Claxton . William John Cooper ... H. A. Graham . Frederick M. Hunter.... Olive M. Jones . James Y. Joyner . Uel W. Lamkin . Mary McSkimmon . . Jesse H. Newlon . Carroll G. Pearse . ..2121 Park Avenue . Richmond, Virginia •••••••• . ; . Indianapolis, Indiana . .State Supt. of Public Instruction, Springfield, Illinois. . Nashville, Tennessee ..1481 South Grant Street . Denver, Colorado . .Chancellor, New York University. .New York, N. Y. ..President, Columbia University ... New York, N. Y. ..President, Austin Peay Normal School, # Clarksville, Tennessee ..United. States Commissioner of Edu¬ cation . Washington, D. C. ..East Broadway . Mount Pleasant, Michigan ..Chancellor, Denver University .... Denver, Colorado ..61 Gramercy Park, North . New York, N. Y. ..Asst. Manager, Prudential Insurance Co., 304 East Jones Street. . Raleigh, North Carolina ..President, Northwest Missouri State Teachers College, Maryville, Missouri .Principal. Pierce School, Brookline, Massachusetts . Lincoln School, Teachers College, Columbia University . New York, N. Y. .315 Ludington Avenue, Wauwatosa Branch, , r _ Milwaukee, Wisconsin Mrs. Josephine Corliss Preston . Burton, Vashon Island, King County, Washington E. Ruth PyrtlE . Principal, Bancroft School . Lincoln, Nebraska State Teachers Association of Illinois. .Robert C. Moore, Secretary ... Springfield, Illinois George D. Strayer . Teachers College, Columbia University New York, N. Y. Will!S A. Sutton . Superintendent of Schools . Atlanta, Georgia teachers Institute . Philadelphia, Pennsylvania John J. Tigert . . . President, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida Charles G. White . President, Isbell Missionary College ~ _ ,TT . Martin, Tennessee Charl O. Williams . Director, Field and Legislative Division, National Education Association, 1201 Six¬ teenth Street . Washington, D. C. Associational Records and Information 839 HEADQUARTERS STAFF 1201 Sixteenth Street, Northwest, Washington, D. C. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Directors of Mary J. Winfree, Director of Accounts and Assistant Treasurer Joy Elmer Morgan, Publications Agnes Winn, Classroom Service Harriett M. Chase, Secretary's Office William G. Carr, Research Harold A, Allan, Business Divisions Charl O. Williams, Field and Legislative T. D. Martin. Records and Membership Gwladys W. Jones, Secretary, Deans of Women Eva G. Pinkston, Special Secretary, Ele¬ mentary School Principals S. D. Shankland Administrative Service and Secretary of the Department of Superintendence NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION President . W, C. BaglEy, Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University . : . New York, N. Y. Vicepresident . Mrs. Susan M. Dorsey, Superintendent Emeritus of Schools, 1506 Arapahoe Street, . Los Angeles, Calif. Secretary . Adelaide S. Baylor, Chief, Home Economics Education Service Federal Board for Vocational Education, . 1523 L Street N. W . Washington, D. C. Executive Committee - David A. Ward, Superintendent of Schools, Chester, Pa. (Term expires . 1932) ; Anna Laura Force, Principal, Lake Junior High School, Denver, Colo. (Term expires 1933); Minnie J. Nielson, Valley City, N. D. (Term expires 1934). OFFICERS OF DEPARTMENTS Department of Adult Education President . C. S. Marsh, Dean, School of Business Administration, University of Buffalo . Buffalo, N. Y. Secretary . W. C. Smith, Chief, Adult Education Bureau, State Depart¬ ment of Education . Albany, N. Y. Treasurer . Agnes Winn, Director, Division of Classroom Service, Na¬ tional Education Association, 1201 Sixteenth Street, . Washington, D. C. Executive Committee ... . L. R. Alderman, Chief, Service Division, U. S. Office of Education, Washington, D. C. ; Earl W. Hill, Lecturer in Commercial Aviation, University of Southern Cali¬ fornia, Los Angeles, Calif.; Robert C. Deming, Super¬ visor, Division of Field Service, State Board of Educa¬ tion, Hartford, Conn. Department of Business Education President . Albert E. Bullock, Director, Division of Commercial Edu¬ cation, Chamber of Commerce Building . Los Angeles, Calif. Vicepresidcnt . Helen Reynolds, Assistant Professor, School of Commerce, Ohio University . Athens, Ohio Secretary-Treasurer . Foster Loso, 49 De Hart Place . Elizabeth, N. J. President . . Vicepresident Secretary Department of Classroom Teachers .Sara H. Fahey, Teacher, Girls Commercial High School, 122 W. 75th Street . New York, N. Y. .Mary C. Ralls, Teacher, E. C. White School, 6529 Jefferson Street . .....Kansas City, Mo. • Eugenie J. Brown, History Teacher, John Adams Senior High School . Cleveland, Ohio 840 National Education Association Regional Directors , Mlddle Secti°n Frances E. Harden, 1543 Sherwin Avenue, /iT^m exp^es 1932>! Western Section, i31 + Verlion .Place> Pueblo, Colo. (Term ex¬ pires 1933); Eastern Section, Daisy Lord, 1027 VV. Main Street, Waterbury, Conn. (Term expires 1934), Department of Deans of Women p resident . Florence K. Root, Dean of Women, Cleveland College, First Vicepresident . Agnes Ellen Harris, Dean of Women, University ^ Second Vicepresident . . . . Thyrs^W. Amos,' Dean of Women,' University of Pitts^gh*7’ A’a' Secretary . Sara Norris, Dean of Women, State Teachers College Pa‘ . Mrs. Mary F. Pilcher, Dean of Girls, Montclair High^tfoL Mi"n' Headquarters Secretary.. Gwi.adys W. Jones, 1201 Sixteenth Street, Washington, N 1 Department of Educational Research (American Educational Research Association) President . ^'chffiaero' GrAY’ Department of Education, University of . AiFREo'D^SmpsiN, site Depar.™^; of Education i ! i An!anyS°N. Y- y easurer - William G. Carr, Director, Research Division, National Edu- 7 Executive Committee. . . - Jon n^U°Ste n q uTs^.'T E. ' 2 5 t'h Street, BalYimor'e; Md^W ' 'w* ' ^ D' C Charters, Sclmol of Education, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Department of Elementary School Principals President . Earl r. Laing, Principal, Burt School, 20710 Pilgrim Avenue, First Vicepresident . Cassh^-U Roys, Principal, Walnut Hills School, 2609 Mkh' SThWdd VirZ^6-^ ■ ' • ‘ HaREE^W.* Lyon,' 95 *N. ’ Sierra Bo'n'ita A’v'en'u'e,'pk'sade?amaCalifNebr' Third Vicepresident . Lillian M. Towne, Principal, Thomas Gardner District F°.?.rthT/yicePr evident - Carl S. Zook, Principal, Gregory Heights School Port^nT"^383' Fifth Vicepresident . Elizabeth McCormick, Principal^ TiShy O Howf : School’ SAZtVl * V . ^AUD^E & Rhodes> 185 Westminster Drive, N. E., Atla^t?^^ WiS* Special Secretary . Eva G. Pinkston, 1201 Sixteenth Street, Washington DC E. ecutive Committee - James R. Floyd, Principal, Jefferson School, Plainfield N J (Term expires 1932) ; M. Emma Brookes, Principal,’ Miles bchool, Cleveland, Ohio (Term expires 1933); John T Loftus, Public School No. 80, W. 19th Street, Brook- 7inc’ Li' Y- exPires 1934); Herbert C. Hansen, 315 Plymouth Court, Chicago, Ill. (Term expires 1935). President . . , Vicepresident Secretary Department of Kindergarten-Primary Education . ^School"030’ Kindergarten Teacher, Massachusetts Avenue . Elizabeth Cullen, Supervisor, Kindergarten-PrhmaryC De-7’ N' ^ partment, % Public Schools . Detroit Mich . Mary Merritt, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pa." ’ President . V icepresident .... Secretary-Treasurer Department of Lip Reading Marion Spring Clark, Teacher in charge of Lip Reading Classes, 205 Mt. Auburn Street . Camhrirlcre Mass Coralie N Keneield, Instructor in Lip Reading 'to Adul^ ’ Hm™ea&ned’ 61 t Shreve building . San Francisco, Calif Helen Scriver, Instructor in Lip Reading, Public Schools, Santa Barbara, Calif. President . . . Vicepresident Secretary . . . Department of Rural Education Ray P. Snyder Chief, Bureau of Rural Education, State De¬ partment of Education . Albanv N V 0. H. PlENzke, Assistant State Superintendent of Public In- ’ struction, State Department of Education . Madison Wis . Mrs. Katherine M. Cook, Chief, Division of Special Prob¬ lems, U. S. Office of Education, Washington, D. C. Associational Records and Information 841 Executive Committee ...Anna Swenson, Director of Rural Education, State Depart- ment of Education, St. Paul, Minn. (Term expires 1933); A i vA £ittman> Director of Rural Education, State Nor¬ mal College, Ypsilanti, Mich. (Term expires 1934); Helen Hay Heyl, Assistant in Rural Education, State Depart¬ ment °l> Education, Albany, N. Y. (Term expires 1935); U. H. Plenzke, Assistant State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Madison, Wis. (Term expires 1936); Fannie W. Dunn, Professor of Rural Education, Teachers Col¬ lege, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. (Term ex¬ pires 1937). Department of School Health and Physical Education President . Vicepresident . Secretary . Executive Committee . . Jay B. Nash, Professor of Physical Education, School of a ™atlon’ New York University . New York, N. Y. , .A. W. Ihompson, State Supervisor of Physical Education, State House. . . Uansing, Mich. • James E. Rogers, Director, National Physical Education Serv- ice, 315 Fourth Avenue . New York N. Y . Ethel Perrin, American Child Health Association, 370 Seventh Avenue, New York, N. Y. (Term expires 1932); F. W. Maroney, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N Y. (Term expires 1933); Edna Bailey, of CaIlf°™ia, Berkeley, Calif. (Term expires 1934) ; William E. Burdick, State Director of Physical Education, 7 E. Mulberry Street, Baltimore, Md. (Term expires 1935). President Secretary Department of Science Instruction Charles Lincoln Edwards, Supervisor of Nature Study Public Schools . Tos Anvel’ec W. U. Eikenberry, Professor, State Teachers College, Trenton, N. J.' President . V icepresident .... Secretary . Treasurer . Regional Directors Department of Secondary Education . . Ernest D. Lewis, Room 1901, 130 West 42nd Street.. New York N Y '■ANANNFER?n^R’n-ap-°a HlgTTh-SLChc°°i--,' . San Francisco, Calif.' ..Ann E. Ryder, Dickinson High School . Tersev Citv N T ..George M Strong, East High School . . Columbus Ohio . . Augustus Ludwig, Pershing Junior High School, Brooklyn, ’ N. Y.; Robert W. House, Principal, High School, Salem High School, Modesto, Calif. unior odesto Department of Secondary School Principals President . W. W. Haggard, Superintendent, Joliet Township High School „. T_. and Junior College . Tnliet Til First Vicepresident . Robert B. Clem, Principal, Shawnee Junior High' School Second Vicepresident - E. E. Church, Supervising Principal, Junior-Senior ’High''1116’ Ky' ochool . . . . . Parkersbure \7a Secretary-Treasurer . H. V Church, Superintendent, J. Sterling Morton High « . School . Cicero Til Executive Committee .... Harrison C. Lyseth, State Supervisor of Secondary Educa- tion, State of Maine, Augusta, Maine; M. C. Jones, Prin¬ cipal, High School, Huntington Beach, Calif. President . . . . . First Vicepresident . Second Vicepresident .... Secretary-Treasurer . Board of Directors . Department of Social Studies W C ^°T™; Arsenal Technical Schools . Indianapolis, Ind. Hnw.j p w’ Columbia University . New York, N. Y. H University ILS°N’ Graduate Sch°o1 of Education, Harvard Bessie L. Pierce, Associate Professor of History, University of Chicago . Chicavn Til O. M. Dickerson Teachers College, Greeley, Colo. (Term ex- pn-es 1933) ; Burr Philips, Madison High School, Madi¬ son, Wis. (Term expires 1933). 842 National Education Association Department of Special Education President . Cornelia S. Adair, 2121 Park Avenue, Richmond, Va. V icepresident . J. Harold Williams, University of California at Los Angeles, . „ T Los Angeles, Calif. ..Ada C. McLaughlin, Box 176, Rt. 12, Portland, Ore. Secretarv-T reasurer . Department of Superintendence President . . Milton C. Potter, Superintendent of Schools . Milwaukee Wis. First V icepresident . Edwin C. Broome, Superintendent of Schools . Philadelphia Pa Second Vicepresident - George Melcher. Superintendent of Schools . Kansas City Mo Executive Secretary - Sherwood D. Shankland, 1201 Sixteenth Street, Washington D C. Executive Committee . . . David E. Weglein, Superintendent of Schools, Baltimore, Md. (Term expires 1933); Charles B. Glenn, Superintendent of Schools, Birmingham, Ala. (Term expires 1934); Her¬ bert S. Weet, Superintendent of Schools, Rochester, N. Y. (Term expires 1935); Carroll R. Reed, Superin¬ tendent of Schools, Minneapolis, Minn. (Term expires Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction President . J. Cayce Morrison, Assistant Commissioner for Elementary Education . Albany, N. Y. First Vicepresident . Mildred English, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Raleigh, N. C. Second Vicepresident ....Arthur DondinEau, Supervising Director of Instruction, Detroit, Mich. Secretary-Treasurer . James F. Hosic, Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University . New York, N. Y. Executive Committee .... The officers of the Department, ex-officio; W. H. Burton, Associate Professor of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill.; Worth McClure, Superintendent of Schools, Seattle, Wash.; Elma A. Neal, Director of Elementary Education, Public Schools, San Antonio, Texas Department of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics President . . Helen C. GoodspEEd, Special Assistant to Director of Home Economics, Public Schools . Philadelphia, Pa. Vicepresident . Carlotta Greer, Head of Department of Home Economics, John Hay High School, 2515 Norfolk Avenue, Cleveland, Ohio. Secretary-Treasurer . Mary M. Buckley, Supervisor of Home Economics, Public Schools, Paterson, N. J. (Eastside High School, Paterson, N. J.) Department of Teachers Colleges (American Association of Teachers Colleges) President . Sam H. Whitley, President, East Texas State Teachers College . . . . Commerce, Texas First Vicepresident . W. A. Lewis, President, Kansas State Teachers College, Hays, Kans. Second Vicepresident. ... Franklin E. Baker, President, State Teachers College.... Milwaukee, Wis. Third Vicepresident . Thomas W. Butcher, President, Kansas State Teachers College . Emporia, Kans. Secretary-Treasurer ....Charles W. Hunt, President, Cleveland School of Educa¬ tion . Cleveland, Ohio Department of Visual Instruction President . C. F. Hoban, Director, Visual Instruction, State Department, Harrisburg, Pa. First Vicepresident . F. D. McClusky, Director of Scarborough School, . Scarborough-on-the-Hudson, N. Y. Second Vicepresident . ...W. W. Whittinghill, Assistant Director, Visual Education Department . . . . . . . Detroit, Mich. Secretary-Treasurer . Ellsworth C. Dent, University of Kansas . Lawrence, Kans. Executive Committee ....A. G. Balcom, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Newark, N. J. (Term expires 1933) ; Abraham Krasker, Director of Visual Instruction, Quincy Public Schools, Quincy, Mass. (Term expires 1934); Daniel C. KnowlTon, Asso¬ ciate Professor of Education, New York University, New York, N. Y. (Term expires 1935); John A. Hollinger, Director of Nature Study and Visualization, Pittsburgh Public Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. (Term expires 1936) ; William H. Dudley, 736 South Wabash Avenue, Chi¬ cago, Ill. (Term expires 1937); Mrs. Grace Fisher Ramsey, Associate Curator, American Museum of Natural History, 77th Street and Central Park West, New York, N. Y. (Term expires 1938). Associational Records and Information 843 Department of Vocational Education President . R. W. Heim, State Director of Vocational Education, Newark, Del. Vicepresident . J. H. Hobdy, State Director of Vocational Education, Montgomery, Ala. Secretary . Julian McPhee, State Department of Vocational Education, Sacramento, Calif. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OFFICERS— 1932-33 Joseph Rosier . President .......... President, State Teachers College, Fairmont, West Virginia J. W. Crabtree . Secretary. . 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, District of Columbia Henry Eester Smith . Treasurer . Dean, School of Education, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana Honorary John Dewey . Honorary President and Associate Chairman of Committee on Social Economic Goals, Columbia University, New York, New York Albert E. Winship . Honorary President and Associate Chairman of Committee on Resolutions, Boston, Massachusetts Executive Committee Joseph Rosier . President . President, State Teachers College, Fairmont, West Virginia Florence Hale . Vicepresident . Editor, The Grade Teacher, 425 Fourth Avenue. New York, New York Joseph H. Saunders . Chairman, Board of Trustees, Superintendent, Newport News Pub¬ lic Schools, Newport News, Virginia Henry Eester Smith..- . Treasurer . Dean, School of Education, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana Thomas W. Gosling . Member by Election . Superintendent, Akron Public Schools, Akron, Ohio Board of Trustees Joseph H. Saunders . Chairman . Superintendent, Newport News Public Schools, Newport News, Virginia Joseph Rosier . President . President, State Teachers College, Fairmont, West Virginia J. M. Gwinn . ...Superintendent, San Francisco Public Schools, San Francisco, California Kate V. Wofford . Secretary . Seth Kow Hall, Columbia University, New York, New York Edgar G. Doudna . Secretary, Board of Normal School Regents, Madison, Wisconsin Vicepresidents George C. Baker, Superintendent, Moorestown Public Schools, . Moorestown, New Jersey Ernest W. Butterfield, Commissioner of Education, . Hartford, Connecticut Mabel Ellis, Viceprincipal, Frank McCoppin School . San Francisco, California Edith EouisE Grosvenor . 73 The Iowa Apartment, Washington, District of Columbia OrEn E. Eong, Department of Public Instruction . Honolulu, Hawaii W, T. Eongshore, Greenwood School . Kansas City, Missouri Elizabeth McCormick, Principal, Timothy O. Howe School . Superior, Wisconsin Orville C. Pratt, Superintendent, Spokane Public Schools . Spokane, Washington George W. Wannamaker, Superintendent, Griffin Public Schools . Griffin, Georgia C. B. WivEl, 33 East Eighth Street . Tempe, Arizona Caroline S. Woodruff, Principal, Castleton State Normal School . Castleton, Vermont Board of Directors Joseph Rosier, President- — President, State Teachers College . Fairmont, West Virginia Florence Hale, Vicepresident — -Editor, The Grade Teacher, 425 Fourth Avenue, New York, N. Y. Henry Eester .Smith, Treasurer — Dean, School of Education, Indiana University, _ Bloomington, Indiana Joseph II. Saunders, Chairman, Board of Trustees — Superintendent, Newport News Public Schools, Newport News, Virginia J. W. Crabtree, Secretary — 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W., Washington, District of Columbia 844 National Education Association State Directors Alabama . J. D. Williams, Principal, Avondale School . Birmingham Alaska . E. J. Beck, Superintendent, Nome Public Schools . Nome Arizona . J. O. Mullen, Superintendent, Jerome Public Schools . Jerome Arkansas . C. M. Hirst, State Commissioner of Education . Little Rock California . Frederick F. Martin, 555 Tenth St . Santa Monica Colorado . W. B.’ Mooney, Secretary, Colorado Education Association, 530 Commonwealth Building . Denver Connecticut . Helen T. Collins, 41 Fifth Street . ..'.".New Haven Delaware . ._...H. V. Holloway, State Superintendent of Public Instruction . Dover District of Columbia .. Edith Louise Grosvenor, 73 The Iowa Apartment . Washington Florida . James S. Rickards, Secretary, Florida Education Association. .Tallahassee Georgia . Mell L. Duggan, State Superintendent of Schools . Atlanta Hawa“ . OrEn E. Long, Deputy Superintendent of Public Instruction. .. .Honolulu Idaho . Raymond H. Snyder, Superintendent, Idaho Falls Public Schools, ,,,. . , T ... _ Idaho Falls Illinois . A. L. Whittenberg, Secretary, State Examining Board for Teachers’ Certificates . Springfield Indiana . Charles O. Williams, Secretary-Treasurer. Indiana State Teach¬ ers’ Association, Room 205, Hotel Lincoln . Indianapolis Ipwa . Mary A. Lord, North Junior High School . Sioux City Kansas . M. E. Pearson, Superintendent, Kansas City Public Schools .. Kansas City Kentucky . R. E. Williams, Executive Secretary, Kentucky Education Asso¬ ciation, 1317-18 Heyburn Building . Louisville Louisiana . P. H. Griffith, Director, Extension Division, Louisiana State University . Baton Rouge Maine . W. B. Jack, Superintendent, Portland Public Schools . Portland Maryland . William Burdick, State Supervisor of Physical Education, 7 East Mulberry Street . Baltimore Massachusetts . Annie C. Woodward, 144 School Street . Somerville Michigan . Webster H. Pearce, State Superintendent of Public Instruction. .Lansing Minnesota. . Harry L. Wahi.strand, 824 Third Street East . Willmar Mississippi . H. V. Cooper, Superintendent, Vicksburg Public Schools . ’. Vicksburg Missouri . Thomas J. Walker, Editor, School and Community . Columbia Montana . R. J. Cunningham, Secretary, Montana Education Association, 7 Kohrs Block . Helena gebraska . Dwight E. Porter, Principal, Omaha Technical High School! !!!!! Omaha Nevada . . . Alice Maxwell, Principal, Junior High School . Sparks New Hampshire . Dana S. Jordan, Superintendent, Littleton Public Schools . Littleton New Jersey . Alexander J. Glennie, Principal, Miller Street School . Newark New Mexico . Paul L. Fickinger, 18 Sena Plaza . Santa Fe New York . Frederick Hour Law, 345 East Fifteenth Street . !!!!!.’.'.' .'New York mS rfw113 . ?* W. Andrews, Superintendent, High Point Public Schools. .High Point North Dakota . L. A. White, Superintendent, Minot Public Schools . Minot X,}°, . R* Ej Offenhauer, Superintendent, Lima Public Schools . " Lima Oklahoma . M. E. Hurst, Central High School . Tulsa Oregon . .. . C. A. Rice, Superintendent, Portland Public Schools . Portland Pennsylvania . J. Herbert Kelley, Executive Secretary, Pennsylvania State T . , „ Education Association, 400 North Third Street . Harrisburg Philippine Islands. . . . Camilo Osias, Resident Commissioner from the Philippine Islands, „ House Office Building . Wasbino-tnn D r . Rodriguez-Lopez, Department of Education..'.'.’.'.'.'! . San Juan Rhode Island . Charles Carroll, Director, State Board for Vocational Education 122 State House . Provident lOUH 9? w™ . c • n?- L0RA’ Superintendent, Columbia Publ'ic' School's'.'.'.*.'.'.’.’.'. . Columbia South Dakota . S. B Nissen, Editor, South Dakota Education Association Journal ?“"fSee . tHar,ry H-Clakk Superintendent. Knoxviile Public'Sch^ls'.'.'. Knoxville le as . *->■ y- Rogers, First Assistant State Superintendent of Public Instruction . » tj bJtah *Y . Arch M. Thurman, 1923 Atkin Avenue. .’.'.'.Salt' Lake Ci v Vermont . Caroline S. Woodruff, Principal, Castleton State Normal School 7 Virgin Islands . George H. Ivins, Director of Education . St^bimp^ Wgima . Edith B. Joynes, Principal, George Washington and Robert Gate-’ . wood ochools . t\t r Washington , . Orville C Pratt, Superintendent, 'Spokane Pubii'c’ Schoois'.'.'.'.'.'. Spokane V est Virginia . William C. Cook, State Superintendent of Free Schools . Charleston ^lscol?sin . Bmnchs M. McCarthy, Appleton High School . Apple on Wy°mmg . MrS- Katharine A. Morton, State Capitol Building . ....Cheyenne Life Directors Cornelia S. Adair, 2121 Park Avenue . Robert J. AlEy, Butler College . Francis G. Blair, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Board of Education . Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford, 5069 Newton Street . .Richmond, Virginia Indianapolis, Indiana ..Springfield, Illinois Nashville, Tennessee . . . .Denver, Colorado Associational Records and Information 845 Elmer Ellsworth Brown, Chancellor, New York University . New York, New York Nicholas Murray Butler, President, Columbia University . New \ork, New York P. P. Claxton, President, Austin Peay Normal School . . . Clarksville, Tennessee William John Cooper, United States Commissioner of Education . Washington, D. C. Hugh A. Graham, East Broadway . Mount Pleasant, Michigan Florence Hale, Editor, The Grade Teacher, 425 Fourth Avenue . New \ork, New York Frederick M. Hunter, Chancellor, University of Denver . Denver, Colorado Illinois State Teachers’ Association, Robert C. Moore, Secretary . Carlinville, Illinois Olive M. Jones, Director, Calvary House, 61 Gramercy Park, North . New York, New \ork James Y. Joyner, Assistant Manager, Prudential Insurance Company, 304 East Jones Street . Raleigh, North Carolina Uel W. Lamkin, President, Northwest Missouri State Teachers’ College. ... Maryville, Missouri Mary McSkimmon, 205 Tappan Street . ;••••. -Brookline, Massachusetts Jesse H. Newi.on, Lincoln School, Teachers College, Columbia University .. New York, New \ ork Carroll G. PearsE, 1721 Uudington Avenue, Wauwatosa Branch . ..Milwaukee, Wisconsin Mrs. Josephine Corliss Preston, Burton, Vashon Island . King County, Washington E. Ruth PyrtlE, Principal, Bancroft School . Lincoln, Nebraska George D. Strayer, Teachers College, Columbia University . New York, New York Willis A. Sutton, Superintendent, Atlanta Public Schools . . . Atlanta, Georgia Teachers’ Institute . Philadelphia, Pennsylvania John J. TiGERT, President, University of Florida . .....Gainesville, Florida Charl O. Williams, Director, Field and Legislative Division, National Education Association, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W . Washington, District of Columbia OFFICERS OF DEPARTMENTS NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION President . William C. BaglEy, Professor of Education, Teachers Col¬ lege, Columbia University . . New York, N. Y. Vicepresident . Mrs. Susan M. Dorsey, Superintendent Emeritus of Schools, 1506 Arapahoe Street . Los Angeles, Calif. Secretary . Adelaide S. Baylor, Chief, Home Economics Education Serv¬ ice, Federal Board for Vocational Education, 1523 L Street . .Washington, D. C. Executive Committee . Anna Laura Force, Principal, Lake Junior High School, Denver, Colo. (1933); Minnie J. Nielson, Valley City, N. D. (1934); David A. Ward, Superintendent of Schools, Chester, Pa. (1935). Department of Administrative Women in Education President . Isabel Lancaster EcklES, Superintendent of Schools. .Santa Fe, N. M. Vicepresident . Anna Laura Force, Principal, Lake Junior High School. .Denver, Colo. Treasurer . .'...Mrs. Helen Watson Pierce, Assistant Superintendent of Schools . Los Angeles, Calif. Directors . Olive M. Jones, Calvary House, 61 Gramercy Park North . New York, N. Y. Mary Postell, 1022 Columbus Ave. N. E. Atlanta, Ga. Eva G. Pinkston, Executive Secretary, N. E. A. Department of Elementary School Principals, 1201 Sixteenth Street, Washington, D. C. Mary Elizabeth O’Connor, Supervisor, Elementary Educa¬ tion, Public Schools . Natick, Mass. Mrs. Margaret M. Smith, Principal, Ebert School . Denver, Colo. Department of Adult Education .Mary L. Guyton, Supervisor of Adult Alien Education, State Department of Education . ..Boston, Mass. .Caroline A. Whipple, Supervisor of Adult Education, State Education Department . Albany, N. \. .Agnes Winn, Director, Division of Classroom Service, National Education Association, 1201 Sixteenth Street ... Washington, D. C. .Katherine H. Kohler, Director of Extension and Summer Schools, Board of Education, City Hall..... . Minneapolis, Minn. • L. R. Alderman, Chief, Service Division, U. S. Office of Educa¬ tion . Washington, D. C. Robert C. Deming, Supervisor, Division of Field Service, State Board of Education . Hartford, Conn. Department of Business Education President . Paul S. Lomax, School of Education, New York University.... New York, N. Y. VicePresident . Benjamin R. Haynes, University of Southern California.... r Los Angeles, Calif, President . Secretary . Treasurer . Executive Director. . . . Executive Committee . . 846 National Education Association Executive Secretary . . . Treasurer . Executive Committee . . , .L* A. Rice, Assistant in Secondary Education, State Department of Education . Trenton, N. T. .E. Gilbert Dake, Director of Commercial Education* Board ’of Education . St. Louis Mo .Albert E. Bullock, Director, Division of Commercial Education’ Chamber of Commerce Building (Past President) .... Los Angeles Ira W. Kibby, Chief, Bureau of Business Education, State House. TV c t~\ • , ^ Sacramento, Calif. CLAY D. Slinker, Director of Commercial Education, Board of Education . Moines> Iow? Llinton a. Reed, Supervisor of Commercial Education, State Education Department . Albany N Y Helen Reynolds, Associate Professor, School of Commerce, Ohio University . Athens OMr. Annie C. Woodward, 144 School Street . Somerville Mass Frederick G. Nichols, Graduate School of Education, Harvard University . Cambridge, Mass Department of Classroom Teachers President . Mrs. F. Blanche Preble, 10855 Vernon Avenue . Chicago Ill ... (Elementary Teacher) icepresident . Albert M. Shaw, 2833 Estara Avenue . Los Angeles, Calif. c (Junior High School Teacher) Secretary . Eugenie J. Brown, Doanbrooke Hotel . Cleveland Ohio n- . P ~ . (History Teacher, John Adams Senior High School) Regional Dirlftors . w*\ H' ^ Wes£ 75th §lreet . New York, N. Y. regional Directors . Western Section Faye Read, Elementary Teacher, 131 Vernon Place (1931) . Pueblo Colo Eastern Section, Datsy Lord, High School Teacher, ' 1027 West Mam Street (1934) . Waterburv Conn Middle Section, Mary C. Ralls, Elementary Teacher, 6529 Jeffer¬ son Avenue (1935) . Kansas City, Mo. Department of Deans of Women President . First Vicepresident . (Acting President), Agnes Ellen Harris, Dean of Women, Uni¬ versity of Alabama . University Ala Second Vicepresident . Thyrsa W. Amos, Dean of Women, University of' Pittsburgh...’. Secretary . Sara Norris, Dean of Women, State Teachers College. . Mankatof Minn Treasurer . Mrs. Mary F. Pilcher, Dean of Girls, Montclair High School _ Headquarters Secretary .. . Gwladys W. Jones, 1201 Sixteenth Street . Washington, ' D. C. Department of Educational Research (American Educational Research Association) President . William S. Gray, Department of Education, University of Chicago . Chicago Ill l icepresident . Alfred D. Simpson, State Education Department . Albany N. Y Secretary-Treasurer . William^G. Carr, National Education Association, 1201 Sixteenth" Executive Committee . John L- Stenquist, *3 East 25th Street! .' ! .’ .* I^BalSor^Md! W- . Charters, School of Education, Ohio State University. . Columbus, Ohio Department of Elementary School Principals Presid ent . First Vicepresident . . . Second Vicepresident . Third Vicepresident . . Fourth Vicepresident . Fifth Vicepresident.. Executive Secretary . , Executive Committee . ...Elizabeth McCormick, Principal, Timothy O. Howe School _ t-. t t~» ... „ Superior, Wis. . . • JyARi, R. L/Aing, Principal, Burt School, 20710 Pilgrim Avenue. . . . t ~ _ . Detroit, Mich. ...Lillian M. TownE, Principal, Thomas Gardner District Public Schools, Allston Section . Boston, Mass. ...II. B. Norton, Principal, Robinson School, 8400 First Avenue S. . r ~ „ Birmingham, Ala. ...Margaret C. Mackintosh, Principal, Public School 140 . at . r~. „ . Brooklyn, N. Y. ...Mason A. Stratton, Principal, Brighton Avenue School . t-> Atlantic City, N. T. •••Hva G. Pinkston, 1201 Sixteenth Street . Washington D C . ..M. Emma Brookes, Principal, Miles School, 11918 Miles Avenue' a . L' • ' L' I.’ ‘ . . Cleveland, Ohio A. L>. Heacock, Principal, Los Feliz School, 4737 Hollywood Boule¬ vard (1934) . Los Angeles Calif Herbert C. Hansen, Principal, Talcott School (1935) _ Chicago Ill Cassie F. Roys, Principal, Walnut Hill School (1936) ... Omaha, Nebr’ Associational Records and Information 847 Department of Kindergarten-Primary Education President . Martha E. Seating, Instructor, Pestalozzi Froebel Teachers Col¬ lege, 5136 Blackstone Avenue . Chicago, Ill. Vicepresident . Elizabeth Cullen, Kindergarten-Primary Supervisor, 4061 Clair- mont Avenue . Detroit, Mich. Secretary . Irene Born, Kindergarten Teacher, 1517 West Wright Street.... Milwaukee, Wis. President . . . Vicepresident Secretary-Treasurer President . Vicepresident . Secretary . Executive Committee Department of Lip Reading ..CoraliE N. Keneield, Instructor to Adult Deafened, Public Schools, 617 Shreve Building . San Francisco, Calif. ..ESTELLE E. Samuelson, Supervisor, Education and Employment Work, The New York League for the Hard of Hearing, Inc., 480 Lexington Avenue . New York, N. Y. ..Helen Scriver, Instructor in Lip Reading, Public Schools, 20 Daily News Building . Santa Barbara, Calif. Department of Rural Education ..Ray P. Snyder, Chief, Bureau of Rural Education, State Educa¬ tion Department . Albany, N. Y. ..O. H. PlEnzke, Assistant State Superintendent of Public Instruc¬ tion, State Capitol . Madison, Wis. ..Mrs. Katherine M. Cook, Chief, Division of Special Problems, U. S. Office of Education . Washington, D. C. . .Anna Swenson, Director of Rural Education, State Department of Education (1933) . St. Paul, Minn. M. S. Pittman, Director of Rural Education, State Normal Col¬ lege (1934) . Ypsilanti, Mich. Helen Hay Heyl, Assistant in Rural Education, State Education Department (1935) . Albany, N. Y. O. H. PlEnzke, Assistant State Superintendent of Public Instruc¬ tion (1936) . . Madison, Wis. Fannie W. Dunn, Professor of Rural Education, Teachers College, Columbia University (1937) . New York, N. Y. Department of School Health and Physical Education President . A. W. Thompson, State Director of Health and Physical Educa¬ tion, State Capitol . Lansing, Mich. Vicepresident . Edna W. Bailey, Associate Professor of Education, Univer¬ sity of California . Berkeley, Calif. Secretary-Treasurer . James E- Rogers, Director, National Physical Education Service, 315 Fourth Avenue . New York, N. Y. Executive Committee . F. W. MaronEy, Columbia University (1933) . New York, N. Y. A. G. Ireland State Director of Health and Physical Educa¬ tion, 1208 Trenton Trust Building (1934) . Trenton, N. J. William E. Burdick, State Director of Physical Education, 7 Mulberry Street (1935) . Baltimore, Md. Ethel Perrin, American Child Health Association, 450 Seventh Avenue (1936) . New York, N. Y. Department of Science Instruction President . Ellen Eddy Shaw, Curator of Elementary Instruction, Brooklyn Botanic Garden . Brooklyn, N. Y. Secretary . Louise Herrick, Roosevelt High School . Rockford, Ill. Department of Secondary Education President . Ernest D. Lewis, Room 1901, 130 West 42nd Street. .New York, N. Y. Vicepresident . Frank E. Barr, Balboa High School . San Francisco, Calif. Secretary . Ann E. Ryder, Dickinson High School . Jersey City, N. J. Treasurer . George M. Strong, East High School . Columbus, Ohio Regional Directors . Grace M. Davis, Modesto High School . Modesto, Calif. Asa E. Foster, Starling Junior High School . Columbus, Ohio Robert W. House, Salem High School . Salem, Va. Grace Kenehan, Chester S. Morey Junior High School. .Denver, Colo. Augustus Ludwig, Pershing Junior High School . Brooklyn, N. Y. Department of Secondary School Principals President . W. W. Haggard, Superintendent, Joliet Township High School and Junior College . Joliet, Ill. First Vicepresident . Robert B. Clem, Principal, Shawnee High School . Louisville, Ky. Second Vicepresident . E. E. Church, Supervising Principal, Junior-Senior High School. Parkersburg, W. Va. 848 S ecretary- T reasurer National Education Association .H. V. Church, Superintendent, J. Sterling Morton High Schools.. Executive Committee . Harr.sc* C Lvseth, State Supervisor of Secondary EduStTo™’ M. C. JoeNes.eprrS’c“aI,'Hig'h Schooi ! ! ! ! ! ! 1 iHunting^^aSh. cSfe Department of Social Studies Firfvtcep'reiident: \ \ \ \ "Sr. VSSS** ^ Second Vicepresident . Howarp E^Wirso*, Graduate School of Education'* Harvard ' Y' Secretary-Treasurer . Associate ' History', ' UnTversIfy’ of ^ Board of Directors . O. M. JMckerson! Teacher's' College VVqVVi . r IH. Burr PhiLips, Madison High School (1933 ^)\\\\\\\\\’;. M^dfson, Wis! Department of Special Education President . Guise Ii Martens, Senior Specialist in the Gducation of Gxcep- EirstVicePresident . Mar£\ G Secretary-Treasurer . Lucv^Qu.nn, Director, Department' Special" Oassfs pSlif^' . Atlantic City, N. J. Department of Superintendence Firs! Vlceiresident: \ \ [ \ \ \ fp'wmc' Blooms sZSS'"4, . Milwaukee, Wis. ; ; ; • ■ • '■ • '■ £ Executive Committee . Dav.o E l isfSJ. wS, iSSSKS? ol ISss VimV) Carrouu R. Reed, Superintendent of Schools (1936) . Minneapolis’ Minn! Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction Pi csident . Rrnest Horn, Professor of Gducation, State University of Iowa. . First Vicepresident . ArthUr Dondineau, Director of Instruction, Board Second Vicepresident . JULia L. Hahn, Supervising Principal, Raymond Schooh!?^. ^ Secretary-Treasurer . ^““/^ostc Professor of Education, Teachers cSSSS’SSSj?- C Executive Committee . The officers of the Department', fuMo . Y°rk- N' Y' Guizabeth Haul, Asst. Supt. of Schools, 305 City Hall . E«a A. Nsal, Assistant Superintendent of Schoolf 1 CAtioCnS sSte e7’ A,?sist?;lt Commissioner for ElementaryEduca^8 Department of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Economics . ^rarpLh^S,11^ H°me Genomics Department, John V^epresident . Ada^Kennedy, Superb of Home Gconomics,' Board^oT Gdula °hi° SeCretary . Alice Currier, ’Supervisor' of Home Gconomics,' BciaV/ofGTuca^11^ Treasurer . Marv M " ’■RttV.Vt’J-J “c . . . . Pawtucket, R. I. ' Edfcatfo^Sf FalTtSr: . ?! . ”??’?. .E“?PaB£l,°k j. Department of Teachers Colleges (American Association of Teachers Colleges) FirsfvicWr'eMVnY.:::::\foKu' W0WI'TSSidS„Imnis Sl,a,e Normal University.. Normal, Ill. Universitv ’ D ’ DePartment of Gducation, New York ..J. A Pitman, PreVidrat,* State Normal' ' School .'.'.'.'.*.N?W Sem Mas^' ' ' Collegia:.. "e.S.ldent> WeStCrn Kentucky State Teachers ..Charles W. Hunt’, 'President! CleVeknd' Schooi 'o^GduLt^on6”! Ky‘ Cleveland, Ohio Second Vicepresident . . Third Vicepresident . . . Secretary-Treasurer Associational Records and Information 849 Department of Visual Instruction President . C. F. Hoban, Director, Visual Education Division, State Depart- „. rnent of Education . Harrisburg, Pa. First Vicepresident . F. D. McClusky, Director of Scarborough School . Scarborough-on-the-Hudson, N. Y. Second Vicepresident . W. W. Whittinghill, Assistant Director, Visual Education De- partment, Public Schools, 9345 Lawton Avenue. ... Detroit, Mich. Secretary-Treasurer . Ellsworth C. Dent, Director of Visual Instruction, University of . Kansas, 1812 Illinois Street . Lawrence, Kans. Executive Committee . A. G. Balcom, Assistant Superintendent of Schools (1933) . Newark, N. J. Abraham Krasker, Director of Visual Instruction, Quincy Public Schools (1934) . Quincy, Mass. Daniel C. KnowlTon, Associate Professor of Education, New York University (1935) . New York, N. Y. John A. Hollinger, Director of Nature Study and Visualization, Pittsburgh Public Schools (1936) . Pittsburgh, Pa. William IT. Dudley, 736 South Wabash Avenue (1937) .. Chicago, Ill. Mrs. Grace Fisher Ramsey. Associate Curator, American Mu¬ seum of Natural History, 77th Street and Central Park West (^938) . New York, N. Y. President . . V icepresident Secretary . . Department of Vocational Education . . Henry H. Hagen, Principal, Crane Technical High School . Chicago, Ill. ..Gerald D. Whitney, University of Pittsburgh . Pittsburgh, Pa. ..F. E. Moore, State Director for Vocational Education, State House . Des Moines, Iowa 850 National Education Association COMMITTEES OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, 1931-32 COMMITTEE ON CREDENTIALS Vaughan, J. T., Chairman, Principal, Bush School, Birmingham, Ala. Bayer, Philip A., Director of Research, Ad¬ ministration Building, Philadelphia, Pa. Berry, Frances M., 506 Harwood Avenue, Baltimore, Md. Bird, C. S., Principal, Coconut Grove School, Miami, Fla. Black, John H., Supervisor Raton Public Schools, Raton, N. M. Bosworth, Clarence W., President, Rhode Island Institute of Instruction, Cranston, R. I. Cranor, Garnie R., 1819 D Street, Salem, Ore. Crocker, Richard, Fort Kent, Me. Davis Pearle, Deputy Commissioner of Edu¬ cation, Little Rock, Ark. Dugdale, Lee A., 1330 South Josephine Street, Denver, Colo. Ely, Selden M., Supervising Principal, Fifth Division Public Schools, Emery School, Washington, D. C. Eddy, L. M., Principal, Junior High School, Parsons, Kans. Evans, R. E., Principal Elementary Schools, Oklahoma City, Okla. Fry, Mattie B., 1316 Ohio Avenue, Anderson, Ind. Gellerman Frank, Superintendent, Waubay Public Schools, Waubay, S. D. Gr*e.n’ W- T-- 18875 Ryan Road, Detroit, Mich. ’ Heatwole, C. J., Executive Secretary, Vir¬ ginia Education Association, 401 North Ninth Street, Richmond, Va. Hickman, J. H., Secretary, West Virginia State Education Association, 1816 Wash- ington Street, Charleston, W. Va Jackson, Marcella, Castleton State Normal School, Castleton, Vt. Kennan, Richard B., Superintendent, George¬ town Public Schools, Georgetown, Del. Leistra, P. A., Superintendent, Gowrie Pub¬ lic Schools, Gowrie, Iowa. Lopez, F. Rodriguez, Director General Ele¬ mentary Urban Schools, San Juan, P. R. L°iW^y’-r,William J” Superintendent! White¬ hall Public Schools, Whitehall, Mont. Mardis H. C., Principal, Lincoln High School, Lincoln, Nebr. Markley, R. L., Superintendent, Thermopo- lis Public Schools, Thermopolis, Wyo. Matoon, Donald S., Headmaster, High School, Littleton, N. H. Matthews, A. J., President Emeritus, Ari¬ zona State Teachers College, Tempe, Ariz. Miller, Gladys, 2001 Western Avenue, Fort Worth, Texas. Nichols, Walter S., Principal, Wisconsin Avenue School, Milwaukee, Wis. Nielson, L. W., Principal, High School, Jor¬ dan, Utah. Priest, Charles, Superintendent, Carson City Public Schools, Carson City, Nev. Push, Thomas B., Superintendent, Indepen¬ dence Public Schools, Independence, La. Ragsdale, S. L., Principal, L. C. Humes High School, Memphis, Tenn. Rinder, Lloyd, High School Teacher, Doug¬ las, Alaska. Robison, Fae, 203 West Maple Street, Glen¬ dale, Calif. Roche, Juliet, Public School Number Thirty- four, Jersey City, N. J. Roosa, Annette, Principal, Junior High School, Devils Lake, N. D. Py^er> E., Superintendent, Sandusky County Schools, Fremont, Ohio. Sampson, Ruby, 93 High Street, Brockton. Mass. Scott, Mrs. W. S., Superintendent, Jones- ville Public Schools, Jonesville, S. C Snyder, Raymond H., Superintendent, Idaho halls Public Schools, Idaho Falls, Idaho Stewart, Mary K., 109 South Wall Street! Spokane, Wash. Suiii.van’ Alice> Spalding Hotel, Duluth Minn. Willis A., Superintendent, Atlanta Public Schools, Atlanta, Ga. Sv^lft- .Gordon’ Superintendent, Watertown Public Schools, Watertown, Conn. Taylor, George D., 392 Augustine Street, Rochester, N. Y. Taylor, W. N., Secretary, Mississippi Edu- cation Association, Box 823, Jackson. Miss. Thalman, John W., Superintendent, Wauke¬ gan Township Secondary Schools, Wauke¬ gan, Ill. Thompson, Carrie A., 2133 Lanihuli Drive Honolulu, T. H. Warren, Jule B., Secretary, North Carolina Education Association, Box 274, Raleigh, N . C. Wesley, W. M., Superintendent, Burgin Public Schools, Burgin, Ky. Winkelman, Mathilda, 3912 Russell Boule¬ vard, St. Louis, Mo. COMMITTEE ON COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES (A Special E- B. von KleinSmid, Chairman; President, University of Southern California; Los Angeles. Calif. James R. Angell, President, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. Committee) Franklin W. Johnson. President, Colby Col¬ lege, Waterville, Maine. Edwin Shaw, Tufts College, Medford, Mass. Mary E. Woolley, President. Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, Mass. Associational Records and Information 851 COMMITTEE TO COOPERATE WITH THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF TEACHERS IN COLORED SCHOOLS (Authorized by Representative Assembly) N. C. Newbold, Chairman; State Director of Negro Education, State Department of Education, Raleigh, N. C. S. G. Atkins, President, Winston-Salem Teachers College, Winston-Salem, N. C. Francis G. Blair, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Springfield, Ill. Mabel Carney, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Jackson Davis. Assistant Director of Educa¬ tion, General Education Board, 804 Grace- American Building, Richrrfond, Va. M. L. Duggan, State Superintendent of Schools. State Capitol, Atlanta, Ga. Leo M. Favrot, General Field Agent, Gen¬ eral Education Board. 910 Louisiana Na¬ tional Bank Building, Baton Rouge, La. R. S. Grossley. President, State College for Colored Students, Dover, Del. W. J. Hale, President. Tennessee Agricul¬ tural and Industrial State College, Nash¬ ville, Tenn. Florence Holbrook, 4429 Greenwood Avenue, Chicago, Ill. Tames H. Hope, State Superintendent of Education, Columbia, S. C. Arthur J. Klein, Department of School Ad¬ ministration, Ohio State University, Co¬ lumbus. Ohio. E. Ruth Pyrtle, Principal, Bancroft School, Lincoln, Nebr. Florence M. Read, President, Spelman Col¬ lege, Atlanta, Ga. W. W. Sanders, Secretary, National Asso¬ ciation of Teachers in Colored Schools, Box # 752, Charleston, W. Va. S. L. Smith. Director for Southern Schools, Julius Rosenwald Fund, Cotton States Building, Nashville, Tenn. Fannie C. Williams, 1922 Louisiana Avenue, New Orleans, La. W. T. B. Williams, Dean, Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, Tuskegee Insti¬ tute, Ala. J. P. Womack. President, Henderson State Teachers College, Arkadelphia. Ark. Arthur D. Wright, 726 Jackson Place N. W., Washington, D. C. COMMITTEE ON THE ECONOMIC STATUS OF THE TEACHER (Authorized by Representative Assembly) B. R. Buckingham, Chairman; 15 Ashbur¬ ton Place, Boston. Mass. Florence Barnard, 607 N Street, West Palm Beach. Fla. W. W. Coxe, Director, Educational Research Division, University of the State of New York, Albany, N. Y. E. C. Hartwell, Superintendent, Public Schools. Buffalo, N. Y. J. R. McGaughy, Professor of Education. Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION AND BUSINESS (A Special Committee) Marcus Aaron. Chairman; President, Board of Public Education, Pittsburgh, Pa. Thomas E, Finegan, Vicechairman, 343 State Street, Rochester. N. Y. G. W. Ager, Superintendent, Public Schools, Bend, Ore. Percival P. Baxter, Portland, Maine. J. H. Beveridge, Superintendent, Public Schools. Omaha, Nebr. E, J. Bodman, Union Trust Company, Little Rock, Ark. M. A. Brannon, Chancellor, University of Montana, State Capitol, Helena, Mont. A. Boyd Campbell, Jackson, Miss. H. E. Chandler, Secretary, Appointment Bureau, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans. George N. Child, Superintendent, Public Schools, Salt Lake City, Utah. P. P. Claxton, President, Austin Peay Normal School, Clarksville, Tenn. Frank Cody. Superintendent, Public Schools, Detroit, Mich. D. R. Coker, Hartsville, S. C. C. G. Cooper, Superintendent, Baltimore County Public Schools, Towson, Md. Thomas J. Davis, Attorney-at-Law, Butte, Mont. Howard A. Dawson, Director, Division of Research and Surveys. State Department of Education, Little Rock, Ark. George H. Dern, Governor of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah. Charles F. Dienst, Superintendent, Public Schools, Boise, Idaho. W. G. Donley, Superintendent, Carlsbad Public Schools, Carlsbad, N. M. John G. Eberwine, Suffolk, Va. Victor Facinelli, President, North Side State Bank, Rock Springs, Wyo. W. W. Fairchild, Superintendent, Public Schools, Rutland, Vt, F. N. Fletcher, National Bank Building, Reno, Nev. A. C. Flora, Superintendent, Public Schools, Columbia, S. C. W. W. Gaines, President, Board of Educa¬ tion, Atlanta, Ga. Arthur E. Godfrey, Williams Piano Com¬ pany, Sioux Falls, S. D, Thomas W. Gosling, Superintendent, Pub¬ lic Schools, Akron, Ohio. J. M. Gwinn. Superintendent, Public Schools. San Francisco, Calif. Walter W. Head, Graybar Building, Lexing¬ ton Avenue at Forty-third Street, New York, N. Y. H. B. Heidelbert, Clarksdale, Miss. 852 National Education Association H. E. Hendrix, Superintendent, Mesa Pub¬ lic Schools, Mesa, Ariz. Rafael Herman, 504 North Beverly Drive Beverly Hills, Calif, John Sprunt Hill, Durham, N. C. Glenn Holloway, President, Holloway Saw Mill Company, Inc., Clayton, La. R* ,v- . Hunkins, Superintendent, Public Schools, Lead, S. D. James Hurst, Superintendent, Norfolk County Public Schools, Norfolk, Va. Albert J. Kennelly, 501 Fifth Avenue, New York, N. Y. Earl Kiger, 113 South Pennsylvania Street Indianapolis, Ind. W. J. Krehbiel, McPherson, Kans. Samuel Leask, Samuel Leask and Sons, Inc., Santa Cruz, Calif. Robert Lee, Superintendent, Public Schools, Rawlins, Wyo. George M. Lynch, St. Petersburg, Fla. Worth McClure, Superintendent, Public Schools, Seattle, Wash. C1°yd Heck Marvin, President, George Washington University, Washington, D. C. Arthur B. Mayhew, President, Board of Regents, Texas State Teachers Colleges, Uvalde, Texas. George Melcher, Superintendent, Kansas City Public Schools, Kansas City, Mo. Harry L. Moore, Superintendent, Public Schools, Portsmouth, N. H. W-, F- Parrott, Matt Parrott and Sons, Waterloo, Iowa. Guy B Phillips, Superintendent, Public Schools, Greensboro, N. C. Erskine Ramsey. President, Board of Edu¬ cation, Birmingham, Ala. C- K. Reiff, Superintendent, Public Schools, Oklahoma City, Okla. George L. Roberts, Professor, Department of Education, Purdue University, La¬ fayette, Ind. Joseph Roemer, Director of Instruction in the Junior College, Demonstration School, George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn. C. C. Russell, Superintendent, Public Schools, 169 Church Street, New Haven, Conn. Aaron Sapiro, 11 West Forty-second Street, New York, N. Y. Henry W. Schroeder, P. O. Box # 773, Providence, R. I. Paul T. Shaw, 146 Eleventh Street, Port¬ land, Ore. Payson Smith, Commissioner of Education, Boston, Mass. Ralph L. Talbot, Principal, Wilmington High School, Wilmington, Del. John G. Talcott, Talcottville, Connecticut. Augustus O. Thomas, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. P- E. Tidwell, Director of Extension, Uni¬ versity of Alabama, University, Ala. Daniel B. Trefethen, Attorney-at-Law, Col- man Building, Seattle, Washington. R. A. Truby, Guardian Life Insurance Com¬ pany of America, Fargo, N. D. George W. Wannamaker, Superintendent, Public Schools, Griffin, Ga. David A. Ward, Superintendent, Public Schools, Chester, Pa. Roy Wayland, Phoenix, Ariz. J. O. Webb, Assistant Director of High Schools, 602 Great Southern Life Build¬ ing, Houston, Tex. J. C. West, Superintendent, Grand Forks Public Schools, Grand Forks, N. D. E. M. Williams, President, Sherwin- Williams Paint Company, Cleveland, Ohio. George S. Williams, President, State Board of Education, Millsboro, Del. JOINT COMMITTEE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Thomas D. Wood, Chairman, Teachers Col¬ lege, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Edna W. Bailey, Associate Professor of Education, School of Education, Uni- versity of California, Berkeley, Calif George H. Black, Delta Kappa Epsilon Club, 5 East Fifty-first Street, New York N. Y. Mrs. Hugh Bradford, President, National Congress of Parents and Teachers, 1014 Forum Building, Sacramento, Calif. C. L. Brownell, Professor of Physical Edu¬ cation, Teachers College, Columbia, Uni¬ versity, New York, N. Y. William D. Burdick, Director, Playground Athletic League, Inc., 7 East Mulberry Street, Baltimore, Md. John E. Burke, Department of Public In¬ struction. Schenectady, N. Y. William H. Burnham, Hotel Bancroft, Worcester, Massachusetts. Frank Cody, Superintendent, Public Schools, Detroit, Mich. Jessie R. Garrison, Director of Physical and Health Education, State Department of Education, Montgomery, Ala. Harvey J. Howard, Washington University. St. Louis, Mo. Mrs. Marion Lerrigo McWilliams. Staff As¬ sociate, Division of Health Education, American Child Health Association, 450 Seventh Avenue, New York, N. Y. Mary E. Murphy, Director, Elizabeth Mc¬ Cormick Memorial Fund, 848 North Dear¬ born Street, Chicago, Ill. J. H. Nichols, Director, Department of Physical Education, Intramural Division, Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio, Mrs. A. H. Reeve, President, International Federation of Home and School, 124 West Highland Avenue, Chestnut Hill, Phila¬ delphia. Pa. Bruce B. Robinson, Director, Department of Child Guidance. Board of Education, 31 Green Street, Newark, N. J. A. J. Stoddard, Superintendent, Providence Public Schools. 7 Exchange Terrace, Providence, R. I. J. W. Studebaker, Superintendent, Des Moines Public Schools, Des Moines, Iowa. Willis A. Sutton, Superintendent, Public Schools, Atlanta, Ga. Percival M. Symonds, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Lida Lee Tall, Principal, State Normal School, Towson, Md. Anne Whitney, Director, Division of Health Education, American Child Health Asso¬ ciation, 450 Seventh Avenue, New York, N. Y. A. E. Winship, Editor, Journal of Educa¬ tion, 6 Park Street, Boston, Mass, Associational Records and Information 853 COMMITTEE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Annie C. Woodward, Chairman, 144 School Street, Somerville, Mass. Cornelia S. Adair, 2121 Park Avenue, Rich¬ mond, Va. Georgia Whelan Aiken. Hotel Alms, Walnut Hills, Cincinnati, Ohio. Lewis R. Alderman. Chief. Service Division, Office of Education, Washington, D. C. Thomas Alexander, Teachers College. Co¬ lumbia University, New York. N. Y. J. Edward Allen, Superintendent, Warren County Public Schools, Warrenton, N. C. Mrs. Fannie Fern Andrews, 295 Common¬ wealth Avenue, Boston, Mass. Mrs. Bertha S. Armbruster, Principal Emer¬ itus, Tilton School, 4152 West End Ave¬ nue, Chicago, Ill. Mrs. Mary G. Barnum, California League of Women Voters, 839 South Flower Street, Los Angeles, Calif. J. R. Barton, 529 West Nineteenth Street, Oklahoma City, Okla. Maude R. Bell, 4147 Starr Street, Lincoln, Nebr. Francis G. Blair, State Superintendent of Public Instruction. Springfield, Ill. Katherine Devereux Blake, 101 West Eighty- fifth Street, New York, N. Y. Charles H. Boehm, Principal, Morrisville Junior-Senior High School, Morrisville, Pa. Mrs. Frank E. Boynton, 819 Oaklawn Street, N. E., Grand Rapids, Mich. Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford, 5069 Newton Street, Denver, Colo. Mrs. Mary D. Bradford, 306 Sixtieth Street, Kenosha, Wis. Helen Bradley, 2349 Ashland Avenue, Cin¬ cinnati, Ohio. Emma M. Brown. Principal, Skinner Junior High School, Denver, Colo. Eugenie Brown, Doanbrooke Hotel, Cleve¬ land, Ohio. William D. Burdick, Director, Playground Athletic League, Inc., 7 East Mulberry Street, Baltimore, Md. William V. Casey, Superintendent, Public Schools, Boulder, Colo. Arthur H. Chamberlain. Publisher, Overland t Monthly and Out West Magazine. 437 South Hill Street, Los Angeles, Calif. J. A. C. Chandler, President, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. Mrs. Frances E. Clark, Manager, Educa¬ tional Activities, R. C. A. -Victor Com¬ pany, Inc., Camden, N. J. P. P. Claxton, President, Austin Peay Nor¬ mal School, Clarksville, Tenn. Annie M. T. Cogil, Principal, Hayward School, Lincoln, Nebr. Marie Coyne, South 210 Adams Street, Spo¬ kane, Wash. Roland B. Daniel, Superintendent, Public Schools, Columbus, Ga. . Helen Mehard Davidson, 6814 Thomas Boulevard, Pittsburgh, Pa. Jesse B. Davis, Boston University, Boston, Mass. Mary Dever, The Women’s Club, 3535 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, Ohio. Alvin Dickhout, Head, Department of His¬ tory, Central High School, Evansville, Ind. Zoe Dobbs, Dean of Women and Social Director, Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Ala. Evaline Dowling, Chairman, World Friend¬ ship Committee, Jefferson High School, 1319 East Thirty-eighth Street, Los An¬ geles, Calif. William J. Drew, Principal, Mission High School, San Francisco, Calif. __ Florence E. Duke, 2224 West Grace Street, Richmond, Virginia. I. Newton Earle, Principal, Roosevelt Junior High School, New Brunswick, N. J. Miriam D. Eisner, 3098 California Street, San Francisco, Calif. Sara Fahey, 405 Coram Avenue, Shelton, Conn. Jessie Frances Fair, Supervisor, Upper Ele¬ mentary Department, Dayton Public Schools, Dayton, Ohio. Leon Farrin, Superintendent, Athol Public Schools, Athol, Mass. John H. Finley, Associate Editor, New York Times, New York, N. Y. Clara B. Fishpaugh, Box 42, Falls Station, Baltimore, Md. George D. Full, President, Dudley Lock Corporation, 26 North Franklin Street, Chicago, Ill. Ethel M. Gardner, Dakota Street School, 2911 South 32nd Street, Milwaukee, Wis. Clay F. Gaumer, Superintendent, Public Schools, Howard, Ohio. C. B. Glenn, Superintendent, Public Schools, Birmingham, Ala. Bessie Bacon Goodrich, Assistant Superin¬ tendent, Public Schools, Garfield Building, Des Moines, Iowa. Harry R. Gorrell, Superintendent, Public Schools. Massillon, Ohio. Thomas W. Gosling. Superintendent, Public Schools, Akron, Ohio. Erna Grassmuck, Head, Geography Depart¬ ment, State Teachers College, Indiana, Pa. Clifton D. Gray, President, Bates College, Lewiston, Maine. Jessie C. Gray, 1210 Fillmore Street, Phila¬ delphia, Pa. John T. Gyger, Superintendent, Falmouth Public Schools, Falmouth, Maine. Elizabeth Hall. Assistant Superintendent, Minneapolis Public Schools, Minneapolis, Minn. Frances E. Harden, 1520 Via Lazo, Palos Verdes Estates, Calif. P. L. Harned, State Commissioner of Educa¬ tion, Nashville, Tenn. C. J. Heatwole, Secretary, Virginia Educa¬ tion Association, 401 North Ninth Street, Richmond. Va. William E. Hendrie, Principal, Public School Number 109, Oueens Village, N. Y. Mary L. Hinsdale, Grand Rapids Junior College, Grand Rapids, Mich. Louise B. Hobson, 116 Wentworth Avenue, Edgewood Station, Providence, R. I. Edna E. Hood. Supervisor, Household and Fine Arts, Kenosha Public Schools, Ad¬ ministration Building, Kenosha, Wis. Elisabeth Hood. Sunervisor, Household Arts, Racine Public Schools, Racine, Wis. Daniel Howard, Superintendent, Windsor Public Schools, Windsor, Conn. Margarette E. Howard, Principal, Lincoln School, Summit, N. J. Adele Humphrey, Vice Principal, Poly¬ technic High School, 400 West Washing¬ ton Street, Los Angeles, Calif. Frederick Maurice Hunter, Chancellor, Uni¬ versity of Denver, Denver, Colo. 854 National Education Association Christine A. Jacobsen, 1320 West Forty-first Place, Los Angeles, Calif. WiHiam Alonzo James, Principal, Ball High School, Galveston, Texas. y Lucas Jean, 200 Fifth Avenue, New York, N. Y. M. Irene Johnson, Director of Student Teaching, Manchester College, North Man¬ chester, Ind. Olive M. Jones, Director, Calvary House, 61 Gramercy Park, North, New York, K- G. Jones, Superintendent, Cleveland Public Schools, Cleveland, Ohio. B. Joynes, Principal, George Washington and Robert Gatewood Schools Norfolk, Va. ^ary K. Keegan. 512 Van Ness Avenue, San Francisco, Calif. Alice Keith, Broadcasting Director, Amer¬ ican School of the Air. 485 Madison Ave¬ nue, New York, N. Y. Bertha C. Knemeyer, Principal, Elko County High School, Elko, Nev. Earl R. Laing, Principal, Burt School, Detroit, Mich. Uel W. Lamkin, President, Northwest Mis¬ souri State Teachers College, Marysville, C. H. Lane, Chief, Agricultural Educational Service, Federal Board for Vocational Education, 1523 L Street, N. W., Wash¬ ington, D. C. Mrs. Inez J. Lewis, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Denver, Colo. W. A. Lewis, President, Kansas State Col¬ lege, Hays, Kansas. Georgina Lommen, Director, Training School, State Teachers College, Moor¬ head, Minn. W. T. Longshore, Vice Principal, Green¬ wood School, Kansas City, Mo. J ohn H. McCracken, American Council on Education, 744 Jackson Place, Washing¬ ton, D. C. s Effie MacGregor, Principal, John Burroughs School, Minneapolis, Minn. Elizabeth McCormick, Principal, Timothy O. Howe School, Superior, Wis. Mrs. Katharine M. Mansfield, Cedar School, Canton, Ohio. Daniel L. Marsh, President, Boston Uni¬ versity, 688 Boylston Street, Boston, Mass. A- J. Mathews, President Emeritus, State Teachers College, Tempe, Ariz. A1£Tert B- Meredith> Professor of Education, New York University, New York, N. y’. Sophia C. Meyer, Lewis and Clark High School, Spokane, Wash. Paul Monroe, Director, International Insti¬ tute, Teachers College, Columbia Univer¬ sity, New York, N. Y. E. W. Montgomery, Superintendent, Phoenix Union High Schools and Junior College, Phoenix, Ariz. Cora E. Mull, 5543 Kimbark Avenue, Chi¬ cago, Ill. Minnie J. Nielson, 901 Fifth Avenue, Valley City, N. D. M^ryn LeiLa Nisbett> 821 Melba Street, Dallas, Tex. Mary Elizabeth O’Connor, Supervisor of Elementary Schools, Natick, Mass. J. Asbury Pitman, Principal, Salem Normal School, Salem, Mass. Caroline J Porter P. O. Box 2084, Middle City, Philadelphia, Pa. Birde Posthuma 116 South Spring Avenue, Sioux Falls, S. D. E. Ruth Pyrtle, Principal, Bancroft School, Lincoln, Nebr. Mary Calvert Ralls, 6529 Jefferson Street, Kansas City, Mo. Carroll R Reed, Superintendent, Public Schools, Minneapolis, Minn. WiIliam DeHart Reeder, 2340 West Monroe Street, Chicago, Ill. Mrs. A. H. Reeve, President, International federation of Home and School, 124 West Highland Avenue, Chestnut Hill, Phila¬ delphia, Pa. Aurelia Henry Reinhardt, President, Mills College, Mills College, Calif. Leilet Richter, George W. Brackenridge High School, San Antonio, Tex. AlMo Riddle’ 2 Summit Place, St. Joseph, Elizabeth Wells Robertson, 1250 Judson Avenue, Ravinia, Ill. Ida Odelle Rudy, Director, Primary Edu¬ cation, Dayton Public Schools, Dayton, Ohio. W. Carson Ryan, Jr., Director, Office of Indian Affairs, Department of the Interior, Washington, D. C. Joseph H. Saunders, Superintendent, Public Schools, Newport News, Va. J. W, Sexton, Superintendent, Lansing Public Schools, Lansing, Mich. Grace M. Shepherd, 803 North Mulberry Street, Maryville, Mo. Mariette Shibles, 30 East Fourth Street, Mt. Vernon, N. Y. Walter R. Siders, 75 Grove Street, Mont¬ clair, N. J. Henry Lester Smith, Dean, School of Edu¬ cation, University of Indiana, Blooming¬ ton, Ind. Frederick H. Spaulding, Principal, Hills¬ borough High School, 5000 Central Ave¬ nue, Tampa, Fla. N. E. Steele, Secretary, South Dakota Edu¬ cation Association, Room 3, Perry Build¬ ing, Sioux Falls, S. D. k'. .Stephens, President, Southwestern Louisiana Institute of Liberal and Tech¬ nical Learning, Lafayette, La. Mrs. Cora Wilson Stewart, Director, Na¬ tional Illiteracy Crusade, Inc., Washing¬ ton Building, Washington, D. C. William S. Taylor, Dean, College of Edu¬ cation. University of Kentucky, Lexing¬ ton, Ky. • Augustus O. Thomas, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. Anna M. Thompson, Carlton Hotel, Kansas City, Mo. Caroline E. Toner, 1814 Ingleside Terrace N. W., Washington, D. C. Adelaide R. Trent, 519 Lorcom Lane, Lee Heights, Cherrydale, Va. C. E. Turner, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass. Chester C. Tuttle, Superintendent, Public Schools, Kennebunk, Maine. R. B. von KleinSmid, President, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, Calif. Thomas J. Walker, Editor, School and Community, Columbia, Mo. George A. Walton, Principal, George School, George School, Pa. David A. Ward, Superintendent, Public Schools, Chester, Pa. George Harris Webber. Head, Department of Education and Psychology, Georgia State College for Women, Milledgeville, Ga. Associational Records and Information 855 J. Fletcher Wellemeyer, Dean, Junior Col¬ lege, 9th and Minnesota Avenue, Kansas City, Kans. George M. Wiley, Assistant Commissioner of Education, State Department of Edu¬ cation, Albany, N. Y. Charles H. Williams, Director of Univer¬ sity Extension, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. Charles O. Williams, Secretary, Indiana State Teachers Association, Room 205 Hotel Lincoln, Indianapolis, Ind. Mrs. Alice Wilson, Director, World League of International Education Associations, Room 521, Phelan Building, San Fran¬ cisco, Calif. Lula E. Wirt. Nebraska State Normal School and Teachers College, Kearney, Nebr. John W. Withers, Dean, School of Educa¬ tion, New York University, New York, N. Y. Caroline S. Woodruff, Principal, State Nor¬ mal School, Castleton, Vt. JOINT COMMITTEE OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION AND THE AMERICAN LIBRARY ASSOCIATION (A Special Committee) Eleanor M. Witmer, Chairman, Teachers College Library, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Anna Clarke Kennedy, Supervisor of School Libraries, State Department of Educa¬ tion, Albany, N. Y. . Edith A. Lathrop, Assistant Specialist in School Libraries, Office of Education, Washington, D. C. D. E. Porter, Principal, Cass Technical High School, Omaha, Nebr. J. W. Studebaker, Superintendent, Public Schools, Des Moines, Iowa. Sabra W. Vought, Chief of the Library Division, Office of Education, Washing¬ ton, D. C. JOINT COMMITTEE OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION AND THE NATIONAL CONGRESS OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Mrs. Hugh Bradford, Chairman; President, National Congress of Parents and Teach¬ ers 1014 Forum Building, Sacramento, Calif. , . Ada Hart Arlitt, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio. . Mrs. Bertha S. Armbruster, Principal Emer¬ itus, Tilton School, 4152 West End Ave¬ nue, Chicago, Ill. TT . Jessie Charters, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. . William John Cooper, United States Com¬ missioner of Education, Washington, D. C. Newell W. Edson, 450 Seventh Avenue, New York, N. Y. Mrs. Frederick Hosmer, Hunter Avenue, Auburn, N. Y. Mrs. B. F. Langworthy, 832 Bryant Avenue, Winnetka, Ill. Ellen C. Lombard, The Kenesaw, Wash¬ ington, D. C. Garry Cleveland Myers, Division of Parental Education, Cleveland College of Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio. Everett Perkins, Cony High School, Au¬ gusta, Maine. Mrs. Augustus O. Thomas, 177 State Street, Augusta, Maine. A. L. Thelkeld, Superintendent, Denver Public Schools, Denver, Colo. LEGISLATIVE COMMISSION (Authorized by Representative Assembly) EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE Thomas E. Finegan, Chairman; President, Eastman Teaching Films, Inc., 343 State Street, Rochester, N. Y. . Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, Principal, Washing¬ ton and Gatewood Schools, Norfolk, Va. C R. Mann, American Council on Educa¬ tion, 744 Jackson Place, Washington, D. C. Robert J. Aley, Butler College, Indianapolis, Ind. . A. T. Allen, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Raleigh, N. C. George A. Allen, Jr., State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Topeka, Kans. H. B. Allman, School of Education, Uni¬ versity of Indiana, Bloomington, Ind. Mrs. Bertha S. Armbruster, Principal Emer¬ itus, Tilton School, 4152 West End Ave¬ nue, Chicago, Ill. R. W. Bardwell, Superintendent, Madison Public Schools, Madison, Wis. C H. Barnes, Manager, E. M. Hall and Company, 3102 Cherry Street, Milwaukee, Wis. Nora Barron, Lincoln Junior High School, Minneapolis, Minn. Merle M. Beattie, Elementary Supervisor, 421 South Fifteenth Street, Lincoln, Nebr. William J. Bogan, Superintendent, Public Schools, Chicago, Ill. 856 National Education Association W. F. Bond, State Superintendent of Educa¬ tion, Jackson, Miss. Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford, 5069 Newton Street, Denver, Colo. J. W. Brister, President, West Tennessee State Teachers College, Memphis, Tenn. D. S. Burleson, Dean, East Tennessee State Teachers College, Johnson City, Tehn. Leslie A. Butler, Superintendent, Public Schools, Grand Rapids, Mich. Ernest W. Butterfield, State Commissioner of Education, Hartford, Conn. John C. Callahan, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Madison, Wis. S. P. Capen, Chancellor, University of Buf¬ falo, Buffalo, N. Y. J. A. C. Chandler, President, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. Arthur S. Chenoweth, Superintendent, Public Schools, Administration Building, Atlantic City, N. J. Edward R. Clarke, Superintendent, Winthrop Public Schools, Winthrop, Mass. William L. Connor, Chief, Bureau of Edu¬ cational Research, Board of Education, Cleveland, Ohio. John H. Cook, Dean, School of Education, North Carolina College for Women, Greensboro, N. C. William C. Cook, State Superintendent of Free Schools, Charleston, W. Va. Fred D. Cram, Extension Professor of Edu¬ cation, Iowa State Teachers College. Cedar Falls, Iowa. H. D. Crowell, Assistant Superintendent, Stamford Public Schools, Stamford, Conn. Nathaniel Cutler, Principal, High School, Athol, Mass. Charles S. Davis, Superintendent, Steelton Public Schools, Steelton, Pa. Pearle Davis, Deputy State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Little Rock, Ark. Florence Deneen, 457 West Sixty-first Street. Chicago, Ill. Charles F. Dienst, Superintendent, Public Schools, Boise, Idaho. J. J. Doster, Dean, College of Education, University of Alabama, University, Ala. Charles B. Dyke, Secretary, New Jersey State Teachers Association, 304 Stacy Trent Hotel, Trenton, N. J. Mrs. Isabel L. Eckles, Superintendent, Public Schools, Santa Fe, N. M. Harriett Elliott, Professor of Political Science, North Carolina College for Women, Greensboro, N. C. Selden M. Ely, Supervising Principal, Fifth Division, Public Schools, Emery School. Washington, D. C. Lawton B. Evans, Superintendent, Public Schools, Augusta, Ga. H. G. Faust, Superintendent, Shawnee Public Schools, Shawnee, Okla. Charles M. Fisher, Superintendent, Dade County Public Schools, Miami, Fla. Glenn Frank, President, University of Wis¬ consin, Madison, Wis. Anna G. Fraser, 822 Alma Avenue, Oak¬ land, Calif. J. D. Fulp, Superintendent, Bailey Military Institute, Box No. 532, Greenwood, S. C. Miss Lloy Galpin, 2354 Addison Way, Los Angeles, Calif. A. D, S. Gillett, President, Superior State Normal School, Superior, Wis. Adelbert W. Gordon, Secretary, Maine Teachers Association, 185 State Street, Augusta, Maine. Annie G. Griffey, 2110 Battery Street, Little Rock, Ark. J- J- Hagan, Superintendent, Public Schools, Rock Island, Ill. Mrs. Ida M. Hale, Superintendent, Okla¬ homa County Public Schools, Oklahoma City, Okla. John B Hejffelfinger, Superintendent, Public Schools, Newton, Kans. Everett M. Hosman, 2927 North Fifty-first Street, Lincoln, Nebr. C. M. Howell, Secretary, Oklahoma Educa¬ tion Association. 700 Continental Build¬ ing, Oklahoma City, Okla. George W. Hug, Superintendent, Public Schools, Salem, Ore. H M. Ivy, Superintendent, Meridian Public Schools, Meridian, Miss. Clara L. Jahnke, 1930 Eighth Avenue, Spo¬ kane, Wash. Olive M. Jones, Director, Calvary House, 61 Gramercy Park, North, New York, N. Y. R. G. Jones, Superintendent, Cleveland Public Schools, Cleveland, Ohio. Charles R. Judd, Dean, School of Educa¬ tion, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. J. F. Keating, Superintendent, Pueblo Public School, District Number 20, Pueblo, Colo. M. R. Keyworth, Superintendent, Ham- tramck Public Schools, Hamtramck, Mich. P. H. Kimball, Principal, Washington State Normal School, Machias, Maine. Lee Kirkpatrick, Superintendent, Paris Public Schools, Paris, Ky. Uel W. Lamkin, President, Northwest Mis¬ souri State Teachers College, Maryville, Mo. John C. Lindsey, Superintendent, Mitchell Public Schools, Mitchell, S. D. W. T. Longshore, Vice Principal, Green¬ wood School, Kansas City, Mo. John D. Loper, Superintendent, Public Schools, Phoenix, Ariz. Charles E. Lord, Superintendent, Public Schools, Camden, Maine. Effie MacGregor, Principal, John Burroughs School, 2003 Aldrich Avenue, South, Min¬ neapolis, Minn. J. L. McBrien, Professor of Rural Educa¬ tion, Central State Teachers College, Ed¬ mond, Okla. S A. A. McDonald, Superintendent, Public Schools, Sioux Falls, S. D. J. M. McDonald, Superintendent, Public Schools, Pocatello, Idaho. B. H. McIntosh, Commissioner of Educa¬ tion, Cheyenne, Wyo. Henry Miller, 524 Benton Street, Belleville, John Milne, Superintendent, Albuquerque Public Schools, Albuquerque, N. M. Minnie J. Nielson, 901 Sixth Avenue, Valiev City, N. D. * Harlan B. Peabody, 7 Villa Avenue, Provi¬ dence, R. I. Webster H. Pearce, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Lansing, Mich. Mrs. B. C. Peixotto, 55 John Street, New York, N. Y. Rose Pesta, Assistant Superintendent, Public Schools, 460 South State Street, Chicago, Ill. Caroline S. Pfaff, District Superintendent, Public Schools, Municipal Office Build¬ ing, New Orleans, La. D. Walter Potts, Superintendent, Public Schools, East St. Louis, Ill. Sue M. Powers, Superintendent, Shelby County Schools, Memphis, Tenn. Charles H. Priest, Superintendent, Public Schools, Carson City, Nev. Associational Records and Information 857 Merle Prunty, Superintendent, Tulsa Public Schools, Tulsa, Okla. Louis Randolph, Santa Fe, N. M. Joseph Rosier, President, Fairmont Teach¬ ers College, Fairmont, W. Va. E. L. Rouse, Nebraska State Normal Col¬ lege, Chadron, Nebr. Joseph H. Saunders, Superintendent, Public Schools, Newport News. Va. Clyde T. Saylor, Superintendent, Chester County Public Schools, West Chester, Pa. John F. Scully, Superintendent, Public Schools, Brockton, Mass. M. P. Shawkey, President, Marshall Col¬ lege, Huntington, W. Va. Grace M. Shepherd, 803 North Mulberry Street, Maryville, Mo. Jessie A. Skinner, 482 North East Fifteenth Street, Portland, Ore. Harry P. Smith, Professor of Education, Syracuse University, Syracuse, N. Y. J. W. Smith, President, Hugh Perry School Book Depository, 1033 Young Street, Dallas, Tex. H. E. Stahl, Superintendent. Claymont Public Schools, Claymont, Del. B. F. Stanton, Superintendent, Public Schools, Alliance, Ohio. George D. Strayer, Teachers College, Co¬ lumbia University, New York, N. Y. Willis A. Sutton, Superintendent, Public Schools, Atlanta. Ga. Annie Kate Taylor, 4807 Gaston Avenue, Dallas, Tex. Harry Taylor, Principal, Harrisburg Town¬ ship High School, Harrisburg, Ill. J. W. Thomas, Director of Extension, Northern Normal and Industrial School, Aberdeen, S. D. May Trumper, Head, Department of Rural Education, State Normal School, Gen- eseo, N. Y. M. M. Van Patten, Superintendent, Public Schools, Buhl, Idaho. Wilbur D. Vincent, State Commissioner of Education, Boise, Idaho. D. B. Waldo, President, Western State Teachers College, Kalamazoo. Mich. David A. Ward, Superintendent, Public Schools, Chester, Pa. L. W. White, Superintendent, Public Schools, Minot, N. D. Chari Ormond Williams, Field Secretary, National Education Association, Wash¬ ington, D. C. R. E. Williams, Secretary, Kentucky Edu¬ cation Association, 1317-1318 Heyburn Building, Louisville, Ky. S. C. Wilson, Director, Agricultural Educa¬ tion, Sam Houston State Teachers Col¬ lege, Huntsville, Tex. Benjamin O. Wist, President, Normal and Training School, Honolulu, T. H. Kate V. Wofford, Seth Low Hall, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Annie Carleton Woodward, 144 School Street, Somerville, Mass. Robert H. Wright, President, East Carolina Teachers College, Greenville, N. C. Ada York, Superintendent, San Diego County Public Schools, Court House, San Diego, Calif. COMMITTEE ON MODERN TRENDS IN EDUCATION (A Special Rollo G. Reynolds, Chairman, 551 West 120th Street, New York, N. Y. W. Linwood Chase, 29 Exeter Street, Boston, Mass. George Willard Frasier, President, Colo¬ rado State Teachers College, Greeley, Colo. Committee) Frank N. Freeman, Department of Educa¬ tion, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. William Melchior, Professor of Education, Syracuse University, Syracuse, N. Y. Sidney Morse, The Grade Teacher, 425 Fourth Avenue, New York, N. Y. NATIONAL COMMISSION ON THE ENRICHMENT OF ADULT LIFE (A Special Committee) James A. Moyer, President; State Director of University Extension, State House, Boston, Mass. Mrs. A. H. Reeve, First Vicepresident, 124 West Highland Avenue, Chestnut Hill, Philadelphia, Pa. James E. Russell, Second Vicepresident, R. D. No. 4, Trenton, N. J. Mrs. Susan M. Dorsey, Third Vicepresident, 1506 Arapahoe Street, Los Angeles, Calif. James E. Rogers, Secretary, Department of School Health and Physical Education of the National Education Association, 315 Fourth Avenue, New York, N. Y. Grace Abbott, Director of Children’s Bureau, United States Department of Labor, Washington, D. C. Horace Albright, Director, National Park Service, Department of the Interior, Washington, D. C. L. R. Alderman, Chief, Service Division, United States Office of Education, Wash¬ ington, D. C. W. S. Bittner, Secretary-Treasurer, National University Extension Association, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. William J. Bogan, Superintendent, Public Schools, Chicago, Ill. Mrs. Hugh D. Bradford, President, National Congress of Parents and Teachers, 1014 Forum Building, Sacramento, Calif. Edwin C. Broome, Superintendent, Public Schools, Philadelphia, Pa. N. C. Bumpus, Chairman, Committee on Outdoor Education, American Association of Museums, Duxbury, Mass. Marguerite H. Burnett, Director, Adult Edu¬ cation, State Department of Public In¬ struction, Eleventh and Washington Streets, Wilmington, Del. Arthur Capper, United States Senator from Kansas, Senate Office Building, Washing¬ ton, D. C. A. W. Castle, Department of Public In¬ struction, Harrisburg, Pa. Frank Cody, Superintendent, Public Schools, Detroit, Mich. Laurence Vale Coleman, Director, American Association of Museums, Smithsonian In¬ stitution, Washington, D. C. William J. Cooper, United States Commis¬ sioner of Education, Washington, D. C. 858 National Education Association George Barton Cutten, President, Colgate University, Hamilton, N. Y. Robert C. Deming, State Supervisor of Adult Education, Hartford, Conn. William N. Doak, Secretary of Labor, De¬ partment of Labor, Washington, D. C. A. Lincoln Filene, Treasurer and General Manager, William Filene’s Sons Com¬ pany, 426 Washington Street, Boston, Mass. John H. Finley, Associate Editor, New York Times, New York, N. Y. Samuel S. Fleisher, Board of Education, 1415 Packard Building, Philadelphia, Pa. Ernest C. Folsom, President, Teachers Casualty Underwriters, 1407 O Street, Lincoln, Nebr. Harry E. Fosdick, Riverside Church, River¬ side Drive at 122nd Street, New York, N. Y. Grace E. Frysinger. Senior Home Econo¬ mist for Central States, Extension Serv¬ ice, Department of Agriculture, Washing¬ ton D. C. Alonzo G. Grace, Assistant Professor of Education, University of Rochester, Roch¬ ester, N. Y. Ernest R. Groves. University of North Car¬ olina, Chapel Hill, N. C. R. M. Gruman, Director, University Ex¬ tension Division, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C. R. G. Jones, Superintendent, Public Schools, Cleveland, Ohio. Katherine Kohler, Director of Extension and Summer Schools, Board of Education, 305 City Hall, Minneapolis, Minn. Otto T. Mallery, 225 South Fifteenth Street, Philadelphia, Pa. Clarence Marsh, University of Buffalo, Buf¬ falo, N. Y. Carl H. Milam, Secretary, American Library Association, 520 North Michigan Avenue, Chicago, Ill. Mrs. Elizabeth C. Morriss, King’s Crown Hotel, New York, N. Y. Sidney Morse, 425 Fourth Avenue, New York, N. Y. Howard W. Odum, Chief of Social Science Division, A Century of Progress Inter¬ national Exposition, Administration Build¬ ing, Burnham Park, Chicago, Ill. Bertram E. Packard, State Commissioner of Education, Augusta, Maine. Mrs. Edith McClure Patterson, President, N. C. R. Women’s Club, Saw Mill Road, Dayton, Ohio. E. Ruth Pyrtle, Principal, Bancroft School, Lincoln, Nebr. Elizabeth Wells Robertson, 1250 Judson Avenue, Ravinia, Ill. Mrs. John F. Sippel, President, General Federation of Women’s Clubs, 1734 N Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. W. C. Smith, Chief, State Adult Education Bureau, Albany, N. Y. Willis A. Sutton, Superintendent, Public Schools, Atlanta, Ga. J. C. Wardlaw, Director, University Exten¬ sion, University of Georgia, Athens, Ga. Kendall Weisiger, Assistant to the Pres¬ ident, Southern Bell Telephone Company, Atlanta, Ga. John D. Willard, Field Representative, American Association for Adult Education and Visiting Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Albert E. Winship, Editor, Journal of Edu¬ cation, 6 Park Street, Boston, Mass. Matthew Woll, Third Vicepresident, Amer¬ ican Federation of Labor, 901 Massachu¬ setts Avenue, N. W., Washington, D. C. Cator Woolford, President, Retail Credit Company, Inc., 90 Fairlie Street, Atlanta, Ga. COMMITTEE ON NECROLOGY (Authorized by Bylaws) Caroline S. Woodruff. Chairman, State Nor¬ mal School, Castleton, Vt. Winnie Adams, c/o Board of Education, Rapid City, S. D. James Akimo, Teachers College of Hawaii, Honolulu, T. H. Kate Anthony, Junior High School, Rich¬ mond, Va. J. F. Arnold, Supervising Principal, Live Oak Schools, Live Oak, Fla. N. N. Bailey, , Superintendent, Elbert County Schools, Kiowa, Colo. Chloe Baldridge, Director of Rural Educa¬ tion, State Department of Education, Lin¬ coln, Nebr. Mrs. Josephine Boyce, Tribune Apartment, Casper, Wyo. Mrs. H. F. Brock, Box 1064, Gallup, N. M. Daisy Brown, 407 South Sixth Street, Still¬ water, Minn. Nell Cochrane, Principal, Elementary School, Anderson, S. C. Mary Doevell, c/o Knoxville City Schools, Knoxville, Tenn. Anna F. Dullard, Cadwalader School, Tren¬ ton, N. J. Alberto M. Eldredge, Principal, Perkins School, Braintree, Mass. H. F. English, Superintendent, Public Schools. Myrtle Creek, Ore. Sara Fahey, 405 Coram Avenue, Shelton, Conn. Mrs. Bertha Filson, Superintendent, Mason County Schools, Point Pleasant, W. Va. W. R. Foster, Superintendent, La Salle County Schools, Ottawa, Ill. Lotta Fowlie, Lloyd Street School, Mil¬ waukee, Wis. Nettie Gray, 214 Erskine Street, Detroit, Mich. Irene Gregory, Rural Teacher, Missoula County, Box 650, Missoula, Mont. Frank A. Henderson, Superintendent, Public Schools, Burbank, Calif. P. W. Hodges, Director of State Certifica¬ tion, Montgomery, Ala. Ella J. Holley, Supervisor of Rural Schools, New Castle County, County Building, Wilmington, Del. Emma A. Jensen, Central High School, Washington, D. C. James Jensen, Box Elder High School, Brigham City, Utah. Howard A. Kinbark, 59 Maryland Avenue, Annapolis, Md. H. N. Kluckhorn, Superintendent, Public Schools, LeMars, Iowa. Carrie L. Lake, Louis and Clark High School, Spokane, Wash. Roland T. MacLaren, Principal, Washing¬ ton Elementary School, Williamsport, Pa. Maurice Magee, Principal, Convalescent Home School, Tulsa, Okla. Kate McMillan, 1215 Magnolia Street, Vicksburg, Miss. Associational Records and Information 859 Mrs. Bertha R. Palmer, State Superintend¬ ent of Public Instruction, Bismarck, N. D. Marion C. Parkhurst, Principal, Converse School, Burlington, Vt. Blanche Penney, Supervisor, Columbus County Schools, Whiteville, N. C. Mrs. Annie L. Peters, Teacher of English, Alexandria, La. Maisie E. Quinn, Assistant Superintendent, Public Schools, West Warwick, R. I. H. L. Rawdon, Superintendent, Public Schools, Oberlin, Ohio. J. A. Riggins, Assistant State Superintend¬ ent of Public Instruction, Phoenix, Ariz. Helen M. Robinson, Deputy Superintendent, Public Schools, 97 Dartmouth Street, Portland, Maine. Millie S. Starr, 486 John Street, Stratford, Conn. Mrs. E. R. Stone, Principal, Public School, Metlakatla, Alaska. Anna H. Tage, Elementary Principal, 516 Bannock Street, Boise, Idaho. Eilie Tatum, Elementary School Principal, El Dorado, Ark. F. Lester Trafton, Superintendent, Public Schools, Lisbon, N. H. Dave H. Wallace, Superintendent, Shawnee County Schools, Topeka, Kans. J. R. Warren, Principal, Billinghurst Junior High School, Reno, Nev. Mary Whitfield, 215 North Magdolen Street, San Angelo, Tex. Mathilde Winkelman, 3912 Russell Boule¬ vard, St. Louis, Mo. J. L. Yaden, Superintendent, Public Schools, Moultrie, Ga. Frederick W. Zuercher, 4007 Michigan Ave¬ nue, Louisville, Ky. COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS (Authorized by Bylaws) Joseph H. Saunders, Chairman; Superin¬ tendent, Public Schools, Newport News, Va. Amy H. Hinrichs, Secretary, 7336 Hurst Street, New Orleans, La. Erik A. Anderson. 9 Exchange Terrace, Providence, R. I. F. H. Barbee, Superintendent, Public Schools, St. Joseph, Mo. P. W. Bell, High School Instructor, Las Vegas, Nev. L. J. Belt, Superintendent, Public Schools, Wheatland, Wyo. Glendora Butcher, Miami Senior High School, 2450 South West First Street, Miami, Fla. Ethel E. Clarke, 695 Ash Street, Portland, Ore. Mrs. Mary A. Congleton, Junior High School. Richmond, Ky. J. H. Cook. Dean, School of Education, North Carolina College for Women, Greensboro, N. C. Mrs. Mary M. Davis, Head Teacher, Minor School, Birmingham, Ala. Donald Dushane, Superintendent, Public Schools. Columbus, Ind. Arvie Eldred, 240 State Street, Albany, N. Y. Frank E. Ellsworth, Superintendent, Train¬ ing School, Kalamazoo, Mich. L. C. Ford, Superintendent, Public Schools, Nemo, S. D. Shirley Fox, Junior High School, Grand Forks, N. D. Elizabeth Graves, High School, Mason City, Iowa. W. F. Hall, Elementary School Supervisor, Little Rock, Ark. Charles R. Henry, Director, Teacher Train¬ ing, State Teachers College, Dillon, Mont. F. A. Hinckley, Principal, High School, Brigham City, Utah. Clifton J. Hopf, Thomas Jefferson High School, Elizabeth, N. J. William B. Jack, Superintendent, Public Schools, Portland, Maine. Clarence L. Joy, Superintendent, Public Schools, Proctor, Vt. Samuel M. North, 201 East University Park¬ way, Baltimore, Md. A. E. Karnes, Superintendent, Public Schools, Ketchikan, Alaska. Margaret V. Kiely, 250 Myrtle Avenue, Bridgeport, Conn. Freda Libbee, Horace Mann School, Seattle, Wash. J. D. Loper, Superintendent, Public Schools, Phoenix, Ariz. W. Harold Loper, Supervising Principal, Honolulu Elementary Schools, Honolulu, T. H. Barbara McBreen, President, Classroom Teachers Association, 3915 King Street, Denver, Colo. Elizabeth McCormick, Principal, Timothy O. Howe School, Superior, Wis. Mary McSkimmon, 205 Tappan Street, Brookline, Mass. J. Frank Marsh, President, Concord Normal School, Athens, W. Va. J. E. Mathis, Superintendent, Public Schools, Americus, Ga. Charles S. Miller, Supervising Principal of Schools, Lansdowne, Pa. Lulu Mock, 1921 Park Avenue. Dallas, Tex. W. R. Pate, President, State Teachers Col¬ lege. Peru, Nebr. Mrs. F. Blanche Preble, 10855 Vernon Ave¬ nue, Chicago, Ill. James N. Pringle, Commissioner of Educa¬ tion, Concord, N. H. N. J. Quickstad, Superintendent, Public Schools, Mountain Iron, Minn. C. K. Reiff, Superintendent, Public Schools, Oklahoma City, Okla. John A. Sexson, Superintendent, Public Schools, Pasadena, Calif. W. G. Smyth, Principal, Park Junior High School, Knoxville, Tenn. S. M. Stouffer, Superintendent, Public Schools, Wilmington, Del. J. Anna Tennyson, 1938 Biltmore Street, Washington, D. C. A. J. Thackston, Superintendent, Public Schools, Orangeburg, S. C. Mrs. A. E. Thomas, Superintendent, Otero County Schools, Alamogordo, N. M. Olive I. Thompson, Superintendent, Wyan¬ dotte County Schools, Kansas City, Kans. W. D. Vincent, Commissioner of Education, Boise, Idaho. J. W. Whitmer, County Superintendent of Schools, 411 Michigan Avenue, Toledo, Ohio. W. C. Williams, Superintendent, Public Schools, Greenwood, Miss. 860 National Education Association COMMITTEE OF ONE HUNDRED ON RETIREMENT ALLOWANCES (Authorized by Representative Assembly) EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE Anna Laura Force, Chairman; Principal, Lake Junior High School, Denver, Colo. Uel W. Lamkin, President, Northwest Mis¬ souri State Teachers College, Maryville, Mo. E. Ruth Pyrtle, Principal, Bancroft School, Lincoln, Nebr. Mary M. Abbe, Secretary, Board of Trus¬ tees of the Public School Teachers Pen¬ sion and Retirement Fund, 188 West Ran¬ dolph Street, Chicago, Ill. John W. Abercrombie, Assistant State Su¬ perintendent of Education, Montgomery, Ala. Georgia Whelan Aiken, Hotel Alms, Walnut Hills, Cincinnati, Ohio. Kyle T. Alfriend, Secretary, Georgia Edu¬ cation Association, 400 Vineville Avenue, Macon, Ga. A. J. Ashman, Superintendent, Sevier Dis¬ trict Schools, Richfield, Utah. Beulah Averill, Box 19, Winton, Calif. A. H. Bachelor, Superintendent, Lovelock Consolidated Schools, Lovelock, Nev. H. H. Baish, Secretary, School Employees Retirement Board, Harrisburg, Pa. J. H. Beveridge, Superintendent, Public Schools, Omaha, Nebr. Charles W. Bickford, Superintendent, Public Schools, Lewiston, Maine. Ernest Burnham, Western State Normal School, Kalamazoo, Mich. R. N. Caldwell, 2527 Moss Avenue, Dallas, Tex. E. F. Carleton, Secretary, Oregon State Teachers Association, 602-603 Studio Building, Portland, Ore. R. O. Clarida, Secretary, Teachers’ Pension and Retirement Fund, Springfield, Ill. F. B. Clark, Head, Department of Eco¬ nomics, Agricultural and Mechanical Col¬ lege of Texas, College Station, Tex. Roy W. Cloud, Secretary, California Teach¬ ers Association, 155 Sansome Street, San Francisco, Calif. Anna D. Cordts, 421 South Story Street, Boone, Iowa. A. G. Crane, President, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyo. Grace A. Day, Elementary Supervisor, De¬ partment of Public Instruction, Hudson, N. Y. M. L. Duggan, State Superintendent of Schools, Atlanta, Ga. John J. Early, Superintendent, Public Schools, Sheridan, Wyo. William I. Early, Principal, Washington High School, Sioux Falls, S. D. Mrs. Isabel L. Eckles, Superintendent, Public Schools, Santa Fe, N. M. Mrs. Eva Ehrenfeld, Box 144, Congress Junction, Ariz. Bessie Evans, 1005 McGowan Street, Little Rock, Ark. Adelaide Finch, Dingley Normal Training School, Lewiston, Maine. Ernest C. Folsom, President, Teachers Cas¬ ualty Underwriters, 1407 O Street, Lin¬ coln, Nebr. J. Carlisle Foster, Superintendent, Public Schools, Bethune, S. C. Bessie Bacon Goodrich, Assistant Super¬ intendent, Public Schools, Garfield Build¬ ing, Des Moines, Iowa. Jessie C. Gray, 1210 Fillmore Street, Frank- ford, Philadelphia, Pa. Wilson Greer, Superintendent, Public Schools, Wethersfield, Conn. O. H. Griest, Secretary, Indiana State Teachers Retirement Fund Board, 224 State House, Indianapolis, Ind. Earl G. Gridley, Room 1, 2163 Center Street, Berkeley, Calif. P. H. Griffith, Director, Extension Division, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, La. Elizabeth Hall, Assistant Superintendent, Public Schools. Minneapolis, Minn. Howard J. Hanna, President, High School Teachers Association, 305 Trinity Audi¬ torium, 847 South Grand Avenue, Los Angeles, Calif. C. J. Heatwole, Secretary, Virginia Educa¬ tion Association, 401 North Ninth Street, Richmond, Va. Amy Hinrichs, 7336 Hurst Street, New Or¬ leans, La. William H. Holmes, Superintendent, Public Schools, Mt. Vernon, N. Y. Lucy Mason Holt, Principal, Ocean View School, Norfolk, Va. Everett M. Hosman, 2927 North Fifty-first Street, Lincoln, Nebr. George Howard, Jr., Extension Division, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C. C. M. Howell, Secretary, Oklahoma State Teachers Association, 700 Continental Building, Oklahoma City, Okla. Eula F. Hunter, 1802 Hemphill Street, Fort Worth, Tex. W. B. Jack, Superintendent, Public Schools, Portland, Maine. C. M. Jensen, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Salt Lake City, Utah. Mrs. Eugenia West Jones, 318 South Benton Way, Los Angeles, Calif. Mary Etta Keegan, 512 Van Ness Avenue, San Francisco, Calif. W. E. Kershner, Secretary, Ohio State Teachers Retirement System, Ohio State Savings Building, Gay and 3rd Streets, Columbus, Ohio. K. J. Knutson, Secretary, Seattle Teachers Retirement Fund, 843 Central Building, Seattle, Wash. Henry A. Kocher, Assistant Secretary, New York State Teachers Retirement Board, Standard Building, Albany, N. Y. Edgar G. Lantman, Secretary, New York State Teachers Retirement Board, Stand¬ ard Building, Albany, N. Y. John A. Larson, Principal, Little Rock High School, Little Rock, Ark. M. C. Lefler, Superintendent, Public Schools, Lincoln, Nebr. Mrs. Josephine D. Lockard, 635 Rio Grande Avenue, Raton, N. M. Harold W. Loper, Supervising Principal, Honolulu Elementary Schools, Honolulu, T. H. Daisy Lord, Wilby High School, Waterbury, Conn. Associational Records and Information 861 Mrs. W. W. McAllister, 828 East Seventh Street, Tucson, Ariz. Elizabeth McCormick, Principal, Timothy O. Howe School, Superior, Wis, Marguerite McDonald, 509 West Park Street, Butte, Mont. George A. McFarland, President, State Teachers College, Minot, N. D. Mary McSkimmon, 205 Tappan Street, Brookline, Mass. Arthur L. Marsh, Secretary, Washington Education Association, 707 Lowman Building, Seattle, Wash. A. C. Matheson, Assistant State Superin¬ tendent of Public Instruction, Salt Lake City, Utah. Henry Miller, 524 Benton Street, Belleville, Ill. John G. Mitchell, President, Central State Teachers College, Edmond, Okla. W. B. Mooney, Secretary, Colorado Edu¬ cation Asociation, 530 Commonwealth Building, Denver, Colo. Miss E. Moore Neave, Park Street School, Hood River, Ore. Minnie Jean Nielson, 901 Fifth Avenue, Valley City, N. D. Mary O’Rourke, 421 East Main Street, Weiser, Idaho. Mrs. Caroline W. Porter, Principal, Lincoln School, Parsons, Kans. Sue M. Powers, Superintendent, Shelby County Schools, Memphis, Tenn. Charles F. Pye, Secretary, Iowa State Teachers Association, 415 Shops Building, Des Moines, Iowa. S. L. Ragsdale, Principal, L. C. Humes High School, Memphis, Tenn. Helen M. Robinson, Deputy Superintendent, Public Schools, 97 Dartmouth Street, Portland, Maine. Jennie Roch, Secretary-Treasurer, National Council of Teachers Retirement Systems, New Orleans, La. H. Alton Rogers, Principal, Lahainaluna Technical High School, Lahaina, Maui, T. H. Frank D. Rowe, Superintendent, Public Schools, Warren, Maine. Agnes Samuelson, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Des Moines, Iowa. Dorothy M. Shanley, Secretary, State Teachers Retirement Board, Hartford, Conn. W. P. Shawkey, President, Marshall Col¬ lege, Huntington, W. Va. Mary A. Sheehan, Assistant Principal, Washington Junior High School, 725 Clif¬ ford Avenue, Rochester, N. Y. Grace M. Shepherd, 803 North Mulberry Street, Maryville, Mo. Frank M. Shelton, Superintendent, Public Schools, Springfield, Ohio. John Shilling, Assistant Superintendent of Public Instruction, Dover, Del. Mrs. Margaret Mendenhall Smith, 1522 Lafayette, Apartment C, Denver, Colo. Grace G. Swan, Director. Primary Instruc¬ tion and Elementary Practice Teaching, Pittsburgh Public Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. Lida Lee Tall, Principal, State Normal School. Towson, Md. R. E. Tidwell, Director of Extension, Uni¬ versity of Alabama, University, Ala. W. Scott Ward, Athol, Mass. E. C. Warriner, President, Central State Teachers College, Mount Pleasant, Mich. Florence M. Wellman, Superintendent, Pub¬ lic Schools, Brattleboro, Vt. Mabel A. White, 513 North Noyes Boule¬ vard, St. Joseph, Mo. Charles O. Williams, Secretary, Indiana State Teachers Association, 205 Hotel Lincoln, Indianapolis, Ind. Theodore A. Zornow, Principal, Madison Junior-Senior High School, Wilson Park, Rochester, N. Y. COMMITTEE ON RURAL EDUCATION (A Special Committee) Willis A. Sutton, Chairman; Superintendent, Public Schools, Atlanta, Ga. Charles Albert Adams, Humboldt Bank Building, San Francisco, Calif. Frank R. Adams, Superintendent, Orleans Central District Schools, Barton, Vt. C. P. Archer, State Teachers College, Moor¬ head, Minn. W. J. Avery, Superintendent, Rapides Parish School Board, Alexandria, La. J. M. Baker, Superintendent, Public Schools, Crowley, La. Chloe Baldridge, Director of Rural Educa¬ tion, State Department of Public In¬ struction, Lincoln, Nebr. Anna E. Barnard, Superintendent, Calumet County Schools, Chilton, Wis. Carl J. Batchelder, Deputy Commissioner, State Board of Education, Montpelier, Vt. W. J. Berger, Superintendent, Sheboygan County Schools, Sheboygan Falls, Wis. E. C. Best, Fallon, Nev. Annie Webb Blanton, University of Texas, Austin, Texas. Edwin W. Broome, Superintendent, Mont¬ gomery County Schools, Rockville, Md. Mrs. Josepha L. Brown, Superintendent, Arapahoe County Schools, Littleton, Colo. Anne Brumby, Superintendent, Polk County Schools, Cedartown, Ga. Burl Bryant, Chief Supervisor, Rural Schools, State Department of Education, Austin, Tex. Cassie Burk, Director, Rural School Super¬ vision, Department of Public Schools, Jef¬ ferson City, Mo. R. C. Burts, Superintendent, Public Schools, Rock Hill, S. C. J. T. Calhoun, State Supervisor, Rural and Elementary Schools, Department of Edu¬ cation, Jackson, Miss. W. H. Campbell, Secretary, Nebraska Organized Agriculture, David City, Nebr. Mrs. Emma Y. Case, Eastern Kentucky State Teachers College, Richmond, Ky. John Case. Editor, Missouri Ruralist, Wright City, Mo. P. P. Claxton, President, Austin Peay Nor¬ mal School, Clarksville, Tenn. J. L. Clifton, Professor of School Adminis¬ tration, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. C. A. Cobb, c/o Southern Ruralist, 1713 Glenn Street, South West, Atlanta, Ga. Ephraim Colson, Superintendent, Foster and Scituate Schools. North Scituate, R. I. Nell A. Cooper, Superintendent, Barnes County Schools, Valley City, N. D. W. S. Dakin, c/o State Board of Educa¬ tion, Hartford, Conn. 86 2 National Education Association Charles E. Dickey, Superintendent, Alle¬ gheny County Schools. 345 County Office Building, Pittsburgh, Pa. Lee Driver, Consolidation Expert, State De- partment of Education, Harrisburg, Pa. E. A. Duke, Rural School Supervisor, State Department of Education, Oklahoma City, Albert Early, Supervisor of Schools, State Department of Education, Georgetown, Del. E. R. Eastman, Editor, American Agricul¬ turist, 461 Fourth Avenue, New York, N. Y. Clayton L. Erwin, Deputy Commissioner, State Board of Education, Montpelier, Vt. Clyde A. Erwin, Superintendent, Ruther¬ ford County Schools, Rutherford, N. C. Mrs. Della B. Erwin, Supervisor, Elemen¬ tary Schools. Jefferson County Board of Education, Birmingham, Ala. Mrs. Bertha Filson, Superintendent, Mason County Schools, Point Pleasant, W. Va. G- C. Floyd, Administrator of Equalizing Fund, State Department of Education, Little Rock, Ark. Virginia Foulk, Marshall College, Hunt¬ ington, W. Va. George Fox, Superintendent, Anne Arundel County Schools, Annapolis. Md. Ottilia M Frisch, Commissioner, Saginaw County Schools, Saginaw, Mich. A- C. Fuller Associate Director, Extension Division, Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa. Alma Fu trail, Superintendent, Lee County Schools, Marianna, Ark. Miss Lector Hackworth, Northeastern Teachers College, Tahlequah, Okla. o u , Hag°°d, Superintendent, Public Schools, Beaufort, S. C. Mrs Marie Turner Harvey. 805 South Hal¬ liburton Street, Kirksville, Mo. • C. Haught, Dean of Education, West Liberty State Normal School, West Lib¬ erty, W. Va. Jennie M. Haver, Helping Teacher, Centre ^ Street, Clinton, N. J. C. J. Heatwole, Secretary, Virginia Educa¬ tion Association, 401 North Ninth Street Richmond, Va. Helen Hay Heyl, Assistant in Rural Educa- tion, State Department of Education, Al¬ bany, N. Y. L Pearle Hibarger, Superintendent, Yakima County Schools, Yakima, Wash. W L Hughes. Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, College Station, Tex. Mrs. Elizabeth D. Hutto, County Superin¬ tendent of Education, Darlington, S. C. Fr|nk Jacks°n, Superintendent, Public Schools, Madison Supervisory District Madison, N. H. R- E' Jaf£ers, Supervisor, Rural Elemen¬ tary Schools, State Department of Edu¬ cation, Frankfort, Ky. Elizabeth M. Jenkins, State Normal School, North Adams, Mass. Mrs. Eula Johnston, Supervisor, Hamilton County Schools, Court House, Chatta¬ nooga, Tenn. A. L. Jones, Principal. Washington School, District Number 6, Phoenix, Ariz. Burr F. Jones, State Supervisor of Elemen¬ tary Education, Department of Education. Boston, Mass. J* A> Kellar, Superintendent, Covington County Schools, Andalusia, Ala. Mrs. Margaret R. Kelley, Helping Teacher, Derby, Vt. Kelly, Jr., Division Superintendent, Wise County School, Wise, Va. A- Kieffer, State Teachers College, Shippensburg, Pa. Dan E. Kind, Superintendent, Richland County Schools, Sidney, Mont. King, Assistant State Superintendent in charge of Elementary Schools, Depart¬ ment of Public Instruction, Dover, Del •’a^oS Kirkham- Editor. Utah Farmer. 410 Vermont Building, Salt Lake City, Utah. Ida B. Lacy, Box 182, Willimantic, Conn. Benson Y Landis, Secretary, American Country Life Association, Inc., 105 East Twenty-second Street, New York, N. Y Hans J- Lee, Superintendent, Kidder County Schools, Steele, N. D. R. J. Libby, State Agent for Rural Educa- Main ^sPartment Education, Augusta, W.H. Lloyd, Editor, Ohio Farmer, 1011- 1015 Rockwell Avenue, Cleveland, Ohio. Louise B. Lynd, State Normal School, Tempe, Ariz. Rose M. McDonald, Berryville, Va. Gertrude McArthur, Principal, Melrose High School, Melrose, Fla. A. E. McGuire, Head, Department of Edu¬ cation, Concord State Normal School. Athens, W. Va. Beatrice McLeod, State Director of Special Education, State Department of Educa¬ tion, Cheyenne, Wyo. Mr PJ,ylli? Mas°n. Rural Supervisor, New Castle County Schools, Wilmington, Del. rjf j Mll.ler> Head, Department of Rura1 Education, Oregon Normal School, Monmouth, Ore. D. C. Mills Executive Secretary, Depart¬ ment of Young Citizens’ League. State Department of Education, Pierre, S. D. Roma L. Milnor, Superintendent, Noble County Schools, Albion, Ind. Mary Mims, Extension Sociologist, Loui¬ siana State University, Baton Rouge, La. F- ?dgar Mineer, Superintendent, Public Schools, Overton, Nev. George M. Morris, Rural School Supervisor rtate Department of Education, Colum¬ bus, Ohio. Elizabeth C. Murray, Superintendent, Co- lumbia County Schools, St. Helens, Ore. O W Neale, Director, Rural Education, PointalVHsate Teachers College, Stevens Madlyn Newell, 308 West First Street, Oklahoma City, Okla. Augusta M Nichols, Headmaster, Hamp- stead High School, Hampstead, N. H. Ka*« Offerman, Assistant Superintendent, Wood County Schools, Bowling Green, Ohio. ’ Mrs. Hazel H. Ott, Director, Department Curriculum Revision, State Department of Education, Pierre, S. D. Mrs. Bertha R. Palmer, State Superintend¬ ent of Public Instruction, Bismarck, N. D. Anna C. Pearson, Rural School Super¬ visor, State Normal School, Albion, Idaho. Irving F. Pearson, Superintendent, Winne¬ bago County Schools, Rockford, Ill. Fred Peterson, Superintendent, Klamath County Schools, Klamath Falls, Ore. Homer T. Phillips, Chairman, Department of Education. Northwest Missouri State Teachers College, Maryville, Mo. John E. Pickett, Editor, Pacific Rural Press and California Farmer, 560 Howard Street San Francisco, Calif. L. A. Pittenger, President, Ball State Teachers College, Muncie, Ind. Sue M. Powers, Superintendent, Shelby County Schools, Memphis, Tenn. Associational Records and Information 863 Mrs. Josephine Corliss Preston, Burton, Vashon Island, King County, Wash. C. W. Price, Panaca, Nev. Charles F. Prior, Superintendent, Public Schools, Fairhaven, Mass. C. E. Rarick, Director, Extension Service, Fort Hays State Teachers College, Hays, Kans. Mrs. Ellsworth Richardson, Farm Bureau Leader, Givin, Iowa. William McKinley Robinson, Western State Teachers College, Kalamazoo, Mich. Elizabeth Russell, Lewiston, Idaho. Agnes Samuelson, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Des Moines, Iowa. C. G. Sargent, Professor of Rural and Voca¬ tional Education, Colorado Agricultural College, Fort Collins, Colo. Alson Secor, Editorial Department, Success¬ ful Farming, Des Moines, Iowa. Ida E. Seidell, Rural Supervisor of Schools, Pitt County, Greenville, N. C. George A. SeTke, President, State Teachers College, St. Cloud, Minn. Mrs. Charles W. Sewell, Director, Home and Community Work, American Farm Bureau Federation, 58 East Washington Street, Chicago, Ill. N. D. Showalter, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Olympia, Wash. J. H. Shriber, College of Education, Uni¬ versity of Colorado, Boulder, Colo. Edna Simmons, Elementary Supervisor, Hinds County, Jackson, Miss. I. S. Smith, State Supervisor of Schools, State Department of Education, Atlanta, Ga. William M. Smith, Superintendent, Mon¬ mouth County Schools, Freehold, N. J. COMMITTEE ON SOCIAL (A Special F. J. Kelly, Chairman; Chief of Division of Colleges and Professional Schools, Office of Education, Washington, D. C. Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford, 5069 Newton Street, Denver, Colo. Edwin C. Broome, Superintendent, Public Schools. Philadelphia, Pa. Willard E. Givens, Superintendent, Public Schools, Oakland, Calif. James T. Jardine, Agricultural Experiment Ray P. Snyder, Chief, Rural Education Bureau, State Department of Education, Albany, N. Y. Andrew M. Soule, President, State Agri¬ cultural College, University of Georgia, Athens, Ga. W. J. Sutton, Chairman of the Education Committee of the State Legislature, Cheney, Wash. C. C. Swain, President, State Teachers Col¬ lege, Mayville, N. D. Anna Swenson. Director of Rural Educa¬ tion, State Department of Education, St. Paul, Minn. Amanda Swift, Lewistown, Mont. John Thompson. Editor. Wisconsin Agri¬ culturist and Farmer, Racine, Wis. Edward J. Tobin, Superintendent, Cook County Schools, Court House, Chicago, Ill. Harvey L. Turner, Director, Division of Rural Education, Michigan State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich. Florence H. Walker, Rural Supervisor, State Department of Education, Topeka, Kans. D. A. Wallace, Webb Publishing Company, 55 East Tenth Street, St. Paul, Minn. W. H. Ward, Superintendent, Public Schools, Walterboro, S. C. Raymond White, Superintendent, Public Schools, Douglas, Wyo. Carlyle W. Wilcox, Principal, Pioche Pub¬ lic School, District Number 1, Pioche, Nev. W. S. Yates, Supervisor of Rural Schools, Board of Education, Hillsborough County, Plant City, Fla. ECONOMIC OBJECTIVES Committee) Station Division, United States Depart¬ ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Katherine McHale, Executive Secretary, American Association of University Women, 1634 I Street, N. W., Washing¬ ton, D. C. Robert C. Moore, Secretary, Illinois State Teachers Association, Carlinville, Ill. George D. Strayer, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. COMMITTEE ON PROBLEM OF TENURE (Authorized by Representative Assembly) EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE Lida Lee Tall. Chairman; Principal, State Teachers College, Towson, Md. Cornelia S. Adair, 2121 Park Avenue, Rich¬ mond, Va. E. S. Evenden, Teachers College, Colum¬ bia University, New York, N. Y. Mrs. Stella S. Applegate, 304 Stacy Trent Hotel, Trenton, N. J. Francis L. Bailey, Commissioner of Edu¬ cation, Montpelier, Vt. John H. Beveridge, Superintendent, Public Schools, Omaha, Nebr. Estelle Boggess, 1615 Grant Street, Den¬ ver, Colo. A. O. Bowden, President, New Mexico State Teachers College, Silver City, N. M. Katherine Brennan, 182 Lloyd Street, New Haven, Conn. E. T. Cameron, Executive Secretary, Michi¬ gan Education Association, 935 North Washington Avenue, Lansing, Mich. Norman W. Cameron, President, State Teachers College, West Chester, Pa. H. F. Carmichael, Principal, Roosevelt Junior High School, 1568 Riverview, Decatur, Ill. A. T. Carr, Principal, Wilson Junior High School, Cleveland, Ohio. Mrs. Susanne Homes Carter, Superintendent, Jackson County Schools, Medford, Ore. Frank Cody, Superintendent, Public Schools, Detroit, Mich. 864 National Education Association Mrs. Myrtle Hooper Dahl, President, Min¬ neapolis Division, Minnesota Education Association, 3527 Pillsbury Avenue, Min¬ neapolis, Minn. George J. Dann, Superintendent, Public Schools. Oneonta, N. Y George M. Davison, 1429 Union Street, Brooklyn, N. Y. John A. DeCamp, Superintendent, Public Schools, Utica, N. Y. Florence M. Dickinson, 249 Windsor Ave¬ nue, Haddonfield, N. J. Isabella Dolton, 333 Lincoln Avenue, Dolton, Ill. Flora E. Drake, 2230 Brookside Avenue, Indianapolis, Ind. Stephen Dwan, Broadway High School, Seattle, Wash. John J. Early, Superintendent, Public Schools, Sheridan, Wyo. C. Ray Evans, Principal, North Summit High School, Coalville, Utah. Ralph W. Everett, Sacramento Junior Col¬ lege, Sacramento, Calif, Mrs. Gertrude Hale, High School, 58 Union Square, Athol, Mass. Harriett L. Hinman, Research Department, Board of Education, Toledo, Ohio. Ella J. Holley, Rural Supervisor for New Castle County Schools, Wilmington, Del. Clara Jacobs, c/o Centennial High School, Pueblo, Colo. W, W. Kemp, Dean, School of Education, University of California, Berkeley, Calif. Nell E. Lain, 4518 Montgall Street, Kansas City, Mo. Mrs. Inez J. Lewis, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Denver, Colo. F. M. Longanecker, Superintendent, Public Schools, Racine, Wis. Mary A. Lord, Woodrow W’ilson Junior High School, Sioux City, Iowa. J. H. McConnell, President, State Teachers College, East Radford, Va. H. G. Masters, 2727 Broadway East, Pitts¬ burgh, Pa. Miss E. Moore Neave, Park Street School, Hood River, Ore. Mrs. Alice R. Norton, Principal, San Miguel School, San Francisco, Calif. Mary Elizabeth O’Connor, Supervisor of Elementary Schools, Natick, Mass. Gertrude Pitts, 915 Cumberland Street, Little Rock, Ark. Warren A. Roe, Principal, Belmont Ave¬ nue School, Newark, N. J. Belle M. Ryan, Assistant Superintendent, Public Schools, Omaha, Nebr. Agnes Samuelson, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Des Moines, Iowa. M. P. Shawkey, President, Marshall Col¬ lege, Huntington, W. Va. Mary A. Sheehan, Assistant Principal, Washington Junior High School, 725 Clif¬ ford Avenue, Rochester, N. Y. Grace M. Shepherd, 803 North Mulberry Street, Maryville, Mo. Irving W. Small, Superintendent, Public Schools, Bangor, Maine. C. O. Smith, 312 North Hersey Street, Beloit, Kans. A. H. Staley, Superintendent, Public Schools, Hastings, Nebr. Fred G. Stevenson, 423 Hamilton Place, Ann Arbor, Mich. Chester D. Stiles, Superintendent, Public Schools, Westfield, Mass. Milo H. Stuart, 4535 Park Avenue, Indian¬ apolis, Ind. Joseph L. Thalman, Principal, Anderson Senior High School, Anderson, Ind. Oliver Scott Thompson, Superintendent, Compton Union District Secondary Schools, Compton, Calif. John J. Tigert, President, University of Florida, Gainesville, Fla. Mrs. Grace G. Truax, Box 1, Sioux Falls, S. D. Josephine Wilson, President, Dallas Grade teachers Council, 714 Allen Building, Dallas, Tex. Florence E. Wolaver, 1734 Orrington Ave¬ nue, Evanston, Ill. Associational Records and Information 865 MINUTES OF THE TWELFTH REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY Atlantic City, N. J., June 25-July 1, 1932 First Business Session, Tuesday Morning, June 28, 1932 At 9:30 oclock the first business session of the Twelfth Representative Assembly was called to order by President Florence Hale, in the ballroom of the Auditorium. 1 he invocation was delivered by the Rev. Harold G. Gaunt, pastor of the Olivet Presbyterian Church, Atlantic City. President Hale: The first item of business this morning is the report of the Committee on Credentials. Mr. Brovin from Alabama is the chairman. Mr. Brovin: The Credentials Committee of the National Education Association met, organized, and performed its duties in compliance with the rules and regula¬ tions and bylaws of this Association. The meeting was held June 27, 1932, at 2 p.m. in the Secretary’s office of the Convention Auditorium. The report from the Secretary was that 751 delegates were already registered. It was the unanimous vote of this Committee that all delegates duly registered in the Secretary’s office up to the time of the meeting of this Committee be seated, and that all who had duly registered thereafter and whose credentials met the requirements of the bylaws of this Association be admitted as delegates to this Assembly. Madam President, I move the acceptance of this report and the adoption of its recommendation. Seconded. Carried. President Hale: The next item of business is the adoption of the order of busi¬ ness. I call on the Secretary of the Association. Secretary Crabtree: It has been customary to adopt the program as prepared by the President as the order of business for the Convention. President Hale: Do I hear a motion? Secretary Crabtree: I so move. President Hale. It has been moved and seconded that the official program as printed shall be adopted as the order of business. Carried. President Hale. At this point the Chair wishes to introduce the Parliam entanan who will officiate during these meetings, Joseph H. Saunders, chairman, Board of Trustees of the N. E. A., and superintendent of schools, Newport News, Virginia. Mr. Joseph H. Saunders: If you will refer to page 4 of the Official Manual for Delegates, you will find that the rules and procedures for the conduct of business in the Representative Assembly are there recorded. I desire at this time to call your attention specifically to only two of those rules. Rule No. 3 refers to debate and provides that in debate on any motion, each speaker shall be limited to five minutes unless his time be extended either (1) by unanimous consent or (2) by vote of the Representative Assembly. Rule No. 5 is that Roberts Rules of Order is adopted as the authority on par¬ liamentary procedure. I wish to call your attention to one further question of parliamentary procedure which you will find in the bylaws, also recorded in the latter pages of the Manual, referring to resolutions. That bylaw provides that all resolutions offered shall be referred to the Committee on Resolutions without debate and that the Resolutions Committee shall set a time and place for hearing those who are interested in such resolutions. President Hale: The next order of business is the reading of the minutes of the Los Angeles meeting. I call upon the Secretary of the Association. Secretary Crabtree: The minutes of the Los Angeles meeting are printed in the Official Manual, beginning on page 36. You have all read these minutes, so I move that the minutes be accepted as printed in the Manual. Seconded. Carried. 866 National Education Association President Hale: At this time we will pause for one of the addresses of the morning. I decided that we would have two addresses in order that all might have a chance to come before the pressing business of the morning. At this time we will listen to an address on “How Professional Organization Helps in Solving the Pres¬ ent Emergency.” This address will be given by Mr. Joseph Rosier, a member of the Executive Committee of the N.E.A., and president of Fairmont State Teachers College, Fairmont, West Virginia. Mr. Rosier has the distinction of having been present at every meeting of the National Education Association for over twenty years, so he should be able to tell us how such organization helps in everyday problems. Mr. Rosier. (The address is printed elsewhere in this volume. See index.) President Hale: You will recall that last year you authorized in your Board of Directors the appointment of a Special Committee on Social-Economic Objectives. You empowered your President to appoint such a committee. I appointed that com¬ mittee with Mr. Fred J. Kelly, chief, Division of Colleges and Professional Schools of the United States Office of Education, as chairman. I will ask Mr. Kelly if he will be so kind as to help me on the program at this point by giving that report. Mr. Kelly. (The report is printed elsewhere in this volume. See index.) President Hale: You have heard the report of the Chairman of the Committee. I would like to know now what you wish to do with this report at this time. Mr. Willis A. Sutton: I move the adoption of the report. President Hale: I recognize Mr. Carroll of Rhode Island. Mr. Carroll: I am raising a point of order. The recommendation of the report is properly a matter for the Board of Directors and not for this body. President Hale: Well, this just carries the recommendation. It doesn’t mean any voting on it, Mr. Carroll. Just the recommendation that it be referred to the Board of Directors. President Hale (after a splendid introduction) : It gives me unusual pleasure to present my friend, Mr. William Trufant Foster, who will address us at this time on the topic, “Managed Money and Unmanaged Men.” (The address is printed elsewhere in this volume. See index.) President Hale: I am sure I express the mood of this great convention when I express to Mr. William Trufant Foster our sincere appreciation of this very elo¬ quent and very thoughtful talk at a time when we need to understand just the things he has explained. President Hale: I recognize Mr. Arvie Eldred of New York. Will you come to the platform, Mr. Eldred? Mr. Eldred (New York) : I note the next order of business, Miss Hale, is the getting ready for the nominations, and before this happens the delegates from New York want the opportunity of presenting a proposition to this convention. President Hale: If there is no objection we shall be glad to hear Mr. Eldred. Perhaps the meeting would like to know just what is the nature of the recommen¬ dation you wish to make. Mr. Eldred: The delegates from New York, feeling that this convention wants to honor itself and wants to honor a man who, perhaps, has done more for educa¬ tion thruout the world than any other, would offer to this convention the name of John Dewey as an honorary president of the N.E.A. President Hale: If there is no objection we shall be glad to listen to Mr. Eldred. Mr. Eldred: I would like to call upon Mr. Holmes to make that presentation. President Hale: Mr. Holmes is called for. Mr. Holmes, will you come to the platform? Mr. Holmes of Mt. Vernon, New York. Mr. Holmes: I suppose if a hundred outstanding citizens of the world were to be asked to choose the man or woman who had done the most constructive think¬ ing for humanity, they would almost unanimously agree upon our outstanding American, John Dewey. I suppose if they were asked to select a man who had Associational Records and Information 867 done more than any other one man for the establishment of world peace and world friendship, they would again select the name of John Dewey. I suppose if they were asked to select the name of the man who has given us or given the world the most constructive educational program, a program that extends from the little child to the man or woman in the university, they would again select the name of John Dewey. I suppose that there isn’t a one of the 900,000 teachers in these United States who hasn’t been inspired and helped by the constructive program for educational freedom that John Dewey has set up. I suppose if the people that he has helped should form a line two deep, it would extend around the world. In view of all these things, can we afford not to give this man the greatest honor we are capable of giving him? I ask you to give that man this honor by electing him unanimously by acclamation the honorary president of the National Education Association. Voice: Madam Chairman, I rise to second the nomination of John Dewey. President Hale: Pardon me, the Chair does not understand that a nomination has been made. Mr. Holmes: No, a motion to elect him honorary president. President Hale: Mr. Holmes and Members from New York State, the Chair understands there is no such office now on our statutes. Mr. Holmes: This is not an office, it is an honor, the same as when you desig¬ nated him an honorary life member. It was not an office; it was an honor. Mr. Holmes (after further discussion): I move that this recommendation be referred to the Board of Directors for action. President Hale: It is moved by Mr. Holmes that this recommendation be re¬ ferred to the Board of Directors for action. All those in favor say “Aye.” Voice: You gave no chance for debate. V oice: A motion to refer cannot be debated. President Hale: I refer to the Parliamentarian, Mr. Saunders. Mr. Joseph H. Saunders : A motion to refer would be debatable. President Hale: Mr. Holmes from Mount Vernon, New York. Mr. Holmes: I do hope this organization won’t perform any cowardly act by referring this to a Committee or trying to lay it on the table. Let us do the big thing. Let us see big things big and small things small. Let us do our duty. Let us assume some responsibility and let us honor this great man in the way he should be honored. Don’t be cried down. I know the great majority of the men and women here, thinking men and women, want this honor conferred upon this great man. Let us do it. President Hale: If there is no further action, the motion — Mr. Holmes: You can’t put a vote before discussion. President Hale: All right, just as you say. Mr. Holmes: I move for a show of hands or polling vote. President Hale: Those in favor of the motion that this be referred to the Board of Directors for action signify in the usual manner. All those opposed. The ayes appear to have it. Do you wish to call for another similar vote, Mr. Holmes? I want to be perfectly fair. Mr. Holmes: I don’t think a voice vote is ever a fair vote. Those who can yell the loudest get it. President Hale: All right, just as you say, Mr. Holmes. Air. Holmes: I would be willing to call for a show of hands without polling the states and then let us see what it is. President Hale: All right. Mr. Holmes wishes to ask for a show of hands. All those who wish to refer this matter of the recommendation of John Dewey’s name to the Board of Directors as honorary president just raise your hands. Mr. George IV. W annamaker (Georgia) : Miss Hale, I wish to ask this ques¬ tion. 868 National Education Association President Hale: Mr. tV annamaker of Georgia. Mr. JV annamaker : I wish to ask this question: Are you referring it to the Board of Directors with authority to act or without authority to act? President Hale: The Board of Directors would have the authority either to act or not to act, I should say. Mr. tV annamaker: I have been a member of the Board of Directors for years, and when questions come up in the Board of Directors it has always been taken that the Board of Directors takes a vote and it then has to be referred to the Representative Assembly for formal action, and it seems to me that what we are now doing is sending the responsibility from the Representative Assembly to the smaller body. I simply ask the question, are we giving the smaller body the authority to have our responsibility, or are we asking for their recommendation upon the question ? Voice: The motion pre-supposes that the Board would have authority. President Hale (after further discussion) : In order to clear the atmosphere, I will call upon the Parliamentarian. We would like his opinion. Mr. Joseph H. Saunders: It is the judgment of your Parliamentarian that if the motion pending is adopted on the call for division by Mr. Holmes, which would send it to the Board of Directors, that the Board of Directors would have the authority to consider the proposition and then to report back to this Representative Assembly any action or conclusion that it might come to in regard to this proposition. So that body could table the matter and not make a report here if it saw fit unless it is instructed by resolution from this body to report back. Mr. JV annamaker: Madam President — President Hale: Mr. tt annamaker. Will you kindly come where you can be seen ? Mr. tV annamaker: I feel very deeply about this matter. I feel that if John Dewey has taught anything at all he has taught individual responsibility. I feel that we are not going to honor him by referring a matter back and forth, one way or another. Let us take action and do something here now. I ask you in the name of fairness and in the name of the teachers of America what honor will there be in conferring such an honor by having it buffeted here and there and yonder? I take the position as a humble member of this Assembly that the whole procedure is out of order. If we would honor John Dewey or any other man, elect him or elect her, if she be a woman, president of this Association and put honor and responsibility together. I, therefore, Madam Chairman, as a member of this Assembly with the right to vote and the right to make a motion, offer as a sub¬ stitute motion for all before the house that we revert back to the original motion made by the gentleman from New York and take a vote by states on this important matter. President Hale: We are very glad to listen to Mr. tV annamaker, but if the Chair understands him, he is out of order in offering another resolution at this time because Mr. Holmes has asked for a show of hands, for a division vote. Am I right, Mr. Parliamentarian? Mr. Joseph H. Saunders: The vote has already been taken and we are in the process now of confirming that vote by a show of hands. Therefore any debate or any subsequent motion is out of order until after that decision has been made by the show of hands. Mr. Holmes: Mr. Saunders, may I ask you if it is in parliamentary order to call a vote before there has been discussion? That was done. Mr. C. C. Minty (Minnesota) : I rise for a point of order. President Hale: Give your name and the place from which you come. Mr. Holmes: You have not yet ruled on my point of order. Mr. Minty: I maintain what you are proposing to do here is in violation of the constitution and the establishing of a new office. That can only be done by an amendment to the constitution. Associational Records and Information 869 President Hale: The Chair understands, if she is to have free speech, you are out of order. I believe we should now go on with the procedure suggested by Mr. Holmes. That is the question before us. Mr. Minty: I am questioning the method of business. I am asking a point of order. President Hale: I refer you to the Parliamentarian. Mr. Joseph H. Saunders: We are operating under Roberts’ Rules of Order and under Roberts’ Rules of Order you cannot interrupt in the midst of a vote to bring in debate for other extraneous matters. The vote has been taken, the Chair has announced its decision, and a call for a show of hands in division has been made. No other procedure can interrupt that. So any other procedure is out of order except the show of hands. President Hale: The Chair sustains the ruling of the Parliamentarian. We will proceed with the show of hands. (The motion was carried.) JV annamaker: A question, which I think will be much discussed and which I think should be cleared up now— maybe I am dull and haven’t understood the question at all— when a question is referred to the Board of Directors does the Board of Directors have the right to confer the honorary presidency or does it make the recommendation back to this body? President Hale: The Chair understands that the Board may do either. Am I right, Mr. Parliamentarian? Mr. Saunders: As the Parliamentarian understands the situation, the gentleman from New York has moved that the National Education Association, thru its con¬ stituted authorities, pay honor to the great philosopher, John Dewey. A subsidiary motion that it be referred to the Board of Directors having been adopted, it means that the matter goes to the Board of Directors at present without instructions. As a member of that Board I would assume that it would not take action on so important a proposition without referring its recommendations back to the Repre¬ sentative Assembly for final action, and unless instructed otherwise I should think that would be the procedure, but there is no specific rule at the present moment governing that question. There are no instructions given with this motion. President Hale: The Chair recognizes Mr. Carroll. Mr. Charles Carroll (Rhode Island) : I move we proceed with the regular order of business. President Hale: There has been a motion made and seconded that we proceed with the order of business. (The question being called for, the motion was there¬ upon put and carried.) President Hale: We will now proceed with the regular order of business on our program. The next item of business is the announcement of arrangements for voting by the convention Committee on Elections. I recognize Mr. Longshore of Kansas City, Missouri. Mr. Longshore: The Committee on Elections offers the following recommenda¬ tions : We are to have an election and we must have the machinery set up for it. The bylaws provide the election shall be held on the fourth day of the convention and that the balloting by the delegates shall be on printed ballots. The Committee has arranged to hold the election at the Delegates’ Registration Booth in the Exhibit Hall. You are to vote at the same place in which you secured your delegates’ material and the ballot box will be placed there. The election will take place there on the fourth day of the convention, which will be Thursday, the polls being open from eight in the morning until six in the evening. The procedure of voting has been made as simple as possible. Each of you as delegates have a coupon which you will present at the desk on Thursday. Sign the coupon and exchange it for a ballot. The ballot will be filled out simply by marking an X opposite the candi¬ date’s name that you wish to vote for. 870 National Education Association I he members of the Committee will be present thruout the day and the Com¬ mittee will meet at that place at 6 p.m. to begin the counting of ballots. The Com¬ mittee desires that the delegates, or as many of them as are interested, be present at that time and place so that all may see what is being done. President Hale: The next order of business consists of nominations for president, eleven vicepresidents, and the treasurer. I call upon J. W. Crabtree, Secretary of the organization. First will be nominations for the president of the National Education Association. I call upon Mr. Crabtree, the Secretary, to read the roll call of the states. Secretary Crabtree: I shall read the names of the states as they come rather rapidly, so that if anyone wishes to make a nomination he will have to speak out quickly as the name is called. Alabama. Alabama: Alabama yields to West Virginia. Mr. William C. Cook (West Virginia) : West Virginia greatly appreciates the courtesy of Alabama in yielding to us at this time. It is a great honor and a distinct responsibility to nominate one considered to be worthy to be added to the long list of distinguished leaders who have served us as presidents of the National Education Association. This is a vital moment in American education. The adjustment is the pressing problem and it is inevitable. We need a strong leader, with wisdom and courage to help us meet and solve our perplexing problems. We know that our Asso¬ ciation is looking for a vigorous schoolmaster, seasoned by long, successful experi¬ ence in all the essential units of our educational system, one with tested administrative ability and enthusiasm for practical educational progress. We fully realize that each state here represented could put forth such a leader. West Virginia has the honor to present at this time for consideration as the next president of the National Education Association one who has been a successful class¬ room teacher and county superintendent, a city superintendent, a college president, and one who, thru long periods, has served the National Education Association in many capacities, a recognized educational leader in both state and nation. I place in nomination Joseph Rosier of West Virginia. Secretary Crabtree: Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, California — California: Modest California is glad to second the nomination of Mr. Rosier. As the secretary continued the roll call of states, Colorado, Delaware, District of Columbia, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Maine, Minnesota, Missouri, New Jersey, New Mexico, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Texas, Vermont, Virginia, and Wisconsin seconded the nomination of Mr. Rosier. Mr. Holmes (when New York was called) : Acting under instruction of the delegation from New York, because we would urge that you act as a Delegate Assembly upon the nomination of John Dewey, and acting in line with the sugges¬ tion from Mr. W annamaker that this nomination or this selection be referred to the Representative body, we from New York have voted three times to support the candidacy of John Dewey for the presidency. John Dewey has himself said that he would deem it an honor and would be glad to serve this great organization to the best of his ability. We believe that the thinking teachers of this country will want him. Therefore, we present John Dewey for the presidency of the National Education Association, and furthermore I would like to withdraw that motion — I wasn’t permitted to do it then — that I made previously. We would like to submit him. The Chair: You are out of order. Mr. Holmes: I would like to submit his candidacy to this great organization, John Dewey, the greatest educator of all time. The Chair: You can nominate but you can’t recall your previous motion. Miss Johanna M. Lindhoff (New York) : On behalf of the classroom teachers of New York City, and I hope on behalf of the teachers thruout the nation, I wish to second the nomination of John Dewey for the presidency of the National Edu¬ cation Association, and I would like to leave with you this thought from one of Associational Records and Information 871 his addresses which is if I can read it correctly — aLet us learn to act with and for others while we learn to think and judge for ourselves.” I second the nomina¬ tion of John Dewey for president of this organization. (The state of Utah and the Territory of Porto Rico seconded the nomination.) President Hale: The next order of business is nominations for vicepresidents. I call upon the Secretary. Will all those who intend to nominate a vicepresident from their state please come to the platform? As you make your nominations will you state your name in order that it may be recorded? Secretary Crabtree: Alabama. Mr. II. L. Rogeis: I move the nominating speeches be limited to two minutes and the seconding speeches to one minute. I oice. Second the motion. (The question being called for, there being no dis¬ cussion, the motion was put and unanimously carried.) Secretary Crabtree (continuing roll call): Alabama, Alaska, Arizona — (As the names of the states were called the following made nominations.) Mr. J. O. Munn: Arizona desires to place in nomination for vicepresident, C. B. Wivel of Tempe, Arizona. Miss Irene Moffat: California wishes to present the name of a woman who has been very prominent in our own state organization, a woman who has regularly attended this convention for many years, a classroom teacher whom we know to be excellent organization material. California requests the support of other states in the nomination of Miss Mabel Ellis of San Francisco for vicepresident of the National Education Association. Mr. Fred IV. Sherrat: The teachers of Connecticut are proud to place in nom¬ ination for vicepresident one who leads and one who works for the best interests of education in the country. It is a pleasure to nominate our friend, Ernest IV. Butterfield, state commissioner of education, Hartford, Connecticut. Miss Anna C. Kelleher: The delegation from the District of Columbia presents the name of Edith Louise Grosvenor as vicepresident of the N.E.A. Mrs. J. A. Wilson (Honolulu) : The Hawaii delegation wishes to present the name of Oren E. Long, deputy superintendent of public instruction, Hawaii. Mr. Long has for the past year served as the executive secretary of the World Federa¬ tion of Education Associations, which meets in Honolulu the last week in July, and we take very great pride and pleasure in presenting the name of Oren E. Long. Mr. Henry J. Gerling (Missouri) : As the representative of the State of Missouri I wish to present for your consideration as a vicepresident of this Association one who has long been distinguished by service in behalf of this Association, and who likewise in our state has long been distinguished by his efforts in behalf of the maintenance of our best professional standards. I accordingly take great pleasure in placing before you the name of William T. Longshore, principal of the Green¬ wood School of Kansas City, Missouri. Mr. W. W. Ward: New Jersey modestly presents the name of George C. Baker of Moorestown for the position of one of the vicepresidents of this great Associa¬ tion. I will only just say to you, you can judge Mr. Baker by the kind of enter¬ tainment that has been provided by New Jersey for your pleasure. Mr. Baker is chairman of the Entertainment Committee. Miss Jessie Judd (Vermont) : Vermont takes great pride in presenting the name of Caroline S. IV oodruff of Castleton, Vermont, as a vicepresident. Mr. Emery Asbury: The Board of Directors of the Washington Education Asso¬ ciation at a meeting sometime ago instructed me as their president to present to this organization the name of our vicepresident, who last year was president of our state organization, Orville C. Pratt, of Spokane, for president of the National Education Association. The Washington delegation here present, however, in this meeting, in view of the fact that two such outstanding men have been nominated for this position already, decided to present the name of Mr. Pratt for vicepresi- 872 National Education Association dent of this organization. Mr. Pratt is superintendent of schools of Spokane, has been the head of the Department of Education of DePauw University, Indiana, and until recently was on the Investigating Commission of the National Bureau of Investigation of School Costs and Accounting. We feel we are honoring ourselves and this Association in presenting the name of Mr. Pratt. Miss Blanche McCarthy: Wisconsin wishes to nominate a woman who has given years of service to this convention; she is a member of your Resolutions Committee, of your Committee on Retirement Allowances, of your Committee on International Relations; she is vicepresident of your Department of Elementary School Principals. Wisconsin nominates Elizabeth McCormick, principal of Tim¬ othy O. Howe School in Superior, Wisconsin. Mr. M. L. Duggan: I nominate the man who has the longest name on the list, George JV. W annamaker of Griffin, Georgia. President Hale: The next is the nominations for treasurer. I call upon Mr. J. W. Crabtree. Secretary Crabtree: Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas — Arkansas : Arkansas desires to yield to Indiana. Mr. Robert B. Hougham: One of our famous humorists, George Ade, has said all smart men come from Indiana, and the smarter they are the sooner they come. However, in our educational field, we still have a few men left with us. We have been lending to the National Education Association one of our stalwart educators, who has been serving as treasurer of this organization for some years, and we are again happy to present the name of our genial dean of the School of Educa¬ tion of Indiana University, Henry Lester Smith. The Secretary called the names of the other states, but no further nominations for treasurer were made. President Hale: Next are the nominations for state directors. I call upon the Secre¬ tary. Secretary Crabtree: Last year a motion was made that those who were nomi¬ nated by the different state delegations be considered the nominees and their names placed on the ballot. Do you want to do it the same way this year or do you wish to go thru the formal routine? Mr. Willis A. Sutton (Georgia) : I move we follow the same procedure as of previous years. V oice: Second the motion. President Hale: The motion has been made and seconded that the nominations for state directors as made in the several state meetings yesterday be accepted and that we do not proceed with the reading of the states at this time. (The ques¬ tion being called for, the motion was put and unanimously carried.) Mr. Asbury (Washington) : Madam President, we have placed in nomination Mr. Pratt for a vicepresidency. At our meeting yesterday, according to custom established in Washington, we presented his name for state director. Would it be possible, we should like to know, for him to serve in both capacities? President Hale: If the state so wishes it is possible — provided he is elected. That gem of thought was contributed by the Parliamentarian not the President. If there is no further business to come before this meeting, a motion to adjourn is in order. (A motion to adjourn was thereupon offered, seconded, unanimously carried, and the meeting was adjourned.) J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Florence Hale, President Associational Records and Information 873 Second Business Session, Wednesday Morning, June 29, 1932 President Hale: Members of the convention, I present Mr. W hittenberg of Illinois. Mr. A. L. Whittenberg (Illinois): Fellow teachers of America, the invitation which Illinois and Chicago extend to you for the meeting of 1933 is a carefully considered invitation. You will recall that this invitation was first given at Atlanta, Georgia, in 1929. At Columbus in 1930 it was renewed and again in 1931 at Los Angeles. We want you to come to Chicago. The public press has advised you of Chicago’s troubles and Illinois’ difficulties. We admit them, but we are sure that both Chicago and Illinois will solve these problems. We hope to give you a wel¬ come as cordial and hearty as any you have received elsewhere. We hope also to give you entertainment quite as good and quite as valuable as any you have re¬ ceived elsewhere. The “Century of Progress” will be on at that time. Varied in¬ stincts are required to make up a perfectly rounded civilization. The instinct of workmanship will be marvelously displayed in Chicago in 1933 by the “Century of Progress.” We want the school teachers of America to come to Chicago and to bring with them the instinct of scholarship and intellect, the instinct of beauty and poetry, the instinct of morals and religion, and the instinct of social life and happi¬ ness. I am introducing William J. Page, principal of one of the Chicago schools, who will continue the invitation. Mr. William J. Page. On behalf of our Chicago Division of the Elementary State Teachers Association, we are renewing our invitation. Our program is brief and inexpensive this year, but we will probably be in a position to entertain you, and our friends from down state say if we are not, they will be glad to share the burden. We welcome you to Chicago. Mr. Mason, another Illinoisan, will have one word to say, then we have one song, our Chicago theme song. Mr. Mason. These are the times that try men’s souls. The summer soldier and sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from their duty, but he that stands it now deserves the love and praise of men and women.” Those words uttered by Thomas Paine during the stress and strain of the Revolutionary War are as ap¬ plicable today as when they were uttered by Paine. These are the times that try men s souls. Superintendent Bogan, in his wonderful address, informed us that dur¬ ing these trying times the Chicago teachers did not flinch; that they stood the test, and, therefore, they deserve the love and praise of men and women. Mr. W hittenberg has stated that he is inviting you to Chicago because he feels that Chicago needs you. I believe in these days when that onrushing horde of short¬ sighted taxpayers are determined to drive the schools back some twenty years and take away from us the progress that we have made during those twenty years that we need the strength and courage to stand firm, to hold the line, and to say, “Ye shall not pass!” Therefore, I believe that the school teachers of the United States need the personal contact with the people and teachers of Chicago that the con¬ vention will give in order to inspire them with the same indomitable courage which has carried the Chicago teachers thru these trying times. Therefore, the fertile prairies of Illinois, with their rivers gently flowing, beckon to you and say, “Come.” The concrete ribbons which traverse the State of Illinois in all directions and which form the finest system of highways known in the world, await you; the fifty thousand teachers of Illinois stand ready to welcome you. The Century of Progress is there awaiting to entertain and instruct you. Come, see. enjoy with us and I guarantee that you will go away feeling perfectly satisfied. (The Illinois delegation sang “Illinois.”) President Hale: This morning we are very fortunate to have for the first ad¬ dress before the Delegate Assembly our friend, George D. Strayer, professor of educational administration, Teachers College, Columbia University. Mr. Strayer 874 National Education Association will speak to us on the subject, “The Fight for the Rights of Children in a Period of Economic Distress.” (The address is printed elsewhere in this volume. See index.) Secretary Crabtree: I have a statement here from the State Teachers Associa¬ tion of New Jersey advising me to call upon Mr. IV. L. Ward, of that state for remarks. Mr. Ward: At the opening session of this convention the president of the State Teachers Association of New Jersey expressed to you and the members of this great convention the greetings of welcome from the Commonwealth of New Jersey. It is my happy privilege to bring a message to you now. The records of this con¬ vention are fast passing into history. We bring you this basket of flowers this morning, Madam President, as a symbol of congratulation for the success and achievements, not only of this convention, but of your administration of the affairs of this Association since your election one year ago. Accept our congratulations. President Hale: Mr. Ward, I want to express to you my very great apprecia¬ tion of these flowers and the kind thought that prompted the gift. This is a nice time right in the middle of the convention when our spirits need a little reviving to have this endorsement and this expression of confidence. I thank you. President Hale: I am glad to present Mrs. Edith B. J\oynes, past president of the Classroom Teachers Department, now a principal in the city of Norfolk, who will speak to us on “A Teacher’s Code in the Present Crisis.” (The address is printed elsewhere in this volume. See index.) President Hale: I would like to ask Superintendent Holmes of Mount Vernon, New York, to come to the platform. Mr. Holmes: The New York State Delegation would like the privilege of with¬ drawing the name of John Dewey as a candidate for the presidency of this Asso¬ ciation, in the hope that an even greater honor may be accorded him. If a motion is necessary, I so move. President Hale: You have heard Mr. Holmes. Do we have unanimous consent? All those in favor signify in the usual manner. (A loud response.) All those op¬ posed. (No sound.) It is so ordered. I will now call upon Miss Mary McSkimmon of Brookline, Massachusetts, past president of this Association, who will report concerning the action of our directors at their meeting yesterday. Miss McSkimmon: By the courtesy of the chairman of the Committee of Five appointed from the floor of the Board of Directors to consider this matter yester¬ day afternoon, I am permitted to read the report. Be It Resolved, by the Delegate Assembly of the National Education Associa¬ tion, in Convention assembled June 29, 1932, that an honorary life presidency of the National Education Association and an honorary chairmanship of the Committee on Social-Economic Objectives of America, be, and is hereby con¬ ferred upon John Dewey of Columbia University; and that an honorary life presidency of the National Education Association and an honorary chairman¬ ship of the Committee on Resolutions, be, and is hereby conferred upon Albert E. Winship of the Journal of Education, provided that such positions do not invest the said John Dewey and Albert Winship with any of the powers and duties prescribed for officers by the charter and laws of the corporation known as the National Education Association. I move the adoption of the resolution. (The motion seconded, and there being no discussion, the question was called for, the motion was voted upon, and unani¬ mously carried; and John Dewey and Albert E. Winship declared elected honorary life presidents as provided in said resolution.) President Hale: I want to thank the Committee on behalf of the directors who have given us this splendid resolution. I also want to thank Superintendent Holmes of Mount Vernon and the New York Delegation for bringing to our attention this Associational Records and Information 875 very fine opportunity to honor our two great leaders in education in this country. I will instruct the Committee on Elections to strike the name of John Dewey from the ballot. Is that all, Mr. Parliamentarian? President Hale: Now we can proceed with our program and I will now call for the report of the Committee on the Economic Status of the Teacher, and I am very proud to be able to present B. R. Buckingham, lecturer, of the Graduate School of Education, Harvard University, as chairman of the Committee. (The report is printed elsewhere in this volume. See index.) President Hale: I am going to call on Mrs. B. F. Langworthy , one of the vicepresi¬ dents of the National Congress of Parents and Teachers, who will speak for the President, Airs. Hugh Bradford. (The address is printed elsewhere in this volume. See index.) President Hale: I suppose there has been no piece of educational work done in this country this year which will have a greater bearing thru the years upon our educational thinking than that work accomplished by the National Advisory Com¬ mittee on Education. I have unusual pleasure, therefore, in presenting to you this morning Charles R. Mann, director of the American Council on Education, Wash¬ ington, D. C., who will tell us about the findings of the National Advisory Commit¬ tee on Education. (The address is printed elsewhere in this volume. See index.) President Hale: I now present Thomas E. Finegan, chairman of the Legislative Commission, who will give his report at this time. (The report is printed elsewhere in this volume. See index.) President Hale: We now come to the next item on our program which is un¬ finished business. Miss Frances Harden (Illinois) : I have a matter of new business which will take about two minutes. President Hale: All right, Miss Harden, just two minutes. Miss Harden: I have two short amendments to propose to the bylaws of the Na¬ tional Education Association. The first one: Amend Article I by adding Section 11, which will read: The Representative Assembly shall be composed of the President, twelve Vice- presidents, the Secretary, and Treasurer of the National Education Association, the United States Commissioner of Education, and the delegates elected from the vari¬ ous affiliated state and local associations as provided by bylaws. The second amendment is to amend Article II, Section 9, to read: The President, the twelve Vicepresidents, the Secretary, and Treasurer of the Na¬ tional Education Association and the United States Commissioner of Education, shall be ex-officio delegates to the Representative Assembly. President Hale: I believe the procedure is to lay this on the table for one year. I want to thank every one of you for staying here this morning and now will you be a little more patient so that your picture may go into this record and then no one can say this is not a professional organization. (Picture was taken immediately.) President Hale: I declare the session adjourned. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Florence Hale, President Third Business Session, Thursday Morning, June 30, 1932 The third business session of the Representative Assembly of the National Educa¬ tion Association was called to order by President Florence Hale at 9 a. m. in the Ballroom of the Auditorium. President Hale: Will everyone sit down as quickly as possible and be quiet as the Hawaiian group are going to put on a stunt followed by one or two others. Representative of Hawaii: Miss Hale, the Hawaiian Association brings to you sincere appreciation of the Hawaiian teachers, and we hope you will accept this gift as a small token of our appreciation. 876 National Education Association (The speaker put around Miss Hale's neck a lei of beautiful red roses, handed her a package, and followed with a song.) President Hale: I thank you very much. We now recognize Colorado. (Colorado then followed with a stunt by the delegates from that state.) President Hale: Fine. We now recognize California. (California thereupon put on a stunt and song drawing attention to the Olympic Games to be held in California.) President Hale: The third business session of the Representative Assembly is in order. (The invocation was offered by Clifton D. Gray, president of Bates College, Lewiston, Maine.) Pi esident Hale. I take great pleasure in introducing to you as the first speaker of this morning Walter B. Pitkin, psychologist and author, Columbia University, New York, who will explain to us “The Cause and Cure of Human Stupidity.” (The address is printed elsewhere in this volume. See index.) President Hale: I was very anxious to have presented to this Delegate Assembly a survey of the National Education Association’s activities. This is your Association; and I feel that in this year when we are talking about service of all sorts and test¬ ing the efficiency of everything we support, it is only fair that you should know, perhaps more than you do, exactly what the N. E. A. is trying to give you for your money. This survey will be presented by John K. Norton, professor of education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, known all over the country as one of the greatest research experts in this nation. (The address is printed else¬ where in this volume. See index.) Secretary Crabtree: I am requested by the Ohio delegation to call on Miss Lois Thompson for remarks. Miss Thompson (Ohio) : Because of her enthusiasm and loyalty to the National Education Association, Ohio wishes to express to you, Miss Hale, her appreciation for the noble leadership you have given this great national organization. We wanted to give you something which would typify our beautiful Ohio. Akron and its several industries offered possibilities but we were afraid that the suggestion might not be practicable. Cincinnati, famous for its Rookwood pottery, offered the perfect gift, the product of those who work for the joy of creating. Miss Hale, it gives me great pleasure to present to you from the teachers of Ohio this little token of the high esteem in which you are held by our teachers. (Presenting to Miss Hale a very beautiful Rookwood pottery vase.) President Hale: I thank you, Miss Thompson. The only reason I wish it had been a Zeppelin is that I could then go to Ohio more often. Secretary Crabtree: Now the state of Maine wants to be heard thru the state director, William B. Jack. Mr. Jack. Miss Hale, I am bringing to you this gavel. This comes from your friends and neighbors back home in Maine, from the old people, from the people in the prime of life, and from the little children whom you have so faithfully served. This gavel was made in the manual training shops of the high school in Portland, Maine. The wood comes from the birthplace of Maine’s immortal poet, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, who in his lovely songs showed that he had the same under¬ standing and love for little children that you have. During your twenty years of service no child has been so humble or so lowly but what he has received service from you — you have gone everywhere and into everything — to that child out in the lonely island outpost and that child on the desolate farm. No matter what honor comes to you, your greatest achievement will always stand — your service to the children of Maine, and it is the inclusiveness, the all inclusiveness of this service that we feel in quoting from Longfellow: Out of the shadows of the night, The world rose into the light — There is daybreak everywhere. Associational Records and Information 877 President Hale: And Deering’s Woods are fresh and fair And with a joy that is almost pain, My heart goes back to wander there And amidst the dreams of the days that were I find my lost youth again. And the words of a Lapland song Are singing and ringing still, And a boy’s will is the wind’s will And the thoughts of Youth are long, long thoughts. I thank you, Mr. Jack. We will now proceed with our program and I am very happy indeed to introduce to you at this time Anna Laura Force, principal of Lake Junior High School, Denver, Colorado, who will report to us from the Committee of One Hundred on Retire¬ ment Allowances. (The report is printed elsewhere in this volume. See index.) The President thereupon introduced Ernest D. Lewis, of New York City, president of the N. E. A. Department of Secondary Education, for a statement on the New Department of Secondary Education. (The report is printed elsewhere in this volume. See index.) The President thereupon introduced N. C. Newbold, state director of negro edu¬ cation, State Department of Education, Raleigh, North Carolina, as chairman of the Committee to Cooperate with the National Association of Teachers in Colored Schools, to make a report for that Committee. (The report is printed elsewhere in this volume. See index.) President Hale: This ends the formal part of our program. We now come to the item of unfinished business. Mr. Joseph H. Saunders: Under the heading of unfinished business I wish to call up at this time a motion which I made a year ago on behalf of the National Council of Education to amend the bylaws. Before presenting the motion I presented at that time, I would like to move to amend the words in the amendment pending which read “Not less than 120 nor more than 160 members” to read, “Not less than 120 nor more than 200 members,” and with amendment I move the adoption of the amendments offered last year, which are as follows: For Article IV, Section 2 of our bylaws, substitute the following: “The National Council of Education shall consist of not less than 120 nor more than 200 members to be selected as provided by its bylaws.” Article IV, Section 3, omit. Article IV, Sections 4 and 5, to be renumbered thereafter respectively. I move the adoption of the amendment. Mr. JVilliam B. Jack (Maine) : Second the motion. (There being no discussion, the question was called for, the motion was put and unanimously carried, and the amendment declared adopted as read.) President Hale: Is there any other item of unfinished business? If not, we will proceed to the next item, new business. Mr. Hampton (New York) : I should like to present a motion. President Hale: Will you come to the platform, please? Mr. Hampton (After giving the background for his motion) : I desire to move that there be appointed a special committee to undertake a survey of world peace as a subject for school study, with the purpose in view of training the coming generations of children of America and of the world to understand the obstacles to outlawry of war, to appreciate the leaders who have furthered world harmony, and to make possible the day when war shall be no more, this committee to report its findings and recommendations to the N. E. A. convention next year. It is further moved that recommendation be made to the World Federation of Teachers Associations that a similar committee be appointed by that body for 878 National Education Association worldwide study of this subject. (The motion being duly seconded, there being no discussion, and the question called for, the motion was put and unanimously car¬ ried, and the resolution declared adopted as read.) President Hale : Since this is practically the last day of the present president in an official capacity, and since all appointments of committees, in her opinion, should be made by the president who will direct the outcome of those committees, I desire, if agreeable to the gentleman from New York, to pass over the privilege of ap¬ pointing this committee to the incoming president, and I will confer with him upon it. I think he will accept that view. Is that agreeable to you? Mr. Hampton: That is very fine. President Hale : If there is no further business before this meeting, a motion to adjourn is now in order. (A motion to adjourn was made, unanimously carried, and the meeting ad¬ journed.) J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Florence Hale, President Fourth Business Session, Friday Morning, July 1, 1932 The fourth session of the Representative Assembly was called to order by Presi¬ dent Florence Hale at 9:30 a. m. in the ballroom of the Auditorium. The invocation was delivered by the Rev. Lansing G. Putnam of All Saints Church, Atlantic City, New Jersey. President Hale: It seemed appropriate on this last and closing session to vary the program with some singing by the whole body. I present at this time Mr. T. L. Hussington, executive secretary of the Chamber of Commerce of Atlantic City, who will lead us in the singing. (Mr. Hussington then led in the singing of America and Onward, Christian Soldiers.) President Hale: I take great pleasure in calling this morning for one of the most outstanding pieces of educational work that has been done this year in this country. I refer to the National Survey of Secondary Education. I want you to know that J. B. Edmonson, dean, School of Education, University of Michigan, has come from his summer school just to give this report this morning. In the years to come the work of this Committee will be considered an outstanding piece of educational work. It is important that it should come before this Assembly. (The address is printed elsewhere in this volume. See index.) President Hale: I have asked as a special platform guest, Mrs. Eva G. McClurken, who for fifteen years was in high-school work and then for twenty-five years has been in rural-school work in the South, part of the time in the North Carolina mountains and the remainder of the time in the state of Arkansas. I am going to ask Mrs. McClurken just to rise a moment as she is our special platform guest, not for her alone, but in tribute to millions of teachers who are doing work like this of Mrs. McClurken. (The Representative Assembly arose and applauded.) Miss Caroline Woodruff (Vermont) : The National Council of Administrative Women, whose representative I am, has taken all the steps required by the bylaws for becoming a department of the National Education Association. It made written application one year ago over the signatures of 250 and more of its members, it has held constructive meetings for several years, it has been recommended unanimously by the Board of Directors meeting this week. I move that the National Council of Administrative Women in Education become a department of this National Educa¬ tion Association. Mr. Joseph Saunders: I second the motion. (There being no discussion, and the question called for, the motion was put and unanimously carried, and the National Council of Administrative Women in Education declared a department of the National Education Association.) Associational Records and Information 879 President Hale: We now come to the report of the Committee on Resolutions. I call upon Joseph H. Saunders, chairman of the Board of Trustees of the N. E. A., and superintendent of schools, Newport News, Virginia, to give this report. Mr. Saunders (after reading the platform) : I move the adoption of this part of the report. Mr. Willis A. Sutton: I second the motion. President Hale: You have heard the motion made and seconded that this part of the report of the Committee on Resolutions as read to you should be accepted. Is there any discussion? Miss Irene Jacobs (California) : Just a question of information, Madam President. On Page 3, Part IV, under the “State School System,” I feel that an interpretation of that paragraph includes the kindergarten as recommended for state support. However, as the wording stands there is a doubt in my mind as to whether every¬ one would interpret the kindergarten as included in the system to be supported by public funds, or whether they might possibly interpret it as after the kindergarten. I wonder if it might not be wise, especially at this time when some of us are having difficulty in guaranteeing public support for the kindergartens, if we might not make definitely sure in that particular paragraph that there is no misunderstanding that we wish the kindergarten included as a part of public support. Mr. Saunders: What wording do you suggest? The Committee intended it should very positively include the kindergarten. Miss Jacobs: I realize that, but as I caught the wording, having just come from a discussion on that subject, I realized that it was possible to draw the conclusion it was to begin after that. Couldn’t it possibly read, “Beginning with the kinder¬ garten and extending thru the university”? Mr. Saunders: The Committee will accept that wording. Mr. George W. W annamaker (Georgia) : I rise to discuss for just a moment one section of the report of the Resolutions Committee. I wish to say at the beginning of this discussion that there has seemed to me, as I have studied the resolutions of the National Association for the past eight or ten years, to be two definite schools of thought in this Association in regard to resolutions. There are some in this Association who conscientiously believe that the resolutions of an association are of great national import and that they should be presented at an early session of the Assembly and discussed and no resolution committing our great Association on a national policy should be permitted to come in at the last session of the meeting. There are a few others in the Association, and I emphasize the word few, who believe the other way, who seem to think that the resolutions are of no particular import to the teachers of the nation, but that they concern a small clique or group of people and that, therefore, they might be presented at the closing session of the convention, voted on without due deliberation, and passed unanimously by this body. I am of the first school of thought. I love the Association and I firmly believe if our resolutions are to be of any import and if they are properly to represent an Association of teachers of almost a quarter of a million of people, they should be very deliberately thought out. The National Education Association has grown enormously within the last few years, but if you watch carefully what has happened within the last few years you will find those who have been deeply interested in the Association stay until the last session and pass the resolutions and pass them unanimously and say, “These are the policies of the teachers.” If you will pardon my citing one particular illustration, in the Washington meeting of the Department of Superintendence I asked the Secretary about the membership at that time. If I recall, Mr. Shankland said there were then about 4000 members. It was agreed, I believe, that there were less than 200 members present when the resolutions were passed. One man said those were the faithful few and those were the ones con¬ cerned and the resolutions were more worthwhile passed by them. I do not so believe. I believe we should carefully deliberate on our resolutions and even if 880 National Education Association resolutions are passed by a divided vote, resolutions that are carefully studied and opposition voiced are very much more valuable than resolutions simply passed by These remarks have led me to the particular point I wish to present. I myself, am sincerely and deeply opposed to one section of the resolutions. There are some of my friends who came to me and urged me not to say any word on this matter because, they say, I will make myself ridiculous, but I still say to you, my friends of the Association, that one of the finest things about the Convention is that you have heretofore listened carefully and cordially to one who voices opposition to your resolutions or the resolutions of the Association, and I believe you will continue to do so. I cannot believe that the teachers of this nation want to go on record as saying we believe there should be established another department in Washington. If I know the temper of the American people at the present time, and I study it very carefully, I believe with all my soul the American people are turning away from further centralization in Washington. I may be wrong and probably you will dis¬ agree with me, but I would not be faithful to myself, to my views, and to my people if I did not stand before you and say I think it is wrong to vote just a group of resolutions including one that says we believe that there should be established a Federal Department of Education, because there is great opposition to that. I do not wish to impose upon your time, but this is one thing that the money of the National Education Association is being spent for. If you will study the Budget Committee’s report you will find we have been spending between $15,000 and $20,000 of the money of the teachers of the nation, some of whom have really sacrificed to answer the clarion calls for membership, to swell and maintain the membership in this As¬ sociation; we have been using this large amount of money each year in a legis¬ lative program for a department that I am not at all certain that the teachers of the nation as a whole want. I believe very definitely and very clearly with Mr. Mann, who made such an able presentation of the report here on Monday to this convention. Mr. Mann, as I understand it, the chairman of this national committee that has made a very careful study of the proposition, took the attitude that, and I think I am representing him correctly, the recommendation for the establishment of a Department of Education was subsidiary to the regular and main point of that investigation. He urged a careful study of it. He said that the teachers of the nation should study it. I honestly believe the same thing. Therefore, instead of having this section here — it is not numbered, under Part V at the bottom of Page 5 — instead of saying that we believe that there should be established a Federal Department of Education, it seems to me that we would better represent the teachers of the nation if we would substitute something like the following: Therefore, Be It Resolved, We recognize the report of the National Advisory Committee on Education as one of the most significant contributions to the cause of public education in the last century, and urge that it be studied thruout the length and breadth of our nation, and that we suggest that our incoming presi¬ dent arrange to devote one session of the next general program to a study of this report, at which time he will arrange to have a debate, securing for this purpose two of the most able leaders in education in America. Then, and not until then, will the people of this nation have an adequate oppor¬ tunity to study and know the facts. You will probably say that if we study them, we will be in favor of a department. I will say in answer to that statement that I honestly believe that the people of the nation, if they study it carefully, will be opposed to it. But I most certainly will be in favor of it if it is carefully studied. I simply rise to say I do not believe we properly represent the teachers of this nation when we complacently adopt a hoary resolution calling for the establishment of another federal department at this particular time. I discussed it with a very prominent member of the Association a day or two ago and he said, aiSVannamaker, Associational Records and Information 881 that is very fine, but I do not believe we should change this resolution ; we have been adopting it year after year.” What an indictment of the teachers of this nation that we should fail to change any resolution if, in our judgment, it should be changed ! President Hale: Mr. JVannamakcr, will you kindly remain on the stage, please? May I say before we act on the suggestion made by Mr. W annamaker that he is a good friend of mine, but that he is not wholly conscious of the implications of the intimation he has made. Since I arranged this program and the report was placed by me on the last session, the intimation would be that I might, therefore, be num¬ bered among the few who do not take the point of view of the professionalism of this organization. In a perfectly friendly way, which my friend and endorser, Mr. JV annamaker, would be glad to have me act, I want to say I think this is a representative group of people. Don’t you see, Mr. JVannamaker, that they are all here? Don’t you see that your criticism doesn’t apply very well? This committee report was put on this last day — and I should have been very glad to have put it earlier and anyone who succeeds me would be very glad to put it earlier — but the question arises in my mind that is quite different from the point of view given by Mr. JV annamaker. I believe that this is a great professional organization. I believe that all people who are genuinely the leaders of this great National Education Association will stay thru the final and important business of the meeting. I want to tell Mr. JV annamaker , who I hope is still my friend, that those people who criticize the programs of the National Education Association, who spend their time in the lobbies and in the hotels and go home after the first day, who do not attend after the first few days, and who then come out by word of mouth or printed page to discuss those things they have not been present to hear the whole of, are them¬ selves at fault if they do not get here and vote on it. I think it would be most un¬ fortunate if this great Association should say this is just a makeshift convention; we can’t afford to stay until the last business meeting; put things on the program so that we can go home and have our vacations. No, Mr. JV annamaker , I agree with much you have said and think we should have had more discussion, and I am going to let you discuss just as long as you wish. I hope that in future years we will stay to the last minute of our conventions. Mr. Saunders: Madam Chairman, as chairman of the Resolutions Committee, I believe on behalf of the committee that Mr. JV annamaker’ s criticisms deserve to be answered. Evidently the gentleman from Georgia was not in the audience when the chair¬ man of the committee stated that the study on these resolutions was begun im¬ mediately after the adjournment of the convention at Los Angeles. The study has proceeded thruout the whole year, innumerable letters have been written to over 300 prominent educators thruout the nation; on the Resolutions Committee was a member from each state, elected by the delegation from that state, and they have not taken up these resolutions here this morning, but they have been under process of construction thruout the entire year. This is no hasty action which the chairman of the committee presents to you. It is the deliberate reasoning and the conclusion of the committee appointed by you one year ago that has done, we believe, an outstanding piece of work in framing this platform. Mr. JV annamaker : Those of you who have heard me speak my opposition to this particular proposal before will recall that in Los Angeles last year it was my happy privilege, speaking from my heart as I now speak, to rise and second the nomination of Miss Hale from Maine. I want to say to Miss Hale very sincerely, not by implication or otherwise do I mean to reflect upon her or upon her splendid program. I was simply making my statement because of what I had observed gen¬ erally in the Association. I realize full well what the responsibility of making a program is because I have been studying it carefully. I rise, Madam Chairman, simply to state to you sincerely that I did not offer any reflection or criticism of you or any member of the Association in arranging this program. I am citing a fact 882 National Education Association that in spite of all appeals we make to the professionalism of our group, there are a great many who ought to be here now who were here at the other sessions of the convention. Thank you. Mm Martha Bretmore (Minnesota) : Madam Chairman, I would like to know— Voice: Madam Chairman, I would like to know — President Hale: Just a moment. The lady has the floor. V oice: I rise to a point of order. President Hale: State your point. I oice. The point is, is there a substitute motion before the house? President Hale: Mr. IV annamaker, did you make a motion? Mr. IV annamaker: I offered a substitute for the section I opposed. President Hale: I refer you to the Parliamentarian. Mr. Joseph Saunders : The proposition of Mr. IV annamaker’ s , if I might suggest to the gentleman, should be reserved to offer as a substitute for a resolution that occurs in the last page of the report for the resolutions of this year under the heading “National Advisory Committee on Education.” President Hale: The lady from Minnesota has been recognized at this time. Miss Bretmore: As Mr. IV annamaker has spoken personally on this bill, and as I have paid my personal expenses to this National Education Association from Minnesota, I feel that I have a right to speak in favor of this resolution personally. He said it would not be well — not just those words — to have a Secretary of Edu¬ cation at Washington on account of conditions. I think we need a Secretary to convert the Congressmen and others. We have a Secretary of the Interior who looks after our waterways and highways; we have a Secretary of Agriculture who sees that the pigs are taken care of, and that the wheat is properly raised. But when it comes to human life, the schools of our nation, the citizens to be of our great country, we do not have anybody who is thoroly interested in every phase of their life. We should have a Secretary of Education and I, for my part, have worked hard, silently and publicly, for this matter in the state of Minnesota. I hope you teachers who are training these young and older members as citizens of the United States will look out for their welfare by having a Secretary of Education in the President’s Cabinet. Voices: Question! Question! Question! Voice: May I speak? President Hale: I want to give everybody a chance this morning. Will the audi¬ ence allow me to let this lady speak at this time? All right. Miss Johanna M. Lindhoff (New York) : I am loath to take your time this morn¬ ing when you have so much to do but I feel I must give you my point of view even tho I am a newcomer in this body. First of all I wish to state quite emphatically that I am now and have been for years in favor of the establishment of a Secretary of Education in the President’s Cabinet. However, I believe the point raised by Mr. W annamaker is a very im¬ portant one. I believe that this body, representing, as it is supposed to do, the rank and file of teachers thruout the nation, should in all things act in a deliberate man¬ ner. I believe the thing he called our attention to in regard to the adoption of reso¬ lutions on the last day’s session, when these resolutions have not been given proper consideration by this whole body beforehand, is something we should consider very carefully. If I may suggest for future conventions, I believe that it would be to the interests of us all to have our resolutions submitted early in the week to give us time to. study and have action on those resolutions on the last day’s session. That would insure all people who should be interested— and everyone should be inter¬ ested in every resolution offered here— an opportunity to present their viewpoints; if the thing is carried unanimously it means you believe in what is carried ; if you do not believe in the resolutions being offered here, even if you be the only one you should have the right to voice your opposition and it should be recorded. Associational Records and Information 883 Therefore, I believe it would be fair to all of us that this section, which is a con¬ firmation, should be given further study. I believe that anything which would com¬ mit us definitely to something of which we are not sure all agree unanimously, should not go forth as the unanimous opinion of this body, and I believe a further study will do no harm. I believe the more we study this question the more convinced we will be of the necessity for a Secretary in the President’s Cabinet to represent the Department of Education. President Hale : I recognize Mr. Hanna of California. Mr. Hanna: I agree that it would be very, very bad to take action if the teachers of the nation did not understand it, but I have spoken to some of the older members of this organization and asked them if they remembered how many years it had been studied and they said it was so long back, that it had been studied for so many years they couldn’t tell me for how many it had been studied, and the wide-awake teachers of the nation have been studying and studying, and working on this point. The president of the board of education of one of the largest cities in the United States recently said the reason teachers did not get anywhere was because they did not have enough backbone and weren’t willing to fight for what they needed. This Department of Education did concern the President, we believe, and so the President of the United States, after the study of many educators, appointed a large commis¬ sion to study the problem and find what would be the effect and whether it was de¬ sirable. I shall not take time to try to tell the members of the audience who have not studied that report what the report was excepting to say that it was in favor of establishing a department in the President’s Cabinet, and I believe that all teachers who are wide awake know that they want that and, therefore, I am in favor of passing the platform as printed. President Hale: Are you ready for the question? Mr. Charles Carroll (Rhode Island) : Madam President, I have no criticism to make of the Resolutions Committee because I have worked with it thru a week and I know that the committee has done the best thing it could do with the material before it, but I do not think there should be a vote upon this particular request, and for that reason only I am going to move to strike out the last paragraph of the com¬ mittee’s report as occurring on Page 5. President Hale: Do I hear that motion seconded? Voice: Second the motion. President Hale: All in favor of striking out the words given by Mr. Carroll — just read it again, Mr. Carroll. Mr. Carroll: The motion is to strike out the paragraph at the bottom of page 5 beginning, “Department of Education. The federal government should promote edu¬ cation in the states by the dissemination of authentic information on problems of general educational concern. The Association believes that this service can be rendered best by a department of education with a secretary in the President’s Cabinet.” The motion is to strike out that paragraph. (Thereupon, the question being called for, the motion was voted upon, and lost, and the amendment declared lost as offered by Mr. Carroll.) President Hale: The motion is now on the adoption of the platform. Mr. Saunders, state that, will you? Mr. Saunders: The motion is now upon the adoption of the platform as read with the change incorporated of the words, “Beginning with the kindergarten and ex¬ tending thru the university” instead of “From the kindergarten thru the univer¬ sity.” With that change the motion is on the adoption of the platform as submitted. (The question being called for, the motion was put and carried, and the platform as read declared adopted.) Mr. Saunders: The second part of the report is the resolutions for the current year of 1932, beginning on page 7. (See index for page on which they are printed.) Madam Chairman, on behalf of the Committee on Resolutions, I move the adop¬ tion of these resolutions. 884 National Education Association Mr. Willis A. Sutton: Second the motion. Mr. Charles Carroll : Second the motion. President Hale: It has been moved and seconded that the resolution as presented by the chairman be adopted. Mr. R. C. Moore (Illinois) : Madam Chairman. Pres^ent Hale: I recognize Mr. Moore from Illinois. Please come to the platform. Mr. Moore: I love harmony. Therefore, I did not come to this platform to arouse any antagonism or offer any serious opposition to anything included in these resolu¬ tions or the platform for 1932 in particular. I came to offer an amendment. Of course I believe that the resolutions and platform presented to a legislative body are always open to amendment without question. I have an amendment which I eli eve you will consider so helpful, so constructive, and so clarifying that you will all accept it, including the Resolutions Committee and its chairman, and the Presi¬ dent of this organization— at least that is my hope. I beg leave to call your attention to the first resolution for 1932 entitled “Economv and Education.” You have just heard it read and I have asked that printed copies of the proposed amendment be handed to you and I hope by this time the printed amendment is in your hands. I beg leave to offer this amendment after the resolu¬ tion entitled “Economy and Education,” the first topic in the Resolutions for 1932, adding these three paragraphs. Therefore, you will insert between the resolutions concerning ‘ Economy and Education” and the one concerning “Law Observance” the three paragraphs which have been handed you. Now in order that I may have time for argument I beg leave not to read the entire amendment. Suffice it to say that this is intended not to be critical of what is already contained, but a number of us feel it is not quite complete as it stands. Therefore we beg leave to offer this amendment for your consideration as amended to clarify and illustrate by example on how to prevent retrenchment. It is all very well and good to speak in generalities, and I am not blaming the committee for that, about preventing retrenchment, but we have had some addresses here this week which have constantly reiterated the idea that teachers really ought to stand for something definite and constructive. We people in Illinois have learned to do that and we cannot help bringing you this idea. This is a definite statement of one way to prevent retrenchment. One speaker in par¬ ticular who made what seemed at the time to be the most popular address, at least he received one of the greatest ovations of any speaker, was Mr. Foster’, and he called attention in a larger way than is contained in this amendment to just what this amendment contains, and everybody in the audience seemed to agree thoroly with that proposal. Therefore, I shall not take the time, since you have it in your hands, to read it to you but I want to state just this fact briefly - Voices (Interrupting) : Read it. Mr. Moore: Very well. May I read it? President Hale: Yes, you may read it. Mr. Moore: After the resolution entitled “Economy and Education,” the first topic under Resolutions for 1932, add these three paragraphs. (He then read them.) Mr. Saunders: If you will just refer, please, to page 90 of the Official Manual, Rule No. 3, “The Committee on Resolutions shall report at the annual business meeting of the Representative Assembly, and except by unanimous consent, all reso¬ lutions shall be referred to said Committee without discussion.” That bylaw, adopted some years ago, was for the very purpose stated by Mr. Id annamaker here on the floor, namely, to prevent the consideration of material brought here for the first time without being carefully considered by the Committee on Resolutions. Now the pending motion is on the adoption of the resolutions. That motion may be amended by striking out anything in the report, substituting a word, but it cannot be amended, according to your bylaws, by the insertion of an entirely new resolution. Any such resolution must go to the Committee on Resolutions for their study. 4 he Committee on Resolutions that has been appointed and organized for the coming convention, will, therefore, take such a resolution. Associational Records and Information 885 Mr. Moore : Would it be in order at this time for me to move to adopt this? I am not sure whether I will be recalled now. President Hale: Mr. Moore, I want to state my feeling in this matter. I know some of the discussion I am allowing is not strictly in accordance with parliamentary law, but I am anxious that everybody in this Association shall have their chance. I am running across the ragged edges of parliamentary law so that it cannot be said that anyone was shut off, but we must limit the discussion because others have other inter¬ ests and you must say what you have to say, boil it down, get right to the point and say it, and I think you have very nicely, Mr. Moore. Mr. Moore: Thank you. You did not answer my question. May I ask whether I have the privilege of moving the adoption of this amendment? President Hale: I refer to the Parliamentarian. Mr. Saunders : A motion to adopt such a resolution would have to be by unanimous consent or else by a motion to suspend the rules, which would take a two-thirds vote of the body. If either of those procedures are followed, it would be legal and proper to move the adoption of this resolution; but a motion to adopt this resolution cannot be made until either one or the other of those procedures is followed, namely, unani¬ mously to consent to have the motion, or suspension of the rules to be adopted by a two-thirds vote. Mr. Moore: I shall defer further action so far as I am concerned until we hear what Mrs. Preble has to offer. President Hale: That is satisfactory, Mr. Moore. Mrs. Blanche Preble (Illinois) : My only purpose in appearing on the stage this morning is to try to help make it possible for the Assembly to handle this resolution as they see fit. I feel sure that the people do not want this to be pushed aside without discussion. Madam Chairman, I wish to ask this question, of you and the Parliamen¬ tarian. As I understand it now, there seems to be no way to get discussion of this resolution. If I, as a member of the drafting committee, were to present this amend¬ ment as a minority report of the drafting committee, would that open it for discus¬ sion in this Assembly? President Hale: I refer to the Parliamentarian, but before he gives his decision let him think a moment. I do want to call your attention to the fact that one state¬ ment as made by Mrs. Preble is not quite accurate as I am sure she will be glad to remember. I allowed Mr. Moore, as you all witnessed, to discuss this question. I gave him a limit of two minutes to discuss this question, altho it is slightly out of order for me to do so. I do not want you to keep saying you have not been given a chance for discussion, but I must, you see, in all fairness limit the discussion. We cannot make long speeches discussing every part of it. I think it is very nicely stated right in the reading that was given. Mrs. Preble: Just one word of explanation. I did not mean I wanted just Mr. Moore to discuss it. I want the Assembly to discuss it. President Hale: I thought Mr. Moore represented those wishing to discuss it. Mr. E. G. Doudna (Wisconsin) : I ask that unanimous consent be given for further discussion of this motion. President Hale: Do I hear that seconded? (The motion was thereupon seconded, the question called for, motion put, and the result declared in doubt.) President Hale: The Chair doubts the vote. She will put it again. All those in favor - Voice: It has to be unanimous. Mr. Doudna: Madam Chairman, since that was lost, I move that the bylaws be suspended. Mr. Willis A. Sutton: I second the motion. Mr. Charles Carroll: I move that the motion be indefinitely postponed. President Hale: Mr. CarrolVs motion is out of order. The motion has been made and seconded that the rules be suspended. 886 National Education Association Mr. Carroll: I move that we indefinitely suspend that motion. That is perfectly proper. Mr. Saundners (the Parliamentarian) : You move an indefinite suspension of the motion for the suspension of the rules? Mr. Carroll: Yes. Mr. Saunders : That is perfectly all right. President Hale: Does somebody second Mr. Carroll's motion? V oice: I second that motion. President Hale: It has been moved and seconded that the motion for suspension of the rules be set aside. (The question was thereupon called for, motion put, and lost.) President Hale: Now will you state the motion that is before us, Mr. Parliamen¬ tarian? Mr. Saunders: The question now before the house is, shall the rules be suspended in order that this particular resolution may be considered? And the vote therefore, the affirmative vote, must be two-thirds of the body; with less than two-thirds vote the motion is lost. (The question being called for, a rising vote was taken, and the motion declared adopted by a rising two-thirds vote of the Assembly, there being a count of 260 for the suspension of the rules, and 129 against the suspension of the rules.) President Hale: I recognize Mr. R. C. Moore. Mr. Fitzgerald: I move each individual participating in this debate be limited to two minutes. (The motion was seconded, put, and unanimously carried.) President Hale: You may proceed, Mr. Moore. Mr. Moore: You have been very gracious to me and my proposition. Therefore, I am entirely glad to put my message to you and to be stopped when my time has expired. I want you to understand that this was merely offered in all good faith, not in a critical way, but in an absolutely constructive and helpful way to clarify and to simplify by giving some means of carrying out the recommendation. I need not recall the present conditions in our schools. The situation may be more acute in Illinois than elsewhere, but it is acute in all of the states, and I hope if it is not as bad in your states as it is in Illinois that it never will be, but I fear that the same situation will come. It is getting worse all the time. Now it has been suggested to me that possibly the material in the second paragraph might well be omitted. The reason for inserting that is that we feel the federal gov¬ ernment, which has under consideration two bills already and seems to be only dis¬ agreeing upon which to adopt, will adopt one of those bills for putting money in the hands of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation. It does mean much to our schools to have these public buildings and projects already planned. You will notice it says we are not advocating any new things. For instance, there is a public school building costing $12,000,000 in Chicago which Mr. Bogan told you the other night could be put into use this fall by only a few days additional work upon it, which they are unable to put upon it. Now I am sure that would come under the second paragraph of this. The building of public bridges, buildings of various kinds, mean much to the schools altho they may not be school buildings; because I happen to know, as no doubt you do, that there are thousands, possibly millions of children in this country who are not obtaining proper educational advantages because of extreme poverty coming from the unemployment of their parents. If those parents could be put to work by the expenditures of the federal government and bond issues giving money to the Finance Corporation, certainly it would mean much to the education and to the principles which we have said in these resolutions we stand for. Therefore, it does mean much to have their fathers employed upon these great public works already planned and projected, and I hope you will accept that second proposition, which is really not a political, controversial question. It is going to pass and if we are going to avoid all political controversial questions, I fear, from what we hear from Chicago Associational Records and Information 887 and from what we heard from Chicago two weeks ago, we shouldn’t have mentioned the Eighteenth Amendment and one or two other things, which are in here, altho I was in favor of it. President Hale: I recognize Mrs. Preble of Chicago. Mrs. Preble: I wish to call the attention of this audience to the statement that is made in the second paragraph of this proposed amendment. “It gives impetus, more¬ over, to destructive radical movements of every type.” I am sure you feel after being in this convention, if you didn’t know it when you were at home, that one of the greatest stabilizing forces in our country during this past year, that has kept us from rushing headlong into revolution, has been the teachers and the public schools. We are not radical. We never have been radical. We are the stabilizers. Now in order to carry out and finish the work we have done in stabilizing and holding this country from revolution, I feel that we must take this action this morning in order to continue our work of stabilizing it. I want to emphasize one point Mr. Moore made. Congress is going to do this thing. Congress is going to appropriate a great sum of money for public works. The point of this resolution is that the schools shall be con¬ sidered as a legitimate part of the program of public works. So far they have not been mentioned, have not been given consideration in the bills before the House. Are we going to grasp this opportunity this morning and ask Congress to consider the schools, or are we going to say, “No?” Mr. Joseph Saunders: Madam President. President Hale: I recognize Mr. Saunders. Mr. Saunders: Speaking now as an individual delegate in this Assembly and not as chairman of the Resolutions Committee, I want to occupy my two minutes first in offering an amendment, that paragraphs one and two of this resolution be stricken out. I want to call your attention to the fact that this resolution was presented to the Resolutions Committee at its last meeting. This is one of those things Mr. IV annamaker spoke of that is thought of at the last moment. It contains highly con¬ troversial issues. On the second line there is monetary deflation talked of. Experts disagree in this country on types of monetary deflation or inflation. What do we know about it? In the second paragraph it advocates certain relief bills now pending in Congress. How many of you know what those relief bills are, or what is contained in them, or to what you are committing yourselves? Unless you strike out those two paragraphs, which are not germane to the resolution — the last paragraph is the meat of the resolution anyway — if we strike out the first two, the upper paragraph and the next one, we leave a sensible resolution. If we put in the first two paragraphs we get ourselves, perhaps, into all sorts of difficulties, commit ourselves to policies which in our more sober moments we would not commit ourselves to. I say that as an individual member of this Association and not as Chairman of the Resolutions Com¬ mittee. Mr. R. C. Moore: I am not sure I really made the motion I intended to make. I don’t know just what we are discussing because there is no motion which has been made, I believe, to adopt this. I now move, ladies and gentlemen, that this amend¬ ment be adopted. President Hale: Do I hear that motion seconded? Mrs. Preble: I second the motion. Mr. Saunders: I now move we strike out the first two paragraphs of this pro¬ posed amendment. (Motion seconded.) Mr. Moore: Madam President, is that open to discussion? President Hale: Yes, I shall let you discuss anything within your limit. Mr. Sutton: May I first make a motion as a substitute for the whole, that we have a sub-committee for a few moments that will harmonize our thinking. There are some things in this second paragraph that I feel should go into this resolution. Certainly the aid that might come for financing school buildings is not in the last paragraph at all, and if that is left out it might prevent some of the very things 888 National Education Association we are working for, and that is my object in making that motion. And if agree¬ able, I move as a substitute for the whole that ten minutes be given for a com¬ mittee of three to five to harmonize this resolution. carried I™0''011 was seconded’ question called for, motion put, and unanimously uPrepd?l Hall: 1 Wil'.appoint Ur ■ R- C ■ Moore’ Mr- "■ L. Smith, Mr. Sutton, and ivirs. Preble to discuss this matter and report back. Mr Sutton: If I may make a suggestion— I don’t mean to suggest to the Chair- lnit 1 think the chairman of the Resolutions Committee ought to be on that com- mittee if you can spare him. President Hale: Well Mr. Sutton, if they won’t ask me anything very hard while he is gone, I will spare him. I will say I am not so interested in the red tape as I am in free speech here and in giving everybody a chance. I will stay here until midnight and I will make all these other people here stay, too, if you wish The wise men will now recess and the rest of us of more mediocre but willing individuals will go on with the program until they come back. The Budget Committee would like to report at this time and I will call upon the chairman, Mr. Rogers. Mr. L. W. Rogers (Texas) : It is the policy of the Budget Committee to spend ours working and only very brief moments talking about the results of this work, l ou have in your hands a printed report that was submitted by the Budget Com¬ mittee to the Board of Directors and which was approved by that Board to be presented to you at this time. It was said on this platform the other night that this was no time for balancing budgets. I agree with that statement so far as it refers to making up deficits at the expense of the schools or of any organization in which we are interested at any time. Fortunately the National Education Association did not have to balance its budget. It was in balance. The committee brings you a budget in balance but it did not have to balance the budget at this meeting. I throw that out as worthy of consideration by some of those people thruout the United States who so seldom credit teachers and their organizations with the ability to carry on financial operations intelligently and effectively. (He then went over the printed report if the Committee item by item, making explanations and answering questions.) & Madam Chairman, I move the adoption of the report. Miss Sara H. Fahey (New York) : Madam Chairman, if in order, I call attention to one item here before it is passed on. President Hale: Let us have the motion seconded first, Miss Fahey. Do I hear the motion to accept the report seconded? Voice: Second the motion. President Hale: All right. I introduce Miss Fahey of New York, Miss Sara H Fahey, president, during the past year, of the Department of Classroom Teachers! Miss Fahey: I am very much astonished in reading this report to discover an item with a figure opposite that I did not expect because I had been assured again and again that the item was inserted in the budget exactly as I had called for it, and by that I refer to the item under Department and Committee Appropriations— the Department of Classroom Teachers, $9100. I called for $10,100. I had dis¬ covered so much in the last four years in working with the Department of the need of money, that if it had not been a depression year I would have requested $20 000 instead of $10,000. I called for the same budget that we had last year except with the addition of $100, which was for a special purpose. I called for the same budget merely because of the fact I realized that the National Education Association was attempting to economize and had been cut on certain sources of income. But I am very much astonished and I wish to protest here to this body against this cutting, because there never was a time when so much work is to be done in the field as now. If there is one body that is suffering tremendously from one end of the country to the other it is the teachers. Consequently, this work should not be curtailed and it is curtailed by any such measure as this. Associational Records and Information 889 So I would like to move that the amount called for by me, the then president of the Department of Classroom Teachers, be substituted for this figure, that is $10,100 instead of $9100 that appears here. Madam President , I move this amend¬ ment to this statement. Mr. Hanna: Second the motion. President Hale: It has been moved and seconded that the report of the Budget Committee be amended to give this Department $10,100 instead of $9100. Are you ready for the question? Mr. Rogers: Madam President, I would like to say for the Budget Committee that I don’t know who is responsible for the assurance that the request of the Department had been granted in toto. I can assure you that I was not. The Com¬ mittee’s policy has been continuously to permit every interested person to come before the Committee and present requests for budget items; and then after hear¬ ing the interested persons, to make recommendations in the light of what appeared best in view of the financial situation or otherwise and to declare that recommenda¬ tion to the Board of Directors for submission here. There have been no closed sessions of the Budget Committee for the last five years and everyone interested has had an opportunity to come in person and present his requests. Now you will note there have been some cuts all the way down the line. Maybe I should qualify my previous remarks on balancing the budget. It is balanced as our revenue is anticipated to come in, but as wise people we certainly did not want to push up our revenues to a point where they would not materialize and thus create a deficit. Just this other word and I am thru, because it is absolutely immaterial to me whether you allow an additional amount. It might be well for you to know that last year the appropriation for the Department was $10,000 and the expenditures less than $9000. Following the policy of the committee all the way thru, the appropriation for this year was recommended in accordance with last year’s expenditures, which are in this particular case somewhat larger, considerably larger than the expendi¬ tures of the Department for last year. Now the committee thought we ought to hold the line and not reduce and cripple any department, but it very seriously questioned whether this particular year ahead of us, in the light of the very chang¬ ing conditions and very difficult conditions, was a year for any unusual expansion. Miss Fahey: I must have a word with regard to two statements made by Mr. Rogers. First, you have a closed hearing in the Budget Committee if the teachers who are employed and who are held to their employment are not present nor noti¬ fied when there is any essential step taken of this kind. As this meeting was held before we could possibly get to Atlantic City, nothing could be done, but I wrote as strong a letter as it was possible for the English language to express, I believe, stating why every item in this budget must be preserved. Second, we spent $9000 rather than $10,000 of this budget because of the strong appeal of the Secretary of the National Education Association that, if possible, this year we should hold ourselves to four-fifths only of the budget appropriated because of the danger in the shortage of the funds of the National Education Association. And therefore, because of our interest in the National Education Association, our patriotic attitude toward the problem, we curtailed as much as possible and tried to render service by reducing our budget $1000. We did not anticipate that we were establishing a precedent and that it meant a shrinkage of funds this year. Some of our field officers last year were very unfortunate in not being able to obtain leaves of absence from their work to do the field work and so very little field work was done, but whether we get expansion by raising funds outside or what we do, we must have field work next year. Thank you. President Hale: I recognize Mr. Hanna. Mr. Hanna: We all know that since the classroom teachers have been more in¬ terested in the N. E. A. that its membership has grown, and grown, and grown. We now have about 220,000 members, I think, and there are over half a million potential members for the N. E. A. if we can get the rest of the classroom teachers 890 National Education Association represented. The idea of the Department of Classroom Teachers— and I want to say that the officers are modest and I am not an officer but I want to speak for ^ t0A a^e T°rr funds available to do more work, to get more members for the N. E. A. simply for the reason that it will be of vast benefit to education in America To make it possible for them to do this work better I am asking you to enlarge the appropriation, as Miss Fahey has requested. I believe the department would be willing to say, that if they did not get the increased membership they would not ask for the entire use of the fund. Presidem Hale: Well, to a Yankee that sounds like a pretty good proposition. They have a challenge now, haven’t they, Mr. Hanna ? You agree to add 10 000 members to ^the present total of 220,000. Remember this promise. I believe now ffiat iss Fahey s motion has been made and seconded that the sum of $10,100 be sub¬ stituted for the sum of $9100 in the budget. (Thereupon the motion was put and carried and the amendment declared adopted as made.) dT Hfei 7hile arC WaitinS> 1 wish to remark that it has impressed e as I have looked around over this assembly this morning that there is a laree number present. We should have brought it to your attention before, when so mud was said about the small numbers present. Mr. Rogers is ready now for me to put e motmn for the adoption of the report of the Budget Committee as read by him with the amendment as read by Miss Fahey and sanctioned by you. (The motion eing seconded, the question called for, a vote was taken and the motion carried and the report of the Budget Committee declared adopted as amended and as printed and on file in the Secretary’s office.) President Hale: I will now call for the report of the Secretary. Secretary Crabtree: The report of the Secretary has been distributed among the delegates. Y ou have either read this report already or you will perhaps read it sometime later and I rise only to make a motion that the report be received and pJaced on file. (The motion being duly seconded, the question called for, a vote was taken and the motion unanimously carried, and the report of the Secretary declared adopted as printed and on file in the Secretary’s office.) President Hale: We are ready now for the special subcommittee to consider the question of the reconstruction of the amendment. I call on Mr. R. C. Moore chair¬ man of the subcommittee. 1 Mr. Moore . (Illinois) : I am very glad to submit to you what I believe is the unanimous opinion of this committee after a rather thoro discussion and after a little compromise which we considered advisable. If you will take your printed copy I will read it as we have agreed that it should be. I think I need not state the reason for the insertion of some words and the elimination of others. In the present economic crisis, the immediate need of the Nation is a restoration of employment and production.” The next two sentences are stricken and then, “Private enterprise alone is unequal to the task. Collective action on a large scale is imperative.” Then we have inserted the words, “We believe that this means action by the federal government.’’ We have stricken out of the second paragraph the first sentence and also the last sentence. The last paragraph was accepted in toto as given. I beg pardon, I find I made one error. The last sentence of the second paragraph should read thus: “It tends to give impetus, moreover, to destructive radical movements.” The point is the words “of every type,” it is pretty hard to define some types of radical movements. It is possible somebody may think the teachers in the National Education Association arc conducting a radical movement. In the last paragraph no changes are made. I beg leave to move that the original amendment which I offered awhile ago be now amended as reported by this Committee. Mr. Willis A. Sutton: Second the motion. (The question being called for, there being no discussion, the motion was put, and unanimously carried.) Associational Records and Information 891 Mr. Moore: I might move that this amendment as amended be inserted in the report made by the Resolutions Committee after the first general topic, “Economy and Education,” contained in the Resolutions for 1932 and just before the topic entitled “Law Observance.” (The motion being seconded, the question called for, the motion was voted upon, and unanimously carried.) Mr. Saunders : I renew the motion that the Resolutions as amended for 1932 be adopted by this Assembly. (The motion being seconded, the question called for, the motion was voted upon, and unanimously carried, and the Resolutions as presented by the Resolutions Committee, and as amended by the Representative Assembly, de¬ clared adopted. (The report as amended is printed elsewhere. See index.) President Hale: We will now proceed with the next order of business. We have two reports left which will be very short. I call for the report of Treasurer Henry Lester Smith of Indiana. Mr. Smith: My report is very brief. The report is contained in the report of the auditor. There are two funds in the N. E. A., one the permanent fund, one the current fund. The Treasurer is responsible for the report on the current fund. Just two statements need to be made. The net income this year in the current fund is $3,129 more than we actually expended. One thing you may not quite understand is that we are carrying forward this year a balance of only $84,000 whereas a year ago it was $107,000. The difference is a matter of bookkeeping, $8,000 of interest that wasn't turned over to the current fund from the permanent fund, and a deprecia¬ tion fund of $8,000, and then an increase this year of notes payable. So that recon¬ ciles the report. I move the adoption of this report. (The motion being seconded, the question called for, a vote was taken, and the motion was unanimously carried and the report declared adopted as printed and on file in the Secretary’s office. The report is printed elsewhere in this volume. See index.) President Hale: I will now call for the report of the Board of Trustees from Mr. Saunders. Mr. Joseph H. Saunders: I will make a very brief report. You have in your printed report handed to you as you came in, on page 11, the Report of the Board of Trustees on the permanent fund as set out by the auditors in which we find listed our assets, a total of $943,648.12, with liabilities of debt for new building, $180,000, borrowed from the Penn Mutual Insurance Company, leaving our net assets $762,- 648.12, and increasing our net assets over last year $47,835. I will not discuss below that but I call your attention to the remarks concerning home ownership as follows. Then if you will turn to page 14 in the report you will find the list of securities now held by the Association, and I call your attention to those merely because you and I as teachers are accused by these socalled business men as being very impractical people. Our securities in this time of depression when business men and bankers’ securities have all gone to pieces have a book value of $110,683, when their face value is only $111,250. We submit that for the benefit of these bankers and business men. (He called attention to a number of points and answered questions.) I move the adoption of the Trustees’ report. (The motion being duly seconded, was voted upon and unanimously carried, and the report declared adopted as printed and presented by the Board of Trustees and on file in the office of the Secretary. The report is printed elsewhere in this volume. See index.) President Hale: I will now call for the chairman of our own National Education Association Auditing Committee, Miss Eugenie Brown. Miss Brown (Ohio) : Your committee appointed to examine the audit of the finances of the National Education Association made by Peat, Marwick, Mitchell, and Company, reports that the audit shows the finances to be in splendid con¬ dition. We congratulate the Headquarters Staff and the Board of Directors on their excellent management of the funds, and the teachers of America on their loyalty to 892 National Education Association the Association During a period of great financial difficulty every department of the Association has functioned without curtailment. In spite of decreased Revenues in some departments the balances are larger than in 19D Wp f (ThertmSt-UbmhiUed‘ 1 m°V; ** ad0Pti°n °f this rePort submitted" b}^ the Committee6 (The motion being seconded, the question called for, a vote wa* taken 3 he T rTi r'*11 and ,he reports dedar'd a'«P: y°ur Committee on Elections submits the following ej oit of election of officers of this Association for 1932-33. * Number of ballots cast . For President, Joseph Rosier, West Virginia John Dewey, New York . Lucy Mason Holt, Virginia.. Jessie Gray, Pennsylvania... For Treasurer, Henry Lester Smith, Indiana. The following eleven vicepresidents were elected: George C. Baker, New Jersey . Finest W. Butterfield, Connecticut . Mabel Ellis, California . Edith Louise Grosvenor, Washington, D. C... Oren E. Long, Hawaii . William T. Longshore, Missouri . Elizabeth McCormick, Wisconsin........’".’ Orville C. Pratt, Washington . George W. Wannamaker . C. B. Wivel, Arizona . Caroline S. Woodruff, Vermont . . 861 846 4 1 1 855 759 726 727 698 821 749 794 653 753 681 785 We respectfully submit this report and I make the motion that this part of the report be accepted. (The motion being seconded, the question called for, a vote was M and the motion unanimously carried and the report adopted as read.) Sfme n T "T , 0 dc m my hand a regular ballot which has on « the list of btate Directors I make the motion that these State Directors be declared elected as printed on the ballot. There are no complications in this because they are nominated ly the state del egations. I make a motion that the names as printed be accepted hM ,S‘dWhHM e'rh ha/ bee" m°Ved and seconded 'hat ^e names as printed on the ballot which Mr. Longshore has in his hand for the State Directors are to be accepted. e question called for, the motion was put and unanimously carried and the “-I- State Dlrectors "to ballot declared elected, sanl State Director' Alabama — J. D. Williams Alaska — E. J. Beck Arizona— J. O. Mullen Arkansas — C. M. Hirst California — F. F. Martin Colorado — W. B. M^ooney Connecticut— Helen T. Collins Delaware — H. V. Holloway District of Columbia— Edith L. Gros¬ venor Florida— James S. Rickards Georgia — M. L. Duggan Hawaii — O. E. Long Idaho — Raymond H. Snyder Illinois — A. L. Whittenberg Indiana — C. O. Williams Iowa— Mary A. Lord Kansas — M. E. Pearson Kentucky — R. E. Williams Louisiana— P. H. Griffith Maine — W. B. Jack Maryland — William Burdick Massachusetts— Annie C. Woodward Michigan— Webster H. Pearce Minnesota — H. L. Wahlstrand Mississippi — H. V. Cooper Missouri — T. J. Walter Montana — R. J. Cunningham Nebraska — Dwight E. Porter Nevada — Alice Maxwell Associational Records and Information 893 New Hampshire — Dana S. Jordan New Jersey — A. J. Glennie New Mexico — P. L. Fickinger New York — Frederick H. Law North Carolina — T. W. Andrews North Dakota — L. A. White Ohio — R. E. Offenhauer Oklahoma — M. E. Hurst Oregon — C. A. Rice Pennsylvania — J. Herbert Kelley Philippine Islands — Porto Rico — F. Rodriguez-Lopez Rhode Island — Charles Carroll South Carolina — A. C. Flora South Dakota — S. B. Nissen Tennessee — Harry Clark Texas — L. W. Rogers Utah — A. M. Thurman Vermont — Caroline S. Woodruff Virgin Islands — Virginia — Edith B. Joynes Washington — O. C. Pratt West Virginia — William C. Cook Wisconsin — Blanche M. McCarthy Wyoming — President Hale: The next item of business is the introduction of the new President. (Mr. Joseph R osier, the President-elect, was accompanied to the microphone by Mr. Joseph Saunders and Secretary Crabtree. The Assembly arose with loud applause.) The Chair: With sincere thanks for all of your kindness to me during this last year, for your patience and loyalty to me during the convention, I am now ready to quote the words of George Washington, of whom we have heard so much this week, “Happy in the confirmation of our independence and sovereignty, I resign with satisfaction the appointment I accepted with diffidence.” It is now my great pleasure to introduce to you our new President, Joseph Rosier, president of State Teachers College at Fairmont, West Virginia. Your endorsement of him shows he needs no further endorsement from anyone on this platform, a man of wide vision, a man who for all of twenty years has never been absent from one meeting of this Association, a man who has a record of unselfishness and modesty, who has been on almost every committee of this Association, and during the past year has assisted immeasurably in the successful outcome of this year in his position as a member of the Executive Committee. I now have great honor and great pleasure in presenting to you your new President, Dr. Rosier. President Joseph Rosier: May I detain you just a very few minutes and say a few things? First of all I want to express my sincere appreciation of the confidence which you have bestowed upon me and I shall put forth every effort to prove worthy of that confidence. I accept the call to this position as a call of trust. I do not use the term “service,” which is outworn. This is a call of trust and is necessary to protect the rights of the children of America, to uphold the standards of the teach¬ ing profession of America, to fight. I hold that the work of education in this country may be classed with the primary national defenses and there is no national or state expense or that of any territory which should have primary consideration above the expenditures for the education of our children. The schools of America are our first line of defense and I stand on that principle. I want to say I believe in organization. I am not among those who believe the schools of this country and this nation can be saved by any one man, however great he may be. In fact, if we are to save our institutions it will be thru organization. I believe in the great National Education Association and the service which it can render to the cause of education in this country and I believe in the great state asso¬ ciations. I want to appeal to all these state associations to cooperate with this great National Education Association in preserving all that is worthwhile in educational development which we have made in recent years. I stand by the staff of the National Education Association. I esteem very highly the great service which our Secretary, Mr. Crabtree, has rendered in these years. I have been about Headquarters quite a good deal in recent years, and I have learned 894 National Education Association to know the ability and competency of the men and women who work on this staff. I stand squarely by them while at the same time, as your executive officer, I take the position that that staff, so far as we can ascertain what your sentiments and your opinions are, shall be responsible to the sentiments and will of the National Educa¬ tion Association and of the opinion of this country. I am sure that the members of this staff at all times will be willing to respond to your will and to carry out your wishes in forwarding the interests of this Association. In connection with the development of our organization I believe in active par¬ ticipation in the affairs of this Association. Great responsibility rests upon us in strengthening the organization. I hope you will not be disturbed by these published criticisms and statements that go about to the effect that the great National Educa¬ tion Association is controlled by small politicians. It is slander. Does anyone mean to tell me that the men and women assembled here year after year in this great Representative Assembly are little people, to be led around by a few people? Why if those people who make such criticism were to try to lead you around once they would soon find the contrary to be the case. So I want to say I resent that as slander On the contrary, I recommend that the Directors and Representative Assembly take an interest in the selection of their officers. It is perfectly proper that we should have candidates for president of this Association, that in an ethical and professional way their qualifications should be made known to you. Next year is the women’s year _ the open year for women and I hope the women of our great Association in present¬ ing their candidates, their brain power and qualifications, will be open and above board so that one year from this time we may make a wise selection of a good woman leader who will hold up the best standards and traditions of woman leader¬ ship of this great Association. I have the notion that, while Miss Hale has indicated that she has expired and is passing out at this moment, we have disposed too quickly of our presidents. Miss Hale will continue as vicepresident and a member of the xecutive Committee. We spent a good deal of money in sending her over the coun¬ try, in educating her this year for service, and I think we ought to continue to make use of her. And so in your state associations, in your educational meetings, because the President cannot answer all calls that come, I hope in many places you will be willing to accept the Vicepresident as a substitute for the President in speaking to your associations and conventions. I want to announce also I have made arrangements for Miss Hale to continue her radio work. I am a great believer in dividing up work. I don’t believe in a one-man organization if I can get other people to do things. I have a greater satisfaction if I can get someone else to do them. Miss Hale has made such a fine success of her radio work, I am sure you will all be pleased to have her continue that work next year. I only make one reservation. You know those very delightful questions and answers she gave— you have all heard them— I am just going to make one reserva¬ tion. I am going to reserve the right myself on occasion to give advice to young men and women on matrimonial matters because I don’t think she is qualified to advise young men and women on those subjects. That is the only reservation I make; other¬ wise I shall uphold all her activities in these fine radio programs and in consulation we are going to try to make those radio programs one of the big features of our work next year. While we have heard a great deal of talk about depression here this week, — we have been hearing it everywhere— I wonder if the teachers of America might not begin to talk about something else. As I said to you in my paper the other day, we learn thru days of prosperity how to live on small salaries — our salaries were never excessive— and we are trained to live simply and finely on small incomes. So I think that in this period we might as well lead the way in teaching the people of our coun¬ try to have a better attitude. May we go home and quit talking about the depression. And my last word is, as you go back to your states, as we all take up the burdens at home, may we resolve that we are going to do our best to establish faith in Amer- Associational Records and Information 895 ica, in her institutions, in all that we have built up in these past years. I am sure that the people of this country, headed by the school teachers, still have an abiding faith in America and her institutions. Let us go back, rededicating ourselves to that faith and may we also go back with a spirit of optimism. Somebody has got to kindle the light that lights up the path out of this woods of despair in which we are. Let us go home in a spirit of optimism, resolved that with faith and hope we will help America and all her institutions to get out of this slough of despondency in which we are, and that thru the schools of America we will continue to carry on in all the best traditions of the teaching profession of America. Chairman Hale : As a benediction to this meeting, that we may carry back home with us, and in anticipation of next year, I am going to ask for a song at this time by Mr. L. Powell Evans of Atlantic City. After this song the meeting stands ad¬ journed. (The meeting then adjourned and many stopped to express appreciation to Miss Hale for the great convention and to greet the new President.) J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Florence Hale, President MINUTES OF THE MEETINGS OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS Atlantic City, New Jersey Saturday Afternoon, June 25, 1932 The meeting of the Board of Directors of the National Education Association was held at the Manager’s Office, Civic Auditorium, Atlantic City, New Jersey, due notice having been given in the convention program. The meeting was called to order by President Florence Hale, who after expressing her great pleasure in working with the Board of Directors during the year, asked the Secretary to call the roll. The following either answered to their names or entered the room later. Life Directors: Cornelia S. Adair, Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford, U el IV. Lamkin, Willis A. Sutton, Mary McSkimmon, E. Ruth Pyrtle, State Teachers Association of Illinois, Robert C. Moore. State Directors : Arkansas — C. M. Hirst, Colorado — W. B. Mooney, Connecticut — Gordon C. Swift, Delaware — H. V. Holloway, District of Columbia — Edith L. Gros- venor, Florida — James S. Rickards, Georgia — George Wannamaker, Hawaii — Oren E. Long, Illinois — A. L. W hittenberg , Iowa — Mary A. Lord, Kansas — M. E. Pearson, Kentucky — R. E. Williams, Louisiana. — Annie T. Bell, Maine — William B. Jack, Maryland — William Burdick, Massachusetts — Annie C. Woodward, Michigan — Webster H. Pearce, Minnesota — Alice F. Sullivan, Missouri — Thomas J. Walker, Montana — R. J. Cunningham, Nebraska — Dwight E. Porter, New Hampshire — Robert J. Fuller, New Jersey — Alex. J. Glennie, New York — Arvie Eldred, North Carolina. — T. W. Andrews, North Dakota — L. A. White, Ohio — R. E. Offcnhauer, Oklahoma — M. E. Hurst, Pennsylvania — J. Herbert Kelley, Porto Rico — F. Rodriguez Lopez, Rhode Island — Charles Carroll, South Dakota — S. B. Nissen, Tennessee — S. L. Ragsdale, Texas — L. W. Rogers, Vermont — Caroline S. Woodruff, Virginia — Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, West Virginia — W. C. Cook, Wisconsin — E. G. Doudna. A motion was made by Mr. W hittenberg of Illinois to elect Mr. Fuller and Mr. Eldred as directors from their respective states to serve in place of the regularly elected directors. The motion was seconded and carried. Mr. W annamaker was authorized to serve until the arrival of Director Duggan of Georgia. The Secretary was called upon for the minutes of the Los Angeles meeting. He called attention to the minutes being presented in the annual Volume of Proceedings 896 National Education Association and also in the Manual which they held in their hands. Mr. Kelley of Pennsylvania moved that the minutes be approved as submitted. The motion was seconded, put, and carried. An announcement was made by Mr. Allan concerning the expenses of delegates and blank vouchers were distributed with the suggestion that they should be handed in at the meeting on Tuesday. Mr. Allan also called attention to the educational exhibit and urged that the Board of Directors visit the exhibits as a body at the close of the session. A motion was then made by Mr. Sutton that all attend the exhibits in a body at the close of the meeting. The motion was seconded and carried. After pleasantries by Mr. Lamkin, Miss Hale, and others, the President called on Mr. Rogers, chairman of the Budget Committee, for a preliminary report. He said he could announce at that time that the committee had been able to balance the budget but that he could not make the complete report until the meeting arranged for Tuesday for that purpose. In view of the fact that it would be necessary to pay the expenses of the directors before the budget, as a whole, would be adopted, a motion was made by Mr. Rogers and seconded by Mr. Sutton that the appropriation of $9000 for the expenses of direc¬ tors and that of $10,000 for the expenses of delegates, be made available immediately. After discussion the motion was carried by a unanimous vote. It was moved by Mr. Doudna and seconded by Miss Adair that the President appoint a committee to fill vacancies in the membership of the National Council. The motion was put and carried. The President announced the appointment of the following committee: Mr. H. L. Smith, Chairman, Miss Caroline Woodruff and Mr. Edgar Doudna. She requested it to report at the meeting called for Friday afternoon. A motion was made by Mr. Mooney that the books of the Association be closed on May 15 of each year instead of on May 30 as in the past. It was explained that the two weeks additional time was needed for the auditors and others to get records in shape for the Board of Directors and Representative Assembly. Seconded by Miss W oodruff. Carried. The Secretary was called on for his report. He read the introduction and called attention to some of the high spots of the report. A motion was then made by Miss Adair to receive the report and place it on file. Seconded by Miss Woodruff. Carried. It was explained that the reports of the Board of Trustees and of the Treasurer would be presented at the next meeting of the Board of Directors. Miss Caroline Woodruff then took the floor to call attention to the fact that the National Council of Administrative Women in Education had taken all the necessary steps to become a department in the Association. She then moved that the Board of Directors recommend to the Representative Assembly that the National Council of Administrative Women become a department. Mr. Whittenberg seconded the motion. There being no discussion the motion was put and carried by unanimous vote. T he President, Miss Hale, then asked whether there were other items of business to be presented at this time. Mr. Sutton asked for the floor to express appreciation to the Board of Directors and to other friends for the support which he had received as President, but more especially to commend members of the board for their excellent work during the past year. He was pleased to see directors assuming more and more responsibility. Miss Hale approved of Mr. Sutton’s remarks and related circumstances showing great interest on the part of directors. Mr. Kelley of Pennsylvania expressed the feeling that directors be used more extensively in all N. E. A. work within the state. He felt that directors ought to be more active in promoting membership in the Association. He felt that the President should consult the director as to the appointment of committees and as to the arrangement for membership drives within the state. Mr Rogers believed we should make greater use of the directors but that we should avoid building up a political machine. He thought the President ought to consult the Associational Records and Information 897 director but that the President should be entirely free in making all committee appointments. Miss Sullivan of Minnesota, spoke along the same lines. Mr. IV anna- maker explained his plan of securing memberships. He felt it was important for the directors’ own schools to have a 100 percent enrolment. The President called atten¬ tion to the fact that Mr. JV annamaker’ s system had been 100 percent for many years. Miss Adair and Mrs. Joynes of Virginia, Mr. Pearce of Michigan, Miss Woodward of Massachusetts, Mr. Hurst of Oklahoma, Mr. Pearson of Kansas, and Mr, Glennie of New Jersey each made suggestions as to what directors could do to improve the service. This discussion, full of pleasantries and good suggestions, was plainly ap¬ preciated by all. At this point the Secretary called attention to the fact that some of the directors were just reaching the hall and others were on the way. He understood that they had been confused because of daylight saving time in Atlantic City. He asked per¬ mission to list their names. A motion was then made by Mr. Mooney to adjourn. It was seconded, put, and carried. The President stated that the adjournment would be until Tuesday, June 28 at 2 o’clock. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Florence Hale, President Tuesday Afternoon, June 28, 1932 A second meeting of the Board of Directors of the National Education Association was held at the Manager’s Office in the Auditorium, Miss Florence Hale, President of the Association, presiding. After the Secretary called the roll, the President announced that a quorum was present as follows. The following were present: Virginia — Cornelia S. Adair, Colo¬ rado — Mary C. C. Bradford, Missouri — U el JV . Lamkin, Georgia — JVillis A. Sutton, Illinois — Robert C. Moore, Indiana — Henry Lester Smith, Massachusetts — Mary McSkimmon, Virginia — Joseph Saunders, Nebraska — E. Ruth Pyrtle, Alabama — J. D. Williams, Alaska — A. E. Karnes, Arizona. — J. 0. Mullen, California — F. F. Martin, Colorado — JV. B. Mooney, Connecticut — Gordon C. Swift, Florida — James S. Rickards, Georgia — M. L. Duggan, Hawaii — Oren E. Long, Idaho — Raymond Snyder, Illinois — A. L. Whittenberg, Indiana — Chas. O. Williams, Iowa — Mary A. Lord, Kansas — M. E. Pearson, Kentucky — R. E. Williams, Louisiana — Annie T. Bell, Maine — W m. B. Jack, Maryland — Wm. Burdick, Massachusetts — Annie C. Wood¬ ward, Michigan — Webster H. Pearce, Minnesota — Alice F. Sullivan, Mississipi— Miss Ermin Pitts, Missouri — Thos. J. Walker, Montana — R. J. Cunningham, Ne¬ braska — Dwight E. Porter, Nevada — Donnell C. Richards , New Hampshire — Robert J. Fuller, New Jersey — Alex. J. Glennie, New Mexico — Paul L. Fickinger, New York — Arvie Eldred, North Carolina — T. W. Andrews, North Dakota — L. A. White, Ohio — R. E. Offenhauer, Pennsylvania — J. Herbert Kelley, Porto Rico — F. Rodriguez Lopez, Rhode Island — Charles Carroll, South Carolina — A. C. Flora, South Dakota — S. B. Nissen, Tennessee — S. L. Ragsdale, Texas — L. W. Rogers, Utah — Arch M. Thurman, Wisconsin — E. G. Doudna. There being a number present who could serve for many who were not in attend¬ ance, a motion was made by Mr. Whittenberg of Illinois, seconded by Mrs. Joynes of Virginia, to accept these proxies for substitutes until the arrival of the elected direc¬ tors. He explained that there was some confusion as to the beginning hour of the meeting. The motion was put and carried. Mr. Doudna of Wisconsin submitted a report for the committee on the appointment of members for the National Council. First, the committee recommends that Mrs. Bradford of Colorado, Mr. Carroll of Rhode Island, Mr. Chamberlain of California, Miss Wofford of South Carolina, Miss Hall of Minnesota, Mr. McKenny of Michi¬ gan, Mr. Rosier of West Virginia, and Mr. Smith of Indiana whose terms expire at this time, be reelected; second, that Mr. Rogers of Texas be elected to the vacancy 898 National Education Association caused by the death of Superintendent Marrs and that Mr. Plenzke of Wisconsin be elected to the place made vacant by the resignation of Mrs. Bradford of Wisconsin. A motion was made to accept the report of the committee and elect those named as members of the National Council. Seconded. Carried. The President then called on Mr. Rogers, chairman of the Budget Committee, for the report which had been prepared and printed in tentative form. Copies of the leport were distributed. Mr. Rogers went over it carefully explaining the figures in detail. (The budget in complete form is printed elsewhere in this volume. See index). Mr. Rogers gave much credit to the Secretary and members of the head¬ quarters staff for the saving of $20,000 from what had been appropriated a year ago. He stated that that led the committee to believe that it could make a reasonable estimate of income and yet feel entirely safe in case a further emergency should develop. Among other things he said: “In other words, the committee took the posi¬ tion that we want to go ahead under full steam with our activities and not show any undue fear, but at the same time we want to be safely within the revenues which may be anticipated.” Mr. Rogers stated that the committee made the following recommendation: That the President and Secretary of the Association be duly authorized and instructed to make whatever reductions they find necessary in order to meet an emergency occasioned by an unexpected loss in revenue. Then he pro¬ ceeded to discuss the recommendation as follows: “Now while we think we are perfectly safe, at the same time none of us can tell what may happen next year. We know, for example, that the full force of the deflation or liquidation we have heard so much about is striking the school teachers themselves this year more than it did last year and while we think we are safe we would like to prepare for any emergency that may arise. And in this connection let me say, with special reference to this recommendation here, that Mr. Crabtree, speaking for the staff, has assured the committee, and in turn I am assuring this Board of Directors, that if that emer¬ gency arises the headquarters staff is perfectly willing to accept a furlough of two weeks or a month, without pay, but with the full load of work carried forward. I think that is a very generous attitude on the part of the staff. I didn’t want to write that into the report because we felt as a committee we ought to take the position we are going right ahead and not put out anything in regard to cutting salaries and having furloughs and things of that kind. But that is the assurance we have from Mr. Crabtree and his staff, if an emergency of that kind should arise, and I mean for this resolution to give full authority to grant furloughs to the staff and to re¬ duce other appropriations.” Owing to conditions it is recommended that no additions be made to the list of permanent employees in 1932-33. The committee recommends: “That the Executive Committee be instructed, if possible prior to the next meeting of the Budget Committee, to consider necessary adjustments in the classification and salary schedule.” Then Mr. Rogers proceeded to discuss this recommendation as follows: “The present schedule was adopted, I believe, in 1927. Naturally in the length of time that has intervened there has been a shifting of responsibility in divisions and it occurred to the present committee that it would be well before your next Budget Committee is asked to make a report that the Executive Committee should go carefully over this schedule and make whatever recommendations it desires as to adjustments. The Budget Committee, of course, has considered the salary schedule as presented to it by the staff, as being authorized by the Board of Directors and the Association, and, of course, has made its recom¬ mendations for appropriations in accordance with it, but in the judgment of the Budget Committee, there should be some adjustments — at least the subject should be considered.” The committee recommends: “That the purchase of emblems for past presidents of the Association, authorized last year, be postponed for the duration of the de¬ pression.” Then he discussed the recommendation as follows: “It would require quite a large sum of money to make that purchase. The purchase has not been made, so Associational Records and Information 899 in our judgment it would probably be well, at least for the next year, that it be postponed.” Chairman Rogers then called attention to the important items in the appropriation. He explained why the allowance was made less to some committees and greater for others. He explained that the committee had made its appropriation to care for the most important items in divisions and in committee work. He then answered questions from the floor and moved the adoption of the report. The motion was seconded and the chairman called for discussion. A number of members took part in the discussion largely in the nature of asking further questions about this appropriation and that. The motion was put and carried by unanimous vote. The Treasurer, Henry Lester Smith of Indiana, was next called upon for a re¬ port. He explained that the report was in printed form in connection with the report of the auditors. After explaining the report in detail he moved that it be adopted by the Board of Directors. Seconded. Carried. The President, Miss Hale, called upon Mr. Saunders , chairman of the Board of Trustees, for a report. He called attention to the printed report explaining certain items and asking for members to stop him on items on which additional informa¬ tion was desired. He called attention to the fact that while all other organizations had apparently lost on their securities during the last year or so, there had been no loss at all on the securities of the National Education Association so far as the income was concerned. He accounted for the apparent discrepancies between the Auditor’s Report and that of the Board of Trustees. He then moved that the report be received and made a matter of record. The President asked if the members de¬ sired to ask further questions. Mr. Jack of Maine asked to have certain points clarified. Attention was called to the fact that a motion had been made and seconded to adopt the report. It was then put to vote and carried. The Secretary presented a form that should be adopted by the Board of Directors in order to enable the Association to borrow money to tide over the summer vacation. He presented the usual form which banks require. Mr. Sutton of Georgia moved that the authorization be given. Seconded by Mr. Lamkin of Missouri. Carried. _ Mr • Lamkin of Missouri then announced that he planned to make a recommenda¬ tion at the meeting on Friday concerning the election of the Budget Committee. He thought we ought to have continuity from year to year and yet at the same time we ought to get some new blood into it every year and he stated that he would bring a resolution to the attention of the Board of Directors on Friday to accomplish that purpose. The President, UIiss Hale, called attention to the resolution which had been pre¬ sented to the Representative Assembly to make Dr. John Dewey honorary president of the Association which was referred to the Board of Directors for consideration and recommendation. She asked that the matter have careful attention and that a definite recommendation be made and presented at the next session of the As¬ sembly. It was reported that Dr. Dewey’s friends would prefer his having the honorary presidency to that of being president of the Association altho he had been nominated for the presidency. A spirited discussion followed. Some doubted the advisability of establishing an honorary position of that kind. Some thought it would not be possible to do so under the present charter and bylaws. Some thought it would be embarrassing to Dr. Dewey, especially since his name had been pre¬ sented to the Representative Assembly to make John Dewey honorary president. Among those who participated in the discussion were: Mr. Kelley of Pennsyl¬ vania, Mr. Carroll of Rhode Island, Mr. Lamkin of Missouri, Mr. Saunders of Virginia, Mr. Jack of Maine, Mr. Andrews of North Carolina, Miss Adair of Virginia, Mr. Cunningham of Montana, Mrs. Bradford of Colorado, Mr. IValker of Missouri, Mr. Duggan of Georgia, Mr. Gwinn of California, Mr. Sutton of Georgia, and Mr. Offenhauer of Ohio. It developed that certain points needed to be cleared up before members were ready to vote. Hence a motion was made by Mr. Sutton of Georgia that a com- 900 National Education Association mittee consisting of five directors be appointed to consider the points involved and to report back to the Board of Directors. The motion was seconded by Mrs. Brad¬ ford. Miss Woodruff of Vermont suggested that to relieve the President from em¬ barrassment the committee be appointed from the floor and the suggestion was ac¬ cepted by Mr. Sutton. In discussing the motion the remarks centered around the question of holding another meeting of the Board of Directors to hear the report of the special committee under consideration. The following are among those who spoke on the question: Mr. Lamkin of Missouri, Mr. Mooney of Colorado, Miss McSkimmon of Massachusetts, Mr. Rickards of Florida, and Mr. Andrews of North Carolina. The question being called for, the motion was put and carried. Mr. Mooney moved that Mr. Lamkin be made chairman of the committee. Seconded. Carried. Miss Pitts of Mississippi moved the selection of Mr. Sutton. Seconded. Carried. Miss Woodruff of Vermont moved that Miss McSkimmon be a member of the committee. Seconded. Carried. Mr. Smith of Indiana moved that Mr. Saunders be a member of the committee. Seconded. Carried. Miss Wilson of Washington moved that Mr. Eldred of New York be a member of the committee. Seconded. Carried. Mr. Saunders asked the privilege of withdrawing and nominated for his place Mr. Cook of West Virginia, giving reason for the request. The motion was seconded and carried. A motion was then made by Mr. Mooney of Colorado that when the meeting adjourned, it recess until 8 p. m. to hear a preliminary report from the committee. Motion seconded, put, and carried. Mr. Rogers of Texas suggested that Mr. Crabtree, the Secretary, and Mr. Saunders, the Parliamentarian, be requested to meet with the special committee. The Presi¬ dent requested them to do so. A motion was made by Mr. Mooney of Colorado to adjourn until 8 o’clock in the evening. The motion was seconded and carried. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Florence Hale, President Tuesday Evening, June 28, 1932 An adjourned meeting of the Board of Directors of the National Education Asso¬ ciation was held at the Manager’s Office in the Auditorium. The meeting was called to order at 8 o’clock by Vicepresident Willis A. Sutton. The Chairman announced the purpose of the meeting was to hear a report of the special committee, which had been appointed to make rcommendations on the question of conferring an honor on Dr. John Dewey. He asked the Secretary to determine whether a quorum was present. On being informed that more than one- half the states were represented, and that others were arriving, he called on Mr. Lamkin, chairman of the committee, for the report. Mr. Lamkin explained that the committee had not yet completed its work, but that it hoped that the New York delegation would withdraw the nomination of Dr. Dewey for the presidency and that the following action would then be taken: “Be It Resolved by the Delegate Assembly of the National Education Association that an honorary life presidency of the National Education Association and an associate chairmanship of the Committee on Social Economic Objectives of America be, and is hereby, conferred upon Dr. John Dewey of Columbia University, and that an honorary life presidency of the National Education Association and an associate chairmanship of the Committee on Resolutions be, and is hereby, con¬ ferred upon Dr. Albert E. W inship of the Journal of Education, Boston, Mass., provided that such positions do not invest the said John Dewey and Albert E. Winship with any of the powers and duties prescribed for officers by the charter and bylaws of the corporation known as the National Education Association.” He explained that the committee had arranged to get in touch with Dr. Dewey to ascertain whether this arrangement would be satisfactory to him. He then made Associational Records and Information 901 a motion that the Board of Directors approve of this resolution. Seconded by Mr. Jack of Maine. The Chairman announced that the proposal was open for discus¬ sion. The same points were raised that had been raised in the previous meeting. Would such action be in harmony with the constitution and bylaws; would it con¬ stitute a precedent; would it be a real honor to Dr. Dewey and Dr. W ins hip; would it be wise for the Association to take action of this kind on the spur of the moment? Other questions were asked and discussed. The questions were answered by the committee. Among those who actively participated in the discussion were: Mr. Whittenberg of Illinois, Mr. Kelley of Pennsylvania, Mr. Eldred of New York, Mr. Walker of Missouri, Miss Adair of Virginia, Mr. Williams of Indiana, Mr. Long of Hawaii, Mr. Jack of Maine, Mrs. Joynes of Virginia, Mr. Lamkin, the chairman, Mr. Smith of Indiana, Mr. Martin of California, and Mr. Carroll of Rhode Island. During the discussion, a desire developed to include the name of Mrs. Dorsey as one to receive the honorary presidency of the Association. A motion was made bv Mr. Duggan of Georgia that her name be included. The motion was seconded, but before it was put, Mr. Martin of California requested that her name be omitted at this time. He stated that Mrs. Dorsey was not at the convention and that the Cali¬ fornia delegation would rather honor her at some future time than to include her name at present, whereupon the maker of the motion withdrew it with the consent of the second. After further discussion, Mr. Carroll of Rhode Island made a motion to lay the main motion on the table. Seconded, put, and lost. The Chairman stated that if there was no further discussion, a vote would be taken on the motion. He called upon the Secretary to call the roll and asked the states to answer “yes” or “no” as the names of the states were called. The vote stood thirty-two “ayes,’ seventeen “nays,” twelve states not voting. Report adopted. The Chairman, Mr. Sutton, then spoke as follows: “Ladies and gentlemen, you have adopted the report of your committee. I believe this report represents our best efforts. The committe stayed after hours and worked hard and did the best it could in formulating a report which would be acceptable. The Board of Directors has given careful consideration to the matter. I do hope that this resolution will receive the complete endorsement of the Representative Assembly. A motion was then made by Mr. Rickards of Florida for a standing vote to express appreciation of the work of the committee. The motion was seconded. Carried. There being no further business to come before the meeting, a motion to adjourn was entertained, seconded, and carried. The meeting was declared adjourned. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Willis A. Sutton, Vicepresident Friday Afternoon, July 1, 1932 The meeting of the new Board of Directors of the National Education Associa¬ tion met as scheduled, in the order of business for the convention, in the Man¬ ager’s Office in the Auditorium, at 2 oclock. The meeting was called to order by Dr. Joseph Rosier, the newly elected President. The Secretary was asked to call the roll. The following answered present: Ala¬ bama— J. D. Williams, Arizona— J. O. Mullen, California — F. F. Martin, Colo¬ rado — W. B. Mooney, Connecticut — Helen T. Collins, Delaware — H. V. Holloway, District of Columbia — Edith Louise Grosvenor, Georgia — M. L. Duggan, Hawaii — Miss Carrie A. Thompson, Idaho — Raymond H. Snyder, Illinois — A. L. Whitten- berg, Indiana — Charles O. Williams, Iowa —Mary A. Lord, Kansas— M. E. Pear¬ son, Louisiana — P. H. Griffith, Maine— W. B. Jack, Maryland — William Burdick, Massachusetts — Annie C. Woodward, Michigan — Webster H. Pearce, Minnesota — 902 National Education Association H. L. If ahl strand, Missouri — Thomas J. IValker, Montana — R. J. Cunningham, Nebraska — Dwight E. Porter, New Hampshire— Robert J. Fuller, New Jersey— Alexander J. Glennie, New York — Frederick H. Law, North Carolina — T. Win¬ gate Andrews, Ohio R. E. Offenhauer, Oklahoma — M. E. Hurst, Oregon — Charles E. Lewis, Pennsylvania — J. Herbert Kelley, Rhode Island— Charles Carroll, South Carolina A. C. Flora, Texas — L. W . Rogers, Utah — A. M. Thurman, Vermont — Caroline S. If oodruff, Virginia — Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, West Virginia — Mrs. Zim¬ merman, Wisconsin — Blanche M. McCarthy. Of the Life Directors the following reported as present: Virginia — Cornelia S. Adair, Missouri— U el W. Lamkin, Massachusetts— Mary McSkimmon, Nebraska— E. Ruth Pyrtle, Georgia— Willis A. Sutton, Indiana— Henry Lester Smith, Maine— Florence Hale, Illinois — State Teachers’ Association of Illinois, Robert C. Moore. A motion was made by Mr. Sutton that persons holding proxies for the regular elected directors, and answering the roll call for their respective states, be substi¬ tuted for the elected directors. Motion duly seconded, put, and carried. The Chairman then stated that the first order of business would be to hear invitations from cities desiring to entertain the next convention. A motion was made by Mr. Carroll of Rhode Island that each city be limited to five minutes. The motion was duly seconded, put, and carried. The Secretary stated that the follow¬ ing places had expressed a desire to extend the invitation: Chicago, Detroit, Mil¬ waukee, and Cincinnati. The invitation for Chicago was extended by Mr. A. L. Whittenbei g. He called attention to what it would mean to Chicago to have the meeting and to what the Association would get from holding its convention in that city. The invitation for Cincinnati was extended by Mr. Sayres of Cincinnati, who represented Superintendent Roberts in extending the invitation. He presented letters and documents from the Board of Education and others. The invitation for Detroit was extended by Mr. Cody, representing the schools and the Chamber of Commerce. The invitation for Milwaukee was extended by Mr. Potter, superin¬ tendent of schools. An invitation to meet in Washington was extended by Miss Grosvenor, State Director for the District of Columbia. An invitation was extended from San Francisco by Mr. Gwinn, superintendent of schools, for the year 1935. After these very cordial invitations from the various cities, the President stated that the vote would be a preferential vote. The Executive Committee would inves¬ tigate conditions and have full authority to decide upon the place. He stated that it would be guided, so far as possible, by this preferential vote. Slips of paper were distributed and each director was asked to name the city of his preference. Mr. Williams of Indiana and Mrs. Joynes of Virginia were appointed as tellers. The Chairman stated that while waiting for the count of the vote for the location of the next convention, he would call for the report of the Budget Com¬ mittee. Mr. Rogers, the chairman, called attention to the report which had been adopted by the Representative Assembly and moved that those amounts be appro¬ priated by the Board of Directors, for carrying forward the Association’s business during the present year. His motion was seconded by Mrs. Zimmerman of West Virginia. After discussion, and after a number of questions had been answered the motion was put and unanimously carried. At this point, Mr. Williams announced the following as the vote on the location of the next convention: Chicago, twenty-four; Milwaukee, seventeen; Detroit, eleven. The President then stated that Chicago had the preferential vote of the directors for the next convention. He informed the Executive Committee to look into conditions and determine whether the convention could be held in Chicago. The next order of business being that of electing officers, Mrs. Joynes of Virginia received recognition to nominate Mr. Saunders for re-election as a member of the Board of Trustees. She called attention to his faithful service as a member of the Board and to his work during the past year as chairman of the Board. The directors Associational Records and Information 903 from West Virginia, Maine, and a few other states seconded the nomination. A motion was then made by Mr. Martin of California that the nomination be closed, seconded, and carried. This was followed by a motion made by Mr. Mooney of Colorado and seconded by directors from various states that the Secretary be instructed to cast the unanimous ballot of the Board of Directors for Mr. Saunders to succeed himself on the Board of Trustees. The motion was passed by unanimous vote and the Secretary stated: “The vote is hereby cast for Mr. Saunders’ re-election on the Board of Trustees.” Members called for a speech from Mr. Saunders. He responded with a few well-chosen remarks indicating his appreciation of the honor. On the announcement by the President that the next order of business would be to elect a member of the Executive Committee, Miss Grosvenor , of the District of Columbia nominated Superintendent Thomas IV. Gosling of Akron, Ohio, to succeed Dr. Rosier who had become President. The nomination was seconded by Mr. Sutton of Georgia and by other directors. A motion was then made by Mr. Mooney that nominations be closed and that the Secretary be instructed to cast the ballot of the Board of Directors for Superintendent Gosling. This motion was seconded by a num¬ ber of directors, voted upon, and unanimously carried. The Secretary thereupon formally cast the vote of the Board of Directors for Mr. Gosling. In answer to calls for a speech, Superintendent Gosling expressed appreciation for the honor and inter¬ est in the success of the Association. The President stated that it would be proper to hear from Mr. Lamkin who had announced previously that he desired to offer a resolution before members of the Budget Committee were elected. After explaining why changes in the procedure should be made, he moved that the Budget Committee be composed of five elected by the Board from among the elected directors and that they serve for a period of three years except that the five elected this year shall determine among themselves by lot one person to serve one year, two for two years, two for three years, and that they shall not be eligible to succeed themselves. He explained that if the motion passed, no one hereafter would serve for more than three years and while there would be previous service and experience in the Board all the time, there would be some new material coming into it each year. The motion was seconded by Mr. Duggan of Georgia and by Mr. Rogers of Texas. After remarks by Mr. Rogers, Mr. Gwinn, and others and after a number of questions had been answered by Mr. Lamkin, the ques¬ tion was called for and the motion was voted upon and carried by unanimous vote. Mr. Hurst of Oklahoma nominated Mr. L. W. Rogers of Texas. Mr. Carroll of Rhode Island seconded the nomination. Mr. Sutton of Georgia nominated Mr. Carroll of Rhode Island. Nomination seconded. Mr. Andrews nominated Mr. Mooney of Colorado. The nomination was seconded. Mr. Jack of Maine nominated Mr. Kelley of Pennsylvania. The nomination was seconded. Mr. Offenhauer of Ohio nominated Mr. Whittenherg of Illinois. The nomination was seconded. Mr. Kelley asked the privilege of withdrawing his name which was granted by the President. He then nominated Miss Caroline Woodruff of Vermont. Miss Woodruff declined and nominated Miss Pyrtle. Miss Pyrtle declined because she was not an elected member of the Board. Mr. Carroll then nominated Miss W oodward of Massa¬ chusetts. Mr. Whittenberg seconded the nomination. The President said that five members had been nominated and asked the pleasure of the Board of Directors. Mr. Walker of Missouri moved that the nominations be closed and that the Secretary cast the vote of the Board for the five persons named. The motion was seconded, voted upon, and carried. The Secretary then announced formally that the ballot of the Board had been cast for the following, to constitute the Budget Committee for the year 1932-33 : Mr. Rogers, Mr. Carroll, Mr. Mooney, Mr. Whittenberg, and Miss Woodward. Mr. Andrews asked whether it would be possible for the Budget Committee to provide directors with information concerning the budget before the opening of the convention so that members would have time to give thought to various items. Mr. 904 National Education Association Mooney expressed the belief that the request could be complied with. The Secretary indicated that since the Board of Directors had arranged for closing the books of the Association on May 15, that information could be ready two weeks earlier than usual. Mr. Carroll of Rhode Island called attention to the information which the Secretary had provided for the Board of Directors and said that he thought it would be well for copies of this information to be sent to directors even after the meeting adjourned. Mr. Rogers, chairman of the Budget Committee, explained the method of preparing the budget and the kinds of information which were obtained from the central office and from other sources. He thought it would be entirely possible hereafter to provide advance information. It was stated that heretofore the auditors completed their report only a day or two before the convention opened, making it impossible to give out information which will be available hereafter. A number of members took part in a general discussion of the question which had been raised. Among those who made constructive suggestions were Mr. Andrews, Mr. Cunningham, Mr. Gwinn, Mr. Rogers, Mr. Flora, Mr. Carroll, Mrs. Zimmerman, Mr. IV kite, Miss Adau , and Mr. Whittenberg. The discussion was on a friendly and constructive basis and was of interest and value to all who attended the meeting. The President, Dr. Rosier, then spoke on the question of not only keeping the directors more fully informed than in the past but of adding to their responsibility. He felt that more and more the Association ought to look to the state director as the spokesman for matters within the state. He indicated briefly a number of points on which he felt that directors could be of help to him and to the Association during the year ahead. His speech was greatly appreciated in that it outlined the policy and plans of the President for 1932-33. A motion was then made by Mr. W hittenher g to accept the resignations of those who had been serving as proxies for directors and to reinstate the regularly elected directors. The motion was seconded and carried. There being no further business to come before the Board, the meeting adjourned. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Joseph Rosier, President MINUTES OF THE MEETINGS OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE Washington, D. C. Sunday Forenoon, February 21, 1932 A meeting of the Executive Committee was held at the headquarters building. The meeting had been announced in the convention program. The following were present: Florence Hale, President; Joseph H. Saunders; H. L. Smith; and Joseph Rosier. Willis A. Sutton wired that he had been detained in Atlanta and would not be able to attend the meeting. Edgar G. Doudna and J. M. Gwinn of the Board of Trustees were present on invitation. Dr. Gwinn remained for only a part of the meeting. The Chairman, Miss Hale, called the meeting to order at 10 oclock. She called upon Mr. Lewis and Mr. Law, officers of the new Department of Secondary Education, who were present, to submit the constitution and bylaws of the Department for approval. After they had presented the constitution and bylaws in form for approval, they called attention to the financial needs of the Department. They stated that they ought to have at least $500 for a membership drive. After discussion, a motion was made by Mr . Smith to accept the constitution and bylaws as presented with the modifica¬ tions suggested. Seconded by Mr. Saunders. Carried. A motion was then made by Mr. Smith to appropriate $500 from the emergency fund for the use of the new Department. Seconded by Mr. Rosier. Carried. Associational Records and Information 905 After hearing Mr. Marsh, president of the Department of Adult Education, on the emergency needs of the Department, a motion was duly passed appropriating $500 from the emergency fund for this Department. A motion was passed to appropriate $500 from the emergency fund to apply on membership in the World Federation of Education Associations and in the United States Chamber of Commerce; to appropriate from the emergency fund for the use of the Board of Trustees, and for the use of the Executive Committee, to prevent an overdraft on the appropriations for these boards. The following letter from Dr. S. P. Duggan of Columbia University was read: January 30, 1932. My dear Mr. Crabtree: I am writing to you because I know you personally, but I am asking you to bring the enclosure to the attention of the Executive Committee. I spent five months in South America, addressing universities, schools, and teachers organizations in the various countries. I was everywhere received with the greatest enthusiasm, and our ambassadors and ministers assured me that the visit resulted in a great deal of friendlier feeling towards the United States. If your Executive Committee will send a reply to the enclosure to me, I will forward it to the proper organization in Brazil. Sincerely yours, (Signed) S. P. Duggan. The following is a translation of the greetings mentioned by Dr. Duggan: To The Primary School Teachers of the United States of North America The National Federation of Societies of Education, comprising twenty-two associations thruout Brazil, together with the Teacher League of Rio de Janeiro, request the eminent educator, Dr. Stephen P. Duggan, to be the bearer of a mes¬ sage of admiration and fraternity which the primary school teachers of Brazil send to their colleagues in the United States of North America. They wish to offer their cordial and strong cooperation toward human fraternity, convinced that upon the work of the teachers in the primary schools depends the formation of the soul of the child and the feeling of sympathy which will bring about uni¬ versal peace. Brazil, October 15th, 1931. (Signed) Jose Augusto Bezarro de Medeiros, President of the National Federation of Societies of Education. (Signed) Floripes Anglade Lucas, President of the Teachers League. A motion was then passed, by a unanimous vote, that the Secretary be authorized to send the following message to Brazil, over the signature of the members of the committee : The National Education Association of the United States, consisting of 220,000 teachers, representing every phase of the teaching profession, desires to express its gratitude for the message recently received from the teachers of Brazil signed by Jose Augusto Bezarro de Medeiros, President of the National Federation of Societies of Education, and Floripes Anglade Lucas, President of the Teachers League, and borne by Dr. Stephen P. Duggan. The teachers of the United States wish to convey to the teachers of Brazil the abiding faith they hold in the school as the best agency for the development of the ideals of brotherhood and interna¬ tional goodwill. Executive Committee. 906 National Education Association The Sea ctary piesented Mrs. Helen T. Hixson’s request that she be permitted to retire from her position as Director of the Division of Accounts as of February 15, in order to give her entire time over to the care of an aged mother. He recom¬ mended that her request be granted and that arrangements be made to pay her the monthly retirement allowance as provided in the retirement plans. A motion was passed, by a unanimous vote, to accept the request and to authorize the payment of the allowance of fifty dollars a month. After a discussion of Mrs. Hixson’s long and efficient services, a motion was passed authorizing the President of the Association to express to her the appreciation of the committee and of the Association for her twenty-four years of efficient service. This motion was made by Mr. Saunders , seconded by Mr. Rosier, and carried by a unanimous vote. The Secretary explained that he had appointed Miss Mary J. IVinfree to the position temporarily and that he now recommended her election to the directorship of the Division of Accounts at a salary of $4,000 a year. He explained that she was vicepresident of the Commercial National Bank and rated as one of the leading bank officials in the city. A motion was then made by Mr. Rosier to elect Miss IVinfree to this position at a salary of $4,000 a year, her services to begin as of February 15. Seconded by Mr. Smith. Carried. It was explained that Mrs. Bertha Robbins had reached the retirement age of sixty-five but that she desired to continue longer in the services of the Association. It was decided that action on the part of the Executive Committee would be neces¬ sary. A motion was, therefore, made by Mr. Smith to permit her to remain next year at her present salary, with the understanding that this action is not to be con¬ sidered as a precedent. Seconded by Mr. Rosier. Carried. The Secretary called attention to the plans in operation in each division for prac¬ tising economies in various ways. He presented copies of suggestions made by di¬ rectors and by other staff members on savings. A motion was made by Mr. Smith to express appreciation to the members of the staff for their conscientious efforts to share with officials the responsibility of making savings at the present time. Seconded by Mr. Rosier. Carried. Following a suggestion, made by the Chairman, a motion was made by Mr. Smith that the staff members present expense accounts each month and that no account for the current year should be considered during the following year, unless recommended by the retiring president. Seconded by Mr. Rosier. Carried. A motion was made by Mr. Rosier, and seconded by Mr. Saunders , to authorize the Secretary to arrange to pay the bill of $1,000 for the Council on Education out of the funds as appropriated. Carried. It was moved by Mr. Rosier and seconded by Mr. Smith that “The Executive Com¬ mittee of the National Education Association hereby extends to Miss Mary Mc- Skimmon its heartiest appreciation for her personal gift to the Association of a set of the original annual reports of Horace Mann. These reports constitute a priceless addition to the Association’s collections and are a timely help in preparing for the Horace Mann Centennial in 1937. They are doubly valued as coming from Miss McSkimmon whose outstanding service as president of the Association in 1926 made a large contribution to the Association’s growth and leadership.” Carried. All mem¬ bers of the Executive Committee and Board of Trustees signed the resolution of appreciation for Miss McSkimmon. There being no further business before the committee, a motion was duly made to adjourn until Monday forenoon, February 22, at 11:00 oclock. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Florence Hale, President Monday Forenoon, February 22, 1932 The meeting of the Executive Committee was called to order at 11 oclock in the president’s room of the headquarters building with the following answering to roll Associational Records and Information 907 call: Miss Hale, President; Mr. Saunders, Mr. Rosier, Mr. Smith. Mr. Sutton was absent. All members of the Board of Trustees were present on invitation. The following statement was presented by Mr. Allan: February 17, 1932. Dear Mr. Crabtree: Following are comparative proposals for printing, binding, mailing, and de¬ livery of the Volume of Proceedings for 1932: Judd and Detweiler, Inc . $7089.97 Lord Baltimore Press . 7109.44 National Capitol Press . 8023.30 Waverly Press . . . 9214.59 National Publishing Company . no return of proposal I recommend the selection of Judd and Detweiler, Inc., for the above work. This recommendation is made, not only on account of low price, but because of consistent promptness and efficiency of service. Type will be held standing for as long a period as we may require. If paper costs at the time of press work are lower than they are today, the advantage of the lower cost will be given to us. (Signed) H. A. Allan, Business Manager. After discussion, a motion was made by Mr. Rosier and seconded by Mr. Saun¬ ders that the Secretary be authorized to enter into contract with Judd and Detweiler, Inc., to print the annual Volume of Proceedings. Carried. At this point, Mr. Smith stated that he had been requested by Mr. Robinson, of the Department of Rural Education, to present again the request of the Department for a rural school interpreter to be added to the headquarters staff. He stated that the committee had previously passed a motion approving of the recommendation as the next addition to the staff. He did not, himself, feel that the addition could be made at this time. The question was discussed by members of both the Executive Committee and the Board of Trustees. It was agreed that the Secretary should explain to Mr. Robinson that the committee still felt that the rural interpreter should be the next addition to the staff, but that this action could not be taken at this time. He was instructed to express the appreciation of the committee to Mr. Robinson. Miss fVofford raised the question as to whether an appropriation should not be made for the rural department as had been made for other departments. It was the general feeling that the needs of the Department should be presented to the Budget Committee. A motion was made by Mr. Saunders and seconded by Mr. Smith, authorizing the Secretary to reduce the size of the Volume of Proceedings to one thousand pages if he considers that the emergency makes it necessary. Carried. A motion was duly passed, authorizing the number of the pages in The Journal to be reduced, in proportion to the loss of advertising, to not less than forty-eight pages. It was the sense of the Committee that the Research Bulletins, and all other pub¬ lications of the Association, be reduced in size, owing to reduced income. It was also agreed that no special bulletins be printed at present, except those considered as emergency publications. A list of the names on the permanent roll showing salaries was presented. The Secretary called attention to the appointment of Miss Sykes and Mrs. Heintcl to fill vacancies in his own division. He raised the question of scheduled increases. A motion was then duly passed to postpone action on the scheduled increases in salaries for members of the staff until the next meeting of the Executive Committee. The Secretary explained the loss of income from advertising and the difficulty in holding income from memberships, up to last year’s record. He believed the income 908 National Education Association for the year would not be far below the expenditures and predicted that next year’s record would be better. He reported that recent months have been better than the earlier months of the year. He believed it would be safe and highly desirable to ask the Budget Committee to consider allowing the same budget for next year as was allowed for this year. A motion was made by Mr. Smith and seconded by Mr. Saunders that Mr. Rosier be appointed to represent the Executive Committee at the meeting of the Budget Committee. Carried. The motion was passed, after the Secretary explained that the Budget Committee often asked for information concerning the plans of the Executive Committee. A motion was then made to adjourn, to meet on call of the chairman. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Florence Hale, President Atlantic City, New Jersey Friday Afternoon, July 1, 1932 The Executive Committee met as scheduled in the program in the Manager’s Office in the Auditorium at 3:45 oclock. There were present Joseph Rosier, Presi¬ dent, Florence Hale, Henry Lester Smith, Joseph H. Saunders, and J. IV. Crabtree, Secretary. Mr. Gosling, the new member, was absent not having known of the meeting. Miss IV offord, Mr. Gwinn, and Mr. Doudna were present on invitation. Attention was given to the location for the next annual meeting. The Board of Directors having given a preference vote for Chicago, Mr. Whittenberg was called upon to speak for Chicago. He thought the city would be able to comply with all requirements. Mr. Allan was not at all certain that either a suitable meeting hall or adequate exhibit space could be found. A motion was then made by Mr. Saunders and seconded by Mr. Smith to authorize the President and Mr. Allan to visit Chicago and investigate conditions and report back to the committee. Carried. After discussing the question of date for the next annual meeting, a motion was made by Mr. Saunders and seconded by Mr. Smith to hold the meeting the last week in June. Carried. It was explained the budget committee had recommended to the Board of Directors that the Executive Committee be authorized to go over the classification and salary schedule of the headquarters staff and to make a report thereon. The Board of Di¬ rectors had adopted the recommendation. The present schedule was made five years ago. The Budget Committee had no advice to give. It believes the present plan a good one. It only had in mind that every four or five years adjustments should be made as changes in conditions might make advisable. After discussion a motion was made by Mr. Smith and seconded by Mr. Saunders, to appoint the President and Secretary a special committee to give careful attention to the matter and to report a plan of procedure back to the committee. Carried. The additions to the permanent roll made before the February meeting including the names of Miss Sangster, Mrs. Heintel, and Miss Sykes, were included in the official list on the permanent roll, but on the advice of the budget committee no new names were added. It was also decided not to make promotions or changes in classification at this time, although a few urgent requests had been presented. An uptodate salary schedule was handed to each member of the Committee. After discussing the rural school situation and the needs of the rural department, a motion was made by Mr. Saunders and seconded by Mr. Smith to appropriate out of the contingent fund $500 for the use of the Department of Rural Education during the year 1932-33. Carried. Journal policies were discussed. There was a desire that the Secretary and the Editor give special attention to the question of improving the Journal as the official Associational Records and Information 909 organ of the Association. The committee received the assurance of the Secretary that an effort would be made to carry out the wishes of the committee. He asked for definite suggestions from members of the committee. There being no further business a motion to adjourn was made and carried. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Joseph Rosier, President Saturday Morning, June 25, 1932 A meeting of the Executive Committee was held in the President’s Suite Am¬ bassador Hotel, at 9:30 oclock, Miss Hale the President, presiding. The following answered to roll call: Florence Hale , Willis A . Sutton, Joseph Rosier, Henry L Smith, Joseph H. Saunders, and J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. Miss Kate V. Wofford and Edgar G. Doudna of the Board of Trustees were present on invitation. The minutes of the February meeting were presented and adopted. The Secretary explained the items in the estimated budget for 1932-33 as submitted to the Budget Committee by the headquarters staff. He called attention to the saving of $20,000 made in the budget of last year. The following is the statement to the budget com- "^On the theory that the income for next year will not be much above that of this year, the budget requests are below the appropriations for last year and also below the expenditures for 1931-32. $572,585 = appropriation for 1931-32 $552,110.37 = expenditures for 1931-32 $558,319.14 = income for 1931-32 The income of the last half of 1931-32 showed up better as compared with last year than that for the first half. This adds to our hope for better returns in ^We^ promised last year to curtail in expenditures in case the income should be less than anticipated. A saving of $20,970.26 was effected to br'"g «Pe^es down to the actual income. This may encourage the committee to base the budget on a reasonable estimate such as we have made, and to trust the Pres, den, and Secretary to make adjustments should there be a ■'eduction in >“»”*• ^ We count on sufficient income for the program as budge . worse economic situation arise and should the income in October and Nowunbe show a decrease as compared with last year, we can meet it as was done in 1931-32 We propose that the President and Secretary be authorized to reduce budgets in proportion to decreased income. In case a reduction in the salary bud i:i becomes necessary, the members of the staff work two weeks and more if necessary without pay. This will be the same as the furlough plan except the staff members will work instead of taking *1™* f . We hope it may not be necessary to give this or any other type o ur ug we wish you to know that the spirit of the staff rings true as in every other test of loyalty and unselfish devotion. . vear’s In the discussion which followed satisfaction was expres , h record and with the proposals made by the Secretary. A motion ' *° L^/i and Jo' offering to work without pay in an emergency was made by Mr. South SeAnmln mallow 2 “Increments for staff members as usual was made by discussion 3 state, the N. E. A. to pay the salary and the state to bear all expense,. 910 National Education Association Owing to decreased income, the National Congress of Parents and Teachers requested a decrease m rental charges for space leased in the headquarters building A mouon was passed leaving the matter in the hands of the President, the Chairman of the Board of Trustees, and the Secretary with power to act. There being no further business, a motion was made to adjourn by Mr Rosier and seconded by Mr. Sutton. Carried. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Florence Hale, President MINUTES OF THE MEETINGS OF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES Washington, D. C. Monday Morning, February 22, 1932 A meeting of the Board of Trustees of the National Education Association was ® , V/ ^ Administration Building. Present were Joseph H. Saunders, Chairman, n Secretary, Florence Hale, President, Joseph M. Gwinn, and Edgar G Doudna. Mr. Smith, Mr. Crabtree and Mr. Rosier were present on invitation. 1 he meeting was called to order at ten oclock. The minutes of the Los Angeles meeting were read and approved. The chairman then read a report of the Building Committee of the Board which was held in Washington on July 28, 1931. The report was approved. The chairman also reported the plans for an informal dedicatory service of the new building to be held during the week. The board approved the plans as out-, ined as it did also, the invitation of the chairman to IV. R. Siders, former chairman ot the Board, to be present and take part in the dedication. The chairman then presented the following report: Financial Statement Cost of new building . $330,410.61 Cost of all land and old building . 215,075.40 Total cost of building and site . $545 486.01 Equipment . 47,417 32 . , $592,903.33 Amount due on building . $206,000.00 Less cash and securities on hand . 146,041.61 Net debt . $59,958.39 Net assets . $532,944.94 The chairman reported that the securities of the Association were in high class municipal preferred bonds and industrial, and that the Association’s trust officer had given as his opinion that the Association had 100 percent value in the securities. The Board approved the payment of a ten thousand dollar note, falling due on March 5. In the matter of leases the chairman gave the following information: Leases N.E.A . $43,000.00 National Congress P.T.A . $6,880.00 Association Childhood Education . 600.00 P.T.A. District of Columbia . 516.00 National Committee on Education by Radio. . 1,414.00 $9,410 00 $33,590.00 Associational Records and Information 911 The chairman asked for the approval of the Board on the insurance carried on building as follows: Old . $62,500.00 80 percent $50,000.00 New . 312,500.00 80 percent 250,000.00 $375,000.00 $300,000.00 Upon the motion of Mr. Guinn the approval was given. The question of the settlement of the bill for tables for the new building was then taken up and the matter was referred to the chairman for settlement. The chairman then asked for the approval of the investment of five thousand dollars for the Educational Research Fund, and one thousand dollars for the De¬ partment of Elementary School Principals’ Fund in municipal bonds, yielding 5/4 due in 1950. Upon the motion of Mr. Guinn and seconded by Miss IV offord the Board’s approval was given. After a discussion it was decided to change the furniture account from real estate investment into general equipment account. The question of possible protection for the current funds of the Association was thoroughly discussed. It was then moved by Mr. Doudna, seconded by Mr. Guinn that the chairman of the Board of Trustees and the Secretary take such steps as they deem necessary to protect the current funds of the Association. Joseph H. Saunders, Chairman Kate V. Wofford, Secretary Atlantic City, New Jersey Saturday Morning, June 25, 1932 A meeting of the Board of Trustees of the National Education Association was held in the president’s suite of the Ambassador Hotel at 9 oclock a.m. There were present: Edgar G. Doudna, Joseph H. Saunders , Kate V. IVofford, Florence Hale, Henry Lester Smith, and J. IV. Crabtree. The meeting was called to order by Chairman Saunders. The first matter of business was the announcement of the chairman of the transfer of fifty thousand dollars from the Commercial Bank to the Metropolitan Bank according to authorization of the Board of Trustees. The chairman also announced that trouble had developed in the basement of the headquarters building. The contractor had sought to escape responsibility but after his bondsman had been notified, the contractor had sought to remedy the leaks. Leaks had been stopped outside boiler. There being no further business the Board of Trustees was adjourned. Joseph H. Saunders, Chairman Kate V. Wofford, Secretary Friday Afternoon, July 1, 1932 A meeting of the new board of Trustees was called to order by Joseph H. Saunders at 3 :30 p.m. in the Visiting Manager’s Office in the Auditorium. Present were: Joseph H. Saunders , Kate V . IV off ord, Joseph Rosier, J. IV . Crabtree, Edgar G. Doudna, J. M. Guinn. The Board was organized and the following officers elected: Joseph H. Saunders, Chairman; and Kate V. IVofford, Secretary. It was then reported by the chairman that the old oil burners transferred from the old to the new basement in headquarters building were proving unsatisfactory. After a discussion of the matter, and the bids on hand to replace the boiler, it was moved by Mr. Doudna and seconded by Mr. Guinn that the bid be awarded to Arthur H. Ballard, Inc., at $1170. There being no further business the meeting adjourned sine die. Joseph H. Saunders, Chairman Kate V. Wofford, Secretary 912 National Education Association REPORT OF AUDITORS PEAT, MARWICK, MITCHELL & CO. Accountants and Auditors Metropolitan Bank Building: Washington, D. C. June 23, 1932. Miss Florence Hale, President National Education Association of the United States 1201 Sixteenth .Street, N. W. Washington, D. C. Dear Madam: In accordance with instructions received, we have examined the accounts of the National Education Association of the United States for the year ended May 31, 1932, and now submit our report thereon. SECRETARY’S OFFICE Our work embraced an examination of the accounts relating to the assets and liabilities of the Association as at May 31, 1932, and a review of the inconie and expenses for the year then ended. In that connection and in order to satisfy aurselves regarding^ the general accuracy of the accounts, we made a series of tests relating to cash receipts and disbursements, and other matters ,of detail. Income and Expenses The excess of income over expenses before deducting Interest on Mortgage and Depreciation on Building, for the year ended May 31, 1932, was $3,129.83. After deducting Interest on Mortgage of $8,000.55 and Depreciation on Building of $8,000.00, there was a deficit from operations for the year of' $12,870.72. The following is a condensed comparative statement of the income and expenses for the two years ended May 31, 1932, and 1931: Condensed Comparative Statement of Income and Expenses 1 Income : Memberships from Secretary’s Office . N. E. A. Journal — Subscriptions and Ad¬ vertising, etc . . . Sales of Proceedings . Sales of Special Reports . Commercial Exhibits . Research Bulletins . Honorariums . . Rentals . Interest and Discount Earned . Cash Sales — Reports, Pamphlets, etc . American Education Week Material Sales. Interest on Bonds — Permanent Fund . Interest on Deposits — Permanent Fund.... Rent — Permanent Fund . Sundry Income . Year ended May 31 Increase 1932 1931 Decrease $191,898.63 $193,981.04 $2,082.41 239,964.69 267,427.75 27,463.05 429.31 609.80 180.49 5,845.46 8,329.53 2,484.07 46,110.00 26,924.04 19,185.96 7,705.84 8,317.65 611.81 2,447.59 2,547.64 100.05 8,725.90 2,927.57 5,798.33 3,375.24 2,901.12 474.12 1,816.02 1,963.44 147.42 1,992.62 950.60 1,042.02 4,883.25 6,684.04 1,800.79 193.89 135.30 58.59 43,000.00 12,250.00 30,750.00 301.02 143.26 157.76 $558,689.46 $536,092.78 $22,596.68 1 Complete details for income and expenditures will appear in the Manual for the Chicago meeting in 1933. Associational Records and Information 913 P ynpnsp^ * Board of Trustees . 941.47 1,096.60 Board of Directors . 14,234.68 8,750.58 Executive Committee . 3,916.03 5,817.22 General Secretary’s Office . 27,898.03 27,407.14 General Headquarters’ Expenses . 71,660.62 37,510.44 Division of Accounts . 8,422.27 8,446.29 Division of Business . . . 19,086.43 18,637.91 Division of Records and Membership . 72,395.50 72,978.35 Insurance — Permanent Fund . 250.07 382.49 Trustees’ Commission — Permanent Fund.. 471.91 424.76 Other Charges — Permanent Fund . . 276.97 Bad Debts Written Off and Reserved For.. 2,353.23 695.91 Provision for Protested Checks . 1,200.00 . Institutional Expenses: Annual Conventions . 8,437.07 6,518.04 Operation of Exhiibts . 23,902.81 . Printing and Distribution . 127,410.00 132,373.73 Special Appropriations . 33,938.72 37,831.80 Division of Legislation . 16,686.17 15,950.42 Division of Publications . 44,613.65 43,306.66 Division of Research . 60,251.27 59,117.58 Division of Classroom Service . 8,236.80 8,137.76 Division of Administrative Service . 9,252.90 9,001.03 $555,559.63 $494,661.68 Net Income before Deducting Interest on Mortgage and Depreciation on Building - $3,129.83 $41,431.10 Deduct: Interest on Mortgage . $8,000.55 Depreciation on Building . $8,000.00 16,000.55 . Difference between Income and Expenses $12,870.72 $41,431.10 Assets and Liabilities as at May 31, 1932 Cash: Assets Secretary’s Fund . . $30,000.00 Less Expenditures Not Reimbursed . 14,110.65 Balance in Bank . $15,849.35 On Hand . 40-00 Regular Account — in Bank Savings Account . $14,492.87 54,093.00 Amount Due from Trust Officer, Permanent Fund Accounts Receivable . Less Reserve for Doubtful Accounts . $13,191.40 2,500.00 Time Checks Receivable and Protested Checks . Less Reserve . Stationery, Supplies, Stamped Envelopes, etc . Old Volumes of Proceedings and Other Publications $3,476.43 1,200.00 155.13 5,484.10 1,901.19 490.89 34,150.18 24.02 448.52 582.85 132.42 47.15 276.97 1,657.32 1,200.00 1,919.03 23,902.81 4,963.73 3,893.08 735.75 1,306.99 1,133.69 99.04 251.87 $60,897.95 $38,301.27 16,000.55 $54,301.82 $15,889.35 68,585.87 $84,475.22 31,663.19 10,691.40 2,276.43 1,644.64 500.00 914 National Education Association Assets of Permanent Funds: General : Cash in Bank . $1 1 670 80 Notes Receivable — Life Members. . . . Securities (Book Value) . Real Estate and Buildings (Subject to Mortgage Loan, per contra) . Less Reserve for Depreciation . $590,587.96 8,000.00 218,784.00 110,683.18 582,587.96 Total . $923,735.03 5,845.70 Elementary School Principals: Cash in Bank . Securities (Book Value) . $845.70 5,000.00 Department of Superintendence: Cash in Bank . Securities (Book Value) . $586.36 13,481.03 14,067.39 943,648.12 Office Furniture, Fixtures and Equipment. . . Less Reserve for Depreciation . $46,393.09 19,603.41 26,789.68 $1,101,688.68 Liabilities Accounts Payable . $32,046.43 24,412.85 Due to Associated Departments . Permanent Funds: Mortgage Loan (Secured by Real Estate as due March 5, 1933 . per contra) $180,000.00 Fund Accounts: General Fund . Elementary School Principals’ Fund.... Department of Superintendence — Edu¬ cational Research Fund . $743,735.03 5,845.70 14,067.39 76 3,648.12 943,648.12 Surplus . 101,581.28 $1,101,688.68 The Reserve for Doubtful Accounts has been increased from $1,000 to $2,500. From our examination of the accounts and our classification according to age and condi¬ tion, supplemented by information from the business manager, we are of opinion that this reserve is adequate. A reserve of $1,200 has been provided for possible losses on protested checks, being approximately 50 percent of the amount of such checks. We are not in a position to express an opinion as to the adequacy of this reserve. The amounts due to associated departments are as follows: Department of Superintendence . $16,113.36 Department of Elementary School Principals . 2,323.22 Department of Adult Education . 601.69 Department of Lip Reading . 141.16 Department of Secondary School Principals . 32.00 Department of Supervisors and Teachers of Home Eco¬ nomics . . . 298.20 Department of American Educational Research . 4,610.04 Department of Rural Education . 293.18 $24,412.85 Associational Records and Information 915 BOARD OF TRUSTEES Permanent Funds The following is a comparative summary of the assets and liabilities of the Perma¬ nent Funds as at May 31, 1932 and 1931: Comparative Statement of Assets and Liabilities of Permanent Funds Assets As at May 31, 1932 Cash — General . $11,679.89 Cash — Elementary School Principals . 845.70 Cash — Department of Superintendence — Educational Research Fund . 586.36 Notes Receivable — Life Members . 218,784.00 Securities — General . 110,683.18 Securities — Elementary School Principals’ Fund . 5,000.00 Securities — Educational Research Fund. . . . 13,481.03 Real Estate and Building — Less Reserve for Depreciation . 582,587.96 $943,648.12 Liabilities Mortgage Loan — Penn Mutual Insurance Company . $180,000.00 Accrued Interest on Mortgage Loan . 180,000.00 Net Assets . $763,648.12 1931 $16,834.68 5,384.60 791.06 207,463.50 111,790.68 9,479.26 499,773.75 $851,517.53 $134,000.00 1,705.01 135,705.01 $715,812.52 Increase Decrease $5,154.79 4,538.90 204.70 11,320.50 1,107.80 5,000.00 4,001.77 82,814.21 $92,130.59 $46,000.00 1,705.01 44,294.99 $47,835.60 The principal changes in the Permanent Funds during the year were a decrease in the cash of $9,898.39 and an increase in the securities of $7,894.27, an increase in the Notes Receivable — Life Members of $11,320.50, an increase in the Real Estate and Building, less Reserve for Depreciation, of $82,814.21 and an increase in the Mortgage Loan of $46,000.00. In our examination of the Notes Receivable — Life Members we found that notes amounting to over $18,000.00 are in arrears and that an unascertainable amount of other notes, the payment on which had become past due, had been extended. It should be borne in mind in this connection that these notes are not legally enforceable contracts but simply moral obligations. A list of the securities of the Permanent Funds will be found in Schedule “1”. The following is a statement of the changes in the securities during the year: Securities as at May 31, 1931 Par Value Book Value $121,650.00 $121,269.94 Matured during the Year: General : Clearwater, Kansas, Water Works 5% Bonds, due 1931 $2,000.00 $2,000.00 Educational Research Fund: City of New Orleans 4^4% Bonds Due 1931 . 1,000.00 998.23 $3,000.00 $2,998.23 916 National Education Association Purchased during the Year: General : City of Newport News Street Improvement and Sewer¬ age 4 y2% Bonds Due 1948 . Educational Research Fund: City of Newport News Street Improvement and Sewer¬ age 5^% Bonds Due 1950 . Elementary School Principals’ Fund: City of Newport News Street Improvement and Sewer¬ age 5 1/2% Bonds Due 1950 . Securities as at May 31, 1932 $1,000.00 $892.50 5,000.00 5,000.00 5,000.00 5,000.00 $11,000.00 $10,892.50 $129,650.00 $129,164.21 The asset, Real Estate and Buildings, comprises the following ledger accounts: Real Estate . New Administration Building Real Estate Improvements... $153,000.00 412,958.90 24,629.06 $590,587.96 Included in the cost of New Administration Building are furniture and fixtures amounting to approximately $20,000.00. While it may be that a portion of the fixtures is properly included in the cost of the building, all furniture and movable fixtures should be transferred from the Permanent Fund to Office Furniture and Fixtures and depreciated at the rate applicable to that class of asset. The item, Real Estate Im¬ provement, $24,629.06, represents improvements to buildings, subsequently torn down, which were on the land on which the new addition to the building was erected. The cost of the old buildings, including the old building now used and those subsequently torn down, and the land on which these buildings stood, is included in the item of R™\ E^ate> $153,000.00. No provision has ever been made for depreciation on the old building. This year, for the first time, depreciation on building of $8,000.00 has been reserved for, being 2 percent on an estimated cost of $400,000.00. As the cost of the new building includes expenditures for fixtures, such as heating plant, elevators plumbing and plumbing fixtures, electrical wiring and fixtures, etc., which have a muc shorter life than 50 years, and as the depreciation is based on an estimated amount that presumably does not include the older portion of the building, the de¬ preciation charge would appear to be somewhat inadequate. We recommend that a segregation of the total book value of land and building be made by means of an analysis of the accounts, supplemented by an appraisal of the value of the land and if a composite rate of depreciation must be used, that a rate be adopted that will as nearly as can be estimated, extinguish the cost of the building at the end of its useful life and provide for any replacements that may be necessary in the meantime. A special fund should also be set aside which should at all times equal the depreciation reserve It should be borne in mind that if adequate depreciation is not provided, the effect will be to pay over to the Association a portion of the principal of the Perma¬ nent Fund. , T uC *°,lowing 1S a summary of the income and expenses of the Permanent Fund for the Year : Income : Interest on Deposits . Interest on Bonds . Rent Charged to General Headquarters $193.89 4,883.25 43,000.00 $48,077.14 Associational Records and Information 917 Expenses: Insurance . Trust Officer’s Commission Interest on Mortgage . Depreciation on Building. Net Income for Year . Add: Amount Owing by Trust Officer, Permanent Fund for Account of Department of Elementary School Principals . Amount Due from Trust Officer, Permanent Fund . $250.07 471.91 8,000.55 8,000.00 16,722.53 $31,354.61 308.58 $31,663.19 The following is a statement of the Surplus Account for the year ended May 31, 1932: Surplus as at May 31, 1931 . Add Adjustment of Inventory of Stamped Envelopes and Cards Pertain¬ ing to Prior Years . Deduct Deficit for Year Ended May 31, 1932, as per Income and Expense Statement . Surplus as at May 31, 1932 . SCHEDULE “1” Securities on Hand As at May 31, 1932 Value $113,698.79 753.21 $114,452.00 12,870.72 $101,581.28 General Fund : Municipal Bonds: City of Clearwater, Kansas, Public Utilities 5%, Due August 1, 1932 . City of Monessen, Pa., 4j4%, Due August 1, 1951 . State of Arkansas Toll Bridge 5%, Due September 1, 1950 . State of Arkansas Toll Bridge 5%, Due September 1, 1944 . County of Columbus, N. C., 5%, Due July 1, 1954 . City of Aiken, S. C., 4 %, Due February 1, 1939 . City of Newport News 4j4%. Due 1948 . Railroad Bonds: St. Louis, San Francisco R. R. Co. Prior Lien, 4% . Atlantic Coast Line R. R. Co. 1st Cons. Mtge. 4%, Due July 1, 1952 . Manhattan Railway Co. Cons. Mtge. 4%, Due April 1, 1990 . Baltimore & Ohio R. R. Co. (Pittsburgh, Lake Erie & W. Va. System) Ref. Mtge. 4%, Due November 1, 1941 . Chicago, Indiana & Southern Ry. Co. 4%, Due January 1, 1956 . Terminal Railroad Association of St. Louis Gen. Mtge. 4%, Due January 1, 1953 . Total General Fund . . Par Book $3,000.00 5,000.00 $3,000.00 5,206.39 5,000.00 5,166.51 23,000.00 5,000.00 5,000.00 1,000.00 23,558.90 5,470.75 5,064.38 892.50 5,250.00 4,331.25 10,000.00 9,600.00 4,000.00 3,900.00 20,000.00 19,942.50 10,000.00 9,500.00 15,000.00 15,050.00 $111,250.00 $110,683.18 918 National Education Association Department of Superintendence — Educational Research Fund : U. S. Fourth Liberty Loan, Due 1933-38 . $400.00 $419.69 South Carolina Highway Certificate of Indebtedness 4^%, Due December 1, 1946 . 2,000.00 2,077.28 City of New Orleans 4J4%, Due October 1, 1931 . 6,000.00 5,984.06 Newport News City Street Improvement and Sewerage Cons. 5J4%, Due December 1, 1960 . 5,000.00 5,000.00 Total Educational Research Fund . $13,400.00 $13,481.03 Elementary School Principals’ Fund: Newport News City, Street Improvement and Sewer¬ age Cons. Sy2%, Due December 1, 1950 . $5,000.00 $5,000.00 $129,650.00 $129,164.21 Fire insurance is carried in the amount of $250,000.00 on the new building and in f. C, I1.!™1!"1 of $50>000-00 on the old building. Workmen’s compensation and elevator bonded mSUranCe are als° Carried and the responsible officials of the Association are Yours truly, Peat, Marwick, Mitchell & Co. Report of Trust Officer to Board of Trustees Report of the Commercial National Bank of Washington tvt • . _ . Agent for National Education Association of the United States For the Year Ending May 31, 1932. Principal Account Cash on Hand as Shown in Statement of May 31, 1931. Less Amount of Deposit of June 2, 1930, which’ was not included in Elementary School Principal balance of May 31, 1931 . $17,551.14 418.30 Receipts : $17,132.84 Life Memberships . From Penn Mutual Life Ins. Co . ’ * . Proceeds from Sale of Bonds: $2,000 City of Clearwater Matured, Less Exchange Charges Rebate from Collector of Taxes Disbursements : 31,943.50 56,000.00 1,999.00 30.27 On Account of Real Estate: To Potomac Rubber Co., 3 Mats To Dulin & Martin Co., 15 Utility Cans To Shaw-W alker Co., 15 Umbrella Racks . To Shaw-Walker Co., 7 Hat and Coat Racks . To Lank Woodwork Co., 1 Key Cabinet . To Finnell System, Inc., Scrubber and Polisher . To Geo. E. Wyne, on Account New Building . To Floor Service Bureau, Refinishing . To Remington-Rand Business Service, Oak Counter.. To Rudolph West Co., 8 Medicine Cabinets _ .... To Nat’l Elec. Supply Co., 20 Fans . $58.75 123.47 187.00 193.38 32.00 199.04 5,493.42 676.90 260.30 48.00 439.45 Associational Records and Information 919 To Joe High, Plumbing . To W. & J. Sloane, 2 Rugs . To Frank Hughes, Repair Roof . To The W. D. Campbell Co., 5 Steel Tables . To The W. D. Campbell Co., 4 Steel Lockers . To Shaw-Walker Co., Library Furnishings . To L. B. Davidson, Concrete Work . To Biggs & Kirchner, Inc., Electrical Work . To Copeland Co., Covers for Chair Racks . To Beuchler’s, Wall Cabinets and Chairs . To Merchants Trans. & Storage, Freight and Drayage To Joe High, Plumbing . . . To The J. G. Wilson Corp., Venetian Blinds . To Thos. H. Urdall, Professional Services . To Geo. E. Wyne, Painting . To Waterproof Cleaning Co., Cleaning Building - To Capital Metal Works, Covering Chimneys, etc... To The E. F. Hauserman Co., Partitions and Doors To Geo. E. Wyne, on Account New Building . To Penn Mutual Life Ins. Co., Interest . To Geo. E. Wyne, Extra Work . To Lombard & Ludwig Co., Repairing Statue . To Floor Service Bureau . To The J. G. Wilson Corp., Venetian Blinds . To W. & J. Sloane, Furniture . To The E. F. Hauserman Co., Partitions . To Shaw-Walker Co., Chair . To George E. Wyne, Extra Work . To The Public Address & Elec. Co . To Lamb Seal & Stencil Co., 3 Bronze Plates . To W. B. Moses & Sons, Furniture . To T. W. McGuire Co., Smoke Indicator . To Heffron Co., Radiators . . To Tuttle & Bailey Mfg. Co., Radiator Cabinet - To Hires Turner Glass Co., Elevator Mirrors . To James B. Lambie Co., Door Closers . To Thos. H. Urdall, Electrical Work . To Henry L. Norton, Bronze Tablet . To Graybar Elec. Co., Speech Input, etc . To George E. Wyne, Final Payment . To Frank Irving Cooper Corp., Bal. on Contract ... To Heffron Co., Radiators . To Public Address & Elec. Co., Inc . To Penn Mutual Life Ins. Co., Interest . To W. B. Moses & Sons, Furniture . 327.30 1,167.78 100.00 606.00 27.00 705.05 483.50 367.00 74.53 115.00 63.87 55.05 2,745.00 47.56 26.00 300.00 18.09 3,051.00 50,820.02 4,104.77 153.00 55.25 65.96 78.00 2,957.00 592.22 16.80 651.96 750.00 26.25 1,025.69 200.00 261.00 *6.35 9.90 63.00 28.76 290.00 7,600.00 6,754.57 89.23 78.61 50.00 5,700.00 50.00 For Purchase of $1,000 City of Newport News Street Impr. Bonds, 4*4% at 89J4 . March 1, 1932, to Penn Mutual Life Ins. Co., Payment on Account of Loan . $100,519.77 892.50 10,000.00 111,412.27 May 31, 1932, Cash Overdrawn . . May 31, 1932, Notes Receivable (Life Memberships held by N. E. A.) Balance Carried Forward . $4,306.66 218,774.00 $214,467.34 920 National Education Association Elementary School Principals’ Fund Balance Brought Forward . Cash Balance as Shown in Report of May 31, 1931 Plus Deposit of June 2, 1930, Omitted from Above Balance . $4,672.14 418.30 $214,467.34 Receipts: Amount Transferred from Income to Cover Interest to May 31, 1931 . Deposit by N. E. A., May 31, 1932 . * Amount Transferred from Income to Cover Interest to May 31, 1932 . $5,090.44 294.16 461.10 229.90 Disbursements : $6,075.60 For Purchase of $5,000 City of Newport News St. Impt. & Sewerage Bonds at Par and Accrued Interest . Securities: $1,016.78 5 $1,000, S]/2% City of Newport News Street Impt. & Sewerage Bonds, Due 1950 . 6,016.78 Educational Research Fund (Department of Cash Balance as Shown in Report of May 31, 1931 Receipts: Superintendence) $791.06 Int. from City of New Orleans Bonds: Due Oct. 1,*1931 . Due Apr. 1, 1932 . 1 $1,000 City of N. O. Bond, Paid . . . . Int. from U. S. 4th Liberty Bonds: Due Oct. 1, 1931 . Due Apr. 1, 1932 . Int. from City of Newport News Bonds: Due June 1, 1932 . Int. from State of S. C. Ctf. of Ind.: Due June 1, 1932 . Deposit by N. E. A., Jan. 21, 1932 Deposit by N. E. A., Jan. 22, 1932 $157.50 135.00 $8.50 8.48 292.50 1,000.00 16.98 137.50 47.50 1,155.10 2,204.54 Disbursements: For Purchase of $5,000 City of Newport News Street Im- provement & Sewerage Bonds at Par and Accrued. Balance on Hand, May 31, 1932 $5,645.18 5,058.82 $586.36 Associational Records and Information 921 Securities: Par Value Book Value 6 $1,000 454% City of New Or- • leans, Due Oct. 1, 1932 . 2 $1,000 4^4% S. C. Highway $6,000.00 $5,984.06 Cert, of Dep., Due Date, 1946 2,000.00 2,077.28 2 $100 4 54% u. S. 4th Lib . 200.00 4 $50 Same . 5 $1,000 City of Newport News St. Impt. & Sewerage, 554%, 200.00 419.69 1950 . 5,000.00 $13,400.00 5,000.00 Bonds (See Schedule “1,” Page 915) Real Estate: 1201 16th Street . 1541-3 M Street, N. W . 1537-39 M St., N. W . Permanent Improvements . 1533-35 M St., N. W . New Building . $98,000.00 40,000.00 15,000.00 24,012.57 38,062.83 383,513.11 Income from Permanent Fund Balance on Hand as Shown in Report of May 31, 1931 . . . June 18, 1931, Transferred to N. E. A. Checking Acct... $14,727.51 Receipts: County of Columbus, N. C., Bonds: S/A Int. due July 1, 1931 . S/A Int. due Jan. 1, 1932 . Terminal R. R. Assn, of St. Louis: S/A Int. due July 1, 1931 . S/A Int. due Jan. 1, 1932 . Chicago, Ind. & Southern R. R. : S/A Int. due July 1, 1931 .. S/A Int. due Jan. 1, 1932 .. $125.00 125.00 $300.00 300.00 $200.00 200.00 St. Louis-San Francisco Rwy.: S/A Int. due July 1, 1931 . $105.00 S/A Int. due Jan. 1, 1932 . 105.00 City of Aiken: S/A Int. due Aug. 1, 1931 . $112.50 S/A Int. due Feb. 1, 1932 . 112-50 City of Monessen: S/A Int. due Aug. 1, 1931 . $112.50 S/A Int. due Feb. 1, 1932 . H2-50 14,067.39 110,683.18 598,588.51 $943,823.20 $14,727.51 $250.00 600.00 400.00 210.00 225.00 225.00 922 National Education Association City of Clearwater: S/A Int. due Aug. 1, 1931 . $125.00 S/A Int. due Feb. 1, 1932 . 75.00 Atlantic Coast Line R. R. : S/A Int. due Sept. 1, 1931 . $200.00 S/A Int. due Mar. 1, 1932 . 200.00 State of Arkansas: S/A Int. due Sept. 1, 1931 . $700.00 S/A Int. due Mar. 1, 1932 . 700.00 Manhattan Rwy. Co.: S/A Int. due Oct. 1, 1931 . $80.00 S/A Int. due Apr. 1, 1932 . 80.00 B. & O. R. R.: S/A Int. due Nov. 1, 1931 . $400.00 S/A Int. due May 1, 1932 . 400.00 City of Newport News: S/A Int. due June 1, 1932 . Interest on Savings Account: October 1, 1931 . $284.16 April 1, 1932 . 433.79 Rent from 1201 16th Street: June, July, and Aug., 1931 . $10,750.00 Sept., Oct., and Nov., 1931 . 10,750.00 Dec., 1931, Jan., Feb., 1932 . 10,750.00 Mar., April, and May, 1931 . 10,750.00 Disbursements: To E. Quincy Smith for Ins. Premium on $300,000 . $1,620.00 Less Ret. Prem. on Old Policy . 1,369.93 - $250.07 Transfer to Elementary School Prin. Fund for Int. to May 31, 1931 . 294.16 To Int. to Date of Purchase on $1,000 City Newport News . 925 Transfer to Elementary School Prin. Fund for Int. to May 31, 1932 . 229.90 To The Commercial Nat’l Bk. of Wash., Fee, 1/20 of 1% on $943,823.20 . 471.91 Balance, May 31, 1932 . 47,355.16 200.00 400.00 1,400.00 160.00 800.00 22.50 717.95 43,000.00 $48,610.45 $48,610.45 Washington, D. C., June 9, 1932. The foregoing is a correct statement of the funds and accounts of the National Education Association of the United States for the year ending May 31, 1932, as same appear on the books of this company. The Commercial National Bank of Washington, Agent. Ralph D. Quinter, Trust Officer. Associational Records and Information 923 Transferi of Funds As per approval by telegraph, $50,000.00 of our cash balance was transferred from the Commercial National Bank of Washington to the National Metropolitan Bank of Washington. Dedication of Building The New Building was dedicated during the week February 22-27, 1932, by holding open house to the Department of Superintendence. One afternoon was given over to a tea and reception by the officers and staff. Leaks in Basement In spite of all of the precautions taken to insure a water-tight basement, we have been troubled with leaks in the basement. The contractor made several attempts to remedy the condition, but was unsuccessful and refused to continue the work. As we are protected by indemnity bonds, your Chairman instructed the Business Manager to notify the bonding company that we would look to them for remedy. They very promptly accepted this responsibility and we believe that relief will soon be afforded us. Joseph H. Saunders, Chairman, Board of Trustees. TREASURER’S REPORT For the Year Ended May 31, 1932. Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer Balance Brought Forward from Treasurer’s Report for the Year Ended May 31, 1931 . $107,091.22 Income: For Account: Department of Superintendence (Net) Department of Elementary School Prin¬ cipals (Net) . Department of Adult Education . Department of Lip Reading (Net) . Department of Supervisors and Teach¬ ers of Home Economics (Net) . Department of American Educational Research (Net) . Department of Secondary School Prin¬ cipals (Net) . Department of Visual Education (Net) . Department of Rural Education (Net) . . Balance as at May 31, 1931 1932 $14,821.69 $16,113.36 3,337.29 2,323.22 157.68 601.69 117.12 141.16 232.81 298.20 3,781.20 4,610.04 10.40 32.00 41.60 595.79 293.18 $23,012.38 $24,412.85 From Secretary’s Office During Year: Membership Fees . • . Subscriptions to N. E. A. Journal and Advertising, etc.. Sale of Volumes of Proceedings . Sale of Special Reports . $191,898.63 239,964.69 429.31 5,845.46 $1,400.47 924 National Education Association Commercial Exhibits (Net) . 46 110.00 Sale of Research Bulletins . 7,705.84 Honorariums (Field Work) . 2 447.59 Rentals . ; . 8^25.90 Interest and Discount Earned . 3,375.24 Cash Sales — Reports and Pamphlets . 1,816.02 American Education Week . 1 992.62 Sundry Income — Exchange, etc . 301.02 Cash Received from Trustee of Permanent Fund Total Income . Expenditure : Board of Trustees’ Expenses . Board of Directors’ Expenses . President’s Contingent Fund . Executive Committee . General Expense — Headquarters . Physical Plant — Headquarters . Institutional Expense . N. E. A. Journal . Volume of Proceedings . Research Bulletin . Publications and Reports for General Sale Special Appropriations for 1931-32: Committee on Health Education . $244.02 Legislative Commission . 679.04 National Council of Education . 1 359 84 Committee on Economic Status of the Teacher . 156.47 Department of Classroom Teachers . 7,739.45 Committee on Tenure . 87.54 Department of Elementary School Principals . 1,000.00 Committee of One Hundred on Retirement . 500.00 Commission on Enrichment of Adult Life . 982.53 Special Committee on Social-Economic Objectives of Amfrica . . 600.00 American Educational Research Department...’ . 1,000.00 Department of Adult Education . 500.00 Committee on Foreign Relations . . 46.54 Membership — United States Chamber of Commerce.. 100.00 World Federation of Education Associations . 500.00 Membership — American Council on Education . 100.00 Life Annuities and Insurance . 8,725.16 Financing of Delegates . 9,122.50 Department of Secondary Education . 495.63 Departmental Expenses: (Covering Salaries and Clerical Services, Stationery, Supplies, etc.) General Secretary’s Office . Division of Accounts . Division of Legislation (Field) . Division of Business . Division of Publications . 510,612.32 $512,012.79 14,727.51 $526,740.30 $941.47 14,234.68 654.94 3,261.09 8,357.87 58,662.63 32,339.88 101,805.67 13,317.65 8,444.18 3,842.50 33,938.72 27,898.03 8,422.27 16,686.17 19,086.43 44,613.65 Associational Records and Information 925 Division of Research . Division of Classroom Service . Division of Administrative Service . Division of Records and Membership . Promotion and Maintenance of Membership Furniture and Fixtures Life Membership Adjustments Total Expenditures 60,251.27 8.236.80 9,252.90 34,867.70 37,527.80 $546,644.30 5,466.07 $552,110.37 317.50 $552,427.87 Cash Summary Balance Brought Forward from Treasurer’s Report for the A ear Ended May 31, 1931 . Total Income as per Page 922 . $526,740.30 Deduct Bad Debts Written Off . 853.23 $107,091.22 Add : Decrease in Accounts Receivable Deduct: Increase in Time Checks $525,887.07 8.30 $525,895.37 2,780.60 Add : Accrued Interest on Certificates of Deposit Unlocated Difference . $523,114.77 1,199.97 9.12 Total Receipts for Year Ended May 31, 1932 Total Expenditures as per above . Deduct Unpaid Vouchers as of May 31, 1932 Add : Unpaid Vouchers as of May 31, 1931 . Deduct Decrease in Inventory . $552,427.87 32,046.43 $520,381.44 26,699.64 $547,081.08 141.22 524,323.86 $631,415.08 546,939.86 $84,475.22 Cash Balance as at May 31, 1932 926 National Education Association REPORT OF THE BUDGET COMMITTEE1 Available Income For Year 1932-1933 CASH BALANCE as at May 31, 1932 . $84,475.22 ESTIMATED INCOME for year 1932-33: Memberships from Secretary’s Office . $192,000.00 N. E. A. Journal — Subscriptions and Advertising.. 240,000.00 Sales of Publications: Proceedings . $400.00 Special Reports . 5,800.00 Research Bulletins . 7,800.00 American Educational Week Ma- terial . 1,950.00 Cash Sales . 1,800.00 17,750.00 Commercial Exhibits . 40 000 00 Honorariums . 2,400.00 Rentals . 8,500.00 Interest and Discount Earned . 3,300.00 Net Income from Permanent Fund . 32,000.00 Sundry Income . 300.00 536,250.00 $620,725.22 Appropriations The following is an excerpt from a resolution adopted by the Board of Directors in 1927: Before making any appropriations for any fiscal year, the Board of Directors shall have in hand and shall have considered all requests for appropriations for the year, and shall also have in hand an estimate from the Secretary and the Board of Trustees of the probable income for the year. Appropriations shall not be made in excess of this estimate. Maximum Expenditures The respective total amounts finally budgeted for the divisions of the head¬ quarters staff and the various departments and special committees shall be in each case the maximum amounts that may be expended, except that on the written recommendation of the Secietary of the Association and with the formal approval of the Executive Committee the Emergency Fund may be drawn upon to provide for the unforeseen needs of a division, department, or committee. Proposed Study of Social-Economic Objectives of America WHEREAS, the widespread economic disturbance thru which the United States and other nations of the world are passing is evidence of serious social-eeonomic maladjustment, and WHEREAS, the education of the people of a democracy determines its method of dealing with social-economic problems, therefore be it Resolved, that the Board of Directors of the National Education Association recommends to the President of the Association the appointment of a committee of not more than five to propose to the Association desirable social-economic goals of America, and that the committee indicate the materials and methods which the schools of the nation should use to attain these goals; and be it further Resolved, that the sum of $7,500.00, or such part thereof as may be necessary, is hereby apportioned for the use of said committee. 1 For action taken on this report by Representative Assembly see p. 888. Associational Records and Information 927 Budget Recommendations' for 1932-1933 Approved by the Board of Directors June 28, 1932 Appropriated 1932-1933 1. Board of Trustees: Actual expenses for last five years: 1927-28 . . $419.83 1928-29 . . 613.69 1929-30 . . 798.51 1930-31 . . 1,096.60 1931-32 . 941.47 Amount recommended for 1932-33 $700.00 2. Executive Committee: Actual expenses for last five years: 1927- 28 . 1928- 29 . . $4,356.78 . 3,313.01 1929-30 . . 4,137.53 1930-31 . . 4,242.10 IQtl-W . . 3.261.09 Amount recommended for 1932-33 . $2,800.00 3. Board of Directors: Actual expenses for last five years: 1927- 28 . 1928- 29 . 1929- 30 . . $7,829.08 . 7,821.49 . 8,347.00 1930-31 . . 8,750.58 1931-32 . . 14,234.68 Amount recommended for 1932-33 . $9,000.00 4. Contingent Fund for President: Actual expenses for last five years: 1927- 28 1928- 29 1929- 30 1930- 31 1931- 32 $1,517.97 440.47 955.45 1,575.12 654.94 Amount recommended for 1932-33 $800.00 5. General Secretary’s Office: * Actual expenses for last five years: 1927- 28 1928- 29 1929- 30 1930- 31 1931- 32 $31,050.55 34,470.47 35,913.75 35,853.43 36,320.30 * Includes also Division of Accounts. 928 National Education Association Amount recommended for 1932-33: Salaries and Clerical Services . $32,000.00 Traveling Expense . 1,300.00 Stationery and Office Supplies . . 600.00 Postage and Stamped Envelopes . 1,300.00 Telegrams . 200.00 Total $35,400.00 6. Field Division (Legislative) : Actual expenses for last five years: 1927-28 . 1928-29 . 1929-30 . 1930-31 . 1931-32 . Amount recommended for 1932-33: Salaries and Clerical Services . $11,922.00 Traveling Expense . 1,350.00 Stationery and Office Supplies . 250.00 Postage and Stamped Envelopes . 350.00 Telegrams . 50.00 Total 7. Division of Business: Actual expenses for last five years: 1927- 28 1928- 29 1929- 30 1930- 31 1931- 32 $14,805.73 16,606.35 17,594.63 18,637.91 19,086.43 $13,922.00 Amount recommended for 1932-33: Salaries and Clerical Services . $16,335.00 Traveling Expense . 1,125.00 Stationery and Office Supplies.. . 225.00 Postage and Stamped Envelopes . 375.00 Telegrams . 95.00 Typing Section . 20.00 Mailing Section . 500.00 Multigraph Section . 25.00 Advertising Service . 600.00 Total . $19,300.00 8. Division of Publications: Actual expenses for last five years-. 1927-28 . 1928-29 . 1929-30 . . . 40,120.21 1930-31 . . . 43,306.66 1931-32 . . . 44,613.65 Appropriated 1932-1933 Associational Records and Information 929 Amount recommended for 1932-33: Salaries and Clerical Service . $37,715.91 Traveling Expense . 1,799.00 Stationery and Office Supplies . 780.32 Postage and Stamped Envelopes . 2,015.08 Telegrams . 147.23 Reprints . 938.76 Photographs, Prints, Mats and Electros 486.70 American Education Week . 1,992.00 Appropriated 1932-1933 Total 9. Division of Classroom Service: Actual expenses 1927- 28 . 1928- 29 . 1929- 30 . 1930- 31 . 1931- 32 . for last five years: . $7,155.10 . 7,523.75 . 7,751.15 . 8,137.76 . 8,236.80 $45,875.00 Amount recommended for 1932-33: Salaries and Clerical Services . $7,600.00 Traveling Expense . 430.00 Stationery and Office Supplies . 90.00 Postage and Stamped Envelopes . 170.00 Telegrams . 10.00 Total $8,300.00 10. Division of Research: Actual expenses for last five years: 1927- 28 . $38,073.80 1928- 29 . 48,533.30 1929- 30 . 53,866.02 1930- 31 . 59,117.58 1931- 32 . 60,251.27 Amount recommended for 1932-33: Salaries and Clerical Services . $54,900.00 Traveling Expense . 2,000.00 Stationery and Office Supplies . 800.00 Postage and Stamped Envelopes . 1,200.00 Telegrams . 200.00 Special Charts, Tables, etc . 2,000.00 Books and Pamphlets (Library) . 1,000.00 Total . 11. Division of Administrative Service: Actual expenses for last five years: 1927- 28 . 1928- 29 . . $6,760.35 . 8,124.42 1Q99-30 . . 8,447.02 1930-31 . . 9,001.03 1931-32 . . 9,252.90 $62,100.00 930 National Education Association Amount recommended for 1932-33 : Salaries and Clerical Service . $9,576.00 Traveling Expense . 225.00 Stationery and Office Supplies.. . 150.00 Postage and Stamped Envelopes . 25.00 Total . $9,976.00 12. Division of Records and Membership: A. Records: Actual expenses for last five years: 1927- 28 . $31,388.43 1928- 29 . 33,492.67 1929- 30 . 33,752.90 1930- 31 . 34,962.42 1931- 32 . 34,867.70 Amount recommended for 1932-33 : Salaries and Clerical Services . $31,750.00 Traveling Expense . 750.00 Stationery and Office Supplies . 350.00 Postage and Stamped Envelopes . 300.00 Telegrams . 50.00 Stock Supplies and Machine Upkeep (Addressograph Section) . 1,500.00 Total $34,700.00 B. Membership : Actual expenses for last five years: 1927-28 . 1928-29 . 1929-30 . .. 35,852.19 1930-31 . .. 38,015.93 1931-32 . Amount recommended for 1932-33.. TOTAL for Division Physical Plant: Actual expenses for last five years : 1927-28 . 1928-29 . 1929-30 . 1930-31 . 1931-32 . Amount recommended for 1932-33: Rent . Light and Power Heat . Janitor Service Maintenance . $36,000.00 $70,700.00 $43,000.00 2,050.00 1,100.00 5,700.00 4,000.00 Appropriated 1932-1933 Total $55,850.00 Associational Records and Information 931 14. General Office Expenses: A. Operating Expenses: Actual expenses for last five years: 1927- 28 1928- 29 1929- 30 1930- 31 1931- 32 $8,002.24 6.814.32 6,945.83 7.922.32 8,357.87 Amount recommended for 1932-33: Telephone Service . $3,485.00 Repairs — Office Furniture and Equip¬ ment . 250.00 Insurance . 595.78 General Expense . 150.00 Refunds of Overpayments . 25.00 Purchase of Back Volumes . 10.00 Express and Freight . 800.00 Interest and Discount Allowed . 1,175.00 Surety Bonds . 243.00 Auditing Accounts of Association .... 850.00 Mailing — Reports and Pamphlets . 250.00 Appropriated 1932-1933 Total . $7,833.78 B. Office Furniture and Fixtures: Actual expenses for last five years: 1927- 28 . $5,568.26 1928- 29 . 4,932.97 1929- 30 . 4,000.95 1930- 31 . 4,480.83 1931- 32 . 5,466.07 Amount recommended for 1932-33 . $2,000.00 Total 15. Annual Conventions: Actual expenses for last five years: 1927- 28 1928- 29 1929- 30 1930- 31 1931- 32 $5,761.26 5,917.34 7,764.33 6,518.04 32,339.88 $9,833.78 Amount recommended for 1932-33 : General Convention Expenses . $7,150.00 Operation of Exhibits . 13,000.00* Exhibit Payment to Department of Superintendence . 13,000.00* Total $33,150.00 * Prior to 1931-32 provided for directly from exhibit receipts. 932 National Education Association 16. Journal of the National Education Association: Actual expenses for last five years: 1927- 28 . ...$101,374.69 1928- 29 . 105,055.54 1929- 30 . 108,538.69 1930- 31 . 106,082.33 1931- 32 . 101,805.67 Amount recommended for 1932-33 17. Other Publications: Actual expenses for last five years: 1927- 28 1928- 29 1929- 30 1930- 31 1931- 32 $18,147.27 22,705.77 24,583.36 26,291.40 25,604.33 Appropriated 1932-1933 $94,400.00 Amount recommended for 1932-33: Research Bulletin . $8,000.00 Volume of Proceedings . 9,500.00 Publications and Reports for General Sale . 1,500.00 Total 18. Financing Delegates: Actual expenses for last five years: 1927- 28 1928- 29 1929- 30 1930- 31 1931- 32 $17,178.83 7.862.50 8,484.05 8.484.50 9.122.50 Amount recommended for 1932-33 19. Department and Committee Appropriations: Actual expenses for last five years: 1927- 28 1928- 29 1929- 30 1930- 31 1931- 32 $17,358.59 26,052.31 15,846.31 16,894.11 15,391.06 $19,000.00 $10,000.00 Amount recommended for 1932-33: Health Education: (a) Dept, of School Health and Physical Education . $275.00 (b) Joint Committee on Health Problems in Education . 500.00 Dept. Classroom Teachers . 9,100.00 Note: Expenditures for printing (under Section 19) shall be made under the direction of the Secretary of the Association. For satisfactory reasons, including lower cost and convenience in distribution, the Secretary may permit a department or committee to contract for printing. Printing orders shall be placed on the basis of competitive bids. Associational Records and Information 933 National Council of Education1 . American Educational Research Dept. Committee on Social-Economic Objec¬ tives of America . Department of Secondary Education.. Department of Adult Education . Special Committees2: (a) Legislative Commission. (b) Committee on Tenure. (c) Committee of 100 on Retirement Allowance. (d) Committee on Economic Status of Teachers. (e) Joint Committee on Colored Schools. Total Special Committees . . . Total . Appropriated 1932-1933 500.00 1,000.00 7,500.00 1,500.00 500.00 2,000.00 $22,875.00 20. Association Membership Fees: Actual expenses for last five years: 1927-28 . $1,100.00 1928-29 . 1,100.00 1929-30 . 1,100.00 1930-31 . 1,200.00 1931-32 . 700.00 Amount recommended for 1932-33 . 21. Retirement Annuities and Insurance: Actual expenses for last five years: 1927- 28 . $3,627.25 1928- 29 . 7,519.01 1929- 30 . 6,865.08 1930- 31 . 11,253.19 1931- 32 . 8,725.16 Amount recommended for 1932-33 . $700.00 3 $9,550.00 22. Emergency Fund: Amount recommended for 1932-33 2,000.00 Grand Total . Respectfully submitted, . $536,231.78 BUDGET COMMITTEE W. B. Mooney, Secretary, Colorado Education Association, Denver, Colo. J. Herbert Kelley, Secretary, Pennsylvania Education Association, Harrisburg, Pa. A. L. Whittenberg, Secretary, State Examining Board, Springfield, Ill. Charles Carroll, State Director of Vocational Education, Providence, R. I. L. W. Rogers, Chairman, First Assistant State Superintendent, Austin, Texas. 1 Any part of which is used for research is to be expended by the Division of Re§ 0 ^ rCh 2 The appropriation for the five special committees listed above is the maxi¬ mum amount to be expended for this purpose, and no expenditures are to be made from this appropriation until after the committee’s program, including pro¬ posed meetings, has been approved by the Executive Committee of the Association; provided that payment of expenses for a committee meeting shall be for not more than five members, including the chairman. 3 Complete payment for 1932-33. THE ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SECRETARY American Education Faces the Storm Introduction WHAT a beautiful philosophy of life is that of looking upon a situa¬ tion which appears to be a liability as one that should be turned into an asset. Offhand, it looks as tho education were in the midst of dis¬ aster because it is losing ground temporarily. But when we recall that Amer¬ ican society has its ups and downs we can see that education, its chief sustain¬ ing factor and also dependent upon it, must show similar fluctuations. Our efforts must still be directed to saving as much as possible of what has been TURNING A LIABILITY INTO AN ASSET gained during recent years, but from now on, more and more, let us give attention to con¬ structive work. Let us build better than before. Let this be the opportunity for actually turn¬ ing neai defeat into victory. But to do so will require better organization and effort than ever before. Shortsighted forces are at work in this nation to reduce at any cost the financial support accorded public education. These forces are not concerned with the welfare of children nor with the main¬ tenance of the public-school system. They are concerned with a form of anti¬ social tax-reduction to which they misapply the term “economy.” The effort to destroy will continue. It will require the devoted service of every member of the profession and of every friend of the schools to prevent the devastation from spreading and becoming more desperate. To develop this constructive program will require leadership. We know we have it when once aroused. Education will win altho it faces problems of extraordinary difficulty and danger. It will win because of the inherent rightness of the things for which public education stands. American education will win “for it was founded upon a rock.” Some have become discouraged and despondent over reductions in the school program. Such an attitude is natural enough, but cannot be logically justified. Public education today possesses certain elements of strength which will enable it to rise above the present emergency and ttf assume again its forward progress. In the first place, education is a definitely organized profession. It has in the National Education Association an organization which includes all branches of educational work. It has as fine a type of leadership as it ever had. It has powerful inclusive local and state associations. The present corps of classroom teachers in America is better trained and better qualified than at any other time in our history. Education has behind it the support of the great mass of the American people, a support which is deeply rooted in public opinion. In its professional journals education possesses a means of reaching the members of the profession, and thru them a means for reaching the general press and the public. Education has developed in its research pro¬ gram a tool which gives confidence to its leaders and increased skill to every [934J Associational Records and Information 935 member of the profession. An organized profession, dynamic leadership, a devoted body of teachers, a powerful lay support, a scientific attitude, and adequate means of reaching THE FOUNDATION the public — these are indeeed the foundation stones STONES of the educational structure. As we examine each of these sources of strength it should become clearer and clearer that the present moment is a time for confidence and determination, and not for panic and despair. This report attempts to name and describe a few of the important elements of strength in American education, to outline what has been done and to point the way for continuous organized effort. The Organized Profession The National Education Association was born amid stress, fear, and uncertainty. When it was organized in 1857 there hung over the nation’s life the dark cloud of slavery and the dread spectre of civil war and dis¬ union. The educators of the nation had the vision to see that if America was to remain one in government it must achieve unity of spirit and that spiritual and intellectual unity could come only thru the schools. These organizations, local, state, and national, began largely as informal gatherings to discuss ways and means of improving teaching and schools in general. Little by little they became more or less permanent with a somewhat loose organization but eventually developed FIRST A VISION into well-organized associations of growing strength THEN A PLAN and expanding programs of service. The farseeing vision and fine professional spirit of the pioneer leaders who founded these early organizations is reflected in the following paragraph fiom the letter with which the presidents of ten state associations called the first meeting of the national association : “We cordially extend this invitation to all practical teachers in the North, the South, the East, and the West, who are willing to unite in a general effort to promote the general welfare of our country by concen¬ trating the wisdom and power of numerous minds, and by THE distributing among all the accumulated experiences of all ; INVITATION who are ready to devote their energies and their means to advance the dignity, respectability, and usefulness of their calling ; and who, in fine, believe that the time has come when the teachers of the nation should gather into one great educational brotherhood.” For sixty years after its organization, the national association devoted itself largely to educational, inspirational, and social meetings with little consideration for economic or social ends. Legislation, salaries, and improved working conditions were sometimes discussed but activities leading to the development of these policies were for the most part vague and spasmodic. While the new organization began its work too late to prevent the Civil 936 National Education Association War, it has been a leading factor in reuniting the North and the South in heart as well as in form. In 1917 this and other associations THE NEW came into a new realization of their responsibilities and OBJECTIVES their power. This new spirit was expressed by a re-organi¬ zation of the association on a representative basis with a delegate assembly to develop the policies of the organization ; by the appoint¬ ment of a fulltime salaried secretary and staff to administer the affairs of the association ; by a redefinition of the aims of the organization ; and by the development of an aggressive campaign to promote the welfare of the pro¬ fession. Membership records have been significantly called barometers of profes¬ sional spirit. They show that the membership of the state associations has increased to more than ten times what it was a quarter of MEMBERSHIP a century ago and that it includes nearly three-fourths of GROWTH the teachers of the nation while the membership of the national association is more than thirty times as large as it was in 1907. The remarkable increase since 1917 has been due to three principal factors : a growing professional spirit among teachers, an increasing consciousness of the importance of group action, and the expanding programs of service which the associations have developed. The principal activity of the associations during the early years of their existence was the holding of an annual convention. During and immediately following the World War the program of education thruout the nation was threatened with a complete breakdown. A “Commission on the Emer¬ gency in Education” was organized by the national association and similar emergency committees were developed in many states. These began aggres¬ sive campaigns to acquaint the public with the importance of education and the needs of the schools. These campaigns required facts EXPANDING and media for interpreting the facts effectively to the public. PROGRAMS To meet these demands the associations expanded their pro¬ grams beyond the annual convention into all-year programs of service to the profession and to the children of the nation. Special commit¬ tees were appointed to study specific problems, monthly journals were estab¬ lished thru which the profession might express its ideals and aspirations and interpret its programs, and research divisions were established to collect pertinent facts and figures. Growth in membership has made possible these expanding programs, and the increased services have made feasible the in¬ creasing membership. It is fortunate for the future of the nation that the teachers have developed these strong local, state, and national associations prior to the present emer¬ gency. These organizations have stood like a mighty bulwark against hastily considered and ill-advised retrenchment policies which would have com¬ pletely wrecked the educational program of the SERVICE IN nation. Thru vigorous campaigns they have helped THE EMERGENCY parents to understand the folly of handicapping their children with deficient education thru short school Associational Records and Information 937 terms, large and unwieldy classes, or by employing untrained, incompetent, and underpaid teachers. They have encouraged school boards to stand against the policy of balancing the budget with the ignorance of children. They have helped the teachers interpret the schools to the public in such a way that the demand for good schools persists in spite of the serious economic situation. In addition to the objectives maintained heretofore these associations now face new responsibilities and opportunities born of the emergency thru which we are passing. Out of these dire difficulties we may gain a new and wider recognition of the importance of education to the economic and social welfare of our nation ; an extension of the period of regular schooling to eighteen years; a multiplication of the opportunity for adult education, for the enrichment of the extra hours of leisure which the adoption of the five- day week is sure to bring; a more careful selection and more adequate prepa¬ ration of teachers ; a further elimination of the struggling “little red schoolhouse,” by the adoption of larger, more FACING NEW economical, and more efficient units of educational admin- PROBLEMS istration ; a more reasonable system of raising school reve¬ nues so that education may receive a fair share of the nation’s annual income without being an unbearable burden on those who happen to own real estate ; and a fairer system of distributing school funds in order that every child may enjoy his rightful heritage — an equal educational opportunity. To the realiza¬ tion of these goals the organized profession is committed, for need has always been the measure of its strength and of its service. Educational Leadership When progress is made, someone must lead. Just now as never before in this generation, America is asking for leadership. In industry we have learned to produce in quantity, but distribution has not kept pace with pro¬ duction. There is no failure of crops on the farms but our farmers lack mar¬ kets for their products. The richest nation on earth finds difficulty in balanc¬ ing its budget. States, cities, and counties with empty treasuries are curtailing essential activities ; private enterprises are coming to a standstill ; bread lines are forming in our cities, not because there is famine in the land but because we do not know how to adjust our THE CALL FOR economic structure to use the abundance with which agri- LEADERSHIP culture and manufacture are able to provide us. The schools are a vital part of our social structure, and educational leadership must bear its share of responsibility for present conditions and lend a hand in bettering them. Educational leadership must realize both the heritage of the past and the opportunity of the future. Wise interpretation of what has been contributes much to a clear vision of what is to be. Leadership is not easy to define. It is intangible. The educational leader must have vision. By his lack of it, scars, which will not heal in half a cen¬ tury, may be left on the lives of children. Leadership demands action. Its task 938 National Education Association is to achieve results. Leadership must be marked by courage. Cowards can¬ not inspire others to high endeavor. It must be possessed WHAT IS of wisdom. To do a useless thing vigorously and cour- LEADERSHIP? ageously avails little. Since the turn of the century, educa¬ tional research has come to have a large place in school planning. The facts which it has placed at the disposal of school leaders have made it possible to decide with wisdom many matters which formerly were understood but dimly. Opinion is giving way to proven knowledge estab¬ lished by painstaking investigation. In the past, great educational advances have centered around the leader¬ ship of some man or woman. The names of outstanding individuals, such as Horace Mann, are forever associated with our great forward movements. In somewhat modified form it is likely to continue ORGANIZING FOR to be so. The cooperative use of the contributions of LEADERSHIP many minds has come to be a part of the technique of directing large-scale undertakings. In this fashion the effort of the individual is merged with that of the mass. Ultimately, how¬ ever, progress is still likely to come to full fruition by the power and insight of that person who can direct the energies of numerous followers toward attaining a goal. The educational leader should be trained for his job. Our schools move forward each year with the progress of modern life. School policies must keep pace. There is constant need of additional technical training on the part of those who direct the schools. Many leading IT DEMANDS superintendents and principals make it a practise to SPECIAL TRAINING take summer courses so that their work may be up- to-date and effective. Others attain the same end by well-chosen reading and personal contacts. The business world has learned that it is expensive for an organization to train a novice. It is far better to train an experienced person, provided he will take the pains to keep himself up to the times. Along with his other qualifications, the school executive must have busi¬ ness ability. Great sums of money are spent for education and taxpayers have a right to expect that every ctallar shall be used with wisdom and economy. The current emergency emphasizes the fact that IT DEMANDS public finance is closely interwoven with public edu- ECONOMIC VISION cation. In its resolutions at the Washington con¬ vention, the Department of Superintendence recom¬ mended that there be constituted in every state a group of citizens, including expert economists, competent schocd. people, and representative laymen, to make a careful study of the existing system of taxation. Competent teachers and good schools in a community indicate foresight and good judgment on the part of boards of education. In a very real sense, the school board determines the quality of the school. Sometimes it best serves Associational Records and Information 939 EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE BOARD OF EDUCATION the general welfare by forward-looking constructive legislation ; sometimes by protecting the public against itself when hasty and ill-advised action is proposed. The school-board member helps to direct one of our largest national projects, one involving the management of valuable property, the annual expendi¬ ture of large sums of money, the employment of a million teachers and thousands of other employees. This educational program affects the welfare of more than twenty-five million boys and girls. In any community, the school, with its program which reaches into nearly every home, is one of our biggest busi¬ ness enterprises. Nationally and locally, the work of the school board is of first importance. The most direct type of educational leadership is that which the teacher exerts over the children in her charge. The teacher occupies a vital place in their lives. They quote her sayings. They imitate her mannerisms. They praise her virtues and they denounce her shortcomings. American classrooms are calling for the finest types of young men and women to preside over them. Our teacher-training institutions have a grave responsi¬ bility for leadership in selecting the best of our young IN THE people for training, and in properly fitting and inspiring CLASSROOM them before they enter upon the discharge of their high calling. Our best superintendents continually emphasize the belief that their main duty is to direct all the forces at their command in such fashion that teachers may better serve children. Their platform is a suitable school room, properly equipped, with a competent, well-trained teacher to care for every child. The ideals of a nation are reflected in its schools. Russia raises one standard for its schools, Italy another, and France another. Our American ideals were born of the hopes and aspirations of peoples from many lands, welded together in a struggle to conquer a new continent. Much has been done toward the realiza¬ tion of these ideals of the founders. Much remains to be done. They have served us well thus far. Perhaps it will be necessary to re-interpret some of them as the com¬ paratively simple farm life gives way to the complicated ways of a machine age. This is the immediate task of educational leadership. EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN THE SOCIAL ORDER Research and Educational Progress Research is a method by which the clear light of pertinent facts is di¬ rected upon problems and policies. In the absence of facts, educational leadership must grope in the dark and a satisfactory solution of many problems can be achieved only by accident. Altho organized research in edu- 940 National Education Association cation is almost wholly a development of the last quarter RESEARCH, A of a century, the work already accomplished suggests FUNDAMENTAL that the scientific approach to educational problems will CONTRIBUTION ultimately stand as a great human achievement. For, after all, the culture of childhood and youth is the only highway toward permanent progress in human affairs and any process that adds to the intelligent direction of education is a fundamental contribution to human welfare. This report on the elements of strength in American edu¬ cation may well be concluded by a brief review of the past achievements and future possibilities of educational research. The contribution of research to educational progress may best be de¬ scribed by naming a few of its useful tools and fruitful discoveries. The list is merely illustrative such as are named in the next nine paragraphs: 1. The w oi k of Cattell, Hall, Thorndike, and others, in demonstrating how varied and intricate is the pattern of human THE DISCOVERY OF differences, has profoundly affected instruction. A THE INDIVIDUAL new respect for the unique personality of each child has stimulated the development of various forms of guidance work, counseling, and other adaptations of the school’s program to the needs of the individual. 2. In 1905 Binet and Simon, confronted with a practical problem of titv school administration, discarded earlier attempts to measure separate mental functions and published a scale for estimating intelligence as a unit. Their plans were quickly adapted and improved in America by Goddard, Terman, Herring, Kuhlman, and Pintner. The MEASUREMENT OF development of the Army Alpha Tests by Yerkes MENTAL ABILITIES and his colleagues gave impetus to the movement and in 1918 Otis published the first group intelli¬ gence scales for school use. About ten million such tests are now used an¬ nually. In spite of admitted defects, these instruments are of great practical utility. The group tests have made possible large-scale adjustments in the instruction of children of different abilities, while the individual tests have been useful in studying the special needs of exceptional pupils. 3. Valid and reliable measuring tools are essential to research. Every experiment to find the best methods of instruction must use some form of achievement test. Rice pioneered this field in 1896 but it is less than twenty years since Stone, Thorndike, Courtis, Hillegas, Buckingham, Gray, Ayres and others devised the first standardized MEASUREMENT OF achievement tests. Measurement of growth in PUPIL ACHIEVEMENT character is even more recent but it has been greatly stimulated by the work of the research agencies at Yale, Iowa, Columbia, and other centers. Forty million stand¬ ardized tests are now used annually to evaluate instruction, to isolate special Associational Records and Information 941 learning difficulties, to discover special aptitudes, and to predict the probable success of children in different subjects and levels of instruction. 4. The application of measurements, mental and educational, has re¬ sulted in new types of quantitative educational data. To extract the mean¬ ing from this accumulation of facts has required the development and use of special statistical technics. The work of Gal- ton and Pearson with correlation coefficients, STATISTICAL METHO of McCall and McGaughy with the critical ratio and the application of statistical technics to educational problems by such men as Ayres, Rugg, Thorndike, Strayer, Thurstone, Holzinger, and Kelley, may be mentioned as examples. . 5. The school survey is a scientific inquiry which evaluates the efficiency of a school system and offers constructive proposals for its improvement. It represents an intensely practical application of AT the research attitude to school administration. The THE EDUCA survey of New York City by Hanus in 1911 bU initiated the modern phase of this type of inquiry. The subsequent work of Strayer, Engelhardt, Cubberley, Sears, Bachman, and many others, has made the systematic use of school survey procedures an accepted phase of efficient school management. 6. Exact knowledge of the way in which children enter, progress thru, and graduate from the various school units makes it possible to adapt the school to the needs of each pupil. The age-grade-progress chart offers a striking illustration of a procedure developed by research specialists which has become a routine and integral part of modern school administration. The early work of Maxwell in ACCOUNT New York and the striking presentation of the prob- FOR CHlLUKum lem of the laggard pupil by Ayres in 1909 directed attention forcefully to the need for smooth progress thru the school system and for proper records to see that such progress is attained. Their wor has been followed by that of Moehlman, Heck, and many other students. 7 Research in school administration has touched on such varied problems that a single illustration must represent the entire field. The position of the state in school finance was, until about ten years ago, of minor im- nortance. In 1905, Cubberley made the first study of the problem. His in fluence can be traced in every state school finance law passed since that time. Strayer and Haig in 1922 further clarified the SCHOOL issues involved, while Swift and Up eSra critica y ADM]NjstRATION analyzed existing systems of state school finance. In 1924 Mort developed his weighted-pupil measures of educational need. His students and others have refi. c^iVTTn^ applied them widely. Meanwhile, Norton in 1926, Staffelbach in 1927, and Suzzallo in 1931, explored the implications of this p""a^ T* eral participation in school finance. Research in this field has meant fa methods of school support and a closer approach to the ideal of equal educational opportunity. 942 National Education Association 8. The most common words, the most useful arithmetic, the most mean¬ ingful history, have been discovered as a result of patient studies by such workers as Bonser, Bobbitt, Charters, Wilson, Horn, Rugg, and others. The movements of the eye in reading and of the hand in writing have been studied photographically by Dearborn, Judd, Buswell, TEACHING Freeman, and others. The inquiries of Counts, Glass, AND LEARNING Ayer, and many others have thrown light upon the proper allotment of time to the various studies. Many other important inquiries may be summarized in the statement that the curriculum is today in process of becoming a scientific document, utilizing the results of studies of the child as an individual, education as a process, and society as both cause and result of the two other factors. Meanwhile, the formulation of the ways in which learning occurs has shown us how this material may best be presented. 9. Early records of the National Education Association show a con¬ sistently growing confidence in educational research as a method of prog¬ ress. At its second meeting in 1858 the Association appointed a committee to study the views of educational leaders on the curriculum. In 1860 the Association urged the establishment of a bu- RESEARCH AND reau of educational statistics in the federal THE ORGANIZED government. Beginning in 1894 the Associa- TEACHING PROFESSION tion sponsored the activities of a series of important research committees. In 1896 the action of the board of directors in extending financial aid to educational investigations was approved. In 1917 it urged the application of school survey procedures in discovering points of strength and weakness in school systems. In 1922 the Association established a Research Division in its head¬ quarters staff. In 1930 the Association added a department of educational research as one of the units in its membership. The National Education Association may well take pride in its part in fostering educational research. Thru its meetings and its publications it has provided a channel for the exchange of views and findings. Thru the work of its committees and departments it has carried out important in¬ vestigations. Thru its resolutions it has given official recognition to the research viewpoint as the basis for educa- THE PART TAKEN BY tional progress. Thru its Research Divis- THE RESEARCH DIVISION ion it has achieved national leadership in the coordination and development of research activity. The foregoing brief review of certain definite contributions of re¬ search to educational progress supplies sufficient evidence of its usefulness and sufficient guarantee of its future application. The question then arises: How will research function in the future? How will it continue to contrib¬ ute to educational progress? In the first place, the further public recognition of educators as a com¬ petent professional body will grow with the continuous expansion of tested Associational Records and Information 943 knowledge about the educative process. When, for instance, a school official gives an opinion which is not based on assembled facts, he speaks merely as an individual. But when he bases his DEEP conclusions on reliable and tangible evidence, he speaks KNOWLEDGE with a professional authority which cannot be ignored. Knowledge confers on its possessor unique powers of leadership. Research is the tool by which we may broaden and deepen our knowledge of edu¬ cational processes, achievements, and shortcomings. In the last analysis, this is the only road to a substantial public respect and support for the schools. Second, the objective point of view will be characteristic of the entire teaching profession. All teachers and school officers will use research tech¬ nics continuously in the improvement of their work. Major research prob- lems and those which require highly specialized technics will be allotted to those whose special abilities, interests, and training qualify them for such work. Inaccurate research is a contradiction in terms. Research poorly done is usually worse than none at all. Like the surgeon s scalpel, research is a sharp and useful instrument, but in the hands of an unskilled user it may be dangerous or harmful. _ . Third, this specialization will not be allowed to isolate research in a vacuum apart from the rest of the school system. Research must remain keenly aware of the real and urgent problems of teaching and administra¬ tion, and must steadily direct its efforts toward their so- lution. This does not mean that the research problems of RESEARCH the future will be merely trivial bits of educational first CONTIN aid. On the contrary, educational research will reach out to anticipate problems and to prevent difficulties. The research program will not be a spasmodic attack on this or that immediate problem ; it will be a continuous and comprehensive service on which wise educational policies may be built. Fourth, educational research in the future will make contact with research in related’ fields. With the political scientist, the relation of public education to local, state, and federal governments will be investigated ; the educational psychologist will enter into a yet closer partnership with experts in biology, neurology, and similar re- ppcfarth lated fields ; the sociologist and the historian will SOCIAL RESEARCH join with the curriculum specialist in devising an . education which meets the real issues of human life and happiness. Such co¬ operation in research will help all concerned. Education is a social process and research in education must be increasingly well integrated with research in all other social sciences. Fifth, research in education will, in the future, be coordinated. Educa¬ tional research is now being carried on by individuals, normal schools,, col¬ leges and universities, educational boards and foundations, national societies of many kinds, accrediting agencies, city school systems, county school sys¬ tems, state school systems, state and national education associations, and halt 944 National Education Association a dozen different agencies of the federal government. In the future the effec¬ tiveness of these agencies will be greatly increased by the RESEARCH IN creation and support of centers for voluntary exchange THE FUTURE and dissemination of research projects and findings. These clearing-houses will probably operate along state, regional, and national lines, altho the exact form which they may take is not yet clear. Plainly, however, such a development will occur; in fact, it has al¬ ready been well inaugurated by the recent re-direction of the work of the United States Office of Education, by the research and consultative services of the National Education Association, by the new journal of the American Educational Research Association, and by similar state and regional activi¬ ties. The program just outlined means that research will become an indispen¬ sable factor in the improvement of education. Its achievements are only be¬ ginning. It will build for education a body of reliable information which will dignify and professionalize the work of every teacher. It will be con¬ ducted by men and women who, altho having thoro training in research technics, will also have the broadest possible view of education as a social process and of the school as an operating social institution. Educational re¬ search in the future will attack resolutely, cooperatively, continuously, and skillfully the urgent problems basic to educational planning. It will become one of the foundation stones on which the education of the future may be securely built. The Teacher Contribution The teachers of our nation have come to realize that the great steps in the improvement of the professional standing of the classroom teacher are largely due to the activities of teachers organizations, local, state, and national. Just as effective organization in the business world is the keynote of accomplish¬ ment, so teachers have learned to appreciate its value. THE TEACHER Never in the history of the profession has there been a SPIRIT time when the spirit which comes thru organized ef¬ fort has been so evident among teachers as during the past two years — years filled with uncertainty, with financial anxiety, and with added teaching duties. But even in the midst of these strenuous times thous¬ ands upon thousands of teachers have continued to work for self-improve¬ ment thru university study and in other ways. Today teachers know the feelings that our early settlers experienced when they were told to “hold the fort.” They are finding it necessary to hold the educational fort in these times of budget-balancing against the attacks which a people often “at their wits end” seem to think must be made in the name of economy. Within this educational fort we find rank after rank of earnest teachers assisting in every effort to make the fort unassailable. In seeking ways to economize many states and communities have found it necessary to reduce school expenditures and the teachers have been called on Associational Records and Information 945 to assume their share of the reduction. This they have done in a cooperative spirit where there seemed to be no other solution of the problem but these experiences have served to awaken them to the need of seeking a remedy. So we find the organized groups earnestly studying taxation problems and other economic questions as never before in order that they may demonstrate to the community their knowledge of problems that in the past have made adequate financing impossible. The teachers must find a way out if there is to be no serious lowering of educational standards. During this period of economic readjustment many teachers have assumed added financial responsibilities within their homes and in their communities. They have unselfishly and sympathetically devoted themselves to the welfare of children in their own THE CHILDREN schools and often thru the entire system. They have FIRST given loyal support to community welfare activities — the community chest and unemployment funds. In many cities they have assisted in the distribution of funds, clothing, and food. The gift of service and financial sacrifices which the teachers of the na¬ tion have made during these trying times constitute their pledge to the boys and girls in their classes that their opportunities shall not be curtailed. Children are passing now thru the very years that mark them indelibly. That their lives should not be thrown out of balance by fear and anxiety, it has been necessary for teachers GIFT OF SERVICE to give thought to counteracting the depression atmos¬ phere in the homes of many of their pupils. These situations the great ma¬ jority of teachers have met cheerfully. The teacher has been an example of cheerfulness and faith in God, in our country, in youth, and in the future. May we hope that as the economic fog clears, the sun of a bright tomorrow may beam upon all the schools of the land and, finding voice, shall say, “Well done; ye have kept the faith.” Educational Interpretation The present period of confusion has given powerful proof of the effective¬ ness of the work of the national, state, and local education associations during the past decade. The schools in America have suffered less than in any other leading country of the world. They have held their own better than any other major phase of American life. The surprising fact is not that there has been retrenchment but that the retrenchment has not been more widespread and more devastating. Perhaps 5000 WHAT HAS classrooms have been closed during the year for want of BEEN DONE funds but the outstanding fact is that 995,000 classrooms have gone steadily forward for all or a major portion of the year s work. The work which the National Education Association has done to enlist the profession, to spread information thru the Journal and other publications, to widen research, to encourage teachers to work on their problems, and to establish American Education Week, has already borne rich fruit in a fuller understanding of the schools. 946 National Education Association What has been done is merely a suggestion of what must be done if the schools are to hold their own and to move forward to the new policies and development demanded by the new conditions of American life. The time has come for a new point of view in educational interpretation. The schools need first to consider the things they can do of and by themselves , and second , the help which outside agencies can contribute. There is a tendency on the part of teachers to depend too much upon the super- THE WORK AHEAD intendent’s office and such outside agencies as the press, the radio, the movie, and service clubs. Impor¬ tant as are these contacts they are the lesser phase of educational interpre¬ tation. The greatest opportunity lies within the school system itself and the outside agencies can do their best service only as every teacher in the system is an informed and active interpreter of educational service. It is too much to expect outside agencies to carry the burden and to maintain a sufficiently constant emphasis on the important ideas and ideals to establish in the minds of the people an adequate appreciation of the educational services which they maintain in the interest of the children and the community. Among the things which the school organization can do to interpret edu¬ cation are the following : First , every school from kindergarten thru the university can teach its students the meaning of the school in ways within their range of understand¬ ing. It can help them to appreciate the fine points about our schools, the ways in which they are better than schools of other days and of other coun¬ tries. It can teach the facts about school organization and budget. It can help every child to understand just what his schooling INFORMATION is costing per year, per month, per day, or per hour. It FOR PUPILS can compare these costs with the cost of providing in¬ struction in music and dancing, or with the cost of attending picture shows and other entertainments. Such teaching can be woven into the instruction in all subjects. In the upper grades and in the high schools and colleges, specific courses, ranging from a few weeks to half a year, may be given in the history of education. If each of our million teachers would take some responsibility for this interpretation of the school to the young people who are still in school the effect on the next decade would be profound. Second , each teacher can develop the community of interest which natu¬ rally exists between him and the parents of the child for whose growth and development he is responsible. Let every teacher visit the home of every child represented in his classes. Let him express to the parents his deep inter¬ est in the child’s welfare. Let him discuss with them the child’s growth and development and describe what the school is attempting to do and express appreciation for what the home is doing. Let him find things in the child’s development to praise. Let him lead both parent and THE TEACHER child to think of the school as a place of happiness, op- AND THE HOME portunity, hard work, and wholesome play. The rearing of a child under the conditions of modern life is a joint Associational Records and Information 947 responsibility. It requires the combined efforts of the home, the school, and the community. When a teacher visits a home to inquire after the well¬ being of a child he is recognizing the importance of that home. He is empha¬ sizing the responsibility which the teacher holds for child welfare. He is giving the parent some of the expert knowledge of his profession and is get¬ ting from the parent some of the devotion and the affection which he has for his own flesh and blood. Were a million teachers to carry out such a policy for a single month the number of parents reached would be sufficient to determine American policy with reference to education. Third the schools can send regularly to parents letters, reports, and printed material to emphasize important points in the school’s service. Altho forms for reporting to parents have been greatly improved, there is still room for much development in this field. Just as banks and insurance companies have developed syndicated letters and circulars which are sent to patrons with monthly statements or insurance INFORMATION premiums, the school is in a position to reach all the FOR THE HOME homes directly. It would be possible to develop informa¬ tional letters W’hich teachers, principals, and superintendents could adapt to this purpose, to print attractive small leaflets which could be enclosed with these letters or with report cards so that there would be a steady stream of informative material reaching the people who are most interested in the work of the schools. Many schools are already rendering this service. The school system should see that teachers and principals take a larger part in the civic and community life outside the school. Teachers who read widely, who maintain contacts with the best leadership in the community, who take part in efforts to improve conditions, will grow in power and usefulness, and as their civic lead- LARGER PART IN ership wins appreciation, there will be increased re- COMMUNITY LIFE spect for the quality of their educational leadership. The school is at the very heart of community life. It cannot do its best or be its best except as teachers participate in and understand the economic, social, political, artistic, and spiritual life in which the children are growing up. The following plan is carried out in many of the leading schools of the nation : First, to hold a meeting of the superintendent and his associates with each group of principals, one meeting for elementary school principals, one for junior high school, and one for senior high school principals. At these meetings there is a concrete discussion of the things that can be done, when they can be done, and who is to do them. The primary emphasis is put on things which do not require much ex- A PLAN IN penditure of money. These conferences among principals ACTUAL USE prepare each principal to hold a conference with his teach¬ ers wherein plans are developed, so that each teacher will have specific things to do with preparation to do these things ; and second, each principal holds one or more conferences with members of the teaching staff in his school laying out projects, appointing committees to work out details, following 948 National Education Association up with other meetings until the year’s program of interpretation has been carefully worked out. As the program of interpretation is carried forward let enough informa¬ tion be included about state and national problems in education so that par¬ ents will understand the relation of their own school and community to nationwide movements to keep Children First and to improve American life. The important point is to have a few pivotal facts ALWAYS MAKE THE and to emphasize and reemphasize these facts until CHILDREN FIRST they are well established in the thinking of all the people. Do the people realize, for example, that in 1890 4 percent of the population of high school age was receiving school service, whereas today more than 50 percent of that population is receiving high school service? Do they understand that whereas teachers formerly were able to begin teaching with no special education, they are today expected to have at least four years beyond the high school? Do SIGNIFICANT they understand what the schools are doing to prepare QUESTIONS young people for health, for lifelong learning, for citizen¬ ship, for vocations, for leisure, for character? Do they appreciate the emphasis which schools now put upon attention to individual children? Have parents been personally conducted about the classrooms, laboratories, libraries, shops, and gardens by a pupil or teacher prepared to explain the significance of each of these phases of the school s educational program ? When the schools have done these things within the organization, when every teacher is equipped with the philosophy, a list of points, a body of facts, and is ready to proceed with joy to the interpretation of the school, the field has then been prepared for the interpretive activities which are associated with the newspaper, the radio, the talkie, service clubs, and other non-school agencies. Lay Support Essential The American public school system is the product of local initiative. In no other country in the world do the people themselves have so much voice in the conduct of their schools. Due largely to the growing complexity of education for modern life, people have gradually lodged with professional experts the organization and administration of schools, but they have re¬ mained fundamentally interested in the schools and are ready and eager to aid educational leaders when they are certain what THE PRODUCT OF their part is. It has been charged with considerable LOCAL INITIATIVE foundation by a president of a great lay organiza¬ tion that “teachers, themselves, are many times in¬ definite as to what, if anything, is expected of the public.” It is certain that from this day forward educators must take the public into consideration in all their planning, and ways and means must be found to carry the people with them every step of the way. For more than a decade, far-sighted lead- Associational Records and Information 949 ers of the profession, in books, in lay and educational periodicals, and from the platform, have sought to convince school people that the success of their programs depends upon their appeal to the public. A complete reversal in their policy of dealing with the public in the last quarter of a century is evidence that business and industry have discovered the value of cultivating friendly relations with the people. I ormerly a cus¬ tomer took what he could get, when and how he could get it. Now there is scarcely a business concern of any size that does not spend a considerable sum of money in maintaining ATTITUDE OF classes for the training of personnel so that the public THE PROFESSION may be tactfully, courteously, and efficiently served. TO THE PUBLIC Business has become ingenious in developing means of gaining the sympathetic attention of prospective buyers — the radio, direct- by-mail advertising, and even the airplane— have been used successfully in reaching the public ear. If business concerns have found it profitable to de¬ vote a fair portion of their energies in developing a friendly attitude toward their customers and in acquainting them with the superior quality of their goods, certainly school people should be even more diligent in pursuing a similar policy. # . , While not all educators have heeded the injunction of their leaders to strive for friendship and confidence of those who pay the school bill, it is encouraging that in many places steps have been taken which have gained and held the enthusiastic support of the public. While the efficient con¬ scientious, and effective work done by the teacher in the classroom will ever be the greatest means of gaining the confidence of ncpARTMFNT nF parents, it cannot be wholly relied upon to draw the ATTONS attention of the entire public to the aims and PUBLIC RELATIO achievements of the schools. The Department of Superintendence in its 1932 resolutions recommends “that departments of public relations, whether in a system so small, that the superintendent is the department, or in a city large enough to have its own organization be est^ " lished. Such a policy will be a legitimate and necessary source of friendli¬ ness between a public school system and the community which it serves. Departments of public relations are now a regular part of many school sys¬ tems and are indispensable in furnishing the public enlightening, accurate, and interesting information about the schools, to which it is entitled. . . The forward-looking superintendent no longer relies on a dry, uninspiring, statistical annual report to give taxpayers the necessary facts about the or¬ ganization, administration, and work of their schools. Today we find super¬ intendents’ reports enlivened with illustrations of work in the schools, and printed in an attractive form. One especially wide awake crwnni superintendent had his annual report made on glass slides, and by the means of a moving picture machine, a screen, and a pointer took his report to every parent- teacher association in his school district. Many superin- 950 National Education Association tendents have found it wise to carry the schools and their activities to the public more than one time during the year, and have supplemented annual reports with newspapers which carry current educational news of interest to teachers, parents, and others interested in the public schools. The classroom teacher has been described by one superintendent as the keystone in the arch of school publicity. Certainly she comes closer to the public than any others in the school system and has opportunities to form friendships with parents of the children she teaches, thus gaining the confi¬ dence of many influential citizens of the community. The personality, social qualities, poise, and dignity of teachers are standards by which laymen often judge the schools. Teachers, however, individually and THE TEACHER thru their professional organizations, are making a more AND THE LAITY aggressive contribution in acquainting the people with the needs of the schools. The fact that the laity of the nation has not been oblivious to the activities of the profession and has shown appreciation of the teaching service is a hopeful sign that laymen are begin¬ ning to understand their responsibilities toward public education. Many nationally organized groups of laymen are taking steps to arouse their indi¬ vidual members to the necessity of standing guard against a lowering of edu¬ cational standards in their communities. The program of the thirty-sixth annual convention of the National Con¬ gress of Parents and Teachers centered around the theme — “Safeguarding Childhood in this Crisis.” In resolutions adopted and in deliberations which extended over a week serious consideration was given the harmful effects of unnecessary reduction in school budgets on the future welfare of the youth of this country. The United States Commissioner of Education, Dr. William John Cooper, and the president of the Con- PARENT-TEACHER gress, Mrs. Hugh Bradford, spoke to the entire na- ASSOCIATIONS tion, over a coast-to-coast net work, on the need for safeguarding the interests — mental, moral, and phy¬ sical — of everjr child in the land. It is certain that these discussions imbued delegates, representing every state in the Union, with their own responsibil¬ ity in striving for adequate support of schools during this crisis, and that in the months ahead echoes of their activities will be heard in local communi¬ ties thruout the land. The General Federation of Women’s Clubs, the National Council of Jewish Women, the Supreme Council of Scottish Rite Masons of the South¬ ern Jurisdiction, and the American Federation of Labor are some other national groups that have likewise sought to acquaint their membership with the dangers confronting the schools at the present time, and to warn against ill-advised reductions of school funds. More OTHER ORGANIZATIONS and more it will become the duty of everyone INFORM THE PUBLIC connected with the schools, from the superin¬ tendent and board of education down to jani¬ tors and custodians, to inform the public concerning the work of the schools. Associational Records and Information 951 When this job has been thoroly done and people in every community fully understand the aims and objectives of their school leaders, many obstacles in the way of adequate school support which now seem insurmountable will vanish and the schools in prosperity and in depression will continue to fur¬ nish to society the type of education needed by every boy and girl. A Look Ahead The keynote of recovery from today’s conditions must be careful plan¬ ning in the light of facts and needs. At no point in our whole system is such planning more important than in the schools. The teacher is and must be the central figure during the present period of readjustment. The organ¬ ized profession has opportunities such as it never enjoyed before. Educa¬ tional research is growing stronger each year. The leadership of the pro¬ fession was never better prepared for its task. T'eachers are steadily grow ing in education and working power. The move¬ ment to interpret education to the public is gaining WHAT EACH CAN DO headway. Boards of education have never been more competent or loyal. Powerful lay support is available in every com¬ munity for the support of sound educational programs. The recovery from the present economic recession must inevitably be slow and gradual. The schools can help by placing their own houses in order, by recognizing the relation between taxation and the general economic life of the nation, and by insisting that the money which is spent for schools shall be spent with the utmost efficiency at the point where it will accomplish the greatest good. We have had already a large measure of success on that level of education which we call primary or elementary. Our greatest shortcomings are in secondary education. This will be the battleground of educational reform for the next quarter of a century. This secondary level has been too much influenced by the prestige of the institutions above. Our secondary schools have the special responsibility to make the citizens of American civilization more effective in understanding and controling constructively and cooper¬ atively the great social forces which now trouble us. Every genuine system of education is a response to individual and social need and aspiration. By studying today’s needs and arousing new and worthy ambitions and aspirations, teachers can turn the present situation into an asset. The mere fact of widespread unemployment in the midst of surplus food and materials suggests that society has now reached a point where it may give more of its attention to the human, the intellectual, and the spir¬ itual aspects of life. Under these new conditions vocational education and guidance assumes a place of increasing importance. Education for leisure be¬ comes imperative. The opportunity for an improved home and neighborhood life is a challenge to the best the schools have to offer. We are at the moment when the public will THE IMPROVED AMERICAN SYSTEM OF EDUCATION 952 National Education Association support educational leaders in the reconstruction of American education — in a reform which will more or less steadily rid us of the narrowly academic point of view and substitute the social point of view in its place. The social philosophy of American public education needs to be restated vigorously. It needs to be made clear to the rank and file of teachers and to the general public. Schools must aim at fully civilizing youth in the American way. They must make themselves the focal center for correlating and coordinat¬ ing the cultural and educational assets of all other educative institutions. They need to achieve a new internal unity of purpose and organization which will help to bring a new unity and purpose into our American civilized life. By continuing to work at their problems, by strengthening their prepara¬ tion as teachers, and by using their professional organizations to improve the service of the schools, teachers will turn present liabilities into assets. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON NECROLOGY CAROLINE S. WOODRUFF, PRINCIPAL, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, castleton, vt., Chairman The names of the following members of the profession who have passed away during the past year have been sent to the chairman from the various states. There are probably others which have not been reported. Refer to Miss Woodruff’s name in index for page on which her remarks in presenting the report of the Committee are printed. Corbett, V. H. Colorado Allen, Mary T. Andrews, Anna Beede, Frank H. Bunce, Helen J. Carter, Willis Case, Charlotte Clark, Elizabeth M. Coburn, Helen Jewett, Mrs. Margaret W. Graves, Mrs. Clara B. Allison, S. B. Beyer, Samuel W. Bruhn, Emma C. Collins, Mrs. Susan Conger, Mrs. Elma R. Crossley, Lillian L. Crowl, Merton Delarue, Edith E. Derby, Ladoit Dickman, J. W. Eason, Emma Gibson, Lizzie L. Griffin, Mrs. Adelia Frances Hawk, Mrs. Z. T. Heald, Albert P. Hocker, F. P. Jamison, Myrtle Connecticut Daudey, Anna D. Ela, Mabel H. Everett, Sarah Hall, Laura B. Hibbert, Thomas Hodgson, Dorothy Johnson, M. Josephine Kelley, Genevieve M. Illinois Indiana Iowa Johnston, Arnold V. King, Carrie Kingsley, Alice L. Kolb, Josephine Lapham, J. A. Logan, Erma Zelda Loughridge, Mrs. Elizabeth Griffith Love, C. L. Lucas, Mary R. Lyon, Charles Wesley McKee, Margaret A. McKenzie, Letha Martin, Rhea Le Noir Miller, George I. Moser, W. C. Laussier, Marie A. Meehan, Nora B. Miller, Mabelle E. Parker, Ida B. Penrose, John Taylor, Viola Van Syckle, J. F. Northrup, Marian Oates, Josephine O’Donnell, Mrs. Edward J. Parsons, William E. Roach, Charles Sipple, E. M. Sloght, Wm. E. Smith, Lillie B. Smith, O. E. Thompson, Ethel G. Tingley, Hazel Walters, Mrs. Florence Warrick, Georgianna Wassam, Clarence W. Welch, A. Wright, David Sands Associational Records and Information 953 McConnell, W. W. Condon, Randall J. Lovejoy, Sara C. Burke, Jeremiah E. Addison, Christine Alber, Amelia J. Alward, Elizabeth Alwynse, Gertrude M. Amos, Ida Mildred Andrews, Peter J. Anthony, Mabel Baetcke, Winifred Sample Baker, Dorothy D. Belford, Mrs. Katherine Besley, Miriam A. Bishop, Doris R. Bjerklien, Irene Brothers. Mrs. Florence Brown, George A. Buckley, Josephine Calahan, Katherine Carlson, Caroline E. Carter, Mrs. Sadie Lovelace Chase, Chas. N. Clark, Harry J. Coller, Mrs. Minnie Coming, Mildred A. Covert, Ida M. Creswell, Mrs. Cornelia Deery, Mary Dervin, Mrs. Ann Duchin, Rose Edwards, Mrs. Katherine Ewing, Dorothy Fell, David J. Fink, Mrs. Jessie M. Fitzgerald, Catherine A. Ford, Mrs. Loletia Foster, Charles E. French, Frank W. Ginn, Agnes . Girardin, Elizabeth J. Gower, Cornelius A. Grainger, Mrs. Isabel Anson Gwinn, Mrs. Austin Baer, Alva A. Bajeck, Janet Baker, Mrs. Minnie Beattie, J. A. Buss, Ida Bute, Clarence Corbett, Virginia H. Cowan, Nettie DeWeese, Creola Eveland, Gertrude Hays, Adelta Holmes, E. P. Ireland, W. B. Jackson, Louise iepsen, Esther [auffman, Barbara Kelley, Roy V. Kennedy, Minnie Kansas Maine Maryland Massachusetts Kallom, Arthur W. Michigan Hall, Mrs. Sarah Hamlin, Frank A. Harkema, Richard Hatch, Blanche M. D. Hawkins, Mrs. Mabel Heath, Mrs. Helen Hickok, Daniel Hill, Laura Hills. Gertrude Hilton, Max Holden, Mrs. Della R. Holland, Cora E. Hootman, Emma L. Howes, Mary Hubbard, Edwin E. Hueber, Mrs. Ruth Windsor Jacoby, Mrs. Vina Willett Jaeck, Ora Mabel Janowitz, Betty Jones, Mrs. E. H. Kahler, Harold D. Keeney, Emma L. Kempster, Mrs. Ruth C. Kennedy, Geraldine Kirby, W. G. Kling, Emeline Lake, Jas. G. Laughray, Mrs. Marian Hub¬ bard Livingston, Caroline Lockwood, Mrs. Mary Ann Ludden, Anna G. Lunger, Ray C. Lusk, Freda B. McSweeney, Katherine Marsh, E. O. May, Lulu Mead, Clara L. Meirer, Margaret Merrihew, Mrs. Ann Modlin, Lena A. Nebraska Kennedy, Louisa Kinnick, Claude Lindsay, Charles Lindstrom, Mrs. Bertha McHugh, Kate Mackin, Marie Majors, T. J. Martindale, Mrs. Dorothy D. Broadwater Miller, Margaret Montgomery, F. W. Moore, Linnie Mortensen, Gertrude Muhm, John R. Orrnsby, Mildred Parriott, Irene Kirker Prouse, Edythe Reilly, Claire Lyon, Mrs. Mabel H. Montgomery, J. B. Newell, Elnora Newkirk, Nellie Nichols, Florence Pennell, Mrs. Josephine Randolph, Mrs. Olive Patterson Raymond, Mrs. Emma V. Rector, Lillian Reilley, Beatrice Rosenquest, Irene Gardner Satterlee, Mrs. Maud N. Sawyer, Vernon Schick, Louise Schultz, Arthur F. Scoutten, Margaret Sheehan, Genevieve Shotwell, Ambrose Smith, Anna M. Standish, Mrs. Mary Stuart Stauffer, James B. Stephens, John W. Sterling, Wellington D. Stone, Mrs. Vesta Strack, Ella Townsend, Mrs. Teresa Tripp, Percy E. Vanderveen, Frances C. Ward, Lewis Warner, Florence West, Mary Weter, Grace Willett, Verna Wilson, Mrs. Earl Wilson, Margaret L. Winchester, Birdenia Winn, Marian Winter, Mrs. Mollie Woodley, O. I. Yunck, Mrs. Helen Whalen Rhodes, John L. Robertson, Olive Roseberry, Mrs. Helen Salmen, Hazel Schulke, August Secord, Mrs. Elizabeth N. Shellenberger, James K. Shugart, Nettie Singer, Myrtle Stern, Alma Stoetzer, F. J. Sumner, Lulu Sutton, H. Wakelin, Nina Wicks, L. C. Wightman, Anderson Robert Williams, Isabelle Wood, Edna 954 National Education Association Cotton, Carl Bickett, William J. McCarthy, Agnes E. Brawley, James Pagan Carter, Margaret Inez Phillips, J. J. Black, Ralph K. Bonney, Clyde T. Bushnell, Hazel Byland, O. H. Crofoot, Mrs. Beatrice Barnes, Harold Derricotte, Juliette A. Cousins, R. B. Glass, E. C. Beaumont, Amanda Lee Arnold, Mrs. Frank Ball, Asher Beach, William H. Bingham, Helen Bostwick Breitinger, Grant Bristol, Elsey Lois Brown, Eleanor Busack, Anna Buuck, Frederick C. Caine, Mary Carter, Alice Grace Carver, Dora E. Cassidy, Ann Chamberlain, J. H. Clough, W. G. Collins, Genevieve Conners, Mrs. Joseph Daley, Mrs. Loureen Cecil Darlington, Lena A. Dixon, Mrs. Louise Smith Dixon, Martha Dodge, Benoni L. Dopprich, Emma Drew, Janet M. Durand, Mrs. Alida G. Ellis, Milton Fauska, Edna Feeney, Kate H. Ferguson, Mrs. Boyd L. Filtz, Helen R. Fitzgerald, Josephine Foster, Ida Foster, Mrs. Jennie A. New Hampshire New Jersey New York North Carolina Morris, Myrla Seymour, Mary Francis Ohio Oregon Downing, Edna Fairfoull, Mrs. Florence Jackson, Mrs. Hazel Jensen, P. L. Jewett, Mary Pennsylvania Matheson, Kenneth G. Tennessee Texas Horn, P. W. Virginia West Virginia Wisconsin Gawthrop, Mrs. Amy Ross Gibbon, Minnie Giller, Jane Glass, Mrs. Lenice E. Goe, Martha Goetsch, Herman Gotham, E. C. Greenleaf, Mrs. Jeanne Harouel Groves, Mrs. Ivan Gullickson, Ida Gurholt, R. E. Hannan, Mary E. Hanrahan, Frank Hayes, Elizabeth M. Herbert, Mrs. Mildred Vivian Herbert, Vivian Hermley, Elizabeth Hoffmeyer, Frederick A. Hofstatter, Mrs. William T. Houghton, Frank W. Johnson, Dorothy Jones, Ella Jones, Harrison J. Katz, Mrs. Nellie Kearney, Thomas M. Kelly, Mary Kispert, George J. Knezel, Mrs. Esther Koenig, Ella Kroes, Eva Lake, Lucinda Wray, Joe S. Young, Leila Kimball, Julia M. Morton, Lucy B. Porter, Fannie G. Pratt, S. I. Simpson, Nina B. Marrs, S. M. N. Lamb, Caroline S. Lane, Grace Larson, Walter E. La Rue, Edith La Valle, Mrs. Nora Leonard, S. A. Luebke, Emma McCutcheon, Mary Magee, Herman J. Manning, Mrs. Rose Martin, Thomas B. Matthaeus, Mrs. Mary Mills, Mrs. Sarah I. Moerschel, Jacob Moran, Katherine Morgan, Lotta Moss, Lily Nash, Mrs. Mary Neef, Mrs. H. Newser, Elsie O’Connor, Lillia O’Connor, Mary Olsen, Martha K. O’Malley, Mrs. Adeline O’Shea, Michael Vincent Pauli, Hazel M. Pennington, Mrs. Lena Cramer Adams Reiger, Emily M. Reineck, Charles Roe, Nettie Roen, Lena Roman, Marie Associational Records and Information 955 Rouse, J. D. Ryan, Katherine E. Salisbury, Decima Salzman, Gertrude Marie Sanford, George E. Schaekel, Mrs, Otto Schaub, Albert E. Schloemer, Marie Schofield, Mrs. Harvey Schulz, Kermit Shields, George K, A. Silbeck, Ted Smith, Mrs. Amanda Ida Smith, Charles Foster Sobieski, Agnes Stangel, Charles J. Stewart, Sue Sturtevant, Mrs. Warren E. Sullivan, Mrs. Francis J. Taggart, Mrs. Frederick Taggart, Mrs. Louise H. Thackery, Glen H. Tickard, Lula Trettin, Carl Turner, Frederick Jackson Verbeck, Henry Clinton Welch, Harold Wells, Mrs. Alta Banker Wiswall, Edwin Clark Wiswall, Zilla E. Witt, Robert Wof, Paula Wolfe, Edna Ida Woy, Frank P. Wright, William Youker, Mrs. Mary Young, Mrs. James G. 956 National Education Association THE TWELFTH REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY Delegates who attended the seventieth annual meeting of the National Education Assocta- ♦Inn {^Atlantic City New Jersey, June 25-July 1, 1932. The classification of positions in¬ cludes (1) directors’ and supervisors, (2) superintendents, (3) principals, (4) classroom teachers, (5) college and normal school presidents, (6) educational editors and secretaries, and (7) ex-officio members. ALABAMA Findlay, Elsie (Teacher), 1331 South Thirty- fourth Street, Birmingham; Birmingham Teachers Association. Findlay, Mary (Teacher), 1331 South Thirty- fourth Street, Birmingham; Birmingham Teachers Association. McGehee, Laura (Teacher), 101 Second Ave¬ nue, Pratt City, Birmingham; Birmingham Teachers Association. ni. .. ., McGlathery, E. S. (Teacher), 941 North Fifty-second Way, Birmingham; Alabama Education Association. Norton, H. B. (Principal), 501 South Eight¬ ieth Street, Birmingham; Birmingham Teachers Association. Ozier, W. C. (Principal), 2129 Pike Avenue, Ensley; Birmingham Teachers Association Reagan, W. A. (Principal), 2312 Seventeenth Street, Ensley; Alabama Education Asso¬ Sanders, Augusta (Teacher), 2745 Pike Ave¬ nue, Ensley; Birmingham Teachers Asso¬ ciation. v . Sanders, E. O. (Principal), 2745 Pike Ave¬ nue, Ensley; Birmingham Teachers Asso¬ ciation. . . .. Vaughan, Joseph T. (Principal), 5521 First Avenue, South, Birmingham; Birmingham Teachers Association. Williams, J. D. (ex officio), Principal, Avon¬ dale School, Birmingham. ALASKA Beck, E. J. (Superintendent of Schools), Nome; Alaska Educational Association. Rasmussen, Axel (ex officio), Superintendent of Schools, Public School, Wrangell. Rinden, Lloyd (Teacher), High School, Douglas; Alaska Educational Association. ARIZONA Loper, Ellen H. (Secretary), 823 North First Avenue, Phoenix; Arizona Education Asso¬ ciation. _ . Loper, John D. (Superintendent of Schools), Phoenix ; Arizona Education Association.. Mathews, A. J. (President Emeritus), Ari¬ zona State Teachers College, Tempe; Ari¬ zona Education Association. Mathews, Mrs. Carrie L. (Teacher), Tempe; Arizona Education Association. Mullen, J. O. (ex officio), Superintendent of Schools, Jerome. Wivel, C. B. (Superintendent of Schools), Tempe; Arizona Education Association. ARKANSAS Bryant, Mrs. Mattie Hawley (Principal), El Dorado; Arkansas Education Associa¬ tion. Davis, Pearl (Secretary), State Department of Education, Little Rock; Arkansas Edu¬ cation Association. Hall, William F. (Supervisor of Elementary Schools), State Department of Education, Little Rock; Arkansas Education Associa¬ tion. Hirst, C. M. (ex officio), State Commissioner of Public Instruction, Little Rock. Hirst, Mrs. C. M. (Teacher), 5412 “U” Street, Little Rock; Arkansas Education Association, McClurken, Mrs. Eva (Principal), Elemen¬ tary School, Cato; Arkansas Education Association. Riggs, R. L. (Superintendent), School for the Deaf, Little Rock; Arkansas Education Association. CALIFORNIA Adams, Frank G. (Vice-Principal), 6407 Regent Street, Oakland; Oakland Teachers Association. Alvord, Mrs. Ane L. (Supervisor), 2003 Bar¬ rett Avenue, Richmond; Richmond Teach¬ ers Association. Alway, Harry G. (Teacher), 914 Seventeenth Street. San Diego; San Diego Teachers A ccnr 1 7K on Anderson, Nora (Teacher), 1511 Jackson Street, Oakland; Oakland Teachers As¬ sociation. .... Averill, Beulah (Principal), Box 19, Winton; California Teachers Association. Babcock, Mrs. Annie R. (Principal), 71 Humboldt Street, Willits; California Teachers Association. . Badgley, lima (Teacher), 1961 Mann Ave¬ nue, Berkeley; Oakland Teachers Associa- Ball0" Cornelia E. (Supervisor), 103 Court House, Bakersfield; California Teachers Association. . N Aj. . Ball, I. Grace (Supervisor), 1358 Atchison Street, Pasadena; Pasadena Teachers As¬ sociation. „ Boyd, Mrs. Louise (Teacher), 565 East L Street, Wilmington; Los Angeles City Teachers Club. Brackney, Mrs. Alberta (Teacher), 2401 West Sixth Street, Los Angeles; High School Teachers Association of Los An¬ geles City. . ... Browne, E. C. (Principal), Placerville, California Teachers Association. Bussell, Florence (Nurse), 121 East Eleventh Street, Oakland; Oakland Teachers As¬ sociation. v .. Chaim, Henry I. (Teacher), 1735 Van Ness Avenue, San Francisco; California Teach¬ ers Association. Clark, Augustina (Teacher), 184 Thirteenth Street, Oakland; Oakland Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Cloud, Roy W. (Executive Secretary), Cali¬ fornia Teachers Association, 155 Sansome Street, San Francisco; California Teachers Association. Combatalade, Celine (Teacher), 2300 Van Ness Avenue, San Francisco; San Fran¬ cisco Classroom Teachers Association. Corson, Frances (Teacher), 1436 North Baker Street, Santa Ana; California Teachers Association. . Coward. Beulah B. (Assistant Supervisor), 607 Mound Avenue, South Pasadena; Cali¬ fornia Teachers Association. Associational Records and Information 957 Croad, J. Russell (Principal), Sierra Ele¬ mentary School, Sacramento; California Teachers Association. Curley. Laura (Teacher), 1121 Trestle Glen Road, Oakland; California Teachers As¬ sociation. Duden, Alice (Teacher), 1329 Madison Street, Oakland; Oakland Teachers Association. Dutcher, Mrs. Agnes W. (Teacher), 265 “L” Street, Livermore; California Teachers Association. Elledge, Mrs. Fay (President), Pasadena Teachers Association, 133 South Hudson Street, Pasadena; Pasadena Teachers As¬ sociation. Erickson, Mrs. Maude W. (Teacher), 1440 West Sixtieth Street, Los Angeles; High School Teachers Association of Los An¬ geles. Farr, Jessie V. (Teacher), 400 West Adams Street, Los Angeles; High School Teachers Association of Los Angeles. Farwell, Nina M. (Teacher), 2205 Stuart Street. Berkeley; California Teachers As¬ sociation. Feibush. Bertha (Teacher), 557 Thirty-third Street, Oakland; Oakland Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Ferguson, Olive E. (Teacher). 1456 Jones Street. San Francisco; Berkeley Teachers Association. Fitter, Ruth (Teacher), 4016 Coolidge Ave¬ nue. Oakland; California Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Fleming, Odd Booth, 132 North Common¬ wealth Avenue. Los Angeles. Frank, Maxine (High-School Teacher), 216 North Beachwood Street, Los Angeles; California Teachers Association. Freeman, Hazel H. (Teacher), 1011 Asbury Street, San Jose; Santa Clara County Teachers Association. French, Beth Harris (Teacher), 603 South Freeman Street, Oceanside; California Teachers Association. French, H. K. (Teacher). Oceanside; San Diego County Teachers Association. Gardner. J. N. (Teacher), 2168 Fourth Ave¬ nue. Sacramento; California Teachers As¬ sociation. Gibson, Eva (Teacher), 2491 Ellsworth Street. Berkeley; Berkeley Teachers As¬ sociation. Goesch, Albert O. (Teacher) 1141 Excelsior Avenue, Oakland; Oakland Teachers As¬ sociation. Gwinn, Joseph Marr (ex officio). Superin¬ tendent of Schools. San Francisco. Hanna. Howard J. (Teacher), 2440 Crenshaw Boulevard, Los Angeles; Hip;h School Teachers Association of Los Angeles. Harper, Elizabeth (Teacher), Placerville; California Teachers Association. Hart, Adelaide (Teacher), 7850 Sunset Boule¬ vard, Hollywood; High School Teachers Association of Los Angeles. Hatch, I. C. (Principal), 142 Hugo Street, San Francisco; San Francisco Principals Association. Hawkinson, Wendell P. (Vice-Principal), 936 West Flora Street, Stockton; Stockton Elementary Teachers Association. Heald, Camilla (Teacher), 297 South Ninth Street, San Jose; California Teachers As¬ sociation. Herrington, Katie (Teacher), 819 Lincoln Way, Auburn; California Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Highfill, Floyd J. (Teacher), 1310 Armacost Avenue, West Los Angeles; High School Teachers Association of Los Angeles. Hilditch, Isabella H. (Vice-Principal), 724 “B” Avenue, National City; San Diego County Teachers Association. Holen, C. E. (Teacher), 306 Pleasant Street, Roseville; California Teachers Associa¬ tion. Howland, Mrs. Madeline S. (Teacher), 3535 East First Street, Long Beach; Long Beach City Teachers Club. Howland, Stanley F. (Principal), 3535 East First Street, Long Beach; Long Beach City Teachers Club. Jacobsen. Christine A. (Teacher), 1320 West Forty-first Place, Los Angeles; Los An¬ geles City Teachers Club. Jenkins, Anna Irene (Teacher), 344 South Boule Avenue, Los Angeles; California Teachers Association. Johnston, Olive S. (Teacher), 628 East Sola Street, Santa Barbara; Santa Barbara City Teachers Club. Jones, Mrs. Eugenia West (Teacher), . 318 South Benton Way, Los Angeles; Califor¬ nia Teachers Association. Kelley, Viola (Teacher), 1706 Golden Gate Avenue, San Francisco; California Teach¬ ers Association. Kirk, lone (President). 115 Grand Avenue, Ocean Park; Los Angeles Kindergarten Club. Lages. Dora (Teacher). 311 Lester Avenue, Oakland; Oakland Teachers Association. LeSeur, Margaret (Teacher), 1380 Monterey Boulevard, San Francisco; San Francisco Classroom Teachers Association. Lewin, Lillie (Research Department), 150 Page Street, San Francisco; California Teachers Association. Lord, Lena L., Santa Monica. Mallory. Gertrude (Teacher), 443 North Ave¬ nue Fifty-six, Los Angeles; High School Teachers Association of Los Angeles. Martin, Frederick F. (ex officio), Superin¬ tendent of Schools. Santa Monica. Melkonian. Bertha (Teacher), 510 Twenty- second Avenue, San Francisco; San Fran¬ cisco Classroom Teachers Association. Merchant, Lulu (Teacher), 437 Perkins Street, Oakland; California Teachers As¬ sociation. Mitchell, Evelyn (Teacher), 470 Chetwood Street, Oakland; Oakland Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Moffat, Mrs. Irene M. (Teacher), 1323 In¬ diana Avenue, South Pasadena; Los An¬ geles City Teachers Club. Montgomery, Robert I. (Viceprincipal), Han¬ ford; California Teachers Association. Moss, Mrs. Portia F. (County Superintend¬ ent), Auburn; California Teachers Asso¬ ciation. . Muller, Edgar E. (Principal), 3909 Linwood Avenue, Oakland; California Teachers As¬ sociation. Norton, Mrs. Alice R. (Principal), 378 Golden Gate Avenue, San Francisco; San Francisco Classroom Teachers Association. Ott, Eva (Teacher), 61 Agnes Street, Oak¬ land; Oakland Teachers Association. Peterson, Russell (Teacher), 671 South Wood Avenue, Los Angeles; High School Teach¬ ers Association of Los Angeles. Platt, Laura (Secretary), 1730 Morris Ave¬ nue, Modesto; California Teachers Asso¬ ciation. 958 National Education Association Platt, Mrs. Mollie S. (Rural Supervisor), 1730 Morris Avenue, Modesto; Stanislaus County Teachers Association. Pool, Alma (Teacher), 1375 North Yosemite Street, Stockton; California Teachers As¬ sociation. Powell, Mrs. Annette (Teacher), 2510 Twenty-fifth Avenue, Oakland; Oakland Teachers Association. Powell, Elizabeth (Teacher), 426 Lester Street, Oakland; Oakland Teachers As¬ sociation. Power, Frances (Teacher), 4016 Coolidge Avenue, Oakland; Oakland Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Prall, Mrs. Ida Snell (Teacher), 5137 Merid¬ ian Street, Los Angeles; High School Teachers Association of Los Angeles. Reuter, William (Teacher), 2602 Holt Ave¬ nue, Los Angeles; High School Teachers Association of Los Angeles. Rice, Delight (Teacher), 2149 Blake Street, Berkeley; Berkeley Teachers Association. Roberts, Olga (Teacher), 3630 Mt. View Avenue, Mar Vista; Los Angeles City Teachers Club. Robertson, Mrs. Marjorie S. (Teacher), 50 Hernandez Avenue, Los Gatos; California Teachers Association. Robison, Fae (President), 203 West Maple Street, Glendale, Glendale City Teachers Club. Rogers, Harry (Teacher), 1741 East Orange Grove, Pasadena; High School Teachers Association of Los Angeles. Rowell. Virginia (Teacher), 200 West One Hundred Seventh Street, Los Angeles; High School Tea'chers Association of Los Angeles. Sands, Elizabeth (Principal), 1136 Fair Oaks Avenue, South Pasadena; Elementary Prin¬ cipals Club of Los Angeles. Shaw, Albert M. (Teacher), 2833 Estara Ave¬ nue, Los Angeles; High School Teachers Association of Los Angeles. Sherfey, Alice (Teacher), 2431 Oregon Street, Berkeley; Berkeley Teachers Association. Smith, Nina Grace (Teacher), 511 East Sixth Street, Los Angeles; Los Angeles City Teachers Club. Snow, Irene (Principal), 2270 Main Street, Napa; California Teachers Association. Stevens, Mrs. Kathleen H. (Teacher), 202 Trinity Building, Los Angeles; Los An¬ geles City Teachers Club. Stone, Nell (President), 1472 University Avenue, Berkeley; Alameda County Educa¬ tional Association. Taylor, Inez (President of Elementary Teachers Club), 1040 North Lake Street, Pasadena; Paasdena Teachers Association. Toomey, Mrs. Gladys (Teacher), 1027 Ox¬ ford Street, Berkeley; California Teachers Association. Underwood, Lillian (Teacher), 2528 Etna Street, Berkeley; Oakland Teachers As¬ sociation. Walton, Elizabeth H., San Diego. Walton, Thomas A. (Teacher), 2526 Pamo Avenue, San Diego; California Teachers Association. Washburn, E. E. and Mrs. (Teacher), 4025 Brighton Avenue, Oakland; Oakland Teachers Association. Waterman, Ivan R. (Division Chief), State Department of Education, Sacramento; California Teachers Association. Weise, Charles A. (Superintendent of Schools), Tustin; California Teachers As¬ sociation. Wenzel, Elizabeth E. (Teacher), 1100 Niles Street, Bakersfield; Bakersfield Teachers Club. Willis, Mrs. Fern Clark (Teacher), 3742 South Wilton Place, Los Angeles; Los Angeles City Teachers Club. Windmiller, L. L. (Teacher), 322 Merritt Street, Turlock; Stanislaus County Teach¬ ers Association. Yerge, Clyde S. (Teacher), 2616 Harrison Street, Oakland; Oakland Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Zimmerman, Bruce L. (Principal), 2452 Vir¬ ginia Street, Berkeley; Berkeley Teachers Association. Alternates who attended: Mary Arlene Brady, San Francisco. Mrs. Eva M. Histed, Long Beach. Hallie G. Schilling, Tulare, California. COLORADO Andrews, S. M. (Superintendent of Schools), Walsenburg; Colorado Education Associa¬ tion. Blaine, W. D. (Superintendent of Schools), Longmont; Colorado Education Associa¬ tion. Bradford, Lenore (Teacher), 611 Marine Street, Boulder; Boulder Community As¬ sociation. Bradford, Mrs. Mary C. C. (ex officio), 5069 Newton Street, Denver. Brennicke, Pearl M. (Teacher), 2215 West Colorado Avenue, Colorado Springs; Colo¬ rado Springs Classroom Teachers Associa¬ tion. Brown, Richard R. (Teacher), 1157 Garfield Street, Denver; Denver Classroom Teach¬ ers Association. Burgess, Grace E. (Teacher), 142 West Cedar Avenue, Denver; Denver Classroom Teachers Association. Clark, Mrs. Mabel F. (Teacher), 2810 Dah¬ lia Street, Denver; Denver Classroom Teachers Association. Conboy, Irene (Teacher), 418 Broadway, Sterling; Colorado Education Association. Cornish, Lydia R. (Principal), 2105 South Clayton Street, Denver; Administrative Women in Education. Dugdale, Lee A. (Teacher). 1330 South Josephine Street, Denver; Denver Class¬ room Teachers Association. Ellinwood, L. E. (Superintendent of Schools), Peyton; Colorado Education Association. Ferguson, Elizabeth (Teacher), 1383 South University Street, Denver; Denver Class¬ room Teachers Association. Force, Anna Laura (Principal), 2254 Lowell Boulevard, Denver; Colorado Education Association. Gruenler, Arthur M. (President), 1175 South Corona Street, Denver; Denver Teachers Club. Hall, Dorothy (President), 703 Polk Street, Pueblo; Pueblo Classroom Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Harrington, Mary Lyons (Teacher), 1251 Clarkson Street. Denver; Colorado Edu¬ cation Association. Johnson, Lillian M. (Teacher), 106 East Jefferson Street, Colorado Springs; Colo¬ rado Springs Classroom Teachers Associa¬ tion. Lafferty, Edith (Teacher), 2308 Birch Street, Denver; Denver Classroom Teach¬ ers Association. Lewis, Mrs. Inez Johnson (ex officio), State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Den¬ ver. Associational Records and Information 959 McFarland, A. J. (County Superintendent), La Junta; Colorado Education Associa¬ tion. McFarland, Mrs. Blanche B. (Teacher), Rocky Ford; Rocky Ford Community Edu¬ cation Association. Mooney, W. B. (ex officio), Secretary, Colo¬ rado Education Association, 530 Common¬ wealth Building, Denver. Mosher, Abbie (Teacher), Hotel Crest, Den¬ ver; Denver Classroom Teachers Associa¬ tion. Patton, C. E. (Principal). County High School, Wray; Colorado Education Asso¬ ciation. Porter, Maude B. (Teacher), 2575 Dahlia Street, Denver; Denver Classroom Teach¬ ers Association; second alternate. Read, Faye (Teacher), 131 Vernon Place, Pueblo; Pueblo Classroom Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Ritter, Gladys E. (Teacher), 608 East Twelfth Avenue, Denver; Denver Class¬ room Teachers Association. Smith, Florence (Teacher), 2135 South Columbine Street, Denver; Denver Class¬ room Teachers Association; first alternate. Smith, Frances (Teacher), 502 Broadway, Sterling; Federated Teachers Club. Smith, Margaret A. (Teacher), 1507 Park Avenue, Denver; Denver Classroom Teach¬ ers Association. Smith, Margaret Mendenhall (Principal), 1522 Lafayette Street, Apt. C, Denver; Colorado Education Association. Smith, Mrs. Ruby M. (Teacher), 429 East Fourteenth Avenue, Denver; Denver Classroom Teachers Association. Tomlinson, James L. (High-School Teach¬ er), 2413 Grand Avenue, Pueblo; Pueblo Education Association, District Number 1. Trekell, Mrs. Florence (Teacher), 521 Pearl Street, Denver; Denver Classroom Teach¬ ers Association. Walters, R. J. (Dean), College of Liberal Arts, University of Denver, Denver; Colo¬ rado Education Association. CONNECTICUT Butterfield, Ernest W. (ex officio). State Commissioner of Education, Hartford. Clarkin, Mary E. (Teacher), 1197 West Main Street, Waterbury; Waterbury Teachers Association. Fitzgerald, Joseph A. (Principal), 359 Thompson Avenue, East Haven, New Haven Teachers League. Gray, Margaret (Teacher), 188 Four Mile Road, West Hartford; Connecticut State Teachers Association. Hubbard, Charlotte (Teacher), 31 Dwight Street, New Haven; Connecticut State Teachers Association. Jennings. Margaret R. (Teacher), Silver- mine Avenue, Norwalk; Norwalk Teach¬ ers Association. Johnson, Edwin W. (Supervisor), 42 Beards¬ ley Park Terrace. Bridgeport; Bridgeport Teachers Association. Kenefick, Margaret R. C. (Teacher), 39 Lilley Road, West Hartford; Connecticut State Teachers Association. Lockhart, Charles E. (High-School Teach¬ er), 96 York Square, New Haven; New Haven Teachers League. Nieviedzal, Rose (Teacher), R. F. D., Put¬ nam; Connecticut State Teachers Associa¬ tion. O’Meara, Stanley R. (Department Head), 34 Essex Street, Bridgeport; Bridgeport Teachers Association. Patterson, Thomas H. (Principal), 131 Stearns Street, Bristol; Connecticut State Teachers Association. Sambrook, William H. (Supervisor), 523 Camden Street, Devon; Stratford Teachers Association. Shearer, Fred W. (President), Superintend¬ ent of Schools, Middletown; Connecticut State Teachers Association. Swift, Gordon C. (ex officio), Superintendent of Schools, Watertown. Underwood, Homer K. (Principal), Bulkeley High School, New London; Connecticut State Teachers Association. Ziegra, Clara C. (Teacher), 48 High Street, Deep River; Connecticut State Teachers Association. DELAWARE Heim, R. W. (Director). State Board of Vocational Education, Newark; Delaware State Education Association. Holloway, H. V. (ex officio). State Superin¬ tendent of Public Instruction, Dover. Kennan, Richard (Superintendent of Schools), Georgetown; Delaware State Education Association. Little, Lora H. (Principal), Stanton; Dela¬ ware State Education Association. Parsons. James (Teacher). Hockessin; Dela¬ ware State Education Association. Stouffer, S. M. (Superintendent of Schools), 3H Citv Building. Wilmington; Delaware State Education Association. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA Cooper, William John (ex officio), United States Commissioner of Education, Wash¬ ington. Crabtree, T. W. (ex officio), 1201 Sixteenth Street. N. W.. Washington. Egbert. Fr^da A. (Teacher), Eastern High School, Washington; High School Teach¬ ers Association. Elv S. M. (Supervising Principal), Emery School. Washington; Education Associa¬ tion of the District of Columbia. Grosvenor. Edith Louise (ex officio). Apt. No. 73, The Iowa, Washington. Huff. Mrs. Daisie I. (Teacher), Business High School. Washington; High School Teachers Association. Keliher, Annie C. (Teacher), 1555 Forty- fourth Street. N. W.. Washington; Educa¬ tion Association of the District of Colum¬ bia. Lucas. M. Grant (Principal). 1738 Fifteenth Street, N. W., Washington; Columbian F.ducational Association. Watkins. Catherine (Kindergarten Director), 2120 P Street. N W.. Washington; Educa¬ tion Association of the District of Colum¬ bia. Williams. Chari O. (ex officio), 1201 Six¬ teenth Street, N. W., Washington. FLORIDA Abee, Edwina (Teacher). George Washington T"nior High School, Tampa; Tampa Teachers Club. Bird, C. S. (Principal), 1515 Penrose, At¬ lantic C., Miami; Florida Education As¬ sociation. 960 National Education Association Gould, Lena (Primary Teacher), 223 W. Fourth Street, Jacksonville; Florida Edu¬ cation Association. Gray, Charles H. (County Superintendent), Quincy; Florida Education Association. Hartsfield, F. S. (Superintendent of Schools), Tallahassee; Florida Education Associa¬ tion. Lane, F. Edgar (Principal), R-2, Box #670, Little River Station, Miami; Florida Edu¬ cation Association. Lane, Mrs. Vera (Teacher), R-2, Box #670, Little River Station, Miami; Dade County Classroom Teachers Association. Merrill, Ida Nancy (Teacher), Deermont Hotel, St. Petersburg; Tampa Teachers Club. Newsome, W. T. (County Superintendent), Live Oak; Florida Education Association. Piggott, J. C., Jr. (County Superintendent), Crawfordsville ; Florida Education Asso¬ ciation. Rickards, James S. (ex officio), Executive Secretary, Florida Education Association, Tallahassee. Wakefield, Homer E. (Supervising Princi¬ pal), Holly Hill; Florida Education As¬ sociation. GEORGIA Duggan, M. L. (ex officio), State Superin¬ tendent of Public Instruction, Atlanta. Harris, J. C. (President), School for the Blind, Cave Spring; Georgia Education Association. Harris, Mable (Teacher), 207 Forsythe Street, Macon; Georgia Education Asso¬ ciation. Hastings, S. M. (Teacher), Junior High School, Atlanta; Georgia Education Asso¬ ciation. Hunter, H. Reid (Art Superintendent), City Hall, Atlanta; Georgia Education Asso¬ ciation. Rhodes, Maude (Teacher), 185 Westminster Street, N. E., Atlanta; Georgia Education Association. Sutton, Willis A. (ex officio), Superintendent of Schools, Atlanta. Wannamaker, George W. (ex officio), Su¬ perintendent of Schools, Griffin. HAWAII Boyum, Mrs. Louise V. (Principal), Puun- ene, Maui; Maui Teachers Association. Hiserman, Helen (Substitute Teacher), 1634 Bingham Street, Honolulu; Hawaii Edu¬ cation Association. Hiserman, Mrs. Nellie (Teacher), 1634 Bing¬ ham Street, Honolulu; Hawaii Education A Qonri atinn Lee, John A. (Teacher), Hilo High School, Hilo; Hawaii Education Association. Lee, Mrs. Siu Hoon (Teacher), Waiakeakai, Hilo; Hawaii Education Association. Long, Oren E. (ex officio), Deputy Superin¬ tendent of Public Instruction, 2054 Makiki Street, Honolulu. Mitsuo, Stanley (Teacher), Olaa, Hawaii; Hilo Teachers Union. Moore, Anne (Teacher), 1332 Alewa Drive, Honolulu; Oahu Teachers Association. Pauole, Harriet K. (Teacher), Aiea School, Aiea, Oahu; Oahu Teachers Association. Thompson, Carrie A. (Principal), 2133 Mc¬ Kinley Street, Honolulu; Oahu Teachers Association. Thompson, Dorothy (Substitute Teacher), 2133 McKinley Street, Honolulu; Oahu Teachers Association. Vierra, Frances (Teacher), Kalaheo School, Kalaheo; Kauai Hawaii Education Asso¬ ciation. Wilson, Mrs. Julia S. (Teacher), 3044 Upper Manoa Road, Honolulu, Oahu Teachers Association. IDAHO Snyder, Raymond (ex officio), Superintendent of Schools, Idaho Falls. ILLINOIS Abbe, Mary (Teacher Emeritus), 6619 La- Fayette Avenue, Chicago; Illinois State Teachers Association, Chicago Division. Armbruster, Mrs. Bertha (Teacher), 4152 West End Avenue, Chicago; Illinois State Teachers Association. Barron, A. N. (County Superintendent), Yorkville; Northeastern Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Bean, Estella (Teacher), 1707 North Park Drive, East St. Louis; Illinois State Teach¬ ers Association. Blair, Francis G. (ex officio), State Superin¬ tendent of Public Instruction, Springfield. Bogan, William J. (Superintendent of Schools), 741 Gordon Terrace, Chicago; Illinois State Teachers Association, Chi¬ cago Division. Bright, Orville T., Jr. (Superintendent of Schools), Dolton; Lake Shore Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Brown, L. W. (County Superintendent), Anna; Illinois State Teachers Association. Cann, George F. (County Superintendent), 303 South Seventh Street, Oregon; Rock River Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Cassady, E. N. (Superintendent of Schools), Brookfield; Lake Shore Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Clark, Nelle N. (Principal), 1616 North Main Street, Decatur; Decatur Teachers Asso¬ ciation. v „ _ , . Cooper, Lola (Teacher), Canton; Pekin Teachers Club. Dady, Margaret (Assistant Principal), Wau¬ kegan Township High School, Waukegan; Lake Shore Division, Illinois State Teach¬ ers Association. Dahl, Ross E. (Principal), 410 West Second Street, Aledo; Black Hawk Division, Il¬ linois State Teachers Association. Dodd, Mary A. (High-School Teacher), 401 Adelia Street, Springfield; Illinois State Teachers Association. Dorris, C. H. (Superintendent of Schools), Collinsville; Southwestern Division, Il¬ linois State Teachers Association. Erwin, Harriett (Teacher), Jerseyville; Illinois State Teachers Association. Eversull, Frank L. (Principal), 1465 College Street, East St. Louis; Illinois State Teachers Association. Fahy, Mildred (Principal), 1128 Morse Ave¬ nue, Chicago; Illinois State Teachers As¬ sociation, Chicago Division. Faust, Mrs. Ethel A. (Teacher), 832 South Walnut Street, Springfield; Elementary Class Room Teachers. Ferguson, Annie E. (Teacher), 1221 Sixteenth Street, Rock Island; Black Hawk Divi¬ sion, Illinois State Teachers Association. Associational Records and Information 961 Gilligan, Lena Belle (Teacher). 5918 North Knox Avenue, Chicago; Illinois State Teachers Association, Chicago Division. Grove, Alice (Teacher), 4519 North Ashland Avenue, Chicago; Illinois State Teachers Association, Chicago Division. Haley, Margaret A. (Teacher), 127 North Dearborn Street, Chicago; Illinois State Teachers Association, Chicago Division. Hall, Earl R. (Principal), Coulterville ; Southwestern Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Hambright, Dorothy (Teacher), 114 Johnson Avenue, Decatur; Decatur Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Hamilton, H. L. (Teacher), Bridgeport; Southeastern Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Hansen. Herbert C. (Teacher). 1045 North Lockwood Avenue, Chicago; Chicago Prin¬ cipals Club. Harden, Frances E. (Retired Teacher), 1543 Sherwin Avenue, Chicago; Illinois State Teachers Association. Harris. William (Superintendent of Schools), Decatur; South Central Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Hellyer, P. H. (County Superintendent), Lewiston; Illinois State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Henderson, E. B. (Principal). High School, Bridgeport; Illinois State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Herrick, Louise (Teacher), 1018 Haskell Avenue, Rockford; Rockford Teachers Club. Hill, Lulu A. (Teacher), 610 North Thir¬ teenth Street, East St. Louis; Illinois State Teachers Association. Iler. Harry E. (Superintendent of Schools), 1953 183rd Street. Homewood; Peoria Divi¬ sion, Illinois State Teachers Association. Jaglowski, Elizabeth (Teacher), 2222 South Sacramento Avenue, Chicago; Illinois State Teachers Association. Jennings, Mary D. (Teacher), 7917 Euclid Avenue, Chicago; Illinois State Teachers Association, Chicago Division. Keeler, Otis (Superintendent of Schools), Marshall; Illinois State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Lippold, Paul (Principal), Beaupre School, Aurora; Northeastern Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Livesay, Leonore (Teacher), 1632 North Forty-fifth Street, East St. Louis; East St. Louis Grade Teachers Fellowship. Lockhart, A. V. (Principal), Thornton Town¬ ship High School, Calumet City; Lake Shore Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Mason, N. M. (Superintendent of Schools), Oglesby; Illinois State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Mathews, Winifred (Teacher), 244 East Pear¬ son Street, Chicago; Illinois State Teach¬ ers Association, Chicago Division. McCollom. J. A. (Principal), 1426 North Forty-fifth Street, East St. Louis; East St. Louis Teachers Association. McMahon, Nellie G. (Director of Educa¬ tion), 10636 South Oakley Boulevard, Chi¬ cago; Lake Shore Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. McManus, J. B. (Superintendent of Schools), LaSalle; Ilinois State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Melton, Charles E. (Principal), High School, Walnut; Illinois State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Merritt, Eveline (Teacher), De Kalb; Rock River Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Mollman, Mina (Teacher), 1640 St. Louis Avenue, East St. Louis; Southwestern Di¬ vision, Illinois State Teachers Association. Moore, R. C. (Secretary), Illinois State Teachers Association, Carlinville; Illinois State Teachers Association. Morgan, Lewis V. (County Superintendent), Wheaton; Illinois State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Mull, Cora E. (Assistant Principal), 5543 Kimbark Avenue, Chicago; Chicago Asso¬ ciation of Assistant Principals. Munson, Irving (Teacher), Momence; Il¬ linois State Teachers Association. Murphy, Sanford (High-School Teacher), 115 Linn Street, Peoria; Illinois State Teachers Association. Pearce, Carl J. (Principal), 1312 Pennsyl¬ vania Avenue. East St. Louis; Southwest¬ ern Division, Illinois State Teachers Asso¬ ciation Page, William J. (Teacher). 4345 West Adams Street. Chicago; Illinois State Teachers Association. Petty, A. F. (Supervisor), Belleville; South¬ western Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Powers, E. W. (Superintendent of Schools), Watseka; East Central Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Preble, F. Blanche (Teacher). 10855 Vernon Avenue, Chicago; Illinois State Teachers Association. Reither, Tillie (High-School Teacher), 734 North 23rd Street, East St. Louis; South¬ western Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Roberts, K. O. (Superintendent of Schools), Alpha: Black Hawk Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Robertson, Elizabeth Wells (Supervisor), Ravinia ; Illinois State Teachers Associa¬ tion, Chicago Division. Rueben, Helen M. (Teacher). 4819 North Sawyer Avenue, Chicago; Illinois State Teachers Association, Chicago Division. Russell, Charlotte (Teacher), 448 West Sixty-second Street, Chicago; Chicago Teachers League. Schlaifer, Osher (Superintendent of Schools), Dundee; Illinois State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Schwebel, George (Superintendent of Schools), Cicero; Illinois State Teachers Association. Scully, Susan M. (Teacher), 7157 University Avenue, Chicago; Illinois State Teachers Association, Chicago Division. Shafer, B. F. (Superintendent of Schools), Freeport; Illinois State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Shinn, Anna L. (Superintendent of Schools), River Forest; Illinois State Teachers As¬ sociation. Smith, George O. (Superintendent "of Schools), Princeton; Illinois State Teach¬ ers Association. Spofford, Florence C. (Teacher), 1651 Jon¬ quil Terrace, Chicago; Evanston Teachers Club. Stevens, E. G. (Superintendent of Schools), Fairbury; Central Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Thalman, John W. (Principal), Waukegan Township Secondary Schools, Waukegan; Lake Shore Division, Illinois State Teach¬ ers Association. 962 National Education Association Tuggle, L. A. (County Superintendent), Dan¬ ville; Illinois State Teachers Association. Walker, D. E. (Assistant Superintendent), District {76, Evanston; Lake Shore Divi¬ sion, Illinois State Teachers Association. Washburn, Justin (County Superintendent), Rock Island; Illinois State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Watkins, Mrs. Murial Parker (Teacher), Litchfield; Southwestern Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Welin, Hilma L. (Teacher), 8010 Blackstone Avenue, Chicago; Illinois State Teachers Association, Chicago Division. Whittenberg, A. L. (ex officio), Secretary, State Examining Board for Teachers Cer¬ tificates, Springfield. Wiederich, J. C. (Superintendent of Schools), DePue; Illinois State Teachers Associa- tion. Wilson, Irvin A. (President), 437 South Stone Avenue, La Grange; Chicago Prin¬ cipals Club. Winbigler, F. M. (County Superintendent), Court House, Monmouth; Western Illinois State Teachers Association. Wolaver, Florence (Teacher), 1734 Orring- ton Avenue, Evanston; Illinois State Teachers Association. INDIANA Carmody, Ruth (Teacher), Thomas Jeffer¬ son School, South Bend; South Bend Teachers Federation. Cole, George C. (ex officio), State Superin¬ tendent of Public Instruction; Indianap¬ olis. Condon, A. E. (County Superintendent), Crown Point; Indiana State Teachers As¬ sociation. Darnall, M. C. (Superintendent of Schools), Crawfordsville ; Indiana State Teachers Association. DuShane, Donald (Superintendent of Schools), Columbus; Indiana State Teachers Association. Elder, Mrs. Hilma (Teacher), 221 West Thirty-eighth Street, Indianapolis; In¬ diana State Teachers Association. Ewing, Sara C. (Teacher), 5461 Pleasant Run, Indianapolis; Federation of Indian¬ apolis Public School Teachers. French, John M. (Principal), High School, LaPorte; Indiana State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Fry, Mattie B. (Supervisor), 1316 Ohio Ave¬ nue, Anderson; Indiana State Teachers A ccnpj ati nn Greist, O. H.’ (Secretary), Teachers Retire¬ ment Fund, State House, Indianapolis; Indiana State Teachers Association. Hougham, Robert B. (County Superintend¬ ent), Franklin; Indiana State Teachers Association. Johnson, Charles L. (Superintendent of Schools), Dunkirk; Indiana State Teach¬ ers Association. Jones, Dorothy (Teacher), Mussel School, •South Bend; South Bend Teachers Fed¬ eration. Knight, H. G. (Principal). 226 Buckingham Drive, Indianapolis; Federation of Indian¬ apolis Public School Teachers. Knight, Leona B. (Teacher), 226 Bucking¬ ham Drive, Indianapolis; Federation of Indianapolis Public School Teachers. Kuhn, C. L. (Teacher). 217 East Ewing Avenue. South Bend; South Bend Teach¬ ers Federation. McCracken, O. M. (Superintendent of Schools), Washington; Indiana State Teachers Association. McCutchen, Bernice (Teacher), String- town Road, Evansville; Federation of Evansville Public School Teachers. Montgomery, A. D. (Principal), 629 South Eighth Street, Terre Haute; Indiana State Teachers Association. Murphy, Elizabeth (Principal), Harrison Hill School, Fort Wayne; Indiana State Teachers Association. Pitts, Grace (Teacher), Fountain City; In¬ diana State Teachers Association. Rathfon, Clara (Assistant Principal), 916 North Street, Logansport; Indiana State Teachers Association. Schubert, C. C. (Teacher), Riley Senior High School, South Bend; South Bend Teach¬ ers Federation. Simon, Donald L. (Superintendent of Schools). Griffith; Indiana State Teachers Association. Smith, Henry Lester (ex officio). Dean, School of Education, University of In¬ diana, Bloomington. Van Horn, Mary (Teacher), 1137 South Grand Avenue, Evansville; Federation of Evansville Public School Teachers. Van Winkle, Mrs. Edith (Teacher), 21 Blakely Avenue, Terre Haute; Indiana State Teachers Association. Williams, Charles O. (ex officio). Secretary, Indiana State Teachers Association, Room 205, Hotel Lincoln, Indianapolis. Ziegler, J. M. (Teacher). Dubois; Indiana State Teachers Association. IOWA Bruhn, Anna M. (Teacher), Hotel Ft. Des Moines: Des Moines Teachers Federation. Confare. Miriam (Teacher). 1407 Third Ave¬ nue, S. E.. Cedar Rapids; Cedar Rapids Teachers Association. Connolly, Mattie A. (Teacher), 422 Myrtle Street, Sioux City; Sioux City Teachers Club. Cortelyou, Della (Teacher), 1400 East Twelfth Street; Des Moines; Des Moines Teachers Federation. Cougill, J. R. (Superintendent of Schools), 328 North Grand Street; Chariton; Iowa State Teachers Association. Dieman, Lorraine A. (Teacher). 215 “B” Avenue, N. W., Cedar Rapids; Cedar Rapids Teacher Association. Driver, E. Jane (Teacher), 2118 Nebraska Street, Sioux City; Sioux City Teachers Club. Fairbanks, Hazel (Teacher), Floyd School, Sioux City; Sioux City Teachers Club. Fitzgerald. J. E, (Principal), 1821 Ross Street. Sioux City; Iowa State Teachers Association. Foster, Fannie (Supervisor), Tenth and Iowa Streets, Sioux City; Sioux City Adminis¬ tration Club. Heathershaw, Mae (Teacher), Twenty-first Street and Stanton, Des Moines; Des Moines Teachers Federation. Johns, Minnie Rae (Teacher), 2117 Bridge Avenue, Davenport; Scott County Teachers Association. Jones, Frank W. (Superintendent of Schools), Anamosa; Iowa State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Lamar, Elizabeth (Teacher), 4115 Country Club, Sioux City; Sioux City Teachers Club. Leistra, P. E. (Superintendent of Schools), Gowrie; Iowa State Teachers Association. Lord, Mary A. (ex officio), Woodrow Wilson Junior High School, Sioux City. AssociatioNAl Records and Information 963 Morse, Nelle (Teacher), 709 Fifteenth Street, Sioux City; Senior High School Teachers Association. Mourer, R. J. (Superintendent of Schools), Modale; Iowa State Teachers Association. Parker, Jessie (State Rural Inspector), State House, Des Moines; Iowa State Teachers Association. Peet, J. H. (Superintendent of Schools), Washington; Iowa State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Price, Nettie (Teacher), Lake Mills; Iowa State Teachers Association. Rhynsburger, Amelia (Supervisor), Tenth and Iowa Streets, Sioux City; Iowa State Teachers Association. Samuelson. Agnes A. (ex officio), State Su¬ perintendent of Public Instruction, Des Moines. Searl, Mable (Superintendent of Schools), Clarinda; Iowa State Teachers Association. Tyler, Bertha (Superintendent of Schools), Orient; Iowa State Teachers Association. KANSAS Eddy, L. M. (Principal), West Junior High School, Parsons; Kansas State Teachers Association. Engholm, Redecia (Teacher). 1501 Guthrie Avenue, Topeka; Kansas State Teachers Association. Floerke, Rose (Teacher), 321 North Seven¬ teenth Street, Kansas City; Kansas City, Kansas, Grade Teachers Club. Kemp, Rae (Teacher), 2621 Virginia Avenue, Kansas City; Kansas State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Loy, Louise (Teacher), 102 North Garfield Street, Chanute ; Chanute Teachers Asso¬ ciation. McCarthy, Helen (Teacher), 3621 Virginia Avenue, Kansas City; Kansas State Teach¬ ers Association. Miller, Elizabeth S. (Principal), 4132 Rain¬ bow Boulevard, Kansas City; Kansas State Teachers Association. Miller, Emily (Teacher). 2612 North Twelfth Street, Kansas City; Kansas State Teach¬ ers Association. Pearson, M. E. (ex officio). Superintendent of Schools, Kansas City. Pellett, C. E. (Teacher), 414 Tyler Street, Topeka; Kansas State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Peppard, Helen (Teacher), 507 Monroe Street, Topeka; Topeka Classroom Teach¬ ers Association. Platt, Ruth (Teacher), Whitin Hall, Wash¬ burn Avenue, Topeka; Topeka Classroom Teachers Association. Rippey, Winifred (Principal), 1900 Central Avenue, Kansas City; Kansas State Teach¬ ers Association. Schlagle, F. L. (Assistant Superintendent), 1901 Elizabeth Street, Kansas City; Kan¬ sas State Teachers Association. Small, Margaret (Teacher), 822 Tauromee Street, Kansas City; Kansas City, Kansas, Grade Teachers Club. Stillson, Thelma (Teacher), 1855 North Twenty-seventh Street, Kansas City; Kan¬ sas City, Kansas, Grade Teachers Club. KENTUCKY Bertram, Anna (County Superintendent), Vanceburg; Kentucky Education Associa¬ tion. Bowlds, Mrs. F. J. (Principal), 1718 Free¬ man Avenue, Owensboro; Owensboro Teachers Association. Bowlds, Fleming J. (Teacher), High School, Owensboro; Kentucky Education Associa¬ tion. Longest, Amy (Teacher), 116 South Third Street, Central City; Kentucky Education Association. Payne, J. A. (County Superintendent), Cyn- thiana; Kentucky Education Association. Rhoads, McHenry (Professor), University of Kentucky, Lexington; Kentucky Educa¬ tion Association. Richmond, E. W. (Principal), High School, Berry; Kentucky Education Association. Wesley, W. M. (Superintendent), Burgin; Kentucky Education Association. Williams, R. E. (ex officio), Executive Sec¬ retary, Kentucky Education Association, 4518 South Parkway, Louisville. LOUISIANA Bell, Annie T. (ex officio), Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge. Griffith, P. H. (Extension Director), Louisi¬ ana State University, Baton Rouge; Louis¬ iana Teachers Association. Koffman, Grover C. (Principal), 720 Dudley Drive, Shreveport; Louisiana Teachers Association. Kolb, May (Teacher), 1828 Franklin Avenue, New Orleans; Louisiana Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Lavergne, Remi (Principal), Port Allen High High School, Port Allen; Louisiana Teach¬ ers Association. Pugh, T. B. (Principal), Independence High School, Independence; Louisiana Teachers Association. MAINE Blaisdell, Joseph E. (Principal), High School, Rockland; Knox County Teachers Association. Clifford, Harold B. (Superintendent of Schools), Boothbay Harbor; Lincoln- Sagadahoc Teachers Association. Crocker, Mrs. Mathilda (Teacher), Fort Kent; Aroostook County Teachers Asso¬ ciation. ' Crocker, Richard F. (Principal), Training School, Fort Kent; Maine Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Davis, Alta E. (Teacher), Young Women’s Christian Association, Bar Harbor; Maine Teachers Association. Day, Frank A. (Superintendent of Schools), Princeton; Washington County Teachers Association. Dinsmore, Norman B. (Principal), High School, Farmington; Franklin County Teachers Association. Dostie, Archie C. (Teacher), Skowhegan; Maine Teachers Association. Files, Mrs. Elsie M. (Executive Committee), 104 Frances Street, Portland; Portland Teachers Association. Finley, R. S. (Superintendent of Schools), Pittsfield; Somerset County Teachers As¬ sociation. Floyd, Lizzie N. (Teacher), Saco; Maine Teachers Association. Fuller, Jesse P. (Superintendent of Schools), Liberty; Maine Teachers Association. Gibbs, Hazel (Teacher), 36 Bangor Street, Augusta; Kennebec County Teachers As¬ sociation. National Education Association 964 Giles, Mrs. R. W. (Teacher), East Baldwin; Saco Valley Teachers Association. Gordon, Adelbert (State School Agent), State House, Augusta; Hancock County Teachers Association. Haines, Mrs. Maude H. (Music Teacher), 63 Alba Street, Portland; Portland Teachers ^ ssociation. Hale, Florence (ex officio), State Director of Rural Education, Augusta. Hanson, Rutherford (Teacher), 36 Mt. Desert Street, Bar Harbor; Hancock County Teachers Association. Hayes, Roy M. (Principal), Houlton; Aroostook County Teachers Association. Jack, William B. (ex officio), Superintendent of Schools. Portland. Joy, Earl E. (Teacher), Yarmouth; Cumber¬ land County Teachers Association. Kassey, John J. (Principal), High School, Guilford; Maine Teachers Association. Ladd, Harland A. (Teacher), Milo; Piscata- auis County Teachers Association. Libby, R. J. (State Agent of Rural Educa¬ tion), State House, Augusta; Aroostook County Teachers Association. Lord, C. E. (Superintendent of Schools), Camden; Waldo County Teachers Associa¬ tion. Mathieson, D. H. (Principal), Liberty; Waldo County Teachers Association. Packard, Bertram E. (ex officio), State Com¬ missioner of Public Instruction, State House, Augusta. Pottle, John K. (Principal), 8 Highland Ave¬ nue. Mechanic Falls; Androscoggin County Teachers Association. Scott. Arthur B. (Principal), High School, Bath; Maine Teachers Association. Sinclair. Guy (Superintendent of Schools), Westbrook; Cumberland County Teachers Association. Smith, Charlotte (Teacher), 177 Spring Street, Portland; Cumberland County Teachers Association. Somers, Mary L. (Teacher), 86 Vesper Street, Portland; Portland Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Spinney. L. W. (Superintendent of Schools), Mexico; Oxford County Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Stinson. Marcia (Teacher), 18 Berkeley Street, Portland; Cumberland County Teachers Association. Thomas, Augustus O. (Secretary-General), World Federation of Education Associa¬ tions, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N. W., Wash¬ ington. D. C. ; York County Teachers Association. True, Bernice (Teacher), 1514 Forest Ave¬ nue, Portland; Cumberland County Teach¬ ers Association. Ulmer, Dwinal A. (Principal), High School, Princeton; Maine Teachers Association. Usher, Laura D. (Teacher), 1514 Forest Ave¬ nue, Portland; Portland Teachers Associa¬ tion. Woodman, O. C. (Teacher), Gardiner; Kennebec County Teachers Association. MARYLAND Berry, Frances M. (Teacher), 506 Harwood Street. Baltimore; Maryland State Teach¬ ers Association. Burdick, William (ex officio), State Super¬ visor of Physical Education, 7 East Mul¬ berry Street, Baltimore. Cook. Albert S. (ex officio), State Superin¬ tendent of Public Instruction, Baltimore. Cooper, Clarence G. (County Superintend¬ ent), Towson; Maryland State Teachers Association. Plummer, Ida D. (Teacher), Hurlock; Mary¬ land State Teachers Association. Powell, Ruth (Social Advisor), Salisbury; Maryland State Teachers Association. MASSACHUSETTS Allen, Sherman A. (President), 18 North Parkway, Worcester; Worcester Teachers AQQnriatinn Burkland, Henry B. (Director), R. F. D. #51, Rock; Plymouth County Teachers Associa¬ tion. Chase, Preston L. (Principal), 270 Winthrop Street, Winthrop; Massachusetts Teachers Federation. Curtis, Winnifred E. (Teacher), 4 Lafayette Street, Springfield; Franklin County Teach¬ ers Association. Hall, Walter F. (Principal), High School, Canton; Norfolk County Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Harris. Henry H. (Second Vicepresident), 93 Eleventh Street, Lowell; Massachusetts Teachers Federation. Jewett, John V. (Director of Guidance), 122 Winson Avenue, Watertown; Brookline Teachers Club. Kelly. Katherine (Teacher), 452 Fletcher Street, Lowell; Massachusetts Teachers Federation. Kent, Mary D. (School Department), 10 Co¬ lumbia Street, Brockton; Massachusetts Teachers Federation. Lang. Ruth M. (Teacher). 32 Almont Street, Medford; Somerville Teachers Club. Magee, Georgia P. (School Department of Wellesley). 42 East Central Street. Natick; Massachusetts Teachers Federation. Mathews. Mrs. Phebe E. (Teacher), 159 Morrison Avenue, Somerville; Massachu¬ setts Teachers Federation. , McSkimmon, Mary (ex officio), Principal, Pierce School. Brookline. Nicholson. Marianna (School Department), 126 Johnson Street, Lynn; Massachusetts Teachers Federation. Nixon, Hugh (Executive Secretary), Mas¬ sachusetts Teachers Federation, 15 Ash¬ burton Place, Boston; Massachusetts Teachers Federation. O’Connor. Deborah ("School Department), 3 Wayne Terrace. Worcester; Massachusetts Teachers Federation. Ravmond. Oscar F. (Teacher), 291 Green Street. Brockton; Massachusetts Teachers Federation. . Reardan, James G. (Teacher), 256 Union Street, East Bridgewater; Massachusetts Teachers Federation. . Sampson. Rubv B. (Teacher), 93 High Street, Brockton; Brockton Grade Teachers Club. Smith. Edgar B. (Principal), High School, Greenfield; Massachusetts Teachers Fed¬ eration. Winchester. Henrietta (School Department), Day Street. North Easton; Massachusetts Teachers Federation. Winshio. Albert E. (Editor. Journal of Edu¬ cation). 6 Park Street, Boston; Massachu¬ setts Teachers Federation. Woodbury, Grace I. (First Vicepresident), 4 Lakecroft Court. Melrose; Massachusetts Teachers Federation. Woodward, Annie C. (ex officio), 144 School Street, Somerville. Associational Records and Information 965 MICHIGAN Ackerman, John (Teacher), Flint; Michigan Education Association. Cameron, E. T. (Executive Secretary), Michigan Education Association, Michigan Education Building, Lansing; Michigan Education Association. Coburn. W. G. (Superintendent of Schools), Battle Creek; Michigan Education Asso¬ ciation. __ Cody. Frank (Superintendent of Schools), 1354 Broadway, Detroit; Michigan Educa¬ tion Association. Crane, Mrs. Jessie (Teacher), 1113 Union Avenue, Saginaw; Michigan Education Association. Eckert, Matilda (Teacher). 5662 Lauderdale Street, Detroit; Detroit Teachers Associa¬ tion. Elliott. C. M. (Teacher), Michigan State Normal College. Ypsilanti; Michigan Edu¬ cation Association. Green, W. T. (Department Head), 18901 Sunset Avenue, Detroit; High School- College Division, Detroit Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Haisley. Otto W. (Superintendent of Schools'). Ann Arbor; Michigan Education Association. Haisley. Mrs. Otto W. (Teacher), 2104 Mel¬ rose Street, Ann Arbor; Michigan Educa¬ tion Association. King, Helen Freitag (Teacher), 2905 Co¬ lumbus Street, Detroit; Detroit Teachers Association. Pearce, Gertrude (Teacher), 325 Bartlett Street. Lansing; Michigan Education As¬ sociation. Pearce, Webster H. (ex officio), State Sup¬ erintendent of Public Instruction, Lansing. Rice, Arthur H. ("Editor, Michigan Educa¬ tion Journal), Michigan Education Build¬ ing, Lansing; Michigan Education Asso¬ ciation. Ross, Meta (Teacher), 5440 Cass Street, De¬ troit; Michigan Education Association. Seidel, Jean (Teacher), 2905 Columbus Street, Detroit; Detroit Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Stafford, Carl (Principal), 541 Court Street, Sault Ste. Marie; Sault Ste. Marie Chap¬ ter of the National Education Associa¬ tion. Steele, Harold (Superintendent), 114 West Wesley Street, Jackson; Michigan Educa¬ tion Association. Willison, Mabel (Teacher), 121 Highland Street, Highland Park; Highland Park Teachers Club. MINNESOTA Allee, Anne M. (Retired Teacher), 2437 Fourteenth Avenue, South, Minneapolis; Minneapolis Classroom Teachers Associa¬ tion. Atkins, Mrs. Maud M. (Teacher), Hampshire Arms, Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division of the Minnesota Education Association. Christofifel, Thomas (Teacher), 952 Lafond Street, St. Paul; St. Paul Education Asso¬ ciation. Cook, Mrs. Luella B. (High-School Teach¬ er), Wayzata; Minneapolis Division of the Minnesota Education Association. Dahl, Mrs. Myrtle Hooper (Teacher), 3527 Pillsbury Avenue, Minneapolis; Minne¬ apolis Classroom Teachers Association. Dash, Mrs. Alma (Teacher), 3121 Garfield Avenue, South, Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division of the Minnesota Education As¬ sociation. Detamore, W. H. (County Superintendent), 237 Sharbut Street, Mankato; Minnesota Education Association. Diercks, Arthur P. (Principal), 416 Tenth Street. South. Moorhead; Western Divi¬ sion of the Minnesota Education Associa¬ tion. Eckwall, Laila (High-School Teacher), Willmar; Minnesota Education Associa¬ tion. Flaherty, Belle (Teacher), 3028 East Supe¬ rior Street, Duluth; Duluth Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Garvey, Anna T. (Teacher), 4305 Aldrich Avenue, South, Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division of the Minnesota Education As¬ sociation. Garvey, Grace M. (Teacher), 4305 Aldrich Avenue, South, Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division of the Minnesota Education As¬ sociation. Garvey, Mary L. (Teacher), 4305 Aldrich Avenue, South, Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division of the Minnesota Education As¬ sociation. Jensen, George A. (Teacher), 3516 South Aldrich Avenue, Minneapolis; Minneap¬ olis Division of the Minnesota Education Association. Johnson, Leslie W. (Principal), La Crescent; Southeastern Division of the Minnesota Education Association. Kilgore, Mrs. Helen D. (Member, Board of Education), 4740 Girard Avenue, Minneap¬ olis; Minnesota Education Association. Killam, Edith (Teacher), 239 East Anoha Street, Duluth; Duluth Teachers Associa¬ tion. MacDonald, Dora Mary (Teacher), 3029 East First Street, Duluth; Duluth Teachers Asso ciation. MacGregor, Effie (Principal), 2003 Aldrich Avenue, South, Minneapolis; Minnesota Education Association. Mather, Helen J. (Principal), 2011 Third Avenue, South, Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division of the Minnesota Education Asso¬ ciation. Minty, Casper C. (High-School Teacher), 5024 Harriet Avenue, Minneapolis; Minne¬ apolis Division of the Minnesota Educa¬ tion Association. Moe, Floyd B. (Dean), Junior College, Vir¬ ginia; Minnesota Education Association. Moran, Mrs. Brett (Chairman, History De¬ partment), Curtis Hotel, Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division of the Minnesota Education Association. Morris^ A. B. (Teacher), State Teachers College, Mankato; Minnesota Education Association. Ray, Charlotte (Teacher), Hampshire Arms, Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division, Min¬ nesota Education Association. Reinertsen, S. G. (Superintendent of Schools), Moorhead; Minnesota Education A ccnri afinn Russell, Martha C. (Teacher), Leamington Hotel, Minneapolis; Grade Section, Min¬ neapolis Teachers League. Steinmetz, Jennie C. (Teacher), 914 Logan Avenue, North, Minneapolis; Minneapolis Classroom Teachers Association. Sullivan, Alice F. (ex officio), Spalding Hotel, Duluth. 966 National Education Association Teesdale, R. D. (Teacher), The Damon, Rochester; Rochester Educational Asso¬ ciation. Thom, Martha M. (County Superintendent), Long Prairie; Central Minnesota Education Association. Thomas, Mary (Teacher), 1786 Hennepin Avenue, Minneapolis; Minneapolis Divi¬ sion of the Minnesota Education Associa¬ tion. Wahlstrand, Harry L. (Teacher), Willmar; Minnesota Education Association. Wahlstrand, Verna (Teacher), Willmar; Minnesota Education Association. MISSISSIPPI Pitts, Ermin (ex officio), County Superin¬ tendent of Schools, Clarksdale. MISSOURI Applegate, Anna L. (Teacher), 7425 Hia¬ watha Street, St. Louis; St. Louis District, Missouri State Teachers Association. Bailey, Lillian (Teacher), 40 West Win- throp Road, Kansas City; Missouri State Teachers Association. Bailey, Vera I. (Teacher), 40 West Win- throp Road, Kansas City; Kansas City Teachers Club. Banks, Charles (Superintendent of Schools), University City; Southeast Missouri Teachers Association. Bovard, Alice (Teacher), 6001 East Twelfth Street, Kansas City; Kansas City Teachers Club. Boyd, Charles F. (Superintendent of Schools), Ozark; Missouri State Teachers Association. Buschart, Margaret (Teacher), 3946 Greer Avenue, St. Louis; St. Louis District, Missouri State Teachers Association. Carter, E. M. (Secretary), Missouri State Teachers Association, Columbia; Mis¬ souri State Teachers Association. Chitwood, Effie (Teacher), Carl Junction; Missouri State Teachers Association. Coil, O. T. (Superintendent of Schools), De- Sota; Southeast Missouri Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Cunningham, Marie C. (Teacher), Hadley Vocational School, 2209 Missouri Avenue, St. Louis; St. Louis District, Missouri State Teachers Association. Dake, L. Gilbert (Supervisor), 8103 Madison Street, St. Louis; St. Louis District, Mis¬ souri State Teachers Association. Dille, G. E. (Superintendent of Schools), 7539 Manchester Street, Maplewood; Mis¬ souri State Teachers Association. Goslin, W. E. (Superintendent of Schools), Webster Groves; Southeast Missouri Teachers Association. Grimes, Lloyd E. (Teacher), Noel; South¬ west Missouri Teachers Association. Hayden, Stanley (Superintendent of Schools), Kahoka; Northeast Missouri Teachers Association. Hayden, Mrs. Stanley (Teacher), Kahoka; Northeast Missouri Teachers Association. Henckler, Ruth M. (Teacher), University City; Missouri State Teachers Associa- tion. Hess, Miriam Lee (Publicity Chairman), 7229 Penn Street, Kansas City; Kansas City Teachers Club. Hupe, W. F. (Superintendent of Schools), Montgomery City; Missouri State Teach¬ ers Association. Keohane, Helen (President), Ambassador Hotel, Kansas City; Association of High School Women, Kansas City. Ketchum, Anna L. (Teacher), Kingsway Hotel, St. Louis; St. Louis Division, Mis¬ souri State Teachers Association. Lamkin, Uel W. (ex officio). President, State Teachers College, Maryville. Lankford, Mrs. Jennie C. (Superintendent of Schools), Plattsburg; Northwest Missouri Teachers Association. Laupheimer, Pauline (Teacher), 5554 Water¬ man Avenue, St. Louis; St. Louis District, Missouri State Teachers Association. Longshore, W. T. (ex officio), Principal, 520 West Fortieth Street, Kansas City. Markwell, Ethel (Teacher). Lyndhurst Hotel, Kansas City; Central District Teachers Association. Mathews, Dorothy (Teacher). 5019 State Line, Kansas City; Kansas City Teachers Club. McKelvey, Edith A. (Teacher), 5275 West¬ minster Place, St. Louis; St. Louis Dis¬ trict, Missouri State Teachers Association. Meeker, H. H. (Principal), 4946 Devonshire Street, St. Louis; St. Louis District, Mis¬ souri State Teachers Association. Morris, Esther M. (Teacher), 719 East Mor¬ gan Street, Boonville; Central Missouri Teachers Association. Murphy, Martha B. (Teacher), 1336 Union Boulevard, St. Louis; St. Louis District, Missouri State Teachers Association. Newkirk, Naomi K. (Teacher), 5222 Brook¬ lyn Street, Kansas City; Kansas City Teachers Club. Noble, Constance (Teacher), 519 West Sev¬ enty-fourth Street, Kansas City; Kansas City Teachers Club. Park, Lillie I. (Teacher), Kingsway Hotel, St. Louis; St. Louis District, Missouri State Teachers Association. Ralls, Mary C. (Teacher), 6529 Jefferson Street, Kansas City; Kansas City Teach¬ ers Club. Riddle, Anna M. (Teacher), $2 Summit Place, St. Joseph; St. Joseph District, #8, Missouri State Teachers Association. Robeson, J. A. (Principal), 4147 Montgall Street, Kansas City; Elementary Princi¬ pals Association. Smith, Arev Frances (Teacher), 40 West Winthrop Road, Kansas City; Central Mis¬ souri Teachers Association. Snell, Tillie (Teacher), 518 West Fifth Street, Sedalia; Community Teachers As¬ sociation of Sedalia. Tatman, Beulah B. (Teacher), 3415 Euclid Avenue, Kansas City; Kansas City Teach¬ ers Club. Thompson, Cecile (Teacher), Hotel Robi- doux, St. Joseph; St. Joseph District, #8, Missouri State Teachers Association. Walker, Thomas J. (ex officio), Editor, School and Community, Columbia. Weidle, Ben (Member, Board of Education), Board of Education Building, St. Louis; Missouri State Teachers Association. Winkelman, Mathilda (Teacher), Hadley Vocational School, 3912 Russell Street, St. Louis; St. Louis District, Missouri State Teachers Association. Wolfe, Inez N. (Principal), 3415 Euclid Street, Kansas City; Missouri State Teach¬ ers Association. Woods, Mary F. (Teacher), 2219 Tracy Ave¬ nue, Kansas City; The Council of Negro Teachers. Associational Records and Information 967 MONTANA Allison, Callie (Teacher), Belgrade; Mon¬ tana Education Association. Cunningham, R. J. (ex officio). Secretary, Montana Education Association, 7 Kohrs Block, Helena. Kranz, George (Principal), Oilmont; Mon¬ tana Education Association. Kranz, Mrs. Vera M. (Teacher), Oilmont; Montana Education Association. Lence, Martha L. (Teacher), 141 South Third Street, Missoula; Montana Educa¬ tion Association. Moore, Mrs. Winnafern (Teacher), 701 Stephens Street, Missoula; Montana Edu¬ cation Association. Ryon, Grace (Teacher), 312 South Fifth Street East, Missoula; Montana Education Association. NEBRASKA Bedell, Mabel A. (Teacher), 5018 Burt Street, Omaha; Omaha School Forum. Bedell, R. B. (Teacher), 5018 Burt Street, Omaha; Omaha School Forum. Fodge, Martha H. (Teacher), 1509 South Tenth Street, Omaha; Omaha School Forum. Hecker, Juliet (Teacher), Lincoln School, Eleventh and Center Street, Omaha; Omaha School Forum. Hughes, Maude (Teacher), 612 South Thirty-eighth Avenue, Omaha; Omaha School Forum. Keller, Jessie E. (Kindergarten Director), 2403 1?^’ Dayton; Tennessee State Teachers Asso- Mitchell,' Mabel (Teacher), Ernest Adams School, Memphis; Memphis Education As- Neubert!° Jessie (Teacher), Knoxville High School. Knoxville; Teachers League of the Knoxville City Schools. , Powell, L. R. (Principal), A. B. Hill School, Memphis; Memphis Education Associa- Ragsdale, S. L. (ex officio), Principal, Humes High School, Memphis. Ross, Mrs. Jimmie (Teacher), Treadwell School, Memphis; Memphis Education As¬ Shofner G. E. (Teacher), Humes High School, Memphis; Memphis Education Association. , . T_ Weigel, Henrietta (Teacher), Knoxville High School, Knoxville; Tennessee State Teachers Association. Whelahan, Cecelia (Teacher), Brownlow School. Knoxville; Teachers League of the Knoxville City Schools. TEXAS Betts, Floyd G. (Superintendent of Schools), Wharton; Texas State Teachers Associa- CarHsie, Mary (Teacher) 1906 San Antonio Street. Austin; Texas State Teachers As- Fisher R B. (Superintendent of Schools), Pampa; Texas State Teachers Associa- Gaines, Emma (Teacher), 1128 Bissonnet Street, Houston; Houston Teachers Asso- Hassel?11 Kate (Teacher). 225 Cumberland Street. Dallas; Dallas High School Teach¬ ers Association. Hill, J. A. (Teacher), State Teachers Col¬ lege, Canyon; Texas State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. _ , , James, W. A. (Principal), Ball High School, Galveston; Texas State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. „ , „„ , Kennon, Nell (Teacher), 604 North 23rd Street, Waco; The Classroom Teachers Association of Waco. Kerr, Dola (Teacher), 3712 Avenue I, Fort Worth; Fort Worth Grade Teachers Council. , . Kinsey, Juanita (Teacher), 1645 Lucile Ave¬ nue, Wichita Falls; Texas State Teachers Asso ciation. Kinsey, Mrs. Sarah Martha (Teacher), 1645 Lucile Avenue, Wichita Falls; Texas State Teachers Association. „ Kuykendall, Ima L. (Supervisor), 409 East Weatherford, Fort Worth; Texas State Teachers Association. McAnelly, Jewell (Teacher), 2922 Forest Street, Dallas; Dallas Grade Teachers Miiler"Cl Gladys (Teacher), 2001 Western Street, Fort Worth; Fort Worth Grade Teachers Council. . e Mitchell, Mrs. Mattie Mae (Teacher), San Antonio; Texas State Teachers Associa- Mock,' Lula (Teacher), 1921 Park Avenue, Dallas; Dallas Grade Teachers Council. Murray, Ida Mae (Teacher), San Antonio; Texas State Teachers Association. Nash, Corinne (Supervisor), Court House, Waco; Texas State Teachers Association. Oberholtzer, E. E. (Superintendent of Schools). Houston; Texas State Teachers Association. . _ , Presley, Anne (Teacher), 5907 Richmond Street, Dallas; Dallas Grade Teachers Pr?slUeyal'Crauf (Teacher), 5907 Richmond Street. Dallas; Dallas Grade Teachers Rogers L. W. (ex officio). First Assistant State Superintendent of Public Instruc- Strong, Vera (President), 2506 Truxillo Street, Houston; Houston Teachers Asso- Tafolla F. L. (President), 622 Lynwood Street. San Antonio; San Antonio Teachers Waters? Bess (Teacher), 3018 Elizabeth Street. Dallas; Dallas Grade Teachers Wn°sonC1Josephine (Teacher), 3321 Beverly Drive. Dallas; Dallas Grade Teachers Council. UTAH Beck, Reid (Principal), Draper; Utah Teachers Association. Blake, C. H. (Teacher), Bountiful; Davis County Teachers ^s®.0.ciatl1onCj/.Vl(-r,i Dr:?. Bott, Ruth (Teacher), Lincoln School. Brig ham: Box Elder Teachers Association Bott Victor T. (Principal). Lincoln School, Brigham; Box Elder Teachers Associa- Rr^ken Ida (Teacher), 150 North Main Street Saft Lake City; Utah Education B^Sck°enat Wallace (Teacher). 1|0 Nor.h Main Street. Salt Lake City; Salt Lake fitv Teachers Association. Christensen, Marie (Teacher). 723 South 11th East, Salt Lake City; Utah Educa Cooley ACSOCOatl(Teacher), Salt Lake City;