NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES Proceedings OF THE SIXTY-SEVENTH ANNUAL MEETING HELD AT ATLANTA, GEORGIA * • JUNE 28-JULY 4, 1929 VOLUME 67 The National Education Association 1201 Sixteenth Street N, W. Washington, D. C. V- n _ _ _ i _ _ MEMBERSHIP FEES AND PUBLICATIONS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The National Education Association has three classes of membership: 1. The $2 membership entitles one to all the privileges of membership and to receive The Journal of the National Education Association for one year. (9 issues.) 2. The $5 membership entitles one to all the privileges of membership and to receive for one year (a) The Journal of the National Education Associa¬ tion; (b) The Annual Volume of Addresses and Proceedings; (c) The Re¬ search Bulletin; (d) Occasional bulletins and reports. 3. The $100 life membership entitles one to the publications and privi¬ leges of the $5 membership for life. Several departments of the National Education Association have separate membership fees and issue department publications. One must he a member of the National Education Association before he can become a member of any department of the Association. The payment of one of the membership fees of the National Education Association does not include membership in any department having membership fee. The membership of the depart¬ ments which issue publications follows: 1. The Department of Superintendence — $5 membership entitles one to receive for one year: (a) The Yearbook of the Department of Superin¬ tendence, which includes a list of members of the department; (b) The Official Report of the Winter Meeting; and (c) Research Bulletin (5 issues). 2. The Department of Elementary School Principals — $3 membership en¬ titles one to participate in the work of the department and to receive its bulletins issued in October, January, April, and July. The April number of the Bulletin is a Yearbook containing approximately three hundred pages including a list of members of the department. 3. The Department of Secondary School Principals — $2 entitles one to active membership and to receive its bulletins issued in January, March, April, May, and October. . The March number is the Proceedings of the annual meeting. 4. The Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction — $4 mem¬ bership entitles one to active membership and to the Journal of Educational Method. 5. The Department of Adult Education — $2 fee entitles one to membership and the Adult Education Bulletin. 6. The Department of Social Studies — $2.25 entitles one to membership and to the Historical Outlook. The American Association of Teachers Colleges (a department) publishes a yearbook which goes to institutions paying a membership fee of $10. The Department of Classroom Teachers, which has no membership fee, also pub¬ lishes a yearbook which sells for $1. This volume of Proceedings is sent to all members of the National Edu¬ cation Association paying an annual fee of $5, and to all life members, or it may be purchased by nonmembers for $3. Membership fees of the National Education Association and its depart¬ ments and inquiries concerning all publications should be sent to 1201 Six¬ teenth Street, Northwest, Washington, D. C., except for the Department of Secondary School Principals. These should go to Mr. H. V. Church, 3129 Wenonah Ave., Berwyn, Ill. [2] FOREWORD This book is a record of the 67th annual convention of the National Education Association and its departments. It also includes the report of the Department of Superintendence convention held in Cleveland last February and that of the American Association of Teachers Colleges held at that time. Among many enjoyable and outstanding features of the Atlanta conven¬ tion, there were four which stood out prominently: (1) the concert by the negro students from the colleges and public schools of Atlanta; (2) the cotton pageant “Gold for the Minting”; (3) appearance of Bobbie Jones, national amateur golf champion, in a short address; (4) the life member¬ ship dinner attended by more than 300 enthusiastic life members. Tl]e first meeting of the Inter-American Conference on Education was held during the convention, delegates being present from many of the Latin-American countries. The Committee on Ethics of the Profession rendered its final report and the code of ethics included therein was adopted by the Association. A more comprehensive index has been included this year than hitherto. The number of copies of the Proceedings has been increased this year to 8750, largely because of the increasing number of life members, each of whom receives a copy. Suggestions from members as to how the Proceedings may be made more useful either as to content or form will be appreciated by the Division of Publications. Division of Publications National Education Association. ♦ [3] THIS is the architect’s drawing of the National Edu¬ cation Association’s new Headquarters building. The smaller section is the present building of four story height. The seven story addition will relieve the present congestion and make the work of the Headquar¬ ters staff doubly effective. The funds for the building are made possible largely through the life membership enrolments which are coming in with increasing ra¬ pidity. This money comprises a permanent fund which is in charge of the Board of Trustees, Walter R. Siders, chairman. [4] How This Book is Built , The conventions of the National Education Association are great congresses which bring together a wide variety of interests. This volume reflects those interests. Persons who use it will save time by forming a picture of its contents and arrangement. The opening pages cover the speeches before the General Sessions at the Atlanta meeting. These are followed by the reports of the Association’s active committees. The addresses and minutes of the National Council of Education are next in order and are followed by addresses and minutes of the Association’s departments. The closing pages are devoted to records and information pertaining to the Association since its organization in 1857. The volume as a whole represents the efforts of hundreds of persons en¬ gaged in all branches of education activity. See page 1215, for suggestions on how to use this book. Summary of Contents Addresses Before the General Sessions _ 17 Reports of Committees _ 176 The National Council of Education _ 229 The Department of Adult Education _ _ 277 The Department of Business Education _ 317 The Department of Classroom Teachers _ 335 The Department of Deans of Women _ 369 The Department of Elementary School Principals _ 391 The Department of Kindergarten-Primary Education _ 425 The Department of Lip Reading _ _ 449 The Department of Rural Education _ 463 The Department of School Health and Physical Education _ 543 The Department of Science Instruction _ 559 The Department of Secondary School Principals _ 579 The Department of Social Studies _ 633 The Department of Superintendence _ 643 The Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction _ 803 The Department of Teachers Colleges _ 827 The Department of Visual Instruction _ 937 The Department of Vocational Education _ 945 Inter-American Conference on Education _ 973 The World Federation of Education Associations _ 975 Associational Records and Information _ 989 [5] C membership is a prophecy. It means lifelong dedication. It appeals to the finest spirits. It furnishes leadership for new move¬ ments. It inspires the younger mem¬ bers of the profession. It emphasizes the permanent character of the teacher’s work. It stabilizes leader¬ ship of professional organizations. It draws attention to the men and women who can be relied upon to perform important services. It em¬ phasizes the pioneer spirit. It is a challenge to renewed zeal on behalf of education for a new world. CONTENTS GENERAL SESSIONS ATLANTA ADDRESSES Address of Welcome on Behalf of the State of Georgia — Hardman . 17 Address of Welcome on Behalf of the Southeast — Duggan . 19 Address of Welcome on Behalf of the City of Atlanta — Ragsdale . 20 Address of Welcome on Behalf of the Board of Education — Powell . 21 Response on Behalf of the Teachers of America — Hunter . 22 Education for a New America — Cooper . 24 America’s Part in Bringing About World Peace — Daniels . . 36 Teacher Training for a New World — Morgan . 42 The Need of Improved Integration of Certain Basic Ideals and Practises in American Life and Education — Withers . 52 School Administration and Conflicting American Ideals — Russell . 62 The Improvement of College Teaching — Phelps . 68 Future Vocational Education for Preparing Children for the Duties and Obli¬ gations of the World Ahead of Them — Wright . 77 Vergil, Prophet of a New World — MacVay . 78 What Mussolini Has Done for Modern Italy — Castellani . 88 The Challenge — Thomas . 96 America’s Historical Opportunity — Djiggs . 102 Progress in Negro Education in the South — Moton . 106 The Republic of Tomorrow — Robsion . Ill The South’s Interest in Kindergarten-Primary Education — Gage . 121 Some Important Elements in Training Teachers of Young Children — Trabue 127 A New World for the Hard of Hearing — Rowell . 135 The Elementary School Looks Forward — MacGregor . 140 The Teacher’s Responsibility and Opportunity — Pyrtle . 144 Public Cooperation in School Policies — Bogan... . . . 148 Education and the Higher Human Values — McConnell . 154 Beauty in American Life — Taft . 159 Equal Opportunity and Agriculture — Hyde . 167 REPORTS OF COMMITTEES Final Report of the Committee on Ethics of the Profession — Muir . 179 Report of Legislative Commission — Davidson . 190 Report of Committee on Appointment of Delegates and Kindred Questions — Threlkeld . 195 Report of the Committee on Propaganda — Broome . 204 Report of the Committee on Retirement Allowances — Pyrtle . 217 THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION Historical Note . 230 Education for World Friendship and Understanding — Smith . 231 The Function of the National Council of Education of the National Education Association — Norton . 237 The Professional Education of Educators — Finney . 244 Who Shall Say What the Nation May Expect of American Schools? — Cooper. . 250 Educational Progress in 1928 — Tigert . 254 Educational Interpretation and the Printed Word — Morgan . 259 A State Education Program — Abercrombie . 264 Secretary’s Minutes . 270 [7] 8 National Education Association DEPARTMENT OF ADULT EDUCATION Historical Note . 278 Adult Elementary Education in the Southern States — Morriss . 279 Adult Secondary Education in the Southern States — Tidwell . 281 Library Service and Adult Education in the South — Templeton . 282 Federal Aspects of, and Responsibilities in the Reduction of Illiteracy and Training for Citizenship — Deming . 284 The Philosophy of Fees — DeGalan . 287 How Much Money Is a Board of Education Justified in Spending on Adult Education? — And What Types of Work May a Board of Education Justifiably Undertake? — Smith . 289 Publicity for Community Service — Lunak . 293 Organization and Attendance — Elson . . . 295 Convincing the Public — Lawson . 297 Organizing a Rural Community School Based on Nine Years’ Experience in Buncombe County, North Carolina — Worley . 298 The Parent-Teacher Association as a Medium of Adult Education in the Rural Community — Wilson . 299 Adult Education as a Means of Vitalizing and Enriching American Rural Life — Campbell . 301 Problems for Study and Research in Adult Rural Education — Burnett . 304 What Activities Are Best Conducted in Community Centers 1— Montgomery . . . 305 Support of Community Activities — Dozier . 307 Some Administrative Activities in a Rural Community School Program — Day. 309 How Are We “Holding” the Adult Immigrant? — Whipple . 310 How Are We “Getting” the Adult Immigrant? — Bacon . 311 How Are We “Training” Adult Immigrants for Intelligent Citizenship?— Deming . 313 Secretary’s Report . 314 DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION Historical Note . 318 Junior College Business Education — Shields . 319 The Secretary in Modern Business — Hamack . 322 Whither Business Education? — Harman . 324 The Technic of Junior Business Training — Jones . 327 New Technics in Bookkeeping and Accounting — Yoder . 328 New Technics in Shorthand — Steinheimer . 330 College Entrance Credits in Commercial Subjects — Anderson . 332 * DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS Historical Note . 336 Address — Berry . 337 Teachers and World Peace — Rankin . 340 Teacher Participation — Mossman . 343 Teacher Participation Through Curriculum Revision — Aiken . 345 Teacher Participation Through Civic Contacts — Mock . 346 Teacher Participation Through Determination of Standards of Certification — Preble . 348 Teacher Participation — Lord . 348 Teacher Participation in Administration — Burke . 350 Teacher Participation in Legislative Problems — Vickerman . 351 Teacher Participation Through Social Contacts — Bolland . 352 Contents 9 The Participation of the Rural School Teacher in Determining the Rural School Curriculum — Hale . 353 Annual Report of the President — Joynes . 3 54 Report of the Vicepresident — Smith . 357 Report of the Secretary — Scott . 3 58 Report of Western Section Executive Committee Member — Eisner . 360 Report of Middle Section Executive Committee Member — Hunter . 361 Report of Eastern Section Executive Committee Member — Fahey . 362 Secretary’s Minutes . 364 DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN Historical Note . 370 The Art of Interviewing — Lytton . 371 What the Dean Lives By — Potter . 376 An Interpretative Study of the Personal Background of Students in State Teachers Colleges as a Basis for Determining Factors for Institutional Life — Moffett . 379 God’s Country for All Our Children — Bailey . 386 Secretary’s Minutes . 388 DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Historical Note . 392 The Technic of Democratic Leadership — Hosic . 393 The Principal as a Person — Goodrich . .• . 397 The First Problem of the Elementary School Principal — Binnion . 400 The Type, the Kind, the Amount of Supervision Which Elementary Princi¬ pals Should Know and Be Able to Give — Burton . 400 How an Educational Museum Will Help the Principal and His School — Meissner . 403 One Part the Principal Must Play in any Realization of the Purpose of the School — Horton . 405 The Opportunities of the Elementary Principal as Supervisor in Forwarding Education Today from the Superintendent’s Point of View — Sutton. . . . 407 Geography for a New World — Smith . 407 The Library as an Integral Part of Elementary School — Clement . 410 Some Modern Tendencies in the Teaching of Character Education — Price. . . . 413 The Elementary Principal as a Supervisor — Mossman . 415 Adventurous America — Rugg . 419 Secretary’s Minutes . 422 DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN-PRIMARY EDUCATION Historical Note . 426 Education for a New World: The Best Beginning with Young Children . 427 An Activity Curriculum at Work — Srygley (chairman) . 428 Classroom Setting for an Activity Curriculum: Equipment, its Selection, Construction, and Arrangement — Holdford (chairman) . 434 Classroom Procedures Which Promote Desirable Physical Development, Knowledge, Habits, Attitudes, and Skills — Bain (chairman) . 437 Unity and Continuity of Educational Experience — Home, Nursery School, Kindergarten, and Elementary Grades — Parker (chairman) . 442 Secretary’s Minutes . 447 10 National Education Association DEPARTMENT OF LIP READING Historical Note . 450 The Needs of the Hard of Hearing — Rowell . 451 Guiding the Deafened Child Vocationally — Samuel so n . 452 Lip Reading in Our Public Schools — Clark . 454 Lip Reading Shall Not Fail — Bryant . 456 Lip Reading Opens a New World to the Hard of Hearing Adult — Hubert. . . . 457 Finding the Hard of Hearing Child — Royce . 459 Secretary’s Minutes . : . 461 DEPARTMENT OF RURAL EDUCATION Historical Note . . 464 The Financial Support of Public Education, with Special Reference to Rural Areas — Tidwell . 465 The Supervision of Rural Elementary Schools in the Southern States — Cherry . 468 Negro Education in the South — Favrot . 472 The Contribution of the South to Rural Education — Williams . 477 Contributions of a Conservative Province to a Progressive Nation — Mims. . . . 480 The Adjustment of Education to the Needs of Farm-Dwelling People — Frost. . 481 Adjustment to Rural Industrial Change with Special Reference to Mountain Areas — Campbell . 484 Larger Contacts and World Outlook — Chase . 488 Group Versus Grade Class Organization — Heffernan . 491 Individual Instruction — Pierce . 494 Post-Graduation Responsibilities of a Teachers College — Higbie . 496 Experimentation in Rural Schools Under University Supervision — McCracken . 498 Some Suggestions for Improving Rural School Administration and Support — Cooper . 501 Education as an Investment — Selke . 504 The Preparation of Rural Teachers — Sanford . 506 Initiating Projects in Rural Supervision From Standpoint of State Super¬ visors of Rural Schools — Heyl . 508 Teacher Growth Through Creative Activity — Brim...- . 511 The Professional County Superintendent — Burton . 513 How Provide Creative Teachers — Yawberg . 516 A Countywide Plan of Supervision — Brogdon . 517 Countywide Plan of Consolidation and Organization of Schools — Jerome.... 520 Fewer and Larger Village and Rural High Schools — Bennett . 523 The County Survey — Wofford . 525 Democracy in Education — Morris . 528 Retardation and Promotion — Dunn . 528 The Amount and Type of Differentiation Desirable in the Preparation of Rural Teachers — Carney . 530 Modification in Typical Teachers College Curriculums for Meeting the Needs of Prospective Rural Teachers in the Courses Offered — Smart . 533 Modifications in Practise Teaching in Typical Teachers College Curriculums for Meeting the Needs of Prospective Rural Teachers — Christensen .. . 536 Future Need in the Preparation of Rural Teachers— Baldwin . 539 Secretary’s Minutes . 540 DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION Historical Note . . 544 Education for Leisure — Rogers . 545 Contents 11 Education of the Child and Community Through Health Education — Sutton.. 547 The Esthetic Value o4 Physical Education — Dozier. . . 550 Health Trends — Perrin . . . 552 Problems in School Health Education — Rood . 553 Health and Physical Education Needs in the South — Coleman . 555 The Place of Safety Education in the Program of Physical Education in the Schools — Stack . 557 Secretary’s Minutes . 558 DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION Historical Note . 560 The Curriculum in High-School Science — Curtis . 561 Books That Meet Instincts — Webb . 561 What Should Teachers Know in Order to Teach Science in a Modern Democ¬ racy? — Watkins . 565 The Place of the Garden in Nature Education — Ward . 566 Special Experience in Teaching Nature — Dowling . 568 Nature Education in Kentucky — Yunker . 572 How the University May Help in Training the Nature Teacher — Baker . 573 Secretary’s Minutes . 577 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Historical Note . 580 Advisory Control of Schools — Boynton . 581 Examples of Scientific Procedure in Supervision — Judd . 583 The Principal’s Program for Training Pupils in Habits of Study — Edmonson 585 Selection as a Function of American Secondary Education — Ryan . 592 Selection as a Function of American Secondary Education — Counts . 596 Functions of the Junior College — Charters . 603 The Necessity of the Secondary School Curriculum Giving Added Emphasis to the Pacific World — Cocking . 609 Some Facts and Fancies in Secondary Education — Trabue . 612 The Zero Hour of the Head of Department — Miller . 616 The Improvement of Practise in the Junior High Schools — Eldredge . 619 Teacher Training as Related to Classroom Procedure — Yeuell . 624 Character Education — Brown . 628 DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL STUDIES Historical Note . 634 New Interest in the Teaching and Study of Hispanic American History — Wilgus . 635 The Professional Preparation of Junior and Senior High-School Teachers of History and the Other Social Studies in Alabama — Parkinson . 636 Modern Tendencies in Relation to the Social Studies — Batman . 636 Social Studies in the San Antonio Junior High Schools — Ball . 638 The Newspaper as a Force in the Changing World — Boyington . 639 Training for Citizenship Through Early European History — Bernd . 640 Secretary’s Minutes . 641 DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE, CLEVELAND, OHIO Historical Note . 644 Address of Welcome — Brewer . 645 Education: What Program? What Price? — Boynton . 647 12 National Education Association Our Chief Concerns with the Future School Building Program — Gwinn . 654 How is Education to be Financed in View of the Increasing Cost? — Stray er. . 661 The Work of the Articulation Commission — Weet . 667 General Principles of Educational Articulation — Dewey . 674 The Problems of Articulation as Seen by the Colleges and Professional Schools — Elliott . 683 The Necessity of Coordinating Educational Activities with Public Affairs — Beck . — • 690 Functional Organization and Research — Keyworth . 696 The Function and Value of a Public School Research Bureau — Theisen . 716 The Research Function of State Education Departments — Morrison . 723 University Research and Its Value to Public School Administration — Trabue 728 What a Superintendent Has a Right to Expect of an Institution Training Teachers for the Elementary Schools — Hartwell . 735 What a Superintendent Has a Right to Expect of an Institution Training Teachers for Secondary Schools — Meek . 740 What the Rural School Has a Right to Expect of an Institution Training Teachers for Rural Schools — Butterworth . 746 What a Teacher Should Expect from the School Engaging His Services — Graves . 753 Some Hints from Scientific Investigations as to Character Training — Russell 757 Some Handicaps of Character Education in the United States — Bagley . 763 Character Education from the Standpoint of the Philosophy of Education — Tigert . 769 Address on Being Introduced to the Department of Superintendence — Lamkin 775 Address on Being Introduced to the Department of Superintendence — Cooper 776 Address on Being Introduced to the Department of Superintendence — Cody.. 779 Ohio’s Educational Program — Clifton . 780 The Relation of Education to Citizenship — McNutt . 783 Secretary’s Minutes . v . 791 Resolutions . 794 Report of Committee on Lay Resolutions — Clark . 798 Report of Auditing Committee — Givens . 800 Report of Committee on Million Dollar Research Fund — Condon . 800 DEPARTMENT OF SUPERVISORS AND DIRECTORS OF INSTRUCTION Historical Note . 804 Aims and Purposes of the Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruc¬ tion — Mugan . 805 Problems of Supervisors from the Point of View of the Director of Research — Bixler . * . 806 Problems in Supervision — Belser . 807 Problems of Supervisors as Seen by the County Supervisor of Rural Schools — Parrott . 809 The Problems of the Supervisor of Handwriting — Chapman . 810 The Problems of the Music Supervisor — Twaddell . 812 Next Steps in Supervision — From the Standpoint of the Elementary Super¬ visor — Hahn . 813 Next Steps in Supervision — From the Standpoint of the Elementary School Principal — Gist . 814 Next Steps in Supervision — From the Standpoint of the Supervisor of Rural Schools — Simpson . 814 A Balanced Program in Supervision — Hosic . 815 Descriptions of Instructional Practises in the Earlier Surveys of Schools and Presentation of the Second Yearbook — Brueckner . 820 Contents 13 Teachers’ Difficulties as a Basis for Supervision — W aples . 821 The Technic of the Large Scale Experiment — Rankin . 823 Teacher Participation in Curriculum Construction — Outright . 824 Secretary’s Minutes . 825 DEPARTMENT OF TEACHERS COLLEGES Historical Note . 828 Standards for Accrediting Teachers Colleges . 829 The College Faculty in 1950 — Its Type, Preparation, Background, Relations and Duties — Davis . 838 The Training School Faculty in 1950 — Its Type, Preparation, Background, Relations, and Duties — Latham . 841 Predicted Changes in Faculty Standards by 1950 as Shown by the Experiences of the Committee on Accrediting and Classification — McKenny . 844 Whither the Teachers Colleges in the Academic World? — Haggerty . 849 The Professional Phase of the Teachers College Curriculum in 1950 — Clark.. 861 Predicted Changes in the Curriculums of Teachers Colleges by 1950 as Shown by the Experiences of the Committee on Standards and Surveys — Evenden . 867 Teachers Colleges as Centers of Progressive Education — Judd . 875 The Cooperation of a Teachers College with Its Graduates and Its Responsi¬ bility for Their Success in 1950 — McAfee . 882 Athletics and Forensics: Their Type, Scope, Purpose, Value, and Administra¬ tion in 1950 — Cousins . 887 Standards in 1950 for Selection and Graduation of Students in the Teachers Colleges and for the Success and Professional Growth of the Graduates Who Are to Continue Teaching — Dunkle . *: . 892 Student and Alumni Participation in the Organization and Administration of Teachers Colleges in 1950 — Fair . 898 Report of the Committee on Standards and Surveys — Evenden . 901 Library Facilities for Teacher-Training Institutions — Rosenlof . 908 The Best Type of Governing Body for a Teachers College in 1950: Official, Faculty and Student, or Alumni — Noyer . 914 The Relation Which the Administration of the Teachers Colleges Shall Have to the Administration of Other Units of Public Education and to the Whole Administration of Public Education in 1950 — Meredith . 922 How Shall a Scientific and Adequate Budget for a Teachers College Be De¬ termined and Secured in 1950 — IV ells . 928 Membership List — 1928-29 . 934 DEPARTMENT OF VISUAL INSTRUCTION Historical Note . 938 Visual Communication — Aughinbaugh, . 939 The Use of Stereographs and Stereopticon Slides in Classroom Teaching— Hollinger . 940 Visual Instruction Service in a City System — Roach . 942 DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION I Historical Note . 946 New Problems in Homemaking Education — Baylor . 947 New Features in Trade and Industrial Education Programs — Harris . 948 New Aspects of Farmer Training — Wheeler . 949 The Future of Partirne Education- — Burdick . 950 14 National Education Association The Place of the Future Farmers of America in Training Farmers of To¬ morrow — Clements . 952 A State Program in Vocational Education — Browne . 953 The Supervision in Agricultural Education as Compared to the Supervision in General Education — Fetterolf . 954 Influence of Agricultural Education Upon Standards and Methods of General Education — Lancelot . 955 An Aggressive Program in Itinerant Teacher Training — Kenestrick . 956 The Cass Technical High School of Detroit — Comfort . 958 The Apprentice School of the Lakeside Press — Anderson . 959 The William Hood Dunwoody Industrial Institute of. Minneapolis — Craigo... 960 The Girls Trades and Technical High School of Milwaukee — Blanchard . . . . 961 The Milwaukee Vocational School — Cooley . 963 How Can Home Economics Education in the United States Serve Democ¬ racy? — Baylor . 964 A View of the Program of Vocational Education in Agriculture — Stewart. . . . 965 Some Selected Manual Arts Programs — The Johnstown Program — Killius . . . 966 The Manual Arts Program in the Joliet Township High School and Junior College — Castle . 968 The Manual Arts Program in Duluth — Gregory . 969 Manual Arts in Indianapolis — Wood . 970 The Manual Arts Program in Cleveland — Roberts . 971 INTER-AMERICAN CONFERENCE ON EDUCATION Historical Note . 974 WORLD FEDERATION OF EDUCATION ASSOCIATIONS Historical Note . 976 The Geneva Conference of the World Federation c/f Education Associations — Ryan . ; . . . 977 Resolutions of the W. F. E. A . 985 ASSOCIATION AL RECORDS AND INFORMATION Act of Incorporation . * . . 991 Bylaws . 996 Calendar of Meetings . 1007 Officers for 1928-29 . * . 1009 Officers of 1929-30 . 1014 Committees for 1928-29 . 1020 Minutes of the Ninth Representative Assembly . 1034 Minutes of the Executive Committee . 1080 Minutes of the Board of Trustees . 1091 Minutes of the Board of Directors . 1094 Auditor’s Report . . . . . . T . . . 1107 Treasurer’s Report . 1121 Report of the Budget Committee . 1125 Report of Resolutions Committee — McCormick . 1135 List of Names Reported by Necrology Committee . 1142 Life Membership Dinner . 1147 Membership* in the National Education Association . . . 1151 Secretary’s Report . 1152 The Ninth Representative Assembly . 1180 Table of Publications of the National Education Association 1928-29 . 1201 Index . 1203 General Sessions The genial and far-famed hospitality of the Southland was never exhibited to greater ad¬ vantage than during the 1929 convention. of the National Education Association, the first meeting to be held in the Southeast since 1881. From arrival until departure, the fine courtesy of the people of At¬ lanta and Georgia was constantly in evidence in every detail. Georgia watermelons, peaches, and coco cola were served in a tent adjoining the exhibit hall. Every guest was accosted as he left the tent by the ever faithful Boy Scout with his “Come again, please.” Another feature was the gigantic barbecue, thanks to the Fulton County Commissioners, at which 6000 persons were seated at once. The excellent ed¬ ucational exhibits were conveniently located in the front of the auditorium and in the annex which was directly connected with the auditorium. There were present 1095 delegates representing all the states and territories, while the total registration was something over 10,000. The great memorial at Stone Mountain proved to be one of the most attractive points of in¬ terest to the delegates and visitors. The theme of the convention was “Education for a New World.” In addition to the general sessions and the depart¬ ment meetings, the following groups held meetings as scheduled in the program: American Classical League, American Home Economics Association, Conference of Superintendents of Schools, National Conference on Art Education, National Conference on Student Participation in School Government, Na¬ tional Council of Administrative Women in Educa¬ tion, National Conference of Geography Teachers, National Council of Teachers of English, National Congress of Parents and Teachers, National Geo¬ graphic Society, National League of Teachers Asso¬ ciations, National Vocational Guidance Association, School Garden Association of America. AD DRESS OF WELCOME ON BEHALF OF THE STATE OF GEORGIA L. G. HARDMAN, GOVERNOR OF THE STATE OF GEORGIA IT is indeed an honor to us as citizens of this state to be in your presence here. It is indeed a great help to us in your bringing the many methods of modern education in your displaj^s. So, we are pleased indeed to have you here. It perhaps would be an assumption on my part to attempt to suggest to you anything concerning education and its modern methods, and yet I am sure you will pardon me if I may suggest to you some thought that appeals to me to deserve the consideration of the educational interests of this entire nation. The subjects that I merely wish to suggest to you are the following: 1. First is the attention to the welfare of the manhood and womanhood in our country. In suggesting this topic I divide it, and that will be the most that I shall do, into four heads: First, the matter of mentality, which has been the outstanding element in our education for all times, that our tests of the mentality, our records of the mentality are the bases upon which progress and education have been placed. That is of great importance. Another matter that is now claiming the attention of the educators of the world is physical education or physical development. There cannot be the high type of mentality without the basis of physical manhood and womanhood. So in your educational program not only the mental tests shall be taken and recorded and kept but the physical examination of every child in this nation should be made and kept for record and reference and evefy record should be repainted so to speak, at the end of each year so that we may thereby determine the progress made in physical development as well as intellectual growth. The third suggestion that I would make is character teaching. There can be no great womanhood or manhood without character. We should have in our schools in the entire country character teaching, and records should be kept, and that reading should be taken as in the other two. We might ask why should this be done? We want to know the prog¬ ress in intellectual attainment, we want to know the progress in physical development, and we must know the progress in the character of the stu¬ dent, and it is only by keeping these records that we are able to present or provide for teaching that will separate from the individual his weak¬ ness in mentality, his defects in physical manhood, and his defects in moral character. The fourth thing that I suggest to you is that of finger-print reading and I presume that at once you associate finger-print reading with crimi¬ nality, but I take it that every phase, every grey cell in your brain is represented by corresponding territory in the periphery of your body and in order that we may have all the elements to aid in the development of [ 17] 18 National Education Association character that we should have a finger-print reading, and in that sooner or later the governor of this state believes that you will be able to asso¬ ciate mentality and finger-print reading to a degree that you will be able to determine the normal mentality. 2. The next thing I wish to bring to your attention is the individual him¬ self. The most important factor in the individual is maintaining his initiative and confidence in himself that will establish confidence which is the basis of activity in the undertaking of life. Education of the in¬ dividual means the development of every phase of his strength as applied to mental, moral, and physical development. With the proper develop¬ ment of these forces and faculties the citizen becomes confident and satis¬ fied with his basis of initiative and activity. Perhaps the strongest ele¬ ment in education as applied to life and business is the consciousness of the truth and knowledge of it by the individual. The will is one of the strongest factors or elements in undertaking accomplishment and with a consciousness of truth, integrity, and honesty brings to the individual judg¬ ment, decision, and activity. Activity is inevitable and the result is certain. The individual whose power of decision is weakened and the will itself inactive becomes the servant of the individual or agent that dominates him. Confidence and judgment are lost due to the divergency of the agencies which preside over him and control the individual. There can be no permanent degree of success. Success is only success as it applies to the entire scope of the life of the individual.' Success in life does not depend upon the advancement in the knowledge of standard authorities and books accepted in schools and colleges but is the development of the forces and character of the’ individual of which those form only a part. Schools and educational institutions should not simply be a preparation for life but should be a life in which the individuals themselves do not recognize the burdens, confinements and hardships but the joy in life and in living itself. Education as applied to groups without the foundation of education as applied to the individual is ineffective and does not bring joy and happi¬ ness but failure, disappointments, and burdens; and citizens as a group begin to seek a source from which they can secure a revenue to maintain life and provide for themselves the necessities to swing in harmony with the mass, with society, many of which things are the result of education on a false basis. It is not the individual or group of individuals who have attained a high mark in the standard works in schools and colleges who bring to their communities and the state the greatest returns or the greatest joy to themselves and their country, but it is the education of the higher faculties and forces in their nature that brings the greatest return and joy. Many of the socalled educated individuals and groups are oftentimes the greatest failures. The knowledge that we possess as applied to the individual and the group of citizens that brings health, efficiency, and proper returns is that which develops in them the highest ideals of life as applied daily in their avocation. General Sessions 19 3. The third thing that I wish to suggest to you is transportation of thought, the ruling force of progress. Thought is the force that has given to education a science of achievement. Its progress has been excited and stimulated by transportation. It is the energy generated by the gray matter of the brain and activity of the brain is excited to a larger degree by the transportation of thought or motion. The man who moves in the transportation areas and methods is a man whose brain and thought are the active ones, giving him a greater view and a wider scope of every resource in the universe. The stagnant brain and inactive mind is the result of the inactive transportation or moving of the elements and forces of nature. Thought, indeed, is one of the elements of transportation con¬ veyed by the telegraph, the telephone, and wireless communication. These modes of transportation of thought are the basis upon which new thought, new activities come to the world and bring new inspiration, discovering and spreading into every element that constitutes the universe. The spirit of thought not only pervades every hidden resource but travels with human souls to the great beyond as physical transportation increases in activity. Thought has brought to the world the greatest activities which have been stimulated by transportation. Traffic communication between sections of states and countries has brought new thought and new activities to the brain itself. The more rapid the traffic transportation the more active becomes our thought and the greater the man is the more quick the decision, judgment, and human power. No country or community can ever move forward in the more equal elements whose transportation of thought is slow and inactive. It io only he who moves who thinks and the character and value of thought is of a higher type when associated with rapid transportation. History bears out this statement that the progress, the prosperity, and achievements in civilization came with transportation and thought activity. ADDRESS OF WELCOME ON BEHALF OF THE SOUTHEAST M. L. DUGGAN, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS OF GEORGIA I count it an unusual pleasure and a great privilege to welcome you to the southeast. In the name of the teachers of Georgia and the adjoining states I welcome you. In the name of all the southeastern states I wel¬ come you to the “Land of Uncle Remus” and Sidney Lanier and Henry W. Grady. From the hills of Haversham to the marshes of Glenn I welcome you to Georgia and our welcome shall be as candid and simple, nothing withholding, and friendly as our beautiful marshes of Glenn. Education of all the children of all the people is no longer a mooted question. The increase in public sentiment has outstripped the increase and support of our schools, but public sentiment and conditions with us are ripe now for forward movement in education. You come to us at an opportune time. We are in immediate need of inspiration that will come from this great convention. I thoroughly believe that the meeting here 20 National Education Association of this great organization and the assembling of all the state legislators this week will mark the beginning of a new era in educational progress in our state. Stay with us as long as you will. Enjoy our southland to the fullest. We shall hope to give you something intangible but real and worthwhile to take home with you that may abide in your hearts and lives and make you want to come again. And then if some of you should return to take up your permanent residence with us we give you a permanent welcome. \\ e have abundant room for you. Our undeveloped natural resources are unequaled anywhere in the world. We are particularly concerned however, in the proper development of our educational facilities for we are mindful that "Ill fares the land to hastening ills a prey, where wealth accumulates and men decay.” We welcome you. ADDRESS OF WELCOME ON BEHALF OF THE CITY OF ATLANTA I. N. RAGSDALE, MAYOR OF ATLANTA This convention brings to our city one of the highest honors ever ac¬ corded us. We are conscious that the members of your profession more than any other great class are shaping the destinies of our nation. You confer upon us an honor and a distinction. A city could seek no more desirable privilege than to be host to the men and women who are dedicating themselves to the youth of America. We welcome you with open hearts. We extend to you the hospitality of a city famed for its splendid spirit of reception. We welcome you as the spokesmen of thirty million or more children and we are confident that the deliberations of this convention will result in very material advance¬ ment for the cause of education. Aside from any commercial aspect of this work, Atlanta will reap a great benefit from this convention. Our people who work along educa¬ tional lines will be quickened and inspired to greater efforts. We are sure that the stay in Atlanta will send you back to your homes refreshed in body and mind and with a new conception of our city and section. As the National Education Association goes into session the eyes of the nation are upon Atlanta as the shrine of education. Each state and every city, town, hamlet, and rural community in America are interested in what the allied groups of the Association are considering and accomplishing. Your aims and objectives are of interest to many of us. Next to the parents of America you are the closest counselors of our youth and your influence over our children and upon their future is second only to their home training. It has been said that what we wish to bring out in the nation must first be put into the schools. With sound and adequate education as your next goal you are working toward the safest and sanest future for our great republic. Universal education means more nearly equal opportunities for all. General Sessions 21 The devotion of the American teachers to the public schools, the ideals which the teachers pass on to the children are among the most inspiring circumstances of our national life. Being educators I am sure you will be interested in a word about Atlanta’s school system. Since 1921 we have spent or appropriated five and one-half million dol¬ lars for the erection and equipment of new school buildings. So rapidly has the population of our city expanded that before the last dollar is expended there arises the necessity for further expansion of school facilities. Approximately twelve hundred teachers are employed in the system. And you may gain some idea of how devoted Atlanta teachers are to their work when I say that a great many of the instructors have been teaching in the system for periods ranging from five years to more than a quarter of a century. Over sixty thousand school children are enroled in our public schools and our system is said to rank favorably with those of other lead¬ ing cities of the counfry. The citizens of Atlanta welcome you to their hearts and homes and we hope that when the important work of this great assembly has finished you will linger with us awhile to further enjoy the attractions of our city. Atlanta is yours. ADDRESS OF WELCOME ON BEHALF OF THE BOARD OF EDUCATION GEORGE W. POWELL^ PRESIDENT; BOARD OF EDUCATION OF ATLANTA If there is any doubt in your mind as to the cordiality of your welcome I hope that I can dispel it. Atlanta has never had and never will have in my judgment until you return again, such distinguished guests. It is almost impossible to the mind to conceive of the great power that you have in your hands, of the sacred responsibility that rests upon your shoulders. May heaven give you the vision to see, the skill to plan, and the courage to do the things that will prove best for the nation. No nation, no community, no city can prosper except as its public school system prospers. That is the very foundation of civilization. Our youth of today are our citizens of tomorrow. Let us so educate them that when we pass on and leave to them our tasks we will have no apologies to offer ; and we can conscientiously say that we have tried to do our duty as we saw it. Today we are apt to judge the successful man by the dollars he has accumulated. That is the last standard by which we should judge a man’s greatness. His greatness does not consist in serving himself except as he serves himself to the service of humanity. It is a happy privilege as president of the local board of education to welcome this distinguished body. Dr. Duggan said it was forty-eight years ago that you came. Don't make it so long next time, otherwise I might have difficulty getting here to see you. 2? W W National Education Association I hope your deliberations will be successful. I hope that great Teacher of all time, so keen to do and anxious in His love for children, will guide you in your deliberations and will watch over and care for those loved ones you have left at home and bring you safely to them. RESPONSE ON BEHALF OF THE TEACHERS OF AMERICA EULA F. HUNTER, STRIBLING HIGH SCHOOL, FORT WORTH, TEXAS AY e teachers of America deal with new ideas and believe in change ; but there are certain fundamental truths which we know are sure. And one of these established anchors is the hospitality of the South. We deeply appreciate the official welcome which has been extended to us this morn¬ ing by these distinguished hosts, Governor Hardman, State Superintendent Duggan, Ylayor Ragsdale, and Mr. Powell. But these are not the first cordial greetings we have received in Atlanta. Since the moment of our arrival in this fair city the people have spoken to us kindly and have made us feel at home. However, we are not here primarily to rejoice in the rich fellowship which is assured us officially and on every hand. We have come to study a great theme which our President, Mr. Lamkin, has wisely chosen, “Edu¬ cation for a New World.'’ This is the friendly enterprise which brings marching through Georgia an army of active educators representing every section of these United States and Hawaii. It is a friendly mission and we know that we are welcome. And it is a prophecy of the spirit which must permeate all our relationships in this New World. Our first concern is the welfare of the rising generation — the school children of the United States. But the discovery of a truth, or the solution of a problem, can no longer be confined to an area so small as this immense country of ours. If we in this conference make real progress in some field of education, it will mean an advance towar’d nobler life and culture in every civilized land of earth. That is the kind of world in which we live now. Once a psalmist realized that even though he should take the wings of the morning and fly to the uttermost part of the earth, God would be there. But when we fly to the farthest habitation of man, we find that not only is God there, but the inventions of man are there, and the As¬ sociated Press is there, ready to send to all mankind the important happen¬ ings of the day. My brother has been living in a little Japanese town three hundred miles north of Tokyo, and for a week last October he read in the little village paper each afternoon the news of the World Series and the batting average of Babe Ruth. This is our new world, and we must learn to live and to work in it. Our neighbors are neither adjacent communities nor border states, but all the nations. One of the first lessons we should learn and teach is that friendly missions everywhere will meet with the same kind of welcome as General Sessions 23 that which you extend to us. Many years ago there came into Mexico a warrior from Spain. With armor-clad horses and riders who looked like men of steel, Cortez and his soldiers cut their w^ay through the ranks of natives, who could only defy the invasion by throwing stones. It was a sad day. Not so long ago another hero traveled there, and as this pilot of the purple twilight came out of the sky the people closed their shops and their schools, decorated their streets with bright flags and bunting, put on their Sunday clothes, and shouted welcome to Lindbergh. He had come on a mission of peace. This is the spirit of our campaigning. We are not soldiers of fortune but dispensers of truth. We believe in the inherent dependableness of young people and we are willing to trust the future to them after they have been given ideas and ideals. We are in a new day and changes are necessary, but the real forces which bring changes are ideas. Some years ago there lived out in Texas an old man with an immense beard ; large enough, I think, to conceal a diamond stud as large as a Georgia peach. One day a little granddaughter said, “Grandpa, what do you do with your whiskers at night, and when you put on your overcoat, do you put your whiskers inside or ouside?” The old man had not thought of it. That night when he re¬ tired he tucked his beard carefully under his blankets, but that pulled his chin. Then he put his whiskers outside the covers, but that, he thought, held him stiff on his back. He had a terrible night. The next morning he started down town, and his beard was blowing in the wind. He buttoned his overcoat around it but that was most uncomfortable. So he went down to the barber shop and had his whiskers cut. After the idea was planted in his consciousness something had to be done about it. Our business is to puncture young minds with new truth. We know that they will take the question home to dad. Gentlemen, we teachers of America appreciate 5*our high estimate of the part we have had in producing the civilization which we prize today. We feel that we are making a contribution, but our prize is not the praise which you so kindly bestow. Our recompense is in the boys and girls who shall become the finest citizens our country has ever known. Once there was a king who wanted to reward the man who had most nobly and effectively served. He appointed a day upon which he would sit as judge and hear the claims of any who would come. The physician told how he had taught sanitation, healed the sick, and kept the people in health. The judge insisted that he had decided wisely the controversies of the people and had administered the law of the land. The preacher asked consideration because he had married the young, buried the dead, and preached the gospel of kindness and love. The farmer reminded the king that all the people of the realm were dependent upon the nourishing produce which came from the farm. While these men, one by one, presented their claims to the promised reward, there sat in the rear of the room an aged man whose face beamed. As each man told his story this gentleman was 24 National Education Association thrilled. The king could stand it no longer, so he said, “My man, what have you done? You seem to rejoice at the achievements of all these con¬ testants. Then the old man arose and said, “Oh, King, this is my con¬ tribution. When these distinguished servants of the realm were boys, I was their teacher.” EDUCATION FOR A NEW AMERICA WILLIAM JOHN COOPER, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION With the coming of spring, a wellknown luggage manufacturer placed in many of our magazines an illustrated advertisement. In the picture a well dressed young man was shown standing by an old fashioned trunk and grips of different styles. Nearby were standing a smartly dressed young woman and an older lady, presumably her mother. The half-turned faces of the women revealed smiles, half of amusement, half of pity. The legend was this: “If your ears burn easily, don’t travel with attic heirlooms for luggage.” Shortly after this advertisement appeared, the editor of one of our weekly magazines received a letter condemning very strongly “the sneer at old-fashionedness” which the advertisement conveyed. Our editor pub¬ lished the letter with the following comment from which I omit names: Before buying a trunk like his grandaunt would have bought let Subscriber . . . . reflect upon the theory that Uncle Sam’s prosperity is best reflected in his scrapheap, there being a United States willingness to scrap the good for the better. As to the (X) advertisement “sneering at poverty” the same may be said for every advertisement, for every shopwindow. The same idea has been set forth quite fully and very frankly by no less a business leader than General Director Charles F. Kettering, General Mo¬ tors Research Laboratory, in the January number of the Nations Business. Writing under the title, “Keep the Consumer Dissatisfied,” 1 Mr. Kettering said with regard to new models in automobiles: If automobile owners could not dispose of their cars to a lower buying strata, they would have to wear out their cars with a consequent tremendous cutting in the yearly demand for automobiles, a certain increase in production costs, and the natural passing along of those costs to the buyer. If everyone were satisfied, no one would buy the new thing because no one would want it. The ore wouldn’t be mined ; timber wouldn’t be cut. Almost immediately hard times would be upon us. You must accept this reasonable dissatisfaction with what you have and buy the new thing, or accept hard times. You can have your choice. To drive home his point Mr. Kettering suggests taking a brand new upto- date automobile and sealing it in a large glass case. Let its value be ap¬ praised each year and a new price put on it. At the end of ten years the value of this car will be chiefly a junk value. We are told that this de¬ preciation is due to the fact that in ten years some real improvements will 1 Kettering, Charles F., “Keep the Consumer Dissatisfied,” Nation’s Business, 17:79; January, 1929. General Sessions 25 have been made in the automobile both in workmanship and in appearance. And in the meantime people will have changed their minds as to what con¬ stitutes a “best car/’ What one may today call “the best car that can be made” is really not in fact the best that can be made. These are simple illustrations of an outstanding characteristic of this generation — change. For if I am to run the risks of prophecy and attempt to indicate what education for the new America should be, I must offer some generalizations about the present age which seem to indicate trends. The first generalization about our times which I make then, is that change distinguishes it from preceding periods of human history. In the world of commerce and industry where change means profits there is no complaint except from the few conservatives who are left hopelessly behind in the race. But corresponding changes in social life and institutions necessary to keep them abreast of the times are less cheerfully accepted, possibly because there is no financial incentive to change. So we find press and pulpit full of laments about the disintegration of family life, hasty marriage, easy divorce, and juvenile delinquency. The old mores are no longer accepted. What shall the outcome be ? "I his question especially worries the educator and the minister of religion. For education and religion are conservative forces in society, and in a world of change they are peculiarly the objects of attack. That the popular magazines are full of controversy on education and religion is first-class evidence of the far-reaching effect of change as a char¬ acteristic of contemporary civilization. Yet careful students of society realize that even in our most sacred institutions change must come. For instance William Trufand Foster writes, “Change is the immutable law of progress. Whatever resists change is dying; whatever does not change is dead.” 1 Another general characteristic of our time is speed. Perhaps this results from change and is in part only accelerated change. Railway companies delight in announcing ever faster trains and in providing “wings for the iron horse.” The airplane is rapidly becoming popular with the business men, both as a means of personal transportation and as a means of com¬ munication. Listen to a writer in a business men’s magazine for last month (May, 1929). Writing under the heading “How Aviation Speeds Busi¬ ness,” he says, "Business saved $19,812.69 in interest in eighty-three busi¬ ness days in April, May, June, and July last year by sending cancelled checks by air mail from Cleveland to Chicago.” 2 “Time” has long been the essence of contracts. But never before have men been urged to "wire not write.” Only recently have the advertising pages shown salesman “A” getting an “order for goods” by long distance tel¬ ephone while his competitor “B” was rushing to the customer by fast train. Quite recently the Foreign Trade Council meeting in Baltimore was ad¬ dressed on Wednesday evening by the representative of an American cor- 1 Foster, William T., “The Spirit of the West." In Essays of Ottr Times, p. 169. Scott, Poresman ami Company, Chicago. - Exo, Arnold II., “How Aviation Speeds Business," Nation's Business, ITiSS; May, 1929. 2b National Education Association poration speaking from his European office at five o'clock Thursday morn¬ ing. A ship owner present on that occasion was able to get an answer to a message sent to his farthest ship on the Pacific ocean in fourteen minutes. A telegram dispatched by the toastmaster went around South America (by special arrangement of course) and was received at the very table from which it had been sent by the Ambassador of the South American Republic to whom it was directed within the space of seven minutes. “The Hindus conceived a pretty high speed.” writes Professor Anesaki, “ ‘mano-javas,' the speed of idea traversing the gigantic universe in a kahana (second or moment) but it was merely ideal. The speed of cherubim or of Pegasus, equally imaginary, is no match for the actual speed of the flying machine today, not to speak of the cinematographic apparatus taking many images in a second. This is merely an instance of the speed achieved nowa¬ days, but a more important factor in contemporary life is the frenzy for speed, which is an integral part of the life and mental habit of modern man.” 1 This frenzy for speed is well represented by the recent sacrifice of life on a racing track in an insane effort to travel at a speed utterly im¬ possible under actual traffic conditions and entirely without merit in de¬ velopment of the automobile motor. The remedy for it rests with educa¬ tion. A third general characteristic of this present period is the widespread use of power driven machinery in production. After studying the great German Museum at Munich, Dr. John H. Randall, Jr., asked himself, “What are the dominant traits of the world foreshadowed here in the German museum?” To this question he returned this answer, “The ma¬ chine, technical invention applied to mass production, is the cornerstone supporting the whole structure.” 2 Within the past few months the presi¬ dent of one of our agricultural colleges was reported as telling a graduating class that had the crops of last year been produced in the way such crops were produced prior to the Civil War, twenty-seven million more people would have been required to produce them. Carl Kottgen, German student of American conditions, reports that 43.3 percent of the gainfully employed in Germany are required to feed Germany, while in the United States only twenty-nine percent are so required. He finds the agricultural production per individual 2.46 times greater in the United States than in Germany.3 But agriculture has been less affected by machines and power than haS manu¬ facturing. From 1899 to 1919 the physical volume of product turned out by American manufacturers increased 112 percent, and the number of wage earners employed increased 103 percent. In the eight years following 1919 the increase in volume of products has been 46.5 percent and the number 1 Anesaki, Maseharu, “An Oriental Evaluation of Modern Civilization.” In Recent Gains in American Civilisation, ed. Kirby Page, p. 334-35. Harcourt, Brace and Company, New York City. 2 Randall, John Herman. Our Changing Civilisation. Frederick A. Stokes and Company, New York. 3 Hoover. Herbert and the President’s conference committee. Recent Economic Changes. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. Yol. 1, p. 3. General Welfare of workers has decreased by 2.9 percent. "During the period of greatly in¬ creasing productivity." writes L. P. Alford, “there has been a decrease in the number or workers employed."1 * 3 The Hoover committee found no noticeable trend in production toward establishments employing greater numbers of workers, but when measured by horse power per establishment a decided increase was discovered. "From the point of view of the worker," say Thorp, “it means that more and more of the actual labor is done by the machine, and we are coming more and more to merit the designation of the ‘machine age. - A fourth general characteristic of our present civilization is standardiza¬ tion. Our classic illustration is the Ford car. Through a high degree of standardization it can be sold at a price which millions of people can afford to pay. New parts for it are always readily obtainable and at little expense. The workmen who manufacture and assemble it can receive high wages, and the persons who own the factories concerned with its manufacture be¬ come the world s richest individuals. The fewer the types of an article which need to be made, the more fully the machines for making them can be utilized, and the more skilled their operators can become. Therefore, the more products are made by machines, the more they will become stand¬ ardized. The United States Department of Commerce during the Secretaryship of Herbert Hoover advocated reduction in varieties of many manufactured articles. This “simplified practise" as it generally is called, designed to elimi¬ nate waste, was a rather long step in standardization and consequent reduc¬ tion in costs. Instead of forty-four varieties and sizes of common brick we now have one. In place of 421 sizes of nails and tacks we now have 1S2. a reduction of fifty-seven percent. Hospital beds formerly manufactured in thirty-three lengths, thirty-four widths, and forty-tour heights, are now of one length, one heighth. and three widths. Eighty- tour commodity classifications have been so simplified to the great benefit of all concerned. 1 would not leave the impression, however, that standardization should be extended without limit. There are many dangers inherent in it, some of which have been well pointed out by Stuart Chase, a close student of our economic and social life: Industrial standardization is one of the mightiest achievements of the new technology, but it is a two-edged sword. Applied with due regard for the human equation, it promises the elimination of untold duplications, confusion, and waste, and a tremendous gain in the general standard of living. Applied only from the point of view of the maximum probt in dollars, it can readily become an unmitigated curse. True to the formula of business iber alUs. it is the latter course which indus¬ try has pursued to dated The fifth and last generalization I care to make about this generation in which we live is suggested by Stuart Chase's reference to "business fiber 1 Ibid., p. 101. = Ibid., p. 216. 3 Chase, Stuart. “The Dogma of Business Firs: In £xj»\jr .*• Aar T' ed. Ctarcn Brown, p. S0-S1. Scon. Foresman and Company, Chicago. 28 National Education Association alles.” Our philosophers say that we are living in an age of ‘‘dollar econ¬ omy.” Foreign observers from Dickens to the present upbraid us for it. European common folk, observing the lavish and foolish expenditures of the American tourist, assume that all Americans are rich. Their patriotic editors, lamenting their nation’s loss of some splendid work of art which an auction has transferred from some old estate to an American million¬ aire’s mansion, accuse us of sordidness. Their cartoonists cover Lncle Sam with the dollar mark. Their more careful critics noting our hurried life and our stock-market speculations conclude that we are “money mad” and have lost all standards of measuring values except the dollar-and-cents stand¬ ard. “To the cultured European,” writes Dr. Gay, “with his background of leisure as a social ideal, the concentration of Americans on their task of subjugating and organizing the continent has often appeared, naturally enough, to be at the best a regrettable undervaluing of higher faculties and at the worst a frantic, ignoble pursuit of money.” 1 That we even interpret business in this way ourselves is evidenced by the illustration which heads the chapter on “Business” in Beard’s Whither Man¬ kind, which shows a group of men wildly scrambling for coins tossed to¬ wards them by fleet-footed Mercury.2 Many writers speak of it in apolo¬ getic tones, yet in itself I know of no reason why we should be ashamed of this emphasis on the dollar. The very fact that we have been living in a period of rapid change has tended to overemphasize the standard by which we measure our progress. By way of illustration consider the speeding up of freight trains. Just after we had passed through an Ohio city we over¬ took a freight train. My train had just attained normal speed yet it took seven minutes to pass that freight, in which I counted ninety-five cars pulled by two giant engines. On some of the flat cars were machinery. In other cars were iron fillings and scrap iron. The box cars were of many types including furniture and automobile cars. Yet none of them were fruit express cars. Why this tremendous speed in freight trains which haul no perishable products? From the back cover of the dining car menu for the day I learned that the speeding up of freight trains had contributed hundreds of millions of dollars to industry by eliminating car shortages and by making it unnecessary for manufacturers, wholesalers, and retailers to carry large stocks of goods. We are told that every mile which is added to the average daily mileage of a freight car is equivalent to adding 100,000 freight cars to the total railroad equipment and that since 1920 five miles per day have been added to that dailv average. “The virtual addition of 500,000 cars to the railway plant through this speeding up,” we are told, “means a saving of perhaps $750,000,000 in new capital, $45,000,000 in the annual cost of such capital, another $30,000,000 for annual depreciation charges, and $75,000,000 for repair charges per year.” The dollar seems 1 Hoover, Herbert and the President’s conference committee. Recent Economic Changes. McGraw-Hill Co., New York, 1929. Vol. 1, p. 7. 2 Beard, Charles A., editor Whither Mankind. Longmans, Green and Company, New York. General Sessions 29 to be the only feasible standard for measuring outcomes of such activity as the speeding up of the movement of freight. If our present American civilization is reasonably well described by these generalizations, and if they represent, as I think they do, trends which are likely to influence our social and economic life for at least a generation, then our major problem is to develop a school system designed to enable individuals to adjust themselves to the social environment in which they must work, and to modify their environment in an intelligent manner. Can we formulate an educational program from a civilization in which radical change may occur at any time, which is speeded up to high pitch, which by the use of power and machines is removing from the backs of men the burden of weary toil, and yet which makes for standardized products and which measures its progress in terms of dollars and cents? I suggest as major lines of attack on such a problem the following pro¬ cedures : First, that wTe ascertain as fully as possible those respects in which pres¬ ent-day schools are meeting satisfactorily the demands properly made on them. Second, that we define as clearly as possible the respects in which our schools have failed to meet satisfactorily the problems of this generation. Third, that we study objectively the results obtained in schools, includ¬ ing colleges, which have departed from traditional curriculums or methods or both. Fourth, that we catalog the inadequacies or deficiencies in our present society, taking for study those upon which our leading thinkers are in sub¬ stantial agreement; that we hunt for the factors responsible for these deficiencies, estimate the social effects likely to result if they are not reme¬ died, and the posssibilities of eliminating them or offsetting them through education. The studies needed if the problem is to be approached in this manner are merely begun. This fact indicates the first step in setting up the edu¬ cational system for the new America. This absence of objective data and the short time at my disposal make it necessary that my suggestions or prophecies, if you will, be brief. What are the assets and liabilities of the present schools, judged from the scanty data available? Judged by articles in popular magazines a stranger would conclude that there are no assets, but I believe that there are many. If we think first of collegiate and professional education, one is impressed with the general success of American engineers. They seem to be adequately trained not only to cope with gigantic and unprecedented tasks in mining, railroading, electrical development, highway building, automobile and air¬ craft manufacture, and structural work of many varieties in the develop¬ ment of our own continent, but their services are also in demand abroad. At the same time it must be conceded that American colleges have not turned out men able to meet successfully the economic and social problems 30 National Education Association of this generation, and judged by old world standards of culture and refine¬ ment, the products of our institutions are below par. On the secondary school level of education the situation is even less clear. The high percentage of the eligible age groups in school is the wonder of the world and many of our own people ask what the purpose is and what the outcome is likely to be. The college officials tell us that these schools do not prepare students for college satisfactorily and many employers ex¬ press dissatisfaction with the product they obtain from vocational courses. Whether the increased enrolments in these schools have led to a general lowering of standards or to less attention to a chosen few we do not really know. We have made extensive changes in these schools largely in the addition of newer courses, especially in trade training, in preparation for office service and home economics. There has also been, especially in the larger cities, administrative reorganization into junior and senior high schools, partime or continuation schools, and a few distinct trade schools. A general recognition of the chaotic state of secondary education in this country led to a demand for a nationwide survey of the field. Congress has appropriated $225,000 for a study to extend over three years and this autumn the investigation will be begun. From it should come an estimate of the liabilities and assets. Our elementary schools are now undergoing rapid changes in curricu- lums, methods of instruction, and administrative organization. The one extensive study made in this field indicates that the elementary school should be concerned with children only through the sixth grade. We are just beginning to realize that the difficulty faced by the elemen¬ tary school is very fundamental. Until recently it has been a supplementary institution — supplementary especially to the home and the church. But in an age when large numbers of people have no direct contact with the church or the church school, many people wish to make the day school responsible for character training. The loss of the cooperative contacts be¬ tween parents and children in the oldfashioned home, where all worked together for the common good, is not yet fully appreciated. When it is fully felt by society there will be a demand that the school be no longer merely a place where children are prepared to make a living later, but that it be a place where real living goes on under the best possible present con¬ ditions. The school of tomorrow is likely, therefore, to nurture the com¬ plete child, physical, mental, and spiritual. Its curriculum will involve aspects of life. Children will be encouraged to bring into the classroom their interests and problems in nature, in city life, in industrial and human relations, as well as their questions of diet, exercise, and health. The efforts on the part of the school to make good some of the loss of these influences have also brought about the establishment of kindergartens and nursery schools as well as modified the methods of teaching and ad¬ ministering the lower grades in the elementary school proper. The task of measuring objectively the outcomes of educational experi¬ ments is not easy, but I think that it is possible and that it should be General Sessions 31 attempted. The experiments with college education are now quite numer¬ ous and are interesting in their variety. Some colleges carefully select stu¬ dents and offer specialized training of high standard, while others correlate the classroom work with the student’s gainful employment. One college attempts to broaden a student’s understanding of our presentday civilization by special treatment in the first two years, another segregates its freshmen, another groups them by “houses” under special tutors, and another experi¬ ments with “a junior year abroad.” Elementary and secondary schools of laboratory type are now maintained by university schools of education and by teachers colleges. In many of them, as well as in many private schools, radical breaks with general current practise have occurred. From these experiments w^e should learn some things to do and probably some things to avoid. Of great significance, too, is the work now done in our classes for adults. Although originally organized to permit adults to make up deficiencies in their early training or to enable them to acquire new vocational skills, these classes have been less bound by traditional practise than have classes for younger students. As a result there have grown up in schools for adults open forum seminars for the consideration and discussion of all sorts of problems — civic, economic, and social ; classes for study of art, music, and literature. The success of these classes in enriching the cultural and leisure time activities of their members promises a hastening of the day when education and life will be synonymous terms ; when education will be regarded as an essential aspect of life itself, and accordingly a life¬ long process. It is with some trepidation that I discuss the fourth suggested procedure ; namely, that we attempt to discover the significant deficiencies or inade¬ quacies in the educational equipment of the present generation. For almost a decade Doctor Snedden has been advocating this plan as the most scien¬ tific method of finding out what our education for citizenship should be. Although the social survey is in its infancy the reception of the first sig¬ nificant study of this sort, Middletown, by the Lynds, is decidedly en¬ couraging to those who advocate objective methods in social and economic research. I have suggested that where objective data is lacking we general¬ ize from the observations of our most competent thinkers. In the absence of any survey of the literature in this field, or of any attempt even to define what should be included in such a survey were it to be made, we can have only hazy notions about what deficiencies do exist. Yet I am asked to outline the educational needs of the new America. In attempting this task with the inadequate data available I enter uncharted seas of prophecy and attempt to find my way by a few stars rather dimly seen. First, let us, in the new educational scheme, extend the use of scientific method to all aspects of our life. Let us teach young people to put depend¬ ence on tested thought rather than on tradition and prejudiced opinion. This is easily said, but it is fearfully hard to do. Yet our rapid progress 32 National Education Association in invention has been due to just that policy. But when one tries to apply this principle to other fields he must keep in mind two facts: First, that a manufacturer profits financially by following where science leads; second, that the average man, beneficiary of comforts and conveniences growing out of technological advance, is quite unaware of its significance or its basic cause. In brief, he takes these good things for granted and in other aspects of his life wraps himself in his prejudices and lies down with his super¬ stitions. In emergency he may consent to govern for a time his use of food and drink in accord with principles of tested experience, but it would be difficult to get him to bring up his children in line with what science tells us of child nature. Suggest that he govern his behavior scientifically and he would be shocked. Yet few of us are satisfied with the apparent disinte¬ gration of our social institutions. And there is offered no other scheme which holds as much promise of success as the method which has succeeded so adequately in industrial phases of our civilization. If this first general¬ ization is only partially sound our school curriculum must give much more attention to science, for in this way only will people come to understand the methods science employs and to have confidence in objective findings. Second, a serious defect in our present educational system consists in developing a thought pattern which longs to have matters settled with finality . From this fault not even scientists are free. When Galileo dis¬ covered sun spots the scientists of his day argued that the sun, a heavenly body, must be spiritual and as such could have no defects. One old con¬ servative assured his fellows that Galileo must be mistaken, “for” said he, “I have read Aristotle through three times and nowhere does he mention spots on the sun.” Even in medical research until the opening of this century every advance was made by some laboratory worker in the face of opposition of his contemporaries. To say that distinguished scientists hold traditional opinions and dog¬ matic attitudes in scientific fields other than their own is to utter a plati¬ tude. Of this fact secondary school people who have endeavored to induce college faculty committees to experiment with new entrance requirements are painfully aware. The scientific mind is always open. Nothing is ever settled. The work of Einstein and others has shaken opinions based on even Newton’s findings. New discoveries, which indicate that facts form¬ erly accepted as indicating the whole truth are only partial revelations of the truth, are excellent developments of a healthful skepticism which is valuable in a rapidly changing world. E"p to this time no instructional ma¬ terials have been found better suited for developing this frame of mind than the natural sciences, particularly the history of their development. If this, my second assumption, is sound, it also points to the need of bringing more science into the work of the school. Third, a generally recognized deficiency of our generation is the lack of knowledge on the part of the vast majority of the people of who the leaders arc. We accept without hesitation such statements as, “Where there is no General Sessions 33 vision the people perish,” “Democracy is a government of all, for all, under the leadership of the wisest and the best,” etc. Yet how many who vote know who are the “wisest and the best,” or to wdiom to look for vision? Reporters seeking for “news” single out men and women of prominence whose place in the public eye make their utterances “news.” They inter¬ view such folk on all sorts of topics. Frequently they speak on subjects about which they had better be silent. For often a well-intentioned citizen is misled into venturing an opinion in a field in which he is without ex¬ perience. Hence we may find a distinguished politician quoted on such a subject as biological evolution, or a distinguished biologist on the problem of international debts, or a distinguished chemist on a question of religion. It would be highly profitable for the welfare of democracy if every citizen could know three or more ablest men in his country in religion, in medicine, in the various sciences such as biology, astronomy, and physics, in law, in insurance, in investments, in railroading, in international relations, in avia¬ tion, and in education, elementary, secondary, and collegiate. For it is readily accepted as impossible in this day for many men to be well in¬ formed in many fields of human activity. Therefore if the people are to be wisely advised they must first know w'hose opinions are worth listening to. Today how few are the people trained to be critical of the opinions of men who speak and write on important matters. How many educated men can name even the one leader in a field of knowledge whose opinion he should have before making, either personally or as a citizen, an important decision on an issue in that field? If this, my third assumption, is sound, it constitutes a strong reason for considering education as a life process, since today’s leader is dead tomorrow and each of us must be constantly revising his information. Fourth, the inability of many of our citizens to cooperate fully in enter¬ prises for the common good seems to me to constitute a serious civic de¬ ficiency. That this is a weakness is attested by the increasing number of statutes by which majorities are attempting to compel the cooperation of minorities. It is further attested in many economic situations — especially in agriculture and retail business. One illustration must suffice. In one of our states are two groups of citizens engaged in pursuits similar in many ways. One group produces citrus fruits, the other raisin grapes. Both groups are confronted at times with the prospect of crops in excess of market demands. The members in one group have been ruined by attempting as individuals to market a great oversupply. The members of the other group, acting through an organization, have marketed a high-grade part of the crop, have withheld inferior fruit and have discovered uses of it as byproducts. In this way they saved their market from collapse. I need not say that the members of the organized group were not in line when farm relief was sought from Congress. Insofar as I can tell, the difference between the failure of one group and the success of the other was due to the ability or inability of their respective memberships to work together for the com¬ mon good. 34 National Education Association What are the implications of this generalization for the school of to¬ morrow? Among them are these: First, the social studies courses must be completely overhauled. Second, much of the material called “history” now in our schools, ornamental perhaps but not immediately concerned with practical life of today, must be transferred to courses to be elected by those who wish them ; in place of this must come materials drawn from economics, political science, and perhaps from psychology and sociology. Third, our methods of instruction all through the lower schools must take on more and more the form of cooperative enterprises. Probably the more useful work preparatory to citizenship in our secondary schools today is labelled “extracurriculum.” Much good training in teamwork takes place in class projects in the elementary school, and in club activities, orchestras, bands, athletic teams, and school government organization in secondary schools. Fifth, in the education of the future I enter a plea for a careful considera¬ tion of the development of individual personality. One of the outcomes of early medieval Christianity frequently condemned was the standardization of men. This was a natural outcome of the expectation that the end of this world was not far off and of a philosophy which held that this early life was at best a period of waiting for a life eternal and a necessary period of preparation for that life. Such a belief would of necessity develop a type man best suited for 'such a plan. So dominant was this type that one of the distinguished characteristics of the Renaissance, according to Professor Hulme, was the “re-discovery of the individual.” I have already spoken of the standardization of material things due to machine processes and “dollar economy.” That this standardization is likely to carry over into other aspects of our life is foreseen by many critics. What, for instance, are likely to be the cultural outcomes, when all people read the same “best sellers” and a “tabloid press”; when all see the same movies, all of which are built on a few rather standardized themes of sex, crime, and degeneracy ; when all listen to the same jazz music; when all dress in the same stand¬ ardized machine-made clothing? Will the result be standardized persons such as characterized medieval society and those that seem to prevail in the civilizations of the Orient ? The hope of preserving the individual in a standardized world lies in the use of his leisure time. He may be tied to a machine in a factory all day, going through a deadening routine in turning ou£ a standardized product. But when he reaches his home, he should find aspects of art, of music, and of literature that reflect his difference from the worker at the next machine. His hobbies and his avocational pursuits should be an expression of the real self. In the church choir, in the community orchestra, in the players’ guild, in the open forum, he should become a person doing his part in his own way. The routine of making a living may be relieved by the diversity involved in living a life. And finally the difficulties inherent in preserving individualism lead me to suggest the importance of helping young people in school and college to work out for themselves a philosophy of life and a system of values. We General Sessions 35 9 are becoming ever more aware of the need of a scale or standard by which to measure values not measurable in dollars and cents. A society marked by rapid change is confronted with almost insurmountable difficulties in this regard. We have already said that the school was at first an institution supplementary to many other educational factors, chief of which were the home and the church. Both of the latter provided the pupil with some moral, ethical, and religious instruction. In these days, however, the home controls have been relaxed. There are no indications that the earlier types of control will ever again be established, since the work which brought children and their parents together in cooperative enterprise exists no longer in cities and is disappearing even in rural areas. There is neither occasion nor time for family life in the old sense. The economic independence of individuals has had a curious effect on the sense of responsibility7 of the individual for the honor of his family — an aspect of Western life which an Oriental finds difficult to comprehend. “The Oriental,” Metta tells us, “thinks of the inevitable dishonor to his family before he indulges in any misdemeanor or vice which is liable to exposure. In the same circumstances the Westerner considers only his own position.” 1 That the church is not fully meeting this need is a matter of regular comment in newspapers and magazines and a matter of deep concern to the clergy. Many of our people have no church contacts at all. Even in the lives of many church attendants, religion is not a very effective force in raising standards of conduct. Perhaps the Hindu is right in his general ob¬ servation that “In the deepest sense, religion has not, and never has had, a strong hold on the life of Western races. They are essentially a fighting people ; the means of gaining a livelihood are of more consequence than the aims and ends of life itself.” 2 As a result of this situation the demand is increasing for moral and ethical instruction in the schools. I do not ever expect to see religion taught in our schools. I believe their secular nature will be preserved. But in the education for the new America I do expect to find much ethical train¬ ing in the school program. Junior and senior colleges will, through courses in psychology, make their graduates objective observers and critics of human conduct. They will consider all human behavior in a scientific manner and will put the stamp of social disapproval upon that which works to the detri¬ ment of the group. Evidence of this attitude is found today in the rigid rules of railroad companies against the use of liquor by trainmen who have lives committed to their care. Judges are becoming more severe in dealing with persons who attempt to operate automobiles while under the influence of liquor, and Mr. Ford predicts that the extended use of the airplane will make prohibition effective. Even in this day of license thoughtful people are beginning to question seriously the wisdom of easy divorce especially where children are involved. 1 Metta, Vasudeo T5., “Is the West Decaying?” A dehate. Forum, 81:357: June, 1929. 2 Ibid., p. 356. 36 National Education Association My predictions, then, for the schools of tomorrow, almost as sketchily outlined as they are hazardly ventured, are : First, that the application of tested thought, so successfully employed in our material advance, will be extended to all phases of our life : second, that thought patterns, suitable to dogmatic teaching, which look to authority for major premises, will give place to an enlightened skepticism much needed for adjustment to a world of rapid change ; third, that people will learn to know what persons are en¬ titled to speak in highly specialized fields of knowledge, will listen to these leaders, and will question the authority by which those not so recognized, speak on matters outside their major interests; fourth, that the citizen of the future will know how to cooperate for the common good and will cooperate voluntarily, thereby benefiting himself and making unnecessary* much legislation; fifth, that each individual will learn how to preserve his in¬ dividuality in the midst of an increasingly standardized society ; and, finally, that each individual will be taught to formulate a philosophy of life and to evaluate the effects of his behavior on others, he will recognize and dis¬ charge his responsibilities to others. I have endeavored to avoid speaking in tones of authority. I have offered suggestions in the hope that they may stimulate others to think about these problems, in the expectation that they may provide bases for discussion, and in the very sincere belief that the net result may be not heat, but light to illuminate the path our successors must tread to discover the new America. AMERICA'S PART IX BRIXGIXG ABOUT WORLD PEACE JOSEPHUS DANIELS, FORMER SECRETARY OF THE NAVY, RALEIGH, N. C. You see I am putting myself in the beginning in high society. You may ask by what authority I claim to be an educator. Some years ago, when in public office, I was the President of the greatest university in America, the United States Navy. Perhaps I ought to change that word “greatest — it is much abused and open to debate — so I will take that back and say the largest university in America, composed of five hundred thousand young men. And, therefore, having introduced into the Navy compulsory education by which these young men, some of whom ran away from home to get out of school and found themselves in school, I was charged with having cheated them very badly. But, as time has gone on and the American Navy has come to be an educational institution, its graduates going into the Naval Academy, the Army has followed suit, so that today in America we no longer see the spectacle of young men in the military service spending three years and then going out into the world without being better prepared for their civilian duties. Therefore, fellow educators, I claim a place on the program. Your President asked me to speak upon “America’s part in bringing about World Peace.” It is ten years since the representatives of all the free peoples on the earth met at Versailles and signed the document, a General Sessions 37 document which I believe was shot through with the light of Bethlehem, ten years since in the city of Paris representatives of all the Allied Nations put their names to this document to end war. And to that document were signed the names of the representatives of the defeated powers. And yet today what is the situation ? If you will go to Europe and talk with the peoples of any nation you will find that America has not a friend upon the earth. Indeed there are many who do not speak about our part in the World War upon the other side of the ocean without minimizing the contribution which four and a half million men made to the termination of that strug¬ gle; and when they say anything about it they echo the words of George Harvey that we came in very laggardly and did nothing except to try to save our skins; that this is a nation of “Shylocks" and ‘‘Yankee Traders'' and America is chiefly concerned with compelling the payment of debts and building up walls between itself and the balance of the world. When I hear these statements I like to hark back to the days of 1918 when a man who knew and who spoke from knowledge and gratitude said what America had done in the World War. I shall never forget on a cer¬ tain night in the city of London in the month of April, 1919, hearing that great British soldier. General Haig, pay his tribute to the American soldier. It was a private dinner given to the American Naval Commission which had gone abroad to study future naval affairs, and their host, the First Lord of Admiralty, said, ‘‘No reporters are present and all speakers may speak freely knowing they will not be reported." And I have a thousand times since been sorry for the good of the world that there were not re¬ porters present and the speech of General Haig might not have been broad¬ cast all over the world. He drew a picture of the serious condition of the Allied Forces in the critical days of the March drive. Can you recall the feeling of anxiety and apprehension when the news came that Haig was saying. “My back is against the wall." and we trembled for the future? That night in this little company he told that story, how the French were war fatigued, un¬ able with their waning power to hold the lines, how the British soldiers with more sectors than they could hold were straining every nerve, at that zero hour American troops were coming two hundred and fifty thousand a month and doubt was dissipated and courage given. He paid great tribute to what America had done in the decisive hour for winning the victory. That and the statements of Lloyd George, Joffre. and Foch are the de¬ liberate and historic appraisements of men at the time of what America did in the war and these later things are born out of misunderstanding, dis¬ tress and a feeling that America has since the war seemed to forget that its obligation in peace is as strong as its obligation in war. What is America doing for peace? M hat ought America to do for peace ? I speak this to teachers and men of your profession because what¬ ever has been done for peace has mainly been done by schoolmasters, led by 38 National Education Association the most illustrious schoolmaster that ever stood in a schoolroom, Woodrow Wilson ! He was not alone. When he went to Paris there were with him distinguished educators and economists and to his assistance came the best of help from Dr. Elliott, Dr. Alderman, and Dr. Menzies, and men like that all over this Lnited States, who, feeling that war was ended, believed and thanked God for peace, believed that it was possible to make an ending of all war and were willing to sacrifice for peace as millions of men had sacrificed for war. And that great document was brought to the United States and laid on the desk of the United States Senate amid the applause and approval of the intellects of America. In those early days of contest you might count on your fingers of both hands the distinguished educators who were not then strongly and earnestly advocating peace and believing that it was possible. In May, 1919, the people of America in a large majority were as strongly for the League of Nations as Dr. Elliott, Dr. Alderman, or Woodrow Wilson. I do not state this upon my own belief, nor upon my own authority. You might regard me as a credulous witness. I state this with the written authority of Henry Cabot Lodge. In his very interesting book, The Senate and the League of Nations, Dr. Lodge says: “The President having called Congress -in an extra ses¬ sion to consider the treaty, I went to Washington about the last of April and had a conference with Senator Borah and we discussed what should be the program. I told Senator Borah, and he agreed with me, that if a vote could be had at once it would be impossible to defeat the covenant and that our policy ought to be one of debate and discussion so that the people might be informed. At that time the intellects of America, and by ‘intel¬ lects’ I mean the college professors, the school teachers, the preachers, the editors, and those who speak for the public, were for the League.” A great many of them didn’t know very much about it but they were for it. And then the same thing was true of the men in the street, the clerks, the mechanics, the average man was saying, “We are glad the war is over; now let us have peace and peace perpetual.” And Mr. Lodge said it was necessary then that this great subject might be debated. So that we have, by Mr. Lodge’s testimony, an attitude for world peace. And then Novem¬ ber 15th we had a complete change if the opening vote of the members of the Senate correctly voiced the opinion of the majority of the American people. Now, what happened in that six months, six long and weary months, most of it a hot summer? You know what happened. The best organ¬ ized propaganda in history was set on foot and resulted in four things that determined that America for ten years would walk in the wilderness when its plain duty was to sit at the head of the table at Geneva. First, there was the determination to arouse the Irish vote of America in hostility to the covenant and to make them believe that there was some- General Sessions 39 thing in it which would make England overawe and overpower any desire which Ireland might have, and to that end the old statement of what happened in Paris was broadcast. You remember the Committees repre¬ senting certain Irish societies which went to Paris and demanded of Wood- row Wilson that he should say to Lloyd George, “Unless you agree to make the Irish a free republic, unless Lloyd George will do that, then let America withdraw from this treaty and have nothing to do with the covenant.” And Mr. Wilson told them that it was a request that on its face was impracticable and unwise and he would have nothing to do with it. So as you know the bulk of the Irish vote in America was against the covenant. The next point was to solidify the Italian vote of America and to that end the failure of the Peace Commission to assign Fiume to Italy was presented to this great segment of our population and although the treaty of London had not assigned Fiume to Italy, patriotic Italians feeling that they had been treated unfairly, listened to the voice and were corralled against the covenant. Then the German vote. The Germans were told that Wilson had carried them into war against their own Fatherland. Most of them took that ground until by November the treaty was imperiled and when the vote came it was not ratified. Then there fell upon the whole world the blackness of darkness. Russia was Bolshevik, Italy went into Black Shirt tyranny, Spain fell into the hands of a usurping tyrant, China blundered into civil war, and all over the world liberal government gave way to conservative government and Lloyd George, Clemenceau, and Wilson were retired from high place and men of less liberal views and less vision took their places. And now for ten years what has America done? Tonight where does she stand? What is America’s part in the peace of the world? Mr. Root says that America, this peace-loving nation, has done nothing. She has given no sympathy, no help, no life, no aid, while the League of Nations has done incomparably the greatest work that was ever done by any organization in the history of the world. But it would be a great mistake to say, although Mr. Root was entirely right so far as the covenant of peace is concerned, that America is not deeply concerned about world peace. It has been doing something and it may be that we shall not come to the goal except by degrees. A few days ago Mr. Young and his Commission completed the repara¬ tions agreement and distinguished men sent out the word, ‘‘At last the world war is over.” That same word came out from Washington when Mr. Harding’s conference had agreed upon the treaty; it went out from Versailles with the covenant ; it went out from Locarno, the first light in the firmament after the days of darkness. It showed more brilliantly when the hoped for and noble Briand-Kellogg Treaty was signed, and today we meet in the hope, in the expectancy, in the faith that the election 40 National Education Association of Ramsay MacDonald will bring into the consideration of the inter¬ national questions a new party, a new force, unbound by tradition, un¬ hampered by militarism, ready to join hands with our Quaker President, Herbert Hoover, and that those two men, new to political life in the sense that the former leaders were politicians, will take this Treaty and breathe into it the spirit of Locarno, Versailles, and Geneva and that we shall in our time see the day when by good machinery this treaty will bring peace to America and the world. How long shall we wait for it? When will it come? I am no prophet. The best answer I can give you to that inquiry is this: Not many days before he passed aw*ay, I went to Washington on a visit to Woodrow Wilson. To me those days were dark for all of us who believed that compared to world peace every other question was unimportant. I said to Mr. Wilson, “It seems that the American people are so interested in the things that they can handle and touch that the great dream of world peace is fading and I have about lost hope.” He raised himself on his pillow and with the indomitable courage of a man who never lost faith and never admits defeat he said, “Never doubt. What we hoped for, what we prayed for, what we longed for will come.” And then he added with a quaint humor that was his characteristic, “I will make this con¬ cession to Providence — it may come in a better way than we planned it.” This peace will not come unless the public conscience of America is aroused. There is enough indifference, there is enough opposition, there is enough of the old feeling that there has always been war and there always will be war, to prevent it unless the king of America, “Public Opinion,” takes the scepter. No matter how earnest and able men are in the White House and in Congress, this is a government of parties, a government which in the long run, if the people are alert and determined, will respond to it. What have you teachers been doing in these ten years? What have you been saying? How have you taught this question above all questions? Our United States Commissioner of Education said today that the schools must teach ethics and morals. An education that does not build character is not education. Representing as you do the only force that has the ear of the future, and is molding the future, I come to call upon you to become crusaders, not for the League of Nations, not for any particular piece of machinery or plan — that amounts to very little; that may be changed; that may be improved; but for ten years we have been drifting and failing of our high duty and I have about lost hope that we shall get it through the politicians or through public officials until a new generation taught by you shall see the vision. Thus the American people shall redeem the pledge made by every man who died in France that they were fighting a war against war. That is my message. That, in my judgment, is the spirit of the Ameri¬ can people, a spirit which has not asserted itself after May, 1919. We have General Sessions 41 been thinking about the stock market, we have been thinking about tithes, we have been thinking about all sorts of things, many of them important, but the supreme duty of America is to be worthy of the sacrifice which the men made on the battlefield to win the war. Let us stop this business of saying, “We want peace.’’ I have no respect for a man who tells me, “I want peace” unless he will sacrifice for it. You will never get it until you are willing to make as much sacrifice to end war as the men in 1917 and 1918 made to win war. Many people are talking peace but there is no peace. They will do nothing except talk. And then say, “Oh, well, there never was any world agreement for peace and there never will be, but I want it all the same.” That reminds me of a young man who wrote a lovely letter to his sweet¬ heart and he said to her, “My dear Mamie, I love you more than all the earth. For instance I would climb the North pole for you, I would do all sorts of things.” And then he wound up by saying, “I love you so much I am coming to see you next Sunday if it don’t rain." They want peace if it doesn’t hurt their party. They want peace if it doesn’t hurt their business, they want peace if it doesn’t cost anything; but if peace is worth the price, teachers, editors, public men, and preachers, if they be¬ lieve in Bethlehem, have got to quit this prating about it and be ready to take any step forward that looks like it. The Washington Conference had in it the spirit of going forward, and the Briand-Kellogg Treaty, but they do not quite get to the point where we must come if we are to have world peace and America have its part in it. We have heard a great deal of talk about a reduced navy and I am for it; and about having a conference to reduce the navies of the world, and I am for that ; but you know as well I do that when one navy has fifty" great ships and another fifty great ships, when those are reduced twenty-five all it does is to reduce the burden of taxation and I am for that. The World Court is a splendid thing. We ought to go into it but you will never drive out evil except by substituting good ; you will never have world peace, you will never drive out war until you have a substitute for war. We may now call war by proclamation, we may have no more war by treaty; but until the nations of the earth in a federation of nations, in a parliament of man, agree upon a substitute so they may settle their disputes in some quorum of competent jurisdiction and power, all our treaties, all our reducing of navies, all our courts, are but steps toward the divine event — a mere substitute. A substitute is so simple, it is so plain I cannot understand why the American people and their repre¬ sentatives have been so slow to offer to back it to the last man and dollar. It is so simple. All it needs is that the nations of the earth shall agree to submit their differences to the same sort of a tribunal that you and I sub¬ mit our differences in the courts of the world. Our grandfathers, in the olden times, when they had differences fought it out. Later they had 42 National Education Association some sense and established courts. It is easy for the nations to do it whenever they want to. And so, teachers of America, you who will pass tomorrow’s action, I plead with you to be crusaders for peace, to help America to cease half¬ way measures, to urge America to give up half-faith, and to come out with a consecration to stand for any measure and behind any man of any party that will bring about this substitute so that we may in our day live to see world peace cover this earth like waters cover the sea. TEACHER TRAINING FOR A NEW WORLD W. P. MORGAN, PRESIDENT, WESTERN ILLINOIS STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, MACOMB, ILL. The growth of teacher training — It seems strange that while early education in this country recognized the teacher as an important factor, over a century and a half elapsed before his training, preparation, or profes¬ sional education seemed of more than passing concern to him or the school patrons. It certainly cannot be said that teacher training had universal appeal, for R. G. Boone in Education in the United States says that when it was recommended in Boston just prior to 1850 a suitable person be em¬ ployed to visit the schools of the city, confer with the teachers, and “to instruct and qualify a class preparing to teach" the school committee made two objections: 1. Such instruction would lead to repeated experiments of new methods, and so tend to disorganization. 2. It would lessen the respect of pupils for their teachers, when it should be found that, like themselves, they were the subjects of instruction. In spite of this attitude on the part of some, however, normal schools continued to multiply until there were 41 in 1872 for which a total of $392,522 was appropriated. By 1892 there were 91 such institutions with an annual appropriation of $1,613,165 for their support. By 1912 their number had reached 150 with an appropriation of $16,090,329, a faculty of 5030, a student body of 89,485, and graduates from the begin¬ ning amounting to over 1900. In 1926 there were over 200 such normal schools and teachers colleges, for which were appropriated over $25,- 000,000. The number of faculty members was over 10,000. There were over 235,000 students enroled, and that year alone students were granted over 5000 degrees and over 20,000 certificates and diplomas were issued for less than four years of preparation. These institutions have now become, in a single century, one of the most important factors in our public education, and public education is our greatest national enterprise. In 1925-26 there were more than 31,000,000 children and adults in our schools and colleges, almost^ 1,000,000 teachers were in charge of these schools, for which approximately $3,000,000,000 General Sessions 43 were spent. Two persons for every seven in our entire population were engaged in educational work as teacher, pupil, or in some other capacity. The magnitude of the problem of education comes largely from the fact that we are educating for a new world with new responsibilities, new ideals, and new purposes. The magnitude of teacher training comes from the fact that the directors or agents of this education for a new world, its teachers, must not only be taught these new responsibilities, new ideals, and new purposes, but they must also be taught the technic of teaching these to the children and grown-ups who are not yet trained to meet the greater contingencies of an ever more complex new world. \\ hat then may we who are interested in teacher training set up as its needs if our teachers are to shoulder their full share in the educational program for this new world? The physical plant — In the first place, but not of greatest importance, teachers colleges and normal schools must be provided with physical plants which are adequate for the job in hand. This adequacy cannot longer be interpreted to mean as many seats under a roof as there are students enroled. It must mean a physical plant that provides everything in the way of training-school buildings, both elementary and secondary ; labora¬ tories not for college students alone but for the children in the elementary and secondary school too; libraries which shall teem with books for chil¬ dren, adolescents, and college students; gymnasiums, playgrounds, and athletic fields which will be sufficient to promote an impressive public health program for all ; special rooms which adapt themselves to the social needs of children in the elementary grades, adolescents in the high school, and college students, as would be, or actual members of society’s social world in which all shall need to participate sooner or later ; and finally splendid classrooms of the recitation type where every essential to comfort shall contribute to happiness and clarity of thought. All of these must be arranged as a single unit of which the training-school buildings shall be the center in location and importance. What shall these training schools provide? Both must arrange units for instruction and supervision. In the lower grades these units ought to consist of a homeroom, or studyroom, or workroom for each grade with two or more group rooms in close connection and an office or conference room for the teacher in charge. One of these units is usually provided for each grade, and they show a slow transition from the kindergarten up, corresponding first as much as possible to home conditions or the less formal type of instruction, and later to the more nearly set type or arrange¬ ment, in which the instruction too is somewhat more formal. As the secondary school is approached these physical units are planned more nearly on basis of the subjects for which they are to furnish quarters for instruction than for any grade in the high school. These high-school units must be adapted to the needs of the history department for the his- 44 National Education Association tory classes, to the needs of the biolog}* department for biolog}" classes, and to the needs of other departments as well. In both elementary and high-school quarters some room or rooms must be arranged to meet the needs for observation classes and model or demon¬ stration teaching. General workrooms, shops, library rooms, and play rooms must not be overlooked. As a matter of fact much of the work in teacher training is badly handicapped, and hence poorly done, due to in¬ adequate quarters in that part of the physical plant which houses what is usually called the practise or training school. Next in importance to the location of the practise school quarters is the accessibility of the library. It, too, should be centrally placed to avoid any excuse for not using library books which might be urged were they difficult of access. It would seem unnecessary to urge light, well ven¬ tilated, and comfortable quarters for the library but many libraries are very poorly planned in this respect and while library quarters should be fascinatingly attractive, many of them act as a pall on the interests of students who enjoy books and library advantages. Library Facilities for Teacher-Training Institutions 1 by George W. Rosenlof is an excellent contribution to this subject. All laboratories evenxvhere in teacher-training institutions should be well adapted to their purposes and adequately furnished with apparatus not only to meet the needs which arise in handling material and developing the technic for elementary and secondary work but also to meet the needs of ambitious department teachers who wish to keep up with current scien¬ tific discoveries and interest and at the same time be an inspiration to col¬ lege students to do more than meet minimum requirements in their pro¬ fessional and academic preparation to teach. The best laboratories for undergraduate work ought to be found in teacher-training institutions. As a matter of fact teacher training is second in importance only to elementary and secondary education but it also is fundamental to them. It is also true that teacher training is one of the most important fields of higher education and no doubt will soon demonstrate its usefulness to the end that all teachers in higher education will be required to have professional training for the work they undertake as instructors, profes¬ sors, and department heads. May I be pardoned then, if I argue not for the same adequacy in the physical plants of institutions devoted to teacher training which is found in other institutions of higher learning but that states spend as much money in building adequate plants in which their teachers of all their children may be trained as they do, and should, spend in building adequate plants for colleges and universities in which a small part of their individual citizens are trained for law, medicine, the ministry, and the vocations. What we need is not so much a tax commission to equalize the values of 1 Rosenlof, George W. Library Facilities for Teacher-Training Institutions, Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. General Sessions 45 various forms of real estate and personal property and to discover intan¬ gibles not being taxed, but rather an appraisal commission which shall be able to evaluate the true worth and relative values of material and imma¬ terial things and list them in their proper order on this basis, for could such a thing be done the names of real public education and the institu¬ tions which promote it would lead all the rest. Surely the importance of teacher training demands a well distributed system for its maintenance and respectable quarters for its housing. / acuities — Following this discussion of the physical plant, what is it fair to say about the needs of teacher-training institutions in the way of facultv members and administrators? The American Association of Teachers Colleges has said in Standard V, entitled “Preparation of Faculty : A. The minimum scholastic requirement for teachers in the training school shall be graduation from a college of recognized standing, presumably evidenced by possession of a bachelor's degree or equivalent training. Six years after the date on which these standards take effect, the minimum scholastic requirement for all new training-school teachers shall be the same as for teachers in the college department. Teachers who have been members of the faculty of the training school for not less than five years, and whose training is not equivalent to this requirement, may be considered to have equivalent training for six years after the date on which these standards take effect, provided that the president of the college submits a statement of their training and experience and files with the Committee on Accrediting and Classification a declaration that such members of the faculty are rendering service in their own teaching and in the supervision of student teaching which is of a superior quality as judged by the standards of the best public school system in the state in which the teachers college is located. During this period of six years this declaration must be made annually and shall be based upon actual inspection of the teacher’s work. B. The minimum scholastic requirement for members of the faculty who give instruction in the college department shall be graduation from a college of rec¬ ognized standing and additional training which shall include at least one year of study in their respective fields of teaching in a recognized graduate school, or equivalent, and presumably possession of the master’s degree. Members of the faculty who have served in their respective positions for not less than five years, and who do not meet this requirement, may be regarded as having done so for six years after the date on which these standards take effect, provided that the president of the college submits a statement of their training and experi¬ ence and files a declaration that such members of the faculty are giving satisfac¬ tory instruction of college grade. During this period of six years this declaration must be made annually until each such member of the faculty has secured the required training, and shall be based upon actual inspection of the work of such members of the faculty. C. Up to and including the school year 1932-33 a teachers college or normal school may be considered to have met the requirements of this standard if not over ten percent of the regularly appointed members of the faculty (college and training school) shall fail to meet the standards set forth in V, A and B. After 1932-33 this percent shall be reduced to five percent. D. It is desirable that members of the faculty of the teachers college should possess training of a distinctly professional quality, which represents at least three years of study beyond the bachelor’s degree, in a recognized graduate 46 National Education Association school, or corresponding professional or technological training. The effort of a teachers college to maintain a faculty of higher scholarly equipment than is re¬ quired by the minimum standard, shall be held to constitute a strong presumption that superior work is being done. The proportion of members of the faculty which should be on the different levels of training above the first degree shall be subjected to immediate investigation. A, B, and C set forth minimum requirements as measured by degrees and years of preparation, and schedule the rate of progress towards their final accomplishment which must be maintained. These statements are well founded and wise in that time for adjustment is provided. In D under this standard the ideal for the present at least is expressed and a doctor’s degree or its equivalent is set as the goal of every teacher in the faculty of a teacher-training institution. The professional quality of his training is praised and the institution that approaches this ideal is lauded, but largely the four points under this standard are mechanical and serve mostly as specific attainments by which one may be led to believe there comes efficiency. Real efficiency is based on more intimate points of attainment. And yet I am a staunch supporter of these standards, for I feel con¬ vinced that much good has come from them. There are to my mind more educational morons in the lower strata of academic degrees than in the upper strata. Three years of additional university training leading to the doctorate adds to the usefulness of one who demonstrates strength and capability while holding a bachelor’s degree. Most of us who are looking for faculty recruits for teacher-training in¬ stitutions are concerned with other things which we hope the applicants have. I shall not list the general characteristics of all good teachers, such as personality and tact, but turn my attention rather to special points of value in such a teacher. First, we want faculty members to believe in teacher training and teacher-training institutions. Naturally we are much more apt to find interest in this phase of higher education in applicants who have done at least part of their undergraduate work in a teachers college or normal school. We also favor candidates who not only have been educated in the public elementary and high schools, but we prefer the ones who have taught in these schools. It is best to have faculty members in our teachers colleges and normal schools who know the problems of our elementary and second¬ ary schools first hand and at the same time know the teaching problems of the teachers of these schools. Presidents and faculty deans in teacher-training institutions are anxious to secure men and women for their faculties who are inclined to make in¬ vestigations, to plan experiments, and to do research work. Education for a new world must be aware of new things and seek to understand them. Most of the educational progress which this nation has achieved has come about through experimentation if not indeed by the trial and error method General Sessions 47 practised by craftsmen with enough educational sense and acumen to diagnose the error and prescribe at least a better procedure. Much improvement has come from research especially if it has been of the professional type. Questions of research that affect the happiness of the race should be solved, but points of interest which have no effect even though the truth were known need not employ our first researchers even though they seek information for a doctor’s thesis. There are facts which outside of our interest in them as facts have no bearing. There are other facts which to know might change our whole educational procedure. These latter facts we would have faculty members use as worthwhile goals of research. Either in these same faculty members or in others who co¬ operate with them we must have men and women with ability to recognize true educational values and with the courage to. approve them and discard the false. All of us seek men and women for our faculties who have broad general culture and an inborn interest in young men and women and children as well, reinforced by a technical and professional knowledge of the special fields in which they work. The educational opportunities which such people have sought have been difficult to find although a few of our larger universities have provided them in a measure during this last quarter cen¬ tury. Hence it is delightfully encouraging to note a recent announcement by Stanford in which two curriculums are outlined leading to doctor’s degrees in education. The work for one of these degrees is intended pri¬ marily to prepare for school administration and the teaching of education in universities, colleges, and normal schools. The other is to be known as the master-teacher type and is primarily designed to prepare a new type of teacher in subjectmatter field for the junior colleges and for smaller colleges generally. The chief difference between this new degree and the general university degree of doctor of philosophy will lie in the fact that the emphasis for the new degree will be placed more on a broad and sys¬ tematic education as a field rather than on the ordinary type of research, and the thesis may be an organization or application of existing knowledge as well as being exclusively a contribution for the Ph. D. degree. Johns Hopkins has recently issued a circular in which they announce the establishment of a school of higher studies in education. In this school they provide curriculums leading to master’s and doctor’s degrees in edu¬ cation, and they are intended as a means of providing the more technical and specialized training for those preparing to carry forward the work of administrative and supervisory school officers. They will provide also for an intensive and more systematic study of educational problems that our knowledge of pupil development may be increased and made available for use in the conduct of school systems. New York University is undertak¬ ing special work in preparing teachers for teachers colleges and normal schools. It seems quite reasonable to believe then that faculty members who conduct teacher training for this new world will be trained in large or 48 National Education Association small measure in institutions of higher learning which have definitely accepted this training as their most important job. These teachers will not come from liberal arts curriculums interspersed with something these in¬ stitutions list as “education,” the courses in which are farmed out among the departments of history, philosophy, and natural science. The real edu¬ cational interest, ambition, and inspiration which teachers need are not born and do not thrive in such fields and no plan of artificial irrigation can counteract their professional aridity. Curriculums — What are the teachers colleges, normal schools, and other teacher-training institutions going to accept as their part in training teachers for a new world? For a long time they have known that it is their business to train elementary teachers but only recently have they dis¬ covered that high school teachers must be trained and that they must pro¬ vide the training, since no other group of educational institutions is ade¬ quately looking after it. Naturally elementary teachers divide themselves into rural teachers or teachers of all grades, low^er-grade or primary teachers, and upper-grade, or grammar-grade teachers. Of course there are supervisors and teachers of special subjects. High-school teachers just as naturally divide them¬ selves into teachers of the special high-school subjects, all of which are in a sense special subjects. Just as naturally then, teacher-training institutions find themselves offering curriculums for rural teachers, for primary teachers, for grammar grade teachers, for junior and senior high-school teachers, and all other special teachers. H ow then shall we be sure the content of these curriculums is what it should be? Only by the careful analysis of the requirements made upon teachers in these various positions. How shall we know whether these shall be two or four-year curriculums? Only by setting up definitely the content courses and professionalized subjectmatter courses necessary to meet the demands made upon teachers in the various groups, mentioned can this be done. We have come more generally to believe that the call upon our elementary teachers is just as extensive as that made upon our high- school teachers but that admission only makes the curriculums for elemen¬ tary and high-school teachers equal in length. Why shall either be four years in length? The answer is that it requires that much time to do the job if we include a minimum of cultural subjects, and certificating laws throughout the country ought to reinforce that point in their requirements. These curriculums can not remain fixed. Our educational demands do not remain fixed. If so, this would not be a new world educationally. Hence the research work of a teacher-training institution must seek the changes and new demands and they must be met by changes in the curriculums. These demands have brought a health program into the curriculum. The school arts have gained a place by the same means and other changes have come in like manner. On this account the curriculums in teacher¬ training institutions must always differ from the curriculum of the liberal arts college for the simple reason that their purposes are different. General Sessions 49 Necessarily also only some broad general standards can be prescribed for the two types of schools. These general standards should he based on the fact that all persons, without regard to the special form of education which they are pursuing, must, if they are to succeed, have a general educa¬ tion to fit them to live in some community as human beings among human beings, where they do their share in contributing to the general welfare. But in this new world human relations as well as vocational requirements become increasingly complex. The curriculums of teacher-training institu¬ tions must therefore be ever lengthened to prepare teachers for the above complexities, and four-year courses in no sense are too long to do the work well. These longer curriculums must also be enriched with the newer edu¬ cational values in a new world. Too long we have copied from the past. Too long we have accepted “common practises” as the equivalent of right practises. However, in praise of the teacher-training movement may it be said that its procedure has been largely based on the needs of the work in hand and it has been less the victim of educational conservatism than almost any other educa¬ tional movement fostered in this country. Teacher-training institutions however are now facing a critical period for there is a tendency on the part of a very few of them to belittle their curriculums for teachers and boast of the ones they offer in general culture in an effort to gain students from the more general field. Teacher-training institutions in preparing teachers for the new world ought to accept their problems as specific and build their curriculums with due regard to the purpose which they are to serve. Student selection — There remains one other most important factor for consideration, the selection of the student body for teacher-training institu¬ tions. There is a movement all over the country now to begin a process of very careful selection, due to the fact that many students who have entered teacher-training institutions in the past have failed to make good teachers. Naturally the first basis that has appealed to many has been the high-school record of the student, and faculty committees and ad¬ ministrators all over the country have varied in their opinions from the belief that only those who stand in the upper one-tenth of their high-school classes are fit for entrance, to those who believe that every high-school graduate who desires to do so should be allowed to enter a teacher-train¬ ing institution, and then by a selective process within the institution be permitted to remain there if he makes good or be dropped if he shows lack of ability. The difficulty with the first proposal lies in the fact that while there is some correlation between a student’s high-school record and the work he will do in college, there has not yet been collected sufficient data to assure teacher-training institutions that high scholarship in the secondary schools is a guarantee of excellent qualities for teaching. In fact the teacher¬ training institutions themselves have discovered that frequently the valedic¬ torian and salutatorian in high-school classes are worth little thereafter when judged by their adaptability to fit into the work of teaching. 50 National Education Association The objection to the second policy is that it is a great waste of money, in that all who knock at the doors of teacher-training institutions, if ad¬ mitted. bring to these institutions a large quantity of raw material, much of which must be rejected after some investigation has been made and they have shown by their work as a student whether or not they can fit in to the process of teacher training. A plan somehow ought to be evolved whereby some agency could enter the high schools and select from their graduates and from those who desire to enter the teaching profession a sufficient number to meet the demands of the profession and yet gather a group which in the end would suffer the least loss from failure. The plan which seems to me to offer the most promise involves two or three rather significant points, and might be approached in the following way. First there ought to be. by some agency, a large miscellaneous sampling of the best teachers in the United States, picked from all of the various fields of public education. By laborious and scientific processes their characteristics, both educationally and otherwise, ought to be ana¬ lyzed by accurate laboratory processes, both quantitatively and qualitatively, and for each group there ought to be established some 10 or 20 outstand¬ ing points of common possession which each of these teachers has as a very outstanding element of his success. These should be listed, printed, and distributed to every school superintendent and principal in the United States in order that they may be rechecked by those who are actually work¬ ing in the practical field. After the most careful test, the elements which survive should be accepted, for the present at least, as standards of prepara¬ tion and elements of character which are essential in any good teacher, and these same principals and superintendents should then advise a suffi¬ cient number of high-school graduates who are outstanding in these char¬ acteristics and qualities to seek entrance to teacher-training institutions and prepare for the teaching profession. The successful teacher shall be judged on basis of the purpose of the educational work he is doing, and his qualities in turn shall be analyzed and discovered. In other words I hope some method will be devised which will as nearly as possible eliminate per¬ sonal opinion and come to a conclusion on actual results in keeping with the purpose of education. A recent publication by the state teachers colleges of Illinois in which they publish the report of a committee from, the School Masters’ Club, is worthy of note, in that it tries to put before superintendents and prin¬ cipals the necessity for careful selection in recommending high-school stu¬ dents for teacher-training work, and at the same time points out to pros¬ pective candidates some of the things which they ought to consider before they enter teacher training. Each teacher-training institution should institute a followup process on each of its graduates and check and recheck to discover whether the stand¬ ard characteristics and qualities before established continue to demonstrate their efficiency in the new entrants into the teaching field. It certainly is time that all concerned with teacher training shall cooperate to avoid the General Sessions 51 enormous financial and educational waste which is the outcome of the present process. Conclusion — Time does not permit a general summary of the points made in this paper, but I do wish to point out a few things in conclusion. The first requisite in the solution of whatever problems we have in teacher- training is a complete understanding based upon a national survey of all of the conditions now existing in this country. \\ e ought to know what is invested in teacher-training in this country ; what our teacher require¬ ments are ; what the various certificating laws of the different states de¬ mand ; what extracurriculum work is being carried on ; what cooperation is maintained between teacher-training institutions and state departments of public instruction ; what is available in higher institutions for the train¬ ing of teachers who have graduated from a teacher-training institution; what may be reasonably expected as further demands upon the work of teacher training; and one hundred other points of greater or lesser im¬ portance. I have little interest in knowing whether the teacher-training institu¬ tions have a curriculum core which is based on foreign language attain¬ ments or an entrance requirement which demands a specific amount of science in high school; but I am interested in a thorough search into the needs of teacher training and an honest investigation as to whether this needs a specific background in secondary education and definite courses, be they old or new, within the institutions themselves. I am also inter¬ ested to know whether the preparation these teachers are getting is the proper type to promote the training for good citizenship among the stu¬ dents in our elementary and high schools. I am decidedly interested in the attitude with which the whole problem shall be approached, and I have faith in the earnestness with which this problem will be attacked by the Bureau of Education if a federal appropriation is made, and I likewise have confidence in the ability of the Commissioner of that Bureau and in the Secretary of the Department of the Interior to earn* on such an in¬ vestigation to the end that we may know what the reasonable demands are which may be made on teacher-training institutions, as well as that we may be furnished with satisfactory standards for measuring our product. I believe firmly that the quality of work which these institutions do should be measured by the teacher product as it shows success or failure in con¬ ducting public education. Finally then may I urge that the National Education Association take some action in approval of the request for a federal appropriation to the Bureau of Education for a thorough-going, non-biased investigation of the whole matter of teacher training in the L nited States, and may I remark in closing that the best way to convince all concerned that this country is in dire need of more recognition for the educational machinery of the na¬ tional government is for us to assign to it some additional comprehensive and extensive problems for investigation such as that planned in secondary education, in order that the nation at large may discover its ability and the value of its performance. 52 National Education Association THE NEED OF IMPROVED INTEGRATION OF CERTAIN BASIC IDEALS AND PRACTISES IN AMERICAN LIFE AND EDUCATION JOHN W. WITHERS, DEAN, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, NEW YORK UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY As educators, three problems are always before us: What shall we teach American children? Why should we teach it? How shall we teach it most effectively? These problems are always before us for they are never completely solved. Certain imperfectly integrated ideals and tendencies in American life and education make any satisfactory, practical solution of them especially difficult at the present time. I shall call attention to some of these tendencies and indicate the need of a cooperative study of them. Two distinct and fundamental ideals have influenced and are now" in¬ fluencing the development of American education. These ideals have mutually stimulated and also mutually clashed with each other. They have done so in the past and in certain respects they continue to do so at present. The first I shall call the aristocratic ideal. This ideal originated in Europe and was introduced into American education through the early American colleges and universities, wffiich w~ere patterned after those of Europe. It is the ideal of scholarship, of learning, culture, and erudition, of pure science, and of knowledge for its own sake. This ideal was a natural and important outcome of the aristocratic civilization of the nations in wffiich it developed. It was not concerned with the education of the whole population but with that of a selected class. The second is the democratic ideal wffiich grew out of the essential principles of democracy as these w’ere understood and practised in the early development of the American republic. It therefore naturally found ex¬ pression first at the level of elementary education. It is the ideal of universal education not merely for the benefit of the individual or the class but for the protection and safety of the state and its efficient functioning as a democratic society. This ideal places the emphasis not primarily upon knowledge and culture for their own sake but upon these only in the sense and to the extent that they minister to a richer and fuller life of the people, collectively and individually. In this ideal, knowledge and culture are treated as means and not as ends in themselves. The first ideal gave us originally our colleges and universities and the second our public schools. The first began at the top of the educational ladder and moved dowmvard, and the second at the bottom and moved upward. The influence of these ideals upon each other is w-ell illustrated in practically every state of the Union. Take Pennsylvania as an example. Colleges and universities to the number of twenty or more were introduced and in full operation before the public school system of the state was estab¬ lished. Pennsylvania had colleges and universities before 1800 but it did General Sessions 53 not get its public school system until 1834. In the establishment of secondary education in the state the original motive was that of discovering and preparing students for satisfactory work in colleges. Under college ideals and the influence of the college spirit they naturally introduced into secondary schools the ideals of the colleges, their point of view, and their methods of work. The colleges of the state originally had no interest in the preparation of teachers for public elementary schools. For this pur¬ pose the state had to establish its own agencies. The first clash in the outworking of these ideals occurred where the ele¬ mentary schools were joined to the high schools and grew out of the effort to extend the democratic ideal upward to include secondary education. Both Philadelphia and Pittsburgh, for example, as leading cities of the state, had for many years a superintendent of elementary schools and also a director of high schools, and in both cities the director of high schools dictated to the superintendent of schools the conditions under which graduates of the ele¬ mentary schools could be admitted to the high schools. The resulting problem of adjustment was not satisfactorily solved in Pittsburgh until after the appointment of Dr. Davidson as superintendent in 1914. The two ideals to which I have referred are still more or less in conflict within the work of the high schools of the United States and still constitute a fundamental problem of secondary education. One emphasizes the func¬ tion of the high school as an institution for the preparation of a select body of students for higher learning in colleges and universities and the other emphasizes the high school as an institution the primary purpose of which is that of preparing adolescent boys and girls of different interests and abilities for the part which they are to play in life, whatever that part may prove to be. But the conflict, if we may call it such, between these ideals is now chiefly manifested higher up at the level of graduation from high school and admission to college. Here we are now asking what high-school graduates should be permitted to enter college, just as a short time ago we asked what graduates of the elementary school should be permitted to go to high school. It is interesting to note that the development of the junior college movement which has gone forward so rapidly throughout the United States in recent years is coming to have much the same significance at this level as the junior high school has had further down in the system. Now it is easy to see that each of these ideals has an important part to play in the further development of American education. The legitimate influence of neither of them should be lost, but the contributions of both should be conserved and unified through a wiser integration and administra¬ tion of the various forces of education. However, as a result of their in¬ fluence many important problems have already appeared and others will appear which should find a satisfactory solution as speedily as possible. Such solution will not be reached by merely studying what historically has taken place in education but by an intelligent appraisal of the fundamental forces that are now determining and are likely to determine the course of 54 National Education Association our national development and its bearing upon public education. As an example of what I mean, take the problem of the professional education of teachers. It is at present vitally important to determine to what extent the professional education of teachers for our secondary schools should be a responsibility of the privately established arts colleges and to what extent a responsibility of the publicly owned and supported state and city teachers colleges. The past few years have witnessed the rapid extension of the movement throughout the United States to convert public normal schools into teachers colleges and to look upon these institutions as agencies, a part of whose function is the preparation of teachers for service in the high schools. Up to the present time the professional education of high-school teachers has been almost wholly left to the arts colleges, but already a significant change is taking place. Again take Pennsylvania as an example. For the year just closed the arts colleges of that state graduated almost a sufficient number of men and women who were going into teaching to sup¬ ply the high schools with the newT teachers that they will need next year. A study of the trends in the state during the last twenty-five years indicates that while up to this year the colleges have not sent into teaching a sufficient number of their graduates to meet the demand for new teachers each year, the supply of such graduates is now increasing more rapidly than the de¬ mand. In recent months the fourteen normal schools of the state have been converted into state teachers colleges with four year curriculums and authorized by the state to train teachers for the high schools. Hence, it is apparent that the problem of properly articulating all the authorized agencies for the professional education of teachers and the adjustment of present con¬ ditions is certain to be a matter of increasing importance. People not only of Pennsylvania but of every other state will be called upon to answer within the near future a number of important questions regarding the education of teachers. For example, is the professional educa¬ tion of high-school teachers that is now being furnished by the arts colleges unsatisfactory? If it is, what is wrong with it? Can it be made satis¬ factory? If it can be, should the state continue to rely upon these institu¬ tions to train its high-school teachers? Is the unsatisfactory service of these institutions such as to justify the state in ultimately taking over entirely the professional education of all teachers for its public schools? Is the situation such as to justify the greatly increased expenditure of public funds which this would require ? What are the requirements of professional education anyway? What is the proper relation of academic or cultural education to professional education ? Is the solution of the problem one that calls for a shared responsibility and distribution of function and of effort between the professional schools and colleges on the one hand and those that are devoted to academic and cultural education on the other? If so, how shall the responsibility be apportioned between these types of institutions? How shall the state justify its assumption of full responsibility for the professional education of teachers for the elementary schools if it fails to do the same in General Sessions 55 the case of the high schools? The latter are now public institutions as well as the former. With the exception of a comparatively small number, the arts colleges of Pennsylvania are now sending approximately fifty percent of all their graduates into teaching. Information directly obtained from nearly 200 colleges throughout the United States indicates that for the nation as a whole practically forty percent of all college graduates are now going into teaching, presumably in the secondary schools. Is it best for education and for the welfare of the various states that these colleges should abandon their original ideal and endeavor to convert themselves into institutions for the professional education of teachers to the extent that they have ? What is likely to be the attitude of the state legislatures and the people of local com¬ munities when a surplus of high-school teachers far in excess of the demand is created ? This will certainly occur within the next five years if present conditions continue. What will be the effect upon teachers' salaries? Upon standard requirements for certification ? Upon the financial support of state teachers colleges? Leadership in public education will certainly try to anticipate and solve these problems and solve them by cooperative study and discussion before being compelled to face them at the level of enforced action. Let us now follow for a moment the influence of the aristocratic and democratic ideals in another direction. Certain outstanding and highly important characteristics of our present life and civilization are in very large measure due to the influence of these two ideals on the development of American education. I call attention to four of these characteristics that in my judgment distinguish ours from every other civilization in human history. The first is our intense interest in scientific research and in the extension of tested knowledge in even* direction. This is not only true of men and women in university circles, where we would expect to find it, but it is also and increasingly true of those who are engaged in industry, com¬ merce, and agriculture, and in the study and improvement of health and of social and civic conditions. It is estimated by President Hoover that during the past year there were more than 500 bureaus or agencies of re¬ search in the various American industries ; that these bureaus employed more than 30,000 research workers and involved the expenditure of over $200,- 000,000. At the same time many kinds of research were being carried on in universities and by the United States government, by the various state governments, and also under the auspices of a number of private founda¬ tions. The outstanding result is a great and rapidly increasing stock of tested knowledge in all directions in which we are actively interested. The second fundamental characteristic of our people is the disposition to put to work as quickly and effectively as possible in human service or in the satisfaction of some form of human desire every item of new knowledge that we discover. We are not content with the mere discovery of knowledge but insist that some way shall be quickly found to make it useful. 56 National Education Association The first characteristic places emphasis on the selection and education of men and women for research and for the extension of knowledge. The second upon the education of men and women for the expert application of the results of research in the sendee of public and private life. The first has been greatly influenced by the aristocratic ideal of education and the second by the democratic ideal. The third characteristic is both a cause and a consequence of the first two. It is the tendency to utilize fully the human resources of the nation in the promotion of general, individual, and social wellbeing, or the effort to invest the sum total of our human energy in such a way as will realize to the individual and to the community the highest returns both from the inherited qualities of our people and from the desirable outcome of education. The fourth characteristic is an almost inevitable outcome of the other three. It is the tendency to extend the principle of democracy in its fullest exercise to include all people of the community, children as well as adults. Our present notion of democracy in its practical application is very different from what it was in the days of Washington and Jefferson. At that time this notion in its fullest application was confined to adult white men over twenty-one years of age. Later, after the great Civil War which nearly rent the nation asunder, the concept was extended to include adult colored men over twenty-one. After a longer, very serious, but bloodless struggle the concept was again extended to include adult women as well as men. Today we are witnessing everywhere the practical extension of the demo¬ cratic ideal to include children as well as adults. Rightly or wrongly, the boys and girls of this generation are being considered and treated as persons with the full rights and responsibilities of persons, the right to selfexpression, selfmanagement, and selfdetermination in a sense and to an extent never dreamed of in the days of our fathers. The outworking of these four fundamental tendencies and of the ideals of education to which I have referred has thrust upon American educators a host of problems that call for more intelligent solution, for greater economy, greater efficiency, and better coordination of effort all the way from the kindergarten to and including the university. In many respects the resulting problems in the fields of higher education are most interesting and important, but we must pass them by and devote the remainder of the time to certain problems in the fields of elementary and secondary education. The American public school is a social institution and, like all such in¬ stitutions, it is naturally conservative and slow to change. The present problems stand out clearly when we trace the public schools’ historical de¬ velopment. In the early years of our national history when we were de¬ veloping those ideals and institutions which as a people we have held in the highest esteem the conditions of life were practically uniform and the central tendencies of our development remained practically the same. The problem of the public school was therefore simple and easy. Of the three fundamental methods of learning, that is, by participation, by manipulation, General Sessions 57 and by formal instruction, the first two were then carried on almost entirely outside of the school, the latter confining itself wholly to formal instruction. More than ninety percent of the population lived under rural conditions that were essentially identical. The boys learned by participation with others and by actual experience in the manipulation of the materials and the simple machinery and tools then in use. much that they would need to know and be able to do in their adult lives as farmers. Likewise, the girls, while taking part in the work and life of the home, acquired much of the knowledge and skill which they would need as adults in the care of children, the preparation of food, and the management of a home. The public school was established not to take the place of the farm or the home as educational institutions but for a different purpose. It was its function to open to each generation of children the increasing store of knowledge and wisdom which they had inherited out of the long experience of the race. This knowledge was for the most part preserved in books and other reading matter and the school s purpose was to put the children in possession of the keys to this storehouse, the socalled tools of learning, reading, writing, and arithmetic. The public school therefore as originally developed was organized and operated for this simple purpose and eventually took the form of organiza¬ tion and the methods of teaching that seemed best suited to this end. Learning by participation with others in cooperative undertakings of any sort or by direct manipulation of materials, machinery, or tools was en¬ tirely excluded from the classroom and the method of formal instruction exclusively used. The American schoolroom crystallized into that form of organization which is still frequently met with in many parts of the coun¬ try. Since the education of the children was centered on the tools of learn¬ ing, it was thought that this could be accomplished best by concentrating and holding the child’s attention upon the printed page, and since attention is most easily centered when there is no distracting outside appeal, discipline and the keeping of “pin-drop order in the schoolroom were regarded as ex¬ tremely desirable. Seats were fastened to the door in rows facing the teacher and the children fastened to the seats. They were supposed to be learning only when they were looking at the books or were talking to the teacher or the teacher was talking to them. They did not dare talk with one another or engage in any form of cooperative learning. Projects were out of the question. That form of cooperative living so essential to democracy was practised only outside of the schoolroom on the playground. As the quantity of knowledge that was stored in printed matter and needed in adult life greatly increased, it was gradually felt that the children should be taught desirable content in the schools as well as the mastery of the tools or forms of learning. In the early nineties the leading lights of the National Education Association were strongly emphasizing the impor¬ tance of including content subjects as well as formal subjects in the curric- ulums and great emphasis was placed on the mastery of subjectmatter. Cer¬ tain subjects were regarded as supremely worthwhile and given a sacred 58 National Education Association place in the curriculum. The children were to learn as much of these sub¬ jects as possible, the more the better. As one reexamines the educational philosophy of that day it is amusing to note the arguments that were urged with tremendous force and seriousness for the inclusion of some subjects and exclusion of others. The idea of in¬ cluding any form of manual work in the schoolroom was regarded by some prominent leaders in the Association as a suggestion of the devil himself aimed at the overthrow of the sacred institutions of American democracy. By and by the problem was solved. Certain subjects were decided upon. The curriculum became orthodox and all was lovely. There was surpris¬ ing uniformity in city school curriculums throughout the country. We can hardly realize today the extent to which this was true. As late as 1916, when the Department of Superintendence met at Richmond, Virginia, a great majority of superintendents throughout the United States regarded the curriculum as settled and all problems connected with it as solved. Superintendent Blewett of St. Louis was president of the department that year. We had been engaged on the problem of reconstructing elementary and high school curriculums of St. Louis for nearly two years. The whole teaching and supervisory staff were directly or indirectly engaged in this study and became profoundly interested in it. I was chairman of the gen¬ eral committee and Mr. Blewett asked me what I thought of giving one general session of the department to the subject of curriculum construction. I told him I thought the suggestion a splendid one and urged him to carry it out. With his usual precaution he wrote to fifty-seven leading school superintendents and asked their opinion. I saw the replies to his letter. Some superintendents, about half the number, thought it might be worth while ; a few even showed some enthusiasm for the idea, but several others, some of whom you would recognize at once as prominent men in the pro¬ fession, frankly stated that the discussion of the subject would be a distinct waste of time. To them the curriculum wTas established, why disturb it? As we now look back over the events of the past thirteen years it seems almost incredible that such a thing could have happened, but it did happen, and it is worth our while to determine why. In the first place, the results of the four tendencies to which I have re¬ ferred as characteristic of American life had not yet become sufficiently prominent in their operation to call public attention forcibly to the malad¬ justment of the schools to the changing needs. For almost a century the central tendencies in the development of American life had carried us for¬ ward in practically the same general direction. Our social institutions, public schools included, had become adjusted to the unchanging demand and were therefore regarded as satisfactory. It became the custom of the fourth of July speaker and the political orator of the day to praise the great American institutions as essential to our prosperity and the preserva¬ tion of our democracy. The little red schoolhouse was a popular theme in these oratorical effusions. And we meant it. Why shouldn’t we ? Edu- General Sessions 59 cation was regarded as preparation for adult life and the public school was the agency nationally relied upon to furnish such preparation. It was easy to see that the needs of adult life which education in the schools was ex¬ pected to supply were practically the same for one generation as they had been for the preceding and as they were likely to be for the following gen¬ eration. By studying the needs of the present and preceding generation it was not difficult to forecast those of the next and to organize the curriculum accordingly. Certain subjects came to be regarded as having remarkable educational values in themselves and the colleges of the day reenforced this point of view. In time, however, an increasing popular demand for the introduction of new subjectmatter and for better outcomes of educational effort forced attention upon the necessity of eliminating some kinds of old material to make place for the new. Old subjects began to lose their sanctity, modern¬ ism began to take the place of fundamentalism in the orthodox}' of educa¬ tion ; and since the primary function of the school was still regarded as preparation for adult living, the idea soon became prominent that curricu¬ lum content should be based on analysis of adult activities and needs. What arithmetic processes are actually used by adults? What words do adults really need to spell ? What historical and geographical facts do they really need to know? Scientific investigations made answer to these questions and standardized tests and measurements were devised by which success in teaching the new content could be accurately determined. It was soon seen by many, however, that this practise makes of the child a sort of learning machine, that his present interests and enthusiasms are not sufficiently considered and that this scientific process of curriculum making may easily become a real obstacle to vital progress in curriculum construction. The nature of the child as a learner is left too much out of account. The emphasis is too great upon the products and too little upon the processes by which they are obtained. Hence, another and in its em¬ phasis a newer movement became prominent, which insists that the curricu¬ lum through which desirable facts, habits, attitudes, and other outcomes can be taught shall consist of activities that are meaningful to the child and that the desired results shall be reached by means of projects in which the children themselves eagerly engage. The result has been a widespread inter¬ est in project-teaching and the determination of project curriculums. Lately, growing out of certain recognized limitations of the project method of teaching and curriculum construction, another significant movement is now gaining prominence, the socalled creative movement in education which holds that the attitudes, desires, and feelings or emotional reactions of children are of greater significance than the present bit of knowledge or skill that is being acquired. It advocates a child-centered curriculum con- troled not so much by what information and skills the child is to acquire as by how he feels about what he learns. 60 National Education Association Looking back. then, over the historical development of public school cur- riculums, five distinct stages may be recognized, determined by the placing of the major emphasis in teaching and curriculum construction. These are : the tool stage, the subiectmatter stage, the adult activities stage, the project or purposeful activities stage, and the creative or child-centered stage. All of these are now found singly or in combination to one extent or another in public schools of the L nited States. Proper evaluation and combination of these points of view and their resulting practises in any consistent policy and program of public education is a problem that has not yet been solved. It is easy to see that all these points of view have value. No one of them has been entirely outgrown. The tools of learning are still important ; sub- iectmatter still has value; the actual knowledges and activities of adult life cannot be entirely ignored ; and the child's own purposes, activities, and enthusiasms in learning are vitally important. The problem is therefore not so much one of exclusion as it is of relative values in the determination of a well ordered and satisfactory educational program. An important factor in the solution of this problem is the revision of policy and practise in the professional education of teachers. As already intimated, institutional maladjustment reveals itself first in the case of those institutions which are in most immediate touch with the crises arising out of the changing order of things. Those which stand most aloof and are farthest removed from these crises are least attected and their reconstruction comes later if at all in the general process of readjustment. Some of the older, more cloistered and financially independent institutions of higher edu¬ cation seem even yet practically unaware of any need of change, either in curriculum or in method. The public elementary and secondary schools, standing as they do nearest to the firing line, have been first to experience the need of change and have consequently gone farther in practical readjust¬ ment than have the normal schools and teachers colleges. Progress in cur¬ riculum reconstruction is in danger of being retarded in the case of the new teachers colleges by a certain tendency to imitate the older arts colleges in order to gain academic respectability for their baccalaureate degree. The professional education of teachers is following a course similar to that taken by the schools below. It has passed through the tool stage and is now in the subiectmatter stage. The teacher-training study1 conducted by Charters and Waples for the Commonwealth Fund indicates that the evolution of the curriculum for the professional education of teachers is just now entering upon the third or “activities" stage of its development. This study centers attention upon the activities actually performed and the personal traits required for successful teaching in the schools of today. It is an important step in the right direction but it cannot be regarded as a solution of the problem. There is essentially the same weakness in teacher-training cur- riculums constructed and administered on this basis as was found in curric- ulums for the elementary and high schools constructed on the basis of the 1 Charters, W. W. and Waples, Douglas. The Commonwealth Teacher-Training Study. Uni¬ versity of Chicago Press, Chicago, Ill. 666 p. General Sessions 61 activities performed by adults. It leaves too much out of account the actual purposes, interests, and motives of the prospective teacher while he is re¬ ceiving his professional education. What is needed for satisfactory service in our public schools is not the automatic practitioner, skilled in the use of stereotyped methods of performing standardized activities which scientific study has discovered by analyzing what is now considered excellent teaching, nor a person who is steeped in theories of teaching and education that he has academically learned ; but a teacher the extent and character of whose professional education has prepared him to meet successfully the changing conditions with the courage and disposition to attack and the ability to solve with increasing success the new problems which constantly arise. How to provide the training that will produce this result is a problem which our present programs of teacher training have not yet solved. Another problem of articulation that remains as yet without a satisfactory solution is concerned with our general philosophy of education. This, too. is largely a result of the tendencies in America which we have considered. It centers primarily in the distinction that must be drawn between the values which are to be secured through education as process and through educa¬ tion as result. When we are thinking of education as preparation for adult life and are basing curriculum and method on that idea, we are emphasizing the result values of education. When we turn from this point of view, hpwever, and center our, attention upon the child's actual interests, pur¬ poses, and emotional reactions and upon the determination of what we have called a child-centered curriculum we inevitably place chief emphasis on the values which are being directly realized in the process of education, namely, the values which are felt and appreciated by the child while the process is going on. We find ourselves saying that education is not preparation for life but that it is life itself. When we find educational values primarily in results or those modifications of the individual that are left behind when the process itself is ended, modifications that persist and are expected to influence the subsequent thought and behavior of the individual in some desirable way, we are accepting in some form an idealistic philosophy of education. On the other hand to find values primarily in education as process, as this goes on in the life of the child and is determined by his own purposes and appreciation, is to adopt a philosophy of education that is essentially pragmatic. Since process and result values are both real and both important, neither an idealistic nor a pragmatic philosophy, exclusively considered can be regarded as adequate. What is needed is a higher syn¬ thesis that will properly* include the two. The present emphasis on the pragmatic point of view is an almost in¬ evitable result of the fundamental tendencies of .American life. Owing to the remarkable discoveries of science and their rapid and successful appli¬ cation in recent years the central tendencies of American life are rapidly changing. This applies to our philosophy* of life as well as to the activities in which we engage. It is difficult, if not impossible, to discover any laws governing the changes that are taking place and to predict with certainty 62 National Education Association what adult needs and values are going to be five or ten years in advance. New discoveries and new inventions may destroy over-night one form of industry or one type of occupation and establish another in its place. Occu¬ pations are continually changing, old ones disappearing, new ones appearing. Twenty-five percent of the workers today are engaged in occupations that were wholly unknown thirty years ago. There is constant and increasing need of reeducation of adults to fit them for new occupations. Textbook science that was uptodate ten years ago is ridiculously inadequate and ob¬ solete now. Therefore some of the result values aimed at in the curriculum may become obsolete before the child leaves school. The problem for the school is rendered much more complicated and difficult by the fact that public opinion and legal enactment have decreed that children shall not learn by the methods of participation and manipulation in adult life out¬ side of school. They cannot engage directly in any trade or other occupa¬ tion which they will enter as adults until they have passed the compulsory education age limit. They must remain in school. To meet the situation requires that the school shall be completely reorganized. It must become a refined and improved reproduction in miniature of community life out¬ side of school and its policy and program must be changed to provide not only for improved formal instruction but also for the full and effective use inside the school of the methods of learning by participation and manipula¬ tion. Emphasis must be placed upon the school ^s a community and upon the activities that are carried on by the children as members of this com¬ munity. The method and the form of organization are therefore essentially pragmatic. If in any way the central drift of presentday life could be pre¬ dicted so that the needs of adults in the future could be more fully deter¬ mined and school curriculum and organization set up in the light of these needs, the drift of our educational philosophy would almost certainly be toward some form of practical idealism. SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION AND CONFLICTING AMERICAN IDEALS WILLIAM F. RUSSELL, DEAN OF TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY An educational system is successful only when in all its aspects it con¬ tributes to the ends of the society in which it lives and has its being. Primi¬ tive tribes which survived all found ways in which to change their boys and girls into adults completely adjusted to the environment of the tribe. Prussia a century ago devised an educational system which through two sets of schools turned out the leaders and followers that the Fatherland desired. Recent educational developments in Soviet Russia, Italy, and Bulgaria show that changes in national purpose are followed by corresponding changes in the school ; not only in what is taught, how it is taught, and the spirit of instruction, but just as completely in teacher training and school General Sessions 63 administration. Every aspect of education must adjust itself to the na¬ tional ideal. This process of relating an educational program to a national end is neither simple to comprehend nor easy to put into practise. Education has momentum, teachers are traditional, and as a rule modifications are the result of efforts extended over a considerable period of time. The history of education does not tell the story of many sudden widespread school re¬ forms. When they do come, they are found where the national ends are clear and distinct, accompanied by powerful governmental control. In the United States educational changes have come very slowly. At the time of the formation of the Constitution, our educational system was an importation from England and Scotland, with sporadic primary classes, occasional academies and secondary schools, and a few colleges, practically all under the control of churches and other voluntary agencies. From this beginning a century and a half of effort has brought us to our present state of development. This advance has almost all been toward the realization of the ideals for which our country was founded. One of these ideals was the notion of liberty. Hamilton, Jay, and Madi¬ son in the Federalist papers continually refer to it. Old world govern¬ ments, of the type depicted by Carlyle and Dickens, had made the individ¬ ual subject to the tyranny of the governing classes. America wanted none of this ; and despite the fact that the guarantees of security of person and property found in the first ten amendments to the Constitution were im¬ plicit in the document itself and explicit in the state constitutions, the Fathers wanted to make them perfectly plain. The people of the United States wanted liberty; and they would tolerate no encroachment by any sort of aristocracy. This is the reason why so few powers were delegated to the federal government and so much was retained by the states. Our people have always been jealous of their right to selfgovernment. One governmental function which they particularly wanted to keep in their own hands was that of education, and for a long time the control was kept by the locality. I am neither a political scientist nor a lawyer. I understand that both agree that education is a state function in the United States. To me it seems to be a function of the district, the town or the county, if I read history aright. Our people have always wanted to deter¬ mine the education of their own children and they have ever been reluctant to delegate the power to anyone else. They have retained the church school ; they have supported private schools ; and despite the growing tendency to depend upon the state and federal governments, localities in the United States in general still provide most of the support and still retain most of the control of public education. Such state control as does exist developed not so much from direct delegation by the people as from the acceptance of grants the strings to which were not too apparent at the start. For the most part the people in a locality in the United States still pick the teacher they want, pay him what they please, tell him what to teach, what 64 National Education Association books he shall use, place him in the kind of a school building they choose, and discharge him when they get ready. They assert their right to do this as a part of the liberty in which our country believes and they desire no important encroachment upon their prerogative to determine what their children shall be like when they grow up. This is a definite purpose of American society and our school system has tried to adjust itself to it. There is another ideal of the American people — equality. The Declara¬ tion of Independence assumed as selfevident that all men were created free and equal, and just as Hamilton stresses liberty and property, so did Jefferson emphasize equality. In 1800 equality was less of an accomplished fact than was liberty. Not one adult male in five had the right to vote. Property qualifications for office holding were required in several states. Harvard College listed its students in the order of social precedence. Surely there was a stratified society. But the ferment of equality began to leaven the lump ; people talked, newspapers published, and labor organizations investigated and lobbied with the result that three decades saw not only the presidential succession broken with the election of Andrew Jackson, but the abolition of property suffrage qualifications, introduction of labor reform, and the beginnings of a school system open equally to all at public expense. Year after year educational advances were made, all in the direction of the provision of equality of opportunity for the American youth. The list of these changes would itself be a history of American education relating the development of ways in which compensations have been devised for differ¬ ences in wealth, health, distance from school, objectives, and ability. Our people soon saw that equality of opportunity could not be provided if children were to have the kind of education that a particular community could financially afford to provide. They saw rich districts and poor dis¬ tricts, wealthy and impoverished counties side by side. There is no need at this time to relate the various financial studies that were made which had the result of increasing the size of the taxing unit, reforming and often completely changing the system of state distribution of school funds, and the entrance of the federal government as a source of support for schools. The American people have not been content to allow the citizens of ill- favored communities to stagger under a tax burden which at best will pro¬ vide a short school term under a poorly paid teacher in a squalid building, while others in wealthy areas are able to provide splendid opportunities with little effort. Increased participation of larger governmental units in the financing of local educational programs is apparently a settled policy of American government. The purpose is to foster equality. N or have the American people been content to allow the children to be at the mercy of the particular educational ambitions of the locality. Larger governmental units have stepped in to say that a school must be provided whether the home folks want it or not ; that it must be open for so many days ; that the teacher must have at least certain qualifications and be paid not less than so much ; that the building must be safe and warm ; and other regulations of the same sort. Sometimes there have been direct orders. General Sessions 65 More often the state or federal governments have offered prizes in the shape of money if a particular condition be met. The purpose is also to secure equality. We see in these developments a curious conflict in American educational practises; yet there is nothing mysterious about it. It comes from the effort to adapt American education to two different ideals, the ideal of liberty and the ideal of equality. These ideals never did get along well together. They were never noted for harmony. Hamilton and Jefferson were sworn political enemies. For many years this growing conflict was not apparent, the changes taking place so slowly; but in the last decade it has become perfectly evident. The Education Bill, the measure proposed to create a government department dealing with education to be presided over by an officer who would be a member of the President's cabinet, has divided the country into two camps. The advocates of the measure are the men and women who believe pri¬ marily in equality. They have seen the failure of the small locality. They know that equal school terms, reasonable adequate physical facilities, proper teachers and equipment are impossible without assistance from larger gov¬ ernmental units and they know that children in many places need protec¬ tion against the prejudices, social peculiarities, and dulled ambitions that seem to center about unfertile land, rocky hills, and remote regions. If it is logical for the state to protect the child from the locality and to equalize the wealth, it is just as logical that upon occasions the nation must protect the child from the state. Opposition has reduced the Education Bill to ad¬ vocacy of a government department with advisory powers and direction of research, but the principle at stake points properly to far larger assumption of responsibility. I think that this is believed by the opposition. The opponents of the measure are the adherents of liberty , the Hamilton¬ ians. They want equality, but not at the expense of liberty. They desire no encroachment by the federal government; no weakening of local au¬ thority. They assert that it is proper for the state to assume more power ; but not for the nation. They fear the centralization of the kind found in Australia or France and they want the minds of the children of America never to be in the power of the political group that happens to be in con¬ trol at Washington. Their arguments are strengthened by recent events in Russia and Italy; and the public resentment at the efforts of certain pub¬ lic utilities corporations to influence the schools gives a clue to the attitude of the people. In short, when we consider equality participation by the federal government in education seems desirable ; when we take liberty into account, there seems to be danger. There is a way out of this dilemma which so far as I know has never appeared in print. The trouble lies not in the inevitable opposition of the ideals, but in the unwarranted assumption that education, school administra¬ tion, educational control is all in one place, solid, incapable of division. This is not true. 66 Na tioxal Education Association In Europe there is a division of school administration that is so univer¬ sally understood and so generally accepted that one fails to find a definition or explanation. It is accepted as if no other attitude were ever considered. In the law, in official handbooks, in textbooks we find reference to the “interna'' and the “externa’' ; internal and external administration of schools. Internal has to do with what is taught, how it is taught, how the teacher is trained and the life and spirit of the school. External deals with seeing that the pupils attend, providing suitable places for instruction, keep¬ ing the school clean and habitable ; the pupils well ; the teachers paid ; the equipment provided. The chalk that the teacher uses is external; what he writes with the chalk, internal. His salary is external ; what he teaches and the way he does it, internal. That the pupil shall be given glasses so that he may read is external ; what he reads is internal. The pupils march out of the building to study plants in the garden ; this is internal. The janitor walks into the building to fire the stove; this is external. The ma¬ terial side of education is external ; the spiritual and mental side is internal. So commonly is this concept accepted in Europe that different school officials are assigned ; and in general the external is controled and supported by gov¬ ernmental units different from those controling and supporting the internal. France and England present an interesting illustration of this. In France the “interna" are completely controled by Paris, the “externa” on the other hand by the locality, although this latter control grows less year by year. The Minister of Education controls the textbooks and the course of study. Orders go forth from his office with the force of law. He trains, appoints, and promotes all school teachers and officials. Even disciplinary and social problems are settled under his direction. The departments and the communes, however, have the power to erect school buildings, to pro¬ vide janitor service, to see to it that the children attend, to select a school doctor, to provide living quarters for the teacher, beautify school grounds and the like. The locality can in no way determine what shall be taught ; but they may see to it that the child is ready to be taught. This is gen¬ erally termed a highly centralized system ; but it is plain to be seen that it is centralized in part and decentralized in part. In England, on the other hand, we see almost precisely the reverse. The borough, the urban district, or the county through the education committee of its council has complete control of the internal administration of the schools. No person in London tells what shall be taught, how it shall be taught, or who shall teach it. This is the power of the local unit, and often this is delegated- to the small community and often to the school itself. The Englishman believes in liberty. Nevertheless the Secretary of the Board of Education, often termed the Minister of Education outside of England, is a member of the government. Parliament from the national treasury pays more than half the cost of education. The Board has a good deal to say about the length of the school term, attendance of pupils, build¬ ings, salaries, pensions, and physical education. As to the internal phases General Sessions 67 it can do no more than suggest ; but since the suggestions are the result of careful research and worldwide investigation, they receive thoughtful atten¬ tion. This is generally termed a decentralized system ; but it is plain to be seen that it is decentralized only in part. This division of school administration points the way, as I see it, to the solution of the American problem. We need centralization to provide equality ; we fear centralization as a menace to our liberty. Very well ! Let us agree to centralize the externals, reserving to the localities complete control over the internals. Let us state with such exactness that we shall never be misunderstood that we propose in our state governments, and if necessary in the nation, to centralize the financing of education, the mate¬ rial side of schooling, and the responsibility of investigation and research ; reserving to the localities the right to determine in the last analysis what shall be taught and how. Keep teacher training as decentralized as pos¬ sible. Then we shall see to it that every child is given a chance without the danger of placing the control of the American mind within the reach of a partisan group. We can have equality and liberty both. It is said that “he who pays the piper calls the tune.” There is un¬ doubtedly the danger, as seen in the development of the Federal Board for Vocational Education, that efforts to provide financial assistance are apt to carry with them dictation on the part of central authorities over internals. This has also been seen in the various states. I think that many measures adopted by state legislatures as they affect the content of the course of study are dangerous to the liberties of the American people. The Tennessee anti¬ evolution law is only one illustration. We pride ourselves, however, that we have a government of laws, not of men ; and may we not, as in England, be able to definitely prescribe in law some automatic basis of state and fed¬ eral participation which will carry no discretionary power with it. England has done it; I see no reason why we cannot. Our development in the United States to date seems to provide equality in the state governments without liberty ; and liberty in the federal govern¬ ment without equality. It is to be hoped by farsighted legislation that we shall be able to take a different step, not by selecting one to the exclusion of the other, not by a dull and inadequate compromise, but by a centraliza¬ tion in the state and federal governments of the externals, and a decen¬ tralization of the internals. It seems to be easily possible ; and while I can speak for no one but myself, I can see no reason why proponents and oppo¬ nents alike could not join hands in such a program which would look to the realization in the life of tomorrow of the ideals for which our country was founded and for which so much sacrifice has been made. It would sever from the national and state governments powers which threaten the liberties of the people ; and it would render unto the state and nation power making for equality of opportunity. 68 National Education Association THE IMPROVEMENT OF COLLEGE TEACHING SHELTON PHELPS, DIRECTOR OF INSTRUCTION, GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS, NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE Professor Breed before the College Teachers of Education at Dallas on the “Factors Contributing to Success in College Teaching,” made the statement that since the Division of Education at Harvard was invited ten years ago to study the teaching problems of the department of economics, “a precedent was established that no college can afford to ignore.” He might have gone on to say, that wherever two or three college adminis¬ trators were gathered, this same subject of improving college teaching would come up for discussion. This same society before which he was speaking, The College Teachers of Education of the Nation, has since that time prepared and issued, under the editorship of W. S. Gray, a yearbook on the aforementioned subject. Several nationally known and nationally attended institutes for adminis¬ trators with programs built around college teaching have been held, and in at least one case these institutes have produced yearbooks containing signifi¬ cant material on this problem. Among the newer phases of interest in edu¬ cation at the present moment probably no one excites keener interest than the study of improving college teaching. It is the purpose of this discussion to review the literature which this field has produced and to present the problem which it represents. Carter Good,1 analyzing “the literature dealing with college teaching,” finds nine categories in which he catalogs such materials. With only three of these: general method of college teaching, research in the problems of college teaching, and the improvement of college teaching including its supervision, will this discussion deal. The others, while some of them are of deep interest to the student of college education, are in the thought of this discussion fringe rather than central phase of the problem, and are not considered. Another reason for the consideration of these three only might be found in a reclassification under the agencies directing them. The classification would then read : the reports of individual students and of commissions, the research efforts of the universities, and the efforts of the teachers colleges. This classification does move parts of one or two con¬ tributions into different categories from where Good had placed them, but on the whole the classification by agencies is perhaps no more arbitrary than the other. In presenting the work of these several agencies, their views as their reports are interpreted to reveal them, will be presented. Studies of students — Klein of the U. S. Bureau of Education, studying administrative procedures for improving college teaching, reports fifty-six out of seventy-four or nearly four out of every five institutions studied “have adopted or put into operation experimentally, some form of ad¬ ministrative procedure designed to improve the quality of college teach- 1 Good, Carter V. “Literature on College Teaching.” School and Society 27:481-87. April 21, 1929. (This article contains a very complete bibliography.) General Sessions 69 ing.”1 It is true that the group of universities considered by Dr. Klein was predominantly A & M colleges. Among the means employed among these schools were: requiring training in professional methods courses, bringing specialists in teaching to faculty institutes, appointing special studies, inspection of supervision of teaching, student reports and inquiries among alumni, and analyses of courses in terms of objectives sought. In general Dr. Klein’s discussion admits the very great need of some kind of direction in college teaching, doubts the availability of any one competent to study, to diagnose, and to suggest remedial measures, and relates some more or less humorous attempts to cope with the problem, especially among the federally supported colleges for negroes. Breed’s study2 interests itself in two methods of studying the effectiveness of the college instructor. The first is the one so often employed by ad¬ ministrators, asking students ; the second involves asking colleagues. The outcome of the study is in brief the conclusion, there is no significant differ¬ ence in the estimates of students and teachers, not even in their points of emphasis, as to what factors condition teaching. Students seem to value about the same things in teaching which teachers value, and to evaluate these in about the same way. One of two significant suggestions are offered : the first in importance, it seems, being that regarding these factors the study of “a smaller list composed of the most important activities would provide the greatest help” ; and, second, the possibilities of making use of a con¬ sensus of judgments by either teachers or students on important points re¬ garding these same factors. University efforts — The research efforts of the universities are well repre¬ sented by those of the State University of Minnesota. These efforts were brought to light in the institute held at the University of Minnesota July 5 to 17, 1927, the papers of which were compiled by Professor Huddleson, of the School of Education of the University of Minnesota.3 Representa¬ tive of the experimentation which has been carried on under the direction of the University, two papers, which in general have summarized those investigations, have been given outside the compilation of the institute papers. One of these was a report 4 by Dean Haggerty of the School of Education, and was given before the American Association for the Advance¬ ment of Science at Nashville, December, 1927. The other 5 by Dean Free¬ man was given before the institute for administrators held in Chicago 1 Klein, Arthur J. “Problems of College Education.” Administrative Procedure for Im¬ proving College Teaching j p. 102-17. University of Minnesota Press, 1928. 2 Breed, Frederick S. “Factors Contributing to Success in College Teaching.” Journal of Educational Research, 16: 247-53. November, 1927. 3 Huddleson, Earl, Editor, Problems of College Education. University of Minnesota Press. January 1928. 4 Ibid., p. 15-23. Haggerty, M. E. “Improvement of College Instruction.” School and Society, 27:25-37. 5 Huddleson, Earl, Editor, Problems of College Education. University of Minnesota Press. January 1928. Chapter 34. “A Suggested Program of Investigation Having in Mind the Im¬ provement of Instruction in Science at the University of Minnesota,” by Edward M. Freeman, p. 426-43. Freeman, Edward M. “Procedure and Results of Efforts to Reorganize Science Instruction in the University of Minnesota.” Peabody Journal of Education, 6:204-18. January, 1928. 70 National Education Association University, July, 1928. The spirit of the university investigation is per¬ haps indicated in these two quotations from Dean Haggerty. “Any thorough going attempt at the improvement of college instruction must be founded upon a program of research/’ says the dean, and all will doubtless agree to this assumption. After having examined some forty-eight papers dealing with curriculums and instruction, and finding only seventeen of these fac¬ tually supported, the dean continues referring to some of the seemingly simple questions of college procedure, “seriously to ask these questions in connection with the improvement of college instruction is to imply the machinery of scientific study and a lengthening program of educational research. To advocate such a program is therefore the primary purpose of this discussion." Concluding the discussion the dean says that he leaves the discussion with the thought that any apathy on the part of college ad¬ ministration in regard to teaching conditions is temporary, and that society, as a means of survival, will force the application of whatever knowledge be¬ comes available. Perhaps the spirit of the discussion with its emphasis on a technic of procedure is more important than are its findings. That same technic is described by Dean Freeman in regard to the improvement of science teaching in effect as bringing the methods of laboratory to the im¬ provement of the laboratory. One of the findings which has attracted a good deal of attention is in regard to the effect of the size of class on college instruction. The Min¬ nesota investigations indicated that these effects were negligible. From this indication one turns to the investigations of another university wdiich are published in the Educational Record for January, 1929. Dr. Moss et al., of George Washington University working on the “Impersonal Measure¬ ment of Teaching,” 1 get just as strong indications regarding effect of size of college class on achievement, and in an entirely opposite direction. Again the method of work is very significant, this effort being another attempt to reduce to measures of quantity the effects of teaching. If it can be assumed that each succeeding study, profiting by preceding ones, a little more nearly succeeds in perfecting controls and in applying devices of measurements, perhaps it can be also assumed that the latest of scientifically derived conclusions is the nearest to truth, and can be most safely followed. The spirit of study illustrated in the preceding cases needs no stress. The technics which such studies employ are in the process of evolution. As they are perfected, principles may be expected to result from their employment. These principles may be expected to provide better bases for departure in attempting to improve instruction. When administration knows the factors which condition instruction, and, in measurable terms, the extent to which instruction can be much more effectively carried on, the contribution of the principles, one by one, though seemingly slow will be epoch making, and will be entitled to receive the part claimed for them as quoted from Dean Haggerty. . 1 A., Loman, \\ . M., and Hunt, Thelma. “Impersonal Measurement of Teaching.” The Educational Record. 10:40-50; January, 1929. General Sessions 71 The teachers college effort — While the universities have been attempting to develop the principles which should, when proved, govern the efforts to consciously direct instruction the teachers colleges, (to speak of the teachers colleges doing what perhaps the upper percentiles of their group are doing is similar in its error to speaking of what a few universities are doing as what the universities are doing), have been trying to eliminate some of the weaknesses of college instruction by attempting to work with what is be¬ lieved, assumed, and known regarding the teaching process. Their efforts can be refined as proved principles are provided through research. Perhaps it is appropriate that universities should direct their efforts toward the dis¬ covery of principles, while the teachers colleges seek at the outset to apply what beliefs exist. At any rate there is a movement toward the conscious direction of in¬ struction which has been termed the teachers college movement. George Peabody College for Teachers created in February, 1928, the position of director of instruction. As the name implies the purpose for the creation of this position is the coordination of the purposes and projects of instruc¬ tion. It seeks to function in the improvement of classroom teaching by both direct and indirect means. As an illustration of the latter it is working through the organization of curriculum content both as to the courses offered and as to the actual content of those courses. Directly it seeks to improve classroom teaching by means of classroom visitation, employed as a means of studying college teaching. Following a technic, which has been partly standardized through a constantly increasing number of visits, these visits place in the hands of the instructor and director a record of what is being done in the classroom. Here they serve as a basis for study and for the sug¬ gesting of hypotheses for improvement. The whole probably succeeds in accomplishing most by serving as a stimulus to the instructor to study and to improve his own method of classroom instruction. At about the same time Greeley, Colorado, Teachers College established a similar position, which seeking similar ends has functioned in much the same ways as the Peabody project. These two developments have been followed by others similar in nature, scope, and method. In September, 1928, the State Teachers College at Bowling Green, Kentucky, established a directorate of instruction, somewhat resembling the Peabody and the Greeley plans. Even more recently Bowling Green, Ohio, has undertaken a somewhat similar attempt, but the exact plan employed is not known. In the majority of these attempts, however, while they do not depend on visitation to the extent that supervision in the other phases of education employed it, they do attempt to study college instruction first hand by observing in process, and are somewhat unique in that regard. For a long time it was an accepted assumption, that the direction and the supervision of instruction belonged properly to those more elementary phases of education which pertained to the elementary and to the secondary schools. Throughout the development of specialization, and its accompanying de¬ partmentalization in the higher phases of education few students of admin- 72 National Education Association istration questioned the practise of the instructor determining the direction of his instruction. If sequence, concentration, and usefulness determined the logic of his choice it was well ; and if on the other hand mere whim, or the passing interests of his own study, determined the way in which the teaching would go this inclination was not often interfered with. De¬ partments of instruction, in the same subject, in two different institutions very often were two entirely different things, especially as far as those outer reaches, the individual courses , of these divisions were concerned. Such studies as Crabb's dissertation 1 2 almost end in a wail of despair after an attempt to find a cosmic core in catalogs. Resulting programs of studies offered by students as, “partial requirements for the completion" of degrees were correspondingly chaotic; so that such pessimistic utterances as that of Dean Herman James,- are parts of the educational literature of the present. This discussion attempts to present a plan which is being used in Peabody, and perhaps in some other teachers colleges, to study college instruction. The ultimate purpose of this plan is to improve that instruction. At the present stage it seems more appropriate to say, to study instruction. It attempts to present only the factual phases of that plan. If it possesses merits, the listener or reader will discover these, for none are claimed nor is evaluation attempted. Any one who studies this problem seriously is bound to feel very humble in the presence of the thing itself. The problem of college teaching possesses too many, and too intricate branchings to be tossed off dogmatically. If the plan has authority, it must be a pragmatic sanction, for it starts with neither a priori definitions nor “principles.” It attempts to present in simple descriptive style the workings of a plan the ultimate purposes of which have been given, and the immediate purpose of which will be designated as studying instruction in Peabody .3 The technic — When this series of observations of class instruction was begun, all the formal plans for class observation which could be found, were studied. No need, it seems, to cite them here for the student of educa¬ tion is familiar with that literature. The ones which were given most favor were those which seemed to provide the greatest opportunities, for counting in quantity and for getting a consensus in terms of occurrence. One score carcf was used, which encouraged the observer to record many and varied factual observations. The weaknesses of all such scorecards, in use, were found to be mainly two : first they require so much attention, to properly record observations, that it was hard to maintain concentrated attention on the recitation ; and second their interpretation in terms of what was being sought was not feasible. From them came one guiding thought. When an observation has been made its record should be a series of recorded facts 1 Crabb, Alfred Leland. “A Study on the Nomenclature and Mechanics Employed in Cata¬ logue Presentation of Courses in Education.” Peabody Contribution No. 21. 1926 2 Tames, Herman. “The Liberal Arts College is Doomed.” New Republic 51:96-99. June 15. 1927. ~ Phelps. Shelton. “One Phase of the Direction of College Instruction — The Visitation of College Classes." Proceedings of tlic Tenth Annual Meeting vf the Tennessee College Asso¬ ciation. General Sessions 73 rather than be a series of impressions. Early the observer came to seek and to record factual indications relevant to what he was trying to find out. JVhat the teacher is trying to do — This could be found out in part by studying catalog descriptions, especially if they have been carefully pre¬ pared, with this in mind. In the Peabody College catalog descriptions, teachers are expected to state the purpose of the course and to list at least ten or a dozen of the major things to be attempted, as topics. In one state teachers college observed, all teachers were required to file syllabi of all courses taught with the department heads. This constitutes even a better source of information. Informal conversations with instructors wTill usually bring out what they are trying to do. No more earnest group will be found anywThere than this same body of teachers college teachers, and in the main they eat, they sleep, they breathe the things they are trying to do. No trouble to get them to talk shop, they all do it all the while. After these sources have been exhausted the observer can usually find out by careful study what is being attempted. There are certain controls to be con¬ sidered. Statements of purpose are often misleading. The things done in the classroom, and not the intentions expressed in the catalog, determine the purpose of the course. But by careful consideration of the happenings, it is believed that what the recitation is best calculated to accomplish can be in part determined. The caution of this thought perhaps it is well to repeat. If the recitation really has a purpose it will come out , may not be a wholly safe assumption; but if the purpose is easily caught by the ob¬ server there is a very comforting assurance that it was planned for this end. How the thing is being done — A source of danger here is looking for some particular method. It is most easy to become enamored of just some such particular method. The devotee of the problem method, as an illustra¬ tion, might seek to find that method even in a drill lesson in arithmetic. Perhaps much of the observation of classroom teaching, and its consequent interpretation, has unconsciously been looking for some pet method and evaluating in terms of that one criterion. The way of doing, in teaching as elsewhere, it would seem reasonable to assume, should be in terms of what is being attempted and what is being accomplished. Does there seem to be a way of accomplishing the teacher’s purpose less clumsily, a way that will get at the thing more easily, and can the instructor become facile in the use of this way? These things should be weighed before making a suggested change in method. Hoiv measure results — The observer who seeks to anticipate, does what all teachers have done, studies response from pupils. If only a few students always respond, he questions. If responses are inaccurate or inadequate the question grows. It must be remembered though that some one exceptional individual might look out the window and be wholly inattentive and achieve more than the most eager participant. Informal tests, and even standardized procedure may be called in to check the observation in case the question becomes pronounced. Both have been tried at different times in the 74 National Education Association series of observations being described. The observer's advantage over the classroom teacher in this regard lies in being freed from demands of the teaching process and in concentrating on this one thing rather than in having additional devices which the teacher does not possess and use. An analysis of the observations — Having collected information in the form of data, the very next step in any systematic study, would be to in¬ terpret those data. If they were in quantity count them. If they are in quality describe them. This is next attempted. Certain hypotheses suggest themselves. They are set up and considered. The first is this: Is it too much to expect each college recitation to have some specific purpose ? At first thought it seems that this is a question which so strongly suggests its own answer that it is rhetorical. But consider it carefully for the sequel to it is: Is it too much to expect every college teacher to know the specific purpose which each college recitation taught by that teacher expects to accomplish? This first question with its sequel has been asked of more than one hundred college teachers. This was done in conference not by question¬ naire. There was not a single negative answer returned. If this answer can then be made as an assumption, the question arises, should a recitation present to an observer its purpose? If the one conducting it has distinct and specific purposes should these be easily detected? Perhaps it does not follow in all cases that one observing a recitation can always detect the purpose; or what is more significant that failure to detect this purpose is evidence, per se, that a purpose does not exist. It is reassuring, however, in light of the assumption given, to be able to see clearly and easily what a teacher is trying to do. It is quite interesting to study each of a series of illustrative lessons trying to answer the question What was the teacher trying to do? In one case the purpose as stated seemed twofold, and seemed easily detected. It is doubtful if the teacher would have admitted the seemingly obvious one, which was that of promotion. Right quickly it will be seen that either “stated purpose'' or “intended purpose" may be quite different from what the recitation is calculated to do. Plainly half the effort in this case went into promotion. They were two purposes, one major, the other decidedly secondary in another case, and so on through the several illustrations. A little study of what happened in the classroom throws much light on what the recitation was designed, consciously or unconsciously, to accomplish. The next hypothesis which is considered deals with methods of college teaching. Are there methods of teaching, more appropriate and more effec¬ tive than other methods, for each recitation or better perhaps for the several parts of these recitations? The right of reasoning and of controled pro¬ cedure both favor this as an assumption. The practical experience of teacher¬ training institutions support it. Through their earlier, if not their entire history, they depended on it, successfully, for their justification. It is only of recent years that teachers colleges have had the strength, the courage, or General Sessions 75 the degree of selfconsciousness, whichever it is, to talk about schools for teachers in order that teachers may enjoy the group entity enjoyed by physicians, by lawyers, by engineers, by farmers, and by others — schools where teachers teach teachers, as teachers, to become teachers. If this as¬ sumption can be granted the vital question becomes, Is it too much to expect college teachers to know a most effective way of doing the things they are trying to do? This question has been asked of the same college teachers as the first, and while more dissent was encountered the answer was strongly positive. College teachers on the whole, so far as the number considered is a sample of the universe, seem willing to assume this responsibility. The third and last question to be considered is, Can college teachers be expected to know the extent to which they are achieving with students what they are trying to accomplish? No need to debate this, as to it being a pos¬ sible assumption. All the tests, all the examinations, and all the grades of time bear evidence that teachers have assumed that they can tell what their students have learned. In consulting this same group of college teachers it has been found that most college teachers believe they know, under normal class conditions where mass production has not superseded some knowledge of the individual unit, before the test, whether the student is failing or succeeding. Can an observer, by careful study, tell something about whether or not a teacher is successful in the achievement of students before a post¬ mortem test tells the story? Certain general observations — There are certain general observations, as a result of this series of observations, that it might be well to record. The first is in regard to not being wanted by the instructors. In no case was a visit made except on invitations. These invitations have come in excess of the time and abilities to visit. The feature of resentment of visitation by an observer has not appeared in this particular situation to complicate conditions. There is always the belief that visits are so brief that only superficial im¬ pressions are formed. In no case, in this series, has a visit been made that did not begin with the gathering of the class and continue throughout the recitation until its adjournment. The first class observed, was visited for a series of five consecutive recitations, before any judgments were attempted. A first impression may in probability be revised wholly in light of continued study. “Confidential reports,” are not made regarding these visits. Recently an instructor visited suggested that the record of the visit made should be given the one visited for comment and criticism before being really ready for study — these comments and criticisms by the instructor visited to be made a part of the visit record. He had been shown the record of the visit to his class during an informal discussion of the class and recalled having seen this suggested method, of the one visited contributing to the record employed in another situation. The suggestion was accepted, tried, and adopted as part of the procedure. 76 National Education Association There is one final observation. It might be stated, " Don't be too positive as an admonition to all observers. Suggestions should be such, not just nominally but really. There is a very great opportunity for error. If a choice must be made between ultra-conservatism and dogmatism the former is to be preferred, as the safer of the two. The way of the visitor is a splendid place to walk humbly. It is an excellent time to make haste slowly. Proverbially the china shop is a bad place for a bull. Summary — Among the things that are of greatest interest in education and among educators is the improvement of college teaching. The old time theory of teaching made the student always wrong if ques¬ tion arose, the newer view approaches college teaching not as something wholly bad, nor yet as wholly good, but as something that can be very much improved in terms of the scientific study of education. Individual students and commissions of students have been eagerly in¬ vestigating this subject for the last two or three years, conventions of teachers discuss it, yearbooks of commissions and of associations carry these discus¬ sions, and the literature of the subject has grown greatly during the last two years. The universities have approached college teaching from the standpoint of research on the factors which condition teachers. Minnesota University has done a notable piece of work in this regard. Last year both Minnesota and Chicago Universities held institutes for college administrators. The teachers colleges have approached the problem on the basis of the beliefs in hand and have actively undertaken to shape college instruction in terms of the best established beliefs. George Peabody College for Teachers at Nashville, among other teachers colleges, has employed visitation of college classes, among other agencies in a study of what goes on in college teaching. As more and more principles of teaching are conclusively determined, the active direction of instruction offers an agency for the study and im¬ provement of college instruction somewhat comparable to the work of super¬ vision in the elementary and secondary schools. Despite some opposition from the traditions of college professorships it seems probable that the number of colleges and universities which will attempt to actively direct their instructional activities will very greatly increase during the next few years. Colleges and college instruction exist primarily for the sake of col¬ lege students. Not all of the remedies for the present situation can be found in the selection of college students and in other phases of personnel work. Part of the remedy lies in a reshaping and in a more effective handling of college teaching. The educational reforms of the century began in the earliest phases of education. They have moved upward reaching the highest forms last. They will however continue until all parts of the educational process have been benefited by the best thought and study of the age. General Sessions 77 FUTURE VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR PREPARING CHILDREN FOR THE DUTIES AND OBLIGATIONS OF THE WORLD AHEAD OF THEM J. C. WRIGHT, DIRECTOR, FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. Ability alone is often unrecognized, but ability coupled with ambition, like Banquo’s ghost, simply will not down. The school of hard work is often unrecognized as a means of getting an education. Too many people think that an education can only be secured through a study of books, and neglect to value the experiences which in the long run count more in the life of an individual than a mere study about things. When we attempt to give an individual in one prolonged educational meal all of the education he will need throughout the period of his whole life, we violate one of the most important laws of learning. This idea has been termed the “camel theory of education.” The camel theory of education is based upon the idea that the fulltime school can meet all the educational needs of all the youth. It assumes that the child is an intellectual camel, who can take his education in a pro¬ longed meal, an educational gorge, store it up in an intellectual hump, and live off the hump all the way across the desert of life. It assumes that the school is able by itself to furnish a balanced ration. It overlooks the pos¬ sibilities of making education, even school education, a continuous lifelong process. It overlooks entirely the educational value of work for youth, as wTell as for older people. H ow then may we solve the problem? In my opinion the complete solu¬ tion of the problem does not lie in the all-day or fulltime school. The solution lies in the acceptance of the principle that education for work is a lifelong process, and that every boy and girl should have and be encouraged to take advantage of an opportunity to work and to learn, to hold a job and to go to school, throughout such portion of their productive careers as it is possible for them to make good use of the instruction which they receive. For the boy on a Georgia farm this means an opportunity to study voca¬ tional agriculture in the rural school, an opportunity for his father and mother, and for himself as he grows older, to attend short courses in evening schools or during dull seasons when conditions of work will permit. It means an opportunity for the boy and girl in the city to secure a limited preparation for employment in a limited number of occupations, but an almost unlimited opportunity for them to return to partime and evening school and receive the instruction which will enable them to progress in their job from the lower to the higher paid positions. Modern industry presents an ever-changing picture of industrial prog¬ ress. Like the film of a movie its scenes are continually passing in front of the two million boys and girls annually entering into manhood and woman- 78 National Education Association hood and in front of the 42,000,000 men and women gainfully employed. In the case of many, the school will need to adjust itself to these changing occupational conditions. In 1918 the enrolment in all vocational schools was 164,000. Ten years later this enrolment had reached 999,031. This is a splendid tribute to the country’s interest in vocational education, but it is not enough. We must go ahead and see that in each community there is a balanced program of education with the “equality of opportunity for all'' to which President Hoover so frequently referred in his campaign addresses. It has been a privilege to appear on this program in the State of Georgia, a state which has exerted much leadership in promoting vocational educa¬ tion. The Federal Vocational Education Act is commonly known as the Smith-Hughes Act. The Hon. Hoke Smith, Senator from Georgia, was Chairman of the President’s Commission, created by an Act of Congress in 1914 “to consider the subject of national aid for vocational education and to report their findings and recommendations.” The Hon. Dudley M. Hughes, a Member of Congress from the State of Georgia, was a member of this Commission. The Vocational Education Act known as the George- Reed Act, which passed the last Congress, was introduced in the Senate by the Hon. Walter F. George, Senator from Georgia. From the lips of these great men the Macedonian cry “Come over and help us” was echoed in the Halls of Congress. VERGIL , PROPHET OF A NEW WORLD ANNA P. MACVAY, DEAN, WADLEIGH HIGH SCHOOL, NEW YORK CITY The dictum of Alexander Pope that the proper study of mankind is man is a truism never outworn. The question of origin may be left to academic discussion, but progress and destiny are the immediate concern of us all. The inquiry, “Where do we go from here?,” is especially pertinent at the entrance to a New World. What we want is light on our way and, as Patrick Henry warned his compatriots before the Revolution, we have but one lamp by which our feet are guided, and that is the lamp of experience. The cycles in which human life moves tend upward, we believe; but we cannot calculate the ascending spiral without studying the past. If we look only at the arc in which we are moving, we cannot be sure whether we are bound for a new altitude record or for a nose-dive. When we peer back toward the remote beginnings of mankind we discern little attempt to rise. For eons it seems to have droned along on about the same level. Progress is not an automatic movement in history; something extraordinary must occur to produce it. A prophet arises whose vision the people follow. Per¬ haps the leader is a poet (the original word poet means a doer) , who inspires his fellows to toil and struggle, knowing that relaxing of effort will bring decline. The greatest benefactors of the human race are its prophets and poets, the seers and doers. General Sessions 79 The ancient peoples who have helped the world most in its upward climb are the Jews, the Greeks, and the Romans. As pioneers they entered new worlds and blazed trails which are now highways of thought for civiliza¬ tion. The sublime faith of Abraham, who went forth, not knowing whither but following the gleam, achieved for us our belief in monotheism and dis¬ pelled man’s primitive fear of many gods, lurking to harm him unless appeased by continual sacrifice. The people whom Moses led out of Egyptian bondage rose higher through obedience to the Decalogue, which is still a strong, moral safeguard to society. The prophets of Israel delivered a message of vital import to every age that God requires of man, not sacri¬ fice, but justice, mercy, and humility. At length there came One greater than the prophets, not to destroy but to fulfil, i. e. fill full, the commandments. They prohibit overt acts of hatred, violence and lust. He gave a further turn to the ethical screw by condemning the covert feelings that lead to evil action. The old principle of retaliation, An eye for an eye, yields to His law of love, and instead of “Thou shalt not!” He says, “This do, and thou shalt live!” No wonder that the world pays homage to Him and reckons time as before or after His coming. What we owe to Greece is beyond telling. Homer, Aeschylus, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Phidias, Demosthenes, Euclid are only a few of the many Greek names on the roll of the world’s benefactors. The heroes who died at Marathon and Salamis saved not only Athenian democracy but all west¬ ern civilization from being crushed. A series of books recently issued under the general title of Our Debt to Greece and Rome numbers fifty volumes by eminent scholars on both sides of the Atlantic, but they do not pretend to exhaust the subject. Our English language, in which most of the intellectual words are Greek derivatives, attests the source of our fundamental ideas in architecture, sculpture, prose, poetry, logic, mathematics, philosophy, and science. Fail¬ ure to give pupils in our public schools the chance to study Greek, the beautiful language in which these ideas were originally expressed, is one of the outstanding defects of the present-day curriculum. Education in the New World ahead of us will go limping unless boys and girls are enabled and encouraged to study Greek. Hesperus, the evening star, gave the name Hesperia to all westward land. By it the Greeks referred to Italy; the Romans, to Spain or islands in the Atlantic ; and modern poets, to America. We are prone to think that in this latest Hesperia life has reached a higher level than elsewhere in any preceding age. We point with pride to our ever increasing mastery of natural forces. But have we attained to greater selfmastery than our predecessors or solved the questions that perplexed them ? I trow not. Suppose we go back in thought from this, the twentieth century Anno Domini, to the first century Ante Christum. The transition will cause little shock if we attend to resemblances rather than to differences. The social and political conditions of that age strikingly resemble those of today. 80 National Education Association Some of the problems with which Rome wrestled were : Enfranchising the foreign born, providing for war veterans, curbing the power of the senate, maintaining the army and navy, effecting farm relief, and encouraging religion and patriotism as stabilizing factors in the state. In that critical period of history Vergil was born, whose two thou¬ sandth birthday, on October 15, 1930, a grateful and admiring world is pre¬ paring to celebrate in an extended period of rejoicing. No other poet has ever exercised so great influence on his contemporaries, and the lapse of two milleniums has added to his fame. With Homer, Dante, and Shakes¬ peare he heads the list of world poets. As we do not know even the century in which Homer lived, we cannot celebrate his birthday. In 1916 the world, though engaged in war, did not forget the tercentenary of Shakes¬ peare’s death, and in 1921 it fittingly observed the six hundredth anniver¬ sary of Dante’s. But the Bimillennium Vergilianum will be the golden year in literary annals, and will provide an unique opportunity for inter¬ national concord. Other celebrations commemorate recent events compared with the birth of Vergil, which antedates the Christian era by seventy years. When he was born the democracies of Greece had disappeared, but the Roman republic, increased in territory and resources through four hundred years, wTas holding the balance of power in the known world. All Italy had been subdued and many of its people admitted to Roman citizenship. Armies and navies under the consuls had reduced the lands around the Mediterranean to the rank of provinces. Wealth from everywhere flowed into the Imperial City, and luxury was fast destroying Roman simplicity and hardihood. When greed outweighed patriotism, the republic hastened to its downfall. The structure upbuilt through centuries of devotion was crumbling from within. Class distinction and personal ambition led to civil wars, which ended by establishing Octavianus as dictator, who after¬ wards became the Emperor Caesar Augustus. The luster of the Augustan Age, famous for its many achievements, is due largely to Vergil, the apostle of peace and prophet of a new world. The fresh blood that renewed the failing strength of Rome came from outside the city. Her armies were recruited from the country districts, and farm¬ ing suffered from its loss of manpower. To the Italians and provincials, who only recently had gained the franchise, its joys and responsibilities were very real. It meant more to them than to many native Romans, as in our own land naturalized citizens by their devotion often put to shame native Amer¬ icans who shirk their responsibilities. The dwellers in northern Italy near Mantua, where Vergil was born, did not possess citizenship till it was bestowed on them by Julius Caesar, returning from Gaul that time he dared to cross the Rubicon. Vergil was then in his twenty-first year and with his father and neighbors must have rejoiced at receiving the coveted honor. As he had attended school for several years in Cremona, Milan and Rome, he probably knew by sight Caesar, Pompey, and other famous contemporaries. But he gave little General Sessions 81 heed to politics, devoting his time to the study of philosophy, rhetoric, and literature. It is noteworthy that with the exception of Lucretius the principal poets of Rome were not born there. Catullus, Vergil, Ovid, Horace, and Propertius were among her adopted sons. As foreign-born citizens of America have added to her fame by their talents, and country-bred youths often become leaders in our city life, so Vergil and his fellow poets con¬ tributed to Rome’s greatness by bringing to it rich native endowments and boyhood experience gained elsewhere. But Vergil differs widely from other poets of his time in his attitude towards poetry. He looked upon it neither as an amusement nor as a means of livelihood. He did not seek popularity or preferment. Like the Hebrew prophets, he was under the spell of divine compulsion to declare a message. Because he felt that the form of his poetry should be worthy of its con¬ tent he strove to perfect his art. By patient labor he developed a technic that is well-nigh perfect. Having essayed great works, he spent long years in polishing his verse, the dactylic hexameter. His success has won the un¬ qualified admiration of all poets. Tennyson in an exquisite poem, which he wrote at the request of the people of Mantua on the nineteenth centenary of Vergil’s death, exclaims: “I salute thee, Mantovano, I that loved thee since my day began, Wielder of the stateliest measure ever moulded by the lips of man.” Vergil brought to his writing personal experiences of sorrow and mis¬ fortune. Though the civil wars were not fought out on the soil of Italy, that country suffered bitterly in the aftermath. The holdings of innocent and peaceful farmer folk were ruthlessly seized by the victors to bestow upon their veteran troops. The confiscation of land about Mantua drove the young poet with his father, who was old and almost blind, to find refuge in the humble abode of Siro, a former teacher of Vergil. It is true that through the influence of powerful friends the poet was afterwards requited for the loss of his patrimony; but his own harsh experiences and his sympathy with unfortunate neighbors exiled from their lands left an indelible impression on his mind. In the Eclogues, his first notable poems, he gives, under guise of conversations between shepherds, an unforgetable picture of the ravages that war brings to the lives of its helpless victims. At the time of the late World War Dr. John Finley, in a poem entitled “Vergil’s First Eclogue Remembered,” quickened our sympathy for the suffering Belgians by likening them to the poor exiles whom Vergil pathetically pictures as driven out of their homes by brutal soldiers. This comparison was more readily understood by persons in all quarters of the globe than a reference to any other poet could be, because Vergil is the one Latin poet commonly read in the schools and colleges of the world, and the one whom cultured men and women oftenest reread in hours of leisure. It is interesting to note in 82 National Education Association this connection that of the numerous committees appointed by the American Classical League to organize the coming celebration in honor of Vergil one of the most active and efficient is that on Vergilian Reading. Already it has twenty-five subchairmen in as many states, enlisting volunteers to read all of Vergil’s works, either in Latin or English, within the next two years. That Vergil was the prophet of a new era is manifest in the remarkable theme and treatment of the Fourth Eclogue, in which he describes a Golden Age that is to follow the birth of an expected infant. Its quaint imagery and beautiful language are so suggestive of similar passages in Isaiah, fore¬ telling the reign of the Messiah, that it is no wonder the Early Church considered Vergil among the divinely inspired. This belief prevailed for many centuries and, though now generally abandoned, its influence per¬ sists and Vergil’s disposition and outlook upon life are acknowledged to be Christian. This is notably so in his outspoken hatred of war. The peace movements of all times might well look upon him as their patron. This honor he would have to share with the Greek dramatist, Euripides, whose powerful de¬ lineations of the tragic horrors of war found an approving echo in Vergil’s heart. Because war continually engaged the attention of the world in which he lived and of the heroes whose fortunes he describes, he needs must write of it, but he always makes us feel its horror and never its glory. The most ardent pacifist could not denounce it more convincingly than is done in his description of the Fury Alecto who comes from hell to incite men to battle : Her heart is fed With horrid wars, wrath, vengeance, treason foul, And fatal feuds. Her father, Pluto, loathes The creature he engendered, and with hate Her hell-born sister-fiends the monster view. But Vergil’s burgeoning powers came to full development in the Geor¬ gies, four short books descriptive of farming, which have been pronounced by critics the most perfect poems in any language. Dryden called them “the best poems of the best poet.” Encouraged in his task by Maecenas, the prime minister of Augustus, he spent seven years upon them, both as a patriotic duty and a personal tribute. The people of the war-torn and aching state needed to be recalled to the wholesome pursuits of peace and virtue and happiness in rural life. “Back to the farm!” is a cry which we Americans also should heed, because the foundation of our national pros¬ perity is in agriculture, and nature affords a solace and a tonic to her devotees. In a recent number of the Cosmopolitan Magazine Mr. Coolidge dwells upon the advantages of having spent his boyhood on a Vermont farm. He says: “Country life does not always have breadth, but it has depth. It is neither artificial nor superficial, but is kept close to the realities.” General Sessions 83 In his early years Vergil garnered many seeds of wisdom, which being planted in the garden of his memory bore flowers of fancy as fair and fra¬ grant as those from which his bees made honey, or being treated with the alchemy of poetic thought became pure gold. He learned that success de¬ pends upon work, hard work, and vigilance that can never be remitted, that pressure of want and stern adversity drive men to the full exertion of their powers. “Labor conquers everything.” Not only does it win from the earth her fruits but it gives to the farmer the hardened frame and the sharpened wits, the sturdy character and the honest pleasures of every season. As a growing boy he watched his father’s doings with keen interest and admiration. The elder Vergil not only conducted the usual occupations of farming, but added to his income by lumbering and bee-culture, honey being at that time as important a staple as sugar is today. Going about with his father in the forest, the son learned woodcraft, that expert knowledge of trees which he displays in the second book of the Georgies. His sensitive mind even remembered the fluttering birds, despoiled of their nests by the ruthless ploughman who in his zeal for more land fells the wood and up¬ roots the thickets that have been the birds’ immemorial haunts. One is re¬ minded of Burns’ tender pity for the fieldmouse and the daisy wronged by his ploughshare. In his book entitled Roman Farm Management, by A Virginia Farmer, Mr. Fairfax Harrison gives a valuable “Note on the Obligations of Vergil to Varro,” who was in Vergil’s time the foremost authority on Roman agri¬ culture. No doubt Vergil was familiar with all the writings available on the subject which confirmed or supplemented his own youthful observations. But, as Mr. Harrison remarks, “This is perhaps the most interesting thing about Varro’s treatise, Vergil gave it wings — the useful cart horse became Pegasus.” Although Vergil sets forth with exactness the conditions and requirements for success in husbandry, arboriculture, cattle-raising, and the care of bees, he is not to be classed with the socalled didactic poets. His Georgies are charming idyls shot through with beautiful fancies. As there were no news¬ papers or printed books in those days, the poet who could put his message into mellifluous verse which hearers could readily memorize exercised un¬ bounded influence. Would that some poet would do for our American farmers a service like that which Vergil did for his disheartened country¬ men about whom he exclaims: O farmers all too blest, could they but know The blessings that are theirs, for whom Earth pours From her own breast an easy sustenance. Remote from wars! The success of the Georgies was immediate and their effect twofold : They assured to Vergil beyond peradventure, preeminence among Roman 84 National Education Association poets. He was hailed as the prophet of a new order of things which would set right a world turned topsy-turvy by civil strife. And they rekindled in the Romans a love of things rural and of the simple life. In what at first glance seems to be a digression from the main theme there appears in the Second Georgic a famous passage in praise of Italy, which the poet contrasts with other lands to their disadvantage. Instead of being merely an episode in the poem, however, it reveals a deep, underlying purpose of the whole work — to waken in the hearts of others the latent affection for their father- land. In these lines Vergil is the fore-runner of our later poets who have made stirring appeals to patriotism. Such is Shakespeare’s praise of England : This little world, This precious stone set in a silver sea, Which serves it in the office of a wall Against the envy of less happier lands; This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England. And Walter Scott's scorn of anyone who does not love his own country : Breathes there a man with soul so dead Who never to himself hath said, “This is my own, my native land”? And Rupert Brooke’s sonnet, presaging his death as a soldier in the late war, beginning: If I should die, think only this of me That there’s some corner of a foreign land That is forever England. The emperor Augustus, as a wise statesman, realized that poets and artists can do more than armed forces to preserve the equilibrium of the world. And so he became a generous patron of literature and the arts. Under his encouragement so many beautiful buildings were erected that it was his boast that he had found Rome brick but left it marble. He devoted his energy and his influence to restore the prestige of religion through the em¬ pire, and earnestly sought to reestablish the higher standards of morality which had characterized the early Romans. In doing this he had the loyal cooperation of Vergil, Horace, Maecenas, Pollio, Agrippa, and other influ¬ ential citizens. No sooner were the Georgies finished than Vergil was called to a more stupendous task. At the urgent request of the emperor he began, almost in fear and trembling, the composition of the Aeneid, that wonderful epic which Professor Glover says has been the favorite poem of all Europe for eighteen centuries, and by virtue of which its author is ranked among the world’s greatest poets. His diffidence in beginning it was due not to lack of zeal or devotion to the purpose of the undertaking, but to his realization of its essential greatness and the frailty of his own health. But having put his hand to the plough, he never turned back. The remaining ten years of General Sessions 85 his life were given to elaborating the plan of the poem and putting it into execution. He died in his fifty-first year, ere he could perfect the work as intended, so he begged his friends to destroy the manuscript. Fortunately it was saved by the authority of Augustus. The theme of the Aeneid is the mighty work it was to found Rome. Its purpose was to awaken the pride of all Romans in the achievements of their ancestors, to increase their desire to imitate those who through toil and sac¬ rifice had brought it to its commanding position, and to quicken their faith in its divine destiny. The going forth of Pilgrim Fathers in any age and from any land has ever been fraught with peril and adventure and is deserving of their chil¬ dren s grateful commemoration. In singing America the Beautiful our hearts thrill at the words : O beautiful for pilgrim feet Whose stern impassioned stress A thoroughfare for freedom beat Across the wilderness. Our national regard for the Mayflower amounts almost to reverence. Small and scarcely seaworthy as she was, she carried a hundred colonists, men and women of such high character that it has been said of them that God sifted a nation to get the seed from which to plant New England. She appeals to our imagination more forcibly than the Argo in which Jason sailed to get the Golden Fleece, or the Golden Hind which under command of Sir Francis Drake first carried Englishmen around the globe, or the modern ships in which heroic men at the risk of life venture to reach the poles. All these exploits are in the realm of high adventure, yet they were under¬ taken for commercial or scientific ends. But the Pilgrim Fathers, driven by persecution from their old home, sought a new world wherein should dwell righteousness and liberty. Likewise Aeneas and the Trojan exiles went forth to seek a land of freedom in which to build new homes and worship their gods. The circum¬ stances under which they went were most distressing. The ruthless destruc¬ tion of Troy after ten years’ siege filled with sad horror the refugees who escaped with little more than their lives. Their personal bereavements and the awful sights they witnessed on that fell night could never be for¬ gotten.. Their departure was sorrowful ; hard were their seven years’ wanderings ; and discouraging their unsuccessful attempts to settle in Thrace and Crete. Very tempting, too, were the allurements to abandon the baffling search for Hesperia and remain in Carthage with Dido, the beautiful queen who promised them equal rights and privileges with her own colonists from Phoenicia. Still stronger was their desire to abide in Sicily with the friendly king, Acestes, but only the sick and disheartened accepted his offer. The steadfast purpose of the hero Aeneas strengthened his faithful fol¬ lowers. His spirit quailed at times and might have broken utterly if at such crises he had not perceived the gods vouchsafing him guidance. An 86 National Education Association ever reverent attitude of mind and unquestioning obedience to the divine will are among his outstanding qualities. Added to these were his tender regard for his old, paralyzed father, Anchises, whom he bore on his shoul¬ ders from burning Troy, and his ever-mindful care of lulus, the little son whom he led by the hand. For both of these his love and devotion never failed. Vergil thus typified his hero’s strong sense of obligation to the past and to the future , and sought to inculcate in the Romans of his time lessons which young America sorely needs to learn — respectful obedience to par¬ ents and considerate regard for those of their fellows who are unable to keep up with the rapid pace of modern living. One of the grave responsi¬ bilities of Education for a New World is teaching students to maintain the delicate balance between liberty and loyalty. An epithet which Vergil often applies to Aeneas is the Latin word plus , for which there seems to be no adequate English translation. Pious Aeneas is wholly unsatisfactory; Good Aeneas is barely passable; Aeneas regardful of duty is too cumbersome for elegance, but its conveys the meaning. The quality it signifies is not the least splendid in the hero’s character. Duty is a word that needs renewed emphasis in the training of our youth. We re¬ call the tribute of Kant: “The starry heavens above and the moral law within the heart.’’ And Wordsworth’s Ode to Duty, “Stern Daughter of the Voice of God!’’ Professor Eddington of Cambridge University, the greatest of modern astronomers, declares that the sense of duty is a per¬ petual reminder of the ultimate spirituality of the Universe. The spirit of the present age, scorning all this, has raised the standard of Self-expression with the motto, “Do what you like.’’ This is a serious matter since it has powerfully influenced modern pedagogy. It may be very interesting to watch little children do what they like — and nothing except what they like — in a room that is wholly protected from danger. But to call that “education,” and then send them forth without a dominating sense of duty into a world full of danger and where countless others will compete with them, would seem to be one of the strangest aberrations of the human mind. Business has no place for people who lack a sense of duty. The state has none. And can we suppose that Nature will make exceptions of those who have not learned that this is a universe of law? We hear nowadays much about primitive man and primitive manners. In this connection we cannot too often remind ourselves of the lines in Kipling’s Jungle Book, “The head and the hoof of the law ... is obey!” One cannot but feel that the unhappiness of so many young lives, which would seem to have had the best chances of success, is due to the fact that they have not been trained to a strict regard for duty. They have been encouraged to ask, not “What ought I to do?” but “What do I want to do?” Professor Mackail points out in his Vergil and His Meaning to the World Today that the Aeneid is more than a national poem, embodying the pageant General Sessions 87 of Roman history and foretelling the mission and supremacy of Rome. It possesses vital human interest. While its men and women are drawn to the heroic scale, they yet reveal the qualities and emotions of actual life, and are subject to the laws of nature and the workings of a mysterious Provi¬ dence. It teaches that human destinies are moulded by the human soul. Aeneas’ conversation with the shade of his father in the Lower World touches upon the deepest springs of religion and philosophy. Anchises’ exhortation to the Roman race that was yet to be freely admits the supremacy of the Greeks in matters of art, oratory, mathematics, and science, but claims for the Romans political and social leadership. Professor Williams translates it thus: Let others melt and mould the breathing bronze To forms more fair, — aye! out of marble bring Features that live; let them plead causes well; Or trace with pointed wand the cycled heaven, And hail the constellations as they rise; But thou, O Roman, learn with sovereign sway To rule the nations. Thy great art shall be To keep the world in lasting peace, to spare The humbled foe, and crush to earth the proud. » Or as Professor Fairclough translates: “To crown peace with law." The climax of Vergil’s power of prevision, which seems to partake of prayer as well as prophecy, is his interpretation of the upward tendency of humanity toward ultimate good. He makes it plain that the great spiritual truths which Aeneas learns in Hades nerve him to go on and endure the further hardships and agonizing experiences necessary before the refugees from Troy can settle in Italy. Through two thousand years the prophetic genius of Vergil has directed the best thinking of ancient, mediaeval, and modern times along this line. Dante, that towering light of the Middle Ages, names Vergil as his master and guide and follows him closely in his great poetic excursion through Purgatory. Tennyson in the opening stanza of In Memoriam refers to Vergil and his essential doctrine: I held it truth, with him who sings To one clear harp in divers tones, That men may rise on stepping-stones Of their dead selves to higher things. Upon the path that leads into the New World that we are entering shines the light of Vergil’s teaching. It is in honor of this great poet and benefactor of mankind that Italy has issued a call to the rest of the world to unite next year in commemorat¬ ing his bimillennium. The American Classical League is sponsoring the celebration in this country. Already nearly thirty' national committees. are at work, the chairman and members of which are men and women prominent in business and society as well as leaders in the literary, educational and art worlds. The advisory committee consists of Dr. John Finley of The 88 National Education Association New York Times, President Fairfax Harrison of the Southern Railway, Professor Clifford Moore of Harvard University, Professor Paul Shorey of the University of Chicago, and Dr. Henry van Dyke of Princeton. Dr. Walter Damrosch heads the Committee on Music on Vergilian Themes; Dr. Thomas E. Finegan, on Cooperation with National and State Education; Mr. Lawrence F. Abbott, on Publicity through the Press, among the members of whose committee are such notable persons as Professor William Lyon Phelps of Yale, Mrs. Calvin Coolidge, and President Edwin A. Alderman of Virginia. President Nicholas Murray Butler of Columbia is chairman of the Committee on Cooperation with the American Academy of Arts and Letters; Dr. Charles F. Thwing of Western Reserve, on Co¬ operation with Phi Beta Kappa; Professor Lillian B. Lawler of Kansas, on Plays and Pageants; Miss Mildred Dean of Washington, D. C., on Vergilian Reading Circles and Private Reading; Professor H. Rushton Fairclough of Lcland Stanford, on Celebrations in Colleges; Miss M. Julia Bentley of Cincinnati, on Celebrations in Schools; Dr. E. C. Richard¬ son of the Library of Congress, on Activities and Exhibitions in Libraries; Professor Louis E. Lord of Oberlin, on Pilgrimages to Places Made Fam¬ ous by Vergil ; and Professor A. L. Bondurant of Mississippi, on Awarding Prizes. I have mentioned less than half of the committees already organ¬ ized. The time allotted me will not suffice to enumerate them all. The scope of our American celebration is so tremendous that national committees alone cannot acomplish it satisfactorily, however zealous and efficient they may be. Every teacher, student, editor, artist, and other lover of the higher and better things of life is hereby urged to do his part in his own locality to disseminate information about the Bimillennium Vergilianum and to stimulate the interest and activity of all his friends and acquaintances in this unique commemoration of the poet whose prophetic spirit still inspires and guides all who look forward to a New World and whose cardinal teachings are: Hatred of war; the blessings of honest toil; unselfish patriot¬ ism; true piety; and the ascending destiny of mankind. WHAT MUSSOLINI HAS DONE FOR MODERN ITALY MARIA CASTELLANI, NATIONAL PRESIDENT, ITALIAN FEDERATION OF BUSINESS AND PROFESSIONAL WOMENS CLUBS, ROME, ITALY You ask me to tell you what Mussolini has done for modern Italy. Perhaps the best way would be to follow in chronological order. Mus¬ solini’s work is a wonderful crescendo like in the greatest symphony of Beethoven. But I shall, like a painter with his brush, endeavor to give a vigorous general outline. I remember as a girl when Italy was leading her poor little life, when strikes were troubling the country, when our victory was destroyed, when all the moral feeling of life was overthrown by the triumphant Red Flag. I remember in 1921 I was a student in Rome. In the night the soldiers came in my club and made prisoners five girls because they were National- General Sessions 89 ists; they were very fond of their country, and were against people who were destroying our victory. The 28th of October, 1922, the date of the march on Rome by Musso¬ lini must be considered as the dawn of a new era for the Italian people. But fascism is not words; it is faith. It means reconstruction and progress, political, spiritual, and economic reconception. Italy was in a state of chaos. Mussolini gave us a government, a par¬ liament, and the Church. He gave us a government because the Duce , as head of the Italian Government, governed all alike, Fascists and non- Fascists, with an iron hand. Discipline, order, system are the concrete results of this activity. It is sufficient to mention the reestablishment of order everywhere. Mussolini, as you know, through the great Council of Fascism, which has bound together the best men of the reconstruction, has an instrument to enable him to get in close touch with the throbbing life of the Italian people. He works with the head of the great Council of Fascism. It is just like an advisory committee composed of very distinguished men. This is an advisory committee for the Government and for the King. It is rep¬ resentative of the heart of Mussolini and follows the Mussolini policies. Italy is the first country where labor and capital are working peacefully together for the prosperity of the country. They are working together be¬ cause the Italian laboring classes — I mean laboring classes in the greatest significance of the word, employers and employees — are organized in great unions, syndicates. There are the trade unions of employers and the trade unions of employees that are organized in confederations. Mussolini is the first statesman to recognize the real power of trade- unionism, for a country to progress must be in touch with the heart of the nation, actively and not passively in all its activities. In Italy, wThen we speak today of syndicalism, of syndical discipline, and of economic coalition, one must finally understand that these expressions do not apply merely to the working masses but also to the capitalistic organizations. Every branch of Italian activity is nationally organized into a specific national corporation which comprises labor, technical work, and capital. This is not a mixed organization but a system of organization which or¬ ganizes them all under a single superior authority. The national corpora¬ tions so organized form together one body, a formidable expression and building up of Italian economy. In regard to the details of such organizations, it is important to know that the employers are organized into six great confederations — industry, agriculture, commerce, maritime and aerial transportation, land transport, and internal navigation and banking. The employees are also organized into six like confederations, and then we have the confederation of pro¬ fessional and intellectual people which comprises also artists and artisans. This is very important to observe as we may consider it a victory of or¬ ganization. That is to say, we have the confederation of the syndicates of lawyers, the syndicate of medical men or doctors, the syndicate of news- 90 National Education Association paper men. As editor-in-chief of the Italian official magazine of “Social Insurance,” for instance, I am in the syndicate of newspaper people and I am very glad of it because I have a seventy percent reduction of the Italian trade. Outside of the syndicates we have the organization of people working for the government. In this association are the teachers and people work¬ ing for the education of our young generations, organized in national asso¬ ciation for public service of the people, that is the Associazone Nazionale dl Educazione. Maybe nobody understood my Italian. I will tell you again we are organized, the teachers as well as the people working for the Government, in a very important national association. In four Italian Parliamentary elections, the trade unions are in charge of designating members of the representative chambers. Each confedera¬ tion, each important organization has a vote and is out to designate a cer¬ tain number of members to the Representative Chamber, to the Chamber of Deputies. They are asked to designate a Representative member to the Ministry of Corporations. Or, in other words, the confederations and the more important societies, the institutes and cultural bodies, nominated to the Great Council one thousand candidates for Parliament and of these four hundred were chosen. At the recent elections at which about ninety- five percent of the male electors voted, the Great Council Candidates were approved for Parliament. It means that labor and capital in Italy are working together not only in the laboring bodies but are also working to¬ gether in the executive body of our government, for our laws in the Par¬ liamentary bodies. The first election of a Corporative Chamber as we call this kind of Italian organization was made last March and we are very anxious to see the results of this experiment because we think that from these results great studies can be carried on also in foreign countries. The Italian working classes are well protected. As you may know, Italy is today a pioneer among the nations in regard to social legislation. The carta del lavoro Labor Charter, has been made little by little funda¬ mental in its application. At present workers are protected by compulsory social insurance in various conditions of life. We have compulsory insurance for protection for old age disablement. We have compensation insurance for accident and professional diseases. We have insurance for unemployment, for tuberculosis, and also a national maternity insurance. In the Italian compulsory insurance employers are asked to pay half, and the employees half. As a seller of Italian insurance, I tell you Italian women are very proud that they have this special kind of insurance for mothers. Working women between the ages of fifteen and fifty are com¬ pulsorily insured and the premium is paid half by the working women and half by the employers. Besides this national fund for motherhood, we have another very powerful institution in Italy introduced by Mussolini — the national in¬ stitute for the protection of motherhood and children. This institution is General Sessions 91 doing special welfare work. For instance last year two hundred thou¬ sand children were sent to our seashore and to our mountains for summer benefits and vacations ; and the Italian women, I mean particularly the Italian professional women, are very glad to tell you that this special in¬ stitute is supported particularly by bachelor taxation. I don’t know really if the Italian bachelors are very glad of it. I think they are not but all the young women are. As you may know, Mussolini is very interested in the education of the young generations. Italian people are very proud of the past history of Italy, but we think that we have to be more proud of our present life and of our future life. Schools, under the Mussolini government, are improving because of the great reformation that was made, not only because in our schools was self- government introduced in a certain way, not only because in our schools religious teaching was introduced — I mean religious teaching not com¬ pulsory but just voluntary, not only because our schools are very well organized, but because we are improving the mothers and fathers, the edu¬ cation of all generations. In addition to the schools we have our children organized in the Balilla as we call this powerful organization which is like your Boy Scouts. We also have our young girls organized in an organization of small Italians or the Piccole , and young Italians or the Giovani. Young boys from six to sixteen years are organized as Balilla and Avan- guardisti. The name of Balilla comes from a Genoese boy who in 1740 during the Austrian Dominion was brave enough to start a popular in¬ surrection. The Austrian soldiers were transporting a cannon through the streets. In a very rough manner they made the populace assist them. The boy himself took up a stone and threw it at them. This caused a riot. He is the great boy hero of Italy. And so we call this organization of young boys Balilla. It is wonderful to see these little boys in their black shirts and fez marching along like soldiers, bands playing with the greatest earnestness, even if at times one feels a desire to put one’s fingers in one’s ears. They are real men, feeling all the responsibility and having all the cares of real men. During this year 812,000 Balilla and 425,000 Avanguardisti were en- roled. There were appointed to the different branches 18,000 teachers, 646 chaplains, 470 doctors. The work was extended by the addition of 1004 gymnasia, either hired or their own property; competitions were or¬ ganized at which 102,000 boys and 56,000 girls participated. The Fascist Academy for Physical Education, instituted for the purpose of training gymnastic instructions in connection with the Opera Balilla, had 198 pupils. Over 600 little sailors were shipped on four training ships and cruises were made, notably the recent one to the Orient. It is a great thing to have the addition of sports. Before the Fascist Government sports were unknown in Italy. Now everybody is interested. 92 National Education Association We have a beautiful campus we call in the Italian language a stadium where the people go every Sunday to have sport exercise, especially foot¬ ball, which is very interesting for our young men. LJ Opera \Nazionale Balilla is the favorite of the Regime. It unites in one sole spirit the scattered pedagogic ideas, makes more manly the edu¬ cation of the mind and introduces sport to the youth. As I indicated, there was once a blind hostility towards all that savored of sport, athletics, or danger. This has now been overcome and the heroism and daring deeds of the little Balilla amount to many hundreds. We have, for instance, the organization of very important libraries and at the present time we have what we call the Young Balillas, 300 libraries, with some 37,000 libre, books, which have been donated. In addition 1000 schools, having an attendance of 35,000, were handed over to the administration of regional instruction of the Balilla and various houses were built in the more important centers, and as a completion of this vast and far-reaching work of assistance to our youth, all the members were insured against accidents. Almost as a symbol of the enormous mass of work and as a complement to this great organizing force, the work in connection with the great Forum of Mussolini at the Faresina is being eagerly carried on. From the Apuan Alps the great marble monolith, the largest in existence, and which will be dedicated to the name of Mussolini, is on its way to Rome, a feat requiring in itself much skill and manual labor. It will be put on the banks of the Tiber in a large palestra or recreation ground for the youth of Italy, as a witness to the great Roman traditions which are being revived owing to this confidence in the Duce to the greatness of which the coming generations will be educated. It will represent in its strength and solidity an enthusiastic and constructive faith, or as the speech to the “Chief” put it, “It will be the visible sign of the entire rebirth of Italy.” And in connection with the sports and the athletic events in which my country is now participating, at the great athletic meeting of last year the girls gave evidence of their steady preparation and training. Even com¬ petitions in archery and rifle were organized, and this rather horrified people of the old mentality who still dream that woman’s place should be only in the house. In the spring of each year the Fascist conscription of the Avanguardisti and the young Italian girls takes place. They receive their papers and pass on to the Fasci. This is a most instructive ceremony which recalls to mind the great ceremonies of ancient Rome and Greece. This year on the occasion of the conscription 15,000 young men came to Rome and were in camp for a week. They were soldiers in the true sense of the word. The Duce on horseback passed them in review. I do not know whether you have per¬ haps seen this solemn and touching parade on the screen ; certainly it was one never to be forgotten. Children from all parts of the country and speaking the various dialects, and together with the young sailors of to- General Sessions 93 morrow they lived as brothers united by one feeling only — the important mission that their country has entrusted them with. The Italian government is very interested in the improvement of our professional schools. In our rural villages, in our agricultural districts, we are improving the teaching of methods for agriculture which we are very glad to develop in Italy. We are against the concentration of the populace in the cities. We are in favor of developing the country. Our best results, however, are undoubtedly being secured through the elemen¬ tary schools. In 1921 forty percent of our people could not read nor write, whereas in 1927 this percentage has dropped to twenty-five and it is reasonable to suppose that before very long this will be entirely wiped out. This is splendid testimony to the present regime. A great impulse has also been given in the direction of providing infant schools, which in fact are now almost obligatory as they tend to keep the children away from the bad influence of the streets. It is enough to state that in 1923 there were 5962 such institutions whereas in 1928 there were no less than 11,500. Special camps for sick children have been formed ; also various scientific and instructive museums, libraries, and so forth are rising up all over the country. Loving care is also being shown to children with physical de¬ formities in the way of their education, and in fact the instruction of deaf and dumb children is now obligatory and new schools have been erected in the large towns for deficient children. These are being studied and at Genoa teachers of these abnormal children can receive a special course of instruction. Open air schools for weak children and those prone to in¬ herit diseases are continually spreading, especially in the south, and in fact they have over 8000 children who receive not only fresh air and educa¬ tion but also free meals and when necessary sanitary and medical assistance. Higher education has also been the object of special attention on the part of the present Regime. The universities have their own curriculum and hence the establishing of special schools in keeping with the times has been favored, such as schools for political science, mining, aeronautics, the Fascist faculty of Perugia, and so forth. Lastly, three institutions have been founded to control and unify Italian culture. These are the Fascist Institute of Culture, the National Research Council, and the Italian Academy. Mussolini is working very hard for the reclamation of our lands. As you may know in Sardinia and in Sicily we have quite large extensions or tracts of land that are deserted because of the malaria there. The gov¬ ernment is working hard for the reclamation of this land. We think that in a very short time a populace of about five million inhabitants can be brought into Sardinia. Mussolini is also working hard for the emancipation of the Italian nation from coal. We have no coal in Italy, so we are developing rapidly our hydraulic power. I think in four years all Italian trades will be run by hydroelectric power. 94 National Education Association Now in Sicily, for instance, we are anxious to develop industry. Near Sicily is a country that we call Calabria. There is at the Lake Silani a great station that we call a special name and that will be the most power¬ ful fuel station which will be in action very soon. Sicily is a wonderful country because we can develop many agricultural industries. For instance, if some of you had the opportunity to visit Sicily you would find that all the flowers there falling from the orange trees are collected and these flowers exported for perfume. We are very anxious to keep this industry in our country. Another great industrial blessing is now forming in our Tirso, another Italian country deserted for many, many years. And now let me tell you just a few figures. As you know I am a statistician. I am very fond of numbers. 1 will not explain to you any new mathematical theories, I promise you that, just a few figures to illus¬ trate what I have told you before. It is very important to know that in 1920-22 there was an immense deficit of seventeen million lire. Now in 1926 the deficit was ended and this year we had a surplus of about five hundred million lire. The debt with the United States, as you know, was settled after the brilliant nego¬ tiations of Count Volpi. The Italian exchange was organized and Italian currency, which was being subjected to most damaging fluctuations, was stabilized on a gold basis. But, as I told you before, the real indication of a strong, sure, and enduring political policy is economics. At the moment in Italy we have, out of a population of 42,000,000 inhabitants, now only about 300,000 unemployed, a very small number if you observe that such rich countries as England and Germany have about one million and a half out of employ¬ ment. It means that in Italy we are working intensely through the ra¬ tional organization of production, and by the production of electrical power and the recovering of the lands as I mentioned heretofore. As you know, Italy has from an economic viewpoint the following great problems to solve : the problem of raw materials, for which we are especially in¬ debted to foreign countries; the coal problem; and the question of grain and agricultural production generally. Imports in Italy rose from fifteen million lire in 1922 to twenty million lire in 1927. In this connection we must take into consideration the re¬ valuation and stabilization of the lira. It is evident, however, that the difference between export and import is decreasing, and we are very glad of it. This is a further index of the improved conditions of labor in Italy. From the first of November 1922 to February 28, 1929, 10,201,000,000 lire were spent on public works. I draw special attention to the 1,816,- 000,000 lire for hydroelectric purposes and about 600 million for the re¬ claiming of land. For that reason we have no unemployed. As I told you before, we have a coal problem but by improving the electric power it will mean also a betterment in regard to our dependence on foreign countries and it means a great step forward for the peace of our country. General Sessions 95 Electric power rose from 42 billions of kilowatts in 1920-26 to 76 billion in 1926-28. It is a great figure. Aviation did not exist before the Mussolini government and now we have about 5000 kilometers of airways ; 5000 kilometers in a small country like Italy is a great number. As I have indicated before, we are very anxious to emancipate our country in a certain way from the foreign countries for it is very vital. Take grain, for instance. Our grain crop is insufficient for our popula¬ tion and so wTe are working strenuously and hard for increasing grain pro¬ duction. The production of grain has risen from an average of twelve million quintals a year to fifty-seven million. The complete redemption of the land is now being undertaken. The Italian islands of Sardinia and Sicily (the southern portion) will soon secure considerable development and it must be remembered that Sardinia is as large as Lombardy and has only one fifth of its inhabitants, and thus internal migration will be real¬ ized. And it is wonderful to see the reclaimed land become healthy with friendly villages rising up one by one. And where there formerly was only the deadly malaria, uncultivated soil, hunger, and desolate land there is now life and health. As concerning the Italian peace, I tell you a great step was made with the peace treaty with the Vatican. Last February for the first time the greatest black aristocratic family of Rome, the House of the Prince of Colombo, opened the doors for a very formal, political reception. That means that the spiritual peace of Italy is made and we are very glad of it and we consider it a step for the peace of the world too, because if you go through Italian history you know that many times war was brought about because nations against Italy were asking the support of the Vatican. The peace between the Vatican and the King does not mean that that is to be the only religion. Every kind of religion can exist in Italy at the present time. All the churches, Jewish, Baptist and so forth, are strength¬ ened by this pact in Italy, and the liberty of all churches is increased. Be¬ fore this they were only tolerated. Now they are recognized. And re¬ ligious marriage, through Jewish, or Buddhist, or the English church is considered as well as a marriage of the Catholic church. Religious mar¬ riages even when performed in the non-Catholic churches have the same civil effect. The moral and spiritual values are much stronger. Mussolini is very anxious to develop international relationships and the Italian people are very anxious to follow him in those relationships. As you know, we are working now for the improvement of the international relationships of students, the young generation. We believe the young gen¬ eration should make contacts with foreign friends, with the young genera¬ tions of foreign countries and that this will be a great step for the peace of the world when the children of today, the young men of tomorrow, are brought in contact throughout the world. A better understanding of peo¬ ple, a better understanding of cultured people, professional people, will do much to bring about world peace. 96 National Education Association Mussolini is doing a great work for the development of international re¬ lationships. Mussolini’s government is the first since our unity to under¬ take a real foreign policy. Treaties of friendship and commercial treaties have been concluded with all the nations and it must be remembered that Italy was the first to enter into relations with Russia and it was among the first countries to make a treaty with Germany. Mussolini loves the people and the people love him. He loves music, loves children and devotes his entire day to the country. Sleep is for him a secondary consideration, he sleeps if he can. Italian people all over feel his presence all the time. As you may know, our Chamber of Deputies has sessions there from ten oclock until twelve or one oclock in the morning. Perhaps the American people more than any other can comprehend the great potency of the genius of Mussolini. Mussolini might have been forged, as it were, in your country. Your country and your people are noted for their energy, strength of character, and force of will. These are your characteristics, were the characteristics of your great George Wash¬ ington, your Abraham Lincoln, and your Theodore Roosevelt. They are also the characteristics of the man who has saved Italy. THE CHALLENGE 1 AUGUSTUS O. THOMAS, PRESIDENT, WORLD FEDERATION OF EDUCATION ASSOCIATIONS, AUGUSTA, MAINE There are two great sentiments today in the world, patriotism and love of humanity. There is no conflict between the two. Man may love his country, love it dearly, may even fight for it, and yet love his fellowmen wherever they are, regardless of their race or tongue, or their conditions as a people. And these two great sentiments without conflict are essen¬ tial today. That martyr of the great war, Edith Cavell, uttered a truth which should be on the walls of every school and should be remembered by all the people of the world, when she said, “Patriotism is not enough. Standing in view of God and Eternity I must have no hatred and no bitterness in my heart for anyone.” Fifteen years ago last Friday night two students over in Austria Hun¬ gary fired their pistols into a heap of dynamite and blew up the world, and instantly killed the heir apparent to the throne of the dual monarchy, and his wife also. Perhaps there were enough explosives around anyway to blow up the world if it hadn’t been for these two students, and I sup¬ pose they being students, education was responsible for the great war. But this event that took place immediately brought together millions of men who had never seen one another and had never heard of one another, and l The reader will secure additional information concerning the World Federation and its Geneva meeting in a later section of this volume devoted to it. General Sessions 97 immediately they began trying to destroy one another’s homes, to ruin one another’s countries, and to kill one another. So the first two or three years after that great event had closed the w’orld drew itself to its knees, dazed and bewildered after a knockout blow, and wondered what it was all about. Two thousand years after that event when the shepherds on the hills of Galilee saw the rent in the clouds and heard that angel chorus sing, “Glory to God on High and Peace on Earth, good will to men,” this great cataclysm of humanity occurred and the four horsemen of the apocalypse rode roughshod over the nations of the world. Six months before this happened the world would have said, it is impossible for another war to come. How could it come in an advanced age? We say education may help to keep out another war; and yet when we stop to think, all the leaders of that war, the foreign ministers of all the countries engaged in that war were highly educated men. Then when we stop to think today that the world is moving with a tremendous pace in the physical sciences; we are spending millions, even billions, of money in equipping great laboratories; in sending scholars, the finest we have, from country to country, in order that they may delve into the very heart of nature, and biology, chemistry, and physics are triple gods before whom we bow. We are moving at a tremendous rate. We were moving rapidly anyway, but the war only accelerated the genius of man and his desire to discover all there is to be discovered in this scien¬ tific world. All we have to do is to think back a little over our own lives. A few months ago I was crossing this continent from Boston to San Francisco. I boarded an overland limited train, bound for the West. That night as I retired I sent my suit to the valet on the train ; it came back the next morning nicely steamed and pressed. I arose from my berth, went into the shower bath and took a shower, rolling along at fifty miles an hour. I had all the conveniences of a modern hotel ! The lad of a generation has seen all these things that have come to pass, for in the day of the cattle trail there was not a transatlantic cable, there was not a transcontinental railway, there was not an electric light in existence ; there was not a woman in America with a college degree ; there was no radio, no moving picture, no air planes, no aviatrix, no chain stores, no tractors; there wasn’t a foot of paved highway in all our coun¬ try. Yet we have marched on, and we are making great progress today seeking new things. But somehow, while we have spent money and while we have worked in our laboratories trying to search out the mysteries of science, we haven’t made the same progress in the social sciences. We have not studied the reaction of the things we teach upon the children we teach. We haven’t studied the reaction of the kind of reading, history, and philosophy which we teach to these children. We have been going on with a sort of cold intellectualism in education. What we need is new elements. 98 National Education Association When this great war was over the peoples of the world said : “There must be something done ; there must be some way to get the nations of the world together.” There was no common ground. How can they come together? Not on diplomatic and political grounds; they cannot agree. Not on business grounds, not on economic grounds, for their interests over¬ lap and conflict. Not on religious grounds? Because half the world is pagan and half Christian, and the half that is Christian can’t agree, and they split up and keep splitting up again. The National Education Association was the first to sense the neces¬ sity and grasp the whole opportunity and to see the vision that is before education, for it appointed a committee on foreign relations and asked the foreign relations committee to do something, whatever it had in mind to do. There were no definitely laid out plans, but it occurred to that foreign relations committee of this organization it would be a fine thing to call in a few educators, like our distinguished visitor from Italy, to come and talk to us, from different countries, to show that we have kindred spirits and kindred interests, and we have gone to work on that. It chanced to be my fortune to extend the invitation to the peoples of the world, to their educators, to come together for a conference. I made a great discovery for I found that the people of other countries knew about what was going on in education in this country. I found those people anxious to sit down together, to consider educational procedure. Then I came back to this Association and recommended that we make it larger, that we call them together. There seemed to be a reason ; there seemed to be the necessity; there seemed to be the desire. It seemed perfectly natural that this organization of ours should be the one to extend the call. We had to take it up with President Harding and the President said, “It is a good idea. We will take it under consideration.” The next time I saw him, he said, “We will call the conference but we will have to manage it.” The National Education Association said, “We have gone so far we will have to continue with it.” Here in this country, where in the early day we had opened up our shores and our arms to the peoples of the world and told them to come to this country and help us develop its resources, we sent out the invitation that they should come here where they would find their own tongue, their own blood, their own kinsmen. Six hundred responded, and in 1923 out there at San Fran¬ cisco, we found one thing we didn’t know, that practically every country in the world had something to teach us, and something to give us, a con¬ tribution to the sum total of education. That evening we said, “Let us make a permanent organization so that we can come together.” There were people high up in educational circles who said it can’t be done. “You can’t call these people of the world to¬ gether and discuss any subject. How will you discuss the rural problem, the Irish dilemma, the Russian situation? How will you discuss this General Sessions 99 situation and that, the Versailles Treaty, the League of Nations, all these things ?” I said, “We are not in the political field. We are not going to inter¬ fere with diplomacy; we are going to help diplomacy. We are going to stabilize diplomacy. We are going to try spreading public opinion that will back up whatever treaties and agreements diplomacy will make.” Diplomacy had failed in all these generations trying to avoid war. It had failed lamentably. Now we said: “We will get back of it, for educa¬ tion must precede law. Hence we will undertake a program of world¬ wide education. First, we will give each other information concerning ourselves. Then we will try to make it accurate that we may not teach things that are false.” And so the National Education Association set in motion this new idea of bringing together these people. Then at the next meeting in Edinburgh there were two thousand people gathered together, a colorful meeting, where men and women, many of them young, came and gave their message, wherein the various groups sat together and discussed educational methods and procedure, where they told what was going on in their own country, where they told what their ideas were, and there there were cemented friendships and understanding. And up here at Toronto there were more than six thousand from most of the countries of the world. Now in a short time, just a few days, our distinguished President will sail for Europe. Dr. Russell, chairman of the committee, will sail for Europe; many distinguished members of this organization will go to Geneva, and there we shall meet our fellow teachers from almost every country in the world. A splendid delegation from India, a fine delegation from the Orient, out of Australia and New Guinea and South Africa; and out of the nations of Europe, England, Scotland, and Ireland, and out of Canada and the United States will come together for the purpose of dis¬ cussing their problems. We shall meet over there with three or four thousand people. The organization is divided into groups. There will be twenty groups hold¬ ing sessions about the same time. There will be general sessions similar to what we have here, and in those groups duplicate languages will be used. In one group the official language will be English, translated into French and German; in another the French language will be the official language, translated into English and German ; in another the German language will be official, translated into English and French. Through those translations an understanding will come. There will be a great exhibit of the contributions made by the different countries of the world to the civilization of the world. There will be the contributions of music, art, invention, and discovery ; and there will % be other contributions, and a great map showing how these have come 100 National Education Association out of many a small country, and how they have contributed to the general welfare of us all. There will be a pageant, an athletic and physical education demon¬ stration to music. The Swiss fete day will be put on. There will be excursions, and there will be social functions and opportunities for the teachers from the different countries to come together. And I have been interested as I have had letters from those different countries saying, “I want to go to Geneva, but we are in hard condition here; our money is depreciated, our salaries are small. If you could make us a commit¬ ment we would be glad to come down to Geneva.” Many of them will go anyway. But I was interested to discover here in your city a very interesting thing. I learned it just the other day, quite by accident. It seems that one of our distinguished hosts here; the superintendent of schools, Mr. Sutton, was written up in one of the magazines, and in that magazine it told how he had helped many young persons to get an educa¬ tion, told about his great heart for those who were struggling and trying to get along, and that magazine was sent over to Europe, over to . Vienna, and was read by two teachers in Vienna, and both of those teachers wrote to Dr. Sutton and said, “We have read what is said about you; we want to go to Geneva.” One had taught thirty-seven years, the other forty-two years. “But,” they said, “we can’t get together enough funds.” And I understand that Dr. Sutton sent the money himself, and those two teachers from Vienna will be at the conference over in Geneva. This shows an interest, men and women looking now to world-wide influence, no longer confined to our own communities. We are reach¬ ing a standardized world. Did you ever stop to think how we have standardized education in this country? We have no federal arm to reach out and tell us what to do. We have forty-eight states, four terri¬ tories, and yet we have one American system of education. We have gone beyond our state borders. We have become nation-minded. We have discussed each other’s problems; we have had committees and com¬ mittee reports, and we have gone back. We have taken the best out of all these reports until today the educational system of Maine is very like the one in Georgia, very like the one in California. Here and there we have very nearly the same textbooks, very nearly the same programs and courses of study, because we have standardized, in a measure, by picking out those things that have been most successful and discarding those things that have been the cause of the most failures. The same thing is happening everywhere. We are beginning to think in education very much alike, read the same educational magazine, read the same newspaper, deal with the same things. Now we have gone beyond our country’s boundaries, gone out into the world, not only with education but civiliza¬ tion. We are going out in great enterprises. We have great organiza¬ tions organized for the purpose of making loans in every country in the world; we have the Ford Motor Company going out into England, General Sessions 101 Belgium, France, Germany, and the North Peninsula, and we are riding in the same automobiles, using the same typewriters, using the same adding machines; we are using many of the same books translated into different languages. Everywhere over the globe the great institution we call the press has its army of news-gatherers. We are getting the same news; we are living very much the same. We are crossing into different coun¬ tries, and we are visiting each other ; we are doing business with each other ; our food is the same ; we are coming to the same standards of cloth¬ ing; eventually we may come to the same moral standards, the same standards of ethics. The world is becoming smaller and smaller and education is reaching out into every part of it, and even yet sixty-two per¬ cent, a billion and a half, of the people of the world are without letters. This integration of education, this organization of the World Federa¬ tion, has already brought together in the organization one-half of the five million teachers of the world, teaching one-half of the three hundred million children of the world. It means in a generation new viewpoints will come. Not in one generation can we relieve the human race of those old primitive elements that have been carried down through all these years and generations, but through another generation, and another, keep¬ ing at it, we shall come to a time when the nations of the world will see that they must live in harmony and in justice with each other, or if they do not, with all the genius and cunning of the human mind today, it will be able to invent explosives and deadly weapons to such an extent that another war would be the annihilation of almost the entire race and we should have to start again and go over the long process of rebuilding our civilization. The challenge is to the schools throughout the world. A great question is written across the face of the future : Is man to be the master of civiliza¬ tion he has created, or is he to be the victim of it? And it depends upon whether or not we can educate something else besides the cold intellect, educate the heart of man, develop an international consciousness, an inter¬ national morality in order that the nations of the world may be gathered together in communion, and esteem, and encircle the earth with that spirit of the Golden Rule. This is the great call for educators, not only in our country but in every land, and we have already begun. Great progress has been made. Text¬ books have been rewritten in the last six years, based upon the theory and upon the influence growing out of that first conference in San Fran¬ cisco, new programs and new organizations of the social sciences in the city schools here in this state, over in Cleveland and Dayton and San Francisco, and in Los Angeles, and other cities over the country; re¬ organized courses are now ready, building up for good things. We are beginning to understand, going out into life and seeing the virtues to be had in the coming generations, coming back into the school room and teaching those virtues in order that they may be imbedded in the con- 102 National Education Association sciousness of youth and finally in the adult generation ; we are going out and finding things of a certain character to war upon and combing them out, and making a bonfire of them, until we can eliminate these old curses and cruel things that have come down through the race, all through these generations, and have exemplified themselves, for unless we do this the world has time and opportunity for three great wars that will exceed any we have had in vengeance and in cruelty and in destructiveness — a Race War, a Religious War, and a Labor War. But it is up to the teachers to so teach the youth that youth may be led in paths of righteous¬ ness, if you will. We can lead them as He would lead them into the future that humanity may have exemplified that principle, “Peace on earth, Good will to men.” AMERICA'S HISTORICAL OPPORTUNITY • HOWARD R. DRIGGS, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, NEW YORK UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY About four or five months ago there died in the city of Seattle a man whose name has become almost a household word in our land, Ezra Meeker. As this old veteran, nearly a century in age, was passing away, he whispered to his daughter, “I am not quite ready to go. My work is not finished.” Now the work to wLich he was clinging with his dying breath was the preserving in vitalized and humanized form of the great epoch of the westward march of America. At the age of seventy- six when most men are ready to lay down the burden of life, this in¬ trepid old pioneer conceived the idea of reblazing America’s most famous trail over which during the ox team days from 1836 when Marcus Whit¬ man and his wife traced it out to Oregon, to the time of driving the golden spike at Promontory Point in Utah, that trail over which 350,000 Americans from every state then existing, north and south, had made the long trek in order to establish the empire of states beyond the Rockies. This old pioneer felt that that trail, which is worn deep across our con¬ tinent, should be reblazed and remarked for the teaching of that great epoch of our history. He used picturesque methods to challenge atten¬ tion. He made out of three old pioneer wagons an old covered wagon and retraced that trail all the way from the State of Washington to Washington, D. C., and there he was met by President Roosevelt, who gave warm approval to his plans to make our throbbing history live again. Later on he flew over the trail in the air, piloted by Lieutenant Kelley, one of the army pilots, and this time he was met by President Coolidge, who gave support to his venture. Finally Congress unanimously passed a measure authorizing the mint¬ ing of six million memorial half dollar coins to be used for the purposes General Sessions 103 of monumenting that trail or restoring old land-marks along the way and raising a great memorial in Washington to the memory of the West¬ ern pioneers. Ezra Meeker passed away but he has bequeathed that cause to us. Now it is primarily and wholly educational in its purpose and it is national in its scope. We are often prone to think of the old Oregon Trail as a western trail. It is not a western trail at all except geo¬ graphically. It stretches from the Father of Waters to the Pacific, but that trail was found by the heroes of every state this side of the Mis¬ sissippi. What is the west? It is merely the transplanted east. We sing the song “Out Where the West Begins.” Frankly I don’t know where it begins but I do know where it began. It began along the shores of the Atlantic. Captain Robert Clay, who discovered Columbia and gave us our claim to the Northwest, was a son of Rhode Island. Lewis and Clarke, who were the first to lead men across the continent, and Jim Bridger, the boy trapper, who discovered Great Salt Lake, were of Virginia; Edward Robinson, who fought side by side with Daniel Boone on the bloody ground of Kentucky and lost his scalp and was shot and left there for dead but refused to die, was one of three Kentuckians who went on and dis¬ covered the Great South Pass, the gateway to the Rockies. Benadiah Strong Smith, the Puritan pathfinder, who carried his Bible in one hand and his rifle in the other and was the first who dared to cross the great American deserts, and Dr. Marcus Whitman and his devoted wife, who gave their lives to plant the cross of Christianity beyond the Rockies, were from New York. Winston Price Hunt, who led the Astorians westward and settled in Chicago, came from New Jersey. Nate Wyeth, who established Fort Hale as a place of refuge for the weary emigrant out in Idaho, was from Boston. John C. Fremont, the fearless path¬ finder, whose daring stroke gave to us California, came from the splendid State of Georgia. Now if you were to run the roster of every hero and heroine who had to do with the making of the West you would find you have not taught your history. Too much of our history ends with the Alleghanies. What I am pleading for is an extension of the history of the United States. I want to give you a little idea of what it meant to win the West. Out of these 350,000 American pioneers who dared to take that trail, over 20,000, your friends and mine, lie buried along that trail and out of the 20,000 graves there is only one, as far as we know, that is fully marked and that is the grave of Rebecca Winters out in western Nebraska. They didn’t have any way to mark the graves on those prairies. Usually what they did was to scatter the ashes of the camp Are on them but in this case somebody had the forethought to pick up an old wagon tire and 104 National Education Association set it in the grave and then chiseled the name of that mother on the top of the tire. Sixty years afterward railroad surveyors going up the North Platte ran right across that grave and when they looked on the rusted inscription and read the mother’s name they were touched with the mother’s part. They telegraphed into Salt Lake City, because they were on the Salt Lake branch trail, and relatives wired back who the mother was and the railroad surveyors with a touch of sympathy I love to think about, went back twenty miles and changed the railroad survey to miss that one lone grave out of the twenty thousand. Today it stands by the long, lone trail where the tired mother sleeps. The other day I was in Portland, Oregon, listening to George Heims, the aged secretary for the Historical Association there, and he told me how he as a boy of ten helped a group of pioneers blaze a way through the Naches Pass. He spoke as follows: After months of grinding toil across those plains our wagon train came to the \ akima Valley in Washington and we went up that old river crossing and recrossing it as we climbed the mountains fifty-nine times. One man kept track with notches on a grip staff. When finally we reached the top, my mother expressed it in a sentence when she said, “Have we come to the jumping off place at last?” There was a precipice with its side extending a thousand feet or more down. On the right and left were virgin forests. We could not descend and hew our way through those forests, to turn back meant starvation. What were we to do? They took all the ropes out of the wagons and when they put them together in a cable they weren’t long enough. The commander, a man from the old south, turned and said, “Kill one of those oxen.” We killed the oxen, stripped off his hide, cut it into rawhide, spliced it onto the cable. It wasn’t long enough. “Kill two more,” said the commander. Then with those two more hides of the faithful oxen they spliced the cable and let the twenty-nine wagons down the face of that cliff. One of them broke and was smashed into kindling wood. Men, women and children carried loads down the cliff by a craggy trail, led the oxen down, reassembled the train and made their painful way down into a smiling valley where they have now reared the beautiful cities of Tacoma and Seattle. You ask me what this means educationally? Well, not long since a lecture was being given up in the Bronx, New York, on “America’s Greatest Trail” before a group of children, high-school boys and girls, that came mainly from foreign homes. At the close of that lecture one of the boys came up and said to the lecturer, “If we could have our history taught to us like that we could feel like saluting the flag.” The opportunity to make history new is knocking right now at our schoolroom door. Invention is vying with education to bring us right to the very spots where these great dramas were enacted. In your marvelous Stone Mountain you have one of the wonderful efforts to make history throb and w^e congratulate you on it and we congratulate the whole South on its tender regard for its historic shrines, and any city, state, or nation which fails to preserve its historic shrines is not only educationally and patriotically but financially short-sighted. The General Sessions 105 one thing that we need to do is to take advantage of the fact that multi¬ millions of America today are traveling. It was with this thought that the Oregon Trail Association had its birth in the sacrifice of that splendid old pioneer who gave his last full measure of devotion to it. When the cause was passed on to me as President, I told the Board of Directors who had handed it to me unani¬ mously that I would accept it on a certain given program and platform. That platform and program, briefly stated, was this: that every dollar to be raised from the sale of those coins to go without waste to the monumenting of that trail and raising memorials along it; that every officer, the president included, should serve without a cent of pay. That it should be made a great educational program and when I thought of that I thought of my membership in this great organization and I carried it first of all to the leaders here. It is your opportunity, not mine, and that is why I am bringing it here. Now what do we propose? In the year 1930, next year, which is the one hundredth anniversary of the birth of Ezra Meeker, who founded the organization, we propose to stage a series of historical celebrations two hundred miles along that trail. We have selected that year not only because we honor our founder in it, but if we get a few of the remain¬ ing old covered wagon pioneers to join with us we will have to move quickly because they are passing over the Great Divide. The planting of markers along the various spots, the restoring of old forts and old historic shrines, the building of a great memorial in Washington that will teach perpetually the story of America’s Westward March are a-b-c points in that program. The saving of precious records and precious pictures, and precious other relics that are going so fast along the trail is contemplated in the program. Already we have been encouraged by the backing of some of the finest men in America in this great enterprise. We are encouraged to feel that we are going to bring forward one of the finest chances for America to learn its whole history, and the reason I am bringing it here before you today is to invite your earnest cooperation. Now two or three things are in view. In the first place we are going to get the roster of the dead that lie along the trail. You can help us. We are going to get the roster of the heroes that made the trail; you can help us in that. We are going to get the roster of the covered wagon pioneers that still live who can participate with us. We are beginning to map and chart that trail all across this country. We expect to scatter into the schools of this country the exact data of that whole march to the west. The research men are on that work and one of the great reasons why we are being very painstaking about this is right here — we must stop a lot of this commercialized melodramatic misrepresentation of the west. George Fittings rather humorously put it — and this can apply to every state in the Union — “About half the lies they tell ain’t true.” 106 National Education Association All we hope to do is to tell the straight, simple story of American pioneer¬ ing in every state in our whole Union. Just about three weeks ago I started on a trip across that old trail. I have stood out in Nebraska by old Fort Connor and the Nebraska people are all alive — they have already purchased that site, the place where they used to gather the emigrants and protect them from the Sioux as they went through their territory; I was out there in Wyoming at Fort Bridger, the place which old Jim Bridger formed at the junction of the Salt Lake and Oregon-California Trails. Not long since I was in Idaho at Fort Hale. Another group of people were at work there. And then I had one of the thrills of my life, a tender thrill, when a few weeks ago I stood in Walla Walla, Washington, with a group of earnest, financial leaders who are working right now to save that sacred shrine where Dr. Marcus Whitman and his wife laid down their lives for Christianity. When I stood by their graves, thirteen of them buried there in one grave at the foot of that hill, and saw tears come to the eyes of sober bankers, for that sacrifice, I began to realize something of the cost of it all. There are thousands of spots along that old trail to be commemorated. Out in Wyoming is old Independence Rock at the crest of the continent on which at one time there were four thousand names carved. That is gradually being acquired by the Historical Association there in Wyo¬ ming. Then again out there in Oregon, Washington, and Utah; in Cali¬ fornia and Nevada, and Kansas, Missouri, and Iowa and all those states over which the trail ran the people are alive to teach the history of the west to the people in the east. I had a chance to renew my acquaintance with Mr. Heims, whom I have mentioned to you, and Mr. Heims took me into a corner of his old museum there, a place not as large as this stage, and pointed out to me relics that came from every state in the Union east of the Mississippi. “Here,” said he, “is a clock that used to tick down in Vermont. Here is a scythe with which they used to mow grass in old Kentucky. Here is a Franklin stove they used to warm themselves with in Pennsylvania. Here a cradle with which they used to rock the babies in Indiana.” Said I, “Mr. Heims, those people came across the continent not only with their scythes, and their stoves, with their clocks and cradles; they came carrying America; they came sprinkling the map of America with names dear to every heart ; they came planting schoolhouses and churches on every hill ; they came stretching the warp of America from the Atlantic to the Pacific.” They stretched it taut and true and into that warp today is being woven a strange woof. The problem with you and me is, will the warp hold? It will hold providing that you and I and all the teach¬ ers of this country will join in saving and teaching in their throbbing realities the sacred stories of the making of America. General Sessions 107 PROGRESS IN NEGRO EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH ROBERT R. MOTON, PRINCIPAL, TUSKEGEE NORMAL AND INDUSTRIAL INSTITUTE, TUSKEGEE, ALA. I am somewhat embarrassed this morning but I don’t want to embarrass you. This platform and this auditorium are not lacking in character and dignity. I think they are lacking somewhat in color. I shall not attempt to add anything in the way of dignity or character, or of inspiration or in¬ formation, but I am perfectly sure I will bring more color than any other speaker of the morning. In discussing “the Progress in Negro Education in the South,” we should keep in mind first of all what the attitude of the south was toward educa¬ tion in general prior to 1860, 1865, and 1870. We must keep in mind that public education was not popular or practised in the south prior to 1870. Immediately after the war, 1865, the reconstruction governments, what¬ ever may have been their faults, put on the statute books of practically every southern state, legislation which made public education popular for black and white alike. And then when the armies came down, the armies of the north, there came with them a large army of school teachers, missionaries, men and women, who began almost with the armies to teach these former slaves and their children how to read and write, something of the rudi¬ ments of the English language, of education as we think of it today. Then the Mission Boards, the American Missionary Association, the Baptist, the Methodist, the Presbyterian, and the Episcopal churches started schools not after the war ended always but sometimes before it did end. Many of them are in existence today that began as early as 1862. Those schools have continued to teach negroes along the lines that the teachers themselves were taught. We must not forget that not only were northern men and women, white men and women, engaged in teaching or volunteered to teach negroes, but a great many southern men and women also entered that service. Many of the churches in the south started schools also which were manned very largely by southern men and women who believed negroes ought to be educated. AVhat has been the result of these beginnings in negro education? In the first place these southern legislators during the reconstruction period, made it possible that free schools could be put at the disposal, as far as possible, of every child, both black and white in the south, for elementary education. Whether it was popular or whether it was not popular, they did it, and the entire southern population is today thankful that they did it. But these schools required teachers. There were no normal schools to teach negroes to teach these schools. Many of these public schools, therefore, w^ere manned by southern white men and women that taught negroes. They taught them as late as ten j^ears ago in Charleston, Richmond, and many other places. They are now about all gone. These southern legislators established normal schools in many states to train teachers for these schools but of course the normal schools just begun 108 National Education Association could not furnish teachers to begin with. Northern philanthropy, for which we are thankful, started the schools. There were three or four in this city — Atlanta University, Spillman College, and Clark University. Practically every place where strategic battles of the Civil War were fought there have been established, from Washington all the way to Texas, schools where negro teachers have been very largely trained by the northern white men and women to teach negro children in the public and private schools of the south. From that has grown many foundations, the state fund for ex¬ ample now directed by Dr. James H. Dillard. Dr. Dillard was president, he gave the Bowles Foundation, providing funds for the negroes in the rural districts of the south. Neither the south nor the negro has a better, a more sincere, a wiser or more courageous friend than James Hardy Dil¬ lard, born in Virginia, taught in Missouri and Louisiana, a southerner of the southerners. Then the General Education Board, one of Mr. Rockefeller’s largest foundations, came to the rescue. Robert C. Ogden of New York with a party of northern and southern men and women came down once a year to various places in the south, popularizing education and supported by such men as Dr. Greer, Roanoke College in Virginia, President Alderman of Virginia, Dr. MacGregor and scores of northern men and women and southern men and women. These people were interested in education not only for the negroes, for their object was not primarily for the education of the negroes — their education was incidental — but education of all people, of the white people, was what they had in mind, believing, that if you can get one race educated, where there is close and intimate association they will see to it that another group less fortunate than themselves will have a chance for education. And that is what has happened. What is the attitude of the south today on the question of education? Well, there is not a southern state today, not one, that has not within the past ten years doubled, trebled, and probably quadrupled its appropriation for negro education. Not only that but a man who would rise up today in any group or legislature of southern men or women and oppose educa¬ tion for anybody would probably be hooted out of the meeting. So educa¬ tion is popular in the south, quite as popular as it is in the north, or in any other part of this country. There isn’t as much money spent per capita because the south hasn’t got as much money per capita to spend but in pro¬ portion to the taxes collected and the tax values, you will probably find that the south spends for education for its entire population as much as any other section of the country. Now I know what some of you are thinking. Some of you in the back of your head are saying: ‘‘Yes, I know, but they spend about twice as much per capita in most places for the education of the white children as for negro children, and for the equipment for the white children as they do for negro children. ' Yes, that is true in probably every city and every state except in a few little counties where there aren’t any negroes. But I am thinking of the tendency, I am thinking of the feeling toward us, of the General Sessions 109 sentiment, the way the current is flowing, and the current is flowing deep and wide and rapid toward education for all the people in the south. There is an entire change of sentiment on the part of school officials in all of the southern states for negro education. Another thing that is encouraging is that the white school officials in every southern state have set standards for the negro schools the same as for their white schools, their accreditment is the same for high schools and colleges in all the southern states and then they are as sincere, as earnest and as sympathetic, and as conscientious in seeing to it that the negro child has a fair chance as they are in the case of the white child and that is with the approval of the general school officials and the departments generally. Then there is the Rosenwald School movement. Mr. Julius Rosenwald, through Booker T. Washington, the former president and founder of Tuskegee Institute, gave six hundred thousand dollars a few years ago to experiment in building negro schools. The idea was the town should put up a third, the county a third, and the colored people a third and out of that experiment 4500 negro schools have been put up in the various states of the south, more than a third of the negro children are now being taught in Rosenwald schools. These are good schools, uptodate in every way, and the teachers, so far as possible, are well trained, not always as well trained as we would like but there again they are improving. There is an interesting thing about the Rosenwald schools that northern¬ ers do not quite understand. Mr. Rosenwald had in mind if you built a good negro school in a community the probabilities were the white people would build a good white school. In every place where there has been a good negro school put up, a Rosenwald school, the white people have by some efforts found the money and have generally put up a school better than the negro school. If the negro school has been of wood, they have built one of brick, and that is all right. That is very fine. We are perfectly will¬ ing to have the white race lead us if they will lead us aright. We follow them, sometimes afar off and sometimes we get ahead in some things, and some things we don’t brag about much. The truth of the matter is the north expects to have a lead anyhow; and I am perfectly willing as a south¬ erner to follow. A negro friend of mine said, “I would much rather be chasing a man anyhow than having a man chase me.” The negro race has been chasing the white race ever since that little ship load of nineteen or twenty landed at Jamestown in 1619. We have done all the things, almost all the things that they said we couldn’t do. You will find if you check up that we have done almost all the things and done them pretty well on the whole and I am not offering any apology for the negro. I am not offering any apology for his presence in the United States; I am not offering any apology for his conduct in the United States; I am not offering any apology either for his citizenship, his loyalty to that flag in spite of the fact that that flag has not always guaranteed all to the negro race that it has to some 110 National Education Association other races. But, never mind, the negro has never been disloyal to that flag and I don’t believe he ever will be. Now what does all this education mean? What is the future? Not merely education in itself, and I think there is a very distinct difference, and you all know this because you are all professional people here. We know there is a difference between information and education. That is the rea¬ son that the south and the north believe in education for the negroes and for other peoples, and why they have been willing to spend their time and their money and their energy and give their lives. Thousands of white peo¬ ple have given their lives for the education of the black people in this country and in other countries also. Why is it? It is because, in my judgment, that under God we have been placed here together in this coun¬ try; two races, two of the extreme types of mankind; the black, flat-fea¬ tured, kinky-haired, and on the other hand the sharp-featured, white, pale¬ face, have been brought face to face. The question is : Can two races thus differing ethnically live together in peace and in harmony and in mutual helpfulness one toward the other, serve one another, prosper together and yet live in peace and without difficulty? That is a serious question. A great many people say it cannot be done. Some people a few years ago recommended deportation. The European governments will not let them send them to Africa and the negroes do not want to go to Africa, and southern white people who own this land here in the south, and these fac¬ tories that are developing the south now, do not want them to go to Africa. Then some people said, “Well, segregation.” We are segregated now in a way, but we are mixing every day in business and we are perfectly willing to leave out the social feature. If you mean intermarriage, no. The negro is as much opposed to intermarriage of the races as the white race is. We don’t talk about it very much because we don’t want people to think we are inferior. We don’t think we are an inferior race. We are inferior in de¬ velopment, we are backward in some ways as individuals and groups, but I have found backward white races in some places. The fact is about ten years ago I thought the whole nordic race, the whole group of white races were backward the way they were killing each other, murdering each other, tearing down the accumulations of the ages, of art, and literature, and science, and the cathedrals. As I said before, I have no apology for the negro and I have no apology for the negro’s color. My color is as good as your president’s color is this morning and I would not swap with him either. He is a pale pink and I am mahogany brown. His hair is straight and mine is kinky — curly, if you want it — but kinky is better. You white people spend thousands of dollars a year to get your hair curled and we spend thousands of dollars to get ours straight. But, friends, we want you as teachers and those of you who read your histories not to put the negro down as an inferior and worth¬ less race but listen and see what he has accomplished, what his status is, how he stood in Cuba, what he did in France, what he did at Bunker Hill, and what he has done in every war. General Sessions 111 I just had a cablegram announcing the death in Africa of Mr. James L. Sibley. Mr. Sibley was one of the assistant superintendents of schools of Alabama, born in Georgia, educated at the University of Georgia. He had charge of the work among negroes for many years in Alabama. Then he made up his mind that he would give his life to negroes in Liberia. Here is a young man, a southerner of the southerners, who gave his life, gave his all not only for the negroes of the United States but he went across the Atlantic Ocean and gave himself to the uttermost for the negroes of Africa, trying to help that little negro republic get on its feet. You wonder sometimes why I love the south, why I love the southern white people, all peoples. It is because of men like Dr. Dillard and Mr. Sibley, scores of men, yes, thousands of men and women, all over the south today who are striving, God help them, to be fair, and just, and honorable in their dealings with the negroes. For my part I am convinced that the two races can live together here in the south if they are both educated, where they sympathize and under¬ stand and appreciate each other to the point where they are willing to serve one another. And I think that there is Christianity enough and democracy enough, and wisdom and patience enough in this country to enable all of us, whether black or white, rich or poor, to live together here in America and make it what God meant it should be, a great labora¬ tory through which all the world could learn that two races of men, of two extreme types, could live, could work, could prosper, could serve if properly educated, together and do their finest, to the finest and best tra¬ ditions of either race. THE REPUBLIC OF TOMORROW HONORABLE JOHN M. ROBSION, MEMBER OF CONGRESS FROM KENTUCKY I am deeply indebted to the officers of the National Education Associa¬ tion for giving me an opportunity to meet and address this distinguished group of educators. I indulge in no flattery but I am most sincere when I say that in my opinion there is no group of educators in any other country that equals the National Education Association. It is not only a very great privilege but I esteem it a very high honor to be invited to appear before you. There are some thirty-five to forty great educational, welfare, fraternal, and patriotic organizations supporting a Department of Education with a Secretary in the President’s cabinet. The two that are most closely identi¬ fied with the schools and the childhood of the nation are your organization and the National Congress of Parents and Teachers. It was my privi¬ lege to address the National Congress of Parents and Teachers recently when they held their annual National Congress in the city of Washington. Having been a teacher in the public schools and being the father of two children, I feel that I am not a stranger in either group, and not unfamiliar 112 National Education Association with some of their problems and not out of harmony with their aims and purposes. The teacher — There have been men and women whose services were worth a hundred thousand dollars, a million, yes, ten millions, a year. I refer to Washington, Jefferson, Lincoln, and others, but they were so busy earning that they did not take time to collect. I know of no group of our citizens wdio give so much of service and who receive so little reward as the public school teachers. The real teachers earn many, many times the amount they receive, but they have been so busy earning that they have not taken the time to collect. I know you have all heard the beautiful story of Jupiter, who issued a proclamation that he would grant the crown of immortality to that member of the human race who had rendered the greatest service to man¬ kind. The philosopher, the orator, the poet, the musician, the statesman, the soldier, and others came to urge their claims for immortality. An old man with the countenance of a patriarch, stood by as an interested on¬ looker. Jupiter inquired: “Who is this man who seems to be so much interested? Who art thou, old man?” The old man replied: “I am the teacher and all these you have heard are my pupils.” Thereupon Jupiter awarded the crown of immortality to the teacher and said to the others, “None of you would have been here had it not been for his faithful, unselfish service.” Some of those who are opposed to the public schools attempt to dis¬ credit a Department of Education by asserting that it is sponsored by the National Education Association for its own selfish interests. I wish to repeat that there is no group of citizens who give more of unselfish service than the teachers. Who could have a more direct and vital interest in the welfare of the children than the parents and the teachers? And you are not alone. Some thirty-five other great welfare, patriotic, educational, and fraternal organizations are all backing a Department of Education. I want you to know that I am not ashamed of the splendid company in which I find myself. If the parents and teachers are not interested in the Republic of Tomorrow pray tell me who is. Today — Before we enter into a discussion of my subject, “The Republic of Tomorrow,” I wish to invite your attention for a few moments to the Republic of Yesterday and Today. The world has never seen any other country like yours and mine. There can never be another like it. There is no place on the globe out of which to carve and build another such nation. We could not find the territory, the diversity of climate and soil, the richness of natural resources and, above all, the people. We are the most favored of nations in location. We are the heirs of the best of cul¬ ture and government of all the centuries past and gone. Who can measure the value of American farms, mines, factories, forests, highways, railroads, rivers, and inland seas, with a national wealth of over $350,000,000,000 and an annual income of $90,000,000,000; while the national wealth of France is $60,000,000,000, her annual income is $8,000,000,000, and the General Sessions 113 national wealth of Great Britain is $100,000,000,000, and her annual income is $20,000,000,000. We have the greatest manpower of any coun¬ try. We have forty-eight great sovereign states and possessions extending far beyond the seas. We have 120,000,000 people, united not only by the bonds of the Constitution but united in heart, purpose, and mind, with one loyalty, one flag, and one country, leading the world in peace, justice, and righteousness. It was said of old, to be a Roman citizen was greater than to be a king, but what must we say of the privilege of being a citizen of this great Republic of ours? These blessings and liberties did not come to us by chance or accident. They are the fruitage of the wisdom, courage, prayers, tears, sacrifice, and blood of those who have gone before. They were bought in conflicts on land and sea, in the air and under the sea, from Bunker Hill to Flanders’ Field, and made secure by the wisdom and patriotism of our fathers. Many times have I watched the swine feeding on the richest and choicest nuts in the mountains of Kentucky. I never saw one of them raise its eyes to seek the source of its bounty. Shall we, like them, accept these blessings as a matter of course without raising our eyes or following the mystic cords of memory back over the years that are dimmed and past? Can we find nothing for our hands to do to perpetuate the Republic and make more secure the blessings of liberty to our posterity? Is it not our patriotic duty to hand down to our children this priceless heritage en¬ riched by our devotion and sacrifice? Tomorrow — You have assigned me the subject of “The Republic of Tomorrow.” I am loath to turn from yesterday and today. They are so full of the achievements of noble men and women whose patriotism was not mere lip service but found expression in sacrifice and blood and in laying deep the foundations of a mighty nation. It is always wholesome for nations as well as individuals to venerate the memories and cherish the achievements of other noble men and women. The Republic of Today is merely the child of the Republic of Yesterday, and the Republic of Today is the father of the Republic of Tomorrow. What other word possesses the fascination and grips our minds so much as the word tomorrow? What true parent and teacher does not think of his work in terms of tomorrow? What patriotic citizen, whether he be humble or great, is not deeply concerned for the tomorrow? The Republic of Tomorrow will truly reflect the parents and teachers and schools of today. The hopes, the ambitions, and the aspirations of parents and teachers are in the young people in our schools today. As are the children of today so will be the Republic of Tomorrow. Washington’s first message to Congress, in urging Congress to aid edu¬ cation declared, “Knowledge is in every country the surest basis of public happiness and to the security of a free constitution.” President Jefferson in one of his messages to Congress insisting upon the Federal Government aiding in public education, declared: “Patriotism would certainly prefer the continuance and application to the great purpose of public education. 114 National Education Association . . . Education is placed among the articles of public care. A public institution can alone supply those sciences which are necessary.*' President John Quincy Adams in his first message to Congress insisted that the Congress should aid public education and he placed education as the instrument for the improvement of the conditions of man, the preserva¬ tion of free institutions, and for providing the comforts and enjoyments of human life. Our democracy was born out of the intelligence of our forefathers and in order to preserve this democracy they were ever solicitous in providing means to uphold the general intelligence and knowledge of the people. As general intelligence and democracy go hand in hand, likewise ignorance, oppression, and autocracy find close communion. The public schools and popular education are the greatest enemies of caste, class, and autocracy. The immortal Jefferson rendered a most signal service to our country as the writer of the Declaration of Independence, as ambassador to France, as Secretary of State, as President of the United States, and in acquiring the Louisiana Purchase. These services should cause his name to be loved and honored so long as the Republic lives, but I am persuaded his greatest service to his country was in promoting public schools and public universi¬ ties. This nation owes a debt of gratitude that it cannot repay to those far- seeing, patriotic men and women who founded and have sustained and maintained the National Education Association and the National Congress of Parents and Teachers and other organizations to promote the public schools and public education. Department of Education — In the 70th Congress I introduced a bill to create a Department of Education with a Secretary in the President’s Cabinet. I reintroduced the identical bill (HR-10) in the 71st Congress. I have for many years favored this policy. Being a product of the public schools as well as a teacher in them, I am not an unfriendly critic of our public schools or of the Federal Bureau of Education. No one can measure the wonderful accomplishment of the public schools. The Bureau of Edu¬ cation, established in 1862, has been segregated to a dark corner of a great department and starved to death. We have had many great educators and we now have a most splendid Commissioner of Education in charge of this Bureau. They have all done wonderful work but our contention is that education does not occupy a position in the Federal government in keeping with its importance. You are all familiar with the purpose of this legislation and I shall not enter into a long discussion at this time. This is clearly set forth in the bill itself, which provides: To aid and encourage the public schools and promote the public educational faci.ides of the nation so that all the people of the several states and territories, without regard to race, creed, or color, shall have larger educat onal opportunities and thereby abolish illiteracy', make more general the diffusion of knowledge, and provide for the general welfare. General Sessions 115 But some of the opponents of this measure, either through ignorance or wilful misrepresentation, assert that we propose to invade the rights of the states and establish and maintain, control and supervise the schools, public and private. Permit me to state again that it is not the intention, purpose, or desire of the proponents of the Department of Education to interfere in any manner with the rights, laws, regulation, and authority of the states and the subdivisions thereof in the establishment, control, supervision, or operation of their schools, either public or private. In fact, no one is a more zealous defender of the rights and duties of the states and local communities in the establishment, supervision, and control of their public schools than I am. We protected the states by writing into the bill this express provision : . . . but without impairment of or the infrigement upon the laws, rights, duties, authority, responsibilities of the several states, territories, and the citizens thereof, with respect not only to the public educational agencies and institutions but like- vise as to the private institutions and agencies in the several states and territories. I shall fight to keep these provisions in the bill and I have no doubt that when the bill finally becomes a law that these reservations of the rights of the states and local communities to establish, supervise, and con¬ trol their schools, both public and private, will be kept intact. In fact, no one who is supporting this measure contends that Congress has any power to control, supervise, or regulate public or private schools in the several states. The proposed Department of Education as provided in this bill merely aids and encourages the states’ public schools and private educa¬ tional institutions by engaging in research and in gathering information and making this available for the use of all those who may be interested. There is no hint anywhere in the bill to force anyone to accept or use this information. Any citizen may take it or leave it. Research — In the year 1927 industry in the United States spent more than $200,000,000 for research, and yet many great industrial enterprises were being held up because of lack of funds and time for proper research. Hardheaded business men will not proceed in this day and time without proper surveys and research. We have nearly thirty million young peo¬ ple and nearly one million teachers in the schools and universities of the land, with a capital investment of something like eight billion dollars and an annual expenditure of about two and one-half billions. All declare that these young people of Today will be the Republic of Tomorrow. The Departments of Commerce, Agriculture, and Labor are really great research agencies. The Department of Commerce gathers information from all parts of the world that is helpful both to producer and to con¬ sumer, to the seller and the buyer. No one is compelled to accept this information but our people have made such general use of it that our foreign commerce has been increased billions of dollars. The Department of Agriculture, by research and investigation, has gathered the very best of the thought and experience of the world and made this information available to millions engaged in agriculture. This information saves 116 National Education Association orchards, protects herds, has made poultry a great industry and has aided every branch of agriculture, adding billions of dollars to our annual in¬ come and saving billions of dollars in losses. They have found the cause and provided the remedy for limberneck, scale, rust, and hundreds of other destroying agencies with which the farmer had to contend. As wTe go over the country we are thrilled with the splendid system of highways. Only a few years ago tens of millions of dollars were being wasted because of lack of knowledge of materials and plans of construction. The Department of Agriculture has gathered together the scientific facts and basic knowledge in road construction and made it available to the road builders and to the officials of the several states and subdivisions with a result that is most gratifying to all. We might say the same for the Department of Labor. It has long ago justi¬ fied its establishment and the money expended for its maintenance. I cannot understand why anyone should object to the federal government having a Department of Education to do for education wffiat we have done and are doing for commerce, agriculture, and labor. Education is a public function serving industry, government, labor, professional life, scientific effort, and all classes of our citizens. The individual states do not have the facilities or the resources for adequate research work. Some agency must have the authority and the funds necessary to make nationwide and worldwide surveys and investigations to secure scientific truths and basic knowledge. There is no agency that meets these requirements except the federal government. It should not be necessary for this to be under¬ taken by private enterprises or individual foundations. Many of our public and private educational institutions spend large sums each year send¬ ing their educational leaders to the various countries of the world to do research work and gather information helpful to education. If the federal government should undertake this wTork it would be a saving of millions of dollars every year to the taxpayers of the land. Aids all classes of education — Section 7 of the Bill provides that the De partment of Education shall collect such statistics and facts as shall show the condition and progress of education in the several states and terri¬ tories, in order to aid the people of the several states and territories to establish more efficient schools and school systems, to devise better methods of organization, administration, and financing of education, to develop bet¬ ter types of school buildings and provide for their use, to improve methods of teaching and develop more adequate curriculums and courses of study, and, furthermore, the investigation and studies shall be undertaken in (1) rural education ; (2) elementary education ; (3) secondary education ; (4) higher education; (5) professional education; (6) physical education, including health education and recreation'; (7) special education for the mentally and physically handicapped; (8) the training of teachers; (9) immigrant education; (10) adult education; and (11) such other fields as in the judgment of the Secretary of Education require investigation and study to promote generally the welfare of education throughout the United States and its possessions. General Sessions 117 Those who have made a study of education and its needs must agree that the studies and research heretofore mentioned are very essential and necessary and those who favor this measure, as well as its opponents, must admit that no state or its subdivision has the necessary facilities and re¬ sources to do this work and if it should be undertaken by the several states there would be a tremendous loss by the overlapping of expenditures and work. Necessity — Many of our countrymen say, “Let well enough alone. Ev¬ erything is all right.” But the wise man prefers to know the facts rather than to play the ostrich and attempt to avoid danger by hiding his head in the sand. The last federal census declares that there were more than five million people in this country over the age of ten years who con¬ fessed to the census enumerators that they could neither read nor write in any language, and no doubt there were a million or two who did not make that confession. We have it on good authority that there are about twenty million people in all in our country who have so little education that they cannot make use of newspapers. The World War disclosed that twenty-five percent of the flower of American young manhood who en¬ tered our military forces were either unable to read or write at all or had so little training that they could not write a letter home. We have millions of adult aliens who cannot read or write. President Hoover de¬ clared that we are the most lawless nation and that life and property are less secure here than in any other civilized country. There is no greater menace than this spirit of lawlessness. We must emphasize law observ¬ ance. No law is any stronger than the desire and will of the people to observe it. This menace of lawlessness can only be reached by the proper training of the boys and girls of today. If we can inculcate in them the spirit of reverence for our Constitution and laws the problem of law enforcement for tomorrow will be solved. It is known of all men that poverty, crime, and disease are the children of ignorance and, on the other hand, prosperity, freedom, respect for law, health, and happiness will be most generally found among those who have had proper training. Education is the magic wand which will solve these problems. Universal intelligence alone can sustain a democracy. The throne of the autocrat must rest on the bowed backs of the ignorant. In this land the people are sovereign. The power to rule through the ballot is in their hands. That power can be properly exercised only by those who have had proper training. If the Republic of Tomorrow is to be an industrious, prosperous, intelligent, law-abiding, peace-loving, honest-living, God-fearing Republic the boys and girls of today must be properly trained and wdth this in mind every reasonable agency, both state and federal, should be brought into play to equip them to lead the world of tomorrow in peace, justice, and righteousness. National defense — There are many Americans who honestly believe that we should scrap our navy and disband our army, while there are others who believe that the security of this Republic depends upon the size 118 National Education Association of our army and navy. I cannot agree with either. I believe in an adequate program of national defense on land and sea. I would not have our navy so weak as to provoke attack or so powerful as to invite the suspicion and engender the hatred of our neighbors. However, I indulge the hope that the day is not far distant when we may be able to enter into a real understanding with all the great nations of the earth to mate¬ rially reduce armaments and lighten the burden that is now resting so heavily upon the bowed shoulders of the people of every land. God hasten the day, as declared by President Harding, when great international ques¬ tions may be settled around the council table rather than amid the con¬ flict and the carnage of battlefields. I am persuaded that the security of this Republic and the perpetuity of her institutions do not rest upon our wealth, our possessions, and our manpower. They rest more securely upon an enlightened citizenship prop¬ erly trained, mentally, morally, politically, physically, industrially, and spiritually. You and I know that no great nation ever fell by attacks from without. They fell from within. We need look no further than to the story of Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, Greece, Rome. They lacked not in possessions, in wealth, population, and resources. They decayed within because they had neglected to properly train their youth. China has three times our population. She is rich in natural resources and her possessions are as great as ours. Russia surpasses us in population, territory, and natural resources. Yet neither of these could inspire fear in our country. Objections — It has been urged that a Department of Education would be in violation of the Constitution as well as our American policy. Both Washington, the president of the Constitutional Convention, and Madison, who was called the “Father of the Constitution,” while they were Presi¬ dent urged Congress to appropriate federal funds to aid public education in the states. Every Congress from 1789 to the present day has granted money or lands to aid public schools and public universities. Congress granted nearly 150,000 square miles of the public domain for this purpose. For many years Congress has appropriated annually something like two million dollars to aid our state universities, and every President, from Washington down to the present time, has either urged these measures or approved them. In 1862, Congress established, with the approval of the President, the Bureau of Education and we have been making appropriations approved by our Presidents since that time. How could it be said then that to enlarge this Bureau of Education into a Cabinet place, as many other bureaus have been enlarged, would be violating the Constitution? If the creation of a Department of Education is in violation of the Constitution all the Congresses and all the Presidents from 1789 to the present time have violated it. The Republican party in its national convention in 1880 adopted the following plank: General Sessions 119 The intelligence of the nation is but the aggregate of the intelligence of the several states, and the destiny of the nation must be carried on by the genius of no one state but by the average genius of all, and it is the duty of the national government to aid the work of popular education to the extent of its constitutional ability. The Democratic party in its national convention the same year de¬ clared, “The common schools must be fostered and protected.” The Republican party in its national convention in 1888 declared: In a republic like ours the citizen is sovereign . . . and where no power is exercised except by the will of the people it is important that the sovereign — the people — should possess the intelligence. The free school is the promoter of that intelligence which is to preserve us a free nation; therefore, the state or nation or both combined, should support free institutions of learning sufficient to afford every child growing up in the land an opportunity for a common school education. Jefferson went so far even in his day as to consider the establishment of a Department of Education during his administration. The Republican national convention in 1924 declared for a Department of Education and Relief. President Harding in a very earnest message to the Congress also urged upon Congress the wisdom of establishing a Department of Educa¬ tion and Relief. President Coolidge in at least two of his messages to the Congress urged the same thing. The Democratic national convention in 1924 in their platform declared: We believe with Thomas Jefferson and other founders of the Republic that ignorance is the enemy of freedom, and that the federal government should offer to the state such counsel, advice, and aid as may be made available through the federal agencies for the improvement of our schools in view of our national needs. It is clear to me that this measure is not only constitutional but it strengthens one of our fundamental American policies. I like to think of every schoolhouse and schoolbuilding as a fortress and the millions of men and women in charge of these schoolhouses as com¬ manders, and the thirty million young people receiving instruction day by day as representing the manpower of the Republic of Tomorrow. Let us have more and better schools, more and better equipped and better paid teachers, and less battleships. Our teachers must have more remuneration. Some years ago in a fine state and fine community, I observed a little one-room frame schoolhouse on one side of the road. There the boys and girls of that community were being trained by a teacher paid $50 per month for five months of the year. On the other side was a great building costing thousands of dollars where the race horses and colts were being trained by a man receiving $350 per month, twelve months of the year. While that old state has made wonderful progress in public edu¬ cation in the last few years, it is little wonder she stands at the top in fast horses and far down the line in the literacy of her citizens. I want thoroughly trained boys and girls, physically, mentally, morally, and spir¬ itually, as well as thoroughbred horses, cattle, sheep, hogs, and poultry. 120 National Education Association If the children are properly trained and truly inspired with American ideals the Republic of Tomorrow is secure. Parent and child — We are told by other objectors that the federal gov¬ ernment has no right to invade the prerogative of the parent. If you look into the matter carefully you will find these folks made the same objection as to the state and as to the community regarding public educa¬ tion. No one will go further in respecting the rights of the parent than myself. Since the very life of the state and nation depend upon the intelli¬ gence of the citizens, the state and the government are vitally interested. The federal government is already helping to train our boys and girls vocationally in industry, agriculture, and home economics. The federal government likewise contributes federal funds to help look after the health of our children and our cattle. We can contribute millions of dollars every year to train our boys in the National Guard and in the military camps. There is not much objection made to these. These same objectors are willing for the federal government to teach their boys to fight but they object when the federal government proposes to help them to learn to read and write. We propose to spend millions for migratory birds. We are providing them feeding grounds and places of refuge. These birds in which so many of our citizens have expressed interest, as a rule merely stop with us on their flight from Mexico, Central America, and South America to Cana¬ dian waters and return. We spend other millions looking after the boll weevil, the tobacco worm, the barberry bush, Johnson grass, and flood control. All these are very well and good but when we propose to spend $1,500,000 to protect the life, the morals, and the future of our boys and girls we hear a tremendous howl from certain sources. I am more con¬ cerned in seeing our boys and girls properly trained to make good Ameri¬ can citizens than I am in providing refuge and feeding grounds for migra¬ tory birds and in looking after the tobacco worm, the cinch bug, the boll weevil, the Johnson grass, foot and mouth disease, and hog cholera, and yet I have supported all of these. They are important too. President Hoover and education — Our great President, the poor boy of Iowa, one of the finest products of American schools, their inspiration and instruction, knows and values education as few do. Permit me to call your attention to a few statements from his inaugural address: The more complex the problems of the nation become, the greater is the need for more and more advanced instruction. Moreover, as our numbers increase and as our life expands with science and invention, we must discover more and more leaders for every walk of life. We cannot hope to succeed in directing this in¬ creasingly complex civilization unless we draw all the talent of leadership from the whole people. One civilization after another has been wrecked upon the attempt to secure sufficient leadership from a single group or class. If we would prevent the growth of class distinctions and would constantly refresh our leadership with the ideals of the people, we must draw constantly from the general mass. The fullest opportunity for every boy and girl to rise through the selective processes of education can alone secure to us this leadership. General Sessions 121 A few years ago it was said that anyone without a common school edu¬ cation was greatly handicapped in life. We now consider young men and young women starting out in life handicapped unless they have as much as at least a high-school education. What was sufficient in education for yesterday or even today will not meet the needs of tomorrow. We must have proper leadership. This leadership must come from every community, from all classes, and from all walks of life. There is no agency in this country that can develop this leadership so wTell as our public educational institutions and therefore wTe must afford the boys and girls of the land the fullest opportunity to rise as President Hoover says, “through the selec¬ tive processes of education.” We should spare neither money nor effort to make it as full and complete as is reasonably possible. THE SOUTH’S INTEREST IN KINDERGARTEN— PRIMARY EDUCATION LUCY GAGE, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION, GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS, NASHVILLE, TENN. Many contrasting and conflicting points of view of the south and her thinking enters into a fair consideration of this question of childhood edu¬ cation. One reads John Crowe Ransom’s article in the June Harper's, “The South Defends its Heritage” and gains one viewpoint. One reads Edwin Mims’ “Advancing South” and gains another point of view of our changing south. Picking up the July Mercury the eye falls upon “The Kindergarten Soars” by Grace Adams and Edwin Hutter commending the good ways of caring for the young child in the old south. Opening the July Century , one comes upon “Slavery in the South Today” by Winifred Kirkland, showing how high a price we have paid for leisure in the south. Relating these widely varying viewpoints of current literature to in¬ terest in kindergarten-primary education, one is constrained to ask what place has the young child in the “Changing South”? What interest is the “New South” taking in the cause of childhood education? Much is being said and written about the heritage of leisure in the “Old South” giving way to the new industrialism with its emphasis upon com¬ mercial ratings rather than the “Art of Living.” Very little is being said about these joltings affecting our schools yet we know that there is a marked awakening in every part of the south to the realization that not only bank clearings but clearings of our educational plants, while less tangible are even more far reaching. The public schools of the south are younger than in most parts of our country due to many underlying causes. The south of the past has been essentially feudal and rural. Its large open spaces sparsely settled, its plantation life with its negro labor and tenant farmer, all were contributing factors. Certainly the younger children of “the big house” had no place in any educational plan beyond the kindly and sometimes domineering care of a “negro 122 National Education Association mammy.” The children of the laborers were allowed to grow much as the particular existing conditions would permit and this was by no means always unfavorable. Little by little this large acreage of the old plantation life is being broken up into smaller farms. Industries are not only creeping in but being openly invited and welcomed by chambers of commerce. Streams are being harnessed and power captured ; mills and mill towns with their accompany¬ ing labor problems are appearing. Commercially the south is rearing its large urban centers and the pressure of industrialized power is felt as well as a new material prosperity. To say all this shifting of values does not affect our educational thinking and color our outlook would be nonsensical. There is much for us to understand in the south’s social experience of the past that influences presentday thinking also. Let us stop for a moment and gather a few high lights. The south torn from her old moorings and social security of the ante-bellum days was precipitated into a social and economic chaos, into a poverty that had to be lived to be understood. High spirited and full of pride, she faced her condition squarely. To bring order out of this state of confusion, to pick up the remnants and begin to build anew, took supreme courage and supreme faith. It took both imagination and vision to realize that education was the one great means to grow a new civilization. Many realized fully what a slow growth it would be, for all real things that sustain themselves must strike deep roots that are hidden and intangible. So while the surface crudity has not always shown what was happening below the subsoil, educationally speaking, there has been a sturdy foundation built upon which the oncoming generations may erect the finest educational edifice that America has yet seen. With increasing interest and increasing social consciousness it is no longer a personal question of what I want my child to have educationally, but rather what is right for all growing boys and girls to have in all the south¬ ern states. Today the south is assuming full responsibility for educating her boys and girls. This responsibility must not exclude the young child. It has been ever true that the age nearest our own mature development has been our first concern. Consequently the adolescent was of first significance educationally. Academies and seminaries flourished before the public schools began to supplant them. Childhood education was almost wholly thought of in terms of growing youth. Schools were more fre¬ quently than not in charge of the local rector or minister whose parish thus helped to eke out his meager salary as a church leader. The church leaders and school leaders were often one and the same. As the more individu¬ alistic thinking about education emerged into a larger social mindedness, as the integrity of the state began to be regained socially and economically, the public school system was inaugurated, supported bv state and local funds and for a time was supplemented by resources from such philan- General Sessions 123 thropists as George Foster Peabody and others interested in the rehabilita¬ tion of the south. The four and five-year-old child was not included in the early day public schools. The primary school often received children varying in age from seven and eight to fourteen and fifteen for the one purpose of learning to read, to write, and to figure. It was wholly a practical matter of getting ready the tools that would be used later during the preadolescent and adolescent growth level. Today we find our southern “Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools” continues to be one of the strongest forces in southern education, and predominates the thinking of many of our school administrators. With closer communication by crossing and recrossing the artificial lines so closely drawn between elementary and secondary education there will emerge a finer and clearer understanding that the problem is one, from the nurserv-school child up through the college. Everywhere there is emerging a new interest in elementary education. Gradually on our southern horizon there are hopeful signs of a new day for the kindergarten-primary ele¬ mentary school child. A new responsibility for the younger children is seen and felt in two directions — better elementary school buildings with more adequate provision for space, light, and air for the little child and better prepared elementary teachers. The calls come to Peabody College in increasing numbers for college graduates to teach nursery, kindergarten, and primary schools. As the state income increases by leaps and bounds, as finer provision is being made for elementary school buildings as well as secondary school housing, as provision is made for better state teachers colleges to train better elementary teachers, we find ourselves at the doorway that opens into the preschool field of education. Surely our state teachers colleges can no longer ignore the widespread interest in .the preschool child education courses. Many are giving fewer methods courses in subjectmatter. They are directing more attention to an understanding of childhood. A laboratory set up for the study and analysis of first hand responses of the young child, not yet inhibited, not yet too greatly influenced by adult patterns of behavior, is fundamental. There should be a preschool laboratory in every state teachers college in the south. The entire elementary school practises will be modified and enriched when teachers have the opportunity to have more content experiences to guide children’s eager curiosity and live learnings. In Raleigh, North Carolina, in Greenville, South Carolina, and in many experimental centers arising in the south in public education, we find the primary teacher being given her chance to demonstrate the worthwhile activities of science, industry, and art as well as English. This is by no means confined to the early elementary grades. We find as we reach further and further back into the life of the young child and understand him and know how to guide him that we have gained an equipment for better f 124 National Education Association teaching of all elementary school children, and also the adolescent and college student as well. A plea here is made for nursery schools and kindergartens to become integral parts of our teachers colleges as laboratories of genetic psychology to study human behavior and to trace subjectmatter content from its source in child questions and child responses. Strange to say, our greatest hope to bring this about seems to rest in the younger generation of parents — the fathers who served overseas, the mothers who carried on independently have broken through certain pro¬ vincialisms of thought and custom. These younger parents neither ignore their children nor sentimentalize over them. The college-trained, thinking parent is equally interested, seeking and demanding not only the best for his own child but for all the children of the community. These parents want to become intelligent about the nursery school, the kindergarten, the more informal primary school. The nursery school and the kindergarten have been confined to our cities not only in the south but in other parts of our country. Here in congested centers, social conditions have forced the public to consider the younger child and his education. Two exceptions might be cited in the states of Wisconsin and California where the small town as well as the large city has its public kindergartens. These two states it will be noted have generally a forward-looking school system throughout. In¬ deed the public-mindedness of these states for public welfare, including education, is outstanding. We must begin then to build in the south a new conception of childhood education, thinking of the period of four to eight as one psychological unit. Early elementary education including the kindergarten and early grades is also one unit with no sharp divisions or lines of demarcation. We are learning to look upon the education of the young child as an asset or the lack of it as a liability to the welfare of the state. The young child must not be made the center of a worshipful cult nor again must he be ignored but rather must he receive the respect that is due an embryo citizen. His very immaturity has been his undoing. The care and protection of the mature for the immature human has fostered some of the finest ideals of parenthood, but when parenthood selfishly hugs to itself the right to think and feel and live for their young offspring, it is time that a clearer perspective be made possible for the parent by the separation of the child from the home for a part of each day. The kindergarten provides for this as well as gives the child the opportunity to meet with a group of his equals, something that family life cannot give him. Here he receives no patronage, no talking- down-to, but is respected for what he is and helped through trained guidance to use intelligently the powers that are his at four and five years of age. Here he learns to care for himself, to keep out of other people’s way, to express ideas with flexible materials; he learns to care for these materials; he is helped to habits of orderliness and cleanliness. No longer is the kindergarten thought of as refuge of the under¬ privileged child nor the special-privileged child. It has attained dignity General Sessions 125 educationally, and it has come to be respected as an integral part of the public school system. It may degenerate into a place of amusement and a place to tend children when the teacher in charge has no professional qualifications. In the south, this type of a day home for children is often called a kindergarten. Wherever the kindergarten is not legalized as a part of the public school system this can easily happen, and one may open a school for small children and call it a nursery school or a kindergarten. The south’s awakening to this psuedo-kindergarten is evidenced by the discrimination shown on the part of discerning parents. A recent study has been made of kindergartens in the state of Mississippi, showing by the state census 26,236 negro children of five years of age with only two kindergartens for negroes in the state, both under parochial super¬ vision. The state census also shows 23,641 white children of five years of age with nine kindergartens. The legal school age in Mississippi is from five to twenty-one with no provision for kindergartens in the public schools ; consequently children are entering the first grade at five years of age. And here there seems to be a confusion as to what the kindergarten means among many school authorities. Many report kindergartens where five-year-old children are enroled when in fact it is a well developed first grade, teaching formal reading, writing, and number work. On the other hand, the south had one of the most outstanding kindergarten training centers in America during the early ’90’s located at Louisville, Kentucky. Two outstanding leaders were in charge here, Annie E. Bryan, who died during her early professional career, and her successor, Patty Smith Hill, now of Teachers College, Columbia University, both of them superior southern women with vision, courage, and the ability to execute. Today as a result Louisville re¬ mains one of the strongholds of public school kindergartens in the south. Savannah, Georgia, has had free kindergartens for many years. In ad¬ dition to Louisville, we may name Knoxville and Kingsport, Tenn., Atlanta, Ga. ; New Orleans, La.; Asheville, N. C. ; Jackson and Meridian, Miss.; Dallas, Texas, and no doubt others all maintaining public kindergartens. Chattanooga and Memphis are both working very hard to have kinder¬ gartens, fully supported from public funds. At present they are partially supported, supplemented by parents. There has always been a city interest in kindergartens in the south. Is it possible that the kindergarten in America has been over-urbanized and has not met the needs of small towns and rural districts? This is, of course, a practical problem due to the fact that the cities had the numbers necessary to support the work. Now that our country schools are no longer isolated and have much better housing facilities and much better transportation would it not be possible to have school busses for kinder¬ garten and primary children to be taken home earlier in the day, to avoid long waits and lack of occupation? It is our hope that some wide-awake county superintendent and some experimentally-minded early elementary teacher will combine forces and begin to try out in the south in a country 126 National Education Association school worthwhile kindergarten and early grade work, using activities and local materials to demonstrate conclusively that the rural school has many advantages for young children over a city situation. It will be necessary for our state teachers colleges to train teachers of the south from the standpoint of the young child’s needs educationally rather than offering blanket courses in methods and school management alone. When we give kindergarten and early grade teachers a common training in our teachers colleges, an understanding of a psychological and educational unit, when we emphasize the teaching of children as well as subjectmatter, then will we begin to build our public school practise from the bottom up, rather than from the top down. The south’s interest in the education of the young child is making itself felt in many directions: preschool child study-groups, health clinics for the preschool child, parent-teacher association work for welfare of young chil¬ dren, American Association of University Women and their plans of study, men’s civic clubs inviting speakers interested in childhood education — all of these forces are at work in the south. Relieved from economic pressure the south is now able to look in upon itself and take stock of certain spiritual values. Education in all its phases is the answer to this demand. We begin with a high interest in the adolescent boy and girl and gradually work our way back to the earliest education of the child. With a changing civilization, with changing home life, there is new ap¬ preciation felt today for intelligent guidance of young children. There is a growing demand everywhere in our southland that young children shall have the advantage of an intelligent, college-trained teacher — one who understands the emotional, social, mental, and physical balance essential to wholesome growth and development. As a result we find the most promis¬ ing and hopeful outlook for the education of young children. Our state, our country, our city school authorities must make increasing provision for more space within and without the school, more and better trained teachers and more equipment that is fundamentally sound educationally. This does not necessarily mean added expense but a wiser use of the resources already available. All of this calls for teachers that are human, as well as professional, for administration that permits enough margin in a school day for both teachers and children to live a life together that carries farther and deeper than any facts ever learned. Dr. Whitehead says in his new book on Aims of Education that “Culture is activity of thought, sensitiveness to beauty, and human feeling. It has nothing to do with scraps of information.” General Sessions 127 SOME IMPORTANT ELEMENTS IN TRAINING TEACHERS OF YOUNG CHILDREN M. R. TRABUE, CHAIRMAN OF THE DIVISION OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA, CHAPEL HILL, N. C. In order that this discussion may not be misunderstood, certain assump¬ tions should be clearly stated at the outset. First of all, the speaker makes no claim that all the important elements in the training of young children will be mentioned. An individual observer cannot hope to see in their proper perspective all the many sides of such a problem. It should be definitely understood, therefore, that the elements to be discussed are those which seem to the speaker to need special emphasis at the present moment, particularly here in the south. In the second place, in talking about the training of teachers for young children, it is assumed that these children are to be studied by their teachers and developed along the lines in which the children as individuals show most promise of creative activity. This discussion is not at all concerned with training teachers to impart a uniform set of facts or ideas to the memories of small children, but rather with training teachers to stimulate and encourage the natural growth of normal capacities and wholesome per¬ sonalities in the individual children who are placed in their care. Although many of these children should in the course of their development gain a working mastery over some of the same skills, associations, and concepts, the mastery of these would be encouraged by the teacher, not because such mas¬ tery was desirable as an end in itself, but because the attainment of that mastery by that particular child had been thoughtfully chosen by the teacher as a fruitful avenue through which the child might grow in his capacity to achieve a wholesome personality of his own. In other words, this discus¬ sion is concerned with training teachers to use intelligently school tasks and other childhood experiences, each in its own appropriate place, as tools for the molding of fruitful individuals. It is further assumed that the pupils concerned in this discussion are to be trained in the public schools for citizenship in a democracy. It is as¬ sumed that these young citizens, after they have been taught by the teachers whose training is being considered here, will not give their votes to the party to which their fathers belonged, unless that party shows valid evi¬ dences of its superiority in meeting the political and economic problems of the day. These young citizens are to seek freedom and justice for all man¬ kind, even when it means that they individually must sacrifice certain per¬ sonal pleasures and special privileges. These assumptions make it neces¬ sary to assume that the prospective teacher believes thoroughly in democracy, in the worth of common people, and in the value of public schools. This discussion assumes also that instructing young children is one of the most important tasks to which an intelligent person can give his life. It has been reported that the old Jesuit teachers of the Catholic Church felt confident that one who had been tutored by them during his early youth 128 National Education Association would not forsake the church in his later years. We have all heard popular proverbs emphasizing the importance of the period of early youth. “As the twig is bent, the tree’s inclined/’ is perhaps the best known of these. But, in spite of our frequent verbal affirmations of the importance of childhood, modern psychology is assigning to it a vital significance such as we had never really believed it could possess. We are now asked to believe that no act of the young child, which is closely followed or accompanied by an emotional reaction, is ever really forgotten by his nervous system. The psychoanalysts constantly attempt to trace maladjustments in adult life back to emotional experiences in early childhood. They claim that in many in¬ stances the adult has suffered daily from the results of an experience which occurred so early in childhood that it can scarcely be remembered. Regardless of the extremes to which some of the psychoanalysts carry their theories, they have helped us to see childhood as a period in which the seeds of character and personality are being sown. The magnitude and importance of the task of teaching young children has not yet been fully realized, even by the teachers who are engaged in it. Whether a given child shall develop and pass on to his adult self a personality characterized by sincerity or deceit, friendliness or enmity, seriousness or frivolity, cooper¬ ation or competition, optimism or pessimism, is being determined during the early years of his life. The extent to which the character of the social, political, and economic life of the nation today is the result of the work of the primary teachers of yesterday is being recognized but slowly. Having listed some of the assumptions that underlie my thought, I am now ready to indicate some of the “important elements’’ suggested in my printed topic. The firs: proposition I wish to make regarding the training of teachers for these young children is that the institution which undertakes to train these teachers, especially if it receives financial aid for that purpose from the state, is responsible in large measure for the character of the instruction given by its graduates. Teacher-training institutions have been slow to accept this responsibility, chiefly because they have been reluctant to give up other less specialized runctions. Since the girls who wanted a liberal arts degree, or a mere record of having attended college, paid the same tuition and swelled the enrolment figures just as much as the same number of prospective primary teachers, the training colleges have not found it expedient to set up and to maintain the high standards of professional skill which they might have maintained. I believe that we now have sufficient data about the factors which make tor success in this field to enable any college, which seriously wishes to turn out superior teachers only, to guarantee the quality of the instruction which its graduates offer. And I do not believe the colleges are justified in continuing to shirk their responsibilities in this matter. The excuses offered by our training colleges for not taking this responsi¬ bility are not fully convincing. They tell us that one cannot be sure that a girl who fails in her practise teaching will actually fail in a classroom of General Sessions 129 her own, or that the girl who succeeds in her practise teaching will be certain of success in a public school position. They also tell us that the girls who fail as teachers will nevertheless be greatly helped by having had the courses in psychology and education that are prescribed for the develop¬ ment of skill in primary teaching. There is enough truth in these excuses to silence the usual critic, but they do not excuse the institution for the ineffective learning done by forty children the year after an incompetent girl receives her diploma. They do not answer the complaint of the well trained and successful teacher, who wishes to obtain an increase in salary, but who finds that the board of education has decided to employ a younger girl who has just received her diploma. As a matter of fact, an institution which was wholeheartedly given over to the one task of training teachers would gain in prestige, in influence, and in enrolment by refusing to give its diplomas to those who could not meas¬ ure up to high standards in actual teaching. This phenomenon of increased popularity and growth following the raising of professional standards may be observed in the history of vocational schools in all parts of this country. Any faculty or board of trustees, which will not be moved in this direction by professional ethics, might perhaps be moved by the argument of increased enrolments and consequent increases in financial resources. By whatever arguments the authorities may be persuaded to take such action, simple justice to the children of our primary grades demands that teacher-training colleges begin to recognize definitely as their own failures any deficiencies found among those who have received their diplomas. There are in general two opportunities for the training college to safe¬ guard the quality of teaching done by its graduates: first, before candidates are admitted, and second, during the training course. Those who believe in democracy object to the closing of the public schools to any group of children. They are, in my judgment, quite right. If any boy or girl does not have the particular type of interest or ability required for success in an academic course, it is the duty of the public school officials to provide in the schools other work of such a character that this pupil may find in it both interest and success. We have no right to say to any child, “You cannot have the benefit of instruction at public expense. But entrance to a voca¬ tional course for the training of teachers for these children is a very dif¬ ferent proposition. The state not only has the right, but it has an unavoid¬ able duty to protect its primary pupils by refusing to accept for training those young people who are in any way incapable of becoming satisfactory teachers. The same objective which requires the state to train all children requires it to refuse to issue a teaching certificate to one who is not compe¬ tent as a teacher. The state should give each child a type of training which will enable him to maintain himself as an economically independent person. But the state must not waste its funds. It is wrong and wasteful to try to make a taxi driver of a blind person. It would be foolish to try to make a life guard at a bathing beach of a man who had no arms. And it is just a* certainly 1 30 National Education Association wrong to attempt to make a primary teacher of a person who dislikes children, who is repulsive to them, or who is not sensitive to their needs and interests. Such a person should certainly be prevented from teaching, even though the state might, perhaps, very properly give that same person a thorough vocational training in banking, in law, or in agriculture. The argument is not against vocational training, but against exposing innocent children to the possibility of having to waste time and energy under the direction of a “teacher" who cannot teach. Please note that I suggest putting upon the training college the responsi¬ bility for determining who has the ability to become a teacher. It is possi¬ ble that an occasional person may experience a fundamental change in nature while in the college, and that elimination before admission to the training college might keep out of the profession a few reasonably good teachers. But it is more economical to eliminate impossible candidates before they begin to study than it is to keep them in classes for several years and then refuse to give them diplomas. Any school that has more money than it needs might perhaps be allowed to accept all who apply for training, but no training school should be allowed to give a teaching certificate to a person who does not have teaching ability of a respectable order. Whether unfit persons are to be refused admission to the school or eliminated during the training "course is a matter for each institution to decide for itself in the light of its own organization and financial resources, but that the unfit shall in some way be prevented from receiving teaching diplomas is a professional responsibility which no training school can properly shirk. The factors disqualifying one for teaching young children are frequently matters of personality rather than of mental or physical disability. A second-year student in a certain normal school, during her first week of practise teaching, appealed to her supervisor for an explanation of the atti¬ tudes her pupils were showing toward herself and her work. “Why is it," she asked, “that in spite of the fact that I am doing exactly as you told us to do, the children dislike me and refuse to do what I ask or to listen to what I say?’’ There was nothing for the supervisor to answer, for this girl, although physically and mentally normal, was colorless and depressing in her personality, and utterly without that liveliness and human interest which appeals to children. There was no more hope of making a good teacher of that girl than there would be of making an orator of a person born deaf and dumb. For the sake of the children needing instruction, those people who do not have the types of personality required in teaching should be detected and prevented from obtaining teaching diplomas. A second proposition which I wish to make is that even where the high- school graduates entering the training college have normal bodies, minds, and personalities, it takes longer than two years to make them good teachers for young children. The making of a successful teacher involves infinitely more than the memorizing of certain facts about materials, methods, and technics. One must develop not only certain knowledges, but also many different ski' Is, habits, and attitudes, which cannot be effectively acquired General Sessions 131 in any other place than in a teacher’s position before a class of real pupils. Three or four years of training is just as necessary in developing a skilful teacher for kindergarten-primary work as in developing a high-school teacher. The training course must, first of all, provide the prospective teacher with such experiences as will make him a wholesome, well-adjusted personality. The prospective teacher must not only enjoy good health, but he must understand how to maintain and to increase his physical vitality. He must learn to regulate and to employ effectively his entire emotional equipment. Habits of coordinating intellectual activity and conduct must be acquired and fixed in his character. He must understand himself, his abilities, his desires, his environment, and his relationships to those about him. He must eliminate all those mental conflicts that would disturb his adjustment to life, for he is to be the center around which the lives of dozens of small children will revolve. His life must be such a solid and attractive struc¬ ture that the children about him will obtain delight and benefit by imitating his behavior. The development of this type of wholesome personality will require time. It will require association on close terms with attractive, wholesome personalities in the college faculty, as well as knowledge of college textbooks. The training course must also develop the student’s natural interest in children and their development. In a real sense such emphasis on subject- matter as is found in the usual high-school or college course tends to detract from or to destroy this interest in children. One who has been required in a history course to memorize fifty or a hundred dates in order to pass an examination, or one who has been required in an English course to profess a liking for dull and uninteresting classics is likely to gain the idea that the value of an educational unit is directly proportional to its difficulty and lack of interest. Scores of college professors, some of them professors of education, doubt the educational value of easy and interesting activities. One who has worked through a difficult unit of subjectmatter seems to have a sophomoric tendency to feel that it would be valuable for everyone else to go through the same “discipline.” All this emphasis on a subject causes the student to forget that subjectmatter should be considered a field for exercise, or a kind of gymnasium apparatus, by the intelligent use of which he may strengthen his muscles and develop greater coordination of his powers. The teacher-training institution must not only subordinate subjectmatter to pupil development in its own courses, but it must also overcome the effects of four years of emphasis on subjectmatter in the high school, and it must build up correct attitudes and habits for the prospective teacher to use in his own teaching. In addition to directing the prospective teacher’s attention to creative activity and growth rather than to subjectmatter, the training college must lead him to the habit of seeing wholesome pupil activities as the best type of preparation for desirable adult activities. There is still great need for 132 National Education Association this young adult to study while in college his own adult problems, but he should at the same time be considering how his pupils may, through meeting intelligently their present childish problems, be most adequately prepared to meet the problems which maturity will later thrust upon them. Over¬ emphasis on the mature life, however, will tend to overshadow or to elimi¬ nate from consideration the present interests of the child, which supply not only the motives but also the materials on which young children exercise their powers. Another responsibility which the training college must assume is that of training the teacher to observe the whole child in all his relations and ca¬ pacities rather than one side of his nature in a limited environment. It is so easy to confine one’s attention to the obvious elements in a situation. All of us may take warning from having seen during the past few years some school official who suddenly became “scientific.” Tests of achievement in some chosen subject were administered to the pupils, scored, and tabulated. The announcement was made that the pupils in that school system were very deficient in that subject in which they had been tested. Elaborate pro¬ grams of remedial work were then developed to strengthen the pupils in that subject, taking time and effort away from other subjects which had not been tested and in which, for all anyone knew, these pupils may have been much more deficient than they were in the subject measured. This childish procedure has been followed in all parts of the country, in spite of its one¬ sidedness and utter inadequacy. The use of objective tests and standard scales is to be encouraged in every possible way, but those who use such tests should realize that in edu¬ cation, as in medical practise, a single measurement by itself gives no indica¬ tion whatever of what a child needs. It is the pattern of the relationships that exist among many different measurements of an individual that gives the experienced diagnostician suggestions as to what treatment is needed. It would be absurd for a physician to consider no other facts than the child’s bodily temperature. And it is equally absurd for a teacher or supervisor to prescribe more drill in addition just because the child has a low score in an addition test. His score in spelling might, if it were obtained, be found to be twice as deficient as his score in addition, and his score in selfreliance, or in sense of responsibility for community health, might be found to be abso¬ lutely zero. It is time to face this problem squarely, and to seek regarding every child the most exact possible measurements of all of his abilities, in order that we may study the types of patterns that exist among the various characteristics of pupils, and in order that we may learn what educational prescription obtains the best results with each type. Since we have accepted the pupil’s growth and social development as the goal of education, rather than mere knowledge of specified subjectmatter, it becomes necessary for the would-be diagnostician to measure and to chart the relationships among many characteristics of the pupil that were not previously considered as matters in which the school should take an interest. Facts concerning the pupil’s ancestry, early childhood, and home life must General Sessions 133 be included in the picture. Knowledge of his physical and emotional his¬ tory is necessary. Data must be assembled regarding his personal habits, interests, and recreations. And finally, all these facts must be interwoven with the most objective, cumulative records obtainable of his growth in the school subjects, in order to reveal the personality pattern or diagnosis on which the educational practitioner may base his treatment of the case. The ability to make such analytic-synthetic studies cannot be developed in a short time. This type of study of individual pupils has thus far been illustrated most adequately by the visiting teachers in their work with problem cases. One who has read thoughtfully the case studies reported by Miss Sayles in Three Problem Children , The Problem Child at Home, or The Problem Child at School, or by Miss Zachary in Personality Adjustments of School Children, must have been impressed by the tremendous service which simi¬ lar studies of each normal pupil would render. Perhaps it is unnecessary to give each teacher of young children as thorough training in social case work as the National Committee on Visiting Teachers prescribes for trained visiting teachers, but certainly we should provide every prospective public school teacher with the visiting teacher’s point of view toward pupils and their development. Teacher-training colleges should develop in their prospective teachers a keen appreciation of the vital importance of all those personality factors which determine the social relationships and the personal happiness of the individual pupil. The importance of complete, accumulative, objective records of each pupil should be learned, together with the specific technics to be used in keeping these records up to date. A reasonable degree of skill in diagnosis or interpretation of these records should be developed, and the ideal of using in each diagnosis all the data obtainable should be firmly fixed in the professional character of the teacher. In addition to these ideals, attitudes, technics, and diagnostic skills, the teacher must know life and subjectmatter so thoroughly that she can in each case make that educational prescription which will be of greatest service to the individual pupil and through him to society. It is obvious that this preparation for teaching young children cannot be obtained in a two-year normal school course. There is room for doubt as to whether a four-year training course would be entirely adequate for such preparation. Certainly there would be little time left for the tradi¬ tional “cultural courses” usually required for a bachelor’s degree. But this discussion is not concerned with degrees. The training of teachers for young children is the topic of this paper and the purpose of the program outlined, of which there is one additional feature to be described. The training course here presented aims to develop certain attitudes, ideals, powers, skills, and habits. These require time for their develop¬ ment. They result from specific acts followed or accompanied repeatedly by the satisfactions that come with successful performance. The desire to succeed and the satisfactions of success are much greater in a real classroom National Education Association 17 1 1 J-+ situation than in an artificial or practise teaching situation. Why should the prospective teacher not spend a considerable amount of time, before he receives his certificate, in actually practising these attitudes and habits in a real classroom for which he is fully responsible, but in which he may have the guidance, stimulation, and criticism of the experts from the training college? There is no longer any real necessity for confining a student to a single city block during his period of professional study. The most helpful contacts I have ever seen between university instructors and wTould-be teach¬ ers have been in public school classrooms. In one southern state university a considerable part of the teacher’s pro¬ fessional training is conducted in a most interesting manner. The univer¬ sity instructor arrives at nine oclock each week at the public school in which his students are regularly employed as teachers. He spends the entire day in their classrooms, observing, encouraging, discussing, answering ques¬ tions, demonstrating, studying, and helping his students. At four oclock in the afternoon the entire group comes together for two hours, during wThich the instructor draws the illustrations for his discussions from the experiences of the day. Principles of education, technics of instruction, and units of subjectmatter are real and dynamic in these classes. The instructor on leaving the class does not wonder whether any of its members will ever actually try out his theories “when they get out into a real job.” He knows that when he comes back next week most of the members of the class will be ready to tell him exactly where his theory breaks dowrn or succeeds. If the instructor tries to blame the student-teacher for the failure of some device, he is immediately invited to demonstrate his own skill with it. Pedagogical “bunk” is reduced to a minimum in such courses, while growth in teaching power approaches its maximum, both in rate and in value. What right have we to expect expert teaching of unseasoned people wTho have spent two or three years in a highly academic atmosphere, wholly apart from the problems of a common public school of the type in which they will have to teach after graduation ? I believe we have a right to ask that the training college recognize its responsibility for the quality of instruc¬ tion given by its graduates, and that it vitalize its professional instruction by offering a considerable part of it in the regular public school classrooms of its student-teachers. Such a program cannot be conducted successfully bv secondrate college instructors. It requires real ability and professional skill, but it is tremendously effective and satisfying. After all, little can be done in the limited training school period other than to develop a fully adjusted, resourceful personality in the prospective teacher and to establish correct attitudes and points of view toward young children and their development. The training college should recognize that effective habits of instruction and discipline do not develop and become fixed until the teacher is actually at work in his own classroom. The in¬ stitution should therefore go with its novices — watching, stimulating, and guiding them until they have actually mastered the habits and technics of fruitful instruction. General Sessions 135 A NEW WORLD FOR THE HARD OF HEARING HUGH GRANT ROWELL, M. D., ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF HEALTH EDUCA¬ TION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY No one, who has not so suffered, can imagine the torments through which those persons must go, who have been deprived of some major sense or ability possessed by the most of their fellow beings. Perhaps this loss is not felt so greatly by those who have never, even at birth, possessed such sense or ability, yet the social barrier resulting from such handicaps is inevitably present even for these latter individuals. It is the duty of educators to help defectives surmount their social barriers. Educators have concerned themselves, and rightly, with the problems of the normals, first of all, but the time has come wffien the subnormals must be given careful consideration in any complete school program. The work with the mentally deficient is well under way ; gifted children are being well socialized under the leadership of Terman, Hollingworth and others, who likewise led the programs for the mentally deficient. Until almost the present time, however, physical defectives have either been neglected or have been hustled off to special institutions. It is inter¬ esting to find that the primary objective of such institutions is, at the moment, not to hold these unfortunates forever, but rather to restore them to normal social life and contacts as soon as possible, trained, to the extent of human knowledge in the ways of best meeting the limitations set by their particular handicaps. So there exist excellent schools for the blind, the deaf, the crippled, and other physical defectives. Such schools are, however, insufficient in number or scope to meet the known needs of the communities they serve. Furthermore, in spite of economical admin¬ istration, the cost per person served must be fairly large. No complaint may be made of the cost as such, except that the field of activities of these splendid institutions is limited thereby. It is therefore desirable and neces¬ sary to increase the turnover in such institutions as much as practicable and to find means to educate individuals who can not logically in any case be so served. Defects of any sort are a matter of degree. In terms of vision, there are all stages from normal through to complete and everlasting blindness. The same is true for hearing. It seems logical that the same methods of aid in education and socialization cannot be applied all through the scale. In other words, where one of the senses is not totally absent, it is desirable and necessary to use to the fullest practicable degree what is left of that sense. So, one finds sight-saving classes for pupils who lie in the sector between normal vision, or vision correctable to nearly normal, and blindness, either actual or potential and presumably inescapable. Along the curve of de¬ gree of defect teaching methods are different. Education itself is different, except that all through the scale is found the same striving toward as near normalcy as is possible, as the goal of the program for the defective. 136 National Education Association The problems of the auditory defective are the most pitiable of all. Yet, strangely enough, the auditory defective is considered socially unattractive and inspires impatience or even actual hatred as compared with the visual defective for whom everyone has liking and sympathy. It is interesting, however, that this same sympathy for the visual defective is the stumbling block on which this group lose out economically. A blind pianist is adver¬ tised, not as an artist of merit, but as a freak to whose exhibition one must go out of pity. This in turn, has led to difficulties in the blind securing certain employments which are fitting and profitable for them. It may be, then, because of the tendency to hold the auditory defective up to the stern line of normalcy standards, that the salvation of this group may be accom¬ plished socially. If this is to be done, the implication is that the means will be improved methods of communication between the normal individual and the auditory defective. Auditory defectives communicate with one an¬ other with fair satisfaction at present and show a fine spirit of patience and cooperation in this respect. What then is the basic reason for the social unpopularity of the auditory defective, for the supposed pessimistic attitude of these persons, and for their reputation of being stupid and inattentive ? This reason has been best expressed in the sentiment that when anyone speaks to the blind, a new world is opened ; when anyone addresses the auditory defective, the world is shut out. This latter group find themselves striving, at first, to catch the words of any conversation. The strain is terrific. Physical exhaustion results. Nerves are on edge. Then comes the stage of rationalization of persuading oneself that the game is not worth the candle. The defective then becomes an intellectual desert amid great mental fertility, a selfdesig- nated pariah, and soon an invert. In spite of all this contrast with the optimism of the visual defective, it is found in problem clinics that there is no special psychiatric situation char¬ acteristic of the blind or the auditory defective, but that the reactions of most defectives of all sorts to problem situations are much, if not entirely the same. This latter finding strengthens markedly the belief that, if effective means of social communication are found and provided for the auditory defec¬ tives, much can be accomplished for them along the lines laid out in the newer education, and a new world opened to them. This seems particularly true for the non-total defectives, now classified as the hard of hearing. In the present terminology the approved designation for the individual with a congenital defect is "deaf”; for the individual with an adventitious defect is “hard of hearing” or “deafened.” These terms are, however, undefinable in terms of educational situations at present. It will be necessary to establish means of classification on basis of degree of defect and on the basis of educational methods recommended, before these group terms can be defined objectively. Assuming a group of the mental level accepted as the range for normals without auditory defects, calibration of degree of defect is the first step. General Sessions 137 Outside the normal mental levels, the situation is complicated by the addi¬ tional mental defect present and in general the educational treatment is based primarily on the mental defect. Calibration must be made by some objective method. Otologists have long known this and have developed various tests and apparatuses in an attempt to meet known needs. However, till the invention of the various types of audiometers, namely the phono and tuning fork varieties, calibra¬ tion has been impossible. The phono audiometer is used for group screen¬ ing, and the tuning fork types for individual testing. It is unfortunate that the literature of the phono audiometer is so filled with the amateur surveys by persons who have not even proved poor mechanical testers. The data is impossible of interpretation, yet it has been used for conclusions which can only be damaging to the solution of the whole problem. Educators are altogether too eager to accept as final, new ideas and mechanisms before they have been given sufficient trial to be out of the research stage. There is no criticism for being interested in new ideas. The criticism is for fail¬ ure to understand the difference between research and sound practise. The Bell Telephone Laboratories should not be criticised for this unfortunate situation. It has arisen because of unwise interpretations of data beyond their control. One thing is certain. Some sort of audiometer for screening all school pupils is necessary to the success of any educational program involving the auditory defectives. From this first test the next step is a more accurate instrument covering the range of hearing both in terms of vibration units and in actual social situations. After all, it is workable hearing that is the keynote. In any case, the audiometers are only part of the examination program. Clinics like Fowler's make a most searching general investigation of the patient and this is necessary for a complete understanding of the case. Nevertheless, for classification for educational purposes, it may be that some audiometric method will be ample. Granted some method for classification, three further possibilities are to be faced : ( 1 ) Possible improvement of the defect through remedial treat¬ ment. This is a matter for the otologists. One valuable hint is that the best stimulation for the auditory organ is the human voice. (2) Better¬ ment of residual hearing through mechanical devices. Instrumental aids to hearing have been greatly improved and while somewhat cumbersome in some instances are very effective and inconspicuous. None of them are as good as glasses for visual defectives. (3) Non-instrumental means of com¬ munication where practicable. This third phase is worth discussing in detail. Barring the use of written language, two non-instrumental means of communication are advocated : ( 1 ) Finger spelling, a system of signs of two sorts — signs for letters and signs for words, that is, a sort of finger shorthand. Finger spelling has the disadvantages of being conspicuous and requiring training of both sender and receiver. (2) Lip reading. 138 National Education Association Lip reading, roughly, is reception of thought or ideas through observa¬ tion of the movement of the lips of another person. It is not a perfect thing. Rather it is an aid to shrewd guessing. Out of a sentence of ten words, a lip reader would usually be able to read or guess enough words to get the thought. Some use the term “speech reading" for this practise, but the term is not selfdefining and there seems no sound justification for sub¬ stituting it for a term which is selfexplanatory even to the person most un¬ familiar with the education of the auditory defectives. Lip reading is probably as old as speech itself. It may well be part of the hearing equipment of every human being. In other words, every individ¬ ual, normal or otherwise, probably hears, in part with the eyes. This can be demonstrated and it is the practise in public lip-reading championship contests to offer one free-for-all in which even normals participate. They do surprisingly well. The deaf mute, having never heard, probably has no intrinsic lip-reading skill. The problem, then, is to teach lip reading to those who need it. A rough standard for classification is to give this training to all whose hearing is sufficiently defective to interfere in any way with their normal social activ¬ ities. This idea differs from the earlier practise of teaching lip reading to the very deaf only. The art of lip reading, from the teaching point of view, is young. The outstanding systems have been the Nitchie and the Bruhn or Mulle-Walle. The differences are theoretical rather than practical. It is quite evident that, if lip reading is to be popularized and widely taught, it will be neces¬ sary, in the very near future, to standardize this situation. The rapid loss of prestige of such basically interesting games as mah jongg and probably contract bridge is attributable to nothing but the unwillingness of socalled authorities to get together and agree on something. The lesson is obvious. In any case, it must be well recognized that every pair of lips presents a somewhat different problem and that no lip reader, even a national cham¬ pion, can overcome the handicap of a full moustache or a hand concealing the mouth. Just as it seems to be impossible for certain individuals to speak with clarity and crispness, and this makes one long for the days when speech as such was part of a school program, so it is impossible for some individuals to use their lips at all effectively in speaking. Lip reading is therefore a thing which is either not 100 percent effective and never will be or it is a comparatively new art capable of improvement. Time will tell which. The ideal pupil for lip reading is the very young child, who learns to lip read inconspicuously. It is impossible to tell whether such an individual is hearing with eyes or ears, since such a child reads out of the corners of the eyes as well as looking directly at the speaker. The adult learning to lip read usually reads face on and with a rather striking and conspicuous stare. From the point of view of organized education, lip reading is ideal. The only requirement for the auditory defective of mild or medium degree is General Sessions 139 that he or she shall spend up to half an hour a day (usually much less time) in special instruction. The rest of the school day is spent in actual practise in an absolutely normal situation, namely the ordinary classroom. Every classroom teacher must be shown her part in the new program. Severe cases are a different problem and probably are not, for the present, within the province of the public school. It would be possible to repeat amazing stories of what good has been done for certain pupils by the learning of lip reading. This paper, however, has behind it no desire for either sentimentalism or propaganda. It is sig¬ nificant, however, that lip reading has opened up a new world or reopened an old world to many persons of all ages. The great weakness of the education of defectives today is the limited amount of educational research which has been given to this field. Methods are more likely to be based on what was believed to be successful teaching experience rather than on any objective testing of results. What few studies have been made seem to have been encouraging in their analyses. It is very necessary that in the near future, educators familiar with the edu¬ cation of normals pay more attention to the education of defectives, study¬ ing the special psychology involved, developing new approaches or approv¬ ing present ones, and in general building up a program which can be proved to be scientifically sound. In this program of research many must par¬ ticipate and contributions will come from specialists over a broad field far beyond the usual limits of the borders of education. These needs were well recognized at the meetings of the Committee on the Problems of the Deaf and the Hard of Hearing, held recently in Wash¬ ington, D. C., under the auspices of the National Research Council. The main question seems to be how to secure funds to carry on the necessary studies. It is obvious that there is ample room for all who are in any way interested in contributing to the solution of the many problems involved. Training for teachers and supervisors for the education of physical de¬ fectives has been made available at Teachers College, Columbia University, in cooperation with the National Health Council, through the National Tuberculosis Association and the National Society for the Prevention of Blindness, and with the New York League for the Hard of Hearing. It has seemed best to organize this program in close cooperation with the work for mental defectives as it is likely that, in public schools, supervision of both fields will be under some one probably called the Supervisor of Classes for Defectives. In the new courses, many departments are in active interest, including speech, educational psychology, mental testing, elemen¬ tary education, educational administration, health education, music, and others. Judging by present and prospective enrolment in classes, the new courses are receiving favorable reception. Doubtless other teacher-training institutions will follow this lead. Provision is made for research courses, along suitable lines. To the educator, these possibilities in the field of education of physical defectives thus briefly outlined mean new fields of service and endeavor. 140 National Education Association To the physical defective, to the visual defective, to the fresh-air class pupil, to the auditory defective, opening these new fields means far more, it means a new world, a new world where the defective may live a broader, a happier, and more normal life in society. THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL LOOKS FORWARD EFFIE MACGREGOR, PRINCIPAL, JOHN BURROUGHS SCHOOL MINNEAPOLIS, MINNESOTA With the establishment of our national experiment in democracy it was seen by leaders that success was dependent on an educated public. Lead¬ ing statesmen of that day commented and planned, at length, toward this end but it was left to an educator, Horace Mann, to wrnrk out the practical solution of the problem. At first people gave little thought as to what went on within the schools but much earnest thought to the continuous establishment of schools. But interest in education had been simultaneous with the birth of our democ¬ racy so it was not long before school procedure evidenced the influence of the governmental experiment. When Dr. Elliott suggested that it might be youths’ right to choose its educational program he had many supporters among educators as well as among laymen. Educators had begun to experiment with education for democracy and it was not long before Dr. John Dewey gave to us our na¬ tional educational philosophy. Following this came the World War to which our young men were called by the thousand. Never was so large an army assembled in so short a time and never was the need of the proper placement of men so great. Army leaders called on leaders of education to furnish scientific methods by which these placements could be made. Psychologists rose to the occa¬ sion and science entered the field of education through service to the nation. In a recent article by Dr. William H. Kilpatrick on the “American Elementary School” Dr. Kilpatrick closes with this paragraph: We have in America then the regrettable situation of advancing educational thought at variance with itself. The dominant philosophy of education is opposed by the dominant scientific practise. The outcome of this controversy will determine the future development of American education, secondary and higher, as well as elementary. Those of us who are engaged, daily, in the solution of elementary school problems know that Dr. Kilpatrick has stated with exactness the major problem of the elementary school. The conflict is not often sharp but it is always constant. We are scanning the horizon of educational activity, con¬ tinuously, in search of that which will settle this strife. Probably no pre¬ scription which will serve as a cure-all will ever be found but the problem may finally be solved in an indirect way by meeting child needs as they become evident to us. General Sessions 141 Originally it was thought that education’s chief concern had to do with mental training only. Because character development has to do with men¬ tal development we have always included character education as a part of our school program. Later we saw that it was necessary for a child to enjoy good health in order to be able to experience life to his greatest capacity. Now we include health-training, medical and dental depart¬ ments, in school programs and no one would think it possible to operate our schools without these activities. Only very recently have we concerned ourselves, from the standpoint of science, with the child’s emotional reactions. It may be at this very point that much of the controversy between educational science and educational philosophy will be settled. In Rugg and Shumaker’s Child-Centered School 1 they conclude the fore¬ word with two sentences, one of which reads: “Tolerant understanding and creative selfexpression are the two great aims of the new education.” Understanding is like charity in that it should begin at home. It is the business of every educator to train minds, character, and bodies and at the same time to understand the emotional reactions of boys and girls to such training. We cannot hope to teach the youth of America “tolerant under¬ standing” if we ourselves do not appreciate the need of tolerance and of understanding. Why is this child a school problem? Let us call in one who is scientifically trained in emotional reactions and find out. The dis¬ coveries may be painful to the parent and to the teacher but if the child can be helped they will rejoice regardless of personal discomfort. The layman hesitates in trespassing on the territory of trained scientists but I believe that every woman is endowed with one instinct which psy¬ chologists have failed to discover. Nothing in this world hampers the thinking and the actions of a woman so much as does furniture which can¬ not be moved or furniture which can be moved with great difficulty. Every married man knows that I am speaking the truth when I say that there is something in the mental make-up of woman which compels her to seek variety in life through a change in furniture location. Most teachers in elementary schools are women, so progress in education has been hampered by our slowness in demanding furniture which can be moved and adjusted with ease by the child as well as by the teacher. The first paragraph of the first chapter of the aforementioned book tells of Dr. Dewey’s search for school furniture: for desks and chairs thor¬ oughly suited from all points of view — artistic, hygienic, and educational — to the needs of little children. Finally one dealer said, “I am afraid we have not what you want. You want something at which children may work; these are all for listening.” Every elementary teacher in the land is thoroughly and sincerely inter¬ ested in applying modern procedure in classroom activities but many teach¬ ers find the traditional furnishing of schoolrooms not only a physical but a mental handicap. Yes, 1 know modern education has progressed in public 1 Rugg, Harold and Shumaker Ann. The Child-Centered School. World Book Company. Yonkers-on-Hudi-on, N. Y. 359 p. 142 National Education Association schools which are equipped in the traditional fashion but why handicap progress ? I know, too, that fewer children can be cared for in classrooms which are equipped with easily moved furniture. But when the public finds out that fewer children in a classroom mean the better understanding of those children, emotionally, as well as morally, mentally, and physically, the pub¬ lic will be willing to give the support necessary to carry out this program. Smaller classes in the elementary school will eventually mean smaller classes in the high school and the college. The pupils will profit by the personal consideration which it will be possible for them to receive at the hands of the teacher while the teacher will profit in the satisfaction of do¬ ing her truly best work. Art or “creative selfexpression,” in teaching, will be given an opportunity to flourish. Since the success of our governmental experiment is so dependent on an educated public it would seem that the government and education should be most closely allied. The government has always admitted its need of education but it has been slow to see education’s need of a close activity with it as a member of its family. Educators are ambitious that they shall properly educate boys and girls for service in “The New’ World.” To be able to see this new w’orld clearly and inclusively one must be able to climb to the topmost heights and see wfith others who are responsible for national and wmrld affairs just how’ the new world really does look. Education needs membership in the Cabinet of the President of the United States in order to render the truest educational service possible to the nation and to the w’orld. Every professionally-minded educator solves his professional problems from the standpoint of the child. Teachers are interested in tenure because it will insure getting and keeping professional appointments on professional merit, only. We are interested in teacher-pension establishment because it will avoid much unnecessary concern in preparation for the time of retire¬ ment from service. Financial worry and the best professional service are never closely associated. That is one of the reasons, too, why the profession is constantly wmrking to increase teachers’ salaries. With adequate salaries the public may expect to employ teachers w’ho will be thoroughly equipped in professional training on entrance to the profession. It will be a great day for elementary education w7hen teachers can do special university work to enrich their particular professional service and not to get a degree in order to increase their salaries. Teacher-training requirements should be raised and, as they rise, salaries should correspondingly increase. Vicarious learning has largely had its day with teachers as wrell as with children. If we are to know the newr world we must be able to live in it as do other trained men and women. We cannot do this to any inclusive extent on present-day salary schedules. We shall realize these professional benefits, throughout the length and breadth of the land w’hen every teacher in the land understands that w*hat General Sessions 143 we get from our profession increases, with interest, in proportion to what we give to it. Every teacher in the United States is benefited indirectly, if not directly, because teachers themselves organized this great national professional organization, the National Education Association. When we once catch the vision that teacher-organizations are ours, that their out¬ comes are the results of our endeavor, we throw ourselves into them with the spirit of the crusader. We are grateful to the few teachers who had this vision some sixty years ago and who put it into effect through the organization of the National Education Association. And we are grateful to the thousands of others who have built up this magnificent professional spirit in this great organiza¬ tion as its membership list approaches the 200,000 mark. Educational or¬ ganization is rapidly drawing the four corners of the nation into a com¬ munity of common professional understanding and common professional endeavor. It is beginning to do the same to the four corners of the world. Is it any wonder that we look forward to the day when every teacher in the land shall directly benefit by membership in this great professional activity? 1. The elementary school looks forward then, first, to the solution of its biggest educational problem. We cannot forego our educational philosophy nor can we forego the service that science is rendering to education. We are looking forward to the day when there will be no controversy between the two. 2. We are looking forward to the day when the emotional reactions of every child will receive the same professional consideration that moral, mental, and physical reactions now receive. 3. And we look forward to the day when every schoolroom in the land will be so furnished that every teacher and every child can work together in the most natural way possible. 4. The elementary school looks forward to the day when education will be represented in the national governmental family. We need the recogni¬ tion that this will give to our profession to the same extent that the govern¬ ment needs our service. 5. We are looking forward to a hundred percent professional member¬ ship in our local, state, and national professional organizations. In this way, only, can we bring about the benefits necessary to those in the pro¬ fession. In this way can we improve our service so that present educa¬ tional standards may rise to heights not yet visioned. 144 National Education Association THE TEACHER’S RESPONSIBILITY AND OPPORTUNITY E. RUTH PYRTLEj PRINCIPAL, BANCROFT SCHOOL, LINCOLN, NEBRASKA The teacher’s responsibility and opportunity was never greater than in this present year of our Lord, 1929. The challenge to the whole teaching profession was never stronger. The central theme of this whole Atlanta program, ‘‘Education for a New World,'' so fittingly chosen by our able President, Dr. Lamkin, points the way for this presentation of the teacher s part. Someone has said that the thinking and life of a nation may be molded and directed by the effective teaching done in the nation’s schools. Many outstanding illustrations of this could be cited. If a nation is to be military minded militarism must be taught to the youth. Germany and the late war is often cited as an illustration. In the United States prohibition was voted when a generation had been taught the economic value of temperance to the individual and to the nation. How important then that we, as educators, have a keen sense of values when building curriculums, when making plans for class instruction, when hearing daily classes. A sense of values in life, putting first things first , getting the emphasis on that which is of most value, most worthwhile in building the life of our pupils, is needed by every member of our profession. Ask a college student why he is taking Latin or Math III or Chemistry II and he will say “For credit.'' Ask a high-school girl why she is taking English III or History II and she is apt to say “It’s required.” Ask a grade child of what use to him is the arithmetic in his 5A class and he might say, “Oh, you just have to have it to get in the 6B.” Have they stated the honest answers? Are these answers reflecting the most worth¬ while objectives in education? A teacher, working to establish health habits, asked the first-grade class why we should brush our teeth. Six year old Billy whispered to Bobbie, “Oh, isn’t she dumb not to know that — let’s tell her.” We are, in our schools, spending much time, energy, and money in memorizing a lot of the printed contents of the books in mathematics, chemistry, or English, or history. Does this knowledge memorized from books function? That, it seems to me, is the test. That which does not function by being of some use to the student is like useless lumber which “clutters up,” as Abe Martin would say. Fortunate is that child who has the teacher who helps him to know, to appreciate his immediate environment. Is it too much to expect children to appreciate the beauty of the great out-of-doors? Shall we wait until we are adults to appreciate the beauty of coming spring, the charm of birds, the glorious sunset? After all, only a small part of one's education is gotten from books. "There is education in the sky at night, the fields and prairies, the running brook, the roar of Niagara, the song of the bird, the soil as the farmer turns it furrow by furrow, the song, the strains of instrumental music, the movie, General Session 145 the billboard, the picture upon the wall, the management of the home, the voice of a friend, the clasp of the hand, the panorama as it spreads each day before the eyes, the dark street, the gambling den — education good and bad everywhere.” How, then, shall we get this appreciation in the child’s thought, this sense of life’s values so the child will choose wisely. Shall we expect it tomorrow or when the child becomes an adult ? Should not this teaching come in even7 day’s program, every day of the year, and every year of his schooling ? Our best literature is full of it, but somehow in our teaching of children, big and little, too often this wealth of treasure reflected in literature is taken by the child in the abstract, not tied in with his life experiences. How many of your students knew intimately this spring by name the trees and shrubs of your school yard or community? Why not? How many of them, this spring of 1929, knew the birds, not as v2n Dyke says, “in books, but by their songs and their looks.” The Kansas poet describes my state and yours. A mist on the far horizon, The infinite tender sky, The ripe, rich tents of the cornfield And wild geese sailing by, And all over upland and lowland The charm of the goldenrod. Some of us call it Autumn And others call it God. Do all the young people we teachers have a chance to influence, ap¬ preciate, with Carruth, God’s countryside, or do they prefer the imitation — the picture show in town? I’m trying to say, friends, in using this illustration of appreciation of nature or God’s world, that we believe it fundamental in our teaching that we have a sense of values and put the emphasis on first things first. Henry Turner Bailey emphasizes that nature is the inexhaustible reser¬ voir of suggestion for all science; the trees, the birds, the butterflies, the moths, the clouds, and the stars never cease to entertain and bless those who have learned to love them. He says when we are wiser we will not run the busses of the board of education to bring rural children into city schools, but to take city children into the country that they may learn to know and love God’s first revelation to man, and feel at home in the natural world because they are well acquainted with it. Which is the greater tragedy, for a child to live in a crowded city in a home and school environment that prevents his chance for training of appreciation of the real values of life, or the child living in the rural school environment, perhaps surrounded by beauty of God’s great out-of- doors and yet not appreciating it because of having “eyes that see not and ears that hear not.” 146 National Education Association Not long ago I asked a twelve-year-old boy about the scarlet tanager which was nesting within a stone’s throw of his school. This modern rural schoolhouse was located in beautiful river woods, a locality well known to ornithologists as one of the best in the United States for making a big bird list. The boy did not know anything about the tanager, said his teacher thought his class did not have time to study birds, they had so much arithmetic and geography “to get.” Bishop William A. Quayle once said he would like to add a beatitude to the list and quotes, “Blessed are those who have eyes to see and use them: Blessed are those who have ears to hear and hear with them.” The beati¬ tude I would add is — “Blessed are those who help others to see.” These blessed surely include the classroom teachers of America who have the vision of putting the emphasis on first things first and put that into practise in everyday classroom instruction. Fortunate, indeed, is the child who is associated with that type of teacher! One of your favorite writers in his “God of the Open-Air,” expresses this philosophy of real values: These are the gifts I ask Of Thee, Spirit serene: Strength for the daily task, Courage to face the road, Good cheer to help me bear the traveller’s load, And, for the hours of rest that come between, An inward joy in all things heard and seen. These are the sins I fain Would have thee take away: Malice, and cold disdain, Hot anger, sullen hate, Scorn of the lowly, envy of the great, And discontent that casts a shadow gray, On all the brightness of the common day. These are the things I prize And hold of dearest worth: Light of the sapphire skies, Peace of the silent hills, Shelter of forests, comfort of the grass, Music of birds, murmur of little rills, Shadows of clouds that swiftly pass, And, after showers, The smell of flowers And of the good brown earth, — And best of all, along the way, Friendship and mirth. May I cite one more illustration of the point I am trying to make, having a sense of true values in teaching — the proper selection of text¬ book materials for teaching and the right slant of emphasis on teaching that material so that truth and only truth is taught. General Sessions 147 It is well known that much of the discord, unhappiness, and lack of harmony in the world is due to ignorance and misunderstanding. Through false teaching, prejudices and hatred have been built and fostered. It often takes decades, even centuries, to eliminate the bad effects of such teaching. We had far too much of that in the late world war, as we all know. • One of our widely read newspaper writers admitted after the war that he wrote untruths about the atrocities overseas to inflame the feelings of hatred in America — people are better fighters when they hate. After the death of this writer, only a few years ago, the excuse was made that he wrote thus to help America — he wrote lies for the sake of patriotism. Is genuine patriotism dependent on truth or falsehood? “My country right or wrong”? No. My country, may she be always right. Dean William F. Russell, at the Seattle meeting of the Association, told in his able address, “International Gossip,” a story of President Kuo, the distinguished Chinese college president. At the Toronto Biennial the story was repeated by President A. O. Thomas when President Kuo was on the platform. This story illustrates well some of the prejudice and lack of correct information we learned in our childhood. The story ran : President Kuo was visiting schools in the United States following the Edinburgh meeting and at times addressed groups of school children. One day, after a talk, the children were permitted to ask ques¬ tions of the distinguished Chinese guest. The teacher was embarrassed when one lad asked, “Is it true that Chinamen eat mice and rats?” Dr. Kuo smiled indulgently at the boy’s question and replied, “I’m not sur¬ prised that you asked that question in that way. Some early American visitor to China perhaps could not read the signs. A Chinese tourist in the United States not long ago went home to China and reported that Americans ate dog meat, and when questioned as to where he got that information said that everywhere in America he saw the sign ‘hot dogs’ about the eating places on the highways.” Dr. Russell made a plea for the open-minded, honest attitude of teachers toward truth. We need, in our schools of America, textbooks in history and geography, newspapers and magazines, that are written with the open-minded attitude of seeking the truth. The World Federation of Education Associations, which meets next month in Geneva, sets as one of its purposes the study of sound forms of education by the giving of accurate and satisfying information in regard to each other and by eliminating, as far as possible, the old-time prejudices and animosities which have too long dominated the world. Can we not in the schools of America “set our own house in order” with a sense of true values secured by eliminating from our instruction that which is not built on truth. Most of us as teachers believe that the hope of the world is in the youth of the world. International goodwill and world understanding will 148 National Education Association come when a generation is taught and acts upon the principles of justice taught by the great Teacher of all time. May I quote a paragraph written by the college youth who won the second prize in the National Oratorical Contest of the 1928 Intercollegiate Peace Association. There is food for thought for the teachers of America in what this youth says: Education for peace, moreover, involves the training of youth in international understanding. Are our schools developing minds of international understanding? Not if they teach jingoistic patriotism. Are they fostering human sympathy? Not if they inculcate hatred of other nations and fear of other races. Our educational system must take more and more definitely world peace as an objective. Let us cease to glorify militaristic campaigns and military heroes. Let us stress rather the study of peace efforts, international sports, world contests. Let us urge the wider study of foreign languages and foreign culture. Let us show the indebted¬ ness of our land for other lands. Let the Atlantic and the Pacific be henceforth not barriers separating enemies but links connecting friends. And finally, let the boy and girl seek out between themselves and other races, not points of difference but interests held in common, bonds of friendship. Dr. Fannie Fern Andrews said at the Dallas meeting: The teacher, the torch-bearer of truth, must go forward with this great adven¬ ture of international goodwill. And more, as the sower of the seed, which germi¬ nates and blossoms into ideas and actions, the teacher needs clarity, knowledge. Teaching international goodwill is an intricate enterprise. It is based on realities, on the actions of nations. Having a knowledge of real values in life and the courage and technic to “help others to see” is the teacher’s real responsibility and opportunity. PUBLIC COOPERATION IN SCHOOL POLICIES WILLIAM J. BOGAN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CHICAGO The need for public cooperation in the development of school policies has become acute in recent years because : ( 1 ) the missionary spirit in teachers has led to an overemphasis of the ideal of teacher sacrifice, with the consequent destruction of the ideal of pupil sacrifice; and (2) the selfishness and cynicism of adult society have weakened the natural idealism of youth. From these causes has developed a philosophy of self that has led to crime, corruption, and weakened morale. The antidote for this poisonous philosophy lies in the stabilization of the idealism of youth and a new emphasis upon the theory and practise of citizenship. But though youth has idealism, vision and high hopes, it lacks experience and the ability to make good judgments. Therefore, it needs the help of the older generation. It needs moral support. It needs the support of a spirit among adults that will not only give recognition to the idealism of youth, but will serve as a barrage to protect the ad¬ vancing forces of youthful righteousness. In days of old the schools were isolated from the public. They wTere a law unto themselves. The public was “without the walls” in body and General Sessions 149 in spirit. The schools were charitable institutions and every teacher looked upon himself as a missionary in the service of God and humanity. As ar back as the time of Charlemagne this was a fixed policy in the University of Paris. In the Compendium of Robert Goulet, dated 1517, descriptive of the University of Paris, appears an interesting account of the organization of the great university which illustrates the missionary spirit of the founders : When the Franks were in power, but were lacking in culture, and were in dark¬ ness and were permitting the wrorship of God to perish, two Scotch monks in Ire¬ land came in company with British traders to the coast of France. These monks, learned in both sacred and profane literature, did not offer to sell any wares to the throngs that came to them because of their singing, but proclaimed, “If anyone is eager for wisdom, let him come to us and he will receive it, for we have it for sale.” Some thought that they were mad. But when the story reached the ears of the King, he summoned them to him. On being asked whether they possessed wisdom, they replied in the affirmative, and said that they were prepared to give it to anyone who sought it in the name of the Lord. When the King asked what they wanted in return for it, they replied, three things: Good location, noble souls, and food. It developed that bv good location the monks meant a good location for a school and that by noble souls they meant good students. Of course, the meaning of food was obvious. In accordance with the monkish vow of poverty these men were to receive no personal return for their services except food enough to sustain life. This offer of the monks represented an educational ideal of the middle ages which has come down to us, though in places it has become diluted to the stage of attenuation. In other words, these monks, by their proclamation, offered their lives to the services of God and humanity. In varying degree, all teachers in all times have performed this service, but a similar service has rarely been expected from the students. The public has been content to give all to them without expectation of much in return. Cooperation of pupils or outside public with the schools was rare. In fact, a favorite slogan of our materialistic world has been “every¬ one for himself, and may Satan take the hindmost.” The rights of the individual have been exalted and the rights of the community that pro¬ vides special privileges for the individual have been ignored. The humblest man in all the land, the most ignorant, the most deficient in culture, energy or ambition, is likely at any time to hear ringing in his soul the chant of the Magnificat as given by Luke, which has been made familiar to the schools in Longfellow’s “Robert of Sicily.” The chant begins: “Magni¬ ficat anima mea Dominum” — “My soul doth magnify the Lord.” This part of the chant would indicate humility on the part of the singer but the weak and inefficient man derives his joy and satisfaction from: “De- posuit potentes, de sede, et exaltavit humiles” — “He has put down the mighty from their seat, and has exalted them of low degree.” No exalta¬ tion seems impossible in this land of opportunity, no height too great for anyone to scale. Emerson’s advice: “Hitch your wagon to a star” is 150 National Education Association given a literal interpretation by the ignorant, the selfish, and the ambitious. Our schools turn out millions of pupils whose only ideal of success is one of the materialistic, individualistic type. The public has tolerated and encouraged this ideal, this philosophy of self which results in the corrup¬ tion, the crime and the weakened morale of modern civic life. What other results should we expect when emphasis is placed upon this type of success from the kindergarten to the university? The great majority of our people seem to demand it. This seems a fitting time, therefore, to turn the thoughts of school pupils to the service of God and humanity. Without this aid the battle for civic righteousness is lost. We must look to youth for regeneration, but we must look to an aroused public conscience for the support of youth. The hope of the nation lies in youth, and the salvation of youth lies in a new emphasis upon the theory and practise of citizenship. It is gen¬ erally admitted that the primary function of the school is to develop high character, good citizens ; and yet until recent years the schools have devoted more attention and time to the secondary functions than to the primary functions. The old time citizenship, or civics as it was called, was of a highly abstract, dry, theoretical, impractical type. Its basis was the dis¬ section of the Constitution of the United States. Its chief result was dislike of everything constitutional. This great instrument so dear to the scholar, the lawyer, the statesman, the patriot, has proved to be too abstract for immature minds as usually taught. The meagre civic instruction the children received in olden days was theoretical. Practise was not con¬ sidered within the jurisdiction of the school. In most professions, the student is given a long course of practise under skilled teachers and practitioners before he is allowed to accept fees from the public. The young doctor must practise as an interne in a hospital; the young law student must practise in the courts in minor positions; and the prospective engineer must work for months and even years after leaving the technical school before he can hope to receive an engineer’s degree. But until recent times, there was no practise for the greatest of all profes¬ sions, the profession of citizenship, the profession of government in a democracy. It is appalling to think that the destinies of this great nation lie in the hands of immature, untrained people but as a matter of fact the arbiter of our political destinies is a child today and a voter tomorrow\ Nevertheless the hope of the nation lies in the idealism of these children. They will accept a reasonable theory of citizenship and will gladly practise the duties that should accompany the theory. Boys and girls will do almost anything in reason for the dear old school, through school spirit. Jane Welch Carlyle tells that when she was studying Latin at the age of nine she became so filled with the spirit of the Roman republic that she modeled her course of action upon what she thought the men of that glorious day might have done. Once she met an angry, hissing gander that gave her a terrible fright. Her first impulse was to run, but she thought of Rome and its ideals of citizenship. Thereupon, she faced the General Sessions 151 gander, grasped it by the neck and cast it into the ditch, passing onward with haughty stride and the feeling that she had deserved well of the Roman republic. This form of idealism is often exaggerated but every teacher knows that in his pupils is a spirit that, if stimulated properly, may save the world. The schools must learn how to carry this spirit into adult life. Unfortunately youth is easily led astray by the appearance of false gods. Material success, prosperity, luxury, superficial fame, Mammon are the gods that make a special appeal. The development of a real citizenship means the casting out of the devils that are destroying the civic life of the nation and the substitution of the spirit of goodwill to man. The schools must go back to their primary purpose — the development of character, good citizenship. Why waste time on non-essentials? Merriam says that the city will probably dominate the nation in twenty-five years. “As the city goes so goes the nation.” Should not the schools be held responsible for municipal reform? One of the important tasks in this plan of cooperation is to build up a background of public support for the program among the organizations whose words will be heeded by the press, the church, and the general com¬ munity. With this support the schools can then go to the general public and gradually develop a morale that will release youth from the incubus of materialism, cynicism and selfishness. This support, to be effective, must come from the people most vitally interested. It must come from the parents of public school children. The aristocrats who scorn the schools of democracy and send their children to far distant centers of snobbery are not greatly concerned with our schools except as charitable institutions that must be maintained as a concession to the poor. These people through their intellectual power, affiliations, and wealth sometimes control the schools and conduct them in a parsimonious spirit. Doubtless you all know cases of wealthy men who have made their wealth from the people but begrudged a return to the schools. They look upon them¬ selves as belonging to a special class set apart from the common people. They can give their children all the education that is necessary or fashion¬ able. Why should not the poor be content with the elements? Why run up the tax bills? This group can not be expected to advocate equal educational opportunities for all. They will fight against increased taxa¬ tion for the schools and thereby foster the idea of one kind of education for the rich and another for the poor, a dangerous philosophy anywhere. To the end that a truly representative group might take an active interest in school affairs and by constructive criticism and advice help to build a school system that would have the loyalty and respect of every citizen, a Superintendent’s Advisory Council was organized in Chicago, a body made up of representatives of the leading civic and professional organizations of the city, interested directly or indirectly in problems relating to the school. Social workers, doctors, lawyers, engineers, teachers, college presidents, college professors, city officials and, in fact, representatives of scores of 152 National Education Association organizations were glad to give their time, their energy, and their construc¬ tive advice in the interest of public education. The health program of the city made a special appeal to physicians and dentists in general, and to the Health Department in particular. Through the effective work of the Commissioner of Health, thousands of physicians and dentists offered their services in a health campaign that resulted in the projection of a program that will place in each one of the city’s fifteen geographical districts two dental clinics and one medical clinic, this latter to be also a clearinghouse for social agencies. By enlisting the aid of great musical organizations like the symphony orchestra, the civic opera, the American Opera Association, colleges of music, private teachers and the Piano Manufacturing Association, a back¬ ing has been achieved for the music department such as the city has never known. The general effect upon the quality of music has been remarkable. A music critic on one of the large newspapers (Dr. Gunn) wrote regarding a recent music festival : To find a measure for the quality of choral art displayed one must turn, not to the fine adult choruses of the city, which were far outclassed, but to the Paulist Choristers, the famous singing Lutherans from St. Olaf’s College, the Thomas Choir of Leipsic, or the Vatican Choir that visited this country two seasons ago. Music in the schools is on a professional basis and is backed by profes¬ sionals. As a result of this public support, music is rapidly passing from an educational fad to an educational necessity. The many problems relating to juvenile delinquency were referred to a committee made up of social workers, psychiatrists, psychologists, teach¬ ers, vocational advisers, clergymen, and college professors with expert knowledge of various phases of delinquency. This committee appointed an investigator to study methods of solving problems of delinquency in many cities of the country. The expenses of the investigation were borne by a public-spirited member of the committee who realized the importance of prevention. The recommendation of this committee will be adopted by the Board of Education and there is no doubt that the results will be of great benefit to the world. Through association with various groups interested in adult education, particularly the Chicago Federation of Labor and the Chicago Forum Council, plans have been made for the organization of classes and courses to supplement those of the regular evening school. Classes, lectures and discussion on economic changes, industrial problems, industrial art, finance, local government, the history of the developing status of labor from anti¬ quity to modern times, the history of labor in America, general history, literature, parliamentary law, public speaking, and other subjects in which the public may be interested, will be offered. Without the aid of organized labor this type of education would make little appeal for support. With its aid the cooperation of the entire city can be enlisted. In our city are four great universities and a normal college that are willing to give their services to the cause of experimentation in public General Sessions 153 education. Under their auspices experimental schools have been organized for the purpose of determining the best methods of teaching certain school subjects. When these schools have decided upon methods or processes or principles that would seem to be of value to the community, teachers in other schools wall be invited to observe the w*ork. Doubtless the stimula¬ tion that scientific experimentation produces will lead teachers and prin¬ cipals to improve their w7ork. On matters of selfgovernment, Chicago, like most other American cities, has been wToefully indifferent. Democracy is becoming a byword ; suffrage and civic responsibility have become atrophied from disuse. Through local councils in each of the forty smaller communities of w’hich Chicago consists an attempt is being made to revive the ideal of the New England towTn meeting, the cradle of democracy. This w7as a perfect agency for express¬ ing the w7ill of the people. It was the forerunner of the greatest experi¬ ment in democracy taken by a people since the time of Pericles. With the passing of the small community and the coming of the great cities, the town meeting gradually disappeared, but fortunately its ideals are still held in respect by many of the people of this nation. To spread these ideals and to make them practical in large communities is one of the fundamental tasks of the school. Each one of the forty small communities of w7hich Chicago consists has a distinct identity. The boundaries are boulevards, or railroad tracks, or river, or religion, or race. Like the boundaries of the states of ancient Greece, they are well defined, and the inhabitants of each community have special needs and customs and duties. To make these communities conscious of their civic responsibilities, local councils have been formed in each. Each council deals with the needs of the local community and in addition sends delegates to a Central Civic Assembly consisting of from one to four thousand members. In this Assembly are given pageants illus¬ trating great historical episodes in the history of the city; great citizens proclaim the material and spiritual glories of the city; and the delegates carry these messages back to their local councils. To stimulate interest in civic duty each local council votes a token of honor to the high-school pupil who stands highest in civic achievement. The best of these honor students are given university scholarships for courses in political science and kindred subjects with the understanding that the winners will return to the local high school periodically to give a message in civic responsibility. These civic assembly programs are dignified, patriotic, and inspiring. These plans for the release of the idealism of youth may appear imprac¬ tical. In fact many people regard democracy itself as highly impractical. That is one cause for our trouble today. A cynical friend often asks: “What are you trying to put over?” He can not understand w7hy it should be necessary to “put over” democracy in a democracy. His cynicism leads him to believe that everyone of sense must have a selfish motive for public service. The philosophy of the age! If the youth of our schools cannot change this philosophy democracy will before many years be looked back to as a quaint experiment. 154 National Education Association Underlying the plan outlined is the belief that the corruption of modern life when touched by the spirit of education and infiltrated by the idealism of youth will serve as a soil from which will come incorruption and a new life if adults will keep out the weeds of unbelief during the growing process. EDUCATION AND THE HIGHER HUMAN VALUES FRANCIS J. MCCONNELL, BISHOP OF THE METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH AND PRESIDENT OF FEDERAL COUNCIL OF CHURCHES OF CHRIST IN AMERICA, NEW YORK CITY I have nothing of a technical nature to suggest to this group. As an observer of the times in which we live I am constantly being impressed anew wTith the duty of all institutions like the school and the church to watch the variegated peculiarities of the social period through which we are passing, for the sake of so relating themselves to those peculiarities as to get out of them the utmost value for human beings, interpreting the values in terms of the highest human welfare. We are moving today through a time whose peculiarities have pretty clearly declared themselves — to the vast dismay of many of us. To begin with, when have any of us ever seen a time so thoroughly set on “expressing itself”? I do not wish to blame all that has happened on the Great War, but I do think that the War did remove a great many inhibitions, among them the inhibitions on speaking out anything that might flash, or leap, or crawl into our minds. The old notion was that speech was intended for the communication of thought, but we got away from that limitation long ago. Speech today does not have inevitably to do with thought, or even with communication. Some of it is in the nature of ejaculations obviously intended for the selfrelief of the speaker. It is as if the roofs were taken off millions of intellectual dwelling-places and we could see everything that is, and is not, within. The age is indeed making a revela¬ tion of itself, and at first glance we feel almost buried under craziness and nonsense. When, now, we once pull ourselves together we begin to see that an age, like an individual, finds itself by talking itself out. If we insisted that a baby talk sense, or not talk at all, he would not and could not talk. The truth is, that once we get used to the deluge of speech pouring forth today, we are struck with certain almost childishly naive traits about the time in which we are living. We say of the present generation — whichever one that is — that it is disillusioned and sophisticated. These characterizations are singularly inept. The age is charmingly childish. It is a good deal as if phrases had been uttered so long in the ears of men that the hearers had forgotten that the words ever had a meaning. Now men are beginning to use the phrases as if they meant something. The first results are almost embarrassing in their freshness. The age is talking of human love, for example, as if this generation were the first to discover General Sessions 155 it, and as if the family were a contrivance invented not earlier than the Civil W ar. The problem of evil in the universe, the general seaminess of human nature, all these are set out as if they were new’s. But that is no reason for pessimism. Somebody once sneered concerning Theodore Roosevelt that he acted as if he had discovered the Ten Commandments. To which a Rooseveltian made the crushing rejoinder: “He has — for some people.” This age is not doing much with the Ten Commandments, but it is discovering a good deal for itself. Moreover, it is far enough along now in its speech to enable us to see some of the vitality back of all the utterance. Most of the utterance is nonsense, but most of any utter¬ ance is nonsense. After a while the tares can be sifted out, and we shall find quite a measure of good wheat which we never could have had if almost everything in men’s minds had not got out. By the way, I fancy that if we all told the truth we should admit that we have all ourselves thought a good many of the things now being uttered aloud which seem so silly. What a fine thing it is to discover in these days, when the most intimate selfrevelations are spread out to the light, that a great man has confided to his diary the same kind of silliness that comes into your mind and mine! It makes us feel that we are not the only silly persons in the world, or perhaps that the great man was not the only wise person who ever lived. It will not do for us to say that all that is true in the utterance of today was uttered and uttered better long ago. Abstractly considered this judg¬ ment is sound enough. John Stuart Mill made a better indictment of the universe at the point of its cruelties than has any one in our time. A good many of the indictments of today sound like old stuff and poor stuff to those of us who read Mill in our youth, but that is not quite the point. The present age will not read Mill. If it is to face the hard facts of the universe it must face them in its own way, and likewise with the good facts. If the educational world does not fall into panic, and it is not likely to, it will soon hear, I am confident, if not altogether new at least very vital and compelling restatements of everything essential that intelligent well-meaning men have held dear. All the signs point that way. Whatever else we may say about the age in which we live — it is not dead or asleep. One effect of all this emphasis on selfexpression has been to bring back the individual as the center of importance. For a long time — not too long indeed but still long — we have given ourselves to the search for general laws in all realms. The current insistence on selfexpression has brought back to our thought that it is the individual who is the only actual reality in all our study. We are not thinking today of social in¬ stitutions, churches, schools, industrial organizations as important in their own right. We look at them as instruments, to be judged by their success or failure in ministering to men, women, and children. Two or three years ago American Medical Science lost by premature death one of its most promising leaders, Dr. Francis W. Peabody, of the Harvard Medical School. It was announced to Doctor Peabody, like 156 National Education Association a bolt out of the blue, that the examination of an apparently trifling disorder had revealed that he was in the clutches of a deadly disease which would end his career in eighteen or twenty months. Instead of yielding to panic, Doctor Peabody calmly set to work to utilize to the utmost the time remaining to him for putting in order some of the results of his scientific researches. Shortly before he died he turned aside from every¬ thing else to prepare a little book entitled the Care of the Patient, a book good for the perusal of teachers as well as of doctors. For Professor Peabody made it clear that in dealing with a sick man we are not to take into account only the charts which show whether or not his body is acting according to the demands of those general laws which we all recognize as so important. The sick man is himself a unity. He is a person with a history, and habits, and peculiarities in his way of looking at things. He must be looked at as a person with likes and dislikes before we can do the most for him as a patient. This truth is quite as important for schools as for hospitals. In fact in the realm of pedagogy it is indispensable for the achievement of the highest human results. Really, the most successful teaching is never possible until the teacher can get close to the individual pupil. I say “can,” because the size of classes themselves sometimes makes it out of the ques¬ tion to get at the pupil as a personal whole, or as a distinctive individuality. In all times, however, there have been some teachers who have succeeded in spite of every difficulty in this approach to pupils as unitary wholes. When I was a youngster my father sent me to Phillips Andover Acad¬ emy to take a special course of a year as a final preparation, after my high-school experience, for the entrance examinations to college. There was at Andover at that time a most competent teacher of mathematics. Professor Eaton, whose peculiar ability lay in a power to look at a pupil as whole, discerning his strength as well as his weakness and treating him as an individual person, with a distinctiveness all his own. Up to the time I went to Professor Eaton I had been reckoned by my teachers as a total loss in mathematics. My difficulty was that I seldom could get the right answers to mathematical problems. The teachers who had me in charge seemed to think it a matter-of-course that the solution to a problem was to be marked zero if the answer was wrong. One day Professor Eaton announced to the algebra class to which I belonged that he expected us all to take two hours extra work a week in problems calculated to develop mathematical initiative. As I recall his word now, I think his attempt was to train us in discovering mathematical principles for ourselves, before they had been formally expounded for us in the books. I asked to be excused from the extra work on the ground that I was taking a special course with a heavy schedule. The professor said he would see what I did on the first test. I took the test and discovered after 1 left the ex¬ amination room that all my answers were wrong. The next day Pro¬ fessor Eaton told me that he had decided to excuse me from the course, and I thought he meant that it was because of my total failure. “No,” General Sessions 157 he said, ‘‘it is easy to see your difficulty. You are a poor calculator, and ought to take yourself in hand at the point of your inaccuracy, but you have already the type of initiative I hope to develop.” I walked out as one in a dream. I never became a mathematician. Years after, when I reminded Professor Eaton of this incident, he could not remember that 1 had ever been in his classes. But that experience opened my eyes to a distinctively human way of approach to pupils, balancing their possible strength over against their actual weakness, and declining to pass summary or wholesale judgments. Incidentally I may remark that the experience opened my eyes to the beauty of the study of mathematical principles. To this day I usually can find a way to solve mathematical problems in any field that I have studied, though, to tell the whole truth, to this day my answers are usually wrong. Again, the times in which we live are too much under the sway of intellectual and moral fashions, we are told. This charge is pretty well founded. Propaganda won the war, we are reminded, and all sorts of institutions today have the propaganda habit. With centralized control of the public press, and with like control of the radio, it is not impossible to make an intellectual fashion in very short order. We believe things because everybody else believes them, because it is the fashion to believe them. This refers not merely to matters of theory, but to matters of fact as well. Beliefs get into the air and we all breathe them in as we do the air. It has always been so, however. When I was a boy of eight or ten years my grandfather used to tell me of a hoop-snake in the early days when the pioneers came into western Pennsylvania, and what is now eastern Ohio. The hoop-snake, according to my grandfather, could take its tail between its fangs, make a hoop of itself, and roll after a man with deadly precision. It had a needle-point filled with poison on the end of its tail which struck the victim as the snake let go. If the snake missed a man and struck a tree, said my grandfather, the tree would die before sundown. A good deal of which, even as a boy, I attributed to my grandfather’s capacity as an entertainer. The other day I picked up a reprint of Tome’s narrative of pioneer life describing conditions in the same general section of the frontier as that in which my grandfather lived, and there in between matter-of-fact narratives of dealings with Indians, was the hoop-snake, deadly effect on the trees and all. So my grandfather was not just spinning a yarn to amuse a boy. He was telling something he actually believed to be true, but something which could not have been true. He believed that story because everybody in pioneer days believed it. So the hoop-snakes rolled through pioneer life and their equivalents roll through our lives today, statements of alleged truth which never could be true, but which appear true because everybody believes them, because they are in style. This everybody will concede. Perhaps not everybody will admit that we ought to make the most of some fashions. They indicate an aroused 158 National Education Association public interest which can be used for good. At a time when a fashion in thinking lays hold of the public mind the school has presented to it out¬ right a social and psychological atmosphere which can be utilized for good. At the moment when men by the millions are interested in evolu¬ tion, or democracy, or fresh scientific discoveries, the educational world should use the new fashion in thinking to the utmost. Once more, it is said, and with truth, that the utterances of our time in voice and deed seldom mean what they say on their own account, but are symptoms of something deeper than themselves. The “signs” of the times are symptomatic. Well, what of it? The only way to study a disease is through its symptoms. The fatal mistake is in doctoring the symptoms rather than the underlying causes. Here again the psychologists, in spite of the excuses of the extremists of the newer schools, have helped us. They have shown us that if we are trying to straighten out minds that are in disorder, or that we think are in disorder, the only true method is to listen to the utterances of those minds as symptoms, encouraging them to express all that is in them. The alienist knows that the old “force” methods in dealing with mental disorder are worse than nothing, and that direct argument also is worse than useless. There are a great many good people today who think socialism, for example, is a lunacy of the first order. I do not happen to be a socialist myself, nor do I happen to belong to the group who think socialism is lunacy. Socialism of the more serious type is a well-reasoned diagnosis of the evils of the present capitalistic system and a thoroughly thought-out alternative to that system. But suppose that I believed socialism to be a set of crazy ravings. What would be the best way for me to quiet the ravings? Suppose I considered socialism to be a symptom of social aberra¬ tion. If I were myself as stark mad as some capitalists seem to be when¬ ever socialism is mentioned, I should, of course, begin to talk about repres¬ sive measures. If I were a little less than stark mad, I should try to argue socialism out of existence. In which case I might get the worst of it, or if I got the best of it, I should discover to my bewilderment that I had done little to socialism beyond advertising it. Socialism has been demolished many times by argument. No, we are here dealing with a symptom merely, as long as we give ourselves to argument. The disease is not in socialism, but in the present order. There are injustices and inequities which must be corrected, before we can say that we have honestly met socialism. Finally, we are not to take the questionings of the presentday as if they were necessarily portents of disaster. The truth seems to be that those of us who have come to middle age, or a little beyond, naturally resent questions that we tackled thirty years ago and gave up. Our resentment is seldom justifiable. If the questions are insoluble, each generation has to find that out for itself. If the questions are soluble, the fact that we have failed is no sign that the later generation must fail. It is well that the succeeding generations are not guided by their prede¬ cessors as to what they shall ask and what not ask. Even children’s ques- General Sessions 159 tions have at times immense virtue in getting veritable “posers” before us. The child asks, “Who made God?” That sounds very silly, though some philosophers in every age move around trying to answer. Then the child asks the question that little Peterkin asked in Robert Southey’s poem, The Battle of Blenheim. The reader will recall from his school-book days that on a particular evening old Kaspar’s work w~as done, that that day he had turned up in his plowing a skull on the battlefield of Blenheim, that little Peterkin wanted to know just one thing, and that was “what they killed each other for,” and that before that question Kaspar could say nothing except that it was a famous victory. Years ago I read a book by an English militarist who was incensed at Southey’s poem. He declared that the poem was misleading because it is clearly impossible to explain war to little Peterkin, which is true, and it is also true that it is fast becoming impossible to explain it to any of Peterkin’s older relatives or to anyone else. By all means let little Peterkin ask the question, and as many more as he likes. Every worthwhile revelation is an answer to a question asked by somebody. If an age asks no questions, it will get no answer. We live in a questioning age, to be sure, and with some of the questions we can do little, for they are part of the clamor and tumult of a noisy generation. Nevertheless, the school, like the church, can devlop a sort of selective listening for the calls to which it alone can adequately respond. I once lived in a village on a stern bit of New England sea- coast. It was said of a patrolman who walked the beach on stormy nights that he had trained himself to a marvelous form of selective hearing. He would walk his beat through the storm apparently oblivious to the uproar of sea and air. Wind and wave seemed to call for no response from him, but he knew scores of sounds to which he did respond on the instant — all of them sounds of ships or persons in distress. Calls that a companion walker on the beach might not catch at all he caught unerringly, and he knew how to respond. The institutions in charge of human culture are likewise moving through a deal of uproar of wind and wave. Happy indeed is the lot of all who can train themselves to discriminating precision of selective hearing, who know the genuinely human calls, the sincere human questions in the midst of the uproar — and show themselves willing to try to answer. The very willingness to try may, to many questions, be answer enough. BEAUTY IN AMERICAN LIFE LORADO TAFT, SCULPTOR, CHICAGO, ILL. Is there any one in the audience that can tell me offhand what we are on earth for? Well, it isn’t the first time I have asked that. I have asked many audiences, I have asked our high-school boys and girls, who are the wisest of all people, and you know they are even wiser than I imagine. Those young people don’t know and they know they don’t know, and that is the beginning of all wisdom. 160 National Education Association When I was a boy they did know. That is the funny thing. Every¬ body knew then what we were on earth for. The catechism taught us. But today even the preachers are learning. They don’t pretend to know. They say it is a great mystery. We come out of mystery and we go into it. You know we can hope, we can believe, but we do not know for sure what the great plan is. Perhaps you will think I am prejudiced, but as an artist it seems to me that the creation of beauty comes as near as anything to answering that question, for you look back in the history of the world you find about all that remains behind is a few objects which have been preserved because they were beautiful. People have toiled and others have entered into their labors and today we call certain nations of the past great. There are countries that would have rattled around in this great state of yours or mine, the Holy Land, and Greece, both to¬ gether would have ample room and more in the state of Illinois, and yet they fill the whole horizon of the past because they had ideals, ideals of beauty and they have left them behind and we have entered into their labors. That is why it seems to me that the creation, the appreciation of beauty is one of the great demands upon us. It is the one thing that makes life reasonable. We are not grateful to those other nations that propagated and browsed on the earth and crawled under it again leaving no record behind. They mean absolutely nothing in the progress of the race, but these little countries who have felt so strongly the lure of beauty, who have appreciated, who have written beautiful poems, built beautiful temples, and have carved, it may be only a fragment of a Grecian urn, go on propagating beauty and we have the poem of a Keats or a Shelley as the result of it. That begins to explain life. One of our greater writers has said that Art is the Ark of the Cov¬ enant in which all ideas of beauty and excellence are carried before the race. And you know an old time writer says that all passes, art alone remains. So we find there is a recognized appreciation of these beautiful things that we all talk about and so few of us know about. We recog¬ nize them in word but not in fact. Ten years ago tonight I was on my way home from a very interesting experience. I had been abroad with our boys. I had been over there trying to talk art to them. It was a whimsical idea, a very foolish idea, I fancy. It was very illuminating to me. I didn’t do the boys much good but they taught me a great deal. I have often addressed audiences, but generally addressed audiences that came out to hear me. Over there I was talking, every day and every night, to people who did not come to hear me. They were there in the “Y” huts because it was cold and wet outside; they were there waiting for me to get through. If I would only finish then they would have a moving picture, or some wrestling match or fisticuffs, something worthwhile. I appealed to them from my knowl¬ edge of France and a love of the people. I told them something of the history of that land, something of the great monuments, but it did no good. They looked me in my face and told me they were fed up on cathedrals. General Sessions 161 1 used to tell them laughingly they were immune to art. Luckily it didn’t last forever. I remained in touch with the average doughboy during six months there, but was sent down to Boulogne. There they had a uni¬ versity of eight thousand students, brought together there for three months, and at the end of three months, orders came to pack up and the whole thing was folded up like a peddler’s pack and sent back to America. Some of those boys were having such a good time they wanted to stay longer and I am very thankful I met there the more educated boys of the army. These were all young men who had at least been through high school, ready for college. I taught also at an art school of the A. E. F. University near Paris on the road out to Havre, a glorious little group of three or four hundred or more young art students, mostly young architects or draftsmen. Those boys knew where they were in geography and history. They were de¬ lighted to be there. Many of these young draftsmen had been counting on it for years, and here they were. They petitioned to be allowed to go longer at night until eleven o’clock instead of ten and when they were ordered home they signed a petition to be allowed to stay there longer and carry on their schooling. I came home filled with a great desire to do something for the average American boy. I haven’t been able to do much but I am giving all the time I can to it. I want to reach them, not reform them. First of all I have tried to analyze why it was that we, of all people, as intelligent as we consider ourselves, are so lacking on that particular and important side, which alone in my mind begins to explain human existence. I look back in the ancestry of our splendid people. They loved truth, they loved justice, but beauty meant very little in their life. There is something in the very way they started over here, they were reformers, turned their backs on the old religion, and counted all its beautiful ex¬ pressions as so much idolatry. They would have nothing of it. They destroyed the beauties of the old churches there. I remember traveling with my father when a youth of twenty or twenty-one and we went up the east coast of England visiting the beautiful chapels, which of course were built by Catholics and taken over by the Church of England. In many places the statues were still in place but they all lacked their noses. It was curious to me why this desecration and I asked a little old verger who apparently had been there as long as the church itself. He gave me an answer, with a gesture I had read about but never seen before. He pulled his forelock, bowed to me, “It was Mr. Cromwell’s men, sir.” What did he mean ? I never heard Cromwell referred to so respectfully. “Mr. Cromwell’s men.’’ What did he mean? He meant when “Mr. Cromwell’s” men invaded those regions they tried to pull down the statues but if their stay was brief, they would at least knock off the noses, to the glory of God ! That was their idea. Statues created to the glory of God, and so mutilated to the glory of God. 162 National Education Association Those are the people who came over to this land, the ancestors we are so proud of, with little time for beauty even if they had the disposi¬ tion for it, for the country grew amid hardship and toil with no time for painting, literature, or music, all so doleful, no drama ever mentioned, sculpture scarcely ever heard of. Then suddenly came a great growth. Our historians tell us it was a greater incident in life than the war of the rebellion itself although it shook us to the very foundations. The growth I speak of was the start¬ ling development of the modes of travel all over this land and with it came mass production, with the result there was still no time, no ideal of beauty. Beauty here and there, beauty of human life, beautiful trees planted, and here and there a commodious house that had joy and taste in it, but the average life was pretty drab. I don’t want to see it remain that way and yet there are people who find it so today. That brilliant man, Clarence Darrow, has said, “Life at best is but a dreary thing.” How do people get that way? Life at best but a dreary thing ! Why, as I told your group at dinner this evening, life is the most interesting thing I ever got into, one great adventure and the adventure of growing old is not the least interesting and delightful of it. No, it is a marvelous thing if your eyes are open to beauty. I used to try to tell those boys over there about the marvelous times, when I changed my tune a little, of the times when small communities united in the creation of beauty. It is hard for us Americans to dream of such a thing but when I think of that particular period and the miracu¬ lous work that was done during the reign of Phillip Augustus from 1180 to 1223 I marvel at it. He wasn’t much of a king. There is not very much to be said in praise of him, but it w^as a time when one of the miracles of this world’s existence took place, when all those beautiful cathedrals were springing up in France, such a harvest the world has never seen. Great cathedrals, like Notre Dame, Amiens, Chartres, and Reims, were springing up, but there were fifty others almost as great. Who knows how many churches and chapels all growing at the same time, and in every one of those towns, every man, woman, and child was concerned in this great marvelous expression. To the glory of God! Yes. But enough of the human element to make it good. There was enough rivalry, their eyes were on the neighboring town watching the spire of their great cathedral rise heavenward. I was standing one day in front of our orchestra hall in Chicago. We have very beautiful music there. Our people go there and enjoy these great things. I stood there one day with a friend of mine, an architect. He had a funny look on his face. I said, “What is it?” He said, “Look down there.” They were pulling out of their pockets, the people there, the tickets and scattering the envelopes on the sidewalk just like leaves. I said, “Well, they are savages aren’t they?” He said, “Don’t be too hard on the savages. The savages wouldn’t do that. The Indians used to go on tiptoe through the woods and left nothing there, crushed nothing. General Sessions 163 They marked the trail with some little bit of a twig, something of that sort. Don’t be too hard on the savages. But the path of civilization is cinders and tin cans and Sunday supplements.” It seems to me it will take us a long time to become an artistic people. But you have an astounding power in your hands. I really believe you could make those little American savages we love so much into civilized people just by telling them not to throw papers on the street but to pick them up. When I was a child I used to hear people say, “Love your parents. Love your parents.” I used to wonder about that. That is no way to make people love their parents. I am happy to say my people never talked to me like that. They had some sense of humor. But a great many people do it that way. They do not realize you can’t force people to love. They have got to love something lovable. And so it is with the home town. If you get people interested in some¬ thing beautiful, then you have the beginning of a new civilization in this country. It is coming almost in spite of us. These various means of dis¬ tribution are carrying the beautiful things as fast as they are carrying the ugly things and I do believe beauty and truth are going to triumph in the end. Let us consider then a little what is happening. I have here a confession of faith and creed and I want to give it to you in the few minutes that remain to me. I want to tell it to you. First of all I believe we are in a world of beauty that most of us are missing. I don’t mean this audience but I mean the average American citizen. I don’t know how Clarence Darrow felt about it. I was showing a group I modeled twenty years ago, a group called “Blind.” I got the idea from Maeterlinck’s play. Six blind men, six blind women groping, groping, all lost, but one holds up a baby that points the way, “A little child shall lead them,” if you will. But I was think¬ ing in more general terms, that disillusioned as we become with the ad¬ vance of the years, hope itself revives with the new generation, we believe in it, its general helplessness challenges us, and we enter into its hopes again and future hope is renewed. I created that because I thought it was worthwhile, spent a year on it. I showed it to Theodore Dreisler, a very wonderful writer. He was brought to my studio and I showed him my group and he shook his head and said, “Yes, life is hard isn’t it?” I said, “I don’t believe you get my idea, Mr. Dreisler. I certainly don’t feel that way.” Then I told him that to me it was such an inter¬ esting thing. But that was his interpretation of it, “Life is hard.” Life is hard to a great many people. Now let me tell you if your eyes are opened to that thing of truth way back in the past, if only you could see those beautiful things, life becomes so beautiful, one is almost dazed by the lovely things of life. I refer particularly to the beautiful things of nature. Think of the frost on the window pane. I am so glad we were poor, my father was a teacher, and our dining room wTas the kitchen where the teakettle decorated the 164 National Education Association window pane by steaming it and the frost upon it sometimes painted beauti¬ ful mountains with trees on the side, maybe another day a giant fern or palm trees growing. Our attention was called to those things and we loved them. A group of us painters and sculptors camped at a little lake in Indiana. We used to go out every evening and watch the sunset. The painters, of course, are devoted to beauty but we sculptors always went along, although not always so enthusiastic. You know Whistler spoke once of a “foolish sunset,” and once in a while we expressed our disapproval but sometimes the heavens made such a magnificent spectacle that we were indeed over¬ awed. So we stood there one day looking at one of the most beautiful sunsets I have ever seen when my wife felt a twitching at her sleeve and there stood the farmer’s daughter employed to look after our first baby. She was all excited and she said, “May I run down the lane and tell our people to look at the sunset?” “Why, yes, surely, run along but they will all see it." “No,” she said, “we never saw a sunset until you folks came.” There is a great truth in that. Some one has to point out these things of beauty and strangely enough it is hard to lead us to see nature. When we see a painting, as one of the writers whimsically puts it, “Nature begins to take notice and begins to do things that have been painted.” That is, you see it. Here is the first of these principles of my confession of faith, to have in the world beauty and be immersed in it, as Emerson says. But most of us Americans are missing it. We are getting into the country more but we are going so fast we haven’t time to look about. Sometimes we will take it more leisurely and begin to drink in the beauties of nature. Can you think of any more Christian act, more reverent, more grateful to the Creator than appreciating the things of beauty around us? My second point is that we are the heirs of the ages. That great in¬ heritance is ours from the past and we as cultivated, civilized people ought to recognize it, know’ w7here wre are in the order of things. And there is no people in the w7orld so ignorant of this inheritance as this same great nation of America. A friend of mine said recently, “We are like so many grasshoppers, chirping away in the sunlight and the moonlight, uncon¬ scious of the past and indifferent to the future.” I sometimes think the greatest thing that separates us from our brother animals is that sense of sequence and wTe ought to cultivate it. It is a part of our great inherit¬ ance. Of course every domestic animal has its instinct of protection for the young but you never heard of a dog or cat interested in its grand¬ children. We are capable of that, we can think ahead, and we can think back in gratitude. I heard Dr. Carruthers, that delightful and whimsical essayist, talking to a group of girls in Chicago. He said, “I have a friend w*ho has a country seat of great beauty and w7hen he is tired and perplexed he goes out there and finds seclusion and happiness.” He said, “I have never been rich enough to have a country place but wrhen I am tired and perplexed I retreat to the Eighth Century and find friends there.” General Sessions 165 Well, that is possible to all of us. Everyone of us can have a very beautiful nook, a country place of beauty, in the centuries, and the minute you begin it you can keep adding to it and find such joy in it. I have my particular place of beauty near the beginning of the fifteenth century back in Italy among those later men, the lesser masters, of whom it might well be said in the words of Holy Writ, “that the handicraft of their work was their prayer,” creating beauty, loving beauty, expressing themselves in it. I know those men and delight in conferring with them. It makes me think of . an expression of Ruskin’s, speaking of the great inheritance of literature. I saw it carved over the bookcase of a friend of mine. He said, “. . . eternal court is open to you, with its society, wide as the world, multitudinous as its days, the chosen and the mighty of every place and time. . . .” There they are on those shelves, seem¬ ing to welcome and reward you, grateful to you if you pay some attention to them. We talk of the great masters of literature and art but pay no attention to them, rarely let them talk to us. I asked James Whitcomb Riley — I was modeling a medallion of him — “How do you account for it, Mr. Riley, that most of the poets and most of the artists seem to have come from the farms and small towns?” He said, “That is easy. It is the need of selfamusement, selfrecreation in the small town. In the city there is no such need. They have pre¬ digested amusement, everything is prepared for them, but in the country they make their own recreations and if they get something fine it haunts them.” The boy at the plow, it may be, dreams and dreams of principles and powers that some day he may discover or have, some things he may create. I hear that now they have an attachment of the radio to go along with you as you walk behind the plow, if anybody walks behind the plow today. I am not sure that is an advantage to the creative side of life. But after all we are getting the best of the world. It is coming to us on every side and I have infinite hopes for our people. I have a third point. You have got those two, the beauty of nature, the beauty of art and literature that has come down to us from the past. Finally every community has its special talent with marked genius for something. As I say, it may be whistling, it may be whittling, it may be drawing, it may be playing the piano but here and there some one, it may not be the most promising pupil in other ways, is evidently called to do this one thing in the world. It is the tragedy of the past that such talent has sprung up in every town and every school and then is turned away for lack of the proper atmosphere. What a waste it is! What a waste of individual life, what a waste to the community that might have capitalized this to its own glory and satisfaction. So I am hopeful, friends, it will become more and more our business to increase and encourage such talent, to help it to find itself. To me it is a beautiful thought that in merely showing interest and appreciation you are doing the act of good citizenship. 166 National Education Association Some one has said, “Great art demands passionate appreciation.” How are you going to have the appreciation if you haven’t the art? We are getting the art, now let us have the appreciation, which in return will react in even greater art. Awhile ago it was as bad as the old conundrum : Which comes first, the hen or egg? Nobody ever settled that. I am pretty sure we could not have a successful poultry farm with neither hens nor eggs. That was the condition in America. To have great poets we must have great audiences too. Every one of us can help on that side by showing an interest in these things, and the interest will make you happier all the time, fill your days and nights with joy, and will drive weariness out. I speak feelingly of that. You know they speak about my being so cheerful and finding beauty everywhere. About ten years ago I got into the habit of worrying nights — I don’t know what about — I had no right to, I enjoyed my profession so much — but my system was a little out of order and I would wake up in the night and think of debts, and contracts, and failures, and I couldn’t sleep. That went on several nights. One night I said to myself: “I can’t stand this any longer. It spoils my work. I am good for nothing in the day.” So that night I shook my head vio¬ lently until it nearly came off, drove every thought out of my mind, and lay there a little while quietly and then presently there came back again that worry, worry, worry. Then I took a few deep breaths and I went off to sleep. I had found something; I had made a discovery. I call it throwing my thoughts out of focus. I have never had to do it more than two or three times since then. I have never wasted an hour in worry in the last ten years. I drive every thought out of my mind. I don’t know whether it is anything to boast of or not but when the time comes to sleep, I go to sleep. But I think of pleasant things. I give you that for what it is worth. Perhaps you can’t work it, perhaps your minds are stronger than mine and have to think, but it has been the most wonderful saving in my life, giving me nights of rest and days of enthusiasm. I want to give you two quotations because I am so proud of them. I never learn anything by memory. I had to work hard to commit these two or three quotations — and I will probably get them wrong — but they have meant much in my life. One of them in those days just about the war time struck me right: “Not money but the life the community provides is its real wealth.” Isn’t that splendid? You ought to put that over the school door, over the library, over the church doors. There is another — there are two or three of those things — I love to think of this. Was it Nietzsche said, “Life means for us constantly to transform into light and flame all that we are or meet with.” That is a pretty hard doctrine. Most of us aren’t quite that incendiary but it is a great thought even if we can’t quite arrive at it, that we shall illumine all we meet, do our best to make life meaningful. General Sessions 167 But the one I prize most of all, the one that means more to me than any sermon I ever heard, and I have attended a great many, I have heard a great many I mean and attended a great many others. This one means more than any of them. Those words of Spinoza, of whom I know so little but always think I am going to look him up and know more about him, wherein he says, “I can not believe that the good of this life lies in the possession of those things which for one man to possess is for others to lose, but rather in those things which all may possess alike and where each man’s prosperity increases his neighbor’s.” Do I need to explain that this applies more beautifully, more com¬ pletely to the arts, to the arts of time and space, to the arts we can enjoy together than to anything else on earth? No. You see an audience listen¬ ing to beautiful music, enjoying it together; look at our collections, people can go to see paintings and sculpture and enjoy them together. It is mate¬ rial things that separate us. It is the spiritual things which unite us and I am persuaded we are on the threshold of one of the greatest of all the world’s renaissances, that America is going to see beauty, and seeing it is going to love it and live it. EQUAL OPPORTUNITY AND AGRICULTURE ARTHUR M. HYDE, SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE It is now seven years since I appeared before this body. I was then engaged on a program for the better support of the rural schools of my home state. It was a fight to establish an adequate financial basis under the one room schoolhouses of Missouri. Out of that fight, came an abiding lesson. We could and did give to the farmers of the school districts the power to increase their schools. We unfettered the farmers from their legal impediments but found that they were bound by the unyielding chains of circumstance. They did not have the means, no matter how amiable their desire, to increase their support of their schools. The lesson was that, although everything waits upon education, education must wait on taxes, and taxes for rural schools must wait on the profits of farming. Thus it occurred that my interest in agriculture was intensified by my original interest in rural schools. This is also my reason for speaking to you today on the subject of agriculture. There are those who shudder at the thought that agriculture is doomed and that farmers are about to be reduced to a condition of peonage. They shake sorrowful heads, and point to older peoples of the earth with the admonition that, in the struggle with industrialism agriculture has always gone down. I do not share their fears. Mostly because this is America; because equality of opportunity is an inherent principle of American polity; and because the American farmer has the intelligence and the means at hand to enforce his right to a place of equality in American civilization. 168 National Education Association Nor is there cause for alarm in the trend of population from the farm to industry. The same process is going on in other industries. Shifting of population is not a new phenomenon. It has been in process in America for a hundred years, and has been accompanied by a rising standard of living. The number of farmers engaged in agriculture is not the main con¬ sideration. We are not primarily concerned with numbers. We seek happier and more prosperous homes. It is no service to the farm family to keep it on the land, at the cost of a declining standard of living. Nor is it a service to the state. If the farmer finds that he can better educate and improve his own condition by enlisting in the ranks of industry, it is the business of the state only to keep open the door that he may do so. The same can be as truly said of those who seek the farm. The public interest begins and ends in happier and better prepared citizens. Our viewpoint upon the study of agricultural problems is that of the time honored doctrine that every man is entitled to an equal opportunity to enjoy an American standard of living. The mere approach to the problem is difficult. Agriculture is not one unit ; it is as many units as there are agricultural products. Each farm product presents its own distinctive array of problems. Agriculture is sprawled entirely across the continent. It is split into 6,000,000 independ¬ ent producing plants, or farms, each captained and managed by that most independent and individualistic of men, the American farmer. It com¬ petes not alone with industry, but within itself ; not alone with a foreign standard of living, but with the varying standards of its various sections. The plight of agriculture is partly due to the readjustments of modern life and industry. These have been going on for four or five decades. The aftermath of war brought staggering losses and intensified the weak¬ ness of its position. Farmers had to pay loans of inflated money with deflated products. The rise in wages bore heavily upon the farm, not alone because of high farm wages but more largely because of the increased cost of everything the farmer purchased. Heavier taxes, due primarily to roads and schools, added to an already heavy burden. I sometimes think that every modern adjustment has operated in some degree to the detriment of farming. In many ways the world in which we live today is not the one into which we were born. Life is faster and more complex. We have length¬ ened and strengthened our arms with machinery and horse power. We have speeded our transportation with automobiles and airplanes. We have increased the range of our voices with telephones and radio. In every field of activity, this process is going on. The industry of fifty years ago was a mere infant in comparison with industry today. Its organization was the simple one of master and servant; its output was mostly handwork aided by a few simple mechanisms. In the pro¬ fessions, the change is no less marked. A measurable comparison would be to see the dear old country doctor with his black medicine bag against General Sessions 169 the modern hospital with its staff of experts and its equipment of scientific apparatus. Business that in my youth was respectable with age and service, and which seemed founded upon the Gibraltar of economic necessity, has been toppled into the scrapheap by mild and soft spoken gentlemen working with bifocals and test tubes in laboratories. Buggies have been superseded. Livery stables are no more. Mining is now a matter of chemistry and mechanics. Consider, too, the displacements made and the problems created by the automobile, the telephone, the phonograph, the airplane, the movies, and the latest marvel, the radio. Of all this, research and invention are moving causes. The development of the automobile took out of the farm budget most of the vast sums which were formerly realized from sales of horses and mules. It also reduced the consumption of grains and forage crops. Less shoe leather was needed. Even the vogue of girlish figures among the fair sex has had its reflex in the case books of the farm. So has silken hose. The dicta of the dieticians, which now run to milk and vegetables, have helped to write the bank balances of wheat farmers in red ink. The man¬ ufacturer of rayon is no friend of cotton, or of wool, or of silk — and so it goes. We have been proud to say that agriculture is not merely an industry, but also a mode of living. We have had in mind the old time farm family, clustered in its isolated cohesiveness around the family fireplace or the kitchen table. It was a selfsufficient unit; its table spread with good things from its own fields, prepared in its own kitchen, served by its own people. It needed little money because it consumed little that it did not itself produce. And it served America. It contributed to the roster of America’s roll of honor, most of its shining names. It was the center of American life — morally, socially, politically. Its products not only fed America, but for many years formed the backlog of our balance of trade. It was the eco¬ nomic force which held the ramparts while our modern industrialism was gathering force and direction. But as a selfsufficient unit, it is passing. Much as we may mourn the fact, modern economic adjustments are undermining it as a means of living. The farm family has exchanged its homespuns for ready-to-wear clothing. Home-made bread — food for the gods — is being slowly replaced by the greater convenience of bakery bread made by factory methods. In the many changes such as these lies a revolution of method which has abolished local flour mills, made business for railroads, congested labor in highly organized factories, increased the farmer’s need for cash, de¬ veloped the one crop farmer and industrialized the character of agriculture. Not only is agriculture affected by competition with industry, but it is in competition within itself. Obviously, if your breakfast consisted of oat¬ meal and eggs, the wheat farmer and the hog producer profited none at all. If you ate a grapefruit or a banana, you created no demand for the apple grower. Similarly with wool and cotton. 170 National Education Association There is a sad link, too, in the elasticity of the human appetite. Cam¬ paigns to eat more of this, if successful at all, mean eat less of that. It seems to be a law as inexorable and as ruthless as other laws of nature that the only possible way to enlarge the human appetite is through the creation of more mouths to feed. There is scant hope of increasing the capacity of the human stomach. America has held it to be economically wrong to permit land to exist without a farm family on it. We have dealt out our lands with a prodigal hand. We have given them to homesteaders, presented them as bonuses to soldiers, offered them through lotteries, opened new areas with brass bands. We have poured millions into drainage districts and reclamation projects. All of this was economically sound as long as we could produce farm commodities cheaply enough to sell at a profit on the world market. But now our costs have risen, our capital investment is too great, our overhead expenses per family are too high, to produce profitably for the world market. We awake to find ourselves with an agricultural plant too large for our domestic needs. The distribution of farm products is, to a large extent, wasteful and in¬ efficient. The faults of the system of farm marketing, if system it can be called, cannot be blamed upon anybody in particular. Like Topsy, it “just growed.” What chance of success would the manufacturer of automobiles, or of cash registers, or of any other industrial product, have, if their out¬ put had to sell at the factory door to the best bidder, or had to pass through many middlemen before it reached the consumer. And yet, with some striking exceptions, this is exactly what happens to farm products. It is trite, but true, that the farmer sells in a market over which he has little control and in which his voice is seldom heard. Probably the most profound of all changes wrought has been accom¬ plished by that combined juggernaut and benefactor — organization. Great is organization, and great is American idolatry of it. At one and the same time, it blesses and burns, distributes its gifts and assesses its penalties. Yet we worship at its shrine. Organization of industry has taken into its maw thousands of indi¬ vidualistic human beings, assigned to each a small segment of mechanical production, built them into resistless force, and turned out standardized but good products in infinite variety at a constantly lowering cost. Organi¬ zation is the accepted mode for the exertion of mass pressure behind every interest. From industry to Rotary, from religion to politics, America is in various degrees organized. We Americans are at once the most individualistic human beings on earth, and the greatest believers in organization. And why not? It has taken its toll from us in certain attributes, but it has given us homes, a high standard of living, schools which are models of efficiency, and an industrial develop¬ ment which is the envy of the world. The perpetual paradox of organiza¬ tion is that, by the sacrifice of some of his personal rights, the individual finds a greater freedom. General Sessions 171 In all this, agriculture has been laggard. Of all the methods of earning a livelihood, agriculture was the industry of all others, which fifty years ago seemed founded upon the rock of everlasting strength. It was not only the industry of most ancient respectability, and greatest service, but it seemed to have the greatest inherent strength, the most persistent and inexhaustible demand for its products. Its only problem was to increase production. Measured by any scale of investment, respectability, size, or service, agri¬ culture is still preeminent. But it has not escaped the pains and penalties of the changes and readjustments to modern conditions. Its problems are no longer merely those of production. Many and various and complex are the problems which beset it, and which it must meet before it regains its place in the sun of economic equality with other industries. On the production side of his business, the American farmer has fully kept pace with the progress of industry. He is the most efficient farmer in the world. In numbers he is one-twentieth of the world’s farmers, but he produces two-thirds of the world’s corn, three-fifths of the world’s cotton, one-half of its tobacco, one-third of its hogs, one-third of its poultry, one- fourth of its oats, one-fifth of its wheat, one-seventh of its cattle, and one- tenth of its sheep. His other contributions, while small in percentage of the world’s totals, yet bulk large in the feeding of his own nation. Measured against his own performance, the farmer has increased his efficiency. In the last ten j^ears he has increased his output per man by thirty percent. In the face of a declining farm population and an increased urban or consuming population, he has successfully supplied the nation’s needs, and produced a surplus in many crops in addition. And in that surplus lies one of his problems. Start at any given point in your reasoning with regard to any farm commodity, of which an annual surplus is produced and your logic will land you irrevocably at grips with the problem of a surplus. In 1925, 676 million bushels of wheat sold for approximately eleven billion dollars. In 1928, 903 million bushels of wheat sold for less than ten billion dollars. A crop of 227 million bushels more wheat sold for over one billion dollars less money. Many instances of similar character could be cited. From strawberries through the whole range of products to and including cotton, the same stubborn fact exists. The surplus which so seriously depresses the price is one of the important elements of farm problems. If there is no surplus, there is no problem as to that commodity, except such problems as relate to marketing. Absent the surplus, the farmer has the benefit of the home market. It is the surplus which in wheat must sell at world prices, less the transportation costs, and which places American agriculture in the ruthless grip of the inexorable law of supply and demand. Unless wheat can be produced so cheaply as to sell the surplus at a profit on the world market, there will be distress among the wheat growers. Around the problem of disposing of or preventing a surplus the whole political battle of agriculture has revolved. The equalization fee was a de¬ vice to dump the surplus on the world market at a loss, and pass the loss 172 National Education Association back to the producer of the crop. The debenture plan created a subsidy, the theoretical object of which is to raise the domestic price and dump the surplus, the loss to be paid out of the federal treasury. Both plans have the same fatal weakness. They stimulate production. They falsely assume that the foreign market can absorb the increase without depressing the price. They proceed on the benign thought that foreign nations will permit the demoralization of their markets to the detriment of their own nationals. Both plans have within them the seeds of their own undoing. Under either, production would be stimulated, the world supply would be increased, the world price depressed, and thus the vicious circle would land us back at the starting point with little except an increased production and an aggra¬ vated problem to show for our pains. American agriculture cannot afford to entrust its future upon any base so flimsy and unstable. These, in sketchy fashion, are some of the elements in the problem of agriculture. They constitute a challenging but not insuperable array. The answer to them is not going to be found “in the back of the book” nor in any single scheme of statecraft. No single answer exists because the problem presented is not single. The farm problem is not one problem, but scores of problems grouped about each of a score of different farm commodi¬ ties. Nevertheless, there are some measures which will be generally beneficial. The tariff as a means of protecting the home market for the home producer will help. It is both economically sound and morally right that the Ameri¬ can farmer shall have the entire domestic market. The development of inland waterways, farm-to-market roads and other methods of cheaper transportation will help. Research, broadly and practically carried forward to find new markets, new uses for general farm products, and profitable uses for waste products will help. Further development of reclamation projects, either by irrigation or drain¬ age, should await the time when such action is economically necessary. It is profitless to new areas to open them to agricultural development and production. Their products, coming on a market which is already supplied, will not be profitable to any such new area; and they will depress the agriculture of areas already developed. There exists now a vast acreage of submarginal lands, which is cultivated at the expense of a low standard of living, and which is really needed for reforestation, in aid of flood con¬ trol and the preservation of such lands for succeeding generations which may conceivably need them. Theoretically, to limit production to the basis of domestic needs would raise the price of any commodity upon which a tariff exists. No power on earth exists to compel such reduction. Whatever is done in this regard must be done by the farmer himself of his own volition. So far as practicable, we desire to keep the farm family on the farm. We have no right to hold it there to its own disadvantage. Certainly there is nothing economically sound or socially desirable about producing crops to sell at less than the cost of producing them. General Sessions 173 One general answer to farm problems is organization — organization to control marketing, to standardize output, to eliminate the waste and duplica¬ tion of a marketing and distributing system which, generally speaking, ab¬ sorbs two dollars for every one dollar it returns to the farmer. Thus the farmer can approximate the position of industry, or of other groups. By the long arm of his own organization, the farmer can make himself felt beyond his line fences and in the markets of the world. Through his organi¬ zation, the farmer can get information as to commodity supplies, can bring his production within the limits of demand, can control the surplus problem by preventing it. By organization the farmer can take control of his own industry; reestablish the independence of his calling; win his own place in the sun of economic equality, and having won it, hold it against all the changing vicissitudes of the future. To assist in the organization of agriculture; to take the problems of the various farm commodities out of the realm of politics and partisan bicker¬ ing, and to meet them in the realm of economics ; to set up an authorita¬ tive tribunal which shall study each separate problem, and afford leader¬ ship for agriculture in all its phases ; and to do this, not by subsidy nor by governmental dabbling in business, but by helping the farmer to help himself through his own organizations — this is the aim and purpose of the Farm Relief Bill. In all the history of America, there has been no program and no legisla¬ tion in aid of any industry comparable with it. Never has a President here¬ tofore called a special session of Congress to deal with the problems of one class or calling. President Hoover not only called the session but he charged it in a specific message to deal primarily and almost exclusively with the needs of agriculture. In his campaign, he advocated almost precisely the bill which was passed. He has favored clothing the farm board with broader powers, defined with less limitation, than have been possessed by any board ever created in the Government. He has backed his faith by authorizing the use of $500,000,000 to effect the purpose of equalizing the economic position of agriculture. He has acted promptly, generously, and wisely. The board does not buy or sell. It has no right to engage in business. Its job is to foster the organization of agriculture, to finance farmer-owned and farmer-controled cooperatives, which may buy, sell, process or store farm commodities. The board serves in exactly the same capacity as a supervising architect serves the builder of a skyscraper or a bridge. The builder must provide the necessary funds and a proper plan. The supervising architect must find the answer to technical questions and see the job through. Precisely this plain, simple, practical scheme has been fostered and set up by the states¬ manship of President Hoover. The plan is made ; the funds provided ; the board is ready to supervise the job. Rome was not built in a day, nor will agriculture be emancipated over night. Much depends upon the character and ability of the men who 174 National Education Association compose the board. But much depends, too, upon the cooperative associa¬ tions which are already formed, or will hereafter be formed. The board cannot function on its own account. The initiative lies with the farm co¬ operative associations. It is not an evasion of responsibility, but a statement of fact to say that the success of the farm bill depends upon teamwork between the board and the farm cooperatives, in whose aid the legislation was designed and around whom it is built. I know it will be said that it cannot be done ; that agriculture is too far flung; is composed of too many millions of units; is too individualistic ever to stand organization. But is it ? Has the attempt ever been seriously and persistently made? Has not the effort been rather to find a magic cure-all by legislation which will by some mysterious wizardry whisk the surplus out of the way, leaving agriculture the pleasing task of increasing the next surplus ? Is not the stake great enough to justify the undertaking? Let us not for¬ get that the sine qua non of successful agriculture is not merely farming, but profit. We seek prosperous farms able to maintain good schools and afford to present and future Americans an American standard of living. In one of his campaign speeches, President Hoover uttered this inspiring sentiment : My conception of America is a land where men and women may walk in ordered freedom in the independent conduct of their occupations; where they may enjoy the advantages of wealth, not concentrated in the hands of a few, but spread through the lives of all ; where they may build and safeguard their homes, and give their children the fullest advantages and opportunities of American life; . . . . where a contented and happy people, secure in their liberties, free from poverty and fear, shall have their leisure and the impulse to seek a higher life. In this statement is the essence of our national aspiration. America be¬ lieves that its hopes and its purposes will be soonest achieved through a guaranty of equal opportunity to every man, leaving it to each American to climb as high and achieve as greatly as his merits and his industry will permit. The sum of the achievements of our citizens is national accomplish¬ ment. This nation, under God, has been blessed beyond the dreams of avarice. The smoke plumes of its factories write upon the sky a story of busy indus¬ try and of prosperity. The average man enjoys a higher standard of living than was ever enjoyed by any nation in history. The good things of life are more broadly and less unevenly distributed. The creative industry of the nation is more widely owned than ever before. Buyers and borrowers of other nations throng our markets and draw upon our stores of goods and of accumulated capital. In all of this, there is, there must be a place of economic equality and opportunity for the American farmer. His is the most creative, the most vital, and the most serviceable of all occupations. There are, happily, many thousands of prosperous farmers, but agriculture as a whole has had too General Sessions 175 small a share of national prosperity. This nation cannot afford to view with complacency any inequality among its own people. We have poured out our wealth with quick sympathy for the stricken among the other nations of the earth. We spent billions of money and oceans of blood and tears in a struggle across the sea, to defend our con¬ ception of political equality, and it is worth whatever expenditure of effort and national treasure may be required to guarantee equality of economic opportunity for all American citizens. There was a time in history when the cry “1 am a Roman citizen” brought to the aid of the distressed citizen every other Roman within earshot. I appeal to this association, in the exercise of its great nationwide influence, to aid, by precept and example, in soundly and constructively answering the equally compelling cry “I am an American farmer.” ' Reports of Committees FINAL REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON ETHICS OF THE PROFESSION— ABSTRACT SARAH T. MUIR, LINCOLN, NEBRASKA, CHAIRMAN Introduction. The committee on ethics of the profession herewith presents for the consideration of the National Education Association a code of ethics for the profession of teaching. It has been four years in the making. The committee recommends that it be discharged and that this its final report be accepted by the delegate assembly and that this code be adopted as the code of ethics of the National Education Association. CODE OF ETHICS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIA¬ TION OF THE UNITED STATES Preamble In order that the aims of education may be realized more fully, that the welfare of the teaching profession may be promoted, that teachers may know what is considered proper procedure, and may bring to their pro¬ fessional relations high standards of conduct, the National Education Asso¬ ciation of the United States has developed this code of ethics.1 Article 1 — Relations with Pupils and to the Community Section 1. The schoolroom is not the proper theatre for religious, political, or personal propaganda. The teacher should exercise his full rights as a citizen but he should avoid controversies which may tend to decrease his value as a teacher. Section 2. The teacher should not permit his educational work to be used for partisan politics, personal gain, or selfish propaganda of any kind. Section 3. In instructional, administrative, and other relations with pupils, the teacher should be impartial, just, and professional. The teacher should consider the different interests, aptitudes, abilities, and social en¬ vironments of pupils. Section 4. The professional relations of the teacher with his pupils demand the same scrupulous guarding of confidential and official informa¬ tion as is observed by members of other long-established professions. Section 5. The teacher should seek to establish friendly and intelli¬ gent cooperation between the home and the school. Section 6. The teacher should not tutor pupils of his classes for pay. - 1 The term “teacher” as used in this code is intended to include every person directly engaged in educational work whether in a teaching, an adminis rative, or a supervisor}- capacity. [ U9] 180 National Education Association Article II — Relations to the Profession Section 1. Members of the teaching profession should dignify their calling in every way. The teacher should encourage the ablest to enter it, and discourage from entering those who are merely using the teaching pro¬ fession as a stepping stone to some other vocation. Section 2. The teacher should maintain his efficiency and teaching skill by study, and by contact with local, state, and national educational organi¬ zations. Section 3. A teacher’s own life should show that education does ennoble. Section 4. While not limiting his services by reason of small salary, the teacher should insist upon a salary scale suitable to his place in society. Section 5. The teacher should not exploit his school or himself by per¬ sonally inspired press notices or advertisements, or by other unprofessional means, and should avoid innuendo and criticism particularly of successors or predecessors. Section 6. The teacher should not apply for another position for the sole purpose of forcing an increase in salary in his present position. Corre¬ spondingly, school officials should not pursue a policy of refusing to give deserved salary increases to their employees until offers from other school systems have forced them to do so. Section 7. The teacher should not act as an agent, or accept a com¬ mission, royalty, or other reward, for books or supplies in the selection or purchase of which he can influence or exercise the right of decision ; nor should he accept a commission or other compensation for helping another teacher to secure a position. Article III — Relations to Members of the Profession Section 1. A teacher should avoid unfavorable criticism of other teach¬ ers except such as is formally presented to a school official in the interests of the school. It is also unprofessional to fail to report to duly constituted authority any matters which involve the best interests of the school. Section 2. A teacher should not interfere between another teacher and a pupil in matters such as discipline or marking. Section 3. There should be cooperation between administrators and classroom teachers, founded upon sympathy for each other’s point of view and recognition of the administrator’s right to leadership and the teacher’s right to selfexpression. Both teachers and administrators should observe professional courtesy by transacting official business with the properly designated person next in rank. Section 4. The teacher should not apply for a specific position unless a vacancy exists. Unless the rules of the school otherwise prescribe, he should apply for a teaching position to the chief executive. He should not know¬ ingly underbid a rival in order to secure a position ; neither should he knowingly underbid a salary schedule. Reports of Committees 181 Section 5. Qualification should be the sole determining factor in ap¬ pointment and promotion. School officials should encourage and carefully nurture the professional growth of worthy teachers by recommending pro¬ motion, either in their own school or in other schools. For school officials to fail to recommend a worthy teacher for another position because they do not desire to lose his services is unethical. Section 6. Testimonials regarding a teacher should be frank, candid, and confidential. Section 7. A contract, once signed, should be faithfully adhered to until it is dissolved by mutual consent. In case of emergency, the thoughtful consideration which business sanction demands should be given by both parties to the contract. Section 8. Due notification should be given by school officials and teachers in case a change in position is to be made. Recommendation of Committee Concerning Code The committee on ethics of the profession recommends that the follow¬ ing steps be taken by the National Education Association and by state and local associations in order to make known, to interpret, and to enforce. this code of ethics. 1. In order that the code may be made known to all teachers, partic¬ ularly to those who are entering the profession, each institution for the training of teachers should give every student the opportunity of becoming familiar with its provisions. Other practical means for making the code known are by publishing it from time to time in pedagogical magazines, and by discussing it at teachers institutes and similar meetings. 2. Each state teachers organization should establish a committee on professional ethics. This committee should be given the duty of interpret¬ ing the code, of investigating reported violations of the code, and of secur¬ ing the cooperation of all members of the profession in abiding by the code. Each teacher should regard as an obligation the necessity of reporting to this committee any cases of unprofessional conduct which may come under his observation. Before making a decision against the accused the commit¬ tee should give him an opportunity to be heard. When appropriate to do so, the findings of the committee on such cases should be published in the magazine of the state organization ; to prevent identification, except when identification is advisable, capital letters or other symbols may be used instead of names and places. The provisions which a typical state teachers association has already made for such a committee are quoted herewith : There shall be a permanent commission on professional ethics operating under the Massachusetts Teachers Federation. This commission shall consist of the 182 National Education Association president and the secretary of the federation, ex officio, and five other members of the profession appointed by the president, with terms of five years each, the term of each member expiring successively on the date of the annual meeting of the federation each year. It shall be the duty of this commission to study the various problems of pro¬ fessional ethics arising from time to time, to give to inquiring members of the pro¬ fession its interpretation of the meaning of various principles in this code, to make recommendations to the board of directors of the state federation concerning investigations rendered advisable in connection with this code, and in general to have oversight of all questions arising in connection with the ethics of the teaching profession within the state. ¥ The 1928-29 Investigation Scope and plan of the investigation — In January, 1928 the committee mailed the following letter together with a copy of the accompanying ques¬ tionnaire to 3145 members of the teaching profession. The number of questionnaires which were sent to each state was based upon the percentage of the total membership of the National Education Association which each state had. The list of members to whom the questionnaire was sent in each state wTas furnished by the secretary of the state teachers association. THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1201 Sixteenth Street Washington, D. C. Sarah T. Muir, Chairman 1801 South 17th Street Committee on Ethics Lincoln, Nebraska To members of the teaching profession: The committee on ethics of the profession of the National Education Association is undertaking a study of professional ethics for teachers with the expectation of securing information which it will use in designing a code to be recommended for adoption by the National Education Association. Any code of ethics to be worth while, and to secure the approval of the members of the profession, must represent a cross section of the highest ideals of the members of the profession. We have seen no method of securing your assistance except through the use of the question¬ naire. The committee has formulated a select list of 4000 teachers, principals, state and local superintendents, and other members of the profession to whom to send this questionnaire. Your name is on that list. It will require a few minutes to write your answers, but you may be sure that in giving such time you will be contributing something toward the advancement of the profession. We plead for an answer to our questionnaire from each one of the 4000 to whom it is sent and for the response within the next ten days. Any information which you give will be kept confidential. Please return the questionnaire to Professor Ward G. Reeder, Ohio State Uni¬ versity, Columbus, Ohio. Mr. Reeder is secretary of the committee and will supervise the tabulation of the material. Sincerely yours, Sarah T. Muir, Chairman. Reports of Committees 183 Is it ethical Yes No De¬ pends 1. To apply for a position not. known to be vacant? . 2. For a teacher to apply for a position directly to a board instead of to the superintendent or to a similar executive? . 3. To accept a position from which the immediately preceding occupant was dismissed unjustlv? . 4. To fail to withdraw outstanding applications when a position has been accepted? . 5. To accept a position in a community where a relative is a member of the hoard nr is superintendent of schools? . 6. For a school official to fail to recommend one of his teachers for a position in another community because he does not want to lose her sendees? . 7. For a school official to go to a teacher to persuade her to accept a position with him, before he has conferred with her present officials? . . 8. To issue nr use a “to-whom-it-may-concern” testimonial? . 9. To fail to give all pertinent facts when writing recommendations?. . . . 10. To hid or underhid for a position? . 11. To seek an offer elsewhere for the purpose of securing advancement in one’s present position? . 12. To enter a combination to force increases in salaries? . 13. To hreak a contract to accept another position? . 14. To dismiss, or recommend for dismissal, a teacher without giving her ample notice and an opportunity to he heard? . 1 * 15. To endeavor to secure or to maintain position by innuendo, exploita¬ tion complimentary press notices or advertising? . 16. To discuss deficiencies of pupils in such a way as would embarrass them or their parents? . 17. To teach one’s religious, political, or other private beliefs to pupils?. . 18. To accept pay for tiitorin? one’s own pupils? . 19. To accept gifts from pupils? . 20. To accept pupils expelled from other schools until the expelling authority has heen consulted? . 21. For school officials not to consult their subordinates before they make policies? . 22. To go “over the heads” of one’s superiors? . 23. To fail to support school policies until they are changed even though one does not acree with them? . 24. To violate official correspondence or conversation among teachers?. . . 25. For school officials to change pupils’ marks? . 26. For school officials to take the side of pupils against teachers? . 27. For one teacher to mark the work of a pupil in another teacher’s class or to interfere in disciplinary or other problems? . 28. To fail to defend members of the profession when they are unjustly attacked? . 29. To censure and disclose unprofessional or immoral conduct, including inefficiency, within the profession? . 30. To fail to be a progressive student of education? . 31. To fail to encourage the fit to enter, and to discourage the unfit from entering the profession? . 32. To use the profession as a stepping stone to other professions or voca¬ tions? . 33. To criticise the profession? . 34. To do more than to vote for candidates in a political campaign? . 35. To engage in a practise of recreation, dress, etc., of which the com¬ munity does not. approve? . 36. To tail to participate in activities tor community betterment? . 37. To write general testimonials for salesmen? . 38. To solicit sample textbooks? . 39. To act as an agent for, or receive a commission, royalty, or anything ot value from books or supplies in the purchase of which he or she exercises official decision? . A LIST OF COMMON UNETHICAL PRACTISES Please list here in the order of their seriousness and frequency the six most unethical practises which you have observed that teachers, principals, supervisors, and superintendents most fre¬ quently engage in and of which you think that a code of ethics should take cognizance. Ml vu (A\ W /rr\ W/ Positiot 1 184 National Education Association In making up his list the secretary was requested to include in it repre¬ sentatives of the various types of educational positions — teaching, super¬ vision, and administration. As the questionnaires came in, they were placed in three groups, namely, chief executives, administrative subordinates, and classroom teachers. Un¬ der chief executives were classed all persons who hold chief executive posi¬ tions, such as, presidencies of colleges and universities, and superintendencies of schools. Lnder administrative subordinates were placed such persons as assistant superintendent of schools, school principals, and college or uni¬ versity deans. Under classroom teachers were placed all persons not in¬ cluded in the two groups just mentioned. The responses of the members of each of three groups were tabulated separately. From the 3145 questionnaires which were sent there were 1606 replies. The number of replies may be considered fairly satisfactory in view of the fact that a followup to the questionnaire was not sent to those persons who did not respond. Five hundred and sixteen replies came from chief execu¬ tives; 444 from administrative subordinates; and 646 from classroom teachers. Replies to the 39 questions — A glance at the questionnaire will show that 39 more or less common practises of members of the profession were listed, and recipients of the questionnaire were requested to indicate by a check mark which of those 39 practises were considered ethical and which were considered unethical.1 If the recipient of the questionnaire thought that the validity of the practise “depends” on circumstances, he was re¬ quested to check the “Depends” column, and to explain his views. Table II summarizes the votes of the classroom teachers; Table III, the votes of the administrative subordinates; and Table IV, the votes of the chief executives. Classroom teachers, administrative subordinates, and chief executives agree in placing the practise listed as number six in the questionnaire at the head of unethical practises. That practise, “for a school official to fail to recommend one of his teachers for a position in another community because he does not want to lose her services,” is condemned by 95.97 percent of the classroom teachers, 96.40 percent of the administrative subordinates, and 94.57 percent of the chief executives. A glance at the tables will show that qualified statements are made by a small percent in each group. The three groups are likewise in agreement in giving second place in their disapproval to the practise listed as number 24, namely, “to violate official correspondence or conversation among teachers.” Classroom teach¬ ers stand 94.58 percent against the practise ; administrative subordinates, 94.59 percent; and chief executives, 94.57 percent. Chief executives and administrative subordinates both give third place in their votes against practise 15, namely, “to endeavor to secure or to main- 1 These 39 practises were selected primarily from an analysis of the present codes of ethics of the state teachers associations. Reports of Committees 185 tain position by innuendo, exploitation, complimentary press notices, or ad¬ vertising.” Classroom teachers place this fifth. The practise deemed least unethical by all groups is “to accept a position in a community where a relative is a member of the board or is superintend¬ ent of schools.” Rated as thirty-eighth in all lists is the failure to “censure and disclose unprofessional or immoral conduct, including inefficiency, with¬ in the profession.” It may, perhaps, be assumed that this does not imply that teachers condone any of these practises, but that, “censuring and dis¬ closing” such conduct might involve legal procedure not considered within the province of the teacher. It is interesting to note that the three groups voted in harmony on most of the practises. When the rankings of the three groups on the several practises are not identical, the percentages are practically the same. By studying tables 2, 3, and 4 in connection with the 39 practises listed in TABLE II— SUMMARY OF THE VOTES OF CLASSROOM TEACH¬ ERS ON THE 39 PRACTISES. No. of Ques¬ tion To¬ tal “Yes” Per cent “Yes” To¬ tal “No” Per cent “No” To¬ tal de¬ pends un¬ quali¬ fied Per cent de¬ pends un¬ quali¬ fied To¬ tal de¬ pends quali¬ fied Per cent de¬ pends quali¬ fied To¬ tal un- an- swer- ed Per cent un- an- swer- ed To¬ tal re¬ plies 1 . 85 13.15 383 59.28 92 14.24 73 11.30 13 2.01 646 2 . 85 13.15 396 61.30 105 16.25 54 8.35 6 .92 646 3 . 117 18.11 341 52.78 105 16.25 68 10.52 15 2.32 646 4 . 59 9.13 537 83.12 22 3.40 16 2.47 12 1.85 646 5 . 303 46.90 152 23.52 114 17.64 67 10.37 10 1.54 646 6 . 17 2.63 620 95.97 2 .30 5 .77 2 .30 646 7 . 107 16.56 440 68.11 51 7.89 32 4.95 16 2.47 646 S . 226 34.98 289 44.73 61 9.44 40 6.19 30 4.64 646 9 . 37 5.72 509 78.79 58 8.97 29 4.48 13 2.01 646 10 . 42 6.50 556 86.06 20 3.09 16 2.47 12 1.85 646 11 . 207 32.04 333 51.54 69 10.68 28 4.33 9 1.38 646 12 . 121 18.73 290 44.89 148 22.91 71 10.99 16 2.47 646 13 . 22 3.40 427 66.09 97 15.01 80 12.38 20 3.09 646 14 . 9 1.3S 611 94.58 9 1.38 8 1.23 9 1.38 646 15 . 19 2.94 593 91.79 15 2.32 15 2.32 4 .61 646 16 . 14 . 2.16 602 93.18 18 2.78 11 1.70 1 .15 646 17 . 12 1.85 592 91.64 12 1.85 22 3.40 S 1.23 646 18 . 59 9.13 408 63.15 104 16.09 68 10.52 7 1.08 646 19 . 144 22.29 184 28.48 189 29.25 112 17.33 17 2.63 646 20 . 29 4.48 568 87.92 22 3.40 20 3.09 7 1.08 646 21 . 104 16.09 376 5S.20 87 13.46 67 10.37 12 1.85 646 22 . 17 2.63 426 65.94 105 16.25 81 12.53 17 2.63 646 23 . 28 4.33 532 82.35 52 S . 04 23 3.56 11 1.70 646 24 . 12 1.85 611 94.58 3 .46 2 .30 18 2.78 646 25 . 10 1.54 544 84.21 53 8.20 28 4.33 11 1.70 646 26 . 11 1.70 376 58.20 138 21.36 106 16.40 15 2.32 646 27 . 10 1.54 590 91.33 20 3.09 21 3.25 5 .77 646 2S . 18 2.78 591 91.48 22 3.40 10 1.54 5 .77 646 29 . 294 45.51 173 26.78 103 15.94 62 9.59 14 2.16 646 30 . 25 3.86 586 90.71 14 2.16 4 .61 17 2.63 646 31 . 67 10.37 518 SO. 18 22 3.40 13 2.01 26 4.02 646 32 . 173 26. 7S 263 40.71 122 18. SS 78 12.07 10 1.54 646 33 . 134 20.74 301 46.59 98 15.17 91 14.08 22 3.40 646 34 . 245 37.92 206 31. S8 118 18.26 60 9.28 17 2.63 646 35 . 43 6.65 417 64.55 103 15.94 61 1.44 22 3.40 646 36 . 29 4.48 503 77.86 57 8.82 38 5.88 19 2.94 646 37 . 46 7.12 495 76.62 56 8.66 27 4.17 22 3.40 646 38 . 142 21.98 313 48.45 114 17.64 57 8.82 20 3.09 646 39 . 20 3.09 594 91.95 17 2.63 11 1.70 4 .61 646 186 National Education Association the questionnaire, the reader will be able to secure a complete summary of this particular portion of the investigation. Comments on the practises — If the recipient of the questionnaire deemed that the validity of any practise depends upon circumstances he was requested to check the “depends" column of the questionnaire and to explain why he thought the practise depends on circumstances. These qualifications and ex¬ planations constituted one of the most interesting and valuable parts of the data secured ; they were particularly helpful in formulating the code of ethics herein recommended. All of these qualifications and explanations were typewritten under proper headings. For example, all the comments which applied to practise number one of the questionnaire were placed together ; the same procedure was followed with reference to each of the remaining practises. Moreover, the comments of the classroom teachers, the administrative subordinates, and the chief executives were kept separate. TABLE III— SUMMARY OF THE VOTES OF ADMINISTRATIVE SUBORDINATES ON THE 39 PRACTISES. No. Ques¬ tion Tor tal “Yes” Per cent “Yes” To¬ tal “No” Per cent “No” To¬ tal de¬ pends un¬ quali¬ fied Per cent de¬ pends un¬ quali¬ fied To¬ tal de¬ pends quali¬ fied Per cent de¬ pends quali¬ fied To¬ tal un- an- swer- ed Per cent un- an- swer- ed To¬ tal re¬ plies 1 . 42 9.46 294 66.22 67 15.09 34 7.66 7 1.58 444 2 . 36 8.11 318 71.62 66 14.86 20 4.50 4 .90 444 3 . 119 26.80 199 44.82 94 21.17 29 6.53 3 .68 444 4 . 46 10.36 375 84.46 12 2.70 4 .90 7 1.58 444 5 . 197 44.36 84 18.92 122 27.48 37 8.33 4 .90 444 6 . 7 1.58 428 96.40 7 1.58 1 .23 1 .23 444 7 . 64 14.41 329 74.10 36 8.11 ' 12 2.70 3 .68 444 8 . 170 38.29 182 40.99 65 14.64 17 3.83 10 2.25 444 9 . 44 9.91 330 74.32 50 11.26 16 3.60 4 .90 444 10 . 24 5.41 374 84.23 29 6.53 6 1.35 11 2.48 444 11 . 121 27.25 255 57.43 52 11.71 12 2.70 4 .90 444 12 . 74 16.67 225 50.68 113 25.45 24 5.41 8 1.80 444 13 . 24 5.41 298 67.12 84 18.92 31 6.98 7 1.58 444 14 . 11 2.48 411 92.57 16 3.60 5 1.13 1 .23 444 15 . 9 2.03 418 94. 14 11 2.48 4 .90 2 .45 444 16 . 8 1.80 413 93.02 19 4.28 3 .68 1 .23 444 17 . 7 1.58 415 93.47 11 2.48 10 2.25 1 .23 444 18 . 37 8.33 313 70.50 64 14.41 28 6.31 2 .45 444 19 . 104 23.42 125 28.15 165 37.16 38 8.56 12 2.70 444 20 . 21 4.73 371 83.56 41 9.23 9 2.03 2 .45 444 21 . 91 20.50 229 51.58 90 20.27 26 5.86 8 1.80 444 22 . 7 1.58 331 74.55 73 16.44 27 6.08 6 1.35 444 23 . 14 3.15 388 87.39 28 6.31 7 1.58 7 1.58 444 24 . 8 1.80 420 94.59 6 1.35 4 .90 6 1.35 444 25 . 10 2.25 361 81.31 52 11.71 14 3.15 7 1.58 444 26 . 8 1.80 238 53.60 137 30.86 44 9.91 17 3.83 444 27 . 6 1.35 413 93.02 16 3.60 4 .90 5 1.13 444 28 . 15 3.38 400 90.09 20 4.50 6 1.35 3 .68 444 29 . 237 53.37 101 22.75 79 17.79 21 4.73 6 1.35 444 30 . 22 4.95 390 87.84 14 3. 15 4 .90 14 3.15 444 31 . 60 13.51 340 76.58 26 5.86 4 .90 14 3. 15 444 32 . 113 25.45 202 45.50 90 20.27 30 6.77 9 2.03 444 33 . 119 26.80 188 42.34 91 20.50 36 8.11 10 2.25 444 34 . 175 39.41 128 28.83 97 21.85 30 6.76 14 3. 15 444 35 . 32 7.21 287 64.64 87 19.59 27 6.08 11 2.48 444 36 . 25 5.63 355 79.95 38 8.56 12 2.70 14 3. 15 444 37 . 32 7.21 351 79.05 38 8.56 12 2.70 11 2.48 444 38 . 81 18.24 217 48.87 100 22.52 30 6.76 16 3.60 444 39 . 16 3.60 417 93.92 8 1.80 1 .23 2 .45 444 Reports of Committees 187 The comments just mentioned required 275 single-spaced typewritten pages for the record. Regrets are expressed that the limits set for this report do not permit their inclusion here. A typewritten copy of them is filed with the chairman, Sarah T. Muir, Lincoln High School, Lincoln, Nebraska ; a carbon copy is filed with the secretary, Ward G. Reeder, Ohio State University, Columbus. The most common unethical practises — At the close of the questionnaire a list of common unethical practises was requested, and space was left for recording them. The direction was as follows: "Please list here in the order of their seriousness and frequency the six most unethical practises which you have observed that teachers, principals, supervisors, and super¬ intendents most frequently engage in and of which you think that a code of ethics should take cognizance.” Only a few" of the returned questionnaires failed to give the information above requested. Three hundred twenty-seven different unethical practises were mentioned, these having a total frequency of 4670. These practises TABLE IV— SUMMARY OF THE VOTES OF CHIEF EXECUTIVES ON THE 39 PRACTISES. No. of Ques¬ tion To¬ tal “Yes” Per cent “Yes” To¬ tal “No” Per cent “No” To¬ tal de¬ pends un¬ quali¬ fied Per cent de¬ pends un¬ quali¬ fied To¬ tal de¬ pends quali¬ fied Per cent de¬ pends quali¬ fied To¬ tal un- an- swer- ed Per cent un- an- swer- ed To¬ tal re¬ plies 1 . 27 5.23 372 # 72.09 77 14.92 31 6.01 9 1.74 516 2 . 54 10.47 341 66.09 99 19.19 18 3.49 4 .78 516 3 . 145 28.10 175 33.91 151 29.26 40 7.75 5 .97 516 4 . 65 12.60 405 78.49 30 5.81 7 1.36 9 1.74 516 5 . 203 39.34 115 22.29 159 30.81 30 5.81 9 1.74 516 6 . 21 4.07 488 94.57 6 1.16 1 .19 0 .00 516 7 . 62 12.02 388 75.19 49 9.50 11 2.13 6 1.16 516 8 . 179 34.68 211 40.89 89 17.25 21 4.07 16 3.10 516 9 . 46 8.91 365 70.74 84 16.28 15 2.91 6 1.16 516 10 . 35 6.78 452 87.60 26 5.04 1 .19 2 .39 516 11 . 125 24.22 310 60.08 60 11.63 12 2.33 9 1.74 516 12 . 60 11.63 314 60.85 119 23.06 20 3.88 3 .58 516 13 . 20 3.88 367 71.12 96 18.60 28 5.43 5 .97 516 14 . 17 3.29 448 86.82 43 8.33 6 1.16 2 .39 516 15 . 14 2.71 481 93.22 19 3.68 1 .19 1 .19 516 16 . 13 2.52 477 92.44 22 4.26 2 .39 2 .39 516 17 . 14 2.71 467 90.50 24 4.65 7 1.36 4 .78 516 18 . 31 6.01 354 68.60 98 18.99 23 4.46 10 1.94 516 19 . 130 25.19 162 31.40 187 36.24 23 4.46 14 2.71 516 20 . 31 6.01 407 78.88 57 11.05 14 2.71 7 1.36 516 21 . 88 17.05 265 51.36 118 22.87 28 5.43 17 3.29 516 20 12 2.33 379 73.45 84 16.28 22 4.26 19 3.68 516 23 . 20 3.88 444 86.05 40 7.75 7 1.36 5 .97 516 24 . 17 3.29 488 94.57 2 .39 i .19 8 1.55 516 25 . 17 3.29 415 80.43 60 11.63 12 2.32 12 2.32 516 26 . 13 2.52 284 55.04 166 32.17 39 7.56 14 2.71 516 27 . 11 2.13 461 89.34 36 6.97 4 .78 4 .78 516 28 . 25 4.84 464 89.92 17 3.29 3 .58 7 1.36 516 29 . 270 52.33 119 23.06 96 18.60 23 4.46 8 1.55 516 30 . 33 6.40 441 85.47 17 3.29 6 1.16 19 3.68 516 31 . 72 13.95 389 75.39 30 5.81 6 1.16 19 3.68 516 32 . 101 19.57 231 44.77 140 27.13 29 5.62 15 2.91 516 33 . 119 23.06 210 40.70 149 28.88 24 4.65 14 2.71 516 44 . 186 36.05 143 27.71 153 29.65 25 4.84 9 1.74 516 35 . 34 6.59 342 66.28 116 22.48 15 2.91 9 1.74 516 36 . 24 4.65 412 79.84 60 11 .63 10 1.94 10 1.94 516 37 . 29 5.62 402 77.91 65 12.60 12 2.32 8 1.55 516 38 . 100 19.38 247 47.87 126 24.42 23 4.46 20 3.88 516 39 . 19 3.68 475 92.05 16 3.10 3 .58 3 .58 516 188 National Education Association were classified under the following seven major headings: (1) training and professional growth; (2) seeking and filling positions; (3) salaries and promotions; (4) contracts and tenure; (5) relations of teachers to each other and to the profession at large; (6) relations with the public and pupils; and (7) miscellaneous. The number of different unethical prac¬ tises, and the frequency with which each practise was mentioned by teachers, by administrative subordinates, and by chief executives, are shown in Table 5. TABLE V.— THE NUMBER OF DIFFERENT UNETHICAL PRAC¬ TISES AND THE FREQUENCY OF MENTION BY EACH OF THE THREE GROUPS OF MEMBERS OF THE PROFESSION. Major headings Frequency Number of different unethical practises Classroom teachers Adminis¬ trative subordi¬ nates Chief execu¬ tives Total 1. Training and professional growth. 6 92 52 61 205 II. Seeking and filling positions . 38 226 220 405 851 III. Salaries and promotions . 22 78 74 84 236 IV. Contracts and tenure . 18 130 108 145 383 V. Relations of teachers to each other and to the profession at large . 124 1019 623 653 2295 VI. Relations with the public and pupils . 94 281 183 207 671 VII. Miscellaneous . 25 16 5 8 29 T otal . 327 1842 1265 1563 4670 The table shows that the number of different unethical practises ranged from 6 to 124, and that the frequencies ranged from 29 to 2295. The largest number of practises and of frequencies appears under the heading, “Relations of teachers to each other and to the profession at large;” the smallest number — save the “Miscellaneous” — appears under “Training and professional growth.” The tendency of the members of the profession to agree on the most common unethical practises is shown by the fact that a practise which is frequently mentioned by the members of one group is also frequently mentioned by the members of the other groups; similarly a practise which is infrequently mentioned by the members of one group is infrequently mentioned by the members of the other groups. The frequency with which the practises were mentioned ranged from 1 to 439 times. The average number of times which each practise was men¬ tioned was 14.2. Of the 327 different practises, 111 were mentioned but once; 50 were mentioned but twice; and 53 were mentioned ten times or more. In Table 6 are listed, in order of rank of total frequency, all the practises which were mentioned ten times or more. Reports of Committees 189 TABLE VI.— A LIST OF THE UNETHICAL PRACTISES WHICH WERE MENTIONED TEN TIMES OR MORE. Frequency Name of Practise Classroom teachers Adminis¬ trative subordi¬ nates Chief executives Total Rank Gossiping about and criticizing other teachers . 207 111 121 439 1 Slurring the profession . 152 65 57 274 2 Breaking a contract . 54 60 93 207 3 Applying for positions not known to be vacant . 39 57 109 205 4 Exaggerating qualifications, and fail¬ ure to give all pertinent facts when writing recommendations . 50 41 84 175 5 Cultivating friendship among board members and their families in an attempt to exercise a “pull” . 52 49 64 165 6 Failure to be a progressive student of education . 61 46 57 164 7 Failure to support school policies until they are changed . 51 48 61 160 8 Underbidding for a position . 43 38 69 150 9 Going over the head of an adminis¬ trative superior . 36 52 45 133 10 Discussing pupils in such a way as would embarrass them or their parents . 52 46 29 127 11 Permitting selfish reasons to influence one’s actions toward pupils . 53 21 25 99 12 Possessing bad personal habits . 41 15 42 98 13 Failure to participate in activities for community betterment . 37 31 28 96 14 Using the profession as a stepping stone to another vocation . 43 25 26 94 15 Failure to defend other members of the profession when they are un¬ justly attacked . 39 29 25 93 16 School officials making policies with¬ out consulting their administrative subordinates . 52 21 15 88 17 Dismissing teachers without giving them ample notice and an oppor¬ tunity to be heard . 40 32 14 86 18 Violating official correspondence or conversation . 40 21 14 85 19 Failure to withdraw outstanding ap¬ plications when a position has been secured . 24 15 37 76 20 Endeavoring to secure or maintain position by innuendo, exploitation, complimentary press notices, or ad¬ vertising . 33 14 22 69 21 Applying for a position directly to the board of education instead of to the superintendent . 9 15 28 52 22 A school official going to a teacher to persuade her to accept a position with him before he has conferred with her present officials . 13 7 31 51 23 Securing, or holding, a position through “pull” . 21 19 10 50 24 Failure of school officials to recom¬ mend their teachers for better po¬ sitions in other communities because of disinclination to lose their services. 15 17 17 49 25 Teaching one’s religious, political, or other private beliefs to pupils . 17 11 11 39 26 School officials being influenced by “pull” and politics . 19 13 6 38 27 Issuing and using general testimonials. . 4 5 26 35 28 Accepting a position in a community where a relative is a member of the board of education or superintendent. 11 5 15 31 29 Failure to encourage the fit to enter and to discourage the unfit from entering the profession . 14 4 9 27 30 190 National Education Association TABLE VI.— A LIST OF THE UNETHICAL PRACTISES WHICH WERE MENTIONED TEN TIMES OR MORE— Continued Frequency Name of practise Classroom teachers Adminis¬ trative subordi¬ nates Chief executives Total Rank School officials unjustly taking the side of pupils against teachers . 13 7 5 25 31.5 Conspiring to undermine one’s admin¬ istrative superiors and coworkers. . . 4 18 3 25 31.5 School officials changing marks which teachers have given to pupils . 17 4 3 24 33 Failure to support teachers associations 11 7 5 23 34 Professional jealousy . 7 7 7 21 35.3 Acting as agent for, or receiving a re¬ ward from the purchase of school books, equipment, or supplies over which one has jurisdiction . 10 4 7 21 35.3 Unwarranted solicitation of sample textbooks . 8 5 8 21 35.3 Accepting a position from which the preceding incumbent was dismissed unjustly . 8 3 9 20 38.5 Interfering between another teacher and one of her pupils . 14 2 4 20 38.5 Teaching for salary only . 5 9 4 18 40 Accepting gifts from pupils . 7 5 5 17 41 Admitting pupils expelled from other schools before the expelling author¬ ity has been consulted . 4 5 6 15 42 Permitting and encouraging pupils to make slurring remarks about other teachers . 11 3 1 15 43 Writing testimonials for salesmen . 4 3 7 14 44.5 Permitting teachers to be discharged unjustly without protesting . 10 2 2 14 44.5 ‘‘Passing the buck” . 4 4 5 13 46.3 Applying for positions which one is not qualified to fill . 4 2 7 13 46.3 Failure to censure and disclose unpro¬ fessional or immoral conduct, and inefficiency within the profession. . . . 4 2 7 13 46.3 Gossiping about the community by which one is employed . 4 8 12 49 3 Accepting pay from one’s pupils for tutoring them . 4 8 12 49.3 Permitting other work to interfere with school duties . 5 4 3 12 49.3 Assuming credit which should go to some other person . 6 4 1 11 52 ‘Kow-towing” to administrative supe¬ riors in the hope of personal gain. . . . 7 2 1 10 53 REPORT OF LEGISLATIVE COMMISSION— ABSTRACT WILLIAM M. DAVIDSON, CHAIRMAN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PITTSBURGH, PA. Since the meeting of the Legislative Commission at Minneapolis in July, 1928, progress in the work for a Department of Education has been more tangible than ever before. President Hoover, always an advocate of government reorganization, made a statement in his inaugural address which was widely interpreted in the press as indicating a desire to create a Department of Education. Reports of Committees 191 Members of Congress, in the last session, were unusually favorable to education, and another Education Bill, differing from the Curtis-Reed Bill only in minor details, was introduced by Representative John M. Robsion of Kentucky. On February 26, Mr. Robsion made a strong speech in support of his measure, and on the opening day of the special session of Congress he reintroduced his bill. Since that time numerous Congressmen have publicly announced their advocacy of a Department of Education, either through radio talks or published interviews. Secretary Wilbur s conference — Unquestionably the most far-reaching step in this movement, within recent years, was the meeting at Washington, Friday, June 7, of a group of 47 leading educators, called into conference by Secretary of the Interior, Dr. Ray Lyman Wilbur, to consider the national government’s future educational policy and to make recommendations to Congress with regard to that policy. Results of the conference are, as yet, largely undetermined, but that they will be noteworthy there can be no doubt. In an opening message, Dr. Wilbur commented upon the fact that every appointee had accepted, and urged the members of the conference to under¬ take the work with open minds. “If this committee can continue in the spirit in which it has begun,” he declared, “I feel that a historic docu¬ ment will finally be presented.” Dr. Wilbur announced the appointment of Dr. Charles R. Mann, Di¬ rector of the American Council on Education, to be general chairman of the committee, and Mr. J. W. Crabtree, Executive Secretary of the Na¬ tional Education Association, to be secretary. Secretary Wilbur divided the conference into three subcommittees, as¬ signing a specific problem to each and designating their chairmen, with the general chairman and general secretary, as members of the executive com¬ mittee. Committee No. I To consider educational activities of the United States government, their present administration, what should be the future organization : Chairman: James E. Russell, Dean Emeritus, Teachers College, Columbia Uni¬ versity, and President, American Adult Education Association, New York City. Committee No. II To consider the subsidies of the federal government to colleges, their administration, results obtained, future policies : Chairman: Lotus D. Coffman, President, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. Acting Chairman: George F. Zook, President, University of Akron, Akron, Ohio. 192 National Education Association Committee No. Ill To consider subsidies granted for education of less than college grade, how administered, results obtained, suggestions of future policy: Chairman: Frank Cody, President, Department of Superintendence, National Education Association, and Superintendent of Schools, Detroit, Mich. Acting Chairman: Thomas E. Fin eg an. President, Eastman Teaching Films, Inc., Rochester, N. Y. Statements of members of Congress — In the closing days of the Seventieth Congress, Representative John M. Robsion of Kentucky introduced a bill for a Department of Education which differed only in a few minor details from the Curtis-Reed Bill. His stirring address, delivered February 26, 1929, on the floor of the House of Representatives, has been widely dis¬ tributed and has served as the inspiration for a growing number of state¬ ments by other Congressmen who favor this movement. On the first day of the new Congress, Mr. Robsion reintroduced his bill, and since that time several members of Congress have made radio talks on the subject. Among these are Representatives Joe J. Manlove of Missouri, J. Lincoln Xewhall and Louis L. Walker of Kentucky, J. Will Taylor of Tennessee, and Wilbur Cartwright of Oklahoma. Others have been quoted in newspaper interviews as favoring a Department of Education. These have included Senator Thomas Heflin of Alabama, and Representatives Robert Blackburn, Elva R. Kendall and Katherine Langley, all of Kentucky. Educational legislation in the Seventieth Congress — Enactment of sev¬ eral important educational measures in the Seventieth Congress offered an¬ other proof that legislators are taking increased interest in the educational affairs of the nation. Appropriation of $50,000 for the Bureau of Educa¬ tion to begin a three-year study of secondary education, at a total cost of $225,000, is a real victory for the promotion of education as a science. No less than forty bills, providing for some extension of the govern¬ ment’s educational activities, came to the attention of the chairman and the field secretary during the Seventieth Congress. In these one finds added need for a Department of Education to coordinate the growing number of governmental agencies which are carrving on educational work. Field and office work — The field secretary of the National Education Association is also the secretary of the Legislative Commission, in which capacity she has charge of the legislative program of the association. It is appropriate, therefore, that this report should relate in some detail the • activities of the Legislative Division. During the year the field secretary spent 169 days in the field, traveled 20,151 miles and visited thirty states and fifty cities (figures include re¬ turn visits to several states and cities). In all, she made sixty-seven ad¬ dresses, including one radio talk, delivered during Business Women’s Week as education chairman of the National Federation of Business and Profes¬ sional Women’s Clubs. Reports of Committees 193 Literature on the Education Bill was sent to every state of the Union and to Hawaii and the District of Columbia. In 1928-29, the bill was the subject of debates in the Pennsylvania Inter-High School Literary, Debate and Musical League, the Wyoming Interscholastic League, the Louisiana State Rally Debate, the Imperial Valley (Calif.) Debating League, and high schools and colleges throughout the country. Altogether 139,085 pieces of literature were mailed out. This num¬ ber includes copies of the bill itself and enclosures with newsletters. Dur¬ ing the year, 3,291 letters were written regarding the Education Bill and the work of the Legislative Division, in addition to 2,033 form letters and 10 newsletters sent monthly or semi-monthly to a special list of more than 3,500 people. Development of lay support — Bearing in mind that the field secretary was employed to develop lay support for the program of the National Education Association, she has accepted the education chairmanship in the National Federation of Business and Professional Women’s Clubs and the school education chairmanship in the National Congress of Parents and Teachers. Through these positions, we have been able to interpret the hopes and aspirations of the teachers of the nation to the members of these two great organizations. Cooperation with the dry forces has also been encouraged. At the annual convention of the National Woman’s Christian Temperance Union in Boston, November 16, 1928, the field secretary spoke on the “Value of Temperance Education in the Schools,” basing her remarks largely on the replies to a questionnaire sent to 150 educators throughout the coun¬ try. This address has been printed and widely distributed by one of the temperance bodies. While the peace movement has always had the interest of our associa¬ tion, it has not been a major activity of the Legislative Commission. However, the field secretary was a representative on the Women’s Joint Congressional Committee’s subcommittee for ratification of the Kellogg Peace Pact, and she was a delegate from the National Federation of Busi¬ ness and Professional Women’s Clubs to the fourth Conference on the Cause and Cure of War, held at Washington in January, 1929. In the interest of this great movement and that for the World Court, the field secretary has joined with representatives of other organizations in sending letters to the President and to the chairman and members of the Com¬ mittee on Foreign Relations of the Senate. Conference of state secretaries — A detailed report of the status of the Education Bill and the plans for its promotion during the short session of Congress was made by the field secretary at the biennial conference of secretaries of State Teachers Associations held at the headquarters of the National Education Association, December 3 and 4, 1928. A num¬ ber of state secretaries have been responsible for contacts that have made work with their congressional delegations comparatively easy and pleasant. Expansion of such activities was pledged by the secretaries. 194 National Education Association Publicity — An indication of the wide distribution and the volume of publicity on the Education Bill secured during the past year is given by the big scrap book of clippings on this movement compiled by the Legisla¬ tive Division. Newspaper publicity has included reports of addresses on the Education Bill and editorials on the subject. The Hearst papers have continued their support for a Department of Education, and 1,200 newspapers served by the Associated Press were sent a story, under the field secretary’s name, on the Education Bills in the Seventieth Congress. Magazines, both lay and professional, supported the movement through their columns. Among the lay periodicals, Good Housekeeping, Success¬ ful Farming , the Harvard Alumni Bulletin, and the New Age Magazine stand out as having published particularly strong editorials favoring a De¬ partment of Education. State education association journals, independent educational publications, and classroom teachers’ bulletins devoted consid¬ erable space to this matter, and several publications in each group were furnished articles by the Legislative Division. The publications of sup¬ porting organizations also cooperated, this being especially true of the bul¬ letins of state branches of the National Congress of Parents and Teachers. In addition to furnishing material to these bulletins, the Legislative Divi¬ sion has cooperated with the national publicity chairman of the Congress whenever news was available regarding the School Education Committee, of which the field secretary is national chairman. The most recent pamphlets issued on the bill are “Every Parent-Teacher Association Can Help,” printed especially for distribution at the conven¬ tion of the National Congress of Parents and Teachers, and “New Styles in Epitaphs,” reprinted from an article in the Washington Education Journal, written by Miss Olive Bennison of Spokane. Exhibits — Exhibits on the Education Bill at the Minneapolis conven¬ tion of the National Education Association, in July, 1928, the Cleveland convention of the Department of Superintendence, in February, 1929, and the Washington convention of the National Congress of Parents and Teachers, in May, 1929, helped greatly to arouse interest in the move¬ ment. Valuable contacts were made in each case, new workers were se¬ cured, and increased enthusiasm was aroused in many old friends of the bill. Outlook for the future — The movement looking toward the creation of a Department of Education, with a Secretary in the President’s Cabinet, is now in its seventy-third year. Public interest in this question has been intermittent, but there has hardly been a Congress during that time in which some attention to this idea has not been given. The period of the greatest activity in behalf of this movement has been since 1918, when the Smith-Towner Bill was first introduced in Congress. During the last decade our major effort has been centered on determining the essen¬ tials of our program and on the unification of our forces behind these principles. Reports of Committees 195 Some progress was made in the last Congress, and I am convinced we are now on the eve of a great forward step in the federal government’s participation in education. Perhaps during all the lifetime of this move¬ ment there has never been such an opportunity given to a group of educa¬ tors as that which now challenges Secretary Wilbur’s conference, in whose deliberations your chairman counts it a privilege to participate. The Secretary of the Interior is to be congratulated upon the interest which he has already displayed in the educational work of the federal government ; he will be supported in every effort which he makes to coor¬ dinate the activities already existing and in the plans which he has in mind for enlarging their scope. The chairman of your Legislative Commission is in hearty accord with the Executive Secretary of the National Education Association in his views that the best way to help the Secretary of the Interior achieve his goal, whatever it may be, is to continue our activities for a Department of Education. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON APPOINTMENT OF DELEGATES AND KINDRED QUESTIONS A. L. THRELKELD, CHAIRMAN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, DENVER, COLO. The committee met at Cleveland on March 1, 1929, immediately fol¬ lowing the meeting of the Department of Superintendence, to formulate its policy of procedure. The committee held a second meeting in Chicago on April 26 and 27, 1929. Briefly, the policy adopted was to the effect that the committee would attempt to submit a report of two parts to the next Delegate Assembly, the one now in session, the first part to consist of proposed changes in the bylaws and the second to consist of questions raised with respect to a more effective organic structure for the N. E. A. involving certain changes in the charter. Along the lines above indicated the report follows : PART I Proposed Changes in the Bylaws The changes that the present committee is recommending in the bylaws are limited to Article II. In submitting the proposed changes, the article as it now stands is given on the page to the right (odd numbers) and the proposed changes on the page to the left (even numbers). An explanatory footnote accompanies each section. (See pages 196 to 202.) 196 National Education Association ARTICLE II— ELECTION OF OFFICERS, REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY, AND AFFILIATED ASSOCIATIONS ( With proposed changes ) Section 1.* The election of officers and transaction of business at the annual business meeting shall be by a Representative Assembly composed of delegates apportioned, elected, and governed as hereinafter provided. Section 2.* 1 At the first Business meeting of the Representative Assembly on the second day of the annual meeting of the Association nominations for the following officers shall be made: President, eleven Vicepresidents, and Treasurer. Candi¬ dates for said offices shall be nominated from the floor upon roll call of the states. On the first day of the annual meeting of the Association the delegates of each state, territory, and district of the United States shall nominate one person for mem¬ ber of the Board of Directors and the name of such person shall be reported to the Representative Assembly at the first business meeting upon roll call of the states. On the fourth day of the annual meeting officers shall be elected from the candidates by the delegates to the Representative Assembly by ballot. Said ballots shall be printed and shall contain the names of all nominees as provided above. Polls for voting shall be open from 8 a. m. to 6 p. m., at such place or places as the President of the Association shall designate. The candidate for President, Treasurer, member of Board of Directors from each state, territory, or district, respectively, and the eleven candidates for the office of Vicepresident receiving the highest number of votes shall be declared elected. The President of the Associa¬ tion shall appoint tellers and complete all arrangements for carrying out the elec¬ tion. The results of the election herein provided shall be announced at the final business session of the Representative Assembly. The officers thus chosen shall continue in office until the close of the annual meeting subsequent to their election, and until their successors are chosen, except as herein provided. The Secretary and the Treasurer shall enter upon their duties at a date which shall be determined by the Board of Trustees and which shall not be later than the first of October, and shall continue in office during the term for which they are separately chosen and until their successors are duly elected. When a change of officers is made, such change shall be accompanied by an audit covering the transactions of business and the holdings of these officers for the preceding year. Section 3-2 A State Teachers Association or Education Association of any state may become affiliated with the National Education Association, and thereupon shall be designated an Affiliated State Association, and as such shall be entitled to elect to the Representative Assembly one delegate and one alternate for the first one hundred (100) of its members or major fraction thereof, one delegate and one alternate for the second one hundred (100) members or major fraction thereof, and one delegate and one alternate for each additional three hundred (300) mem- ( Continued on page 198) * No change from present bylaws. 1 Only change from present bylaws is the wording “eleven Vicepresidents” in the third line of Section 2, and the addition of the last sentence taken from the Seattle report. - This is an extensive revision of the present bylaws. It differs from any of the preceding reports of the committee in the apportionment of delegates and the provision made for a minimum recognition of state associations. It is estimated that the apportionment here stipulated would reduce the size of the Delegate Assembly thirty-three to fifty percent theoretically and twenty-five percent in actual attendance. The idea of doing away with duplicate representation is preserved with the exception of the minimum of three delegates allowed a state association. Reports of Committees 197 ARTICLE II— ELECTION OF OFFICERS, REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY, AND AFFILIATED ASSOCIATIONS {As it now stands ) Section 1. The election of officers and transaction of business at the annual business meeting shall be by a Representative Assembly composed of delegates apportioned, elected, and gov¬ erned as hereinafter provided. Sec. 2. At the first Business meeting of the Representative Assembly on the second day of the annual meeting of the Association nominations for the follow¬ ing officers shall be made: President, Vicepresident, and Treasurer. Candidates for said offices shall be nominated from the floor upon roll call of the states. On the first day of the annual meeting of the Association the delegates of each state, territory, and district of the United States shall nominate one person for member of the Board of Directors and the name of such person shall be reported to the Representative Assembly at the first business meeting upon roll call of the states. On the fourth day of the annual meeting officers shall be elected from the candi¬ dates by the delegates to the Representative Assembly by ballot. Said ballots shall be printed and shall contain the names of all nominees as provided above. Polls for voting shall be open from 8 A. M. to 6 P. M. at such place or pilaces as the President of the Association shall designate. The candidates for President, Treasurer, member of Board of Directors from each state, territory, or district, respectively, and the eleven candidates for the office of Vicepresident receiving the highest number of votes shall be declared elected. The President of the Association shall appoint tellers and complete all arrangements for carrying out the election. The results of the election herein provided shall be announced at the final business session of the Representative Assembly. The officers thus chosen shall continue in office until the close of the annual meeting subsequent to their election, and until their successors are chosen, except as herein provided. The Secretary and the Treasurer shall enter upon their duties at a date which shall be determined by the Board of Trustees and which shall not be later than the first of October and shall continue in office during the term for which they are separately chosen and until their successors are duly elected. Election of Officers Sec. 3. The State Teachers Association or Educational Association of a state, territory, or district, may become affiliated with the National Education Associa¬ tion and shall be designated an Affiliated State Association. Each Affiliated State Association shall be a state unit in the organization of the National Education Association and as such shall be entitled Affiliated State to representation in the Representative Assembly as herein- Associations after provided. The annual dues of an Affiliated State Asso¬ ciation shall be $10 for each delegate to which said state shall be entitled, with a maximum of $100- Said Association shall receive without application, or other condition, all regular publications of the National Education Association, includ¬ ing the volume of Proceedings, reports of committees, and all special bulletins and announcements when issued. {Continued on page 199) 198 National Education Association bers or major fractions thereof, provided that the membership used in computing this apportionment is composed of active members of the National Education Asso¬ ciation who are not assigned to any affiliated local association within that state or if assigned to an affiliated local association they fail to elect a delegate or dele¬ gates to the Representative Assembly of the National Education Association. In any case a State Teachers Association or Education Association affiliated with the National Education Association and having three hundred and fifty-one (351) or more of its members enroled in the active membership of the National Education Association shall be entitled to elect three delegates and three alternates to the Representative Assembly of the National Education Association. It shall be en¬ titled to elect as many in excess of this number as the above stipulated apportion¬ ment and the conditions attached thereto may provide for it. The annual dues of an Affiliated State Association shall be five dollars ($5), which shall entitle said Association to receive without application or other condition all regular publica¬ tions of the National Education Association. Section 4.1 A local education association or teachers’ organization within a state may affiliate with the National Education Association and thereupon shall be designated an Affiliated Local Association, and as such shall be entitled to elect one delegate and one alternate to the Representative Assembly for the first one hundred (100) of its members or major fraction thereof, one delegate and one alternate for the second one hundred (100) members or major fraction thereof, and one delegate and one alternate for each additional three hundred (300) mem¬ bers or major fraction thereof, provided that the membership used in computing this apportionment is composed of active members of the National Education Asso¬ ciation. The names of such delegates and alternates shall be certified by the Sec¬ retary of the Affiliated Associations to the Secretary of the State Association, who shall in turn certify them, together writh the complete list of delegates and alter¬ nates from the State, to the Secretary of the National Education Association. A copy of such certificate shall also be transmitted by the Secretary of the Affiliated Local Association to the Secretary of the National Education Association. The annual dues of the Affiliated Local Association shall be five dollars ($5), which shall entitle said Association to receive, without application or other condition, all publications of the National Education Association. Section 5.2 Each Affiliated State Association shall, together with the Local Affili¬ ated Associations within the State, constitute a state unit, and as such shall sit in the Representative Assembly. Section 6.3 The Board of Directors may provide an equitable plan for paying all or any part of the expenses of delegates to the annual meetings of the As¬ sociation. (Section 5 of the bylaws as they now are becomes Section 7 and reads as follows:) Section 7.2 Each Affiliated Association, both state and local, shall be furnished a certificate of membership and shall be entitled to the active assistance and sup¬ port of the National Education Association in promoting the interests of such Affili¬ ated Association and its members, insofar as such interests come within the pur¬ poses and object of the National Education Association as set forth in its Charter (The Act of Incorporation). The Secretary of the National Education Associa¬ tion shall, with the advice and approval of the Executive Committee, in harmony with the policies approved by the Board of Directors, make such arrangements for mutual cooperation between the National Education Association and the State and Local Affiliated Associations as will promote the welfare of all and advance the interests of the teaching profession. (Sections 6 and 7 of the present bylaws are to be deleted.) - ( Continued on page 200) 1 With the exception of apportionment of delegates this is the same as the Minneapolis report. 2 Exactly as proposed in both Seattle and Minneapolis reports. * Exactly as proposed in Minneapolis report. Reports of Committees 199 Sec. 4. A local educational association or teachers organization within a state, territory, or district, may affiliate with the National Education Association and shall be designated an Affiliated Local Association. Each Affiliated Local Asso¬ ciation shall be a local unit in the organization of the National Education Association and as such shall be entitled to rep- Affiliated Local resentation in the Representative Assembly as hereinafter pro- Associations vided. The annual dues of an Affiliated Local Association shall be $5, which shall entitle said Association to receive without application, or other condition, all regular publications of the National Education Association, in¬ cluding the volume of Proceedings, reports of committees, and all bulletins and announcements when issued. Sec. 5. Each Affiliated Association, both state and local, shall be furnished a certificate of membership and shall be entitled to the active assistance and sup¬ port of the National Education Association in promoting the interest of such Affiliated Association and its members insofar as such interest comes within the purpose and object of the National Educa- Relationship tion Association as set forth in its charter. The Secretary of National, State, the National Education Association shall, with the advice and and Local approval of the Executive Committee, make such arrangements for mutual cooperation between the National Education Association and the State and Local Affiliated Associations as will promote the welfare of all and advance the interest of the teaching profession. Sec. 6. Each Affiliated State Association shall be entitled to elect one delegate and one alternate to the Representative Assembly for each one hundred of its members, or major fraction thereof, who are active members of the National Edu¬ cation Association, up to five hundred such active members, and thereafter one delegate and one alternate for each five State Delegates hundred of its members, or major fraction thereof, who are active members of the National Education Association. Such delegates shall be designated State Delegates. Sec. 7. Each Affiliated Local Association shall be entitled to elect one dele¬ gate and one alternate to the Representative Assembly for each one hundred of its members, or major fraction thereof, Local who are active members of the National Education Association. Delegates Such delegates shall be designated Local Delegates. ( Continued on page 201) 200 National Education Association (Section 8 of the present bylaws is to be deleted.) Section 8.1 The President of the National Education Association shall be the President of the Representative Assembly and shall preside at its meetings. In the absence of the President, the ranking Vicepresident who is present shall preside, and in the absence of the President and all Vicepresidents, the Assembly shall, under the direction of the Secretary, elect a Chairman pro tempore. Section 9.2 The officers of the National Education Association as named in the charter and the United States Commissioner of Education shall be ex officio dele¬ gates to the Representative Assembly. The President of the Association shall pre¬ side at the annual meeting of the Representative Assembly, and the Secretary of the Association shall keep the records thereof. In case of a tie the President shall cast the deciding vote. Section 10.3 Delegates shall file their credentials with the Secretary of the Na¬ tional Education Association on blanks furnished by him for that purpose, not later than twenty days before the beginning of the annual meeting. The Secretary shall turn over such credentials to the Credentials Committee with such informa¬ tion thereon as may be obtained from the records of the Association. The Repre¬ sentative Assembly shall be the final judge of the qualifications of delegates. The delegates shall have equal rights and each delegate shall have one vote. Meet¬ ings of the Representative Assembly shall be open to all members of the Asso¬ ciation and any member of the Association may address the Representative As¬ sembly upon the invitation of the President or of a majority of the Assembly. Section ll.4 The Representative Assembly shall be composed of the officers of the National Education Association as named in the charter, the United States Com¬ missioner of Education, and the delegates from Affiliated State and Local Asso¬ ciations, provided that they are active members of the National Education Associa¬ tion. The procedure of electing delegates from Affiliated State and Local Associa¬ tions shall be as herein provided. The Secretary of the National Education Association shall provide enrolment blanks with designated space for the name of the Affiliated Association through which each active member wishes representation, and, in computing the number of delegates and alternates to which a state is entitled, no active member shall be counted in any Affiliated Association other than the one so designated. The Secretary of each Local Affiliated Association shall furnish to the Secretary of the National Education Association and to the Secretary of the State Association a list of its members, who are also members of the National Education Association. The Secretary of the National Education Association shall compute annually, at the close of the membership year, the total number of active members of the National Education Association in each State and also the number of active members accred¬ ited to each Affiliated State and Local Association within each State for that year, and shall on or before the tenth day of September of each year certify to the Sec¬ retary of each State Association the number of such active members from the ( Continued on page 202) 1 Exactly as proposed in both Seattle and Minneapolis reports. - This is a restoration of Section 9 of the present bylaws revised, which section was deleted in both the Seattle and Minneapolis reports. " 'TUr' n-'-v^c ic o cTmT] 4- Vtp*r rmfl pri+in 7c TlMfll + nf f Tq r> iOrinl TVlii A 5- changed from ten to twenty days before the beginning of the annual meeting; and further a minor change in wording recommended in the Minneapolis report has been included. 4 The same as the Minneapolis report with the following exceptions: Paragraph one of the Minneapolis report limits ex ofhcio membership in the Representative Assembly to the President and the twelve Vicepresidents of the National Education Association. Also the active member¬ ship provision was omitted in the Minneapolis report. Paragraph four is changed to include provision for electing the minimum of three delegates allowed each State Association. Reports of Committees 201 Sec. 8. Only active members of the National Education Association shall be eligible to be delegates to the Representative Assembly, and to vote in the elec¬ tion of delegates in a State or Local Affiliated Association. An active member shall be permitted to vote for the election of delegates in but one affiliated Local Association. For determining the appor- Selection of tionment of delegates, an active member may be counted in Delegates two Affiliated Associations, and no more; and that one of these shall be the State Association. Sec. 9. The officers of the National Education Association as named in the charter and the State Superintendent or Commissioner of Education of each state, territory, and district, shall be ex officio delegates to the Rep¬ resentative Assembly. The President of the Association shall Ex Officio preside at the annual meeting of the Representative Assembly, Delegates and the Secretary of the Association shall keep the records thereof. In case of a tie the President shall cast the deciding vote. Sec. 10. Delegates shall file their credentials with the Secretary of the Asso¬ ciation on blanks furnished by him for that purpose not later than ten days be¬ fore the beginning of the annual meeting. The Secretary shall turn over such credentials to the Credential Committee, when appointed, with such information thereon as may be obtained from the records of the Association. The Representative Assembly shall be the final judge of the qualifications of delegates. The delegates shall have equal rights and each shall have one vote. Meet¬ ings of the Representative Assembly shall be open to the active members of the Association who shall be privileged to address the Assembly on subjects pertaining to the Association. The Representative As¬ sembly shall adopt rules of procedure which shall not conflict with the charter and bylaws of the Association. It shall recommend an equitable plan for pay¬ ing the expenses of delegates to the annual business meeting of the Association. Sec. 11. The officers shall be permitted to hold meetings other than for busi¬ ness purposes and expenses therefor shall be provided. ( End of Article II as it now stands.) Delegates ; Credentials ; Voting; Freedom of Floor 202 National Education Association State Association and form each Local Association within the State, together with their names and addresses. He shall also certify to the Secretary of each Affiliated Local Association a list of active members of the National Education Association accredited to it who desire representation in the National Education Association through such local association, together with the number of delegates and alter¬ nates it is entitled to elect on the above basis. All delegates and alternates in the total quota accredited to any State which are not assigned to any Affiliated Association in that State, such delegates and alter¬ nates as are assigned to Affiliated Associations in that State and are not elected by them, and the minimum of three delegates and alternates as provided for in Section 3 shall be elected by the State Association. Provided, that any State upon a vote of the active members of the National Edu¬ cation Association in that State, taken by its State Association, may modify the details of the plan herein set forth for electing the delegates and alternates to the Representative Assembly assigned to that State. Such action when taken shall be certified by the Secretary of the State Association to the Secretary of the National Education Association and to the Secretaries of the Local Associations within the State. When the plan is approved by the Board of Directors of the National Edu¬ cation Association it shall be accepted as the procedure in the election of delegates for that state. (Section 11 of the old bylaws is deleted.) ( End of Article II with proposed changes .) PART II Changes to be Considered in the Charter Concerning proposed changes in the charter the committee raises the fol¬ lowing questions : 1. Should the Board of Directors be more limited in its ex officio mem¬ bership? This question seems to come to a point in the case of the pro¬ vision in the charter that states that all former Presidents of the Associa¬ tion now living and all future Presidents of the Association at the close of their respective terms of office shall be members of the Board of Directors for life. While it is desirable that up to a reasonable extent the experience from the President’s office should be made available to the Board of Di¬ rectors, whether it is necessary or desirable to provide for this in such an extreme way as *making past Presidents life members of the Board is the question. It has been argued that a past President might even leave the profession and become engaged in commercial pursuits and still he would be a member of the Board of Directors. While in such a situation he prob¬ ably would not take an active part in the affairs of the Board, yet under the provision of the charter as it now stands his doing so would be approved. The question is whether some limitation should be placed upon life mem¬ berships on the Board of Directors without weakening the effectiveness of the Board by departing too far from the values that come from having continuity of leadership experience on the Board. Limiting past Presi¬ dent membership on the Board to a definite period is one suggestion that has been made. Reports of Committees 203 2. The charter now provides that the Executive Committee shall con¬ sist of five members as follows : the President, the first Vicepresident, the Treasurer, the chairman of the Board of Trustees, and a member of the Association to be chosen annually by the Board of Directors to serve one year. It has been suggested that a better way of setting up an Executive Committee could be worked out. If the Executive Committee is to be what its name implies and thereby carry out the instructions of the Board of Directors, it may be argued that the Executive Committee should be chosen by the Board of Directors with the provision that they would have certain ex officio membership, such as the President and perhaps other offi¬ cers, but it is argued it should not be primarily an ex officio body but a com¬ mittee chosen definitely for the work of the Executive Committee and tied up definitely to the policy-making bodies of the Association so that it can logically be looked upon as an Executive Committee. 3. The charter now provides that the Secretary shall be elected by the Board of Trustees. Inasmuch as the Board of Trustees is not a policy¬ making body, it has been suggested that this function be transferred to the Executive Committee subject perhaps to the approval of the Board of Directors. The question has been raised as to whether the duties of the Secretary either in the charter or in the by-laws should be stated in such a way as to set forth the office clearly as that of an Executive Secretary. The N. E. A. has become so large and its work is so important that continuity in execu¬ tive policy becomes a vital consideration. This principle cannot be served by the President inasmuch as he is in office for only a year. Should not the Secretary be looked upon as the executive of the Association and should not this be clearly set forth as above indicated ? 4. Closely allied is the question of — What is the function of the Presi¬ dent ? Clearly there cannot be two chief executives of any organization ; and if we are to look upon the President as being the chief executive of the Association with respect to its main business, should we not elect him for a period of several years and make the office one that a person can accept as a career from a professional point of view? If this is done there would be no need for an Executive Secretary, and if this is not done it is thought by some to be absurd to expect from the President the functioning of a chief executive of a corporation as large and as important as that of the N. E. A. Perhaps we can improve our concept of the functions of the President upon further study. His should not be an unimportant office in any sense of the term, but could not its importance be defined in terms of the prestige and dignity attributed to the profession of education through the type of indi¬ vidual selected for the office? To amplify this, the President of the Na¬ tional Education Association during his year of incumbency in office should have tremendous influence on the public of the entire nation with reference to its attitude toward education by interpreting the chief motives of the N. E. A. to the public and by improving the association internally through his general suggestions and arguments. He would, as a leading member 204 National Education Association of the profession, be of inestimable value to the cause of education by virtue of his presidency of the N. E. A., but this is a different concept from that of looking upon the President as one who is immediately to step into the everyday routine of management, administration, and execution that the office of the chief executive of a corporation carries with it. 5. It has been suggested that since the N. E. A. has become so large there is danger of disintegration if the various departments are not more defi¬ nitely tied into the organic function of the N. E. A. This presents a very difficult problem. Some have suggested that there should be functional representation on the Board of Directors or even on the Executive Com¬ mittee. However, to represent departments adequately in the Executive Committee would probably make it too large. Representing departments on the Board of Directors might not be the best way. Some have sug¬ gested that an inter-departmental council of some kind might be organized to tie the working units of the N. E. A. more closely together. A real problem surely exists here, probably the most difficult one here listed. All of the above questions are submitted merely as matters that should be studied, and for this purpose the committee believes a committee should be continued. Organic changes should not be hastily made, but the progress of the N. E. A. is such that in the opinion of the committee the need for studying such fundamental changes as would be consistent with the changing needs of the N. E. A. is acute. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON PROPAGANDA- ABSTRACT 1 EDWIN C. BROOME, CHAIRMAN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA Part I. The Setting of the Problem and Its Significance Propaganda, or the systematic direction of effort to gain support for an opinion, doctrine, or course of action, is not a new phenomenon. Systematic efforts to mold public opinion existed long before the press and other modern instruments of communication. The problem of the public schools in dealing with outside materials and influences can be seen in its proper perspective only when viewed as a phase of the whole propaganda movement. From the war came a sharpened appreciation of the effectiveness of pro¬ paganda. A tremendous organization fostered and supported by the gov¬ ernment was created with the Committee on Public Information as a nucleus, and “carried the gospel of Americanism to every corner of the globe.” 2 Millions were similarly expended by foreign countries at home 1 The complete report may be secured from the National Education Association, 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W., Washington, D. C. 2 Creel, George. How we Advertised America. Harper and Brothers, New York, 1920. Reports of Committees 205 and abroad- According to one estimate England alone spent $150,000,000 for propaganda purposes in the United States during the war.1 Thousands of men observed the success with which public opinion could be made and unmade, and of having a part in the process. It is not surprising, there¬ fore, that the last decade has witnessed expansion of the propaganda move¬ ment. The ramifications of the great game of “putting it over” are sufficiently apparent. There are the advertising activities designed to sell or to create goodwill for some commercial product or concern. The newspapers, maga¬ zines, car cards, billboards, electric signs, theater programs, sky-writers, form letters, and wrappers of every commodity purchased are incessantly beseeching us to avoid this dire fate, to achieve this charming personal char¬ acteristic, or to make this noble contribution to the public welfare. All of these ends may be achieved only if we purchase some specific product. One estimate places the yearly expenditure for newspaper advertising alone at close to a billion dollars. The most ingenious methods are devised to secure publicity. We are told that the widely heralded trip of the dog team to carry diphtheria antitoxin to Nome, Alaska, was a gigantic publicity stunt sponsored by an American concern of manufacturing chemists to advertise the value of serum in fighting diphtheria.1 Then there are the activities of numerous agencies interested in securing the acceptance of their social, political, economic, or religious ideas or doc¬ trines. Much of the reading material which we encounter has such a pur¬ pose and is inspired and frequently written by people paid to put over a par¬ ticular idea. Then there are the organizations interested not so much in securing the acceptance of particular ideas as in advancing the general understanding of great humanitarian movements. It is not easy to classify all advertising or propaganda. It is not necessary to do so at this point. What the committee wishes to emphasize here is the fact that thousands of highly trained and ingenious men are devoting their lives to the great occu¬ pation of “putting it over” and are well paid by it. The publicity agent has become the “public relations counsel” and volumes are written on the technics of his calling. A vast and continuous effort is going on to win us over in the interest of some commodity, doctrine, or way of acting. No major undertaking is carried on without the use of propaganda. This con¬ tinuous and universal activity is regimenting the public mind as an army regiments the bodies of its soldiers.2 Appraisals of this phenomenon vary between two extremes.3 On the one hand, it is contended that propaganda methods are making irresponsible and anonymous individuals and minorities the real rulers of American democracy, that the susceptibility of the public to slogans, catch words, 1 Bonus, Edward, and Carrier, C. E. Putting it Over. Siebel Publishing Corporation. New York, 1925. 2 Bernays, Edward E. Propaganda. Horace Eiveright, New York, 1928. 3 Martin, Everett Dean, and Bernays, Edward L. “Are We Victims of Propaganda’’ (A Debate), Forum, March, 1929, p. 142-9. 206 National Edl'Cation Association half truths, and shoddy thinking is being increased; and that the prejudices, passions, and fixed ideas of the mob are being skillfully played upon foi ulterior ends. Some see in this movement a sinister force which threatens the very integrity and stability of our whole civilization. On the other hand, others contend that propaganda is a constructive force in American life. We are told that propaganda keeps an open arena in which the battle for truth may be fought, and that minority groups and factions would be inarticulate without it. It is contended that mass pro¬ duction and our present prosperity and high standard of material welfare would be impossible but for advertising, and that propaganda has signifi¬ cantly contributed to the advancement of many worthy causes. Defenders of propaganda state that although its methods are sometimes misused, un¬ wholesome activities eventually dig their own graves, while those which minister to the public welfare survive and prosper. It is pointed out that the anonymous character of many propaganda efforts, and the fact that they involve selfinterest do not preclude the possibility of accomplishing great public good. It is not the function or purpose of the committee to settle this contro¬ versy. The purposes of the preceding paragraphs are to show that propa¬ ganda activities in their recent development have come to constitute a tremendously powerful influence in our democracy, and to prove that the teacher and school official need to understand this influence in its broader aspects. We must expect that such a powerful force will materially affect the schools. The propagandist is knocking at the school door. In some in¬ stances he has already been admitted. There is nothing to indicate that he will overlook the schools in the future. How should he be received ? What is the significance of the propaganda movement to schoolboard members, school executives, and teachers? Significance of propaganda movement to the schools — It is the judgment of the committee that the rapid growth of the propaganda movement is of vital significance to the public school. This powerful influence may do the school either much harm or much good. Uncritical acceptance of propaganda and a general opening of the schools to the activities of outside agencies would do the children incalculable harm, would destroy confidence in the public school, and ultimately threaten its very existence. On the other hand, statesman-like study of this phase of our civilization, and intelligent and fear¬ less discrimination in selecting from the propaganda movement certain ele¬ ments to aid in achieving well considered educational objectives will benefit the children and strengthen the social influence of the school. Seven considerations testify to the significance of the propaganda move¬ ment to public education. First, this movement is significant because the propagandist and the teacher embody two extremes as to attitude and method. The propa¬ gandist’s mind is made up on a particular subject. He seeks to inculcate Reports of Committees 207 one viewpoint. The teacher’s mind is open on all subjects. He seeks to present all viewpoints. The function of propaganda is to gain acceptance of a particular opinion, doctrine, or course of action, under circumstances designed to curb the individual’s freedom of thought and action. The func¬ tion of education, on the other hand, is to acquaint the individual with a variety of opinions, doctrines, or courses of actions, so as to equip him, intelligently to do his own thinking and to select his own courses of action. The main purpose of propaganda, therefore, is to teach what to think , while the guiding purpose of education is to teach how to think. This is a fundamental distinction, essential to clear thinking on this whole problem. The words advertising and publicity are sometimes care¬ lessly used as synonyms for education. The socalled “educational' ’ cam¬ paigns whereby commercial or altruistic agencies seek to secure the sale of a commodity or the more or less uncritical acceptance of a particular idea, doctrine, or course of action should not be confused with the legitimate edu¬ cational activities of a public school. In emphasizing the fundamental distinction, as to attitude, method, and purpose, between propaganda and education the committee does not imply that the ultimate effects of propaganda are always evil, and that those of the school are always good. There are doubtless situations, particularly in deal¬ ing with adults, when propaganda methods are economical and effective in securing some desirable result. The propagandist is frequently inspired by the highest motives, and many illustrations might be cited of the benefits to civilization which have resulted from his activities. We also recognize the fact that all the activities which go on in some schools do not deserve to be called educational. Many schools still have far to go before they can be sure that all their work deserves to be called education in its finest sense. But these practical facts must not cause us to forsake our standards. The ideal must be kept untarnished. Education and propaganda are basically antagonistic. Second, the propaganda movement is of great significance to school boards and teachers because of certain characteristics which distinguish children from adults. Children lack the knowledge, the background of experience, and the power of critical judgment which may be assumed in the adult. To develop such powers gradually in children is a function of the school. This can be accomplished only if children are properly brought into contact with a variety of carefully selected materials and activities, graded to the child's stage of development. This function of the school will be hopelessly hindered if its doors are left open to the unrestricted access of persons whose attitude, method of work, and purpose are even partly that of the propagandist. In most in¬ stances the ultimate purpose of the propagandist is to sell a product, advance a special interest or prejudice, or propagate an idea or theory. Immature children should be protected from such influences. To hand over the child, still lacking in selfreliance and having little choice as to what he shall do in 208 National Education Association school, to the restricted influence of outside agencies would be the height of educational folly and the violation of a sacred trust. The child’s position differs from that of the adult. The adult is not com¬ pelled to read advertisements, or to contribute to the support of propaganda organizations, or to read their literature, or to listen to their appeals. The child is required by law to attend school, has little choice as to what he will study or do in school, and therefore, must accept the instruction offered. The effect of the material and method of propaganda on the child is differ¬ ent from that on the adult. The adult is selfreliant and free to accept or reject the viewpoint of the special pleader. The child is neither. Third, propaganda is of particular significance to public schools in the United States because of the decentralized organization of our schools. In a highly centralized system of schools, such as obtains in many European countries, the relationship of the schools to propaganda activities is deter¬ mined by the central authorities. They decide what shall be admitted to the school and what shall be excluded. Little responsibility in this direction rests upon the local school official or teacher. In the United States we have chosen a different plan of organization. In this country the state and local authorities and frequently the individual teacher decide what shall go into the classroom and what shall be excluded. This is a heavy responsibility. In the typical local school system we have on the one side the local board of education, the school executive, and the teachers. Their financial resources and political influence are often rela¬ tively meager. On the other side we have hundreds of outside agencies each striving to exploit the school in the interest of its particular commodity or idea. Their resources are large and their methods of penetration ingenious. If those who are responsible for the professional conduct of American schools are to be victorious, their thinking must be straight and their courage strong. Fourth, the movement is of major significance since the schools of the United States are founded on the principle of control by all the people rather than by a particular group or class. Eligibility to serve as a member of a board of education is not limited by racial, religious, class, or property restrictions. Democracy plays no favorites. The vitality of the public school and the confidence which it enjoys from the mass of the people are based upon the fact that it is not the instrument of any race, class, creed, economic or political group. Nothing would more quickly destroy confidence in public education than to allow it to become an agency for purveying commercial products, or an instrument for the propa¬ gation of the social, economic, or religious convictions of factional groups. Fifth, the propaganda movement is of particular significance to educa¬ tion since it threatens to thwart the efforts to bring the school into harmony with the needs of practical life. Throughout history school systems have been threatened, and sometimes destroyed by formalism. A subject or ac¬ tivity first gets into the curriculum because it has some practical value closely related to real life. Civilization progresses, new factors come in, but the old school subjectmatter lingers on. Reports of Committees 209 Thus far the schools of the United States have generally avoided this pit- fall. In spite of the fact that the conditions of living have changed at an accelerated pace in recent years, the schools have increased their ability to minister to the real needs of life. Many traditional school activities of doubtful practical value have been eliminated. New material has been in¬ troduced and is being shaped to minister to the needs of life as it is today. As a result, the American public school is less formalized than ever before in its history. President Hoover recently stated that since 1890 the work of the schools has become “much better in quality and especially more prac¬ tical and more conducive to thinking power.” This result has been obtained by a ceaseless and tireless comparison be¬ tween work which goes on in schools and the needs of real life. Cooperative arrangements have been set up with industry. Supplementary material has been introduced. The schools have been brought into close contact with practical life as it exists in modern industrial, social, and political institu¬ tions. The propaganda movement threatens to block these vital phases of edu¬ cational development. Already the number and variety of the requests and demands made for admission to the schools are so great that a reaction has set in. Blanket action has been taken by some schoolboards against the use of all outside materials, with the result that valuable material is excluded along with questionable. The ceaseless and, in some instances, unscrupulous efforts of agents to get their particular product, their essay contest, their particular day or week, or their idea, theory, or doctrine before the teachers and into the classroom, has caused some school executives to lose their ability to give a friendly evaluation to new proposals. If this condition continues the schools will suffer. Means must be found for dealing with the whole gamut of intrusive activities, of selecting the good from the bad, and of in¬ creasing rather than decreasing the closeness of the contact of the presentday school with presentday life. Sixth, the propaganda problem is important to school people because the present course of study is already overcrowded. Preparation for the com¬ plex needs of modern life demands a long period of careful and thorough training. Although the school year and the period of school attendance have been lengthened, the time available for school purposes is still inadequate to give all the training that might seem desirable. The situation is further complicated by legislative mandates which decree the addition of new sub¬ jects to the minimum course of study. The work of the public schools has become so important and so difficult and the time in which results must be achieved is so limited that all activities which intrude on the regular school program must be carefully evaluated. This evaluation should be made by professional educators who have in mind and at heart the whole wellbal- anced program of public instruction. Such an attitude will make possible the selection of the wheat from the chaff in the offerings of outside agencies. Seventh, this is a significant issue for school authorities because of the imperative need for an adult citizenry capable of protecting itself from the 210 National Education Association many appeals of all forms of propaganda. For successful operation a democ¬ racy must have a citizenship which possesses the power to weigh opposing arguments, to suspend judgment until the facts are assembled, to decide fairly, and to act intelligently. The uncritical acceptance of propaganda is inimical to all these qualities. Since the citizens of tomorrow are in the schools of today, it is a manifest duty which these schools owe society to prepare children to deal discriminatingly with outside materials. The foregoing statement of the problem raises many questions. How can the distinction between education and propaganda be emphasized ? How can the child be protected from the harmful effects of propaganda and at the same time be taught to evaluate it? Shall the issue be faced as a local, state, or national problem? How can democratic control of the schools be continued without opening the school door to every intrusive activity ? How can curriculum development by professional educators be reconciled with the undoubted right but questionable expediency of minute legislative pre¬ scription ? These urgent questions are discussed in the final section of our report. Before the committee presents its conclusions, however, we wish to examine in specific detail the present situation as it concerns the relation of the schools to outside materials and influences. Part II. The Present Situation This section, which tabulated in detail the replies received in 489 answers to a questionnaire submitted by the committee, is not reproduced here. Part III. Conclusions, Recommendations, and Principles of Action In this section the committee, on the basis of its study of the problem faced by the schools in dealing with outside materials and influences, tenta¬ tively offers certain conclusions, recommendations, and principles of action. The growth of the propaganda movement is of great significance to edu¬ cation for a number of reasons. First, because of the basic antagonism be¬ tween education and propaganda as to attitude, method, and purpose. Sec¬ ond, because of certain characteristics which distinguish the child from the adult. Third, because of the decentralized form of school organization obtaining in the United States. Fourth, because of the fact that the Amer¬ ican public school is a common school rather than the agency of any par¬ ticular race, class, creed, or economic or political group. Fifth, because of the importance of keeping the school close to, and in proper relationship to, the needs of practical life. Sixth, because the curriculum is already crowded with desirable educational material. Seventh, the school owes a duty to so¬ ciety to train citizens who understand propaganda and can cope with it. The problem of the schools in dealing with outside materials and in¬ fluences is a phase of the whole propaganda movement which has developed Reports of Committees 211 since the war. This powerful influence has become an integral part of our civilization. It cannot be disregarded by the schools. They have already felt its influence, and will be affected in the future. If this new force in our civilization is not studied and understood, it may do the schools much harm. In time it might undermine their very integrity and divert them from their true function. On the other hand, if this force is studied and controled by those in charge of the schools, it may offer certain important and positive aids in achieving the purposes for which the schools exist. First, however, the committee would emphasize the fact that it is im¬ probable that uniform rules can be drafted which would be valid for all states and local communities. The educational situation in different states and local communities varies widely. Likewise, the types of outside materials and influences encountered by the schools vary in different states and localities. However, the fundamental principle remains the same. We recommend the consideration of this re¬ port and of the principles of action herein outlined. The committee warns against their uncritical acceptance. They should be tentatively accepted and applied only insofar as the independent study of the local situation seems to justify. We, therefore, recommend that all those concerned with the control and management of the schools study the propaganda movement, par¬ ticularly as it affects the schools. State boards and state departments of education, local boards of education, superintendents of schools and their staffs, and classroom teachers need to face the problem. Higher institutions of learning and institutions for the training of teachers should set an ex¬ ample of careful presentation of both sides of debatable questions. State legislature. — The committee is unwilling at this time to specify in detail the function of the state, as opposed to the local community, in dealing with the problem. We emphatically believe, however, that legislation on this matter, particularly of a specific character, is likely to do more harm than good. Legislation which specifies in too much detail what cannot be done in the schools is likely to prove as troublesome as that which in some states now specifies in detail what shall be done. If legislation is adopted prohibiting the use of outside materials, it should be of the most general character, leaving it to the state board of education to interpret the law and to translate it into specific action. Legislators should realize clearly that their position of public responsibility makes them especially sub¬ ject to appeals from organized minorities. They should further remember that it is the function of the legislature to prescribe only general rules for the conduct of local schools. Responsible educational boards have been created by law in local communities for the express purpose of de¬ termining just such questions as the extent and character of the course of study. While state legislatures have an undoubted legal right to exercise specific supervision, it is against sound public policy for them to attempt to do so. 212 National Education Association State department of education. — We believe that at the present time state departments of education can exercise a helpful relationship toward this problem in these directions: 1. By discovering and studying the purposes and methods of the various outside agencies and materials encountered by the local school systems of the state as a preliminary to possible protective legislation or rulings by the state department. 2. By preparation of statements clarifying and delimiting the functions which schoolboards, school executives and their staffs, and teachers should exercise in deal¬ ing with this problem. 3. By setting up the principles and supplying the information needed by boards, school executives, and teachers in dealing with this problem in their particular state. 4. By keeping clearly in mind the dangers that lurk in minute central control. It is usually better to develop the ability of local communities and the individual teacher to handle a problem such as this than to try to handle it for them from central headquarters. 5. By exercising great caution in endorsing proposals brought to them for intro¬ ducing propaganda materials into the schools. 6. By securing the advice of a number of educational and subjectmatter experts before adopting or authorizing textbooks for public school use. 7. By encouraging a state program of teacher-training instruction which will lead to recognition of the importance of the propaganda problem. Local boards of education. — We urge local boards of education in deal¬ ing with this problem to hold clearly in mind the distinction between the function of a lay board of education and that of a school superintendent and his staff. The professional executive should acquaint his board with the existence and nature of the problem. The board of education should then decide upon a general policy. Then, it becomes the duty of the super¬ intendent and his staff to carry out the will of the board. It is of first importance that this division of function be observed in dealing with the propaganda issue. The welfare of the children alone should determine the policies which are to govern the admission or exclusion of outside materials and influence. Once these policies are adopted, the superintendent of schools and his staff should be vigorously supported, and not hindered, in executing the policies decided upon. The committee does not underestimate the difficulties which arise in the local situation. It is aware of the fact that there are some board members — fortunately they are the exception — who lack courage in dealing with this problem. Such members will vote for a policy of the board deemed essential to the effective operation of the schools and the protection of the children. Then an agent or propagandist comes to one of them with a persuasive and plausible request for permission to enter the schools in a manner which violates the carefully devised policy of the board. The board member fails to point out that this is not a matter for him to decide. Instead of referring the agent to the superintendent of schools, he listens to the special pleader. The special interest is camouflaged in plausible or even patriotic and other noble motives. Perhaps the intruder is influential, or represents an in¬ fluential concern, or is an old friend of the board member. The board member yields. He appeals directly to the superintendent: “Make an ex- Reports of Committees 213 ception in this special case and favor this man if you can. I’m sure it’s a good cause and will do no harm.” Our committee is further aware of the fact that there are superintendents of schools — fortunately they also are the exception — who under such cir¬ cumstances will give ''ad bend. They will hesitate to refuse the personal request of a board member. They will compromise with the board’s policy and allow the intruder to enter the school. Then they will reason as follows: “After all it probably will not harm the children, and besides we shall need the support of this concern for our school program.” And once the policy is disregarded or diverted from its original intent, it is easy to interpret it loosely on subsequent occasions. Any schoolboard member or any superintendent of schools or member of his staff who gives way in this manner should clearly understand what he is doing. He should realize that he is bargaining away that birthright of every child which he is under moral obligation to protect. It may be that the board member will be personally embarrassed if he does not yield. If he is not willing to pay this price then he has demonstrated his unfitness as a board member. It may be that the superintendent of schools may lose the support of the individual board member if he holds firm to the policy established by the board, but he should be willing to pay that price rather than neglect his duty to the children. In the long run the board member who fearlessly refuses on his own re¬ sponsibility to modify the policy of the whole board will enjoy greater respect and have more friends than one who is continually trying to use his position for personal advancement. The superintendent who hews to the line and who allows no person, be he president of his board of education, a president of a great corporation, or the humblest citizen of the community, to deflect him from his duty in carrying out the spirit of his board’s policy will find himself in a far more stable position. The committee cautions school officials against the adoption of drastic and inflexible rules which deprive the schools of desirable contacts with outside materials and agencies. It is equally a mistake to have no policy for the guidance of principals and teachers in dealing with such materials. An inflexible policy is not the alternative to no policy. If properly selected and evaluated, materials furnished from the outside will help to keep the school in touch with real life. School subjects quickly become obsolete unless educational leaders are in constant touch with social conditions and able to interpret the ever-changing needs of our dynamic society. The school must interpret the needs of life, and therefore the school is not adverse to taking .educational material that is of vital importance. We recognize the fact that the schools look to society for the sanction of new subjectmatter and activities to replace those which have become formalized. In determining policies to govern the schools in relation to propaganda activities, the committee recommends for the consideration of boards of edu¬ cation and their executives the following fundamental principles: Schools exist primarily for the education of children, and not in the slightest degree 214 National Education Association for the purpose of selling the commodities or services of particular concerns, or for the circulation of propaganda in support of the theories, courses of action, or convictions of groups or organizations. The only basis upon which any concern or organization has a right to appeal for access to the school is that it is prepared to make some definite contribution to the accepted school program. If a school board doubts the competency of its superintendent of schools, his staff, and the teachers, to conceive and carry out a wellrounded program of legitimate educational activities in the school, then its remedy is clear. The legitimate program of instruction should not be interrupted by those who are not familiar with the broad purposes of the schools. A particular poster, chart, picture, pamphlet, motion picture, manual, or textbook, therefore, has little value for schools unless it can be used in the regular school program in a manner which will enrich that program and aid in the accomplishment of its objectives. Stated differently: Material to be acceptable must be indispensable to the education of children. That the school exists primarily for the education of the child is a fundamental principle which should serve as a criterion for judging all educational procedures. But this principle is so general that it seems neces¬ sary for this committee to suggest more specific principles of action in reference to the study of propaganda in the schools. The committee, there¬ fore, tentatively suggests certain specific principles of action. A. Principles of General Application 1. The welfare of children is the primary function of a public school and is the only legitimate basis for the acceptance or rejection of material offered for school use. 2. The protection of children from partisan textbook material is a problem of first importance. Constant alertness is the price of freedom from one¬ sided statements. Evaluation and selection of textbooks have been made the subject of scientific investigations.1 An expert function, such as the selection of textbooks for school use, should not be discharged by untrained persons. Whenever lay boards of education and other non-professional groups attempt, without professional advice, to perform this function, serious mistakes are likely to result. State and local boards charged with textbook selection should invariably secure and follow competent professional advice in discharging this duty. No man who follows the advice of a competent physician need fear the menace of quackery, and the employment of a reliable attorney is the surest defense 1 See for example, Donovan, H. L. “How to Select Textbooks”; In Peabody Journal of Education, Vol. 2, p. 1-11. (July, 1924.) Franzen, R. and Knight, F. B. Textbook Selection. Warwick and York, Baltimore, Mary¬ land, 1922. Hall-Quest, Alfred Lawrence. The Textbook — How to Use and Judge It. Macmillan Com¬ pany, New York City, 1918. Maxwell, C. R. The Selection of Textbooks. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, Massa¬ chusetts, 1921. 130 p. Rader, L. W. “The Scientific Selection of School Texts.” Fourth Yearbook, Bulletin of the Department of Elementary School Principals, 1925, p. 298-302. National Education As¬ sociation, Washington, D. C. Reports of Committees 215 against the pitfalls of shysters. Similarly, a community which entrusts the management of its schools to a conscientious, trained educator has taken the first and most important step to protect its children from textbooks biased by special interests or political motives. 3. Material which presents only one side of debatable public questions is less preferable than material which gives a ‘‘pro and con’ discussion; and both the foregoing types of material are less desirable than unbiased presentations. 4. The school should guard against casting the minds of children in certain inflexible molds modeled along the lines of current practise. They should realize that altered conditions in the future may make changes necessary in currently accepted customs or institutions. They should be made conscious of the fact that social problems exist today and will arise in the future, and should be given some understanding of the methods whereby society solves its problems. This does not mean that the schools should be thrown open to every ‘‘ism” which styles itself the way to Utopia, but rather that children should be given that flexibility of mind which makes for social evolution, rather than social stagnation. 5. Contests, originating from outside the school, are ordinarily of doubt¬ ful educational value.1 Where prize contests are admissible they should preserve the whole ideal of service to others, rather than the hope for a ma¬ terial reward. Group prizes are, therefore, preferable to individual prizes. Occasional competition to stimulate interest in particular phases of educa¬ tional work is not objectionable. 6. The privilege of outsiders to address school assemblies and classes should be definitely controled by educational authorities. Attempts to com¬ pel or influence superintendents, principals, and teachers to open their classes and assemblies to unauthorized propagandists should be summarily dis¬ couraged. 7. The difficult)* of this problem will be lessened when all schools are supplied with adequate funds so that no school will be compelled to rely on gifts and donations from the outside. The general public finally pays for school material whether it is publicly or privately supplied. If outside agencies are able to pay for gifts to the schools, they are able to pay adequate taxes for the purchase of proper school materials by the board of education. B. Principles of Limited Application 1. Hasty adoption of new policies in regard to outside materials is in¬ advisable. Several months of careful study may not be too long to allow before material offered by outside agencies is accepted or rejected. Ad¬ ministrators and teachers should not allow themselves to be rushed into a course of action from which they may later find difficulty in escaping. 1 The following objections are made to the excessive use of prire contests in schools: First, usually only those who are especially gifted participate and the majority who most need the stimulus fail to respond. Second, often the prire does r.ot go to the most worthy contestant. A third danger is that dishonesty may be practised by copying or by receiving outside help. Fourth, the interest of the pupils is directed towards the prire rather than the performance of a worthy educational task. 216 National Education Association 2. In order to make such study possible, school systems should provide proper facilities for the evaluation of outside material. In large cities a con¬ tinuing curriculum revision committee might exercise this function. In smaller cities a committee of principals and teachers might aid the superin¬ tendent in this work. 3. These committees will need to take into consideration the reputation for fair dealing and the facilities for preparing proper school material possessed by a firm or agency. 4. These committees should also recognize that new materials from the outside should not be allowed to replace equally or more desirable mate¬ rials already available. For example, there is no justification for disturb¬ ing the school program merely to substitute one type of material or activity for another which is already working satisfactorily and is adequately serving the interests of the children. 5. For any teacher, supervisor, or administrator to urge pupils to pur¬ chase any special product not directly related to the work of the schools is unethical. It is also unethical to urge children or teachers to endorse move¬ ments or to participate in activities that are not definitely related to the welfare of the schools. 6. The practise of collecting money through the schools for outside proj¬ ects should be forbidden. In the rare instances where this generally un¬ desirable practise is permitted there should be no pressure placed on any pupil, nor should the amount of individual contributions be made known. No pupil should be asked or allowed to pledge future money payments in any cause. 7. Giving lists of pupils' names and addresses to agencies merely for com¬ mercial use should be forbidden. 8. The way in which material is presented by the teachers is often of more significance than the nature of the material itself. In this as in other school problems there is no substitute for a welltrained teacher who clearly understands the distinction between teaching what to think and how to think, and who possesses skill in doing the latter. Final Considerations Much of the material of this report is necessarily of a general character. The committee had neither the time nor the resources to conduct extensive investigations of many of the problems considered. The entrance of prop¬ aganda into the schools through textbooks, and a number of other questions only touched upon in this report would make excellent topics for detailed research by students in the field of education. The committee has avoided final and dogmatic pronouncements. The regulation of the relationship of the school to outside influences is primarily a local question. Conditions differ in different communities and call for various treatments. The committee has merely attempted to define the general scope of the problem, to point out its significance, and broadly to outline principles which school systems may find helpful in their efforts to Reports of Committees 217 sort from a wide variety of outside materials and influences those which can be helpfully incorporated into the school program. That the problem is one of discriminating selection rather than total exclusion is clear to the committee. The school would suffer great harm if it were to shut itself off from real life simply because some of the influences which seek to gain admission to the classroom are not useful in educating children. The committee considers this whole problem to be one of major significance. It urges that local school systems carefully study, along the lines suggested in this report or along other lines which may be considered appropriate, the question of how the school may keep in close touch with outside life, and yet not become the dupe of harmful influences. The committee further recommends that the schools should give greater attention to the development of methods whereby children may be trained in habits of critical judgment. A myriad of influences now seek to mold thought in preconceived directions. There is danger that too much of our thinking will be based on slogans and half truths. To guard against this danger the school should increase its efforts to develop the power of critical judgment and independent thought. Appendix Five appendices were included in the complete report which listed the rules of various school systems in regard to the several topics indicated by the headings to the appendices as listed below: Appendix A — Typical rules of boards of education governing outside materials and agencies. Appendix B — Examples of supplementary material prepared by superintendents for the guidance of supervisors, principals, or teachers in dealing with propaganda. Appendix C — Typical administrative organizations for dealing with outside materials. Appendix D — Propaganda as a state school problem. Appendix E — Form of questionnaire used. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON RETIREMENT ALLOWANCES E. RUTH PYRTLE, CHAIRMAN, PRINCIPAL, BANCROFT SCHOOL, LINCOLN, NEBRASKA Committee objectives. — The Committee on Retirement Allowances of the National Education Association has two principal objectives: 1. The maintenance of a clearing house of information on the problem of teacher retirement allowances. 2. The preparation of reports on the teacher retirement movement that are based on the best current thought in this field, and that may aid in advancing the develop¬ ment of scientific teacher retirement systems. 218 National Education Association In fulfiling the first of these objectives, the committee, in cooperation with the Research Division, has assembled at the Association’s Headquarters a library of material on teacher retirement. This library, which has been of considerable assistance in answering the many inquiries on retirement problems, contains general studies in the field, copies of the provisions of state and local teacher retirement systems now in effect, the latest available information concerning plans for retirement legislation, and a current directory of the secretaries of state and local teacher retirement systems. The committee, through its meetings, inter-member correspondence and cooperative work with such agencies as the National Council of Teachers’ Retirement Systems, furnishes a clearing house for the interchange of opin¬ ion and fact concerning the theory and practical operation of teacher re¬ tirement systems. In accomplishing its second objective, the preparation of reports on the teacher retirement movement, the committee has attempted to make avail¬ able from time to time the best thought and practise in the field. Its last comprehensive report, presented a year ago at Minneapolis, was reprinted with some modification and additions as an issue of the Research Bulletin of the National Education Association.1 This report has been widely cir¬ culated. Plans for 1930 report. — Plans are now in progress which will result in the cooperative preparation of another comprehensive report for submis¬ sion to the Association a year from the present time. This report will present as a part of its contents : 1. A revision of the statement of fundamental principles of a teacher retirement system, which appeared in the Minneapolis report. 2. A general survey of retirement systems in effect. 3. Uptodate information on retirement activities in the various states and cities. 4. Tabular material showing the principal features of selected retirement systems. 5. A simple explanation of the way in which certain provisions of teacher retire¬ ment systems work in practise. 6. Results of research on special problems in the field of teacher retirement con¬ ducted for the committee by the Research Division. 7. A selected, annotated bibliography of literature in this field. Cooperation with secretaries of teacher retirement systems. — During the past year cooperative relations were continued between the Committee on Retirement Allowances of the National Education Association and the Na¬ tional Council of Teachers’ Retirement Systems. In November, 1928, a number of members of this Council met at the Headquarters of the Na¬ tional Education Association to discuss various teacher retirement problems. At the Cleveland meeting of the Association, a joint session of the two groups was held at which the status of the teacher retirement movement was reviewed and important trends brought out. The interchange of ex¬ perience at these conferences and meetings has been of considerable assist¬ ance in directing the work of the committee along lines of greatest value to persons in the field. 1 National Education Association, Research Division. “The Advance of the Teacher Retire¬ ment Movement.” Research Bulletin, Vol. VI, No. 3, May, 1928. Washington, D. C. 56 p. Reports of Committees 219 Fundamental principles. — One of the most significant pieces of work accomplished by the Committee on Retirement Allowances is the drafting of a set of fundamental principles of teacher retirement designed to aid those concerned with the development and operation of effective teacher retirement systems. These principles exercised a major influence in the direc¬ tion of securing sound retirement legislation in recent legislative sessions. The principles as printed in the 1928 report of the committee, and on pages 153-7 of the May, 1928, Research Bulletin of the National Education Association , have received wide recognition and acceptance. It has been recommended that one revision be made in the 1928 statement of principles, namely, that Principles XV and XVI, both of which deal with essentially the same subject, be combined as follows: XV. Retirement Board in Control The administration of the retirement system should he in the hands of a retire¬ ment board the makeup of which is carefully prescribed in the retirement law, and which represents both the public and the teachers. The control of a retirement system should be vested in a retirement board, whose makeup is carefully prescribed by the retirement law. As both the public and the teachers are interested in seeing that the affairs of the retirement system are con¬ ducted with the greatest possible efficiency, both parties should be adequately repre¬ sented on the retirement board. The method of appointment or selection should be such as to secure a high t)rpe of personnel. It is also proposed that Principle IV be modified in the manner shown below. The portions of the statement in parentheses represent suggested additions. Except for these proposed additions, the principle would remain unchanged. IV. Amount of Deposits and Payments (and Rate of Interest) Stated The deposit by the teacher, the payment by the public ( and the rate of interest) should be stated by the organic act creating a retirement system subject to adjust¬ ment in accordance with future actuarial investigations. The deposits to be made by the teacher and by the public (and the rate of interest for the accumulations) should be definitely stated in the organic act and should con¬ tinue as stated until changed by the retirement board on the basis of actuarial inves¬ tigation. Too often in the past definite contributions to be paid by the teacher have been provided for, but the amount of the public’s payment has been uncertain and indefinite. All future retirement laws should state definitely the method whereby the amounts to be deposited by the teachers and the payments by the public are to be determined (and the rate of interest at which the funds are to be accumulated). If this is done the exact amount of the fund which is being built up is known, it can be depended upon, and expenditures can be planned accordingly. The state should live up to the requirements of the law that it makes for the retirement of its teachers, just as it requires banks, insurance companies, and similar institutions to live up to the law concerning the reserves they must carry. Retirement plan for Headquarters Staff of the National Education Asso¬ ciation. — In 1926 the Committee on Retirement Allowances recommended 220 National Education Association “that the Executive Committee be authorized to take steps to put into effect a retirement plan for the Association’s headquarters staff.” This recom¬ mendation was approved by the Representative Assembly and a plan subse¬ quently worked out and put into effect by the officers of the Association. The Headquarters retirement plan has now been in successful operation for more than a year and a half. Few actions affecting the staff taken in recent years promise greater returns in continued and increased efficiency than the inauguration of this retirement plan. Proposed retirement plan for headquarters staff of state education asso¬ ciations. — The successful establishment of the national association’s re¬ tirement system suggested the possibility of extending this system to cover the staffs of the state associations. At the request of President Lamkin an investigation was made to determine the feasibility of so extending the system. It was found that it would be possible to extend the plan so that state associations which desire to do so may enrol their staffs. Full in¬ formation has been sent on this matter to the officers of all state associations. Several states have already taken action to join. The committee recommends to all state associations the desirability of coming into the retirement system. We urge this for the same reason that we urge retirement plans for teachers, namely, that they make for greater efficiency. The state associations should look upon the enrolment of their staffs in this plan as a step in the direction of preserving and increasing the efficiency of their staffs. Early entrance is desirable, while the problem of taking care of prior service is still small. This question is relatively easy to deal with now, since most of the state associations are comparatively young organizations. The cost of covering prior service becomes greater as entrance into the re¬ tirement plan is delayed, and eventually offers a serious obstacle to the initiation of a retirement plan for any group. It is inconsistent for a state association to advocate a teachers’ retire¬ ment plan as an efficiency measure for the teachers of a state, and at the same time fail to adopt a plan for its own employees. We strongly recom¬ mend that all delegates urge the officers of their respective associations to take early and favorable action toward enroling their headquarters staff in the retirement plan of the National Education Association. State and Local Teacher Retirement Systems Now in Effect The following is a list of state and local teacher retirement systems now in effect. It may be necessary later to revise this list slightly on the basis of reports from state legislatures still in session at the time this report was printed. Information concerning the plans listed, or names and addresses of persons connected with their administration, may be secured from the Research Division of the National Education Association. Reports of Committees 221 State-wide teacher retirement laws are in effect in the following states: Arizona Montana California Nevada Connecticut New Jersey District of Columbia New York 2 Illinois North Dakota Indiana Ohio Maine Pennsylvania Maryland 1 Rhode Island Massachusetts Vermont Michigan Virginia Minnesota Washington Wisconsin An act to create a teachers’ retirement system for Kentucky, passed by the 1928 legislature in that state, has not yet been put into operation. In connection with the above list, it should be added that retirement systems affecting teachers are also in effect in Hawaii, the Panama Canal Zone, the Philippine Islands, and Porto Rico. An act was passed by the 1929 legislature of the Territory of Alaska, creating a pension system for teach¬ ers in that territory. Payment of pensions under this system is to commence on or after October 1, 1930. Where state-wide teacher retirement laws are in effect, the following cities have local teacher retirement systems independent of state systems: San Francisco, Calif. New Haven, Conn. Chicago, Ill.3 Peoria, Ill. Terre Haute, Ind. Baltimore, Md. Boston, Mass. Detroit, Mich. Minneapolis, Minn. Duluth, Minn. St. Paul, Minn. New York, N. Y. Bristol, R. I.3 Newport, R. I.3 Providence, R. 1. 3 Everett, Wash. Seattle, Wash. Spokane, Wash. Tacoma, Wash. Milwaukee, Wis. State teacher retirement laws of limited application are in effect in the following communities : Delaware Wilmington Georgia Atlanta Kentucky Lexington Louisville Newport Louisiana New Orleans Nebraska Omaha 1 The retirement law of this state does not include teachers in the city of Baltimore, which city maintains an independent employees’ retirement system of which teachers are members. 2 The retirement law of this state does not include teachers in New York City, which city maintains an independent teacher retirement system. 3 Teachers also enroled in state system. In the other cities, teachers are members of local system only. 222 National Education Association No state law establishing teacher retirement systems is in effect in the following states : 1 Alabama Mississippi South Carolina Arkansas Missouri South Dakota Colorado New Hampshire Tennessee Florida New Mexico Texas Idaho North Carolina Utah Iowa Oklahoma West Virginia Kansas Oregon Wyoming Local teacher retirement systems have been set up by the following local communities in the states listed : Alabama Montgomery City New Hampshire Concord Colorado Mobile County Manchester Nashua Canon City North Carolina Colorado Springs New Hanover County Denver Oregon Portland Greeley South Carolina Charleston Georgia Augusta Macon Tennessee Chattanooga Hamilton County Knox County Iowa Des Moines Nashville Sioux City Texas San Antonio Kansas Atchison Utah Salt Lake City Leavenworth West Virginia Charleston Parsons Parkersburg Topeka Wheeling Teacher Retirement Legislation During the period that has elapsed following its meeting in Minneapolis, the Committee on Retirement Allowances has continued its contact with school officials and other persons interested in teacher retirement problems. The following section presents information in summary form on the more important legislative enactments or proposals relating to teacher retirement that have occurred since the committee’s 1928 report. The data for this summary were secured largely through correspondence with state superintendents, secretaries of state education associations, and chairmen of retirement committees. Some of the material has been taken from related articles and reports appearing in recent issues of state educa¬ tional journals. It would have been impractical to attempt to cover all aspects of the teacher retirement movement, or to give detailed considera¬ tion to the situation in any one state. On the basis of later reports from state legislatures still in session at the time this report was printed, it may 1 A number of these states have permissive state laws authorizing local communities to establish teacher retirement systems. Reports of Committees 223 be necessary to make some additions to, or minor revisions in, the follow¬ ing summary. The committee will appreciate notification of any errors that may be present in the succeeding discussion. Legislation affecting state-wide teacher retirement systems. — At recent state legislative sessions a number of measures were enacted affecting in varying degrees the state teacher retirement systems of Connecticut, Indiana, Maine, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Vermont. The principal fea¬ tures of the more important of these acts are outlined below: Connecticut. Among amendments made in 1929 to the state teachers' retirement system of Connecticut were the following: 1. The time in which teachers in service at date of enactment may apply for membership in the retirement association is restricted to June 30, 1931. 2. Retirement at age sixty may be had on the basis of twenty years’ service in¬ stead of fifteen, and upon payment of five annual assessments to the annuity fund. 3. Members must have paid five annual assessments to the annuity fund and must have had twenty years of service, instead of fifteen, to receive an additional pension for prior service and to be granted an additional sum if the minimum retire¬ ment allowance is under three hundred and fifty dollars. 4. The pension for disability is not to exceed a pension granted under any pro¬ vision other than for disability. 5. A teacher employed after July 1, 1929, may receive credit for service outside the state not to exceed ten years, providing he pays amount due annuity fund for such service with interest. Indiana. Provisions were added in 1929 to the Indiana state teachers' retirement fund law whereby : ( 1 ) Receipts are to be issued to teachers for salary deductions to account of the state teachers’ retirement fund ; and (2) township trustees and treasurers of school cities and towns are made liable for failure to deduct, report, and pay over such deductions to the state teachers’ retirement fund board. Maine. The 1929 state legislature made the following changes in the non-contributory teacher retirement law: 1. Pensions were increased as follows: The annual pension received from the state by teachers of thirty-five years’ experience was raised from $400 to $500; that of teachers with thirty years’ ex¬ perience from $325 to $375 ; and for teachers of twenty-five years’ experience from $250 to $275. 2. Provision was also made whereby teachers aged fifty, who are totally dis¬ abled and have no other means of support, upon complying with conditions of the law relative to length of experience and state service, may be granted a pension determined by length of service. Membership in the joint-contributory teacher retirement system was made compulsory for all teachers with six years’ state service who began teaching after the joint-contributory system went into effect, and were thus rendered ineligible for benefits under the non-contributory retirement law. Michigan. The Michigan state teacher retirement law, inadvertently repealed by the 1927 state legislature, was re-enacted in 1929. 224 National Education Association Ohio. By recent act of the Ohio state legislature, teachers who have withdrawn their money from the state teachers’ retirement fund may re¬ deposit it with interest, and be restored to their former status, providing such re-deposit is made prior to January 1, 1930. Pennsylvania. An enactment of 1929 makes pensions payable to teach¬ ers with fifteen years’ service who had retired before the state school em¬ ployees’ retirement law became effective, the sum of $150,000 being pro¬ vided for such pensions. Under another act, full credit is also to be given contributors for years in service of the United States during the World War. Vermont. Amendments to the state teacher retirement law were made in 1929 as follows: 1. A minimum average annual allowance of $200 is provided for superannuation or disability retirement. 2. Teachers who retired prior to enactment of the state teacher retirement sys¬ tem may be granted pensions. 3. The retirement board may drop members whose dues are in arrears two years or more, the teacher’s contributions to be refunded, with interest. Proposed changes in state-wide teacher retirement laws. — In a number of states a movement has been in progress toward ( 1 ) Reorganization of existing state-wide teacher retirem*ent laws, or (2) amendment of certain provisions of these laws. Three states, California, Minnesota, and Mon¬ tana, which may be classed with the first group, had teacher retirement measures before legislative sessions of 1929. In the movement for revision of the California state teachers’ retire¬ ment salary fund law, considerable attention was given S. B. No. 673, a bill introduced in the 1929 state legislature. Defeat of this measure, one that would in general have amplified the present law, wTas largely due to the fact that it did not seem to offer a permanent solution of the problem. The California Public School Teachers’ Retirement Salary Commission, appointed in 1927 to investigate the retirement problem, recently issued a report. A mass of statistical information has been assembled with which to evaluate retirement plans for that state. Two minor acts relating to the state teacher retirement salary fund law were enacted in 1929 and sent to the governor for signature. A reorganization of the present Minnesota state teachers’ insurance and retirement fund law was attempted at the 1929 state legislature. While the measure w^as not passed, progress is reported. An attempt to reorganize the state teachers’ retirement salary fund law in Montana was also unsuc¬ cessful, although considerable publicity was given the matter. A retirement committee of the Washington Education Association is working under actuarial advice to prepare a modern teacher retirement plan for presentation at the 1931 state legislature. Following completion of the study of the actuarial data assembled for Washington, a retirement bill is to be drafted. The North Dakota state legislature of 1929 authorized the governor to appoint a committee to study the present state teachers’ insurance and re- Reports of Committees 225 tirement fund law. In Michigan, tentative proposals for a new teacher retirement law have been circulated for discussion. A commission has also been appointed from the legislature to study the teacher retirement situation and recommend a new law, if necessary, at the next session. Pro¬ posals to provide a new retirement law for teachers in Virginia are under discussion. At recent legislative sessions amendments were proposed to state-wide teacher retirement laws in Arizona, Massachusetts, and Wisconsin. An amendment to the state teacher retirement law in Arizona, placing emphasis on years of service rather than age attained, was passed by the senate but re¬ ceived no action upon going to the house committee. This bill would have made it possible for pensions to be augmented by local pension funds. In Massachusetts, an act to increase certain amounts payable under the teachers’ retirement law was passed by the house and has been before the senate. Several bills affecting the administration of the Wisconsin state teacher retirement system have been proposed to the recent legislative session ; final word on these bills has not been received. Legislation in states with state teacher retirement laws of limited ap¬ plication. — An act to create a teachers’ retirement system for Kentucky, passed by the 1928 legislature in that state, has not yet been put into op¬ eration. In Delaware a bill to provide for a state teachers’ retirement sys¬ tem was defeated at a recent legislative session. A concurrent resolution, however, was passed by the legislature of this state authorizing the gover¬ nor to appoint a committee to investigate the teacher retirement problem, with special reference as to whether Delaware could afford a teacher re¬ tirement system. The retirement committee of the Louisiana Teachers’ Association has spent considerable time in preliminary work to create favorable sentiment among teachers and public toward a state-wide teacher retirement law. It is reported that this committee has decided to employ an actuary pre¬ paratory to introducing a measure in a future session of the state legisla¬ ture. The Nebraska State Teachers’ Association has conducted a campaign of education and information on teacher retirement. The teacher retirement law effective in Omaha wTas amended in 1929 to provide that a teacher who under the former provision would have been retired after forty years of service, shall not be compulsorily retired upon completing this period of service unless he has reached age sixty-five. The Georgia Education Association is giving attention to the teacher retirement problem. Certain features intended to strengthen the teacher retirement law operating in Atlanta may be presented at this year’s legisla¬ tive session. Legislation in states without a state-established teacher retirement tem. — Teacher retirement problems have received considerable attention in practically all of the states without a state-established teacher retirement system. In general, recent retirement activities of these states have taken the following forms : ( 1 ) Attempts to secure enactment of state-wide 226 National Education Association teacher retirement laws; (2) amendment of existing permissive retirement laws; (3) study of the teacher retirement situation in the state, or attempts to secure funds for this purpose. Bills to establish state-wide teacher retirement systems were introduced at the 1929 legislative sessions of Colorado, New Hampshire, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Utah, and West Virginia. Owing to a variety of causes, none of these bills were enacted. However, the first two states, at least, report progress in creating interest in the matter. Permissive state laws affecting teacher retirement were altered in three states. In Colorado, the retirement fund levy authorized for school dis¬ tricts of the first class was increased from one-fifth of a mill to two-fifths. By another act employees of school districts of the first class with a school population of 30,000 or more having a teachers’ retirement fund may re¬ ceive payments from the board of education upon retirement, as do the teachers. In Iowa, the state law permitting cities of 75,000 or over to establish a teacher retirement fund was amended to include cities of 25,100 or more. The Oregon state legislature of 1929 passed a new Enabling Act to place the Teachers’ Retirement Fund Association operating in Portland on a more substantial basis. Active interest in study of retirement problems has been shown by vari¬ ous state teachers’ associations. The Colorado Education Association has authorized a committee to study, among other matters, sources of revenue for the proposed teacher retirement measure. In Kansas the state teachers’ association has appropriated $2000 toward a study of teacher retirement. A committee of the Florida Education Association has attempted to assemble data for an actuarial survey of teachers in the state. The Florida state legis¬ lature has been asked to appropriate sums with which ( 1 ) to pension certain teachers during the succeeding biennium, and (2) to finance the actuarial survey incident to introducing a sound annuity plan at the 1930 session. The Idaho Education Association has assembled data necessary to an actuarial study, and following tabulation of the data, expects to employ an actuary to outline the necessary provisions of a teacher retirement law. A teacher retirement plan was worked out by a committee of the Texas State Teachers’ Association. However, a provision of the state constitu¬ tion prevents state participation in a teacher retirement fund. A commit¬ tee to draft a constitutional amendment has been appointed. Attention has also been given this matter by the state teachers’ associations in Oregon, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Wyoming. In Mississippi a legislative committee, appointed in 1928, is studying the matter, preparatory to reporting at the 1930 session. Legislation affecting city teacher retirement systejns. — A number of amendments were enacted in 1929 to the teacher retirement system operat¬ ing in New York City. These amendments related in general to provisions governing membership, compulsory contributions, return to status following absence, payment of allowances, dates upon which retirement and optional Reports of Committees 227 benefits become effective, death benefits, and restrictions on designation of beneficiaries. The teacher retirement system formerly in effect in Bellingham, Wash¬ ington, has merged with the state fund. Negotiations are now under way which may result in the incorporation into the state system of the other local teacher retirement systems in Washington. Amendments wrere adopted in June, 1928, to the San Francisco City Employees’ Retirement System following an actuarial investigation of the experience of the system over a five-year period. Final reports have not yet been received in regard to legislative proposals affecting certain additional city teacher retirement systems. Legislation in certain territories. — As noted in a previous section, an act was passed in the 1929 legislature of the Territory of Alaska, creating a pension system for teachers in that territory. Payment of pensions under this system is to commence on or after October 1, 1930. In 1929, legislation was enacted modifying the retirement system for employees, including teachers, of the Territory of Hawaii. The teachers’ pension laws in effect in the Philippine Islands and Porto Rico were recently amended. In regard to the teacher retirement problem in the Virgin Islands, a proposed pension law has been drafted and the matter of costs studied. Bibliography A selected annotated bibliography of recent literature on teacher retire¬ ment systems was included in the complete report.1 1 Copies of the complete report, including the bibliography, may be secured from the National Education Association, 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W., Washington, D. C. - The National Council of Education The national council of education was or¬ ganized in 1880, growing out of a paper read by Thomas W. Bicknell before the Department of Superintendence. See Proceedings, 1880:90-94. The active membership of the Council consists of 60 mem¬ bers chosen by the Council ; 60 chosen by the Board of Directors of the Association ; and three chosen by each of the Departments of the Association. For consti¬ tution and bylaws, see Proceedings , 1906:608-11. The Council meets twice each year, once in February and once in June. The officers of the Council for the year 1929-30 are: President , Henry Lester Smith, Dean, School of Education, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. ; Vice-president , Mrs. Susan M. Dorsey, Superintendent of Schools, Los Angeles, Calif.; Secretary , Adelaide S. Baylor, Chief, Home Economics Education Service, Federal Board for Vocational Education, Washington, D. C. ; Executive Committee , Anna Laura Force, Principal, Lake Jun¬ ior High School, Denver, Colo. (Term expires 1930) ; M. G. Clark, Superintendent of Schools, Sioux City, Iowa (Term expires 1931) ; David A. Ward, Super¬ intendent of Schools, Chester, Pa. (Term expires 1932). Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier Proceedings as follows : 1880 90- 94 1892:745-806 1902 :306-408 1912:499-605 1922:349-574 1882 77- 87 1893 :925 1903 :301 -376 1913:355-424 1923 .-425-551 1884 Pt. 3:1-67 1894:593-678 1904 :333-377 1914:293-404 1924 :350-428 1885 405-551 1895:430-509 1905:271-340 1915:527-627 1925:266-336 1886 261-331 1896:393-470 1906 :607-623 1916:195-287 1926:280-327 1887 257-328 1897:317-583 1907:329-454 1917:129-219 1927:247-292 1888 253-321 1898:489-588 1908 :313-500 1918:135-149 1928:221-262 1889 147-440 1899 :380-529 1909 :331-435 1919:675-739 1890 289-364 1900:297-364 1910:307-375 1920:107-109 1891 275-378 1901 :349-499 1911:331-476 1921 :269-368 EDUCATION FOR WORLD FRIENDSHIP AND UNDER¬ STANDING-ABSTRACT 1 2 HENRY LESTER SMITH. DEAN, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, INDIANA UNIVERSITY, BLOOMINGTON, IND. WE are all conscious of the horrors of war and its attendant con¬ sequences. We are aware of the existence of various undercurrents which tend to sweep nations into destructive, yet often otherwise resultless, conflict. The history of nations from ancient to modern times is blotched with the accounts of national enmities and misunderstandings which have culminated in needless bloodshed, impoverishment, sorrows, and premature extermination of individuals and nations. It is not enough merely to be taught the horrors of war and to avoid everything which would stimulate international jealousy and animosity. The emphasis must be put on whatever binds people together in coopera¬ tive human pursuits and results, apart from geographical limitations. The secondary and provisional character of sovereignty in respect to the fuller, freer, and more fruitful association and intercourse of all human beings with one another must be instilled as a working disposition of the mind. This realization has been slow to dawn. We now realize that if the individuals who compose a nation are to receive this training for world friendship and understanding, they must receive such training before they reach maturity and they must receive it through the medium of the public schools. As a result of inheritance or experience, everyone develops a large number of more or less generalized attitudes which condition and to a large extent determine all future responses. Observation and preliminary studies suggest that somewhere in the period of adolescence, feeling, for unknown causes, adheres to or interfuses certain attitudes, which, from that time on are such determinants of responses as to be an important, perhaps the most important, part of character." The realization of these facts prompted the presentation of the prelim¬ inary report on “W orld ide Friendship Without Local Disloyalty” made before the World Federation of Education Associations at Toronto, Canada, August, 1927. The outstanding results of the meeting of this particular section were a preliminary and somewhat unorganized collection of material relating to the problem at hand, and a conviction on the part of those in attendance at the section meeting and on the part of the representatives of the World Federa¬ tion as a whole that the study should be carried forward on the basis of the preliminary material presented there. With the idea, therefore, of pro¬ viding basic data which could be presented at the Geneva meeting of the World Federation of Education Associations, an attempt has been made to gather and organize, information as to : ( 1 ) The training which teachers in the public schools should have if they are to attempt to educate children 1 The complete report may be secured from the Bureau of Cooperative Research, School of Education. Indiana University. 2 Brisrgs. Thomas, Curriculum Problems. Macmillan. 1926. [231] 232 National Education Association for world friendship and understanding; (2) the type of organization and the methods and devices which should govern the offering, in the public schools, of instruction in world friendship and understanding; (3) the atti¬ tudes of business and professional people, other than those engaged in school work, as to the wisdom of undertaking to educate pupils, in the public schools, in world friendship and understanding. A questionnaire, Education for World Friendship and Understanding, divided into Forms A, B,andC, was used to gather such data as was deemed necessary. Form B, with which this report deals, was sent to public school superintendents, high school principals, a miscellaneous group of educators, and a representative group of Canadian educators. Two inadequacies of our study, here presented, may be pointed out: (1) The conclusions are based solely upon replies from only two countries, the United States and Canada; (2) the number of questionnaires returned is but ten percent of the number sent out. Form B was sent to 1739 indi¬ viduals. There were only 174 returned to the Bureau making the study. Lack of time has hampered the work. It is hoped that, at the Geneva con¬ ference of the World Federation of Education Associations a more com¬ plete report may be made. The first division of Form B of the questionnaire, designed to determine the organization and methods of instruction to be employed in training pupils in world friendship and understanding, consists of five groups of theses. There are two theses in each group, stated in alternate form. The theses of each group are presented here, together with a statement concern¬ ing the rating which each received from the various groups of school men to whom they were presented. Division I — Group I Thesis 1. Provision should be made in the public elementary and secondary schools for a distinct program or curriculum dealing with world friendship and world understanding similar to the special provision now being made in many schools to care for character education. Thesis 2. The work of developing in children the proper attitudes of mind, regard¬ ing other peoples can better be cared for if such special courses are omitted and the desirable material is presented as a part of the work in geography, history, English, foreign language, music, art, etc. Practically four-fifths of all those checking these theses favored the second thesis or method of presentation. This will necessitate a reorganization of the work in these subjects. Division I — Group II Thesis 3. Whatever the particular organization provided, the instruction should be so planned as to insure a continuous and pointed emphasis as to its specific purpose, that of promoting international-mindedness among individuals and permanent peace among nations. Thesis 4. Rather should the child be given the truth concerning other peoples and other nations and be permitted to formulate his own attitudes of mind without the type of emphasis suggested in Thesis 3 above. A majority of those checking favored Thesis 4. National Council of Education 233 Division I — Group III Thesis 5. The material used should for the most part be concrete and distinctly objective. Thesis 6. Success will be better insured if the work is presented in the form of principles developed by the teachers and presented as such to the children. A majority of those checking favored the fifth Thesis. Division I — Group IV Thesis 7. For this work in developing in school children world understanding and world friendship, we shall need new materials and devices. Thesis 8. New materials and devices are unnecessary if we will revise those now in use in such a way as to include in them only the truth about peoples of other nations. A majority of those checking favored Thesis 8. Division I — Group V Thesis 9. For effective work a textbook should be provided which will bring together the information to be given the child. Thesis 10. A textbook cannot be used as satisfactorily as magazines and other current materials since it is a prime necessity’ that the work keep pace with economic, political, and social progress. A great majority of those checking favored Thesis 10. The conclusions derived from tabulating the checking on the five groups of theses would indicate that the organization and methods of instruction to be employed in training pupils in world friendship and understanding should be as follows : 1. The desirable material should be presented as a part of the work in geography, history, English, foreign language, music, art, etc. 2. The children should be given the truth concerning other peoples and other nations and be permitted to formulate their own attitudes of mind. 3. The material used for the most part should be distinctly concrete and objective. 4. Revision of the materials and devices now in use in such a way as to include in them only the truth about peoples of other nations. 5. The use of magazines and other current materials in preference to the use of a textbook as a means of keeping pace with economic, political, and social progress. These conclusions are quite valuable in that they furnish a basis upon which to build a course of study to be used in the schools. If world friend¬ ship and understanding are to be taught indirectly and as a part of the work in the other school subjects, it should be known which of the subjects lend themselves most readily to such correlations and what methods and devices can be used most effectively in carrying out this objective. The second division of Form B of the questionnaire was designed to ascertain what methods and devices may be used most effectively in this work. A series of methods and devices which have been employed in the public schools in training children in world friendship and understanding were submitted to the same groups of school men and women to whom the first division was submitted, with a view to determining the relative im¬ portance of these items in the training of children. Revised courses in all 234 National Education Association school subjects with the world friendship idea a conscious objective, on the part of textbook-makers, was agreed to be the most essential requisite to this training. The same checking tended to evaluate the relative importance of«the various school subjects to the program under consideration. Fourteen subjects, all of which were found to be in use by, at least, one school man in each group for this purpose, were listed. The five which were judged to be the most useful and with which the greatest degree of correlation could be made are listed in the order of their ranking: (1) history; (2) geography; (3) literature; (4) civics; (5) music. Items, two to thirty-two inclusive, present a series of methods or devices which might well be classified as pupil activities, designed to create an inter¬ est in world affairs and, thereby, increase the effectiveness of the program under consideration. These activities are based directly on the objectives to be attained and they are intended to bring the pupils into vicarious relation¬ ships with people the world over, to present a true conception of the lives of peoples of other lands, and to show the interdependence of individuals, na¬ tions, and races. These items were : 1 2. Correspondence between the children of your school and children of similai grades in foreign countries. (3) 3. Exchange of scrapbooks. These books are made by the children to illustrate their life and customs, and to give an idea of their cities, industries, etc. (5) +. Exchange of Christmas boxes. (Non-charity point of view.) (26) 5. Contributions of clothing and money to the needy of other countries. (Charity point of view.) (23) 6. Regular exchange with school children of other countries of such gifts as will throw light on the industries and customs of different peoples. (12) 7. Visual education methods (selected films, slides, posters, pictures, magazines, etc.) employed to make children acquainted with the home life, surroundings, and desires of children of foreign countries. (1) 8. Special study of ancestries with a view to suggesting the close relationships among peoples of different nations. (19) 9. The intelligent use of current news with a view to indicating the trend of social and economic affairs throughout the world. (4) 10. A continuous emphasis on the interdependence of peoples. (2) 11. Pageants, programs, and dramatics, employed to interpret the lives and customs of other peoples. (14) 12. A study of the music and songs of other peoples. (15) 13. A study of the flags of all nations. (28.5) 14. Games studied and played with a view to showing that play is fundamentally the same the world over. (27) 15. A special study of the common fallacies and superstitions regarding other peoples. (25) 16. Some effort at carrying the work of the school into the home with the idea of reducing the effect of prejudices acquired there. (16) 17. A special effort in language and grammar teaching to show the interrelations of the various tongues. (26) 1 The number following each item denotes the rank accorded it by replies to the question¬ naire. National Council of Education 235 18. Study of the nature and work of organizations for promoting peace and fellowship. (7.5) 19. Appropriate observation of Goodwill Day. (24) 20. A study of the holidays and holiday customs of other peoples. (30) 21. Exchange visits of children of different countries. (20) 22. Accurate translations of such newspapers and other publications as will give the pupil a true picture of progress among other peoples. (21) 23. A special study of the peacetime heroes and heroines of other countries. (9) 24. A study of the leading figures in the contemporary political world. (6) 25. Sparing and selective use of returned missionaries and travelers. (18) 26. Special study of the contributions of other peoples to the literature of the world. (10.5) 27. A special study of the contributions of other peoples to the art of the world. (13) 28. Exchange of teachers between countries. (7.5) 29. Addresses by representatives of foreign peoples. (10.5) 30. International commencement program in which the contributions of other countries to the development of the United States is emphasized. (31) 31. High-School Students International Club. (28.5) 32. A school World Friendship League. (17) We have now, after a fashion, determined: (1) The organization and methods of instruction to be employed in training pupils for world friend¬ ship and understanding; (2) the most effective methods and devices em¬ ployed in the public schools in training children in world friendship and understanding. Our next step is to determine the major objectives to be achieved through the use of the organization, methods, and devices so de¬ termined. The objectives which follow have been collected from three sources: (1) The preliminary report which your chairman made at the Toronto meeting; (2) from a restatement of the accepted theses of Form A, a kindred study to Form B, sent out to teacher-training institutions, college presidents, deans, department heads, etc.; (3) from lists of objectives given in Bobbitt's How To Make a Curriculum. The first ten objectives listed were taken from the first two sources. The remaining objectives and the general statements were taken from the third source. The major objectives are: 1. To promote worldwide friendship without creating local disloyalty. 2. To create a genuine world understanding, based on knowledge and respect and not on sympathy and sentiment. 3. To realize that the schools are the only sure agencies for producing changes in civilization. 4. To create a passion for and a knowledge of the truth in reference to peoples and nations. 5. To break down prejudices, selfishness, and undue boastfulness and pride on the part of youth. 6. To acquire the proper attitude toward war as opposed to other means of settling disputes between nations. 7. To create a real national patriotism, a patriotism that calls for loyalty with¬ out suspicion, distrust, and hatred of other nations and peoples. 8. To strive for fair consideration to be shown toward other nationalities. 236 National Education Association 9. To create a new state of mind which will transcend national boundaries. 10. To translate knowledge into new modes of conduct on the parts of the indi¬ viduals composing all nations. The following objectives and the general statements on curriculum making were taken from Bobbitt’s How to Make a Curriculum : Objectives 1. Ability to protect one’s self from social, economic, and political fallacies, illusions, misrepresentations, petty-mindedness, fragmentary-mindedness, sen¬ timentality, selfish prejudices, and the like, through one’s continual reliance upon facts and principles. 2. A sense of the brotherhood of man. A full sense of membership in the large or total social group. Large-group consciousness. A sense of human inter¬ dependency, of community of nature, of origin, of vicissitudes, and of destiny. 3. Ability, habit, and disposition to follow the leadership of the world’s men of vision. 4. Ability, disposition, and habit of abundant and diversified reading as a means of enjoyable and fruitful indirect observation of men, things, and affairs ; of vicarious participation in those affairs; and of entering into the thoughts and moods of others. 5. Ability, disposition, and habit of diversified observation of men, things, and affairs as an enjoyable and fruitful leisure occupation. General Statements 1. The several social studies aim at objectives in the same field. In large measure they aim at the same objectives. 2. Power to cooperate with others in desirable ways in carrying forward social movements is to be developed by cooperating with others in ways in forward¬ ing social movements. 3. Back of all right social action, there must be right social attitudes, valuations, appreciations, and desires. Preparation for right functioning must take ade¬ quate care of these basic qualities of mind. 4. One comes to know and to appreciate any country or people by living the life of that country or people. Naturally actual life in the country is most effec¬ tive ; but since this is usually impossible and since even direct observation is usually excluded, one must mainly or wholly depend upon the vicarious par¬ ticipation and indirect observation of pictures and reading. 5. One develops an interest in social groups, functional and territorial, and in the affairs and problems of such groups by participating directly or indirectly in the affairs of those social groups. Lacking such experiences, one remains ob¬ livious and indifferent. There are some very necessary cautions to be taken in presenting a program for educating school children in world friendship and understanding. Those listed are the outgrowth of the same study (Education for World Friend¬ ship and Understanding, Form B,) used for determining the principles and methods to be used in presenting this program. They are: 1. To avoid placing too much emphasis on the objective to be attained. The desired results should be byproducts of other instruction. 2. Teachers should be very conservative in expressing an individual opinion. Opinions should be formed by the pupils from the material presented. 3. Be sure of the validity of the material before bringing the pupils into contact with it. Nothing but the unbiased truth should be presented. National Council of Education 237 4. Care should be exercised in selecting speakers who are to talk on world rela¬ tions. They sometimes picture other people in an unfavorable light. 5. Avoid discussing too freely, relationships not held in common by all people, such as those pertaining to religion, caste, systems, etc. 6. The schools should avoid unpleasant experiences with the homes represented. To avoid such experiences, some effort should be made to carry the work of the school into the home with the idea of reducing the effect of prejudices ac¬ quired there. 7. Avoid basing this program upon sentimentality. World-mindedness is largely intellectual and must be based upon knowledge rather than sentimentality. S. Avoid creating local disloyalty in your zeal to build up worldwide friendship and understanding. THE FUNCTION OF THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCA¬ TION OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION JOHN K- NORTON, DIRECTOR OF RESEARCH, NATIONAL EDUCATION 0 ASSOCIATION The original purposes of the National Council of Education are clearly set forth in early issues of the Proceedings of the National Education Asso¬ ciation, particularly in the volumes of 1880, 1882, and 1906. Vision and clarity mark the thinking of Thomas W. Bicknell and other leaders who were instrumental in the creation of the Council in 1880. No better guide can be found by one interested in clarifying the functions of the Council in 1929 than the clearcut statements of its purposes and functions which are given in the Proceedings just following 1880, particularly the 1882 volume. The assistance received from these early statements in the preparation of this paper is gladly acknowledged. The original 1880 Constitution of the Council states: In order to consider educational questions of general interest and of public im¬ portance, and to formulate such conclusions as may be reached, the National Council of Education is organized within the National Education Association. The body created for this purpose was similar in its composition to the present National Council although smaller as to numbers. It was a body of leading educators selected partly by the Directors of the National Educa¬ tion Association and partly by the Council itself, representing all sections of the country and the principal fields of education. What were the considerations which led to the formation of such a body in 1880 by the National Education Association and to what extent are they still valid for 1929? First, the founders of the National Council had in mind that school organization in the United States is highly decentralized. The 1882 Pro¬ ceedings state : The importance of such a council becomes more evident when we consider the present condition of American instruction in distinction from the school life of the Old World. . . . It is a startling thought that the entire educational work of this nation today is really in the hands of teachers employed by the people, and 238 National Education Association responsible only to school committees and corporations whose fitness to formulate a consistent system of education and supervise its workings is not asserted by anybody. Such being the case it was contended fifty years ago that there was great need for an agency which would critically evaluate major educational pro¬ cedures and trends and make available the results of its deliberations. Is this consideration still valid in 1929? Undoubtedly it is. Our system of school organization is still highly decentralized, and most of us hope it will continue to be so. There are forty-eight independent school systems, and within each state from a hundred to a thousand or more school systems enjoying varying degrees of autonomy. This leads to a wide variety of practise. There is still no common agreement, for example, as to what con¬ stitutes an elementary school. Elementary education in some communities begins with a nursery class and extends through the ninth grade. Or it may begin at the first grade and end at the fifth or sixth. There are many other variations as to point of beginning, ending, and number of years included in the elementary school. This is merely one illustration of the diversity of practise which marks the organization of the school units of American education. When one goes over into the field of teaching methods, curricu¬ lum content, or fundamental educational philosophy, the diversity of prac¬ tise and thought is even greater. Never was there greater need for a responsible group made up of mature educational thinkers to guide us through a welter of diverse educational practises and philosophies than there is today. Second, the founders of the National Council saw a need for such a body because of the relative intellectual immaturity, but large professional zeal of the teaching profession. They pictured the 1880 situation as follows: Nine tenths of these teachers are in no way professionals. Their terms of service and places of occupation are short and changeful, and there are few communities in which the school life goes on with any marked consistency. But it was pointed out that what teachers lacked in maturity they made up for by the vigor and enthusiasm with which they developed new ways of doing things and adopted the ideas of others. It was stated in 1880 that the new departures in education were: Commonly wrought out by teachers whose original faculty and executive force are greater than their breadth of culture or philosophical habit of generalization. They are often achieved on such peculiar classes of children, under such unusual social conditions, that it is very difficult to estimate their relative value in a general system of national culture. . . . The man who has become famous as its representative is easily convinced that his plan includes the sum and substance of the matter. He appears in convention brandishing his brilliant essay, which, like the patent sweeper, cleans the street from curbstone to curbstone of everything in its path. . . . Everywhere among our ardent and successful teachers we find our¬ selves inspired as in the presence of prodigious, original power, assured that never were so many bright and beautiful things done with children since the foundation of the world ; yet everywhere we are worried and confused by the narrow, partial, local, and often merely personal, point of view of this forcible man or woman, buried up National Council of Education 239 to the eyes in one little section of school work, like the bee smothered in the honey of its own cell. . . . The teaching fraternity and the people of our country are failing to realize the value or appreciate the results of a great deal of the best school work now done, because there is no central body of superior schoolmen lifted above this turbulent region of transient work and heated controversy, devoted to the study of our national education in all its aspects, and prepared to pass intelligent judgment on its varied developments. Is this statement still apropos ? Does the teaching profession today include a considerable number of relatively immature thinkers, imbued with an abundant professional zeal ? Is our attention too often caught by every edu¬ cational will of the wisp? Do we too often accept the nostrum of some enthusiast as the sole panacea of educational progress and achievement? Most of us will agree that the enthusiast of relatively limited vision is still with us. In evaluating a new educational procedure we are too often influenced more by the vigor of the personality and enthusiasm of its advo¬ cate than by the basic philosophy which underlies his device. There is great need for a group of mature, deliberate thinkers who will critically examine and pronounce upon the fundamental soundness of important educational innovations uninfluenced by the personality or enthusiasm of their advocates. Third, the educational thinkers of 1880 established the National Council because they were convinced of the great complexity of the educational process. They believed that if such a complex wTas to be viewed in its proper relationships and waste avoided much hard thinking would have to be done. They expressed this viewpoint thus in 1882 : There is no more pressing need in the national educational field today than the gathering of representative educators of the country into a deliberative body, with the object of surveying the entire field of operations and discussing every important fact and development in American school life, laboring to harmonize conflicting opinions, or, at least, to report how far rival methods are complementary and not destructive to each other, and at its own option, without haste or heat, announcing its conclusions to the public. . . . The very effort to accomplish an end so important is itself a worthy purpose for the ablest thinkers and teachers; it will help to soften pedagogic asperities and possibly check the growth of hostile schools and parties contending with the bitterness and bigotry that are the certain accom¬ paniment of intense earnestness and narrow views. Is this statement of 1882 pertinent in 1929? There was never a greater need for calm, deliberate thought in the field of education than there is today. The synthesis of the whole educational world is more difficult than ever before. Most of the factors of complexity existing in 1880 are still with us and others have come in. Since 1880 the place of the school as an instrument of social progress has taken on added significance. We are coming to hold the school partly responsible for correcting the shortcomings of contemporary civilization. Rather than merely limiting itself to conserving the best of the past, the school is expected to develop new and better cultures for the future. In the half century since 1880 the school has become more of a dynamic and less of a static influence in social progress. To fulfill its function the 240 National Education Association school must properly evaluate and interpret into the lives of children the complex forces which make up modern civilization. Since 1880 a promising start has been made in creating a science of educa¬ tion. Instruments of objective measurement have been developed with the result that there may now be brought to bear upon most major educational problems at least some definite and tested knowledge. This is an eminently desirable development. But the scientific movement in education has some unfortunate by-products. Some appear to assume that if one uses a suf¬ ficient number of statistical formulae and instruments of educational meas¬ urement he is relieved of the obligation to think. The assembling of ob¬ jective educational data should be preceded and particularly should be fol¬ lowed by thinking. In the last twenty-five years we have spent too much time in assembling new data and too little time in digesting it and inter¬ preting its significance to educational evolution. This knowledge needs to be evaluated. The wheat needs to be winnowed from the chaff and prop¬ erly used. Walter Monroe sums up the point, and his statement is particularly significant coming as it does from a disciple of the scientific movement in education. Monroe says : Objectivity is not synonymous with accuracy and accurate data may not be valid data. Furthermore, objective methods are not applicable to all problems. There is a need for subjective methods. There is urgent need for developing and employing technics of critical reflective thinking in which some or all of the data are subjective, and for reviving an interest in the philosophy of education as a necessary supple¬ ment to the use of objective methods.1 Since 1880 the scope of public education has been extended. The sec¬ ondary school has been developed and the battle to make it a democratic institution has been won. The field of conflict has now been transferred from the secondary to the college level, and the gage of battle has been thrown down between those who would make higher education a privilege of a selected few and those who would develop differentiated opportunities in the college so that all may have such talents as they possess developed on this level. New movements have come upon the educational stage since 1880. I will mention but two. At one end, and before the traditional kindergarten and elementary school, we have the nursery school and the nascent preschool movement. At the other end is the tremendously significant post-school development — the adult education movement. Education, like other fields, has been marked by a progressively rapid specialization since 1880. The official program of this convention shows that at the present moment no less than 21 separate and distinct educational meetings are in session in Cleveland. And there are perhaps a dozen more which are not recognized in the official program. Specialization always brings the danger that the tail will wag the dog. 1 Monroe, Walter S. “Shall We Use Objective Methods Exclusively?” The Nation’s Schools , May, 1928, p. 16. National Council of Education 241 The factors which made a National Council of Education desirable in 1880 are still with us and others have come in. Ours is still a highly de¬ centralized system of education. The teaching profession still includes many whose enthusiasm for new ideas is not equalled by their maturin' of intellec¬ tual development. Education is still a highly complex held, and its com¬ plexity has been increased by the growing social significance of the school, by the birth of the science of education, by the extension of the scope of educa¬ tion and by progressively rapid specialization in education. The question might be raised : Are there not other agencies which otter the intellectual leadership and synthesized thinking needed in the held ot education? The conventions of the National Education Association do not do it. I would be the last to depreciate the great value of these meetings. As a clearing-house of relatively undigested educational ideas they are unex¬ celled. But they are far too crowded, too hurried, and too diverse to offer the opportunity for calm, deliberative discussion and thought on a few major problems as opposed to the brief consideration of a wide range of educational topics. The meetings of the National Education Association are agencies for the exchange of a tremendous amount of educational information which is carried back as a basis for practise and thought by individuals. This is all right, but something more is needed. One might similarly take up each of the no less than 285 educational organizations listed in the 1928 Educational Directory of the U. S. Bureau of Education. The American Educational Research Association, the Na¬ tional Society for the Study of Education. Section Q of the American Asso¬ ciation for the Advancement of Science — these and other of the 2 S3 organ¬ izations make their contributions to educational advance and have their more or less distinctive purpose. None of them is equipped, however, and none of them aims to make the contribution which should be expected from the National Council. Somewhat more specifically, just what is it that the National Council should do? It should lead in reviving the importance ©f redective thinking in education. It should aid in lifting educational philosophy to its rightful place in educational advance. We need an organization which will develop an integrated philosophy or overview of education, which will see in their true perspective the numerous specialties, side issues, and conflicting factors which play upon the schools today, which will evaluate the findings of scientific research in education, and which will tit each of these factors into its proper place, if it has one, in the whole educational scheme. The Council should regularly bring together a few educational leaders to grind out of the mill of mind reacting on mind, taking into consideration all factors, certain mature conclusions on a few supreme educational issues. In short, we need a group of educational thinkers who are able to see the edu¬ cational forest as a whole, who are able to enter the woods, to find their wavs about, and to come out again unconfused by the multiplicity and variety of trees. 242 National Education Association This the National Council is admirably equipped to do. According to its constitution it is made up of 175 leaders in American educational thought and action. It brings together men of specialized as well as broad interests in education. It represents or should represent all phases of educational activity. L nder the leadership of its president the Council has recently made en¬ couraging progress in fulfilling the function discussed above. Papers such as those of Paul Monroe and others read at recent meetings of the Council are the types of contributions which the National Council should develop. Indeed, the progress made toward achieving the ideal in recent meetings of the Council encourages one to hope that full attainment is possible. With¬ out wishing to be presumptuous, may I suggest some of the positive and negative factors which it is believed will aid or hinder the Council in achieving the ideal? First, those who select the Council membership should take their re¬ sponsibility extremely seriously. If you will look over the present member¬ ship of the Council you will agree that it includes most of the outstanding figures in education. But you will not find these men included: Lotus D. Coffman, Herbert S. Weet, Ellwood P. Cubberley, John W. Withers, Henry C. Morrison. Zenos E. Scott, Edward L. Thorndike, John Dewey. Leonard V. Koos, Boyd H. Bode, or James E. Russell. I might have used still other names, but those named will sen e the purpose. The 175 members of the National Council should, as fully as this number will permit, include all the outstanding doers and thinkers in the held of education. It should seek out these leaders if they are not interested, and see that what goes on in the Council is of interest to such men. Second, the National Council’s principal activity should be the discussion of and interpretation of major educational issues. This discussion should be of an informal, unhurried, deliberative type which would search out the very roots of our educational evolution. Many of these deliberative sessions should come to nothing more than a clarification of the viewpoints of those deliberat¬ ing. At other times the results of these discussions should eventuate in pub¬ lished statements representing the conclusions reached. At times, perhaps, one or two members of the Council should be selected to bring together into well-written form the results of these discussions. The presentation of these statements at the summer and winter meetings of the National Education Association should be a feature of these sessions. The Council should keep itself relatively free from committee work, and particularly from the process which too often merely means that one man’s opinion on a subject is made to look like that of several. The National Council itself should earn,* on few. if any, research projects. To engage in these activities would absorb its energy in producing more educational opinion or objective data to be added to the already large unassimilated mass. Rather, the Council should concern itself with opinions already expressed and facts already available, and should seek to evaluate and bring some National Council of Education 243 synthesis out of these materials. This does not mean that the Council should not define major educational problems which call for scientific investigation. The Council could render a significant service by pointing out problems which deserve the attention of the U. S. Bureau of Education, the National Education Association, graduate schools of education, and other agencies for educational research. The meetings of the National Council should be open to members of the Council only. Also, it is doubtful if the meetings of the Council will ever be what they should be if they are held at the same time as the summer and winter meetings of the National Education Association. These meetings are too hectic to permit reflective thinking. We should have what was aimed at in 1882, to quote from the Proceedings of that date: A council organized with care, deliberating apart from the excitements of a popular audience, with time and opportunity for comparison of views, and not com¬ pelled to premature declaration of opinions. Such a council cannot exist in the midst of a convention such as we are now attending. But if the Council could meet at the Headquarters of the National Education Association for two or three days at some stated time of the year, a proper environment for its thinking would be found. It might be that but a score or so would come. So much the better. If more came the group should be divided anyway. The Council sessions should not be given over to the presentation of a series of formal papers, with little or no time for discussion. This attitude is supported by the founders of the Council, one of whom said in 1880 : [The council should be] a conference for the discussion of living educational ques¬ tions by those who have made such questions a study. Elaborate essays and speeches should be a subordinate incident rather than a leading feature. There is a surfeit of opportunity to present formal papers at this and other conventions of ouTnational. state, and local educational organizations. Twenty-one such programs are going on in Cleveland at this identical hour. The Council can make little contribution by merely contributing another program of prepared papers. The typical sessions of the Council should revolve about a few carefully worded, major educational issues. Here are the types of questions which might be raised : 1. What are the criteria which should guide in determining which students shall be allowed to participate in post-secondary school offerings of our educational system ? 2. Does the present situation in the United States indicate that such educational progress as is to be achieved in the next few decades should or must be achieved without increasing the amount of financial support provided for education? 3. Are some of the current shortcomings of contemporary civilization in the United States partly a result of a mistaken philosophy of education and of an application of that philosophy in public school practise? 244 National Education Association Previous to the discussion of each question a member should present a statement defining and clarifying the issue. The presentation of such papers, however, should be a subordinate rather than the major feature of the Council sessions. A council so constituted and so functioning could render an incalculable service in these days of rapid and often chaotic educational development. Its contributions to education might be few, but they would be of great significance. They would give to educational thinking a balance wheel which it at present badly needs. The conclusions of the Council would have no legal or official authority. But they would exercise a powerful, persuasive influence because of their innate worth. Like stones cast into a quiet pool the well-considered con¬ clusions of the Council would become the center of waves of thought ex¬ tending throughout our educational system. These conclusions would not disturb the freedom of our school system, but they would do much to give it a desirable unity and coherence. THE PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION OF EDUCATORS— ABSTRACT ROSS L. FINNEY, COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA, MINNEAPOLIS, MINNESOTA During the past quarter century educators have conceived the very laudable ambition of putting their own vocation on a truly professional basis, comparable in dignity with medicine, law, and engineering. And this ambition has borne fruitage in institutions for professional training, both undergraduate and graduate, in professional societies and in scientific literature. This is the outstanding educational feature of the century, so far. And yet, surprising to say, this movement has encountered, especially in academic circles, a disconcerting indifference, not to say disparagement. For example, in Charles A. Beard’s new symposiurh, Whither Mankind , the chapter on Education leaves the impression that professional educators, “with notable exceptions,” are regarded as men of narrow outlook and trivial interests. Again, a prominent academic dean, writing in The New Republic for December twenty-sixth, last, delivers himself to the effect that “there are doubtless some good colleges of education,” and then pro¬ ceeds to make it clear that he regards professors of education as less well educated generally than their university colleagues, and much of the current educational writing as little better than pedagogical sawdust. A uni¬ versity president, famous for the electricity in his pen point, snaps it out as follows: “We are developing a vast medicine-man numbo-jumbo in pro¬ fessional education. The whole set of sinister temptations that inhere in professionalism and institutionalism is working against real advance in education.” By such disparagement, educators, bent as they are upon the high-minded and heroic enterprise of professionalizing the profession, are naturally National Council of Education 245 perplexed, affronted, and humiliated. In the face of what they naturally regard as ignorant bigotry they have pressed doggedly on with their re¬ searches, confident that production in the field of educational science must vindicate itself eventually. The not altogether welcome thesis of this paper may perhaps be most diplomatically introduced by suggesting that there are proverbially two sides to every question. Academicians are neither fools, fossils, nor fanatics, “with notable exceptions.” Is there not a possibility that they represent a point of view which may eventually coerce consideration? No such opposi¬ tion has ever developed against the professionalization of law, medicine, or engineering. Why, then, education ? We come accordingly to the thesis, presented, be it confessed, with no little trepidation, due to the risk of violent resentment. It is that educa¬ tion has been the victim of a false analog}7. Education is not like other professions, but essentially unlike them. It is not, therefore, to be professionalized by the same formula. The aspirations of educators to pro¬ fessionalize their profession, and put it on a footing of equal credit with others, have been sidetracked by a wedge of bad logic in the premises. The movement, laudable as it is in its intentions, is therefore unilateral and ill balanced ; and likely, as a result, to lead to major consequences of negative desirability for modern civilization as a whole. To the ungrateful task of showing that our idol’s feet are after all but gilded clay this paper now begs sufferance to proceed. How often we have heard the syllogism from which this whole pro¬ fessional movement has been inferred. Its major premise is as follows: If education is to establish itself as a profession on a par with the other professions, it must, like the other professions, build up a body of exact scientific knowledge in its own special field. The minor premise is that, corresponding to medicine's special field of materia medica, anatomy and physiology, and to the law’s specialty of law, precedents and court procedure, and to engineering’s special application of the physical sciences, is the educator’s special technology of teaching, classroom management, and school administration in its various phases. The conclusion is that educa¬ tion must scientize that specialty and build up in it a body of exact knowl¬ edge comparable to the scientific stock-in-trade of the other professions, than which nothing can seem more obvious! The fallacy is in the major premise: that education must, like other professions, build up a body of scientific knowledge in its own special field. The logical kink is in the assumption that education is like other pro¬ fessions in having a special field. It is precisely with respect to this notion of a special field that education differs diametrically from other professions. Here is the spot at which the false analogy smuggles itself into our logic. This special field idea, while it conducts other professions to the very fountains of life, can lead ours nowhere but to the desert of sterility. To render convincing this criticism of a familiar piece of logic it is next necessary to analyze the concept of specialization. For confessedly pre- 246 National Education Association requisite to all sound logic is accurate definition and anaylsis of the con¬ cept involved. The concept that requires analysis in this case is that of the special field by which each profession is characterized. Upon analysis it turns out that each profession has a major and a minor specialty. Its major specialty is that body of scientific knowledge which it is the business of the profession to apply ; its minor specialty is the scientized technic of applying that knowledge. The major specialty of the educator’s profession is — but what it is we shall try to make clear shortly ; its minor specialty is the technic of managing schools and administering systems. What the educators have done is to equate the minor specialty of their own profession with the total specialty of the other professions. They have mistaken a part for the whole, and the lesser part at that ; with the result that the lesser part tends to monopolize their attention altogether, to the neglect and even disparage¬ ment by them of the major part. It is as if the doctors, in their professional education, paid attention almost entirely to the technic of managing offices, conducting clinics, and administering hospitals, to the neglect of anatomy, physiology, pathology, and materia medica. The above distinction between the major and the minor specialties of the educator’s profession is perfectly obvious in the case of the classroom teacher as such. The distinction between major and minor specialties is not quite so obvious in the case of the administrative officer, however. He is occupied wholly with administration ; and hence it appears that administration is his total specialty, to which his graduate training should be devoted entirely. But this appearance is an illusion. Even for him the major specialty is subjectmatter ; while administrative science is his minor specialty only. This becomes clear upon analysis of his job which divides itself, upon inspection, into two parts. The first is running the schools; the second is making the schools over. These two jobs are as different from each other as the jobs of the locomotive engineer who runs the trains across a bridge that is being reconstructed, and of the civil engineer who reconstructs the bridge while the trains are being run across it. There is no occasion for confusing these two jobs because both are labeled engineering, or because the trains are kept running; nor for confusing the school administrators two jobs on account of similar reasons. Two jobs in one man ; and they as different as red and green. The first job includes supervision of instruction and discipline, school accounting both instructional and financial, selection of teachers, budget making, publicity, and the like. The second job involves guidance of the staff in deciding what is to be taught, to whom and by what equipments and arrangements. It involves, in other words, the progressive reorganization of the curriculum and of the facilities for presenting the same. In his first capacity as school shopkeeper the educational administrator is operating the school as it now is; in his second capacity as educational statesman he is making the school over into what society needs it to become. In the one function he is merely running the school of today; in the other he is run- National Council of Education 247 ning the world of tomorrow. The second is incomparably the more im¬ portant ! Let us next consider the implications of the educator’s second function, that of reformulating the policies of education with reference to the needs of our changing, problematical civilization. This really boils down in practise to the problem of deciding what Johnny ought to be taught. Now this is a very easy or a very difficult problem according to how the edu¬ cator senses it. If he senses it as a mere imitator it is a very easy problem. He may, in that case, imitate the traditions and echo the hoary rationaliza¬ tions in defense of them ; he may imitate the current educational fads what¬ ever they may happen to be at the time. Or in so doing, he may cast about with questionnaires in quest of the customary and most fashionable practises; but he will merely have abdicated his major responsibility as an educator in favor of the Zeitgeist. For what to teach Johnny is a very different and far more difficult problem if the teacher senses the heroic spirit of a pioneer who proposes nothing less than to rescue society from the ignorant misguidance of the Zeitgeist. In that case his task is to determine what new things ought to be that never were before. Whereupon he finds no solid ground for his feet within his snug, familiar schoolroom, nor educational practises, nor in any psycho¬ logical or statistical studies of the school’s interior or immediate surrounding. Neither will any answer be found in Johnny himself; for the utmost in¬ sight into Johnny's nature that biology or psychology can give will reveal nothing more than that Johnny needs to be made over by instruction into something that he is not now, and would not become without a teacher’s ministrations. But made over into what? That is the question! We have arrived now at the very pivot of our argument. Not in little Johnny himself, but only in the great objective world, will the answer be found to the question of what Johnny ought to be made into by education. The school administrator must turn from the microcosm of the individual to the macrocosm of society. He must study the sciences that treat of ob¬ jective culture, the social heritage, and human relationships. Here is his major specialty. But Johnny himself is by no means the whole of our pedagogue’s con¬ undrum. He is concerned also with Johnny’s unborn grandchildren; for the kind of a social world they have to live in will depend very largely upon the kind of education Johnny gets. Johnny must therefore be pre¬ pared for participation in the institutions not merely as they are, but as they ought to become. Education has a telic function ; and that, in the last analysis, constitutes the most important responsibility of educators. The school is the steering gear of a democratic society; whatever is put into the educational process of today will come out in the social processes of tomorrow. The educator’s job, therefore, is to run not merely the schools of today, but, through them, the world of tomorrow. Appropriate selection and organization of the new knowledge now available and necessary to Johnny’s effective causal participation in this new 248 National Education Association social order is the job of his superintendent, with what advice he can ex¬ tract from his staff; and it is a cup too large for his Lilliputian lips to drink from! How and when can Johnny’s prospective superintendent learn enough about the institutions and the intellectual resources of society? Of the institutions he should kno^ their history, functions, problems, relation¬ ships, and trends. He and his professional associates must collectively reflect the best judgments of the age as to what the institution ought to be¬ come. The intellectual resources he must know well enough to locate the specific ignorance of public opinion which lame democracy and stop progress. Nothing can more clearly reveal the misguidance in the analogy con¬ demned at the beginning of this paper than to carry it through to its logical conclusions. For society is the educator’s patient, the social institutions are the educator’s anatomy, the social processes are his physiology, the problems of society are his pathology, while the intellectual resources are his materia medica. The curriculum is his prescription ! How can he diagnose unless he knows his anatomy, physiology, and pathology? How can he prescribe unless he knows his materia medica? The mere technic of clinic manage¬ ment and hospital administration would leave him quite unqualified. It follows that the main branches of the major pedagogy are those sub¬ jects that deal with human culture and relationships. They are: geography, biology, psychology, anthropology, economics, politics, sociology, ethics, and history, not to mention the natural sciences and the fine arts. These are the intellectual substances out of which envisioned leadership is made. And no mere undergraduate smattering is enough. The science of education is but a minor pedagogy, needful within its limitations ; but doomed to leave edu¬ cators unprepared for their major responsibilities. When one wanders afield in quest of knowledge about the modern world it is really surprising at how many spots he finds material for educational guidance. Who would expect to find it in the literature of social suggestion, mental epidemics, and imitation as elaborated by Ross and other social psychologists? And yet one rises from that literature with a solution to the question of how the duller half, unamenable as they are to the think-for- yourself pedagogy now in vogue, can still be educated for democracy. Who, setting forth upon a study of the folkways and mores, in a book like Sum¬ ner’s for example, would expect to find light on pedagogical problems? Yet such a study reveals the futility and foolishness of most of our current cult of character education, inasmuch as that cult ignores the contemporane¬ ous disintegration of the mores. It is seldom the insights that one goes after with scientific spotlight and gimlet that contribute to large educa¬ tional statesmanship ; but those instead which one unexpectedly brings home from long excursions into the wide fields of human knowledge. The inadequacy of the spotlight-gimlet technic as applied to curriculum problems is becoming apparent to technologists themselves. It is becoming recognized that a geography program can hardly be formulated from a list of places mentioned in the recent periodicals ; nor a curriculum program for West Point or Annapolis, by tabulating the felt needs of last year’s National Council of Education 249 graduates. To the commander of a school as of a submarine the most im¬ portant tool is neither a spotlight nor a gimlet, but a periscope. Likewise, as qualifications for educational leadership there is no vestpocket substitute for liberal enlightenment in the fields of subjectmatter that deal with human nature, human relationships, and human resources. And we are almost past the time when this needs saying; for it is now possible to cite many leaders of educational science itself as authorities for the proposition that, the larger problems of educational objectives are not amenable to scientific technic. It only remains for graduate faculties of education to recognize that such problems are by far the most important ones confronting educators. The argument has moved in three stages : first, the false analogy between education and the other professions ; second, the distinction between major and minor specialty; and third, insistence upon broad general scholarship of the synthetic rather than of the technical sort, as qualification for edu¬ cational administration. If these three contentions are accepted it will then have to be confessed that the science of education has done two things, one of which is a service, and the other a disservice. It has increased the efficiency of instruction, classroom management, and the administration of school sys¬ tems. But it has also put bella donna in the eyes of educational leaders and blinded them to the larger responsibilities of their profession. Zealous of the contributions of their science, its devotees fail to note its sins of omission. Their blindspot is their unforgivable fault. Obsessed with technology, they fail to concern themselves with the larger issues of civiliza¬ tion which their policies are bound to predetermine. And blind they are to this responsibility precisely because obsessed with their technolog}*. There are some things that the science of education confessedly, cannot do, namely, to decide upon the goals toward which civilization ought to be engineered. But that is the chief responsibility of educators. It is one, moreover, which they by no means can evade, since such momentous decision actually is implicit, whether they will it or not, in every choice they make of subjectmatter for Johnny to be taught. Not in what science of education has done, but in what it cannot do, and refuses therefore to undertake, lies its treason to democracy. The cult has been a veritable dog in the manger ; it cannot itself solve the larger problems of educational statesmanship and obsessions will not permit that broader scholarship by which alone they can be solved. From the standpoint, therefore, of the larger issues of modern life, the cult of educational science is one of the most dangerous develop¬ ments of the present period. With graduate degrees that too often represent no liberal enlightenment it blindfolds promising young minds, and then sets them at the steering wheel of civilization — and when mankind is at the crossroads! Educated instead in history, humane philosophy, the social sciences, and the fine arts, these same young men and women might have been developed into clear-visioned arbiters of major social issues. A false analogy has fatal consequences. The central issue in almost all our public policies is whether they point toward the kind of a society that Napoleon and his sort would regard as 250 National Education Association good, or toward the kind of a society that would satisfy the ideals of Jefferson and those who think with him. And for every great public policy there is a corresponding educational program. Educational policy¬ makers, whether they realize it or not, are prompting either the modern Napolenns of vested power and privilege, or the Jeffersons of social justice. And the most important service that our graduate schools of education can render to American civilization is to furnish it a group of educational leaders broad enough in their knowledge of the modern world and keen enough in their discernment of social trends, to detect the drift and tendency of social and educational policies. For educational policies are the most im¬ portant causal factor in the evolution of a successful democracy. It fol¬ lows, therefore, that the most important need of democracy is for enlightened educational statemanship. For the few great American universities not already committed to the fetish of pedagogical specialization there is at this juncture the greatest conceivable opportunity to serve society and posterity, if they but have the vision and courage to renounce that fetish, and devote themselves instead to the enterprise of providing America with liberally educated educators. For education, indeed for civilization, there are no solutions on the sur¬ face of things — nothing there for education but an endless succession of freaks and fads and oversights ; nothing for civilization but an interminable series of random lunges and fruitless reforms. The foundations of a new educational and social order can safely be laid only on the bed rock of fundamental principles. And for that perennial dualism between the in¬ dividual and society, which is forever deceiving us into mistaking the causes themselves for the very cures of social ills — for that perennial dilemma there is no solution except in the insight that the individual and the social orders have produced, the one the other, in an age-long process of social evolution. This principle is the pivot of the foregoing argument. Only by way of this principle is there transit from method to curriculum ; from the cul-de-sac of pedagogical specialization to the open road of educational statesmanship ; from social privilege and exploitation to the larger freedom and successful democracy of our modern faith. For only by way of this principle can a solution be found for the problem of all problems, namely that of human values. M/HO SHALL SAY WHAT THE NATION MAY EXPECT OF AMERICAN SCHOOLS? WILLIAM JOHN COOPER, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION The first article in the June number of the Forum, selfconfessed “magazine of controversy” is written by a keen and discriminating American, James Truslow Adams, winner in 1922 of the Pulitzer Prize for the out¬ standing work of the year in history. In it the system or lack of system in American education is somewhat vehemently attacked as lacking in power to turn out cultured persons, as ineffective in the teaching of lan- National Council of Education 251 guages, philosophy, history and English, and as wasteful in students' time and taxpayers' money. From the concluding paragraph I quote the follow¬ ing: “Does not our whole educational muddle spring in part from mob snobbery? — Does it not also spring in part from the lack of character and of a coherent philosophy of life among those who should be our educational leaders? To the latter, in taxes and endowments, we are giving money reckoned in hundreds of millions. We are giving them also a hundred million years or so of the lives of our young in every generation. In ex¬ change, what are they returning to us in national ideals and culture ? It is a fair question, which I call upon them to answer." The first issue I raise with this council today is this: Is there in the United States a body prepared to answer a challenge of this sort? If there is not, and I know of none, should there be such a body or group of persons authorized to speak for American education? I assume that the American Bar Association could answer or authorize an answer to a challenge of similar importance to the legal profession. I think the American Medical Association could speak for the physicians and surgeons were they so chal¬ lenged. I can think of no possible challenge to either of those bodies so vital to the American people as this “fair question" raised by Air. Adams. In some European countries, the minister of education might reason¬ ably be expected to answer a question of this sort. Certainly in prewar France and Prussia, the purposes of the school system were clear cut and known to all who cared to inquire. In the United States there is no minister of education and the peculiar nature of our Federal E nion seems to prevent us from creating such a portfolio — at any rate one vested with power to determine aims. There are forty-eight systems of public schools in the E nion, some parochial school systems, and many private schools. These are unable to speak with one voice. At least, they have not deliberately set up an organization to speak for them. The nearest approach to such a real representative organization is the National Education Association itself — a body which is too large for the type of deliberation necessary to answer the question Air. Adams raises. Since membership in the National Edu¬ cation Association is open to all interested in American Education, it is entirely fitting and proper that it establish a body whose function it will be to consider problems of this magnitude. If this council can be adapted to this purpose I suggest that to it be assigned the task. Any members now in it who are not interested in or prepared to work on these problems may be assigned to other committees and to this council may be added men and women who have given special thought to the objectives of our schools and colleges — some who may not be actually employed in school work, but who have keen insights into American life and its needs. The second issue is when should such a body meet and how should it operate ? Such a body should meet at least twice a year to receive reports from committees both standing and special. These reports carefully pre¬ pared in the hands of each member in advance of meeting should be 252 National Education Association critically discussed and the results published. All meetings might well be open to the public since on mooted questions the arguments advanced by both sides would be useful in forming public opinion. The third issue is what problems should such a body discuss? I suggest as a starter these : First: What are the major objectives of American education? This is the question which Mr. Adams would like to have answered for he can¬ not find a clear cut statement of aims. “In so far” he writes “as there ap¬ pears to be any definite trend in American Educational ends, it would seem to be toward President Eliot’s ideal of ‘Power and service.’ ” How many of the superintendents directing American schools today know what Presi¬ dent Eliot’s ideal of “power and service” is? Of those who understand it, how many are conscious of a trend toward its realization? Of the latter how many approve? How many are as much disturbed about it as Mr. Adams? It is also pertinent to raise questions which are not even raised by Mr. Adams. For instance: Is the nursery school a desirable unit in every school system ? Should rural children have the opportunity to at¬ tend kindergartens? What are the purposes of the elementary school? Are five, six, seven, or eight years needed to perform the work of this school unit ? What should be the purposes of the American secondary school ? To whom should it be open? How many years should a pupil of average ability expect to remain in a school of secondary grade ? What should be his attainments when he is graduated? Is a partime or continuation school needed in America? Is a trade school needed? What persons should be admitted to colleges and universities? What should be the pur¬ poses of these institutions? These and a hundred other questions bearing directly and indirectly upon the whole question of aims of American edu¬ cation should be discussed not only in the semi-privacy of a university seminar}’ room but also before the American public in a deliberative assembly of mature citizens trained to the job. Second — and not very remote from this first major problem — is this: what should be the relation of the Federal Government to Education? The United States Government has always been engaged in education both directly and indirectly. No one would question the necessity of schools for training Federal workers either in the Army and the Navy or in any highly technical work of civilian character. From the beginnings also the United States has aided educational activities in the states, at first by grants of public land and later by cash subsidies. It has been assumed that this assistance has been for the public good. By what right is such an assump¬ tion made? I have been told within the last few months by college presi¬ dents that the subsidies paid to the land-grant colleges have in some states interfered with the best development of a program of higher education in those states. The Bureau of Education is now completing a comprehensive survey of the land-grant colleges which should reveal the facts. WTo will take that study and examine it critically? Who will tell the American public whether this money has been used wisely? Who will evaluate the National Council of Education 253 results? Who will show the Congress whether the policy should be con¬ tinued? Or modified? Or be discontinued entirely? Again, during the war excitement, the United States began paying sub¬ sidies to the states to encourage programs of vocational education. The administration of these moneys is in the hands of a board not directly responsible to the Chief Executive, but to Congress. This board has established standards of work and requires that these be met if the federal funds are used. This is a marked departure from the principles upon which earlier grants and subsidies were made. Was such change wise? This vocational plan has been in operation for more than a decade. Who shall say how well it has worked ? What has been its effect upon American education? Should such subsidies be continued? Increased? Should a plan providing for their eventual elimination be adopted ? One would hardly ask the Federal Board for Vocational Education or the United States Bureau of Education to answer these questions. But I think they should be answered. In a deliberative body such as I have suggested today matters of this sort could be discussed freely. The unfortunate ex¬ perience of one member in dealing with a federal official would be offset with satisfactory experience of another. Those prejudiced in favor of one principle would be matched by those prejudiced in favor of another. Frank discussion should bring to light these principles which are fundamental. The absence of an established and recognized body of this kind has made it seem advisable for the Secretary of the Interior to call upon some fifty citizens, mostly educators, to come to Washington and organize themselves as an advisory committee to discuss such problems as I note above and to at¬ tempt to define what the relationship of the United States toward education should be. Third: Assuming that federal subsidies may become necessary to equalize educational opportunity among the states, on what bases should they be ap¬ propriated to the several states? This issue is raised by two bills before the present Congress, each designed to help finance rural schools, and each calling for the distribution of $100,000,000 annually? The argument ad¬ vanced for this proposed subsidy is that the accumulation of wealth in urban centers and the intangible nature of its form, enable it to escape a just share of school taxes. It is claimed that the rural areas are in part responsible for creating this wealth and that although local machinery of taxation cannot reach it, the federal income tax does reach it. Therefore the federal govern¬ ment should collect the tax and send part back to rural areas for school uses. Is this argument sound ? If it can be shown that these contentions are well founded how much money is required to equalize educational opportunity between city and country children ? Should the country child in the poorest state be given opportunity equal to that of the city child in the same state or equal to that of the most favored rural child in the richest state? Or should the fund be assigned to states on the basis of total population? of total rural population ? of school attendance? of assessed valua¬ tion of taxable property? Should these moneys available be withheld from 254 National Education Association schools which do not meet an established standard of work? Many schools are ineffective because the state law permits poorly trained persons to teach in them. Some enrol too few pupils for the most effective work. Sometimes the district is unable to provide adequate housing and equipment. In this case should federal funds be used for buildings and equipment? If the federal subsidies are distributed without any check and with no fixed standards, will they not keep in existence poor schools? It is possible that in some districts the local taxpayer will withdraw his contribution and continue a poor school but at federal expense. Will such relief to the local taxpayer cause a cessation of his interest in his school? And so on in¬ definitely. Surely I have said enough to convince you that this subsidy proposal is worthy of the most serious study. Hasty action may profoundly influence our whole scheme of education. If a body such as the council I suggest cannot or should not outline a policy for a program of subsidies, assuming again that federal subsidies will eventually be established. I maintain that there must be some organization of sufficient reputation and prestige to convince the Congress that a necessary first step is a commission empowered to study the situation and make a report on which intelligent action may be based. This latter task would certainly be a proper function of any Na¬ tional Council on Education worthy of the name. I am thoroughly convinced that these issues are important in themselves and typical of others that must be solved by our people within a generation. I hope that I have chosen the right time and place to present them. I be¬ lieve I have presented them to the body best suited to undertake a study of them. EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS IN 1928— ABSTRACT JOHN J. TIGERT, PRESIDENT, UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA For a number of years as Commissioner of Education I gave an annual review of progress in education before the National Council. Your presi¬ dent invited me to do this previous to my resignation as Commissioner of Education. After my resignation it occurred to me that my successor could more properly perform this function. At any rate someone to whom the facilities of the Bureau of Education were available could discharge the matter much more satisfactorily. As no one was appointed to succeed me until quite recently, with assurance of assistance and cooperation from the Acting Commissioner of Education and the specialists in the Bureau of Education, I finally accepted the task. Foreign education — This review would not be complete without passing reference to a few of the important developments now taking place in edu¬ cation outside the Lnited States. The Nationalist Party in China is emphasizing education in its present attempt to bring about improvement in that country. The colleges there, fostered by the various churches of the religious faiths, have had an important role to play during the last disturbances; in fact, far more than the reader of daily dispatches might National Council of Education 255 surmise. There is a very active movement in China to attack the illiteracy problem and establish a uniform written language. No country has experienced a more lively reform since the war than Turkey. The recent adoption of the Latin alphabet there is having an effect which is no less than an educational renaissance. During the year, the ruler of Afghanistan has been establishing schools very rapidly, but unfortunately he has been compelled to abdicate. The Republic of Mexico has continued its program of emphasis upon education with a tendency to¬ ward increased centralization and federal aid. There has been unusual fermentation in India concerning education but sufficient accurate data is not yet available to evaluate results. One of the important steps which has been taken there is the placing of responsibility for elementary and secondary education upon the provincial authorities. Many conflicting reports continue to come from Russia. All that we can say at the present time is that the Soviet Government is very active in its educational program and the efforts being made there are attracting considerable interest and attention. In England the compulsory educa¬ tion age is being gradually advanced and training to be offered children dur¬ ing early adolescence is now a matter of national discussion. In fact, all Europe is showing a tendency to raise the educational level and strive for further advancement. Higher education in the United States — The unprecedented growth in colleges and universities of the United States since the war is beginning to slow down. There were continued advances during the year but these were less than in the immediately preceding years. No complete statistics for the year 1928 are yet available, but sufficient data is at hand for a rough evalua¬ tion of the situation. Among the more important tendencies in higher edu¬ cation observable in the year just closed were: (1) In line somewhat with the development of child accounting on the lower educational levels there was a decided emphasis in higher education on better artic¬ ulation of the work of the colleges with life situations evidenced by the establish¬ ment of guidance and employment services. (2) A continued raising of standards due very largely to the fact that more stu¬ dents are still seeking admission than can now be accommodated. (3) A considerable increase in the number of universities and colleges which limit their enrolment in one way or another. (4) Marked increase in the plans for cooperation and less competition among the colleges in attempting to reach their objectives. (5) The adoption of a number of administrative adjustments for the improve¬ ment of instruction. There was one act passed by the Congress of the L nited States in l^JS having effect on higher education, namely, the Capper-Ketcham Act. This act provided for the further development of agricultural extension work in the land grant colleges and universities by authorizing the treasury to pay for the expenses of cooperative extension work in agriculture and home economics the sum of $980,000 for each year, $20,000 of which should be 256 National Education Association paid annually to each state and the territory of Hawaii, with yearly an additional sum. Projects of the Bureau of Education — The survey of the land grant col¬ leges which is being conducted by the United States Bureau of Education on the invitation of the Association of Land Grant Colleges and Universi¬ ties and financed by a special appropriation of Congress, developed very rapidly during the year. The study will be completed this year and will be the most exhaustive study of education on a national scale which has been made. A study of 79 negro colleges and universities was completed during the year. This survey was undertaken on the invitation of the negro colleges and universities in an attempt to ascertain the present status of negro higher education and to recommend means for its improvement. Many of the negro institutions are not members of regional and national accrediting agencies. Let me quote from the report of the Secretary of the Interior some sentences relative to this study: The results show marked progress and an extraordinary demand among the negro people of the country for college and university education. Of the 79 insti¬ tutions included in the bureau’s survey, 77 were doing college work as compared with 31 institutions 10 years ago. The enrolment of negro students in those insti¬ tutions totaled 13,860 as compared with 2,132 in 1917, a gain of 550%. For every 10,000 negroes in the United States 15 are attending college, as against 90 for every 10,000 whites. . . . The bureau’s study also shows that the negroes themselves have not been remiss in providing higher education, 17 of their colleges being owned, administered, and financed entirely by members of their race. . . . The capital value of the investment in these negro schools was fixed at $15,- 720,000, including land, buildings, and equipment. Ten years ago the total pro¬ ductive endowment of negro colleges amounted to $7,225,000, with an annual yield of $361,250, while last year the productive endowments aggregated $20,715,000, with an annual yield of $1,071,300, almost a fourfold increase in ten years. Yet the Bureau (of Education) found a shortage in the number of teachers. It criticizes, too, their quality. This study revealed the fact that negro women are almost as eager for higher education as negro men. The proportion cf women enroled in these institutions was forty-nine per cent. Most of the women are training them¬ selves to be teachers or nurses. Another important national study projected during the year by the Bu¬ reau of Education is a survey of the situation in Indian Schools of the LTnited States administered by the Bureau of Indian Affairs. This is the first time that the government has undertaken to avail itself of the expert services of the specialists in the Bureau of Education in an attempt to im¬ prove one of its administrative functions in the field of education. Education in the State* — Three statewide surveys were made during the year 1928, including Florida, West Virginia, and New Jersey. There has been no time for results from these surveys. In addition to these studies there have been other studies for extensive legislative revision of the admin- National Council of Education 257 istrative organization in Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, and Wyoming by state teachers associations in cooperation with state departments of educa¬ tion, and by specialists in school finances in Georgia and Pennsylvania. % Provisions for changing the functions or composition of state boards of education were made during the year in Virginia and Texas. An attempt was made in California in the general election to amend the constitution so that the chief state school officer might be appointed by the board of education, but this attempt failed. In Virginia and Texas a change in the situation was. made possible by vote of the people which will permit a reor¬ ganization of the state boards of education in those states. In Alabama a complete revision of the state system of finance in schools was made, result¬ ing in largely increased state support and greater equalization of educa¬ tional opportunities and tax burdens among the counties of the state. In Massachusetts the basis of distribution of the equalizing fund was changed during the year from that of property valuation to the proportion of state tax paid by the town. Virginia appropriated $625,000 for each year of the biennium 1927-28 for state aid to rural schools. In Arkansas an excise tax was placed on cigarettes and tobacco for the common school fund and for purposes of equalization. A revolving fund was created in this state through the sale of state bonds. Proceeds are to be loaned to districts for new buildings, repairs, and equipment. The limitation on local tax rate was raised from fifteen to eighteen mills. Vermont reports “Revised and increased state aid for rural schools.” Florida reports increased state funds for rural schools through the proceeds of the gas tax, interest on state funds deposited in banks, and a fourth of a mill property tax. Montana created an equalization fund from the proceeds of an oil tax, metal mines tax, and federal oil regulation. This fund enabled the state to assist 350 poor dis¬ tricts in 1927; a larger number were assisted in 1928. Georgia provided an equalization fund of $1,000,000 by a tax on gasoline and kerosene. Mich¬ igan, through a state appropriation, provided an equalizing fund of a million dollars to be distributed to districts having excessive tax rates. In Delaware a million dollar appropriation was made for each year of the past biennium to assist districts in building school houses. Two acts of the Louisiana legis¬ lature are of interest. One provided school revenue by a sales tax of one cent for every ten cents or fractional part thereof on all cigarettes, smoking and chewing tobacco, cigars, cheroots and snuff made of tobacco, or any substitute therefor. The other provided a tax on all dealers in malt extract, derivatives or combinations thereof intended for brewing or cooking, which tax shall be ten cents on every container for each one dollar of retail selling price or fractional part thereof. As I understand, the revenue from this tax is to become a part of the public school fund. Reports to the Bureau of Education indicate that a large number of states, particularly in the central group and in the middle west, are endeavoring to increase the size of the administrative unit for educational purposes. The county is being generally advocated in these states as the unit of adminis¬ tration. The public is being informed of the weakness of the small district 258 National Education Association system. Careful studies have been made setting forth conditions, and defi¬ nite efforts will be made in the coming legislatures to revise existing laws, notably in Kansas, Missouri, and Nebraska. A conference of the chief state school officers was held in Washington in December, 1928, in cooperation with the United States Bureau of Edu¬ cation, during which major attention was given to three problems: The col¬ lection of comparable statewide statistics, the better correlation of clearing house facilities, and plans for a cooperative study of school finances on a national scale. It was decided that this organization will meet hereafter biennially in Washington. Statements made by the chief state school officers of several states indi¬ cate that they recognize that their greatest need is the improvement of rural schools, particularly the organization of school support in a manner which will insure adequate opportunities to rural children living in remote and impoverished districts. Efforts toward improving the teaching staff through certification con¬ tinued throughout the year. Vermont, West Virginia, Montana, and California reported revision of the laws and regulations increasing quali¬ fications for teachers certificates. Extension courses for teachers have been inaugurated on a large scale in Alabama, Massachusetts, and Minnesota. A number of studies in the states on the teaching situation were made and reported an excessive number of teachers trained for high-school wTork with a corresponding shortage of trained teachers for elementary schools. A number of teachers trained for high-school work are now teaching in ele¬ mentary grades. States wThich have failed to raise the minimum prerequi¬ site for teaching certificates find also that relatively untrained teachers have been displacing trained teachers when the number of teaching positions are limited. The salary situation has apparently not changed materially during the year so far as the teachers are concerned. Education in the cities — The revision of the curriculum of the ele¬ mentary and high schools has continued apace during the year. The move¬ ment to organize on the 6-3-3 plan made considerable headway during the year. Likewise the junior college movement continued to progress. The junior college is superimposed upon the 6-3-3 and 8-4 organi¬ zation without much attempt at articulation. Much has been accomplished during the year toward unifying the work of the kindergarten and primary grades, which not long since were almost distinct units. Closer unification has been advocated by placing the kindergarten and the primary grades under the same supervisor. At present 75 percent of the school systems that have supervisors for the kindergarten and primary grades have kindergarten¬ primary supervisors. Unification has also been abetted by institutions pre¬ paring kindergarten and primary teachers. In three of every four of such institutions the training given kindergarten and primary teachers is identical. The growth of platoon schools continued during the year. The first platoon school was organized in Bluffton, Indiana, in 1902, and the second in Gary, Indiana, in 1907. By 1913 only four other cities had adopted the National Council of Education 259 platoon plan wholly or in part. From 1914 to 1920, thirty-five cities organ¬ ized 148 schools on the platoon plan. From 1921 to 1925 fifty-three more cities organized platoon schools. At the present time there are 153 cities in thirty-eight states with 850 schools organized on the platoon plan. There was an increase of 110 platoon schools during the year 1928. During the year the educational and professional qualifications of ele¬ mentary school teachers for initial employment has been raised in many cities. Where one year of preparation beyond high school was formerly required, the standard has been generally raised to a requirement of two years preparation above the high-school level, and in some of the states that formerly required two years training, the standard has been raised to three and four years. The tendency is to raise the requirements for beginning and junior high-school teachers to college graduation. A movement in the direction of requiring master’s degrees for high-school teachers is pronounced in some cities. The year was prolific in experimentation in city school systems. Individ¬ ual instruction plans, ability grouping, health of school children, size of classes, length of recitation periods, character education, school government, discipline, special classes, and the platoon plan were among those things in which there has been a major amount of experimentation. Many phases of educational progress cannot be mentioned in a brief sum¬ mary of this character. Specific movements in the specialized fields must be omitted. Perhaps one other outstanding phase of educational development should not be passed over. In the past few years the adult education move¬ ment is perhaps the most outstanding of all. A period of increasing pros¬ perity with corresponding increase in leisure time and the revelation by Thorndike and others concerning the unexpected learning capacity of the adult, have combined with other factors to produce this phenomenal growth and interest in education beyond the years of formal schooling. During the year the first issue of a quarterly known as the Journal of Adult Educa¬ tion was published by the American Association for Adult Education. There has been a notable increase in the number of communities organizing educational work for adults as well as a corresponding increase in courses for adults offered through extension work by colleges and universities. EDUCATIONAL INTERPRETATION AND THE PRINTED WORD— ABSTRACT JOY ELMER MORGAN, EDITOR. THE JOURNAL OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION There could be no more fitting time for the discussion of educational interpretation than at a convention whose general theme is education for a new world. This theme clearly implies that the schools are responsible for the character of tomorrow’s civilization — that our great Association recog¬ nizes in this official way that schools exist not merely to preserve the past but in a constructive sense to help create the future. The best that has come 260 National Education Association out of the past must always be preserved as a part of a still greater and bet¬ ter achievement for the years ahead. Anyone by looking about him can realize that America is civilized only in patches. Here and there we have reached standards that satisfy our ideal as to what this phase or that phase of life might reasonably be, but in the large there is still a wide gap between the best practise and the poorest practise. This is true in law, it is true in religion, in medicine, in home making, in community planning, and in edu¬ cation. It is the task of the educator to make the best practise the universal practise. America is now approaching a period of intellectual flowering. New ideas are sweeping in. Stimulating changes are everywhere. Thinking is play¬ ing a larger part in daily life. The outlook and opportunity of the average man and woman is greater than ever before. The school stands at the cen¬ ter of this awakening. The devotion of our people to the free school and to a fair start in life for all is the great epic of this century. It will literally lift the world to a new level of achievement, excellence, and happiness. Throughout the centuries civilization has been pushed forward by three men: The administrator who organizes and then executes; the investigator who discovers and invents ; and the interpreter who makes the purposes of the administrator and the results of the investigator’s work the common property of mankind. Sometimes these three gifts have been found in one and the same person, and in some measure this must always be true. But in our day the demands for excellence and efficiency in these activities are so great that on the higher levels at least they must become specialized in char¬ acter. Literally the jack of all trades is master of none, and the one who is to administer, to do research, or to interpret, must be a specialist if he is to meet the needs of the new world for experts who are masters. Administration as a specialized activity seems to have come first upon the scene. It is relatively highly developed. There are schools for business and for educational administration. In the school systems of our various states and cities are examples of administration of a high order. Where else in the life of today could be found better examples of administration than in the school systems of such cities as Cincinnati, Cleveland, Denver, Detroit, or Los Angeles? To the men and women who have perfected educational administration, with its emphasis on the human values, society owes a debt of gratitude and appreciation. The second group of workers which has contributed to the advance of civilization has come upon the scene more recently. Organized research is relatively new. For centuries discovery moved at snail’s pace, pushed for¬ ward occasionally by the coming of a Galileo or a Franklin. So vital have been the contributions of the scientific method as applied in research that it has quickly established itself, especially in medicine and the older sciences. Research in education is now well underway and is making a contribution of the utmost significance. To the research workers in our school systems we shall turn more and more for the improvement of curriculums, for the National Council of Education 261 development of scientific procedures in learning and teaching, and for the effective organization of the school system itself. The third worker who has contributed to the advance of civilization is the interpreter. The social significance of interpretation is only beginning to be appreciated. It had little place in a civilization based on force. It has a supreme place in a civilization whose ideal is democracy, where we wish people to govern themselves and to be governed from within by an intelli¬ gent appreciation of the values of life. In proportion as the areas of admin¬ istration become larger and in proportion as research accomplishes its per¬ fect work the need for responsible interpretation increases. Within the field of education the advance in administration and research has already far outstripped the advance in interpretation so that a vast gap separates the frontier thinkers from the mass of their fellows. Foreign visitors to America are impressed with the gulf that separates our poorest schools from our best schools. If education is to take its place as a deter¬ mining factor in our democratic life it will be obliged to put more time and money into educational interpretation which is not yet recognized to a point where adequate provision is made for it either in our thinking or in the budgets for institutions and school systems. The term educational inter¬ pretation is broader than the term publicity. It includes our efforts to vis¬ ualize and dramatize the purposes of administration and the findings of research in terms that fit into the habit of thought of the average man and woman. The advance of education literally waits on interpretation. How often our school people have been heard to remark that they are not able to do this or that because the parents of the children would not understand it. The effort to promote understanding requires as fine an insight, as great a preparation, and as difficult a technic as the effort to administer or the effort to do research. The qualifications of the specialist in educational interpretation are four. First and foremost he must understand human nature in all its various phases. He must know people of every condition and class and kind, their habits of thought and manner of speech, the sources of their ideas, and ex¬ periences in their lives to which appeals can be made, the devices which change their ways of thinking and acting. This understanding of human nature requires an ease of address and those elements of sociability which enable the worker to approach people on every social and economic level. He must even understand the critics of education in order to appreciate the reasons for their criticism whether it springs from sound thinking or is motivated by prejudice and selfishness. Second , the educational interpreter must know the schools, he must ap¬ preciate their purposes, problems, and achievements. He must be familiar with the control of the schools and the relationship of the legislative and . executive functions. He must be familiar with school organization and the qualifications and duties of all who fill places in it, from the janitor-engineer, to the administrator himself. He must be able to interpret the devices and 262 National Education Association technics of teaching, the equipment of the schools, the established courses of study, and especially the vitalizing pioneer movements by which schools are seeking to adapt themselves to the new world. Third , the educational interpreter must understand the channels through which interpretation is carried on and the arts which are used therein. If he is to interpret through the spoken word he must understand how to make speech most effective for the hearer. If he is to deal in charts he must understand the arts of display and illustration. If he is to deal in motion pictures he must understand the factors that enter into the production, dis¬ tribution, and showing of films. If he is to deal in radio he must know the character of the radio audience and the habits and practises of radio as it is organized at the moment. If he is to deal in print he must understand the resources of the printing art. If he is to use press associations, news¬ papers, and magazines he must understand the point of view of the workers who edit and distribute the day’s news. He must have a sense of news and feature values and be able to present the ideals and activities of the schools in a form that editors will value and appreciate. If school people wish more space in the newspapers and the magazines they must make more easily available to the press the news resources of our far flung educational system. Fourth , and most important of all, the educational interpreter must know civilization itself. He must have a vision of the part which education has played and might play in the creation of a better world. Only by wide and constant reading can this vision be achieved. This reading will be of two kinds. First it must be broad even at the expense of being superficial. Second it must be intensive. There will be a few great books which will constitute for the interpreter a veritable bible to which he will turn again and again until the ideas which they contain will be built into the very fabric of his thinking. As a contribution toward such a list of books I wish to suggest the following : 1. H. G. Wells’ Outline of History 2. Charles A. Beard’s Whither Mankind 3. Randall’s Our Changing Civilization 4. L. P. Jack’s Constructive Citizenship 5. J. B. Bury’s A History of the Freedom of Thought 6. Josiah Royce’s Philosophy of Loyalty 7. Cubberly’s History of Education 8. Herbert Spencer’s Education 9. The Life and Works of Horace Mann 10. Ross L. Finney’s A Sociological Philosophy of Education 11. William Hawley Smith’s All the Children of All the People 12. Everett Dean Martin’s The Meaning of a Liberal Education The title of this address emphasizes the printed word. Printing is one • of the oldest and the finest of the arts. During the brief centuries since the development of movable type civilization has advanced more than during all the ages that went before. The printed word is a triumphant and vital force in the rise of civilization. Throughout the ages it has preserved the National Council of Education 263 record of human progress. It has survived kingdoms and empires. It has been the chief medium for preserving and passing to future generations the values that man has discovered in his long struggle for the higher and finer things. With the development of the printing art came a new appreciation of the intellectual life. Without printing the public school as we know it today would have been an impossibility. Without printing it would have been difficult indeed for the present world phase of civilization to have gotten a start. The printed word has been and is likely to remain the most powerful single instrument of interpretation regardless of the development of photography and radio. The printed page is deeply imbedded in our habit and thought. We may come back to it again and again thus deepening impression until it becomes conviction and action. The extent of the use of print in our civilization is suggested by the fact that some twenty billion newspapers and magazines are distributed annually in the U. S. Reading has some part in the daily program of most of our people. The total background of knowl¬ edge and interest which is thus acquired has an influence on daily life beyond calculation. To this must be added the influence of books, circulars, and of the labels on packages of foods and drugs. The printed word reinforced by the many inventions of modern industry is now available at a cost so slight that it is possible to reach hundreds of thousands and even millions where in a former generation it was possible to reach only a few. The highest development of printing as a tool of interpretation is found not in education but in the fields of business and industry. That field will pay almost any price for skilled directors of advertising and employ the highest and most costly forms of the printing art. More than a billion dollars is now spent each year by American business for advertising in periodicals. The force of such huge advertising budgets is so great that they have largely determined the character of newspapers and magazines and bid fair to domi¬ nate our latest interpretive tool, the radio. One corporation is sometimes able and willing to spend during a single year literally millions of dollars to build up habits and attitudes among our people which eventually the schools may have to correct at great cost of time and money. On the positive side advertising has been a mighty force in the advance of civilization. It has helped people to wear better clothes, build better homes, eat a more wholesome variety of food, drive better automobiles, en¬ gage in wholesome travel, and to take an interest in public affairs on a scale hitherto unknown. Advertising has also developed a truly marvelous coordination of the arts which play upon the human mind. All the resources which commercial advertising has developed in the perfection of the graphic arts, all the knowl¬ edge of advertising psychology, awaits the hand of the educational inter¬ preter who may turn it to the broader uses of the social advance. Who could estimate the influence toward the upbuilding of American life that 264 National Education Association would result from the careful expenditure of ten million dollars a year toward the interpretation of education? If the new world to which the program of this convention is dedicated is to be anything more than a crazy quilt of blocks and patches it will be because we bring into our thinking as educators the deeper values and the larger problems of social planning and coordination. I believe we shall increasingly do this. There are evidences of this larger integration in our great voluntary organizations. These organizations have developed a most inspiring loyalty. The life membership dinner at this convention is an example of permanent dedication of the utmost significance. The loyalty which men bear one another derives its vitality from the quality of the enter¬ prises which they hold in common. Here in the National Education Associa¬ tion and in the program of American education as it seeks to give to every boy and girl a fair start, we have one of the major challenges of all time. AVhat I have been trying to say in this address is that if we are to meet that challenge with any reasonable hope for the largest success, we shall be obliged to give more thought, time, and money to the interpretation of our program of universal education. A STATE EDUCATION PROGRAM JOHN W. -ABERCROMBIE, ASSISTANT STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF EDUCATION OF ALABAMA As has been announced, my subject is : A State Education Program. I shall discuss it under these headings : ( 1 ) The importance of a program ; 2) the formulation of a program; (3) the content of a program; (4) the execution of a program; (5) the Alabama program. The terms, program, plan, and system as used in this discussion are synonymous. I use them almost interchangeably. The importance of a program — Whoever achieves follows a plan. Who¬ ever achieves effectively follows a definite plan. Whoever achieves most effectively follows a definite plan wisely conceived. Planning is essential to achievement. W ise planning is essential to maximum achievement. The correctness of these statements is attested by personal observation, individ¬ ual experience, and historic record. W hat I have said is as true of groups as of individuals. It is true in civic affairs no less than in commercial, industrial, and professional matters. It is true of states as well as of communities. This, too, is verified by historic record, individual experience, and personal observation. In no other governmental activity is a definite and wise program so essen¬ tial as in educational administration, because in no other is so much capital invested, so much money expended, so large a number of workers employed ; in no other is every citizen so vitally concerned, in no other is our ruture civilization so involved, in no other is success so productive of good, in no other is failure so fraught with disastrous results. Whatever may be National Council of Education 265 the value of planned objectives in other governmental services, all experi¬ ence teaches unmistakably that the biggest, costliest, and most important business in which government is engaged, that of providing universal edu¬ cation at public expense, cannot be conducted with the maximum of e5- ciency except as it is conducted in accordance with a carefully, systemati¬ cally, and scientifically formulated program. The formulation of a program — Until within a recent period educational programs evolved through force of circumstances and along lines of least resistance rather than through the intelligent development of preconceived plans. Now they are deliberately formulated, projected, and executed. Pro¬ gram making has come to be an essential feature of educational admin¬ istration. The newest, best approved, and most effective method of formulating a program is through a survey that discloses conditions, reveals tendencies, points out deficiencies, indicates needs, and suggests remedies. If made by recognized experts, such a surv ey will be accepted as conclusive by those to whom it is adequately interpreted. Through the serv ices of the National Education Association, the United States Bureau of Education, the General Education Board, the institutions of higher learning, the state departments of education and other research agencies, a number of highly trained educational investigators have been developed, and it is possible now for states and their subdivisions, without incurring undue expense, to formulate programs based upon surveys con¬ ducted by recognized experts. Much, if not most, of our progress in educa¬ tion during the last decade or so is attributable directly or indirectly to the execution of programs developed through surveys. The making or educa¬ tional surveys is a typical American service. It promises to develop into a distinct vocation, into one of the learned professions. The content of a program — A wisely formulated state education program will comprehend a complete system of education. It ideal it will provide for a plan of organization, administration, and support substantially as follows : 1. A state board of education with a small, overlapping, long term membership, elected by popular vote or appointed by the governor with the approval of the state senate, having large powers in the general control of all elementary and high schools and full powers in the direct control of all state-supported institutions of higher learning. 2. A state department of education under the direction of a professionally qtiali- fied state superintendent chosen by the state board from anywhere for a term and a: a compensation fixed by that board. 3. A state department organization comprising divisions of business manage¬ ment and accounting, teacher training — certification and placement. elementary education, secondary education, higher education, vocational education. physical and health education, school music, ethical and patriotic education, adult education, radio and visual education, libraries, research and information, schoolhouse build¬ ing, consolidation and transportation, administration and surveys, census, enrol¬ ment and attendance, and school and community organization. 266 National Education Association 4. A state department staff of administrative, supervisory, professional, and cleri¬ cal experts appointed by the state superintendent in accordance with qualification standards prescribed by the state board. 5. A county board of education with a small, overlapping, long term membership, elected by the people in countrywide elections, having direct control of all elemen¬ tary and high schools in the county under minimum standards prescribed by the state board. 6. A county department of education under the direction of a county superin¬ tendent possessing qualifications prescribed by the state board and appointed by the county board from anywhere for a term and a compensation fixed by that board. 7. A count}.' department staff of administrative, supervisory, professional, and clerical experts appointed by the county superintendent with the approval of the count}.' board and in accordance with qualification standards prescribed by the state board. 8. A county teaching force appointed by the count}.' board on the recommendation of the count}.' superintendent and in accordance with qualification standards pre¬ scribed by the state board. 9. A form of instructional organization that will include the kindergarten, the elementary school, the junior high school, the senior high school, the vocational school, the junior college, the senior college, and the university, with adequate pro¬ vision for the training of teachers with which to conduct them most efficiently. 10. A plan of state and county support that will guarantee equality of adequate educational opportunities to all children of the state without placing upon any county a tax burden materially heavier than that borne by any other county. As will be rioted the system suggested omits the district as an independent unit for organization, administration, and support. It makes the county the minimum unit for these purposes. The old district plan is responsible for most, if not all, of the gross educational inequalities that exist throughout the country. The suggested plan of state and county organization, admin¬ istration. and support would remove these inequalities within the states. In this day of easy communication and transportation the county-unit sys¬ tem is more practicable than was the district system when adopted, or even a decade ago. Students of education, particularly those who are experienced in school administration, are agreed that only through an enlargement of the unit of financial support and the adoption of a scientific plan of organization and administration can existing inequalities be removed or reduced to a minimum. The execution of a program — The successful execution of a state program that has been formulated by survey or other method will depend in large measure upon its interpretation, which is primarily a function of the state department of education. It devolves upon that department not only to initiate and formulate state programs but also to project and explain them so as to lead the public to understand, approve, and accept them. Unless the public is led to regard proposed programs as desirable and feasible, there will be little chance of securing their adoption and maintenance. Public opinion is a controling factor in educational administration as well as in other governmental operations. The creation of a favorable public opinion toward a proposed plan for school improvement is itself an educational process which calls for the appli- National Council of Education 267 cation of educational methods. Methods that produce favorable attitudes in groups or communities will, if properly applied with necessary modifications, produce similar attitudes upon the part of the general public. The development of an understanding, favoring, and sustaining public opinion will call for systematic procedures. An orderly interpretation pro¬ cedure would be as follows: (1) To executive, administrative, and super¬ visory school officials; (2) to teachers in the schools; (3) to patrons of the schools; (4) to the general public. The most effective methods of interpretation will include the use of letter, circular, bulletin, school journal, newspaper, magazine, personal appeal, public address, commencement occasion, educational exhibit, school rally, community organization, civic club, fraternal order, professional meeting, social gathering, and other agencies, chief among which is the radio, which is destined to become the most widely used and the most effective of infor¬ mational instrumentalities. If a state education program be scientifically formulated, expertly person- nelled, effectively interpreted, adequately supported, energetically prosecuted, its successful operation will be certain and continuous. These conditions are the essential elements of an efficient state education program, one that will provide substantially equal educational opportunities for all the chil¬ dren within a state. The Alabama program — The Alabama education program was developed by the survey method. In February, 1919, the legislature at the suggestion of the state superintendent of education and upon the recommendation of the governor, passed an act providing for the appointment by the governor of a commission of five members to make a study of the public school system, including all schools and educational institutions supported in whole or in part by public funds, to determine the efficiency of the same, and to report its findings with recommendations on or before July 1 of that year. The commission was composed of one member of the senate, one member of the house of representatives, and three wellknown and leading citizens. The recognized high character of the men composing the commission at once com¬ manded the respect of all concerned, assured in advance general confidence in any program that might be suggested, and guaranteed a careful considera¬ tion by the legislature of the findings and recommendations to be submitted. Among others the commission called as counsellor the United States Com¬ missioner of Education through whose assistance a survey staff was selected, made up of experts from the United States Bureau of Education and other sources, and headed by the commissioner himself. The findings of the sur¬ vey staff were embodied in a report to the commission, which was published by the United States Bureau of Education. The report gave detailed infor¬ mation on every phase of educational development in the state from kinder¬ garten to university. The commission found what was already manifest to students of educa¬ tion, namely, that Alabama had many excellent laws relating to schools; 268 National Education Association that they were not properly coordinated ; that they constituted a patchwork system, from which a number of fundamentals were altogether omitted. A comprehensive report with recommendations was made to the governor who in turn transmitted them to the legislature. After a very careful con¬ sideration that body adopted a school code which was prepared by the com¬ mission with the assistance of the state department of education. The code, which became effective in September, 1919, provided for a re¬ arrangement of the public school system, supplied many of the omissions in administrative and supervisory organization, and minimized necessary duplication of effort. Excepting the University, the Polytechnic Institute, and the State College for Women, it placed control of the several educa¬ tional agencies of the state in a state board of education whose powers and duties are comprehensive, well defined, and abreast the best expert opinion and practise. The state board consists of ten appointive members and two ex officio members, the governor and the state superintendent of education. The governor is president while the superintendent is executive officer and secretary of the board. The ten appointive members are appointed by the governor with the approval of the state senate, their terms being six years, one-third expiring quadrennially, thereby guaranteeing stability and con¬ tinuity of policy and practise. The plan of organization set up by the code makes provision also for county and city boards of education. Their powers and duties are specifically defined. They are clothed with both the authority and the responsibility of managing as a unit the schools within their respective jurisdictions. The direct administration and supervision of the public schools of each county, with the exception of towns and cities of 2500 inhabitants or more, are vested in the county board of education. When the code became operative, the county superintendent of education was appointed by the county board in each of the sixty-seven counties. This method still obtains in forty-seven of the counties. City boards have always had this power, which accounts in large measure for the superiority of city schools over rural schools. In other words, the plan of organization, administration, and supervision provided by the Alabama code is very similar to that which has been sug¬ gested as ideal. Owing to constitutional limitations it was impossible for the legislature to incorporate in the code all of the essentials of an ideal sys¬ tem, even if our people had been ready for it. However, the machinery set up is believed to be as good as that of any other state. Our greatest need is funds with which to make it function most effectively. Alabama school funds — In Alabama school funds are derived from four sources : the district, the county, the state, and the federal government. Dis¬ trict funds are derived from a three-mill tax levied by popular vote ; county funds, from a four-mill tax levied by popular vote ; state funds, from a three- mill tax levied by the constitution, from franchise, sales and severance taxes levied by the legislature, and from legislative appropriations. Federal funds are such as other states receive. The poll-tax is expended in the county in National Council of Education 269 which it is collected. The income from the sixteenth section land fund is credited to the township or district in which the land from which it was derived is located. A long step in providing needed funds for educational purposes in Ala¬ bama was taken by the Legislature of 1927 under the leadership of Gover¬ nor Bibb Graves and State Superintendent of Education R. E. Tidwell. The unified education program, which was prepared by the legislative com¬ mittee of the Alabama Education Association, of which committee Super¬ intendent Tidwell was chairman, was accepted and made an administration measure by Governor Graves. The bill embodying that program passed the legislature by a practically unanimous vote. As a consequence, every branch of the public school system from lowest to highest has been tremendously improved. For the current quadrennium (1927-31), legislative appropriations for elementary and secondary education will exceed those of the preceding quad¬ rennium by 145.7%; for institutions of higher learning, by 291.9%; for eleemosynary and reformatory institutions, by 145.2% ; for all educational purposes, by 188.4%. The last federal census showed that from 1890 to 1920 Alabama reduced her white illiteracy by 66%, her colored illiteracy by 54.7%, her average illiteracy by 60.7%. Our population is 38.5% colored. It is believed that this record has not been excelled by any other state in which similar con¬ ditions have obtained. More and more the people of Alabama are recognizing that education is a state as well as a local responsibility ; that every child, regardless of acci¬ dent of birth or place of residence is entitled to an equal chance in life with every other child ; that without equality of adequate educational opportunity there can be no equal chance ; that the more a state taxes itself for educa¬ tion the better able will it be to tax itself for all purposes. Conclusion — All the states are definitely committed to the policy of pro¬ viding universal education at public expense. All are making commendable progress. However, owing to variations in wealth, income, and ability to bear taxation, when all districts, all counties, and all states shall have pro¬ vided to the limit of their powers equality of educational opportunities for all children within their respective jurisdictions, there still will exist gross and retarding inequalities between districts, between counties, and between states. These inequalities will not be removed until adequate education pro¬ grams, local, state, and national, have been formulated and executed, pro¬ grams that will guarantee equal educational advantages to all the children of all districts, all counties, and all states without imposing upon any dis¬ trict, county, or state a tax burden materially heavier than that borne by any other. 270 National Education Association If every child in this country is ever to have an equal chance in life with every other child, we must provide county as well as district, state as well as county, national as well as state equality of educational opportunity. SECRETARY'S MINUTES Cleveland Meeting OFFICERS President — Henry Lester Smith, Dean, School of Education, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana Vicepresident — Mrs. Susan M. Dorsey, 1506 Arapahoe St., Los Angeles, California Secretary — Adelaide S. Baylor, Chief, Home Economics Education Service, Federal Board for Vocational Education, Washington, D. C. First Session, Monday Afternoon, February 25, 1929 The meeting was called to order by the president at 2:15 p. m. in the Assembly Hall of the Hotel Hollenden. In lieu of the address by Henry Fairfield Osborn, who was unable to be present because of illness, the President of the National Council of Education, after briefly setting forth the development of procedures in the plans of work in the Council, read a paper outlining a special study that had been made by him at Indiana Uni¬ versity on ways and means for promoting mutual understanding and good fellow¬ ship with foreign countries through the medium of instruction in the public school. John K. Norton, Director, Research Division, National Education Association, Washington, D. C., gave an address on the function of the National Council of Education. A very interesting discussion followed the presentation of Dr. Norton’s paper as to the aims and objectives of the work of the Council, in which there was a con¬ sensus of opinion that certain modifications in the plans of work for the Council could be made to bring them more nearly in line with the purposes and plans of the founders of the Council. A motion was made by Robert J. Wright of North Carolina that the time of the meeting of the Council be changed in order to give better opportunity for more con¬ centrated thought and discussion than is possible when held at the same time as the large national meeting. A substitute motion was offered by Frederick E. Farring¬ ton of Washington, D. C., that the Executive Committee investigate and make rec¬ ommendations at the next meeting. Mr. Wright accepted the substitute motion in lieu of his original motion. The question was put to a vote and unanimously carried. Second Session, Tuesday Afternoon, February 26, 1929 The meeting was called to order by the president at 2:15 p. m. in the Assembly Hall of the Hotel Hollenden. The following addresses were presented: Research in Business Leonard P. Ayres, Vicepresident, Cleveland Trust Company, Cleveland, Ohio. The Education of Educators Ross L. Finney, College of Education, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. National Council of Education 271 The audience was delighted to have the opportunity of again hearing from Colonel Ayres, who, a few years ago, left the teaching profession to enter the banking busi¬ ness in Cleveland. He related in a very interesting manner the development and the significance of the educational research movement in the public schools of the United States. It is regretted that his address, which was given orally, is not made available through a stenographic report. The paper presented by Dr. Finney was thought-provoking and aroused a good deal of discussion both pro and con. Atlanta Meeting First Session, Monday Afternoon, July 1, 1929 The meeting was called to order by the president at 2 p. m. in the courtroom, sec¬ ond floor of the Fulton County Court House. On inquiry as to the availability of a report given at the Cleveland meeting by the president of the Council on a study made by him to determine “How the Schools May Function in the Promotion of International Understanding and Good Will,” the president stated that the report had been published and copies could be procured from the Publications Division, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. He also called attention to the publication and the distribution to the members of the Council, of the paper on “The Function of the National Council of Education,” presented at the Cleveland meeting by John K. Norton, Director of Research, National Education Association. The following papers were then presented and discussed: Educational Progress for the Year John J. Tigert, President, University of Florida, Gainesville, Fla. Who Shall Say What the Nation May Expect of American Schools? William John Cooper, U. S. Commissioner of Education, Washington, D. C. The suggestions offered in the paper read by William John Cooper, United States Commissioner of Education, touching upon the responsibility of the Council for conducting certain studies and investigations in order to be in readiness to answer challenging questions raised by laymen in regard to the purposes of our educational program today, aroused much interest and favorable comment. A motion by Joseph Saunders that “the Executive Committee be requested to des¬ ignate a committee of the Council to whom the paper of the United States Commis¬ sioner of Education be referred, for the selection of questions raised therein that should be considered at the present time and reported upon at the February meet¬ ing in Atlantic City,” was carried. A more specific motion by Carroll G. Pearse, that as the first step, a committee be appointed by the president of the Council to conduct a study for the purpose of “determining (1) the physical and mental qualities, abilities, and knowledge, (2) the social and civic attitudes and ideals, and (3) the personal accomplishments and tactics that shall characterize the citizens of this democratic republic, and thus estab¬ lishing the objectives of our system of free universal public education, upon which we must chiefly depend for the information of such a citizenship as shall assure the perpetuation of the republic and the comfort and happiness of all its citizens,” was also carried. It wras accepted by the Council that the committee thus named would make a report, at least of progress, at the winter meeting of the Council in Atlantic City, the president later announcing the membership of the committee as follows: 272 National Education Association Randall J. Condon, Chairman, Friendship, Maine. E. W. Butterfield, State Commissioner of Education, Concord, N. H. Mary McSkimmon, Principal, Pierce School, Brookline, Mass. John K. Norton, Director of Research, National Education Association, Washington, D. C. Carroll G. Pearse, Milwaukee, Wis. Adelaide S. Baylor, Chief, Home Economics Education Service, Federal Board for Voca¬ tional Education, Washington, D. C. W. C. Bagley, Teachers College, Columbia University. John Dewey, Teachers College, Columbia University. Second Session, Tuesday Afternoon, July 2, 1929 The meeting was called to order by the president at 2 p. m. in the courtroom, Ful¬ ton County Court House. Addresses were presented as follows: The Printed Word and Educational Interpretation Joy Elmer Morgan, Editor, Journal of the National Education Association, Wash¬ ington, D. C. A State Education Program John W. Abercrombie, Assistant State Superintendent of Education, Montgomery, Alabama. There was brief general and informal discussion of these papers. Carroll G. Pearse, Chairman of the Committee on Membership, reported for the committee the following recommendations for supplying vacancies in the member¬ ship and offices of the Council: MEMBERS Reelected with term expiring in 1935: E. E. Bass, Greenville, Miss. Thomas R. Cole, Seattle, Wash. Mrs. Susan M. Dorsey, Eos Angeles, Calif. Frederick E. Farrington, Chevy Chase, Md. Gida Lee Tall, Towson, Md. Augustus Thomas, Augusta, Me. George E. Towns, Lincoln, Nebr. J. A. C. Chandler, Williamsburg, Va. Elected with term expiring in 1935: Lotus D. Coffman, President, University of Minnesota, to succeed T. E- Johnson, Lansing. Membership lapsed. John J. Tigert, President, University of Florida, Gainesville, to succeed G. W. A. Luckey. Membership lapsed. Elected with term expiring in 1930: Will C. Crawford, Territorial Superintendent of Public Instruction, Honolulu, T. H., to succeed Sarah Louise Arnold, Lincoln, Mass. Membership lapsed. Reelected with term expiring in 1931: Randall J. Condon, Friendship, Maine. Membership lapsed. Reelected with term expiring in 1932: John A. H. Keith, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa. Member¬ ship lapsed. Elected with term expiring in 1933: Walter Ranger, State Commissioner of Education, Providence, R. I., to succeed Annie Webb Blanton, Austin, Texas. Membership lapsed. Mrs. Katherine A. Morton, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Cheyenne, Wyo., to succeed I. I. Cam mack, Kansas City, Mo. Membership lapsed. R. L. Cooley, Director, Milwaukee Vocational Schools, Milwaukee, Wis., to succeed Charles E. Chadsey, Urbana, Ill. Membership lapsed. National Council of Education 273 OFFICERS Reelected with term expiring in 1932: Secretary, Adelaide S. Baylor, Chief, Home Economics Education Service, Federal Board for Vocational Education, Washington, D. C. Member, Committee on Membership, Caroline Woodrufe, Principal, State Normal School, Castleton, Vt. Elected with term expiring in 1932: Member, Executive Committee, David A. Ward, Superintendent of Schools, Chester, Pa., to succeed A. J. Matthews, Tempe, Ariz. Term expired. Member, Committee on Membership, M. E. Pearson, Superintendent of Schools, Kansas City, Kansas, to succeed John R. Kirk, Kirksville, Mo. Term expired. The recommendations of the committee were unanimously approved by the Coun¬ cil and the members and officers declared duly elected. The secretary read a letter from Homer H. Seerley, retired president, Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, and former president of the National Council of Edu¬ cation, in which he tendered his resignation as a member of the Council because of his retirement from active educational work and his desire to have a successor ap¬ pointed who could contribute regularly to the work of the Council. A motion was made by Arthur Chamberlain that the name of Dr. Seerley be placed upon the honorary list of the Council. The motion of Mr. Chamberlain was unanimously endorsed and the secretary requested to record it in the minutes as a token of esteem for the splendid service Dr. Seerley had rendered the Council during his long term of membership and his three years as president of the Council. Because of the many conflicts between the meetings of the Council and those of other sections of the N. E. A. which, because of the small membership of the Council, interfered seriously with the attendance and programs, two attempts had been made to reach a consensus of opinion among the members as to the desirability of choos¬ ing dates for Council meetings other than those of the large National meetings of the National Education Association and the Department of Superintendence. The secretary had reported at an earlier meeting on partial findings from an inquiry sent out by her, the returns of which indicated practically an evenly divided group for and against the change of date. A final report on this inquiry was now made by the secretary in which were recorded in favor of: 1. A winter meeting the Friday and Saturday prior to the opening of the meet¬ ing of the Department of Superintendence . 14 members. 2. A summer meeting the Friday and Saturday prior to the opening of the Na¬ tional Education Association...... . 13 members. 3. A winter meeting during the week of the meeting of the Department of Superin¬ tendence . 13 members. 4. A summer meeting during the week of the meeting of the National Education Association . 13 members. Two additional suggestions were offered as to time of meeting: 1. Thursday and Friday following the meeting of the Department of Superinten¬ dence, and Thursday and Friday following the meeting of the National Educa¬ tion Association . one member. 2. The Saturday before the meeting of the Department of Superintendence, and Wednesday afternoon of the week of the meeting . one member. This member further suggested that if the main convention opened Monday night and closed Friday instead of Thursday, it would offer a fine opportunity for a Council meeting on Monday. As there was a majority of only one in favor of a change of date from the present practise, and less than fifty percent of the Council had voted, no consensus of opinion was reached by this inquiry. 274 National Education Association A similar inquiry was made by the president of the Council following the Cleveland meeting (1929), but the returns were too scattering to give a basis for any recommendations as to future meetings of the Council. On motion of Carroll G. Pearse it was voted to fix a definite time and set up definite topics for discussion a day before the winter meeting, in Atlantic City, holding continuous day and evening session for deliberation, and to advise all members of the time and topics and urge them to show by their presence at this meeting that they are discharging the responsibility assumed by them in accepting membership in the National Council of Education. The Seventeen Departments of the Association The growth of departments in the Association began in 1870 when the American Normal School Association became the Department of Teachers Colleges, and the National Association of School Superintendents became the Department of Superintendence. Another great forward step was taken in 1921 when departments were given larger independence and responsibility. This led to the establishment of fees by the stronger departments and to the selection of an executive secretary by the Department of Su¬ perintendence. The important event of department history in 1928 was the ratification by the National Association of Secondary School Principals of its merger with the Department of Secondary School Principals ; also the establishment of the Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction. There are now seventeen departments. Their or¬ ganization began on the dates given below. A second date indicates that the group was organized inde¬ pendently, prior to its merger with the National Edu¬ cation Association. Earlier names in parentheses suggest the changing purpose of the departments. 1. Adult Education (Immigrant Education) _ 1921 2. Business Education (Business Educators’ Association — 1878) _ 1892 3. Classroom Teachers _ 1914 4. Deans of Women (National Association of Deans of Women — 1916) _ 1918 5. Elementary School Principals (National Association of Ele¬ mentary School Principals) _ 1921 6. Kindergarten-Primary Education (Froebel Institute of North America) _ 1884 7. Lip Reading _ 1926 8. Rural Education (Rural and Agricultural Education) _ 1907 9. School Health and Physical Education (Child Study) _ 1894 10. Science Instruction (Nation Science Instruction) _ 1894 11. Secondary School Principals (Secondary Instruction — 1886) _ 1928 12. Social Studies (National Council for the Social Studies) _ 1925 13. Superintendence (National Association of School Super¬ intendents — 1886) _ _ 1870 14. Supervisors and Directors of Instruction (National Con¬ ference on Educational Method — 1921) _ 1928 15. Teachers Colleges (American Normal School Association — 1858), (Department of Normal Schools — 1870) _ 1925 16. Visual Instruction _ 1923 17. Vocational Education (Industrial Section — 1875), (Depart¬ ment of Industrial and Manual Training — 1890) (Manual Training — 1899) (Vocational Training and Practical Arts —1914) _ 1875 [ 276 ] The Department of Adult Education HE DEPARTMENT OF ADULT EDUCATION was established by vote of the Representative As- "*■ sembly, July 8, 1921, as the Department of Im¬ migrant Education. The first meeting was held in 1922 in Boston. See Proceedings , 1922:905. In 1924 the name of the Department was changed to the Department of Adult Education. See Proceed¬ ings, 1924:566. The officers of the Department for the year 1929- 30 are: President , L. R. Alderman, Washington, D. C. ; Executive Director , Mrs. Elizabeth Morriss, North Carolina; Secretary , Alonzo Grace, Ohio; Treasurer , Agnes Winn, Washington, D. C. This Department meets once a year in July. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier Proceed¬ ings as follows : 1921:460 1923:669-703 1925:337-353 1927:293-334 1922:905-968 1924:565-582 1926:327-371 1928:263-304 [ 278 ] ADULT ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTHERN S T A TES—A BS TRA C T MRS. ELIZABETH C. MORRISS, BUNCOMBE COUNTY DIRECTOR, ADULT ELEMENTARY EDUCATION, ASHEVILLE, N. C. Even a cursory survey of adult elementary education in the southern states reveals an interesting and puzzling situation. Since some of the other sections of the country report similar situations, an inviting field is offered for scientific investigation. Four of the states — South Carolina, Alabama, Arkansas, and Louisi¬ ana — have state appropriations and state leadership, and, with the excep¬ tion of Louisiana, they have necessary laws and teacher-training programs. The 1920 census showed that South Carolina had outranked every other state in the Union in percent of reduction illiteracy and in percent of gain in school attendance. During the current school jrear, 1928-29, the legis¬ lature increased the annual appropriation to $55,000. Effective adult ele¬ mentary programs were carried on in eighteen of the forty-six counties of the state, approximately 10,000 pupils being enroled, three-fourths of whom were white. Alabama attained third highest percentage of reduction of total illiteracy as shown by the 1920 census. With a present annual appropriation of $50,000, successful opportunity schools have been organized in thirty-eight of the sixty-seven counties. More than 13,000 pupils were enroled last year. While Arkansas has an appropriation of only $4000 a year, it has a state supervisor and one field organizer. And, through the active cooperation of the club women and parent-teacher associations, has carried on this year effective programs in twenty-eight of its seventy-five counties. Twenty-six hundred pupils have been enroled, nearly half of whom were white. Louisiana is in the midst of lively adult elementary activities, made pos¬ sible by a $100,000 appropriation. The assistant state superintendent is in charge of the program, and, so far this year, contact has been made with 60,000 pupils in sixty-three of the sixty-four counties. Six of the other states — Maryland, Texas, Virginia, Georgia, North Carolina, and Kentucky — have no statewide programs of adult elementary education, but do have cities or counties or colleges actively and intensely engaged in such programs. Baltimore, Maryland ; Dallas, San Antonio, Houston, El Paso, and Fort Worth, Texas; Richmond, Virginia; and Atlanta, Georgia all have even¬ ing school directors, live effective programs, and appropriations ranging from $2000 to $40,000 and correspondingly varying enrolments. Buncombe County, North Carolina, has a director and five wholetime workers, and has an annual appropriation of $12,000 for adult elementary education, half from the county board and half from the Asheville board of education. During the past year, approximately a thousand pupils have been taught. Stress in the Buncombe county program, has from the be- [ 279 ] 280 National Education Association ginning of the work nine years ago, even during the struggling pioneer years, been placed not on immediate results from brief campaigns, but on the carryover, year after year, into the lives of the adults and of their chil¬ dren, and in improving the attendance and the health programs of the day schools through more understanding home cooperation. In two other North Carolina counties — Stokes and Surry — a successful program of intensive literacy work has been carried on this year through the cooperation of the State Federation of Women’s Clubs, the State Society of Colonial Dames, the State Society of the Daughters of the American Revo¬ lution, together with the active support of local club women, educational officials, and men’s civic clubs. The four remaining southern states — Oklahoma, Tennessee, Mississippi, and Florida — report no present activity, but they have previously shown definite interest in the problem. Oklahoma, in 1926, had an appropriation and effective state supervision. Tennessee, in 1925, had a functioning literacy commission and passed a law favoring adult elementary education. Their state literacy bulletin, pub¬ lished that year by the parent-teacher association, is one of the best that has been made. Mississippi, in 1924, had a commission appointed and passed a favoring law. Florida, in 1927, passed a similar law. Experienced workers in the field of adult elementary education are gen¬ uinely puzzled over this situation. How is it possible for states to have valuable and effective work going on in approximately half of their counties and the remaining counties not be interested in beginning the work? Or to have cities and counties, and colleges putting on effective programs, year after year, and yet the state itself putting on no program of its own? Or to have states doing nothing at all now after having been previously ac¬ tively interested? It is a puzzling situation. It stirs the inmost depths of some of us caring so deeply for the outcome, we can with difficulty regard the facts dispassionately. We believe that the child “pays” and pays enormously for the ignorance of his parents; that the state “pays” and pays economically, socially, and spiritually for the ignorance of its citizens. How is it that to many educa¬ tors and legislators, adult elementary education is a matter of casual or of negligible interest? Does not systematic study of the values of adult elementary education seem to be indicated as one solution to the problem? Suppose the educators and the legislators should ask, for instance, “How do you know and how did you find out that through teaching adult elementary pupils, the attend¬ ance of day school children is increased, school health program functions more effectively, and that there is a decrease in the number of problem children?” Should we not be ready to reply, “We know because we have the facts relative to the situation and have reached a solution of the prob¬ lem through actual practical experience in scientifically dealing with the facts ?” Department of Adult Education 281 Should we not prepare ourselves to defend successfully the belief that our government and our states should equip all of their citizens through knowl¬ edge and training for participation in the affairs of human life? ADULT SECONDARY EDUCATION IN THE SOUTHERN S T A TES—A BSTRACT R. E. TIDWELL, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF EDUCATION OF ALABAMA Arkansas — An appropriation of $8000 for the biennium was made by the 1929 Legislature for use in promoting the Arkansas Opportunity Schools for Adults. In 1928, 2090 illiterates were taught; 206 convicts were in¬ structed. Teachers of adult classes are given two semester hours’ credit in Arkansas State Teachers College. Florida — No organized adult work on secondary level is promoted by the state department of education ; the extension division of the University of Florida offers many courses, mostly above high school level. Georgia — Adult secondary education is provided in two ways: by evening schools, the enrolment in which was 9458 ; and by vocational classes. Kentucky — Adult work is provided in the Theodore Ahrens School and the Dupont Manual Training High School, both of which are in Louis¬ ville ; trade course classes for adults are found in the schools of Ashland, Greenville, Hazard, Madisonville, Pikeville, Pineville, Stearns, Whites- burg. The Y. M. C. A. in Louisville has a big night school. Louisiana — Strenuous effort is being put forth to wipe out adult illiteracy; approximately 60,000 adult illiterates have been enroled in classes ; approxi¬ mately 75 percent have learned how to read and write; work continues through summer and fall; expect to reach 100,000 illiterates before the campaign closes. Mississippi — Work in vocational education classes; several thousand enroled. Oklahoma — Has an adult education commission; has honor roll of teach¬ ers who taught night school for adults — several hundred names given ; two semester hours of college credit given to teachers successfully conducting adult schools; evening classes, home economics, and other vocational sub¬ jects have been organized. Texas — Has four parental educational specialists working in Dallas, Houston, El Paso, and Austin ; evening classes in home economics in these cities; three fulltime itinerant teachers of home economics, two of these be¬ ing in El Paso county and one in the lower Rio Grande valley; trade and industrial division has numerous classes ; also agricultural classes for adults. Virginia — Adult education has been provided in the main through even¬ ing classes in trades and industrial education in the cities, and in agriculture in the rural sections for farmers. 282 National Education Association Alabama — Opportunity schools largely on the elementary level, organ¬ ized in many counties of the state; 65,729 adults have been taught in these schools; vocational classes in evening and partime schools provide oppor¬ tunity for many adults throughout the state; library books are sent out by the state department of education to isolated groups of people. Conclusion — 1. It would seem that the responsibility for promoting adult education on the secondary level is largely one for local administration, with the assistance and support of the state department of education. The state universities are equipped in most instances to offer valuable assistance through lecture courses and other extension activities of popular character, which are usually open to the general public. This service can be ren¬ dered by the university without interfering with its chief responsibility, which is to provide continued opportunities for adult education on the collegiate level. 2. The organization of a state commission on adult education responsible for statewide programs is an advanced idea which should be utilized by other state departments of education in coordinating all the activities and agencies which may contribute to the worthwhile development of a program of adult education on the elementary, high school, or college level. 3. Cities and county boards of education are and will continue to be active in the support of adult education for illiterates and near-illiterates. There is no less an obligation of providing education for those who are pre¬ pared to profit by training on the high-school level. A local commission on adult education providing for the coordination and integration of all the courses in the continued education of the citizens of the community would, it seems to me, afford the soundest and surest means of continued progress and adjustment to the varying needs of the social group whose welfare may be improved by wise planning of a program for adult education. LIBRARY SERVICE AND ADULT EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH— ABSTRACT CHARLOTTE TEMPLETON., PUBLIC LIBRARY, GREENVILLE, S. C. Before proceeding to the discussion of the concrete topic assigned to me, I wish to state certain fundamental factors involved. First, the book is the chief instrument of all education. Second, education, as a continuous life process, involving both youth and adult, with the book as its chief instrument, demands a library service as general as the public school system itself. These fundamentals accepted by the librarian and the educator have by no means been grasped by the southern people as a whole. A library service adequate to meet the needs of a general adult education program has hardly been conceived. Let us outline the essentials of such a library service : Department of Adult Education 283 1. A collection of children’s books, attractive and of a wide range of interest, in charge of an enthusiastic children’s librarian or teacher-librarian, accessible to every child from the first grade on. 2. A public library readily accessible to every person, whether he lives in city or small town, or in the open country, supported by taxation, and on such scale, that its book collection contains the best in all lines of general interest, that its resources are properly organized and in charge of a trained and educated personnel. 3. A coordination of a state’s library activities through a state agency, either the state library or a special library commission or department, which gives direction to local public library development and supplements from a central book collection books needed along special lines which are beyond the small public library’s re¬ sources. Now let us consider what we have in the south. I fear that it will be largely a statement of what we do not have. Alabama, Florida, South Carolina, and Tennessee do not have any state agency lending books to individual students, nor do they have any state agency directing the public library development in their states. Newly established state library commissions in several states, notably Mississippi, Arkansas, and South Carolina (without funds) ; a proposed searching state library survey in Tennessee; and such movements as the Citizens State Library Association in North Carolina indicate a new day in state leadership in the south. It is in the public libraries that we find the greatest lack. In a general survey made in 1926, we discovered that from seventy- five to eighty-five percent of the population in the southern states do not have access to public libraries. To realize the inequality which exists in regard to reading facilities be¬ tween this and other sections of the country we have but to compare South Carolina and California. In California 97.6% of the population have access to public libraries and 13.7% in South Carolina. We spend an¬ nually for public libraries five cents per capita and California spends $1.08. Our greatest need at the present time is a vigorous campaign in every state, under state leadership, for the establishment of public libraries with the county as the supporting unit. The small town library can never receive sufficient revenue from taxation to render efficient service. We must enlarge the area of support if we are to receive sufficient revenue for good library service in rural areas. There will be inequalities of formal educational opportunities among our people for a long time to come. Adult study, in groups, or indi¬ vidually, must be the method to bring about a higher educational level. But adult education in any complete sense cannot come about without an adequate system of public libraries. It is a challenging task which lies before us. Librarians are grateful to a teacher, Dr. William S. Learned, who has given their aspirations expression in his study made for the Carnegie Cor¬ poration on the “American Public Library and Diffusion of Knowledge.” After a discussion of the possibilities of effective library service, he says: 284 National Education Association This public library (with all its resources developed), if duplicated and organized on a regional or county basis would immediately take its place as the chief instru¬ ment of our common intellectual and cultural progress. . . . The true educational establishment of a town or city would in that case center in the public intelligence organization with its many branches whereby needful information would be mar¬ shaled primarily for adult use. The elementary and secondary schools would be the subsidiary feeders for the greater institution, serving the special needs of the young citizen and training him for progressive selfeducation in the larger environ¬ ment. FEDERAL ASPECTS OF AND RESPONSIBILITIES IN THE REDUCTION OF ILLITERACY AND TRAINING FOR CITIZENSHIP— ABSTRACT ROBERT C. DEMING, DIRECTOR, DIVISION OF ADULT EDUCATION, STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION, HARTFORD, CONN. This subject involves the whole problem of federal and state educational boundaries, of the objectives and limitations of public education, and there is a great opportunity to wander far afield. Hence I ask you to have faith, while presenting the ramifications and aspects of my subject, that I will eventually weave them into a comprehensive pattern and a definite picture. Any dissertation on the subject as given must presuppose some definite conclusions and agreements as to the purposes of our democracy, as to the value and need of efficient citizenship training and education for democracy, and as to the evils and dangers and trains of ills in democracy resulting from illiteracy. It certainly is not necessary to go back to the beginning and restate the Jeffersonian principles, but education needs badly a rededication to such principles, for all about us we see states in which the main objective of the common and general welfare and the education of all the people all the time, regardless of age, in the main essentials necessary for the de¬ velopment of character in person and in government is forgotten, and public education is offered only to children of compulsory school age or the teen age. And these latter are for the most part children from middle and upper class families who can afford to let their children acquire a better education. Fine as far as it goes. But where is the offering of educa¬ tional opportunity, yes, even the encouragement of such education among those adults whose earlier educational opportunity has been either denied or neglected, that great mass of native-born and foreign-born both north and south, east and west in this nation who constitute the educationally under¬ privileged? Is their elementary education any less important in a de¬ mocracy than that of children? These people are the great drag upon the ship of state, among whom are the illiterate, the alien, and the 51 percent who left school early to go to work. Surely there is a great challenge here to democracy, particularly Department of Adult Education 285 when there is a demand growing out of leisure time from those who now regret their lost education and appreciate its value too late? And is there not an appeal in that if any preference is shown, it should be to the under¬ privileged ? There is scarcely a single state in which there is not an actual need for the stimulation of such education under a trained state official. Certainly no state east of the Mississippi is exempt unless such an official now exists. In the fourteen or fifteen states now so organized in this specialized and technical work the results have been amazing and stimulating. There the work is an integral and recognized part of the public school curriculum. The government rates as illiterate in its census tables “anyone over 10 years of age who cannot write (his name usually) in any language, not necessarily English.” Nearly 5,000,000 in 1920 admitted this irreducible minimum of education, and experts estimate two and one-half times that number, or 12,500,000 more, who cannot either “read, write, or speak English.” What an indictment and how far down the scale of nations do we rank! As educators we violently object to classifying as literate, as we now do, those who can write their names only. There is a real chance that column seventeen of the 1930 census will be changed by the government to read “whether able to read English understanding^” with instructions to the enumerators to inquire as to ability to read the Ameri¬ can newspapers — the equivalent of fourth grade English. The govern¬ ment will then have its first educational census of those who are qualified for American citizenship. Where will your state rank? May I insert here the plea of the Director of the Census Bureau that teachers and instructors, surplus and substitute, apply through their congressmen to be enumerators? Thus through the census also the government is seeking ammunition for attack upon the enemy within our gates. Why is it that native illiteracy is found in the less wealthy states? Is the question like unto the priority of the chicken or the egg? Is the state less well of? because it has much illiteracy, or is it illiterate because it is less well of?? There probably are two perfectly sound facts to state — the first is that there is a lack of money, and the second is that illiteracy is taken for granted. The first is an act of Providence, the second is a human failing. If such states would only actually do something in a known scientific approach towards the problem, slowly but surely, all would be forgiven. The Lord helps those who help themselves. Does it not simmer down at the last to our state’s aspirations and ideals in this matter? The government must see to it that the less progressive states are made aware of their shortcomings. The government through its restrictive act, and particularly through its national origins basis, has definitely limited the number of those coming to us from sources where illiteracy is high, and general intelligence low. Now is education’s great opportunity to reach the actual millions of non- English speaking who will be with us for this generation at least, and through their education in the fundamentals reach also their many chil- 286 National Education Association dren in their homes. Educators in general do not appreciate the speed and ease and ability with which adults master their subjects. As Thorn¬ dike states, “Given the opportunity and the desire, the progress is two or three times as fast as that of a child.” The work is stimulating, under the easily trained teachers that are so vital to success, and under the trained leaders who organize the classes. The government has naturalization laws under which those desiring citizenship may obtain it under uniform qualifications and requirements. The uniform administration of these laws and their uniform interpretation has long been something to be much desired. On this July first an almost complete change in procedure, with simplification along many lines, will expedite the process without lowering the requirements. At present the candidate must not only speak English, but understand the principles and system of government under which we live. In fact, a broad and general American education is required. This is as it should be. In how many communities in your state is citizenship opportunity denied with educational opportunity? Have you in your state the close collaboration between the naturalization examiners and the teachers of such classes that should exist? What more natural thing to entrust to the same teachers to whom we entrust the education of our children the education of our future adult citizens. Los Angeles has an accredited system working to perfection. Section VIII of the Constitution reads in part in paragraph I, “Congress shall have power , to lay and collect taxes, duties, imports, and excises, to pay the debts, and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States,” etc. What the war revealed in the inability of our draft army to understand written or even spoken orders in English will not soon be forgotten by those officers called upon to drill it. If the common defense and general welfare of the United States is not directly affected by our illiteracy and citizenship training problems, then man power is not an element thereof. If our democratic government is not vitally concerned and interested in this, then a new government is imminent. Paragraph IV of the same Section reads in part “to establish a uniform rule of naturalization,” etc. This Congress has done and has constantly improved, particularly during the latter months. The vast majority of the quarter of a million pupils now in the adult elementary classes are candidates for citizenship. They will come under the uniform adminis¬ tration of that rule by which each state, as a member of this brotherhood of states whose sovereignty is the will of the majority, is obligated to offer not only opportunity but adequate preparation. On the basis of naturali¬ zation requirements alone, each state has ample reason for the establish¬ ment of a comprehensive program of adult education. It is a serious indictment to proclaim “aliens in this state are denied educational oppor¬ tunity for citizenship.” Department of Adult Education 287 From his port of debarkation to the citizenship court the immigrant alien is under federal law particularly applying to him under certain trans¬ gressions. The government is both concerned and interested in his wel¬ fare. This legal aspect of federal control must be appreciated in all its ramifications — even the international. But for his education each state is none the less responsible than for its own native illiterate. Both come under the same ideals. Both are potential intelligent citizens. We live in an age when we are keen to place responsibility exactly where it belongs, when rights are jealously guarded, and where we ex¬ pect each state, town, and individual to develop its opportunities. By all these tokens this nation, through the wall of the majority of the states, through their representatives in Congress assembled, and through the en¬ forcing laws passed by them in the interest of immigration, naturalization, and education, has admitted aliens for whose opportunity in education each state is directly responsible. By this same Congress each state must carry out the sovereign will of the majority of states in offering educa¬ tional opportunity in the fundamentals of good citizenship to all residents absolutely regardless of age. So any nation or state, whose life and des¬ tiny depend upon popular participation in government, cannot afford to tolerate less than a full functioning literacy for all within its borders. Educational opportunity, not age, is the factor. The Division of Adult Education of the United States Bureau of Edu¬ cation offers, through its specialists, leadership, guidance, information, sug¬ gestion, material, advice, and an excellent and practical state program for each state, but the responsibility rests directly upon the individual states to cultivate the mind and spirit of their people by placing within their reach the necessities for mental and spiritual growth. Reverently para¬ phrasing — “What does it behoove your state to be 100 percent efficient in the education of your children if you lose in the race for good citizenship by neglecting the underprivileged adults.” THE PHILOSOPHY OF FEES— ABSTRACT FREDERICK S. DeGALAN, DIRECTOR, DIVISION OF ADULT EDUCATION, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, DETROIT, MICH. The day schools have long ago arrived at a standard practise. They make a distinction between residents and nonresidents and draw a line between high-school and college courses. Below college grade without ex¬ ception, as far as I know, they offer their courses free to residents of the district or community supporting the schools, but charge the actual cost of tuition to nonresidents. In fact the theory quite universally accepted and backed up by law is that for courses below college grade the terms “public schools” and “free education” are one and the same. Evening schools while no doubt accepting the theory that public schools are free schools are disposed to temper it with considerations of expe- 288* National Education Association diency. It seems certain that they would like to offer their wares free, but that they find it necessary or advantageous for various reasons to make a charge. First among these reasons is the hope that change will stabilize attendance. A heavy and increasing loss of membership as a term wears on is the common experience in free systems. The evening school direc¬ tor, viewing this with alarm and feeling that the quality of instruction is not at fault, decides that another motive for attendance other than love of learning is required. A financial motive appeals to him as likely to be the most powerful and he accordingly has recourse to a deposit re¬ quirement with the proviso that all the deposits shall be returned on con- dition that attendance shall reach a certain percent of the maximum pos¬ sible. This practise he finds actually does stimulate consistent attendance but usually not to the extent that he had expected. If he figures closely, he may find that the number of people induced to persevere in attendance by reason of the deposit is small and that the cost or value in time and labor of keeping the accounts is greater than the money actually retained. If this is the conclusion arrived at, the next expedient is the introduction of a system of non-returnable fees. This at one swoop eliminates most of the objectionable features of the deposit system while introducing one or two of its own. The laborious checking of attendance is eliminated. The only record to be devised and kept is a foolproof system of accounting for receipts. The principle of a free school disappears also, unless a very care¬ ful emphasis is laid upon the fact that the charge is an enrolment and not a tuition fee. The charging of a tuition fee, strictly speaking, is not permitted under the state and federal aid laws. The amount of the fee is now of greater importance than when it was only a deposit. Its effect upon attendance is felt chiefly through its selec¬ tive tendency at enrolment, only the more earnest candidates ordinarily being willing to part with the sum involved. How large should this sum be to keep out the trifler and yet not constitute a bar to earnest, would-be students? In theory the larger the fee the smaller the enrolment and the higher the percentage of attendance. In practise this is actually the result, but a surprising fact is soon demonstrated and that is that attendance is only slightly better. The fact is that when the average evening school student gets ready to leave school, he leaves and his departure is usually for a good reason, or one that he is convinced is good. The revenue to the school system is an important byproduct of a straight fee system. It may easily reach a considerable total. By raising the fees it can be increased of course, but only to a degree, because beyond a certain point the enrolment will drop off proportionately as the fee increases. The exact point of highest returns is indeterminate but is probably some¬ where between $5 and $10 per course. A reasonable, workable fee is $3 per course per term. This sum shuts out the maximum number of triflers and the minimum of worthy people, induces an appreciation of the evening school product as something bought and paid for, and it produces for the schools a substantial revenue. Department of Adult Education 289 The effect of the revenue from fees upon the appropriating bodies is disappointing to administrators. However large the sum and however close to selfsupport the evening school approach because of it, the authori¬ ties soon take the money for granted or lose sight of it entirely as an inducement to a more liberal treatment of evening schools. If anything, it becomes the impression that the evening schools ought more and more to take care of themselves. It is often the case that the money is not used to support or develop the evening schools at all but is devoted to other purposes. The conviction grows that the true policy of a public evening school should be to give everyone, even the trifler, a chance to sample learning, challenging us to hold wThom we can and to lose those whom we cannot hold by sheer wTorth of our product and its presentation. At the same time it is felt that the expense of organization on a scale resulting from so liberal policy, and of reorganization to meet the rapid loss following, should be spread among the applicants themselves. A reasonable sum to cover this cost is one dollar. And so the dollar bill finally is very likely to become the ticket of admission to evening high-school classes. The elementary classes almost everywhere remain free, on the quite generally accepted theory that society owes it to itself to throw no obstacle in the way of bringing up the general level of education to that of the eighth grade. Moreover, the imposition of a fee upon the elementary classes borders on the impractical because of the poverty of a large part of the students and the difficulty of collecting it satisfactorily in the ex¬ tension classes. To sum up the whole matter: A public evening school system ought in theory to be a free system. Still a small investment on the part of the student has a salutary effect on him and on the school. A modest revenue is never a detriment to an administrative program and is likely to be very helpful. A compromise with principle with the fee adjusted at a low level seems quite justifiable then on the grounds of the greatest good to the greatest number. HOW MUCH MONEY IS A BOARD OF EDUCATION JUSTI¬ FIED IN SPENDING ON ADULT EDUCATION f — AND WHAT TYPES OF WORK MAY A BOARD OF EDUCA¬ TION JUSTIFIABLY UNDERTAKES— ABSTRACT GEORGE E. SMITH, DEPUTY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BUFFALO, N. Y. The topic suggests a desire on the part of the proponents of adult educa¬ tion to formulate a program of adult education, determine its cost, and ‘‘sell’ the proposition to boards of education and incidentally to the public at large. Wise business, wffien it contemplates expenditure for any purpose from 290 National Education Association thread and needles to a college education, decides on relative values, costs, and its ability to pay. It puts these three questions : 1. Do I need this, or do I need something else more? 2. Is it worth what it costs? 3. Have I the money to pay for it? If we, as advocates of adult education, can induce boards of education and communities to apply these business standards to our program and help them to make a decision in accordance with the facts, we shall have done all that we can do. The final decision, of course, is out of our hands. As to what types of work shall be offered, it is not fundamentally a choice between the cultural subjects, the three R’s, immigrant education, vocation or trade education, and home-making, but rather a decision as to what sub¬ jects pursued in leisure time develop the individual man or woman into a healthier, wiser, abler, thriftier, happier, and consequently better citizen. This paper has already suggested the need of a popular campaign of edu¬ cation to establish basic values. It will continue to stress this necessity. If such a campaign of education has been undertaken in any general and popu¬ lar way, we have seen no evidence of its results. True, surveys have been made and much printer’s ink has been used to promote the cause, but our publicity has been too technical, too specialized, too “highbrow,” if you please, to have reached the popular mind. What communities or boards of education may do or may not do to pro¬ mote adult education has been left too long to uninformed, personal, or popular opinion. Too often boards of education, faced with the necessity of reducing their budget, decide to save on adult education and then deter¬ mine the program to be carried on with the reduced appropriation. Per¬ force since even executives have personal opinions, the board too often makes its decision without any fundamental facts in its possession, with no back¬ ground, without any adequate appreciation of what adult education really means, or how important it is. Too often this action is the expression of the individual and collective opinions of board members when faced by apparent necessity. Now how about public opinion? Will this assure a liberal and adequate program of popular adult education? Can “vox populi” of itself be de¬ pended upon to create or sustain such a program. Let a concrete illustra¬ tion give background. In 1910 the budget for night schools in a northern city was $47,000 wfith 4000 adults and 3000 children enroled. The sub¬ jects taught were the three R’s, socalled English for immigrants, typing, shorthand, bookkeeping, academic subjects, comparable to those given in the day high school of the time, technical subjects, and a few classes in sewing, millinery, and cooking. At this time occurred a new administration and organization with definite plans and objectives. There followed a period of development covering eighteen years. In 1928 $324,000 were spent in sal¬ aries alone and over 30,000 men and women of all classes were enroled. The actual attendance averaged approximately 18,000. Over 300 units of study were available under the rule that a class could be organized in any Department of Adult Education 291 worthwhile subject at the request of not less than fifteen persons. The only cost to the pupil was a most nominal, returnable deposit fee required as evidence of good faith. This development was founded on principles such as we approve today. But all public appeal was to personal interest. The slogans used at the time reveal this. Here are a few: Make your spare time pay dividends. Learn while you earn. ~ You are never too old to learn. Be a mechanic — not a machine hand. Be better dressed for less money. To be more — know more. These slogans and many others were simply appeals to selfinterest. So far as the popular mind was concerned, they met with approval, but with no general realization that growth of the individual citizen improves the average body of citizenry. The same may be said of the results: Immigrants were adjusted, illi¬ teracy reduced, culture and art promoted, health conserved, young men and women were safeguarded from the dangers of the street, the trades were protected from the evils of specialization, thousands of homes made happier. But why go on? It is doubtful if one-tenth of the pupils who profited by this system look upon the opportunity for selfimprovement as anything other than a special privilege. For the privilege was withdrawn and without any general public protest. After nearly twenty years of successful operation of the program of adult education, this was what happened — something which might happen in any great city — a new charter was adopted. A representative govern¬ ment was superseded by a government by commission. Lower taxes were demanded. The board of education had to share in the necessary retrench¬ ment. Adult education being without organized support or educational standing was naturally the first victim. There was plenty of public opinion for adult education, but it was not organized on principle. There was an abundance of support for this type of subject or that. There was plenty of sentiment, but sentiment and selfinterest are not arguments. There was no foundation fact or generally accepted principle upon which all could stand together to support the whole structure. Had there been a body of incontestable argument backed up by the definite results which were ap¬ parent, the program of adult education would have been saved from dis¬ aster. This completes our argument and brings us back to our point of begin¬ ning, namely: that uninformed public or individual opinion is a foundation of sand upon which to build, a reed upon which to lean. Uninformed, irrational standards of measurements to determine whether or not a subject shall be included in the curriculum of an adult education program are worse than none at all. How trival ! How cruel to rule that a plumber may have a trade improvement class, but that the inexperienced 292 National Education Association salesman shall have his class closed. Is the one less a vocation than the other ? Shall we give a man or woman instruction in astronomy or philosophy, but refuse the woman cooking, or the man public speaking or journalism? How long shall we be without uniform standards of evaluation? Again the writer makes appeal for a movement to establish bases of evaluation and to popularize such bases. A city that spends $12,000,000 to educate children spends $150,000 for adult education. Does this body believe that any such ratio would exist if there were any general consciousness of relative values and total values? The same city operates one group of subjects in toto and eliminates another group infinitely more important to the purposes of adult education — opin¬ ion, prejudice, tradition, anything but principle determines the choice. Popular adult education at public expense is a great and comparatively new issue, or why this thesis ? When and how have all great issues become public policies? For example: Why are teachers better paid? Why are women and children emancipated? Why are we “dry” and what may make us “wet”? Why has Labor been triumphant in England and made Ramsey MacDonald Premier ? There is but one answer to these and scores of similar questions, namely, general information, popular education, propaganda, if you please. If we are not mistaken, influences are at work to cut down rather than to increase appropriations for education. If we expect to keep what we have, to say nothing of getting more, we must use the same means to promote the cause as are now being used against it. False propaganda made Italy anarchistic. We have no educational Mussolini, but we can let the truth be known as to what adult education can do — is doing, to make American a better place in which to live. At the risk of “taking coals to Newcastle,” I shall outline some of the points that I believe must be stressed in such a campaign as I suggest. 1. Men and women can learn. We believed it, Thorndike proved it. 2. Proper outlet for leisure time has become a national problem. Popular exten¬ sion education, free adult education provides part of the answer. 3. The average citizen uses a meager five percent of his native ability of hand and mind. It is time that the latent ninety-five percent were developed. 4. When a tree stops growing it is ripe and ready for the ax — trees and men are alike in this respect. But a man can be kept growing and should be. 5. Adult education will make the individual produce more while he lives and keep him living longer — a wise economy these days. 6. New and wider interests, new skills, new contacts are vital to pleasure and growth. Adult education provides these and thereby adds another reason for being included in the list of community welfare agencies. 7. Much of the sadness in life comes through poor adjustment of the individual. It is the business of adult education to make better adjustments. 8. Adult education, particularly “home making,” promotes thrift, makes happier families. The home is the unit of our civic and national life. It should be en¬ couraged. Department of Adult Education 293 9. It kindles ambition and nourishes the flame, until it may finally fire the soul. 10. Adult education through vocational guidance and training safeguards labor from the evils of commercial production. 11. All the time, through its many differentiated features, adult education is arous¬ ing that spirit which our own Mr. Grace has expressed as “civic consciousness.” 12. A well-balanced program of adult education can be defended on precisely the same grounds as those we use to defend the education of children. 13. Education of adults adds comparatively little to the budget because the plant and equipment are at hand calling for extended use and competent instructors can be employed at lower proportionate rates. What should a board of education spend for adult education? Some may construe the question to imply that the pupils should pay the cost through tuition charges or fees. When we take the ground, that adult education should be selfsupporting, our whole contention fails. If we can defend adult education as an institution contributing to community, state, and national welfare, it should be supported at public expense. If, on the other hand, adult education is simply an organization to promote the personal interests of those able to pay for it, let us put it in the same category with the private commercial schools. You say a larger deposit fee will stabilize attendance. Even so, isn’t it doubtful policy to force attendance simply to get your money back? Such a motive is not in harmony with the altruistic objectives that we use to defend the education of children or those which we advance for the education of adults. PUBLICITY FOR COMMUNITY SERVICE— ABSTRACT C. J. LUNAK, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CHICAGO, ILL. Just as advertising pays in business, so advertising, not necessarily news¬ paper advertising, pays in bringing the value and advantages of community centers and service to the attention of the residents of a community and locality. Such publicity may be enumerated as follows: (1) Newspaper advertising, both English and foreign. (2) Posters exhibited in stores. (3) Posters exhibited in shops and factories. (4) Bulletins in front of school buildings. (5) Circulars. (6) Schools. (7) The invitation of a well-lighted school. (8) Friendly recommendation and invitation. (9) The personality of the instructors. (10) Radio publicity. Most school organizations have been reluctant to use the medium of the daily English press for spreading publicity about their offerings. We have tried this means year after year for two of our schools, but there is no accurate way of determining how many attendants of community centers attend because their attention was called to them through the medium of the newspapers. It is my belief that there is no better way to interest 294 National Education Association the adult in community centers and evening school than through the display of announcements carried daily for a longer period of time. These announce¬ ments, coupled with short interesting articles with pictures showing the various activities conducted in the centers carried in the reading columns should fill the centers and the schools. One must not forget the foreign press, which boasts in our city of a million readers. The editors of these papers usually welcome interesting articles about the centers and evening schools. Especially is this true if the advantages of learning English and civil gov¬ ernment are afforded their people. A center loses a most promising effort for publicity by not taking advantage of stressing the cultural and historical background of the various national groups which are in attendance at the centers, and making much of these in articles for the foreign press which* enthusiastically welcomes these. Any system of community centers and adult schools which spend $675,000 annually, in order to bring the benefits of these organizations to the people it hopes to reach should spend part of this sum for advertising. As it is, much advertising is done through hand bills distributed to each child in the regular day sessions, by means of posters displayed in store windows, settlement houses, churches, shops, and factories. In Chicago, we print and distribute 500,000 hand bills. These go to the school children, to be taken home. We print and distribute 10,000 large cardboard placards which are displayed in shops and factories. We print and distribute 15,000 bristol board placards for store windows. We print 50,000 circulars of information, and 10,000 foreign language circulars. It is somewhat difficult to secure permission of storekeepers for the card dis¬ play. The poster is often in the "way of the regular window display, and if this is changed, often the poster is on display but a short time. In every community there are certain social agencies and organized in¬ dividual groups who are interested in and deal with the racial groups in the community. These form a splendid aid in giving publicity that becomes a personal urge. Groups such as the Immigration Councils and Committees of the D. A. R. and Colonial Dames, Americanization committees of various organizations, do effective work in personal appeal to groups in the com¬ munity. The Association of Commerce furnishes us with a list of its members for circularizing for the evening schools. This list is furnished to no one else. Posters displayed on bulletin boards in front of centers are effective as long as they remain posted, but in those communities which most need this publicity, the posters have a short existence. Nothing attracts the attention of a locality so much as a lighted school building. This is partly due to the fact that it is unusual and also because of tradition, which indicated that some sort of school entertainment was being held when a school is lighted in the evening. Many come through curiosity and remain through interest. A number of industries and industrial establishments which have no social welfare within their own organization are urging their employees to Department of Adult Education 295 attend community center and evening school, not only for the social value, but because of the instructional and cultural value that they may secure. A well conducted community center and evening school, which meets the demands, interests, and needs of a community, are their own advertise¬ ments, and their members are walking delegates and business agents who spread invitations for attendance wherever they go. While the school and center may be well conducted, it is after all the interesting personality of the instructor which keeps the class from dis¬ integrating. Often twTo classes teaching the same subjects, catering to the same needs and interests, made up of practically the same personnel, will show an astonishing variance in membership. One will slowly disinte¬ grate and the other will continue to the end of the term with its initial membership. There can be no doubt that this is due to the personality of the teacher, wffiich includes his appeal to the immediate interests of the students and his quality of teaching. With all this publicity, one would suppose that everyone in the city would knowT all about evening school, adult classes and community cen¬ ters, but it is surprising how many people do not know that they exist, and how few, outside of the students and teachers, know of the work the schools and centers are doing. ORGANIZATION AND ATTENDANCE— ABSTRACT S. R. ELSON, STATE DIRECTOR OF ADULT IMMIGRANT EDUCATION, OMAHA, NEBR. If you are a teacher or a director of teachers of adults you have the biggest teaching job in the world — provided you uncover the latent pos¬ sibilities of your clients with inspiration for maximum results. Steps in organization — The first move should be to secure the complete cooperation of the superintendent of schools with the understanding that he is to be ex officio at the head of the local work in conformity with state requirements, and to name his preference as to the teachers who should be appointed. Through him enlist the support of the board of education. The next move is to put the proposition over to the public. Publicity — Clubs of men and women should be enlisted with special committees appointed and held responsible by their organization for co¬ operation with the public schools. Churches of all denominations should be appealed to for cooperation. Racial leaders who are already American¬ ized can aid in arousing interest. Newspapers should be diplomatically enlisted. One of the most important tasks in our state with a limited appropria¬ tion is to establish a working relation with local boards of education, the state furnishing general direction and supervision of the work, as to teacher qualification and salary basis, courses of study, textbooks, and as¬ sistance as to time and place of meeting. One of the difficulties confronting the organizer of adult schools is 296 National Education Association to know where to work and to locate the scholars that are to go to school. Our state superintendent authorized a questionnaire in the school census blank requiring the name and address of every adult who cannot read or write English. This gave us just what we wanted. We know where the work is most needed. We have the names and addresses of the people we want to reach. We have a cooperative arrangement with the federal Naturalization Ex¬ aminer and Courts that in every community where we have established a school, a school credential will be required of candidates for American citizenship. This is noticeably raising the standard of qualification of ap¬ plicants. We also conduct a summer school course of teacher training in adult education in the state university, giving the regular university credits. Attendance — The key to keeping up the attendance may be expressed in one word — interest. Methods for arousing and maintaining interest are almost infinite and depend upon one factor, the teacher. There is apt to be a feeling of antagonism on the part of the foreign element unless approached diplomatically and wisely. The first suggestion is to anticipate the spirit of antagonism by recognizing the valuable contributions these foreign peoples bring to us. This will please them and gain their con¬ fidence. The imperative need of learning the language of their adopted country should be emphasized. They should be reminded of the handicap they are under without a knowledge of English in almost every contact they make in life, and shown that it is impossible for them to get an even break either in the business or social world without this knowledge. This ex¬ planation will remove much of the indifference and prejudice that is often a barrier to successful class work. Another method of winning the confidence and cooperation of foreign people is to recommend and urge them to keep their children familiar with the mother tongue. Admit that their language is a good language, with much that is rich in the literature of the world, and which is avail¬ able only to those who know the language. Show them that if their children go to college they will have that much of an advantage over the one-language American child who must spend time and money to learn what the child of foreign parentage knows from birth. Still another way of securing and holding attendance is to know the characteristics and background of the various groups and races. We must show that we are interested in them and they will be gratefully interested in us, a basic preliminary for organization and a promising gesture for maintaining attendance. In organizing the field and securing a steady attendance no fixed meth¬ ods or set rules for teacher or organizer will apply, but adaptability and flexibility to fit the environment in the non-compulsory branch of Ameri- ican education wisely exercised by able and conscientious servants of hu¬ manity will win victory in our war against illiteracy and ignorance. Department of Adult Education 297 CONVINCING THE PUBLIC— ABSTRACT WILLIE LAWSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF COUNTY SCHOOLS, BLYTHEVILLE, ARK. The public is that group of people whom we must have to believe in the progress to be attained from teaching the adult. This group may be made up of the adults who will teach ; the adults who will be taught ; and the adults who will pay the bills. We will consider the last two groups. The adult to be taught — First, the illiterate, the man whose story has been emblazoned upon the hearts of a nation by that revered crusader, Cora Wilson Stewart, the man whom we yearn to start upon his journey to light — short to many who have gone farther — but so long to him and so painstakingly made; then, the man who has some education, but would strive for more; next, the man who has knowledge, but would fain know how to use it; too, the man who can use his tools, but who wants to know why he does it; and last, the man with the general education who would specialize — all of these and more we would assist, but first they must be convinced. The adult zvho pays the bills — The banker, who knows full well that an educated people enlarges his deposits and makes surer his assets ; the merchant, who admits that education improves the quality of his trade as well as increases the quantity; the doctor who realizes that his death rate decreases as education and training increase — all must be convinced that an adult can be educated. The first step in convincing the paying public is a scientific survey of the locality, city, county, or state which is to be organized and adminis¬ tered. I use the word scientific because the number of illiterates in the place and a group of human interest stories are not sufficient. There must be definite information as to the amount of education possessed by parents of school children, the correlation between the wage-earning power of these and their education, between their standards of living and their education, between their cost to the state in crime and their education, between the percent of money which the bank uses belonging to these and to the educated man, between the buying propensities of the one with the other; there must be figures to show that average daily attendance in day school is cut down by the lack of interest in school by the unedu¬ cated patrons. Second, probably included in the survey, but too important to be men¬ tioned incidentally as a part of it — a definite program of finance. What will it cost to institute a program of adult education? How will it be apportioned between state, county, and locality? How will it be divided as to administration, salaries of teachers, and materials of instruction? In what ways will it pay dividends? Third, and one that will be neglected in the program of adult educa¬ tion unless the necessitv of it is understood by the teachers — a svstem of 298 National Education Association records and reports. From this, accurate and dependable information may be drawn, information to furnish the most convincing argument pos¬ sible. “It has been worthwhile in this place as shown by their reports.” “It has been valuable in this community heretofore. Last year, for in¬ stance, we enroled so many, etc.” Work done and recorded is history; work done and unrecorded becomes a fairy story. Not fourth and in addition to, but as a part of the other three, there must be the human interest stories. Surveys, financial programs, records, take on life when they are backed by the need of a human being. Arkan¬ sas’ legislative appropriation was saved one year by the story which a representative told of his own struggles for an education after he was grown. Such stories as a South Carolina mill-worker told at an il¬ literacy conference some years ago are worth retelling. I know a boy who has finished high school and who is being assisted through an adult education program to become a commercial artist. I live across the street from a man who is now in charge of the interests of two branches of a large mill corporation. Within six months he will become attorney for all of the southern interests of the corporation, and his law course has come as one type of an adult education program. Our public demands facts. It will be convinced by surveys, programs of finance, complete records, provided it is convinced at the same time that there are actually human beings who are reaching out after education, that they can be taught, and that they will be taught. ORGANIZING A RURAL COMMUNITY SCHOOL BASED ON NINE YEA RSJ EXPERIENCE IN BUNCOMBE COUNTY , NORTH CAROLINA— ABSTRACT MAUD WORLEY, WHOLE-TIME WORKER, COMMUNITY SCHOOLS, BUNCOMBE COUNTY, N. C. The careful organization of a rural community school forms the larger part of the attack on the specific illiteracy problem. The most helpful activities in the organization of the schools are: Making a survey of the literate and illiterate groups; securing the interest and cooperation of the county superintendent, of local school officials, of representative organiza¬ tions, and of interested, influential individuals, in making a census, and in conducting a Write-Your-Name campaign. The place of meeting may be a schoolbuilding, a church, rooms over a store, a railroad car — any available place. Secure the consent of the right official or person for the building used. Give definite directions to janitor as to heat, light, and place of meeting. Adequate equipment should be carefully collected and taken early to place of meeting, such as entrance blanks, textbooks, ruled paper, and sharpened pencils. Careful thought should be given to the selecting and training of teach¬ ers. The teacher should have understanding sympathy, vivid personality, faith in the cause, a sense of humor, common sense, cooperative ability, Department of Adult Education 299 enthusiasm, teaching skill, leadership, and knowledge of adult psychology. The teachers may be trained in institutes, summer schools, group meetings, by observation and by practise teaching. To save the pupils, who naturally dread the first evening, from em- barassment, there is usually no set program. As the pupils come in, they are given their choice of writing a letter to a friend, of writing name, address, and copying sentences, or of learning to write their names. After filling out the entrance blanks, or giving the information needed for fill¬ ing them out, all groups come together and join in saying or learning the night-school poem, “It Couldn’t Be Done,” the Twenty-Third Psalm, praying the Lord’s Prayer, and singing the official night-school song “Higher Ground.” Only then do the teachers begin to feel that the attack on the illiteracy problem in a rural community is safely launched. THE PARENT-TEACHER ASSOCIATION AS A MEDIUM OF ADULT EDUCATION IN THE RURAL COMMUNITY- ABSTRACT ETTA J. WILSON, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY, DELAWARE CITIZENS ASSOCIATION, WILMINGTON, DEL. I have been asked to speak to you on this subject today because it has been possible in Delaware to find a way to coordinate very closely the activity of the Parent-Teacher Association and the Department of Adult Education. When the State Bureau of Adult Education was created it first surveyed the field and recognized at once, as an agency with similar, although less intensively developed, working ideals, the Parent-Teacher Association which already had in operation 324 local associations, holding meetings in the schools. Conferences followed. These revealed a tre¬ mendous amount of work in the building up of new attitudes and the breaking down of old inhibitions, already accomplished. A survey made by volunteer committees in these local associations the year before had touched ten percent of the homes in rural Delaware. The returns afforded a fresh and firsthand picture of the people with whom the new bureau would work. There had been a questionnaire on economic conditions; one on health and sanitation in the home and in the community; one on the school building; one on the home, and another on social relation¬ ships. The facts when compiled revealed a people mainly engaged in agricul¬ ture or occupations closely .associated with it; prosperous as farming com¬ munities go but showing in their homes a startling lack of modern con¬ veniences. In a large portion of the state the small farm, which engaged at certain seasons the activity of the entire family, prevailed. In many, many homes there was very little leisure. The groups when they did possess it were unable, for lack of standards and experience, to use it most wisely or derive pleasure from cultural things. 300 National Education Association Only fifty percent of the homes, according to the questionnaires, re¬ ceived daily newspapers; only eighteen percent had telephones; only forty- eight percent pretended to provide any books for their children. Twenty- six percent of the white families and thirty-two percent of the colored did not permit their children to entertain their friends in their homes. Only 1485 individuals reported on the subject of the movies. Of these seventy percent did not have access even to the pictures. A program committee appointed by the state parent-teacher association had been supplying leaders in the local associations with discussion ma¬ terial to be presented in a twenty-minute period, for the last four years. These had presented for the consideration of the group such topics as personal and community health; the wise use of leisure time; citizenship projects; modern tendencies in education; and school buildings that are up to standard. At the close of the period leaflets presenting pictorially the chief points of emphasis on the discussion had been distributed to all who attended the meetings. Leaders in the state parent-teacher movement received with enthusiasm the announcement that the department of adult education would be prepared to take up the work at the point at which the parent- teacher association must leave it, and provide for more intensive instruc¬ tion. The volunteer group immediately offered its services to the state bureau of adult education. As a result of subsequent conferences the parent- teacher association became responsible for developing interest in evening classes for adults. There was a conference at the state capital to which representatives of all civic and patriotic organizations were invited. The literacy rating of the state was cited and every man and woman urged, by an appeal to his patriotism, to contribute to the development of a more intelligent citizenship. One association provided a car for a field worker which could not at that time be included in the budget. Another offered prizes to pupils in the night schools. The state association con¬ tributed two posters which were printed in four colors and displayed by local publicity chairmen in their school district. Descriptions of the Thorn¬ dike tests, with their revolutionizing ideas concerning the ability of older folk to learn, were forwarded to the presidents of local parent-teacher associations and made the subject of discussion in all meetings. Concrete stories of individual progress of men and women far advanced in life and of educational activities for adults in other states and countries were in¬ cluded in the same packets. These, too, were retold in the meetings. As¬ sociation members were urged to enrol in the 4Schools, not for their per¬ sonal profit alone but also to induce others who might need it more to be willing to do so. Associations were urged to honor men and women who made the most of the opportunity to help themselves. In the spring of the same year a man from each county who had done outstandingly good work in the first series of night schools was taken to Washington in recognition of the value of his effort to the state in its Department of Adult Education 301 task of raising the intellectual level of the country’s citizenship. These men, it may be interesting to note, were received by President Coolidge and congratulated upon the courage which had inspired them to make a new start late in life. As a result, the third series of night schools held in rural Delaware last winter were supported by a public sentiment untinged by a feeling of patronage for those who enroled in them. “Every live thing grows,” had become a much more general conception. “The world is changing so rapidly that even those most favored in their educational experiences need assistance in keeping up.” So completely had the sentiment changed from that of the first year when the schools were regarded as something for the unfortunate that the enrolment in many instances included not the least, but the most capable, people in the community. To summarize: The parent-teacher association touches all types of people in the state’s life. It reaches in a way particularly its own, the part of the population, numerically greatest, which must be inspired with a desire to lift itself before democracy can triumph. Dealing with a group in which reading habits are reduced to a minimum, the rural asso- • ciation becomes an agency for carrying information, for helping build up standards, for kindling a desire and a hope for a richer, fuller life as well as for better material things which cannot be neglected. The parent-teacher association can undoubtedly make a tremendous contribution in preparing the way for the more intensive work of the state bureau of adult education. Delaware’s experience convinces us that there is opportunity for an excep¬ tionally fine brand of team work between the volunteer and the state group. ADULT EDUCATION AS A MEANS OF VITALIZING AND ENRICHING AMERICAN RURAL LIFE— ABSTRACT OLIVE D. CAMPBELL, DIRECTOR, JOHN C. CAMPBELL FOLK SCHOOL, BRASSTOWN, N. C. The John C. Campbell Folk School was located just three and one-half years ago in response to an urgent invitation from the citizens of Brasstown, and the promise of land, labor, and lumber if we could come. “We do not know what is the matter with the schools,” said the spokesman, who came to see us, “but something is wrong. Our young people are leaving. They do not want to stay here when they get through school. We want a school to help the country.” Probably no one knew exactly what a folk school was; certainly we did not know just how it would work out, but we trusted one another and started. I do not know how familiar you are with our mountain country. Poverty is our great problem ; not alone the poverty which is spelled in an average annual income of under $100, but poverty in social and cultural resources. From the beginning the John C. Campbell Folk School took its place as far as possible as a normal home in the community. We were, and are, a farm family which faces in common with our neighbors the problems of depleted 302 National Education Association soil, inadequate equipment, distance from market, etc. As soon as our farm¬ house was in usable condition and our farmer had arrived, we centered a great share of our energies on the farm, for we look to that before many years as at least a partial means of support. It also serves as a demonstration farm. But however great our achievements in soil-building, our gains in pure¬ bred chickens, hogs, and dairy cattle, we could not hope for adequate returns until we could ship steadily a high grade product in large quantities. Our own success was bound up with that of our neighbors, or in other words, the hope for us all lay in cooperative effort. It was in the first three months of our existence, while a large group was working daily on the farmhouse, that the organization of a credit union, or a savings and loan association as we call it in North Carolina, was talked through and decided. We began with only twenty-eight senior and four junior members and a share capital of $155, but business grew steadily. Today we have over eighty members and deposits and shares of over $1700. This accumulation of our own sav¬ ings lent out to members for productive enterprises in our midst, turning over and over, has helped us individually and collectively to get started, as well as taught us the value of common action. We could not get along without it. A farmers’ association and mill followed next, then a cooperative hatchery and a cooperative creamery. What these organizations, if successful as they promise to be, will mean to us economically, I would not dare say. What I do wish to point out is that they not only involve adult education of a most deep-reaching kind, but they are in themselves most effective means of adult education, for they stretch our minds, widen our horizons, and stir us to new efforts along many lines. You will observe that our farm program merges naturally into community activities, but cooperatives are not the only community activities. We have weekly Saturday night meetings a good part of the year. They are largely social in character with singing, games, and sometimes an address or pre¬ pared program. They are attended by old and young. The women have an active club which meets regularly once a month at the home of its members, and which takes care of community celebrations, Christmas, old people’s dinner, and exhibit at the county fair. The men, too, have organized and are adding their active support of community progress. And now for our third side, the school proper which, held back by lack of equipment, has nevertheless been developing slowly but steadily along with the other activities. If you had come to see us this past wdnter, you would have found a little group of teachers and students housed in a large, un¬ finished frame building, without water or heat, except that from the big fireplace. Under physical difficulties which would have dampened any formal enterprise, we lived and studied and played together from De¬ cember first to March first. And we parted with real regret. Department of Adult Education 303 The students ranged in age from sixteen to thirty-three. (We very much prefer not to take them under seventeen, but do take an occasional local boy or girl of sixteen.) In grades they ranged from four to ten. Most of them worked their way through, and all were busy before nine in the morning and after three in the afternoon, with chores of farm and home. The rest of the morning was taken up with opening exercises, and a generally cultural program. The afternoon was given over to practical work. Gym¬ nastics we had four times a week, twice at night w’hen the neighbors could come and join in. Two nights a week we spent in reading along any line suggested by the talks, and it was very surprising to me what a real start was made in books, for reading is hard work for many of us. As far as possible we related everything to the life and experiences of the students. Arithmetic problems had to do with measuring lumber or with cooking recipes. The four cooperatives furnished endless material for prob¬ lems, and at the same time opportunity for explaining the ideals and ad¬ vantages of cooperation. We surveyed for our own water system, and for piping down water for the parents of one of the boys. The farm was our agricultural laboratory, and the boys became immensely interested in it. Such real interest as there was in judging the cattle, then following up the findings with the Babcock tester at the creamery! History and geography are formal names for the series of talks given under those titles. Indian lore which started in a discussion of arrowheads, axes, and other relics, picked or ploughed up in our fields — once Cherokee Indian land — wandered to other Indians and Stone Age people in this and ad¬ jacent lands; then across the water into Assyria and Egypt; and back again to America to see what the white settlers brought with them, and what the Indians contributed to their culture. Geography, which started with great trade routes and the influence of geography on the settlement and development of America, wandered off into reasons for climate, the relation of earth to sun, and new’ discoveries about the starry spaces beyond. We learned, out under the sky, some of the more famous constellations. The English ballad and folksong, still lingering in this section, were put in their historical setting and related to other folksongs of other countries. We sang them wdth enthusiasm. Singing games wre played every Friday night. The variety of the life w~as, I think, one of its greatest attractions. The students not accustomed to sitting for long periods or to concentrating their minds were not taxed too long in any one direction. They moved from lecture to arithmetic or writing; from arithmetic or writing perhaps to gymnastics, or to agriculture which dealt in discussion fashion wflth things familiar. The practical wmrk of the afternoon exercised their energies in new ways. They tramped the fields with the surveying compass and tripod ; they bent over the drawing board, or hammered ironwork on the anvil. The girls 304 National Education Association found endless variety and interest in their weaving and sewing, and they sang as they worked. Life was very simple, but time very full. There was little chance to be lonely or restless. And so the three months slipped away. This coming winter we plan a four months course which, we hope, will be more satisfactory because we shall have equipment, a furnished building, running water, and a shop. We see no reason yet, however, for changing the general plan. The aim of our teaching will continue to be the leaching of heart and mind, rather than primarily to furnish information. We shall give no examinations or credits, for we believe the most important thing is to set the mind in motion, to fire the imagination, stir the purpose. Once the mind is stirred, once the purpose fixed, the student will of himself go on to secure the information he feels he needs for his life work and de¬ velopment. He will go on growing and he will sing behind the plough. PROBLEMS FOR STUDY AND RESEARCH IN ADULT RURAL EDUCATION— 1929-1930— ABSTRACT MARGUERITE H. BURNETT, DIRECTOR ADULT EDUCATION STATE OF DELAWARE To a group of people committed to the philosophy and methods of adult education it must be strangely disconcerting to have any one person pre¬ sume to formulate or even to suggest problems for study and research. When Mr. Castle asked us to do violence to your traditions in this way, he must have thought of it as a necessary and desirable method of stimulating thinking on a hot July afternoon. Before presenting the problems that I have prepared to submit to you, I wish to emphasize certain factors that I believe should be taken into con¬ sideration in any discussion of study and research in the field of rural adult education by the Department of Adult Education of the National Educa¬ tion Association at this time. First : Most of the people here today have been actively engaged in vari¬ ous forms of publicly supported academic rural education for the past decade. They are in a position to know what problems require study and research in this particular field and to provide material to assist in the making of these studies. They represent, however, only one of the forces contributing to rural adult education at this time. They include few, if any, representatives of agricultural and home economic extension service whose increased federal ap¬ propriations are making a rapidly expanding and enriched program of adult education for rural American life, state universities having extension activi¬ ties covering a wide range of rural adult interest, The Grange, Parent- Teacher Association, and other voluntary organizations that contribute much to the adult education of rural communities. Second : Several problems in rural adult education are being made sub¬ jects of research and study by the American Association of Adult Educa- Department of Adult Education 305 tion. This association is well staffed and financed for this type of work. It is desirable for this department to follow and to profit by their activities. Before anything is done with any of the questions and suggestions that come out of this meeting, they should be referred to Mr. John D. Nillard, director of rural adult education for the American Association to determine how much has been done on them by that organization. The problems which I bring to you have grown out of my experience and observation in the field of rural adult education during the past four years. Because of this fact they may be peculiar to the conditions under which I work rather than to the situation in general. Since their only purpose is to challenge you to discussion this is not such a grievous fault. Several of them concern matters that lend themselves to survey and study rather than to intensive research. 1. What is the present status of rural adult education in the United States? (This would include a complete survey of any form of purposeful and sustained effort to increase knowledge and appreciation of rural adult populations.) 2. What has been the return on investment in various forms of rural adult education during the past decade as indicated by a study of results accruing from work in this field? 3. What is the most effective method of organizing opportunities for adult education in rural communities? 4. What are the needs and desires of rural communities for adult educa¬ tion ? WHAT ACTIVITIES ARE BEST CONDUCTED IN COMMUNITY CENTERS?— ABSTRACT J. H. MONTGOMERY, DIRECTOR, COOPERATIVE EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF VIRGINIA First, the community center should endeavor to hold to those activities which build up unity, good fellowship, clear thinking, and constructive action. It should also remain as free as possible from those activities which breed discord, class distinction, and unhealthy rivalry. A second principle to be made use of is that the community center seek to meet the needs which are not already cared for. Duplication of effort and conflict with the activities of other organizations should be prevented so far as possible. This principle would require a careful study of the community to discover the needs. That is in fact the first step which should be taken in establishing a community center. We would say that a com¬ munity center should include health, cultural, social, civic, recreational, and economic activities as basic. A matter of first consideration in any community is health. We are coming more and more to realize that sound, healthy bodies are a first 306 National Education Association essential in promoting any worthwhile activities. A study of the proper care and feeding of infants and children along with a study of prevention of disease, diet, proper and necessary exercise, is useful and necessary for any group. When we speak of study we wish it understood that practise is in¬ cluded as essential and it should be practise with success. Learning should take place and will only take place through practise or actual experience. The information given should be tested, practised, and the results evaluated. If demonstrations cannot be carried out at the center, the necessary activities should be undertaken in the home and in the community. Health lectures as well as other lectures by technically trained and well-informed people are helpful just to the extent that the information given is put into practise, tested, and results evaluated. Then this practise should be continued till it is successful and habit-forming. Cultural activities including music, art, drama, literature, and expression are very valuable. Teach good music through the practise of good music — practise in some way by all who participate in the community center. That must be true of art, drama, literature, and expression. The principles of good music can be presented and studied, then the par¬ ticipants should be given the opportunity to go through the learning process by selecting, practising, evaluating, what they think is good music. After a study of the principles of art they can learn by applying the tests to pic¬ tures, paintings, and drawings and those who care to do so should be en¬ couraged to submit work of their own. Time will not permit a presentation of each item included, but the principles are the same. Civic problems are usually the popular ones in a community center. We need to constantly seek for the improvement of civic conditions. What constitutes a good citizen ? Here is a problem that adapts itself to the learn¬ ing process, but we are inclined to have someone lecture or we read a book on the subject and expect that to produce good citizens. That is not the plan for developing a good architect or physician or mechanic. Let the people have direction in, and practise of, good citizenship and discover what it is by their own efforts. Social problems are usually part of the work or activities of social centers. Instead of simply telling people about their social problems they should be led to find and solve — successfully — some of their immediate social prob¬ lems. These discoveries and solutions will lead to the discovery and solution of still other social problems of the community. Some economic problems can well be included in community center activi¬ ties. There is no more perplexing problem than that of public taxation. Everybody wants lower taxes and yet get larger outlay from taxes for all public interests. Why do we tax? What do we do with taxes? What and who should be taxed ? How make the tax rest on all according to ability to pay? How to expend or administer taxes with least overhead cost com¬ mensurate with the largest good ? Instead of waiting for politicians to Department of Adult Education 307 arouse the passions and prejudices of the people over taxes, make an intelli¬ gent study and help the people to learn for themselves this tax problem so they may wisely and intelligently support a just system and efficient administration. Problems of wages, living expenses, insurance, thrift and other economic problems can very well be accepted as among good activities for a com¬ munity center. Recreation should be included in the activities of all community centers. We American people are too much inclined to want a few persons to amuse and entertain us and call that our recreation. We should learn to enjoy recreation of our own creation. Then if people are to tackle and find solu¬ tions for their many other common problems they need to get acquainted with each other and find happy and successful cooperation through playing to¬ gether. Simple, easy games, indoor and outdoor, sufficiently diversified for all to take part in, should help to make the community center a happy and popular place. SUPPORT OF COMMUNITY ACTIVITIES— ABSTRACT KATHERINE DOZIER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PACOLET MANUFACTURING COMPANY, GAINESVILLE, GA. The source of support of community activities varies with the nature of the community and with the activities engaged in. Since my experience along this line has been with an industrial com¬ munity my opinion will naturally be in accord with what we find practical. Our villages are owned by our mill stockholders and many things are possible of accomplishment in our industrial communities because of the vision of our executives and the generous support given our plans. Mills, homes, churches, schools, amusement and recreation halls, health centers, all must be considered and provision made for all these various interests. With sanitary conditions in the mills, modern conveniences in the homes, our interests naturally center in church development, recreation — indoor and outdoor, amusement, health, and education. Let us take each of these in order and see how they are supported and maintained. The policy of the company is always to encourage selfsupport and initia¬ tive in all activities, playing in every instance a fifty-fifty policy. For example the Pacolet Mills Baptists and Methodists wished to build new churches and modern Sunday-school rooms with good equipment. They made the necessary plans for the desired plants and presented the same to our president. He approved and the company put up dollar for dollar every subscription listed by the church members and supplemented the total with even more generous gifts that the desired goal might be reached. The social life of our young people is another example of helping those wffio help themselves and represents the growth of independence and leader- 308 National Education Association ship through proper training and guidance. At first all our community parties were planned by the teachers in the village who served also as com¬ munity leaders. These teachers gradually developed assistants by assigning responsibilities to the young people who were interested in the parties and by actual experience taught them to plan and carry out their own entertain¬ ment. Today the social club plans its own parties, pays for its refreshments, pays its own musicians for its dances, and functions in every way as inde¬ pendently as any similar club would do. The musical activities of New Holland and Pacolet Mills are among the most popular features of our community life. Money is always forthcoming for new instruments, music, and other needs, either by private subscription, or a program given by the musicians, with the knowledge that the company will supplement funds as needed or desired. Our health work begins with training of our girls in “The Little Moth¬ ers’ Club." Our community nurse gives these teen age girls regular lessons 'in home hygiene, home care of the sick, and caring for the baby brother or sister. Prenatal care is given expectant mothers and for the first month after the arrival of the baby the community nurse visits the home daily, weighing and bathing the baby herself for the first two weeks. Preschool roundups are held in the summer. Vaccination, toxin, anti-toxin, typhoid serum at stated intervals are general precautionary measures taken for everybody. Tonsil and dental clinics are held in connection with the physical examina¬ tions and all children having defects attended to if possible before being admitted to school. The health program is carried on throughout the child’s school life. After that time his habits are so fixed that he continues to take reasonable care of his health in maturity. Any underweight or undersized children in school are placed in nutrition classes where the school nurse instructs them in proper diet, exercises, health habits. The physical directors cooperate in seeing that proper exercise is given and the domestic science teacher looks after the diet card, teaching some member of the family, one of the girls in school, the proper preparation of the food needed. Mothers are enlisted by home visits by the nurse and teacher and all work together for the proper development of the child in question. The schools are operated in a similar cooperative way. No written re¬ ports are issued about the child's standing in classes and social responses, but visits to the home at frequent intervals made by the teachers keep the parents informed by direct contact concerning the work and needs of the children. Since the question under discussion as given to me by our chairman was “To What Extent Should Community Activities be Supported and by MT at Agencies?" I think our own policy practised successfully in our industrial villages, namely fifty-fifty as between management and opera¬ tives when such support is needed and individually by either the one or the other as common sense dictates, will apply to any community under any conditions. Department of Adult Education 309 For example, a place of amusement and entertainment being provided and sponsored by the company until the young people were ready to take charge and run it themselves furnishes an illustration of patriarchal pro¬ vision until the children are old enough to plan and shift for themselves which is socially sound and in perfect harmony with family government. This plan has not pauperized society nor will it pauperize any community. Since the good health of a people is just as vital to industry as it is to the family a generous provision made by the company with a liberal support from the family in cooperation and intelligent response for the general good results in a sound economic policy for all concerned. Since a civilized mind contributes to the general welfare, money spent on all education whether of mind, soul, or body, gives rich returns on the investment and secures expansion of the social order with growing develop¬ ment. Therefore, school buildings, recreation centers, churches, Sunday- school buildings, with adequate equipment, do not represent expensive out¬ lay, but a good sound business investment yielding sure dividend. SOME ADMINISTRATIVE ACTIVITIES IN A RURJL COM¬ MUNITY SCHOOL PROGRAM— ABSTRACT MRS. J. M. DAY, WHOLE-TIME WORKER, BUNCOMBE COUNTY COMMUNITY SCHOOLS, ASHEVILLE, N. C. In the administration of rural community schools, experience proves that the less machinery in evidence the better, but this machinery must be carefully planned and operated. A director, whole-time workers, and teachers chosen with the approval of the county superintendent seem to form an adequate staff to carry out a definite, practical, and intensive program. This program will include the securing of funds; use of wise and tactful publicity, delegating duties and responsibilities to whole-time workers, teachers, home-making experts, colored teachers ; securing cooperation of representative, literary organizations and individuals, planning pro¬ grams, choosing textbooks, commencements, recreation, travel projects, scholarships ; keeping adequate records of results ; and checking on the out¬ comes of the rural community school program. Objective checks for the outcome of the work may be found by re¬ viewing the benefits to (1) day schools, (2) preschool child, (3) adult. 1. During the past four years, Asheville has risen to first rank among the city school systems of the state, and Buncombe county has risen from thirty-first place to tenth among the rural systems. The attendance in rural schools has increased eighteen percent. A number of factors have brought about these results, but both county and city officials count the night schools among the appreciable factors. The superintendent of pub¬ lic welfare says, “A parent taught means a child in school.” Health pro¬ grams of the day school are made to function more effectively through 310 National Education Association home cooperation, vaccination, and tonsil operations made easier, more frequent baths and change of clothes, and better lunches made possible through firsthand interest of the mothers. 2. Happier and more normal home environment is provided and a fairer chance for success in life is given the preschool child, through his re¬ ceiving his strongest and most lasting impressions from parents with higher standards of living. Better habits and attitudes will also be formed by children of well-taught parents. 3. In some groups which have been taught, there has been a definite in¬ crease in the following observable human values and interests: (a) There has been a definite and apparent increase in self respect; (b) more intelli¬ gent participation in community affairs; (c) a growing realization of their responsibilities and privileges as citizens; (d) closer family relation¬ ships through ability to write letters to each other; (e) more Bibles and newspapers read; (f) more savings accounts kept; (g) more understand¬ ing patriotism; (h) growing ability to initiate and carry through com¬ munity projects; (i) more enjoyment of moving pictures; (j) cleaner and more attractive homes; (k) development of group leadership; (1) in¬ dividual lives made happier and more efficient. HOW ARE WE " HOLDING ” THE ADULT IMMIGRANT?— ABSTRACT CAROLINE A. WHIPPLE, SUPERVISOR OE ADULT EDUCATION, ALBANY, N. Y. Let us enumerate some of the facts that tend to keep up attendance. Among the most fundamental, we would doubtless agree on the follow¬ ing: A teacher really interested in her students and ready to help them in any way possible; pleasant surroundings and satisfactory accommoda¬ tions such as comfortable seating, good lighting, and easily accessible class¬ rooms; an intelligent and thoughtfully planned system of initial and con¬ tinued registration and grading; lessons so planned and conducted that there is a feeling on the part of the student that something concrete and definite has been accomplished at each session ; an abundance of illustra¬ tive material in the way of maps, charts, objects, pictures, flash cards ; a variety of method and teaching devices; subjectmatter that appeals to the interest of the students and that has practical application for him; well-planned and well-kept notebooks that contain material of practical value such as properly filled out checks, bills, deposit slips, receipts, cor¬ rectly written business letters, telegrams, cables, and summarized informa¬ tion on city ordinances, naturalization, and immigration laws. Other aids to good attendance would include visits to places of interest; the use of visual instruction by means of slides and films; school clubs of various kinds ; a school paper ; music by means of victrola, radio, school Department of Adult Education 311 orchestra; well-planned exhibits, pageants, dramatics, dances, and social receptions; certificates of attendance (to be used with caution) ; a certifi¬ cate of accomplishment of certain definite units; cooperation between nat¬ uralization courts and the schools, whereby proper recognition to school attendance ; suitable closing exercises ; student committees for visiting sick and absent members or writing to them; and “service stations” or infor¬ mation bureaus in school buildings. The subject of attendance is complicated as anything is which depends upon human desires and human limitations. There are certain basic fac¬ tors that tend to make attendance stable; there are opposing factors that just as surely tend to break it down. Yet, with the best of conditions, a certain amount of dropping out of irregular attendants is inevitable, in¬ asmuch as we are dealing with adults who are doing this school work only incidentally. Sometimes, with the best of teachers and the best of technic, the results are disappointing, but these are usually the exception that prove the gen¬ eral rule. Above all, a teacher should know her group. What will prove attractive to one set of students will prove distasteful to another. For instance, some men and women drop out expeditiously if socializing fac¬ tors are introduced, for they resent having the time taken from formal in¬ struction. More studies of attendance should be made and the total registration should be scientifically analyzed with all losses accounted for. It will be found that a certain proportion of these losses will be due to conditions entirely outside the teachers’ province. Some others might have been pre¬ vented. The task, then, for the teacher and supervisor is to concentrate on these and to find a remedy for the conditions producing these unde¬ sirable results. The students, themselves, should be encouraged to suggest remedies, for it is difficult for even the best-intentioned teachers and supervisors to get the point of view of these mature pupils. HOW ARE WE “GETTING” THE ADULT IMMIGRANT?— ABSTRACT AGNES M. BACON, RHODE ISLAND STATE SUPERVISOR OF AMERICANIZATION, STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, PROVIDENCE, R. I. In the promotion of a program by which we hope to engage the atten¬ tion, interest, and cooperation of the adult immigrant in such a manner that these may be capitalized to ensure attendance in the various types of classes offered, we must have in mind certain definite objectives and lines of procedure in our plan of organization. Before any comprehensive workable plan can be formed it is necessary to know the community and its needs. Sources of information are avail¬ able in every community and these should be used to the fullest extent. 312 National Education Association A summary of the data from the United States census, from the state census, and data secured through questionnaires, will furnish the compo¬ sition and characteristics of the immigrant population and of the educa¬ tional, recreational, and other facilities available to them. We must have in mind the groups definitely needing assistance — with special recognition of the needs of foreign-born adults who must acquire a knowledge of English before they can properly make adjustments into American life ; and those who have made some educational progress and who wish to prepare themselves for a more adequate participation in American life. A genuine interest in the provision of educational oppor¬ tunities for all people, regardless of age, must be aroused both with the general public and with those entrusted with the administration of school affairs. We must have the interest and cooperation of school officials before we can presume to enlist the interest of the adult immigrant. We must be prepared to furnish carefully trained teachers who will be interested in the people individually and socially, who will have in mind the highest type of service to be rendered, and who will make “partner¬ ship” their basis of teaching — a teacher who has a love of humanity and appreciates the “human content.” We must further be prepared to offer suitable methods and content. Without abandoning certain idealistic aspirations it is well to keep in view the desirability of enabling the stu¬ dents to cope with the needs of the moment so that they may better adapt themselves to their future work. I should suggest as a working plan to secure the attendance of adult immigrants in various classes that we be prepared to offer: 1. A promise of friendly cooperation and the generous support of the project by the general public and the school officials. 2. Right administration and organization of the work under the direction of carefully trained leaders — supervisors and teachers. 3. A suitable program which will meet the needs and abilities of the students and satisfy their desires. 4. Cooperation with all public or semi-public agencies. 5. Well directed and comprehensive publicity. 6. Adaptable courses for higher education. In the last analysis, the major part of the success depends upon the salesmanship of a teacher whose efforts produce “a satisfied customer” because the teacher is after all the school and to the teacher is accorded the great privilege and the duty of making the schoolroom the Mecca that attracts the Faithful. Department of Adult Education 313 HOW ARE WE “TRAINING” ADULT IMMIGRANTS FOR IN TELLIGEN T Cl T I ZEN SHIP f—ABS TRACT ROBERT C. DEMING, DIRECTOR, DIVISION OF ADULT EDUCATION, STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, HARTFORD, CONN. The subject asks in effect “How are we now training pupils?” and “How should we train such pupils?” Training in logic and philosophy prompts us to proceed from the known to the ideal, from the present to the future. Hence we will take certain unapproved practises and criti¬ cize them briefly. One of the main faults in training for citizenship is its presentation in a “lesson per evening” dose, machine-like, uninspired, and drab fashion. Second, such lessons are often without local or per¬ sonal application, the pupils feeling that a future picture of citizenship is being described to them instead of a future experience. Third, lessons in citizenship are often presented without any historical background or constructive principles. Fourth, such socalled “training” is presented often enough as a civic lesson without regard to either reading, writing, or spelling material. Could anything be more uninspiring? At the last analysis, the teaching of intelligent citizenship depends not on a course of study, not on any civics lessons, but upon the very example, ideals, and character of the teacher himself, and on his pre¬ sentation of all subjects of information to his pupils. Can we teach patriotism by any course of study? My answer is yes, if there is also a teacher who is in himself a fine example of patriotism. Now for the brighter side. This will illustrate not only how we are teaching and training for intelligent citizenship in many places, but how we should do it. Training for citizenship is not a rule of thumb, but a personal matter. It is the business of life, of living together with a feeling of responsibility towards our fellow-members of the community. It should show us how we can live together and best share our activi¬ ties and how we must realize individually that our destiny is in our own hands and that society reacts largely on a spiritual and not a me¬ chanical basis. There must be a broad understanding of American life, not only in the present, but in the past, the principles upon which our nation and democracy were founded, how those principles differed from others ever before expounded, and how we borrowed many from countries which had long fought for them. The pupils should be led to tell of their own country’s fight for freedom, of their own heroes. The formal academic atmosphere of the classroom should give way to fraternal and informal discussion. There should be a study of our monetary, busi¬ ness, and agricultural, and industrial systems; on our standards of living, our health and hygiene; and on our opportunities in many directions. The pupil should feel that, while this country is not perfect and has its problems, it is and will be the greatest experiment in government 314 National Education Association known to mankind and it calls for and demands constant civic con¬ tributions. Everything should have the greatest possible application to everyday life. The ideals, achievements, and complexities of former American periods should be brought down to present problems. There should be frequent visits, if your class is of the proper type, to the libraries, mu¬ seums, fire departments, police stations, and to all civic departments of interest. In the socialization process there may well be spirited class discussion on assigned topics, with progress along ethical as well as political and social lines. Correlate all these subjects with your reading, writing, and spelling, particularly with reference to the student’s daily life. Finally, a course in training for intelligent citizenship should at least not fail to touch vipon the following characteristics of the best Amer¬ ican life: a. Private gain only in harmony with public welfare b. Honest thought and purity in action as necessary for social welfare c. Soundness of family life d. Wholesomeness of spiritual idealism e. The need for justice and neighborliness between individuals f. Need for thoroughness not speed, and of quality instead of quantity. g. The fullest development of the personality h. The danger of race prejudice i. The right of the state over the individual j. Equality in opportunity and before the law SECRETARY’S REPORT First Session, Monday, July 1, 1929 The Department of Adult Education held its Annual Meeting at the Woman’s Club on Peachtree Street. Eighty-one were present at the first session. In the absence of Secretary Marsh, Mr. Deming was appointed secretary pro tern. President Castle announced the requirements for the evening dinner, requested all present to record their names and addresses on the attendance slips, and intro¬ duced Director T. W. Clift, who spoke a few words in greeting. The following committees were appointed: Nominations — W. C. Smith, chairman, New York; Katherine M. Kohler, Min¬ nesota; Mrs. Elizabeth C. Morriss, North Carolina; T. W. Clift, Georgia; R. C. Deming. Connecticut. Resolutions— -A. E. Rejall, New York; Mrs. Agnes M. Bacon, Rhode Island; R. L. McCausland, California. Auditing — Marguerite H. Burnett, Delaware; Dr. E. W. Hill, California; Alonzo Grace, Ohio. Miss Wil Lou Gray, as presiding officer for the session, then introduced Dr. R. E. Tidwell, State Superintendent of Education for Alabama, who summarized the work in adult education being carried on in the south. In the discussion follow¬ ing his talk Dr. Hill of Los Angeles stated that in several communities in southern California there were more adults attending evening secondary schools than minors attending during the day and explained the plan by which these results were secured. Department of Adult Education 315 Following Mrs. Morriss’ paper discussion developed that several of the southern states have well developed programs. South Carolina, Alabama, and Arkansas have several live counties but others lie dormant. Missouri, Virginia, Texas, Georgia, North Carolina, and Kentucky have intensive work in the cities, but not much elsewhere. Louisiana has $100,000 for two years, but with no prospects of anything after that. The question is: “Why the difference of opinion?” Intense enthusiasm of all concerned in some states and counties and lethargy elsewhere. Oklahoma, Tennessee, Mississippi, and Florida report no activity at present. The effect of these things is deep and vital on children and parents, yet nothing is done. Is it political retrenchment? Following Dr. Riley’s talk discussion brought out that no state university exten¬ sion course actually does any teaching through paid instructors, but encourages and strengthens the enrolment and its proper inauguration and organization. Following Miss Templeton’s talk discussion developed that all county and state and city library systems are looking for technical experts to departmentalize the library fields. Reading lists should be suggested by the authorities in the univer¬ sities giving the courses and warning the libraries of the requirements. The uni¬ versity might even have its own lending library. Mr. Zermer was not present. All Southern Dinner Following the banquet and entertainment Monday evening, July 1, a business session of the department was held with thirty members present. It was voted that the three divisions meeting the next day be empowered to elect officers to carry on their work. It was voted to elect a president, executive director, secretary and treasurer for the executive committee. The following members of the committee on bylaws were appointed: Katherine M. Kohler, Minnesota; L. R. Alderman, Washington, D. C. ; Dr. E. W. Hill, Cali¬ fornia; Mrs. Elizabeth Morriss, North Carolina. The Committee on Nominations reported the following nominees: president, L. R. Alderman, Washington, D. C. ; executive director, Mrs. Elizabeth Morriss, North Carolina; secretary, Alonzo Grace, Ohio; treasurer, Agnes Winn, Washington, D. C. The meeting adjourned following a vote of thanks for the entertainment. The Department held a joint conference at 10:15 a. m. Tuesday, July 2, with the council of State Commissioners and Superintendents. After the presentation of papers and discussion, the following resolutions were read and adopted to be submitted to the General Resolutions Committee of the National Education Asso¬ ciation: Whereas, rapidly changing civic, social, and industrial environments make educa¬ tion for continuous adjustment of the individual essential to successful living in the present age, and Whereas, the policies underlying free public service are based upon the principle of equitable distribution, and Whereas, adult education by means of public school extension, university exten¬ sion, the library, and library extension offer a proper means of equalizing educa¬ tional opportunities and providing a desirable continuing education of our masses. Be It Resolved that the National Council of State Superintendents and Commis¬ sioners of Education and the Department of Adult Education, in joint session assembled, be recorded as favoring and urging the following development in the general field of adult education: 316 National Education Association a. The establishment by our federal census authorities of a functioning literacy of approximately fourth grade schooling, as the minimum standard for determining illiteracy. b. The provision, by the federal bureaus of education and immigration, of necessary service to secure and forward to state educational authorities informa¬ tion regarding names, nationalities, age, sex, destination of all immigrant arrivals, to be forwarded by them to the appropriate local public school officials. c. The provision, by the federal Bureau of Naturalization of service in forward¬ ing to appropriate state educational authorities the name, age, sex, and address of all declarants to be forwarded by them to the appropriate local public school officials. d. The creation in all state departments of education of a division of adult educa¬ tion and the appointment of an efficient head to direct the development of a state¬ wide program of adult education. e. The enactment of legislation making adult education an integral part of the public school program of each state and the organization and maintenance of such classes, mandatory upon local board of school directors, upon the written applica¬ tion of twenty or more residents above compulsory school age, and providing adequate financial support therefor. f. The coordination of adult activities within each state to provide cultural refinement, vocational training, and systematic schooling for all who desire to improve themselves by further study. g. We urge upon the census authorities the adoption of a schedule in the 1930 census that will reveal the number of persons fourteen years of age and over, who have not attained the reading ability of a fourth-grade level. h. We urge upon those responsible for the census to enlist the teaching force throughout the country as much as possible in the capacity of enumerators for said purpose. i. We further urge that Congress make direct, unconditional appropriation to the several states for the specific purpose of the removal of illiteracy in the several states, and that this appropriation be distributed on the basis of the number of illit¬ erates in each of these several states. Second Session, Tuesday, July 2, 1929 It was decided to hold all the sections together in a general assembly, owing to the small attendance of about fifty, and to hold the business meeting scheduled for the following day immediately following the session. At this point one of the State Commissioners present arose and announced that President Lamkin had announced to the general assembly of the National Education Association that the joint conference of the morning had been postponed to the present time and place, and that eight or nine State Commissioners were present. The Executive Committee of the Department then held a conference in an adjoining room with the Commissioners which the departmental program provided. Following the program the business session scheduled for the next day was held under the new President, L. R. Alderman. Miss Willie Lawson, Blytheville, Ar¬ kansas, was appointed secretary pro tern in Mr. Deming’s place. The Department of Business Education The department of business education was created in response to a petition read at the meeting at Saratoga Springs, N. Y,, July 12, 1892, from the Business Educators' Association, re¬ questing admission as a department of the National Education Association. See Proceedings , 1892: 31. The Business Educators' Association was organized in New York City in 1878. Its constitution was re¬ vised for acceptance by the Department of Business Education and may be found on page 958 of the Pro¬ ceedings of 1894. The officers of the Department for the year 1929- 30 are: President , J. L. Harman, Bowling Green Business University, Bowling Green, Ky. ; Vicepresi¬ dent , L. A. Rice, Assistant in Secondary Education, State Department of Public Instruction, Trenton, N. J. ; Secretary , Pattie L. Sinclair, Commercial High School, Atlanta, Ga. This Department meets once each year in July. Facts relating to the establish¬ ment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier Proceedings as follows : 1893:787-807 1894:957-990 1895 : 862-891 1896:791-836 1897 :792-285 1898:856-893 1899 :998-1031 1900:542-582 1901:721-758 1902 :644-702 1903:719-753 1904:709-737 1905 :669-707 1907:877-905 1908:871-907 1909 :701-719 1910:833-873 1911:827-869 1912:1031-1095 1913:619-637 1914:649-663 1915:883-941 1916:361-397 1917:315-345 1918:235-249 1919:259-271 1920 :263-271 1921 :369-377 1922:575-591 1923:553-568 1924 :429-439 1925:354-365 1926:371-391 1927:335-352 1928:305-324 [318] JUNIOR COLLEGE BUSINESS EDUCATION-ABSTRACT HAROLD G. SHIELDS, ASSISTANT DEAN, SCHOOL OF COMMERCE AND ADMINISTRATION, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL. THE subject of this paper concerns the problem of junior college busi¬ ness education. With the rapid development of the junior college in the United States, there has arisen an acute problem of curriculum building on this level. Recent listings of the junior colleges testify to the rapidity of its growth. For example, today there are listed over four hun¬ dred public and private junior colleges, whereas only five years ago, there wTere about two hundred. The junior college movement has become a flood which threatens much of the traditional thinking concerning college and secondary education. Thus far, the movement has been a far western, a middle western, and a southern development. The junior college is, how¬ ever, relatively rare on the Atlantic seaboard. The Atlantic seaboard is notoriously conservative educationally and the junior college movement, therefore, has not received the impetus which it has had in the far west, the middle west, and the south. Junior colleges are a rather new segment of the American educational scheme, although the idea underlying them is not at all new. Early in this century William Rainey Harper, first president of the University of Chicago, indicated his belief that the first two years of the college course are largely secondary in nature, compared to the later years, which should rightly be devoted to pure professional and research education. The University of Chicago, since its beginning, has based its work upon this idea. Many workers in the field of education have attested to the educational soundness of the junior colleges, and such persons as Koos, Judd, Proctor, Morrison, and many others in the educational field have made detailed studies concerning the junior college. The junior college has arisen out of a definite educational need and is here to stay. There are several outstanding issues that one should consider with respect to the junior college situation as it relates to business educa¬ tion — (1) its relative newness; (2) its place in the whole scheme of educa¬ tion on the secondary level; (3) the functions of the junior college. The relative newness of the junior college gives an opportunity for per¬ sons who are interested in pioneering in education. Many of the larger high schools are now considering the extension of their work to include the junior college range. This relative newness of the junior college has placed curriculum problems in a secondary position. It is the main burden of my paper to raise some issues concerning junior college work as it relates to business education. With respect to the place of the junior college in the whole scheme of education on the secondary level, should the junior college be considered an upward growth of the high school, that is, should the junior college be considered a division of secondary education or should it be considered regular college work? One of the questions which concerns a great num- [319] 320 National Education Association ber of people in the field of junior college work is whether or not the junior college is an extension of the high school or a breaking off of the college. Most of the leaders in junior college education recognize this problem and are taking steps to bring about the attitude that the junior college is a part of secondary education rather than a part of socalled higher or college education. This paper treats the junior college as a part of the whole range of secondary education ; that is, secondary education is looked upon as being divided into three units — the junior high school, the senior high school, and the junior college. Curriculum problems on this level, as on all other educational levels, should be thought of in terms of functions. So most of my talk will con¬ cern itself with the functions of junior college business education. It is in terms of functions that junior college business education must be planned. If one examines the writings concerning junior college organiza¬ tion and administration, there are four outstanding functions which one meets ,the demand for which caused the emergence of the junior college. These functions are (1) the popularizing function, (2) the preparatory function, (3) the guidance function, (4) the terminal function. It is in terms of these functions that I propose to discuss the various problems of junior college business education and training. What is a function? A function, so far as this situation is concerned, is simply the question of what educational service the junior college should perform. Let me discuss these four functions further. If one is thinking in terms of the popularizing function, one simply means the extension of education to a larger number of people who for one reason or another have heretofore not received it. That is, because of economic or geographic barriers, education has been terminated too early. The popularizing func¬ tion simply means carrying college education to the consumer. The pre¬ paratory function means that one is considering the junior college as an institution which serves as a feeder for institutions on the higher level. This is not the major function of the junior college but is, unfortunately, quite often so regarded. The guidance function is somewhat akin to the exploratory function of the junior high school level, namely, a function which gives an opportunity for a student to orient himself. Too often, even at this relatively high level of education, the student has not found himself and fulfilment of the guidance function means opportunity for the student to find himself. If one is concerned with the terminal function of the junior college, the matter of education becomes a question of a final and formal preparation for some particular occupation or pursuit. It means that one is thinking of junior college education in terms not of some fur¬ ther education but in terms of a completed education. Let us consider the first of these — the popularizing function. In terms of business education, the popularizing function means two things. It means a type of business education designed to serve the local business man himself, or the high school graduate now in business who has a desire to go further. The extension of business education to more groups may be Department of Business Education 321 effected by the introduction of courses which will appeal to classes of people who ordinarily will not go to college ; such courses as accounting, market¬ ing, advertising, purchasing, business economics, secretarial training are the types of courses which will appeal to people who have already made some business contacts but who wish to further their business education beyond what they already possess. The second phase of the popularizing function as related to business education is more general and liberal, and simply means giving an opportunity to people not in school to study economic re¬ lationships. When one considers the annual losses through bad investment or speculation, through mismanagement of the small retail store, through inadequate budgeting, through lack of farm bookkeeping, one sees an oppor¬ tunity to fulfill a function which business education on all levels has neglected. In brief, then, the popularizing function, so far as it relates to junior college business education, means the extension of educational opportunity to people who would not ordinarily get business education be¬ yond that offered in the old type four-year high school. The preparatory function is the next one named. It is necessary to know the answers to several questions. Are the students going to a professional school of commerce or some technical school, or are they preparing for a general liberal education? If we assume that the students are preparing for education for business in some professional school or college of com¬ merce, one must take into account the demands of these schools. Although I would not regard the preparatory function as the major function of the junior college it should be remembered that colleges of commerce are not interested in having the incoming students thoroughly equipped with tech¬ nical training, but prefer to have students with a wide range of interests and an enriched background of work. It should be repeated that the pre¬ paratory function is only one function of the junior college and the college or university should not dictate what the junior college should include in its offerings. The guidance function is in some manner similar to the popularizing function. It differs in this respect — that it arises out of the need on the part of students already in school to find themselves. It is a demand for the type of education which gives the student a chance to find himself. Ob¬ viously the problem of finding oneself in the business world is complex be¬ yond all measure. The guidance function calls for a type of curriculum similar to the orientation courses which are frequently given in colleges and universities on the first year level. We have in the junior college di¬ vision of the University of Chicago a course called the “Economic Order,” one of the major purposes of which is essentially to serve the guidance func¬ tion. It is only by a general overview of this type that a student can find himself. The three functions which I have named before, namely, the populariz¬ ing, preparatory, and guidance functions, are probably less important from the standpoint of business education than the one that I am about to dis¬ cuss, namely, the terminal function. Here the question is: Are the students 322 National Education Association leaving the junior college for direct engagement in industry? If so, the business training curriculum must be based on the facts concerning occupa¬ tions, their opportunities, wage rates, and skills demanded. There are a host of occupations in the business world which are as yet unanalyzed, which require more maturity than the ordinary high school graduate has, and which might be classed as semi-professional education. Such occupa¬ tions as the highgrade secretary, the junior executive, the branch manager, salesmen of various types, are occupations which the junior college business education should aim to fulfill. If the junior college graduates are to leave their formal education at the end of their junior college years, training for these positions may be definitely extended. The details of the curriculum may well be worked out in different communities under different situations and are all, of course, dependent on the economic activities of the com¬ munity which the junior college serves. The terminal function, so far as a large number of junior colleges are concerned, is undoubtedly the most important function in the field of busi¬ ness education. It means a type of business education that will result in economic independence and increased productivity for society. If terminal business education on the junior college level is to result in economic independence, educators must know the real wage tendencies in the various fields. If, for example, there is an over-supply of secretaries, real wages are apt to decrease or remain stationary. Business educators who are inter¬ ested in organizing terminal courses must look well toward wage rates, as well as toward the problem of actual skills demanded. Terminal educa¬ tion involves a problem not alone of actual practical, workable commercial education, but also one of marketing the service after the training period ends. It is obvious that terminal business education will vary from place to place, perhaps without great differences. This, of course, is a matter of the organization of the local junior college. THE SECRETARY IN MODERN BUSINESS— ABSTRACT FRANK H. HAMACK, COLLEGE OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION, UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON, SEATTLE, WASH. What is there to be said about the secretary in modern business? Just this. Business is changing, in volume, type, and method. Efficiency has become the watchword. Machinery has come into business to stay, and the most efficient machine of today may be in the discard of tomorrow. The old order changeth. It is truly an era of the survival of the fittest. What tools are necessary for success in a secretarial position? What educational background is desirable? What personal qualities should be cultivated ? Approaching the questions in order, we must first find what tools are necessary. The secretary must be an efficient stenographer and typist. She should have, at least a fundamental knowledge of bookkeeping. A knowledge of filing is indispensable. She must be familiar with office equip- Department of Business Education 323 ment and machinery. She must, of course, be able to use the telephone efficiently. A knowledge of the construction and interpretation of graphs and charts will prove very valuable to the secretary in the work of compil¬ ing information for her employer. I am not unmindful of the fact that machinery and methods of office management are undergoing changes almost continuously. The secretary must keep uptodate. We must not forget, too, that to be of the most value to students, the commercial teacher particularly, must keep abreast of the times, that this change or progress will be reflected in her classroom teaching and guidance. What should be the secretary’s background ? There is disagreement as exemplified by the countless and varying curriculums offered students de¬ siring to pursue a commercial course of study. I am one of that school of thought who believes it possible to offer a well-rounded commercial course of study that will include sufficient of the socalled vocational subjects to insure for the student a place in a modern office upon graduation ; sufficient credits for college entrance ; and enough of the broad socalled cultural sub¬ jects to make them appreciate life, nature, and literature to the fullest, and play their part as good citizens in the community. What are some of the subjects that will fulfill these requirements? A knowledge of the English language is basic. Written composition is important, but it can be given in such a way as to be applicable to the writ¬ ing of business reports and analyses. A study of letter writing or business correspondence should be included. Oral expression or public speaking should form a part of every well-rounded course of study. History, extensively given so far as the ages are concerned, but inten¬ sively covered so far as the modern and present are concerned, is desirable and essential. A good course in civics is beneficial and inspirational to such degree as the teacher puts her heart and soul into the w’ork. Courses in mathematics, including business arithmetic; and in the sciences, including physics and chemistry, are not only valuable, and broadening, but balance the work of a commercial student splendidly. The foreign language group has, and probably will form a part of our secondary school curriculum, but at times I have questioned the value of it. Brief surveys of business organization, economics, and business law are helpful, and should form a part of the commercial course of study. A study of the principles of economics will assist the secretary materially, in securing a proper understanding, and a clearer conception of the structure that we call business. In the study of business organization the student will find how business works, how it is organized, and learn the advantages of the various types, such as partnerships and corporations. Some sort of physical education should be compulsory, for in business par¬ ticularly, a healthy body is absolutely necessary to withstand the demands that are made upon it. 324 National Education Association With a well-balanced course as suggested, our students would be men and women first, lovers of the beautiful, considerate of others, and good citizens. The last question is one having to do with the cultivation of self, call it personality if you wish. Tact is something essentially necessary in a secre¬ tary, but we find nowhere a course in it. It must be cultivated, at home, and in the classroom by an inspiring teacher. So it is with selfrespect, truth, and character, all prerequisites for any measure of success. The ability to cooperate with others, to give and take orders with good grace is one of the requirements. A secretary must cultivate a sense of humor, an unselfish atti¬ tude, and the willingness to subserve self to a common achievement or end. She must be pleasant, yet firm; considerate, yet independent, sportsmanlike at all times. WHITHER BUSINESS EDUCATION f— ABSTRACT J. L. HARMAN, PRESIDENT, BOWLING GREEN BUSINESS UNIVERSITY BOWLING GREEN, KY. Have business training institutions kept up with progress of the thing for which they are training? In other words does business change the trend of education, or does business education change the trend of business? Reforms and additions come often from men on the outside who know the conditions on the inside. Business was a mighty force before there were business schools. They have never caught up with it but have been content to take orders from needs rather than create needs. In some businesses autos are as much a part of the equipment as are typing machines; many companies may not own and operate the rail¬ roads and theaters, but they control them. A business man now has offices in Chicago and Memphis and spends the early part of the day in one and the latter part in the other with some leisure in between. A trip abroad will be a week-end event when the four-hour day and four- day week arrive and since one commercial interest recently took over ten great dailies, the ultimate job of placing a paper under each working man’s door will be as commonplace as furnishing him ice water and electric fans. Men dreamed and dreams came true. Men are still dream¬ ing and dreams will still come true. In the power and freedom and strangeness of this scientific, machine day there are three menacing threats: 1. Like the Frankenstein man, it may destroy its creators by its own power. 2. The few scientific minds have developed scientific results so fast that the mass mind is failing to keep up not only with the higher thinking, but with the results of the thinking and is in danger of wearing itself to tattered morale, and tattered morals in trying to follow what it does not understand and, therefore, what it is illy prepared to use. 3. Dean Inge said in substance a year or so ago, that humanity may soften itself to death “on flowery beds of ease.” Department of Business Education 325 The business school of the future that approaches the demands of its day will be as much improvement over the schools of our day as is the rich American Beauty over the pale, flimsy wildrose, or the red, juicy wine- sap over the bitter wild crab. 1 his age may produce a premier business educator, but certainly it has not done so yet. If and when he comes, business education will assume a leadership as it ought to have done long ago. When this happens, com¬ merce may be shaped by business education instead of allowing commerce to do the shaping as it has done. If such a teacher is not raised up, business will continue to assert its supremacy and even the imperial business training school of the future will be forced into its position. In either case, whether built by the educational leader or by the commercial driver, this super school will require great capital and buildings as large and luxurious as are necessary for any type of educational training. It will be equipped with every office appliance in general use, a well-balanced and generous library, testing and research laboratories, specimens and exhibits of commodities in which the world trades most, elaborate trade charts, a museum containing the interesting documentary and actual physi¬ cal evidences of the growth of grade, transportation, insurance, manufac¬ turing, mining, lumbering, merchandising, communication, power, banking, and all the subdivisions of commerce. The setting of this school should be as attractive in appearance and cultural tone as if sonnets, lyrics, and epics were to be studied and written there; as if harmonious melodies, cantatas, and oratorios were to be produced there ; or comedies, tragedies, and dramas were to be enacted there. This institution will have the dash of the Twentieth Century Limited or the Transcontinental Air Transport and the repose and reflective spirit of the Little Church of Flowers in one of God’s acres of the Golden West. This super institution will have two main divisions. In one will be taught the record keeping of business and all the skills and arts pertaining to office duties. The ruling of a red line, the writing of an easy, graceful hand, the accuracy and neatness of a balance sheet, a correct, well-balanced page of typewriting, a shorthand form quickly made and easily read — all of the manifestation side of the do in business will be exalted as if it were high art in the hands of masters and as if all the learners were ambitious young artists. The second division of the institution of par excellency will delve into the meaning, principles, and practices of business as a major, fortified by minors that bear directly upon business, giving the student the actual experience he will need both in creating and conducting business. This division of the institution will be of college and of university rank and its curriculum will contain cultural and technical material that will give knowledge, stimulate thought, develop mental strength, and furnish a background of mind experience for present needs and subsequent growth. If business is a profession and becoming more definitely defined as such, literature, English, history, science — both social and physical, psychology, 326 National Education Association and languages are as desirable and necessary to it as they are to any other profession. In addition to these subjects of cultural and classical value, there must be subjects of direct practical worth bearing upon the major. No business man can be “butcher, baker, and candlestick maker,” but since his interests touch all other interests, he must know intelligently the metes and bounds of the thing he encounters. A far-sighted view so necessary to commercial plans seldom comes to one who has no backward view born of a knowledge of history. Business is a science following definite lines of procedure, along various paths touching many fields. Some directions may be pur¬ chased and some must be found; therefore, there are subjects the business man must know fairly well, now and then buying talent to supply his lack of knowledge, and there are other subjects he must know himself thoroughly. These may be roughly classified as follows: 1. In the field of purchasable talent are law, insurance, accounting, and trans¬ portation. 2. In the field of unpurchasable talent are psychology, banking, political economy, commercial geography, personnel management, business administration. Talent designated in the first group is difficult to purchase wisely unless the purchaser has a fair conception of its meaning. If the business man is unfamiliar with the second group, he sails his business sea without chart and compass. Unless he adjusts his purchases, sales, manufacturing, transporting, personnel management, administration, and politics to con¬ ditions affecting each or all of the influences which he inevitably encounters, there will be constant clashing. Equipment and courses are dead and valueless until they are vitalized by trained intelligence and lofty spirit. These two qualities the manage¬ ment and faculty must supply. Are there now teachers enough in the western hemisphere to match the equipment and courses of the master school? It is doubtful. Probably the scarcest worker of all the profes¬ sions is a superior teacher — not a dean or supervisor or superintendent or president, but a teacher who develops subjectmatter, inspires students, makes learning so attractive that it is pursued for its own sake, and leads and loves. Such a teacher must be deeply and broadly educated in the cultural and commercial subjects, entertaining no such belief that knowl¬ edge is all substance and method all shadow, but holding a dignified respect for the two. From the paragon school inadequately described above will go men and women into different levels of business from captains of industry down to skilled office workers and from it will radiate the best thought on business, having the respect of financiers, business houses, corporations, scholars, statesmen, the United States Chamber of Commerce, New York Stock Exchange, and thinkers in all useful endeavors, and to such an institution will go the great of earth for advice. The super business school will be a clearinghouse for such ideas and the statesmen of the Department of Business Education 327 future will quote from the findings of the scholarly experts of such an institution. One conclusion is definite. Teaching business in an unstandardized way by either private, public, or semi-public schools cannot continue. Simple courses indifferently taught in high school to please the public or in private school for profit only, are doomed. Those who attempt either of these expediencies will tomorrow be labeled charlatans or ignoramuses. The second conclusion is not so conclusive. Within a few years business education will be given in one of three ways : ( 1 ) Through a system paid for by the public; (2) through private schools; (3) ‘through corporation schools. Since the public must democratize education, giving to all the same thing if it is demanded strongly enough, and since the public has more than it can do in giving fundamentals so necessary for subsequent special¬ ization, it may not meet the needs of both business and culture. If the private school approaches the super school of business described above and with proper ideals of service, honor, and human development walks in lockstep with business and all educational interests, now and then leading the way, the private school, in greatly reduced numbers, will have its glorious age. When public and private efforts fail, business will operate its own school. This it does not want to do, but this it can and will do for business has not yet failed. THE TECHNIC OF JUNIOR BUSINESS TRAINING— ABS TRACT LLOYD L. JONES, EDUCATIONAL COUNSELOR, OFFICE MANAGERS ASSOCIATION, CLEVELAND, OHIO To attempt to set up new technics in junior business training without consideration of modern business technics is impossible. The demands of modern business should be met squarely. And the latest investigation and researches should be used by the teachers of the commercial sciences. The first step must be familiarity with the latest researches carried on by educators in cooperation with business men. To be very specific I want to call attention to the outstanding study made by the Cleveland Board of Education and the Cleveland Office Managers’ Group of the National Association of Credit Men. This study is presented as an example of the new things which are developing in the field of business education. It is the first study to be used in complete detail in building a complete course of study in junior business training. The results of the study are being used by: 1. Office managers in hiring and re-assigning office employees 2. Office clerks themselves for selfimprovement and rating 3. Vocational counselors in giving fact information 4. Commercial teachers in evaluating and presenting the details of the junior business training course. 328 National Education Association The teacher of junior business training can use the results of the study in grouping the duties about central topics which represent functions in the modern small as wTell as large office as follows: 1. Those duties which should be practised by the students until they can be per¬ formed with great facility 2. Those duties which should be discussed in class 3. Those duties which can be referred to and assigned for special investigation. It is this grouping of the materials which allows for the three-level assignment or contract plan upon the basis of individual differences and constitutes the use of business technics as the very essence of new technics in jumor business training. NEW TECHNICS IN BOOKKEEPING AND ACCOUNTING- ABSTRACT C. M. YODER, DIRECTOR OF COMMERCIAL EDUCATION, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, WHITEWATER, WIS. To keep pace with the demands in this new world it is necessary for each teacher to study his problems and develop new procedures or technics. There is need for the development and use of new technics to meet the new changes in classroom work and development of subjectmatter. These new changes demand the greatest accomplishment with the least expenditure of time and effort. We teachers are guilty of gross waste in time and effort on the part of ourselves and our pupils. Perhaps we have been more careless with methods in our subject than other teachers for the reason that it is somewhat older, and our treatment of it and our technics have become more crystalized and harder to change. The laboratory method, or learning-to-do-by-doing method, is the one which has been used very largely in the teaching of bookkeeping. This method is per¬ haps superior if properly adjusted and supervised, in other words, if proper technics are employed. Otherwise the method is decidedly inferior. There can be no question that the laboratory method in teaching bookkeeping has been too long allowed to predominate, simply on the strength of the name of the method. It is time to check on this method. No longer do we think of handing a pupil a book of rules and instructions and saying, “Work this out for yourself.” The old scheme required the trial and error method, the waste of time through lack of application, and improper study habits. There also were no definite measures of progress, and often no definite, fixed objective, properly determined, to work toward. Today we are at¬ tempting to improve our technics in the same laboratory, or work-it-out- vourself method, by carefully determined objectives, guiding and directing the study, planning the content and sequence of work, and testing and meas¬ uring progress and results. Department of Business Education 329 Accountancy is primarily a mathematical science, formulated and de¬ signed to aid in the recording, interpretation, and prediction of economic values. The science of accountancy is in reality a cross between the sciences of mathematics, logic, and economics. Therefore, the objectives of the study of this science must be carefully worked out. The technic of the approach is important. No longer can it be a rule of thumb procedure, as though the subject were a simple, mechanical, mathematical process. Our new technics and texts in the subject from the standpoint of approach must conform to the principles of these three sciences, with particular emphasis upon the last two. Our new technics should aid the pupil in budgeting his time and marking his progress. In this day, speed in accomplishment is a decided factor in life’s endeavors. Wasted effort must be eliminated. The pupil must be taught to measure his efforts in terms of accomplishment. The new tech¬ nics in bookkeeping, from this standpoint are exemplified in the unit and contract plans of assignment, the work book, the drill pad, and the short practise set. These sets have all been planned to get at the meat, or heart, of the sub¬ ject by setting up as nearly as possible situations as found in actual practise. It is not possible to describe all of these new technics, but one predominating feature is that the pupil is saved a great deal of time and effort by having much of the routine and framework of the real problem prepared and set up for him. For example, if the problem is posting, the journalizing has already been done; if it is a trial balance or statement, the posting has been done; if it is adjusting entries, the source material is ready for him. In other words, a definite problem is set up and all of the involving parts are prepared, thus making the task specific and saving the time of the learner. It will pay every teacher to investigate these new technics and avail himself of them. Another technic which has been recognized as belonging to the realm of the new is the sequential treatment of the subject. In this technic the teacher has little to originate. The customs and practises of the economic world determine the importance to be attached to different phases of the subject. Just as the ideals and activities determine the general phase of education, just so do the economic activities determine the emphasis to be placed on the phases of accounting. Now with the rapidly changing com¬ mercial and industrial organizations with multiple proprietorships and security interests, a very different type of content and sequence arrange¬ ment is necessary. In the new technic a more detailed classification of in¬ comes and expenses is taught. Likewise, the sources of profits and losses must be traced through the records. For purposes of the administration of in¬ comes, adjustments of assets and liabilities, the redemption of obligations, the liquidations of going or failing concerns, and many other factors of record keeping have increased in scope and become more and more com¬ plicated. The accounting system must constantly undergo changes in order to keep up with the changing business needs. In choosing a text the teacher 330 National Education Association should be careful to see that it is modern in its technics of development of content and sequence, conforming to the present economic conditions. Of all that might be included in the category of “new technics” in book¬ keeping and accounting, the field of tests and measurements seems to be the most important in current pedagogical thought. No matter how good a method may seem, if it does not produce results when the work is tested and measured, it should be discarded and a new one developed. All teachers of any standing at all are familiar with, and make use of, the various ob¬ jective tests. The day of the old purely subjective essay type of testing or examination is over for the progressive teacher. In the field of bookkeeping and accounting there are now a number of graded objective tests available. It is quite apparent that new technics demand the use of inventory tests for purposes of diagnosing the instructional needs of the pupils, and to determine the subjectmatter to be taught. Such tests should also aid in the classification of groups. Practise tests, or daily tests, are very important in the teaching and learning processes. To summarize, it might be pointed out that the old order has passed away, never to return ; that education must change to keep pace with the changing ideals and activities of the age; that subjectmatter reflects the scientific development of all of life’s activities ; that accounting has become a truly great science through the principles of mathematics, logic, and economics; and that new technics in the field of bookkeeping and accounting are essen¬ tial, four types of which are of very great current importance : ( 1 ) in care¬ fully determining objectives; (2) in guiding and directing study; (3) in arranging the content and sequence of subjectmatter; (4) in the use of an objective testing and measuring program. NEW TECHNICS IN SHORTHAND— ABSTRACT ADDIE STEINHEIMER, COMMERCIAL HIGH SCHOOL, ATLANTA, GA. We must keep in mind the idea that the student must think in terms of shorthand, in terms of signs and symbols, just as when a child begins the study of a foreign language he must think of the words and sentences in that language, or he will never master it. Teach him to write characters in common use, teach him to form sen¬ tences with those words, read them to the class, and then transcribe them. These forms will unconsciously be impressed on his mind, and his fingers will fairly fly when dictation is given. Begin dictation with the very first lesson and before the end of this course see that he has a working vocabulary made up of the one thousand common words in use as compiled by Hoke and others. Should there be words and phrases that are peculiar, words that cause the mind and fingers to hesitate, drill on these until they become a part of the child’s vocabulary. This drill work has a stimulating effect, and it increases speed almost mechanically. Make drill work interesting; go to the class- Department of Business Education 331 room with some new idea; inject a bit of fun into the lesson; be clear and concise in explanation. Teach him how to appreciate the importance of shorthand ; show him the amount of time and work that it saves in an office ; lead him to visualize what would happen if there were no writers of stenog¬ raphy; show the value of this subject in the time it takes to jot down a mes¬ sage or a thought that one would like to remember; teach him to see the value of it in the making of history; teach him to have respect and love for the subject and to realize what accuracy and speed mean in recording reports and speeches. The learning of shorthand in a great measure depends on the effort and enthusiasm that a teacher puts into his work. He not only must know how to teach with the material at hand, but should go beyond this and get some new ideas; read the latest books on the subject, subscribe to shorthand magazines, journals and the like and be able to read and write shorthand himself. Let the child see that the teacher knows and loves his work, and that he has a personal pride in seeing that his boys and girls make good in the business world. The knowledge of principles is essential and a thorough foundation must be laid and at the very beginning characters and outlines should be legible. It is easier to correct mistakes and check wrong habits at the very start than to wait until later when it will require a great amount of time and determi¬ nation. If students can be impressed with the importance of good clear notes, they will have no difficulty in reading. By the time the students reach the “speed class” it is almost too late to cor¬ rect glaring faults. The speed class is the “clinching” class, the grand finale, whereby all notes and transcripts become the finished product. To gain speed requires much repetition, but it develops confidence, quick thinking, enthusiasm, an increased vocabulary, an improvement in the use of English. It has stimulated the boy or girl to higher ideals, in other words, he has “hitched his wagon to a star.” His aim is for success in the business world. He goes forth equipped with a broader vision, he hopes to bring a financial return, and become a better citizen, a finer man. In the commercial high school, in order to arouse interest in shorthand, we have formed the “Hooks and Crooks Club.” Only those pupils who excel in shorthand are eligible for membership. At first the meetings were purely social, the teachers and students becoming good “pals.” Later on it de¬ veloped into a more practical club and became known as the “Steno Bureau.” The type of work done was an inspiration to the boys and girls and gave added dignity to this activity. It has served its purpose by stimulating scholarship, by creating a spirit of loyalty and service, and by inculcating higher business ideals and principles. The girls and boys have typed and mimeographed work for the various departments of the school ; some of them are called upon to work in the offices of the principal, the superintendent, and assistant superintendent ; they have been called on by many business firms to help out in emergencies; 332 National Education Association they have served civic organizations and worked for the Welfare Board at the state capitol. They have given their services to many conventions, and some of them are now present at this convention ready and willing to aid in any way they can. COLLEGE ENTRANCE CREDITS IN COMMERCIAL S UBJE C TS—A BS TRACT JOHN A. ANDERSON, HEAD OF THE COMMERCE DEPARTMENT, PASADENA JUNIOR COLLEGE, PASADENA, CALIF. What is the educational future of the young person who takes a com¬ merce course in high school? Can he get into the university? If not, are the reasons good enough to be defended in the light of presentday social and economic conditions, or upon the basis of psychology as we think we understand it today? These questions are not new ones. Commercial educators have been living with them for many years. We must admit that the educational future of the high-school commerce graduate is uncertain. He must either dilute his vocational commercial educational preparation below the point of effective¬ ness in order to get in the university requirements, or else spend another year or two in making them up. The seriousness of this situation is evident when one remembers that from a fourth to a third of all the youngsters in Ameri¬ can high schools are affected by it. During the ten years ending in 1922 American universities made much progress in liberalizing entrance requirements as far as prescribed subjects were concerned. Durhig that time there developed a decided trend to reduce the required units in mathematics and foreign languages, and to include as acceptable many commercial and vocational subjects. At the same time the universities and colleges began to be more strict as to personal requirements and to depend more and more upon entrance examinations, certificates from accepted high schools, and the recommendations of cooperative organizations whose object is to set up standards for entrance. This seems as it should be. Liberalizing academic requirements and emphasizing the importance of character were two big steps on the path of educational progress. In theory it ought to be possible for every pupil in American high schools to get into college at the end of his four secondary years regardless of his high school “major,” provided he made enough good marks and could produce evidence of character. But it doesn’t work out that way, and there is still much to be done before every youngster can be said to have an equal chance. In California, for example, and probably most other states, if the uniformity in general prac¬ tise is what it was in 1922, the following minimum units are prescribed: English 3, mathematics 2, foreign language 2, American history and civics D/o, laboratory science 2, or a total of lO^ units, leaving but 5 units for all other subjects, some of which may be taken up by additional local require¬ ments in excess of those required by the university. Department of Business Education 333 What secondary commerce department can adequately train a pupil for a position in the business world as it is today with but five units? We must early make the decision between foreign language and mathematics on the one hand and such studies as industrial economics, economic geography, his¬ tory of commerce, business, law, foreign trade, business organization, and even shorthand, typewriting, salesmanship, and bookkeeping, on the other hand. It is not an easy decision to make when we realize that we are prob¬ ably closing the door to the university. Our obligation to make the boy or girl economically independent is first, however, and we have little choice. The ground won for the cause of more liberality in entrance subjects is of only relative values, since all but five are crowded out by requirements. Why do universities discount commercial courses in the secondary schools, or at least hold them inferior to preparation in language and mathematics ? One of the reasons is that high-school commercial teaching has not always been so well and thoroughly done as it is today, especially in the larger insti¬ tutions. There has been inadequate teacher training in this field, but the situation has improved to such an extent that this reason cannot long hold good. The university says, with reason, that it is averse to accepting any appli¬ cant who has been trained in too narrow a field. Yet when one examines this requirement with secondary commerical education in mind, it is hard to imagine the field of commerce to be a narrow one. It is so many-sided that the man trained in business today may be as broadly educated as in any profession. Business education in the high schools has grown mightily from this meager beginning of shorthand, bookkeeping, and typewriting, back in 1895, at the time of its first introduction into the public schools, until these three subjects are becoming almost incidental in the wide range offered to introduce and orient American youth in our most universal human activity — commerce. Economic geography, business organization, salesmanship, indus¬ trial economics, finance, commercial law, business ethics, and many other subjects have been added to the list. Do these not form as good foundation for a university course, especially in the colleges of commerce, as one in which mathematics or language are the cornerstones? School men who are responsible for the training of young people are get¬ ting a better perspective, less distorted by authority and tradition, and more inclined to regard high-school subjects as they are, in relative importance in the process of education, and not as our fathers regarded them, necessary because they had always been with us. This generation takes things less for granted. Why concern ourselves with college entrance when our main responsibility is to train for the job ? The answer to that question is that the commercial course is discounted in the mind of every boy and girl who finds out that it will not prepare for college, and many who ought for every other reason to be taking it will take some other course ; and in the case of the brighter of these students, everybody loses : the commercial department, because a capable 334 National Education Association youngster has been lost to it, the pupil because he is forced to study in a field in which his interest and economic need do not lie, the college because he may never get there under these conditions, and the community, which is paying the bill. The commerce department is still a “dumping ground” in some schools. The holding up of higher standards of teaching and teacher training, and above all, getting deserved university recognition as a preparatory agent, will do much toward placing us where we belong and enabling us to render the service to our young people which they have a right to expect. The Department of Business Education of the National Education Asso¬ ciation can render a service to the cause of education by working steadily toward these ends. The Department of Classroom Teachers The department of classroom teachers held its first session at the St. Paul meeting, July 8, 1914. It was organized in response to petitions representing classroom teachers in all parts of the country. See Proceedings , 1914:909. The Depart¬ ment was reorganized under a Constitution at the Boston meeting in July, 1922. For the constitution and bylaws of this Department see Proceedings , 1924: 568-70. The Department of Classroom Teachers cooperates with the National League of Teachers’ Associations. The officers of the Department for the year 1929- 30 are: President , Eula F. Hunter, 1324 E. Morphy St., Fort Worth, Texas; Vicepresident , James P. Barron, 973 Los Angeles Ave. N. E., Atlanta, Ga. ; Secretary , Faye Read, 1425 Vernon Ave., Pueblo, Colo.; Regional Directors: Western Section, Miriam D. Eisner, 3098 California St., San Francisco, Calif. (Term expires 1930) ; Eastern Section, Sarah H. Fahey, 191 Lincoln Place, Brooklyn, N. Y. (Term expires 1931) ; Middle Section, Frances E. Harden, 1543 Sherwin Ave., Chicago, Ill. (Term expires 1932). This Department meets at the time of the annual meeting of the Association. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and record of meetings are found in earlier Proceedings as follows : 1914:909-916 1915:1161-1177 1916:637-652 1917:615-622 1918:381-389 1919:375-392 1920 :343-355 1921 :399-406 1922:683-691 1923:569-620 1924:460-499 1925:365-402 1926:391-423 1927:352-390 1928:325-352 [ 336 ] ADDRESS MARTHA M. BERRY, DIRECTOR, BERRY SCHOOLS, MOUNT BERRY, GA. No matter where I go or what I say, people always ask me, “How did you become interested in rural work, and how did you happen to start the Berry Schools?” Perhaps some of you do not know where they are. The schools are just about sixty miles from here, half way between Atlanta and Chattanooga, near Rome. Our postoffice is Mount Berry. I have always lived there. In the words of Bre’r Remus, it has “been my briar patch.” I am still living in the house where I was born and reared. It was about twenty-eight years ago that I became so interested in boys and girls. I had a little old log cabin on my place fitted up for a study, for I was going to be a writer. One day I noticed some children wandering around. I invited them in and began telling them Sunday school stories, and I found that they were hungering for them. Then I drove up into the country and started three or four country day schools and Sunday schools where there were none. In places where there were schools, they were open only three months, and most of them were held in one room. In an endeavor to secure funds for more schools I talked to my friends in Atlanta, Nashville, and Richmond. They said, ‘You had better get married and do like the rest of the people instead of trying to be an old humdrum teacher. You were never cut out for one, and people who do that have to be specially fitted for it.” I was not trained for a teacher. I just worked by inspiration. I could not get the children to wash their hands. I had tin basins, towels, and soap, but they were not enough. One day we were using the microscope in some botany work. It gave me an idea. I said, “AV e will look at our fingernails under the microscope before washing and cleaning, and afterwards.” That started the fashion of clean fingernails. I visited more and more homes in the country districts and saw such rich material that I felt I had found a human vein, the richest in the world. They called my horse “the Sunday school horse,” and called me— because I rode all day Sunday— “the Sunday school lady.” I grew so interested that I decided if I could not get my friends to help I could do this myself. I acted immediately on this inspiration. I had the hoise and buggy brought, rushed into the town of Rome, went to the First National Bank, paid a little darky ten cents to hold my horse, went in, and secured the deed of my country place, a farm, which was my most valuable piece of property. I took the deed to my lawyer and told him that I wanted it made over to a board of trustees for the boys and girls who did not have any educational privileges, and who lived out where there were no good schools, and w ho could not afford to go to the state schools. He said, “How do you feel today?” “I feel all right. Don’t I look all right?” [337] 338 National Education Association “You remember we have to weigh things in our minds. Your heirs cannot again have this property. You are going in for a lifetime thing. Think about it. Think about it.” “I have thought about it. I want you to be one of the trustees.” So we made a very strong charter, had it all advertised, everything ar¬ ranged, and the property made over to the board of trustees. I built the dormitories — had to go into my principal to do it. That isn’t good busi¬ ness ethics, but it has paid tremendously in human dividends. I put many things in the back of the buggy and just went across the sunlit road and took up my work. We had only meager farms, just a few cows and little equipment. A friend was going to help me ; we decided we would do all the cooking, washing, scrubbing, gardening, and everything. I started with boys, because I thought boys could do more work than girls. I did not know how much boys would eat or I would have started with girls. The boys did not like cooking, washing, and scrubbing ; they didn’t like to be improved all the time. Finally I found a man who had had some experience in industrial work, and the boys liked it better. They said a man knew when a boy had done enough and a woman never did. The first year the Berry School had an extremely difficult time. People would come and say, “Perhaps it will live to the end of the year. I wonder if it will! I wonder what will become of this dormitory and this property.” But by the end of the year we had a pretty strong organization. Some of the boys were very helpful ; they had come in to learn and showed the other boys what to do. Then I had pretty much exhausted my funds, and I could get my friends to help but little. A very few believed in it. We read in the paper one night where some one had given a large sum to a school. I started to New York to try to get money to finance this school. I had been to New York only once or twice, and I was a stranger there. After a very hard struggle I finally made a few friends. In those first three or four years of the Berry School we wondered if it would live to the next day, but we had a great spirit, and always had prayers night and morning. I think that it was largely the prayers of the Berry School that have made it. Now after twenty-seven years we have a girls’ school located a mile from the boys’ school, and five miles from the girls’ school is a foundation school for beginners. We have about 15,000 acres of land, 100 teachers, and about 35 or 40 buildings. We do all our own work, including carpentry, shop work, and farming; and the girls do everything pertaining to home¬ making. The great thing, I think, is the cultural value of the beautiful place, the home life, and the Christian spirit. I wish we were sixteen miles away in¬ stead of sixty ; then I could charter a lot of busses and take you all there. I cannot do this, but I have with me a graduate of Berry, and I am going to ask her to tell you her life’s story. Department of Classroom Teachers 339 “My Life Story” by a Graduate of the Berry Schools My life’s story is just like thousands of other girls and boys who have entered the Gate of Opportunity, the entrance gate to the Berry Schools. Nine years ago I found my way to those schools. I had walked five miles to a little rural school in a little log building and that was the closest school. One day I was visiting in a community not so very far away from home where an early Berry School graduate was talking, and he told me about the Berry Schools. He said, “A boy or girl can go there and work his way through.” I thought it was a wonderful idea so I went home and told my mother. She had always wished her children might have an edu¬ cation. She had never gone to school, not even a week in her life. We wrote for a catalog. There soon came a reply saying they were very crowded, but they would do their best to make a place for one more. My mother and I planned together how I would get to the school, which was 300 miles away. Finally, I said, “Mother, I have that little crippled calf given to me by a friend. I have fed it and it is my very own. I will see if I can sell it for enough money to carry me to the Berry Schools.” So I drove the little calf out and sold it for enough money to get a ticket to the Gate of Opportunity, and I went in at that gate on a beautiful August afternoon, just as the sun was sinking behind those lavender hills. I thought of that verse in Scripture which says: “Take your shoes from off your feet for the ground whereon you stand is Holy Ground.” And I thought truly I had found it at the Berry Schools. I went through an avenue of beautiful elms and up to the dormitory. There I saw girls in simple blue gingham uniforms and pink sunbonnets, all of them just alike, and like sisters they came out to give me a cordial welcome. I was taught how to cook, sew, wash, iron, to keep my room, and work in the spinning room, where they do the old-fashioned spinning and weaving. I stayed there nine years. I am sure if you would come and see the Berry Schools you would agree with me, “the half has never been told.” Miss Berry has a wonderful way of going out into the rural communities and into the mountains to find the boys and girls. She loves to do it, just as you would love to find a lovely poem if you were interested in poetry, just as you would love to find a beautiful tree if you were interested in trees. She goes out and finds a bright boy and a bright girl, here or yonder, and she asks them their name, and if they would like to go to school. Throughout this country many school teachers and county superin¬ tendents are graduates of our school. We have nurses in nearly every place in the south. M iss Martha Berry has given twenty-seven years, the most valuable part of her life, to the making of manhood and womanhood. Just across the road from her home she found her task in life, and there in that little log cabin she had an inspiration, a dream, that has grown, that has materialized so that today the world knows about that dream and of the work that is being carried on. 340 National Education Association Just at our door sometimes is the task. The task that lies closest at hand sometimes is what our Master calls us to do, and if we do it to the best of our ability He will bless the work. 1 he Berry School offers a place to all to work. We never close our cates, summer or winter. When other people go away on their vacations, the boys and girls there are working. The tuition is one hundred and fifty dollars a year. Miss Berry has often brought boys and girls there on faith, not knowing where those scholarships would come from, but she goes out and gets some one interested to help her. If help cannot be secured, she provides work and trains children to do the things that they need to know in life, so the work is a real part of the training. I hope some day that you will come to see us. that you will put Berry on your prayer list, that you will pray more boys and girls may enter the Gate of Opportunity, and thus go out into the world to live useful. Christian lives. TEJCHERS JKD If'ORLD PEJCE—JBSTRJCT JEANNETTE RANKIN', FORMER CONGRESSWOMAN FROM MONTANA, NEW YORK CITY Mr. Hugh S. Gibson, our representative at the Disarmament Conference, said, “Let us take the bold course and begin by scrapping the word ‘limita¬ tion in order to concentrate upon the general reduction of armaments.’ To us it seems a common-sense statement not going very far, but in fact it is “revolutionary" in disarmament conferences. On May 30 President Hoover backed up this statement of Mr. Gibson and emphasized the changed attitude that must follow since giving our word to settle our disputes by pacific means. The same day the British people elected a labor government which meant a repudiation of Chamber¬ lin's fearful, hesitant attitude toward peace and support for Ramsay Mac¬ Donald's friendly understanding of the desire for peace. Two developments are possible to the men and women of even* country. They may continue to accept old superstitions, to be controled chiefly by fear, to allow all their thinking to be done for them, and let civilization go on, stupidly bent on selfdestruction ; or they may learn to think dearly, act positively, intelligently, and courageously, and contribute their utmost to¬ ward the growth of a world at peace. The direction that they take will depend almost entirely upon their teachers. It cannot be denied that until recently the teacher, however enlightened and clear thinking, was at an enormous disadvantage because of the official bias of the country. A country in which war is legal, that practises war, devotes the greater part of its energy and will, and its income to preparing for war, doesn't leave the teacher very much intellectual freedom. It makes it difficult to teach the true nature of war. The recent offidal condemna¬ tion and renunciation of war as an instrument of National Policy on the Department of Classroom Teachers 341 part of the United States, in the form of the treaty known as the Kellogg Pact, ratified by over forty countries, logically emancipates the teacher from such burdens as an earlier conception of patriotism might have imposed. Mr. Hutchins, the new president of Chicago University, says, “The purpose of higher education is to teach students to think, to think straight if possible, but to think always for themselves.” How has it happened that the most immediate need of the college freshman is to be taught straight thinking? The young child, as we all know, is pitilessly logical. The confused thinking of both adolescent and adult represents the in¬ fluence of home and school on the child who is so completely at their mercy. To be a little more concrete let me give certain instances of the mental con¬ fusion that most adults share and that our educational system definitely imparts. If the final basis of ethical judgment is the cooperation of the part with the whole, then we know that killing, lying, stealing are wrong. We point this out to the child. We then proceed to glorify war which does these things on a wholesale scale. In other words we say that what is wrong for the child is right for the adult. What is wrong for the individual is right for the group. Any newspaper will furnish the child with examples of severe punishment for small offences and light punish¬ ment given prominent people for stealing on a large scale, while lying for political purposes is accepted with amusement and expectancy according to party prejudice. Sincerity is taught as desirable for the individual, but the nation may and even should, engage in “bluff.” War has been the honorable, patriotic, and legal method of settling in¬ ternational disputes. Now for the first time in history we have condemned recourse to war and renounced it as an instrument of national policy and agreed to find peaceful methods of settling all disputes or conflicts. We have done this in the general pact for the renunciation of war. This treaty is now a part of international law. It compares in significance to the Declaration of Independence. Every one should memorize the wording of it. It is written in simple under¬ standable language, and has been made public. A copy of it should be hung in every schoolroom.1 You can get a copy by writing to your senator or representatives, or to the State Department. The pact is as follows : Article 1 The High Contracting Parties solemnly declare in the name of their respective peoples that they condemn recourse to war for the solution of international con¬ troversies, and renounce it as an instrument of national policy in their relations with one another. Article 2 The High Contracting Parties agree that the settlement or solution of all dis¬ putes or conflicts of whatever nature or of whatever origin they may be. which may arise among them, shall never be sought except by pacific means. 1 The pact was printed in poster form in The Journal of the National Education Association May, 1929. 342 National Education Association The rapidity with which the nations of the world ratified the pact is proof that the governing powers are conscious of the demand for a more en¬ lightened method of settling international disputes and they were forced to submit to the power of public opinion. It seems to be a practise among unthinking cynical people to belittle this treaty by calling it a “scrap of paper.” So were the Magna Charta and the Declaration of Independence “scraps of paper.” Every treaty is a “scrap of paper” unless it has the support of an enlightened public opinion. Enlightened public opinion is made largely in the classroom by teachers, not by teaching peace, but by fostering straight thinking. We have had long experience in relying on public opinion as a means of sustaining court decisions. When our forefathers wrote the Constitution they realized that the thirteen warring and jealous colonies could not maintain themselves or‘ form a union if they were allowed to use war as a means of settling their disputes, so they outlawed war between the states. They established the United States Supreme Court and gave it the affirmative power to hear and decide cases, but gave it no power to enforce decisions, except the power of public opinion. When this young nation proposed this unheard of proced¬ ure, all Europe laughed, but for 135 years the opinions of the United States Supreme Court have been respected. While the framers of the Constitution outlawed war between the states they provided that Congress could declare war against another nation. We have outlawed war between nations by treaty, but Congress still has the power to make war. Courts have held that between a treaty and a law of Congress made subsequent to the treaty the law holds. It now becomes necessary to amend our Constitution taking away from Congress its war making powers. We must do this to make our national law consistent with the international law now in operation. Therefore to amend the Con¬ stitution of the United States, making war illegal is our next task. An amendment framed by the Women’s Peace Union has three times been proposed in the Senate by Senator Frazier of North Dakota. It reads “War for any purpose shall be illegal, and neither the United States nor any state, territory, association, or person subject to its jurisdiction shall prepare for, declare, engage in, or carry on war or other armed conflict, * expedition, invasion, or undertaking within or without the United States, nor shall any funds be raised, appropriated or expended for such purpose.” Please write to your Senators and Congressman for a copy. This proposed Constitutional amendment is the ultimate legal end that we are striving for. We must remove every vestige of legality and respecta¬ bility from war so that we may put it out of our consciousness. We must do this to back up our word given to other countries by the treaty. Such negotiations as are anticipated by Mr. MacDonald and President Hoover in the reduction of armaments can be set aside by acts of Congress unless we take the war making powers out of our Constitution. For the Peace Treaty to be taken seriously we must demand that governments proceed earnestly with the task of building the structure and temper for peace. Department of Classroom Teachers 343 The peace treaty can only be regarded as the gateway to peace. The actual work of making peace real and permanent still remains to be done. A constitutional amendment comes nearer touching masses of people than any other proposal for eliminating war, because it must not only pass the Senate and the House and then must be ratified by the state legislatures. It comes the nearest to being a legal referendum that our government pro¬ vides. Time and patient work will be required. It will not pass without a crystalized public opinion. The reaction against war has been going on so long and has been so com¬ plete that we have unconsciously chosen our heroes from peace time activities. We have no postage stamp commemorating a war hero corresponding to our new stamp celebrating Edison and his achievements. What hero’s name of recent years, of any time, has stirred the imagination of the people and sent the thrill through millions, through every boy and girl in the classroom as well as the teachers, and the mothers and fathers of the country and made millions of hearts beat as one, like the name of Charles Lindbergh, our peace-time hero. We have all seen in what a short space of time the world was turned up¬ side down by war. It can be set right side up in just as short space because peace is what we want, not war. But it can only be done by straight think¬ ing and teachers can do more than anyone else to bring about this rehabilita¬ tion of public opinion. For a short dozen years we were on the wrong track. We have turned. Let us plant our feet so firmly in the straight path that it will never be possible to take the wrong turning again. All this, that we may contribute to a more abundant life for everyone, that we may produce enough understanding and goodwill to make world peace. The responsibility is upon you, the classroom teachers, to make world peace. TEACHER PARTICIPA TION— ABSTRACT LOIS COFFEY MOSSMAN, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY The prime factors in learning are an individual, living and doing; and a situation or environment in which to do and which gives stimulus sugges¬ tive of what one does. We must keep in mind (1) that learning is through responding to environ¬ ment, (2) that environment is constantly changing in this changing world, and (3) that the individual is continuously changing through thus respond¬ ing, doing, and learning. This makes the educative process far from static. Each of the prime factors is changing. What can be constant in it ? If we leave the learnings to mere chance stimulus the outcomes will be uncertain in worth. Recognizing this fact, society provides the school for the sake of securing guided, desirable learnings. John Dewey has pointed out that the school is superior to mere chance environment in that its en¬ vironment can be controled and selected, so as to simplify, purify, and bal¬ ance the child’s environment. This means that the school must be in con- 344 National Education Association tinuous contact with the child’s community environment and vary as it varies. It is the work of the school to teach desirable responsiveness to life’s changing situations and, thus, teach children how to live in the midst of change. The factors in the school’s work are (1) the growing, active child; (2) its environment, continuously modified to meet the changes going on in life ; (3) the curriculum or total process of living, doing, and learning in the school life ; and (4) the teacher who is the one responsible to society for guid¬ ing the process of learning, the one in the schoolroom group most experi¬ enced in meeting situations in a meaningful way. We have already noted that the first and second factors, the child and the environment, are constantly changing. The curriculum, then, must of necessity be flexible enough to be responsive to the needs of these varying elements. It represents the educative process that takes place and, therefore, of necessity cannot be static. When we plan an educative program we must recognize that the teacher is a vital factor. His participation in the process is essential. In the final analysis he is the one who must guide the activity of the children in the learning process. In the whole educational system he is the one who guides the process at the point where the learning takes place. It is not a question of his right to participate in the various aspects of the educative process. He is participating. He is shaping the curriculum as it is experienced by his children. He is simplifying, purifying, balancing, shaping the school environment of the children, giving it the quality of life that makes it inter¬ pretative of community life inasmuch as it has such quality when finally the children meet it. He secures the outcomes of the process whatever they are. So closely is he working at the point where the learning takes place, so intimately does the teacher know the details of the process, that it follows that he can easily lose perspective. This close-range view needs interaction with a long range view of the whole situation. He must have leadership. A principal is needed. Each is essential. The principal who understands the educative process recognizes the worth of this close-range view which the teacher, of necessity, cannot have. They are coworkers, having varying responsibilities, but workers together in the common cause of helping boys and girls to grow toward fullness of living. Not always and everywhere has the theory of the school’s work herein stated been accepted. Many there are today who hold a different view. They believe the school is a place where children prepare for adult life by mastering certain prescribed subjectmatter. They assume that this subject- matter can be and is definitely known. The mastery of this constitutes the work of the school and gives the necessary preparation by way of disciplin¬ ary training or by way of storing needed knowledge and skills. All this implies a known future, specified need. It makes of the teacher one whose duty it is to see that these prescribed learnings are mastered. It is not his province to select or adopt or judge or evaluate relative to individual needs Department of Classroom Teachers 345 and possibilities. He has no part in planning the large program of the school, but merely carries out instructions handed to him. He does not par¬ ticipate in planning the educative program, but he puts it into action. The discrepancy between the point of view here set forth and that which obtains in many schools in the country today lies in the fact that there are still many who are holding to a point of view of education as something done to the child, of learning as memorization of imposed subjectmatter, of the curriculum as fixed and static, and of the child as a receptive agent. The teacher, thus, is regarded as a drillmaster. In the program of education for a newer world we must contemplate the educative process as a process of living and learning, of meeting new situa¬ tions with effectiveness, of gradually acquiring ability to articulate in a changing environment, so that one may find the joy of living and helping to further a better order in this changing world. In such a program the teacher is a vital factor. TEACHER PARTICIPATION THROUGH CURRICULUM REVISION— A BS TRA C T GEORGIA W. AIKEN, PRESIDENT, CINCINNATI TEACHERS ASSOCIATION, CINCINNATI, OHIO I have been assigned the topic, “Teacher Participation in Curriculum Revision.” My particular phase is the elementary curriculum. We know how carefully the kindergarten curriculum has been worked out along newer lines. If the underlying thought which embodies kindergartens could embody all curriculum making, I presume a very great change would take place. The kindergarten curriculum, of course, makes use of health, social experiences, meeting with one another, Americanization, and so on. The elementary school comes in and says there is a certain amount of systema¬ tized knowledge that children must have, certain skills that they must de¬ velop in order to understand fundamental processes of life. Now what kind of teacher is needed to work on curriculum revision? He should be a teacher who understands children, and who can undergo changes. There are teachers who do not desire change. Routine has come into their work, and they prefer to continue in that routine rather than to try out and see whether or not the new way may have just as much advan¬ tage as the old. But when such people become interested, they often prove to be the finest people we have because they see the new combined with the old and that is essential. In curriculum revision there is a certain amount of the old that un¬ doubtedly is good. There is incidentally a certain amount of the new which is not as good as some people claim for it. There is a certain amount of the new that in all probability is not going to be retained, for it has not fulfilled its function. Teachers have an untold amount of possibility in the work that they may do in assisting curriculum revision, whether they be in private or public 346 National Education Association schools. The private school teacher has a better chance than the average public school teacher because he works in a smaller system. Teachers do live who say howT things are to be done; they do learn to know whether or not the curriculum which has been handed to them is ap¬ plicable to the various types of mentality that come to them. It is very simple to apply a standard to the average class. It is when the unaverage appears that trouble arises, and in this respect curriculum revision has not taken the strides it might have taken. It cannot take very great strides until the teachers themselves are willing to cooperate, to give their time, effort, and energy toward a revision that will work for the good of the profession and the children. TEACHER PARTICIPATION THROUGH CIVIC CON T A C TS—A BS TRACT LULU MOCK, PRESIDENT, DALLAS GRADE TEACHERS COUNCIL, DALLAS, TEX. Teacher participation through civic contacts is vitally interesting to every classroom teacher in this nation. It is a highly challenging phrase, not only for today, but for all the long tomorrows. First, may I ask what responsibility the teacher has regarding participa¬ tion in civic affairs ? Should he show activity in this particular field and, if so, how much ? Is he really supposed to develop leadership along this line ? Is he in reality a citizen with the full responsibility of citizenship? Or if he is a near citizen, just what part is he to play in the civic affairs of the com¬ munity ? Gratifying to a very high degree is it to know that various com¬ munities are taking recognition of the fact that the status of the teacher has improved because the teachers themselves have willed it so. However, there are still places where remarks similar to these are heard: ‘‘If a teacher teaches as he should, he will have no time or strength for other activities.” “The teacher's place is in the schoolroom.” “Let the teacher remember first of all that he is a teacher.” Let us consider just what the teacher’s mission is — the duty of preparation for citizenship in an ideal democracy. Is it possible that this profession re¬ lieves those engaging in it of civic responsibility, lessening in a way the duties of citizenship ? Can the teacher train others for citizenship unless he is allowed to participate in civic affairs and bear in a large measure the re¬ sponsibility rightfully his? Participation is one of the world’s greatest schools ; it means growth, and participation in civic affairs means citizen¬ ship growth. Can a teacher passive in this field train for active citizenship ? Now since teachers have unquestionably a responsibility in civic affairs of the community, just what is the civic status of teacher groups today in vari¬ ous communities? One fact remains true of every teacher group — the civic status is exactly as high or as low as the teacher participation in civic affairs has established it. Are we measuring up to the highest responsibility of teacher participation through civic contacts? What are teacher organiza¬ tions doing along this line ? Department of Classroom Teachers 347 The reports from the various teacher organizations regarding their activ¬ ities are challenging. They are affiliated with various civic organizations and movements such as: civic welfare associations, civic welfare improve¬ ment leagues, chambers of commerce, federations of women’s clubs, child guidance clinics, and public library associations. Worthwhile indeed is the service being rendered by teacher organizations in a benevolent way as, emergency relief funds, teacher organizations often being among the first to send checks. Many organizations participated in giving relief to the Mississippi flood sufferers and to the Florida storm victims. A number of organizations have their own permanent work in the field of benevolences ; some are interested in the endowment of beds in hos¬ pitals; some are aiding crippled children; some are interested in day nur¬ series; some maintain loan funds for students; some are interested in relief work for lepers, furnishing bandages in response to a call from the American Mission to lepers; some share their clubrooms, thus allowing them to be used as regular meeting places when needed by certain groups. Some or¬ ganizations are carrying on a worthwhile activity through the children’s welfare committees ; some are featuring annual benefit parties, the funds ob¬ tained are used for benevolent work; some contribute regularly to the community chest or to the allied charity funds ; some are active in Red Cross drives and are generous contributors. This benevolent work in civic affairs is in addition to this type of service rendered to their own teacher groups. Other activities engaged in by teacher organizations are previewing films for children’s matinees, marking with dignified and appropriate ceremonies noted historic sites, participating in outstanding civic events of the year through cooperation with the chamber of commerce and other civic organi¬ zations, and contributing to building funds for women’s club homes. Some teacher organizations have led in local tax campaigns when neces¬ sary and aided by public spirited men of the community have succeeded in putting over the necessary tax. Some organizations have done some very courageous and creditable work in the readjustment of taxation. Some have nominated classroom teachers for the presidency of state teacher asso¬ ciations and have elected them and found it splendidly worthwhile to be so represented. And now regarding the first great responsibility of education in a republic, the inculcation of the truest ideals of civic duty, how best is this responsi¬ bility to be met? First, let us urge that communities have ever in their teacher groups those most gifted and talented. A nation needs always to guard its intellectual and moral resources and so in providing for our schools, we need our best minds and biggest hearts. Mature and trained teachers are needed if a community is to have leadership of an adequate number of influential men and women interested in building up life so that the spiritual forces will outweigh the material. 348 National Education Association TEACHER PARTIC1PA TION THROUGH DETERMINATION OF STANDARDS OF CERTIFICATION— ABSTRACT F. BLANCHE PREBLE, TEACHER, CHICAGO, ILL. Who can possibly be as interested in establishing high standards for be¬ ginning elementary teachers as the teachers already working in that field? On whom does the responsibility rest more than on these same teachers? They are in a position to know far more about what a teacher needs to be than any supervisor or administrator can possibly know provided they accept their respon sibil it}' and apply themselves to the work of determining standards of certification. Shall the elementary teacher be merely a spectator as others determine his fate, or shall he take his fate in his own hands and make it what he wants it to be. and what, for the sake of education, it should be? We have heard more and more in recent years that improvement of method and general educational development must come from the classroom teacher because the administrator, in these days of rapid growth of schools and colleges, is so taken up with financial and administrative problems that the educational questions necessarily get only his second-best effort. W e can see. too, that the most radical changes in the past few years have been changes, I will not say improvements, in forms of organization rather than changes or improvements in truly educational policies. Now. unless the classroom teacher assumes his responsibility and applies himself thoughtfully and earnestly to these most essential things, the schools will become more and more devoted to problems of organization and finance because of the very necessities of the situation and these other great essen¬ tials will be neglected. Of course, the place to begin to formulate educa¬ tional methods and policies is in determination of standards of certification. Since the educational work of a school is done in the individual room by the teacher in contact with the child, no higher qualification should be re¬ quired of anybody in the system than of the teacher himself. And since, by the time the child has reached the high school he is more or less able to edu¬ cate himself, provided he has developed up to that time as he should, no higher qualifications should be required of any teacher than of the elemen¬ tary teacher. TEACHER PARTICIPATION— ABSTRACT DAISY LORD, PRESIDENT, WATERBURY TEACH ERS' ASSOCIATION, WILBY HIGH SCHOOL, WATERBURY, CONN. Today in every walk of life there is cooperation and participation. Any great enterprise to be successful must call into play all the mental energies inherent in the organization, and so communities consult teachers in social betterment work and in all civic projects. Boards of education, superintend- Department of Classroom Teachers 349 ents, and principals are consulting with the classroom teacher in building curriculums, in selecting textbooks, in planning activities, in helping individ¬ ual students reach their goal. We should rejoice in such consultations. For the past twenty-five years in my home city, no course of study has been made and no textbook adopted without the principals and teachers con¬ cerned being called into consultation. My own principal never adopts a new policy or plans any activity without seeking the counsel of his teachers. I cannot see how any school system can be progressive and harmonious with¬ out teacher participation in every line. The Waterbury Teachers’ Associa¬ tion is one of the oldest in the country, and is looked up to in our city as one of the leading organizations. It is asked to send representatives to even thing of civic interest and we always respond. The citizens remember this as was shown during our salary campaign last December, when the city was with us, and the increase was won. The members of the board of education are our friends, and we work together in harmony. Participation will help your community. In your community there are many civic organizations that are doing much for the betterment of the place in which you live. Teachers should keep in close contact — some may lie members of these — and all should be willing and ready to help. Our schools are more and more becoming civic centers. Participate in the things your school is doing. Don't leave everything to the few. Don’t relegate school spirit to the pupils; have plenty of it your¬ self. Be interested in the reputation vour school has in its communitv. Do all you can to improve and enlarge on that reputation. We are so eager to make our pupils realize that what they say and do is a reflection of their school. Isn’t this just as true of teachers? Accompany your students to baseball and football games, to picnics, to parties, on hikes. You will And out more about your students on one short hike than in a month in the schoolroom. The real teacher learns to know his pupils, his activities, his home life, and if necessary, gets in touch with community service organizations that will help him. Learn to be a constructive leader. Remember that constructive leader¬ ship means the development of a thoughtful, intelligent, and tolerant atti¬ tude. A spirit of give and take is necessary. Learn, like Colonel Lind¬ bergh, to speak in terms of "We.” Too long we have kept company behind our desks with the dictatorial “I.” Give thy heart’s best treasures. From fair Nature learn; Give thy best — and ask not, Wait not a return ! And the more thou givest From thy little store. With a double measure. God will give thee more. 350 National Education Association TEACHER PARTICIPATION IN ADMINISTRATION- ABSTRACT GERTRUDE BURKE, TEACHER, CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL, SYRACUSE, N. Y. Ordinarily when one thinks of teacher participation in administration, he thinks of participation in the solving of problems. It is true that his great background of experience, in the daily human contacts a teacher has, equips him with a sympathy and understanding that is valuable in the solving of problems, but I think it is of even greater value in the seeing of problems. If it be true that “all mankind venerates the seer,” surely the alert classroom teacher should be venerated, because of necessity he sees and forsees prob¬ lems. His very anticipation of them may mean the “ounce of prevention which is worth more than the pound of cure.” Glenn Frank tells us that he has more easily found ten men who could solve a problem than one man who could see what the problem really was, and who could state it with clarity so that others could see it. To call upon this vast fund of teacher experience for seeing, studying, and solving of problems is but to follow one of the prime requisites of this industrial age — the elimination of waste and the conservation of resources. Andrew Carnegie was once asked, “Which is most important in indus¬ try — land, labor, or capital ?” He is said to have replied, “Which is the most important leg of a three-legged stool?” Applying this to education, and amputating one leg, we may well ask, “Which is more important in education, the teacher or the administrator?” Each at times fails to appreciate the other’s job. Participation in ad¬ ministration might enable the teacher to see that there is something more to administration than sitting back in a swivel chair ; and it might remind the administrator of things he had forgotten, or mayhap never known, such as the deadening drudgery of daily routine, the wearisome work of marking papers, and the exhausting exactions of inexhaustible youth. It might be a good idea if administrators, especially supervisors and heads of depart¬ ments, were forced every five years or so to get back for a term to a regular schedule of classroom teaching. In Syracuse we have some examples of teacher participation in administra¬ tion. In the construction of our new continuation school, the teachers of shopwork and of domestic arts were given the privilege of planning their rooms, of selecting the equipment, and directing its placement. This was also true in part in our vocational high school. The vocational groups as a whole seem to be ahead of others in teacher participation in administration. Teachers participate to some extent in the selection of textbooks, in the planning of projects for science work, and in the making of examinations. When New York State discontinued the regents’ examinations in civics, commercial subjects, and others, our superintendent asked every teacher of those subjects to send in a list of questions suitable for the examination. A teacher committee selected from those lists the ones for the examination, and the state gave regents credit for it. We are still following this policy. Department of Classroom Teachers 351 Perhaps the most outstanding example of teacher participation is in regard to the salary schedule. Last year a committee of women high school teachers went to interview our superintendent in regard to salary adjustments. He asked them to make out a schedule which would be fair to all groups of teachers. The committee undertook the task seriously, writing to the various schools for suggestions, and to other cities for sched¬ ules, with the result that they turned in a schedule which was not only accepted by the superintendent and the board, but admitted by them to be better than they had worked out. It has not gone into effect for lack of funds, but we are led to believe that it will be put in force in January. I see great need for more teacher participation in matters of administra¬ tion of attendance, of curriculum, of discipline, of examination schedules, of examinations, and of extracurriculum activities. Teacher participation encourages intelligent cooperation. It stimulates teachers and administrators alike, thus bringing into the public service valuable assets which might otherwise lie dormant. It lends a new dignity to the teaching profession. It trains administrators from the teaching ranks, and should result in promotion by merit. It gives a more balanced administration, combining the vision of those in high places who look out with the vision of those in lower places who look up. TEACHER PARTICIPATION IN LEGISLATIVE PROBLEMS— ABSTRACT JOHN W. VICKERMAN, PRESIDENT, CLEVELAND TEACHERS' FEDERATION, CLEVELAND, OHIO Teachers cannot afford to sit back and simply take an academic interest in legislation. They should be a dynamic force, constantly alert to improve the status of the teacher and educational conditions. It is necessary for teachers to go to their state legislatures nearly every session either to defend present laws or to ask for progressive changes- in educational law. It is a progres¬ sive trend to have teachers through their organizations show a concern in association and political problems. Teachers are prone to proclaim democ¬ racy but not to practise it. The greatest obstacle in the securing of legisla¬ tion for teachers is the indifference of the teachers themselves. In our participation in legislative problems we should seek to enlighten our law-makers rather than to influence them. The best progress, and only permanent progress, is evolution and not revolution. Practically all of the members of the legislature are honest and want to do the right thing. They always welcome information, providing it comes from one who knows what he is talking about, and they feel that he is honest. Taken as a whole, they are quite representative of the citizenship of the state. I should like to make a plea for more respect for legislatures. Legislation asked for by teachers should be sane. The effort of the teachers should be confined to things of vital importance and of real benefit to the schools. If we confine our legislative activities to purely selfish 352 National Education Association motives or create the impression that we, as a group, are attempting to take advantage of legislation, we shall find legislatures, school officials, and the public opposed to granting our requests. If good objectives are to be attained with a minimum of public criticism, we should be interested just as much in legislation promoting the education and the welfare of the children as we are in our own problems. To pro¬ duce results with no unfavorable reaction, everything should be open and above board, and no individual should be brought into the limelight. The results obtained in communities where teachers have united in a drive for certain definite benefits encourage us to believe that many worth¬ while things can be accomplished when teachers become inspired with self- respect, realize their power as a group, attack their problems with zest and efficiency, and take pride in their achievements. TEACHER PARTICIPATION THROUGH SOCIAL CONTAC TS—A BS TRACT NETTIE RANKIN BOLLAND, TEACHER, HIGH SCHOOL OF COMMERCE, PORTLAND, ORE. As teachers we are in a position of greater influence and opportunity for leadership today than we have been at any time before. Much is said about character training, unfolding the personality of students, development of potential leaders of the state and nation. The realization of aims and ideals in these important matters can be measured directly by the unseen work of the teacher who is a personality among the students. The teacher who is interesting, who carries on his work in a spirit of educational adventure, whose mind is excited by new happenings in his own life outside the class¬ room, whose personality is still growing — that is the teacher whose work today will mark America tomorrow. We can hope to develop qualities of leadership in students only after we experience active leadership among groups of adult age ; thereby developing in ourselves the powers we would induce in others. We are no greater than our achievements. Teacher participation in social affairs of teachers’ organizations provides a valuable opportunity for selfexpression, and in many cases offers the only available means of stimulation for qualities of leadership. The teacher taking part becomes broader, more interesting, gracious, and dynamic. Social contacts may be made through a great number of activities such as banquets, luncheons, dinners, receptions, teas, picnics, card parties, con¬ certs, informal parties, miscellaneous entertainments, mock trials, dramatics, tournaments in outdoor and indoor sports, maintenance of clubrooms, and club affiliations. The participation of the teachers in social activities develops an interest on the part of the teacher in other organization activities, and later that teacher is actively at work on a specific professional problem for the associa¬ tion, solely as a result of an expression of social talent. In an indirect man- Department of Classroom Teachers 353 ner, social activities develop that very important element in professional organization — cooperation among teachers. Participation in a social ac¬ tivity as an entertainer or committee worker, will do much to create and develop enthusiasm, and individual enthusiasm may be capitalized by the association in its work on such practical problems as teacher load, sabbatical leave, and tenure. One of the most important means of securing publicity for an organiza¬ tion is through its social activities. It is more or less a rule among press committees in business and professional organizations to have three notices precede a social event and a followup article. This practise may be fol¬ lowed by our groups. An article on a tea, a halloween party or a banquet, with names of teachers providing entertainment and others on committees for the activity, easily wins newspaper space. After several notices of this kind, an article on a teachers’ problem which otherwise would hardly get space, will be given liberal room. To summarize, in a carefully planned program for social activities, an organization may provide means for individual growth and professional development of the teachers, increase the effectiveness and power of the organization by intensifying interest and activity in organization of affairs, develop cooperation among members and with other organizations, and pro¬ vide a means of reaching the general public through the press. THE PARTICIPATION OF THE RURAL SCHOOL TEACHER IN DETERMINING THE RURAL SCHOOL CUR- RICUL UM—ABS TRACT FLORENCE HALE, STATE SUPERVISOR OF RURAL SCHOOLS, AUGUSTA, MAINE The most important factor in rural school organization is the building of the curriculum. Upon the content of the curriculum depends the ability of the rural school to give an equal opportunity for the country child. The rural school classroom teacher should have an opportunity to participate in the formation of the curriculum. In the past, two methods of selecting school subjects were common. In many cases there was no written course of study. What should be taught and how much was largely a matter of custom passed from one teacher to another. It was understood that reading, writing, arithmetic, and spelling must be taught. The method and quantity were more or less haphazard. In the better schools, the curriculum was handed down arbitrarily to the teacher by the superintendent. The teacher’s judgment was seldom asked and his suggestions rarely encouraged. Today it is an accepted fact that the teacher who is to carry out the requirements of the curriculum should have a large part in formulating it. First, in a few cities classroom teachers were put on committees for curriculum making. The wisdom of this course was immediately apparent in the greater success of the school. Now that it is understood that the rural school has a peculiar problem of its own 354 National Education Association to solve, the rural teacher who understands the requirement of his com¬ munity better than the distant superintendent is being called into the same service. Herein lies the opportunity of the rural teacher to work for the enrichment of the curriculum. He should study exhaustively the needs of the country community for which he is preparing citizens. He should not forget the need of opening up the great world that lies beyond the rural school so that his pupils may choose for themselves the life that best suits the individual. Every rural expert knows that the rural school curriculum, in most in¬ stances, has done little to develop the cultural side of the child’s life. When rural teachers take their part in curriculum building, they should see to it that music and art are required subjects in every rural course of study. They must then work to educate the community to appreciate the practical importance of these subjects. The results of a survey, carried out by The Grade Teacher magazine, indicate that teachers are continuing to grow in professional spirit and to study the principles of education which underlie methods of teaching. Teachers are preparing themselves to take their part seriously in this oppor¬ tunity to participate in the curriculum making. This professional study in addition to their actual experience in the schoolroom will make the contribu¬ tion of the classroom teacher in building the curriculum of inestimable value. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT EDITH B. J OYNES, NORFOLK, VIRGINIA The Department of Classroom Teachers has five major aims: (1) To secure higher educational qualifications for teachers; (2) To secure teacher participation in school management; (3) To improve economic and social conditions among teachers to enable them to properly function as a vital factor in educational progress; (4) To promote, encourage, and assist local and state organizations of classroom teachers; and (5) To promote cooperation among all groups enlisted in educational service. These aims have been fostered by getting in close contact with local and state organizations. This year more work was accomplished on account of the generous leave of absence granted by the Norfolk School Board to your president — a leave of absence on full pay for as much time as was necessary to carry on her duties. In this way invitations could be accepted at any time during the year. This is the first time that a president of the department has made a fall trip and it has proved to be a great advantage as the majority of the states have their conventions in the fall. The President has had opportunity to come in contact with large groups of teachers at the state meetings, and in that way the work of the department has advanced more rapidly. Department of Classroom Teachers 355 Fall Trip — The first field trip, which covered a period of six weeks dur¬ ing October and November, was so arranged that I might have the oppor¬ tunity of attending the meetings of several state associations. The states in¬ cluded in the trip were North Carolina, Tennessee, Alabama, Oklahoma, Texas, New Mexico, Colorado, Missouri, Georgia, South Carolina, Ar¬ kansas, and Virginia. During the field trip I visited many school systems, for the purpose of acquainting myself with class conditions and professional problems of teachers. Winter Trip — On returning to my classroom in the Maury High School at Norfolk to assume the regular role of classroom teacher I found a vast accumulation of work. Here I remained until February 13, when I turned my steps toward the cold north. I found the same cordiality and hospitality awaiting in the north as 1 had received in the south. On this trip I visited the states of New Jersey, New York, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky, West Virginia, and Virginia. These teachers were interested in the same problems as the groups previ¬ ously visited. Owing to the fact, however, that they have been organized longer, they have progressed further toward the solution of some of the problems of the profession, such as retirement laws, salaries, and cumulative sick leave. Other Meetings — Your president was invited to attend during the Easter Holidays the annual meeting of the Eastern Commercial Teachers Associa¬ tion held in Philadelphia — an association of over a thousand members. I am glad to report that this association voted to affiliate with the National Education Association. They are also interested in participating in the work of the department and judging by the enthusiastic sessions of this or¬ ganization, I feel that we are fortunate in having this new group. My last meeting of the year was at Savannah, Ga., where I went to at¬ tend the annual meeting of the Georgia Education Association the third week in April. The need of a strong classroom organization was apparent as financial conditions in the state have caused the state in many cases to fail to pay in full the present salary of the teachers. A close study of Georgia’s wealth shows that with the right system of taxation put into effect the teachers should not have any more trouble in receiving their full salaries. At the classroom meetings the presiding officer was a principal or a super¬ visor. This demonstrates again the need of classroom teacher participation. The Georgia Education Association endorsed the Education Bill and in fact everywhere I have been this year the bill has received hearty endorsement. The News Bulletin — Last year the News Bulletin was published as an experiment. It is no longer an experiment. It is a real investment. Through the Bulletin, classroom teachers receive firsthand knowledge of what their fellow workers are doing over the United States. Reporters for the Bulletin have been appointed from organizations in different sections of the United States. We appreciate the information 356 National Education Association they have sent in to us and we greatly regret that the limited space of the Bulletin has prevented us from using all of it. We have really had enough news for an eight page bulletin but it seems better for the present to publish it in its present size of four pages. It is the only medium through which classroom teachers can keep informed about the work of the department and receive information on professional problems which local organizations are investigating and studying each year. The classroom teachers have been so interested that the circulation has doubled. A real interest in the department has been stimulated through the Bulletin. This year we have issued three Bulletins but next year we are planning to publish four issues. Departmental appointments — Your president has been appointed the offi¬ cial delegate of the Department of Classroom Teachers to the biennial con¬ ference of the World Federation of Education Associations to be held at Geneva, Switzerland, this summer. It is a laudable fact that several mem¬ bers of the Executive Board have been placed upon committees of honor and responsibility this year. At last after many years of struggle the work of the Department of Classroom Teachers has been recognized. The classroom teacher is becoming a part of the educational solar system. The entire official family of the department has stood by the president in all times of need. This unity and harmony in the department has been reflected in intense interest in all meetings, in an increase in individual membership, and a remarkable growth in new affiliations. Recommendations to the Department of Classroom Teachers — 1. News Bulletin — That four issues of the News Bulletin be published each year, the approximate date of publication being October 15, December 1, Febru¬ ary 1, and May 1. That circulation be increased so that all associations may receive the News Bulletin for one year, even if they are not affiliated. This is the best way to get acquainted with the work of the department. 2. Yearbook — (a) That Miss Miriam Eisner be selected as chairman to assemble the material for the next Yearbook and (b) that a committee be appointed by the president to pass on all articles before they are printed in the Yearbook. 3. Affiliation — That each member of the Executive Committee make every effort to get local associations to affiliate with the National Educa¬ tion Association. This gives closer contact one with the other. 4. Classroom department in each state association — That an effort be made by each of the executive members to attend state associations and at that time organize a classroom department. This will bring about great unity in local, state, and national classroom departments. Through these units the classroom teacher can really function for educational advancement. 5. Committee on academic preparation — The following committee has been appointed: Lucy Brickhouse, Norfolk, Va. ; Florence Dickinson, Had- donfield, N. J. ; Ethel F. Keeney, Chicago, Ill. I recommend that this committee be retained for three years to formulate a plan and to put into effect some method where teachers who have been in service as long as six Department of Classroom Teachers 357 years, may have an opportunity of getting more credits in major subjects than is allowed under present college regulations. This committee is to work with the American Association of Teachers Colleges. 6. Programs of state associations — That an effort be made to have class¬ room teachers on state programs. 7. Character training — That every classroom teacher give $1 to pro¬ vide a fund for the study of character training. This fund will easily be duplicated in many communities. Such a fund will enable the department to carry on perpetual research work in character training. The teachers in the classroom are directly interested in this study. So let this be their contribution to education. REPORT OF THE VICEPRESIDENT R. ROSS SMITH, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS In each conference I tried to sow the seeds of local organization by leading teachers to see that, while they might belong as individuals to their state and national bodies, the use they could make of them, the service they could render, and the influence they could have would be distinctly limited. As you read this report you will readily realize the truth of this. You will probably recall the struggles, led by leaders of great local groups of teachers, which made possible the Department of Classroom Teachers. If you do not, read the story as written by Miss Sara Fahey in the \ earbook — or if you do, read it to recall the drama of the struggle. I have in mind especially the classroom teacher group, of course. Classroom teacher leaders are de¬ veloped by doing things in their own communities ; this doing carries them into state and national leadership till finally one of them reaches the presi¬ dency of the National Education Association as did Miss Cornelia Adair in 1927 at Seattle. A superintendent, by virtue of his position of leadership in the community, may have an influence in the state and national organiza¬ tion which can come to the classroom teacher only by virtue of his organized strength. This, then, was my message to these unorganized teachers whom I met in the county institutes of Illinois and Indiana, and I reached every section of each state. I spent the month of August in my home state, Indiana — and at this point I wish to thank the county superintendents of these two states for the fine cooperation they gave in making room for me on their already crowded programs. In answer to my request I received more than fifty in¬ vitations within the space of about three days. This made many duplica¬ tions. I could only reach a limited number. My first conference was at Princeton, Ind. Here, as in other Indiana counties, I found teachers con¬ cerned with their attempt at a tenure law that had not worked — a situation which gave a need for the research department of the National Education Association. From Princeton in the southwestern part of the state I went to Bloomfield just west of the central portion, and on the way I arranged for a meeting at Vincennes, which Miss Frances Harden took care of for 358 National Education Association me later in the month, thus giving that section of the state three conferences. She also took charge of one in Salem. Peru was my next conference. From there I went to Anderson and Winchester, in each case meeting the teachers of the entire county. During the same week I spoke at Crawfordsville and Lafayette, which completed my work for August and in the state of Indiana. Shortly after school began the superintendents of several towns just west of Chicago called their teachers together after school at La Grange for a conference upon the Education Bill. Mrs. Bertha S. Armbruster, an Illinois member of the National Education Association Legislative Commission, spoke for me at that meeting. From Galena in the extreme northwestern corner of Illinois to Pinckney- ville in the extreme southwestern corner of the state — that was my record there. I held conferences at Dixon, Freeport, Belvidere, Jerseyville, Vir¬ ginia, and Springfield. Mr. A. L. Whittenberg, state director for the National Education Association, helped in all the counties that he visited as did State Superintendent Francis G. Blair, who was president of the National Education Association during 1926-27. This is my conference list in Illinois except for my talk before the Illinois State Teachers Associa¬ tion on the general program. Here I argued for the single salary. In January I held a conference with the teachers of Milwaukee, Wis. Here, too, I argued for single salary. My last conference was at Madison, Wis., with the Wisconsin Classroom Teachers’ League, and thus ends the story — twenty conferences, and for the most part with teachers in the counties of Illinois and Indiana. I have no way of measuring. I must be content to hope that I may have sowed the seeds of desire for organization, that I may have caused a few teachers to believe that they should join with their fellow teachers in local, state, and national organizations — that they should belong to the Department of Classroom Teachers of the National Education Association and take part in its activities. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY CHARLES E. SCOTT, PORTLAND, OREGON In Minneapolis last summer after consultation with Mrs. Jovnes and M iss Winn it was decided to confine my efforts this year to Oregon. It seemed best to work through the county institutes which are held in Oregon during the months of September, October, and November. In August, Mr. Carleton, the executive secretary of the Oregon State Teachers Asso¬ ciation, sent letters to the various county superintendents in which he stated that I was available for institute work. At the beginning of the school year I was transferred to another high school with new duties. This transfer necessitated a change in my plans as I could not leave my work for more than a day at a time. For this reason Department of Classroom Teachers 359 I was able to accept only three of the invitations which I received to speak at institutes. On October 4, I went to Pendleton where I spoke to the teachers of Umatilla and Wheeler counties. On October 12, I addressed the teachers of Columbia county at St. Helens. In November I went to Oregon City to speak to the teachers of Clackamas county. In my talks at these institutes, I told the teachers of the work which the National Education Association is doing for them, stressing especially The Journal, the Research Division, and the Education Bill. I also explained the purpose and organization of the Department of Classroom Teachers. Comparatively few of the teachers of Oregon belong to the National Education Association and most of them know very little of our department, in spite of the fact that we have a state organization of classroom teachers. During the Christmas holidays I went to Pocatello, Idaho, to speak before the Department of Classroom Teachers of the Idaho Education Association which was holding its meetings in that city. At the Idaho meeting I was impressed by a fact which I had previously noted at the county institutes. In our Department we have comparatively few men and what I saw may offer a partial explanation of this. At the meeting of the Department of Classroom Teachers in Pocatello, there were fifty teachers, a dozen men among them. Across the hall in another room there was a much larger group composed of athletic coaches, principals, and superintendents all in¬ terested in athletics. These state and county meetings give to these men about their only opportunity of getting together. As most of the men are engaged with athletics in some form, it follows that they seem to be more interested in this subject than in any other. On my return from Cleveland I stopped at Bozeman, Mont. At the meeting there I met three groups of teachers: Elementary and junior high school teachers under the direction of Superintendent Williams, the teach¬ ers of the County Senior High School, and the Montana State College. I found the teachers cordial and anxious to learn more of our department. They were especially interested in the News Bulletin and in the effort which the department is making for some revision in the type of courses offered by colleges to teachers who are working for degrees. As a result of the two years’ work which I have done, it seems to me that a change in our method of work in the sparsely populated states might be beneficial. There are few large cities in these states, and a conference brings together only a small number of teachers. The distances between towns are so great that much time and money is consumed in reaching them. If the money spent on conferences were used in sending out a larger number of copies of the News Bulletins, a greater number of teachers could be reached. I have been interested in watching the growth of our department. The Executive Committee has added the roundtable discussions of the various groups as a feature of the summer meeting and has instituted the publica¬ tion of the A ews Bulletin , both of which I consider forward steps. Any 360 National Education Association who have had doubts as to the efficiency of our department in promoting professional interest among teachers, would have had these doubts dispelled had they attended our conference in Cleveland last winter. It was by far the best that I have yet attended. I have enjoyed my work as secretary, and I wish to thank the members of the department for the cooperation and help which has been given to me. I also wish to thank Superintendent C. A. Rice, and the members of the School Board of Portland, who have made it possible for me to do the work which I have done, by granting to me two generous leaves of absence without loss of salary. REPORT OF WESTERN SECTION EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE MEMBER MIRIAM D. EISNER, SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA The task assigned to me by our president this year was to assemble material for the Fourth Yearbook of the Department. As this involved much time, thought, and correspondence I have not attempted to carry on much conference work. However, one conference was held in San Francisco on December 18 at a breakfast given in honor of Uel W. Lamkin, president of the National Education Association. In the name of the San Francisco Classroom Teachers Association which sponsored the affair, I greeted President Lam¬ kin and other guests. Mr. Lamkin spoke on “The Purpose of the National Education Asso¬ ciation,” Dr. J. M. Gwinn, superintendent of schools in San Francisco and president of California Teachers’ Association, spoke on the “Relation of State Associations to the National Association.” Mr. William John Cooper, then state superintendent of schools in California, greeted Mr. Lamkin. “The Importance of Teacher Training Colleges,” by Dr. Alex¬ ander Roberts, president State Teachers College, San Francisco, was dis¬ cussed. Miss Estelle Carpenter, music supervisor of San Francisco and the first National Education Association life member on the Pacific Coast, urged life membership; Miss Anna G. Fraser of Oakland, vicepresident of the National Education Association, made a plea for California to keep first place in National Education Association membership. Readers of the Yearbook will find that we have endeavored to gather material from teachers so that it will be representative of all sections of the United States, thus giving an opportunity to make constructive compari¬ sons of work accomplished, of experimental studies of Creative Work done in grade and high schools, and of professional problems. The chapter on Creative Work is in response to many requests for material on this progressive phase of school procedure. The chapter on Special Activities of Local Organizations and Profes¬ sional Problems offers the readers some interesting and helpful information on these subjects, which are of vital importance to all teachers. Department of Classroom Teachers 361 The chapter on State Organizations of Classroom Teachers offers some comprehensive information which was compiled from a questionnaire sent to state associations by Miss Agnes Winn. The Yearbook as a whole aims to present a wealth of material, useful information, and interesting work accomplished by classroom teachers. Those who contributed gave wonderful cooperation and it has been a great privilege to work with them. This is the first time that the Yearbook has been handled by a member of the Executive Committee, and as it no doubt has relieved the president from much necessary work, I hope that such relief will be given the presi¬ dent of the department in succeeding years. However, if this precedent is continued, there may be ways of improving the plan. I am suggesting a continuation of the chapters on Creative Work and on State Organizations of Classroom Teachers. REPORT OF MIDDLE SECTION EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE MEMBER EULA F. HUNTER, FORT WORTH, TEXAS What is the work of the Department of Classroom Teachers of the National Education Association? Frequently was this question asked only a few years ago by teachers themselves. Today throughout the whole of the United States this organization is regarded by both classroom teachers and administrators as being one of the greatest departments of our national organization. Teachers are deeply appreciative of the work of the depart¬ ment and of the opportunities which it affords for the study of all of the problems which confront the teachers which must be solved if teaching is to become the great profession which classroom instructors would have it be. Many subjects are being discussed in the various regional conferences. Among those subjects which I have most frequently found to be of interest are the following: The improvement of teachers certification laws, retire¬ ment remuneration, teacher tenure, the place of the classroom teacher in state and national teacher organization, publications of local teacher organi¬ zations, the basis for representation in the delegate assembly of National Education Association, and the improvement of the rural school. It was agreed that my chief work this year should be a study of Extra¬ curriculum Activities in their relation to the teacher’s daily program of work. The progress report of this work is to be found in the Fourth Year¬ book. In addition to this special committee work I have had the privilege of holding a number of conferences and of meeting with teacher organizations in large groups and in small groups, and to assist in forming new local organizations. My first aim in conferences among new groups of teachers is to acquaint them with the Department of Classroom Teachers, its plan of organization and its work. The fact that a teacher is in an unorganized group does 362 National Education Association not indicate that she has no professional zeal. More often I find that the majority of these teachers are glad of an opportunity to form a local teacher organization and it is in these smaller organizations that I find some of our best work being done for the Department of Classroom Teachers. This year my first conferences were held among groups of rural teachers wdio were meeting for the week of “teachers institute” which is held annually in some sections of Texas and Oklahoma. Early in November I was invited to talk to the teachers of Amarillo, Texas, where I found an enthusiastic group of teachers who already had planned to form an organi¬ zation and who were waiting for some one to help in working out the de¬ tails of the organization. In connection with the annual meeting of the Texas State Teachers Association which was held in San Antonio the new Texas Classroom Teachers Association held its first meeting. This was a luncheon followed by a conference. Much of the interest of the meeting centered in the topic of how to gain more representation for the classroom teachers in matters pertaining to the state association. It was largely through the efforts of this association and the results of this conference that a classroom teacher was at that meeting elected president of the Texas State Teachers Association. Other conferences have been held in Fort Worth, Dallas, and New Orleans. In each of these cities I found large, well-organized groups, each with its specific problems and each interested in those larger professional problems which concern all people who would make of teaching a great profession. REPORT OF EASTERN SECTION EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE MEMBER SARA H. FAHEY, BROOKLYN, NEW YORK At the Minneapolis meeting of the Department of Classroom Teachers I was honored by being made its choice for Eastern Executive Member. Since the voters had faith enough in my fitness to elect me to this important office, I am very desirous to do all that is in my power to further, through the department, the professional interests, local and national, of our great teaching body. The work of holding conferences with teachers has always been a pleasurable one for me as it is so sure to be stimulating and educative. My first formal department work, at the opening of the new school year, was to address the teachers of the Girls Commercial High School, Brooklyn. I reviewed the work of the National Education Association convention with special stress on the aims and activities of the department. At the October meeting of the High School Teachers Association of New York City, I spoke to the members on the same theme, and urged them to be well repre¬ sented at the Atlanta meeting. The Board of Education of New York City kindly voted to grant me a leave of absence without loss of salary, from February 21 to March 4, to Department of Classroom Teachers 363 attend the meetings of the Executive Committee in Cleveland during the convention of the Department of Superintendence, and to hold conferences with teachers. Miss Agnes Winn, director of Classroom Service, arranged for a con¬ ference with the Syracuse Teachers Association on my return trip. A most impressive meeting of about thirteen hundred teachers was held under the auspices of this association. During my stay here, I spoke also before the Men’s Service Club of the Syracuse M. E. Church on “Some Fallacies in the Public Mind Regarding the Teaching Profession.” I dealt with the subject from taxpayers’ point of view, and their responsibilities. In their discussions, these men showed understanding sympathy with teachers generally. I reviewed the work of the Cleveland convention with several unorgan¬ ized groups in New York City, and in Connecticut, but the next oppor¬ tunity to address an organization of teachers was afforded me in March in New Haven, Conn., at the annual meeting of the Connecticut State Teachers Federation, which represents twenty-nine local organizations, or six thousand teachers. Here I discussed the value of membership in the National Education Association, the assistance obtained through the reports issued as a result of its research work, and urged affiliation with our department. I explained also the arrangements for the Atlanta Meeting, and discussed some of the details of the cost of the trip, and the arrangements for the comforts of the delegates. Miss Daisy Lord, president of the Waterbury Teachers Association, who was present, invited me to address that organization in April. The meeting was held in the auditorium of their magnificent new high school, with about five hundred in attendance consisting of the city superintendent, supervisors and teachers of the public and parochial schools, and also some teachers from Naugatuck, Watertown, and Union City. This group gave me a hearty welcome, and showed themselves to be a most appreciative audience. The teachers of Waterbury were very successful in a recent salary cam¬ paign. Their association made an extended study of salary conditions in cities of similar size and standing. The results convinced the board of education that the teachers were not receiving justice. A pleasing feature of it was that some members who had not sought an increase were raised to conform with the salaries for that type of work in other cities. A most democratic attitude and a cooperative spirit prevails among superintendent, supervisors, and teachers. In April, I spoke before the Ansonia, Conn., Teachers League to an audience of about two hundred and fifty teachers. Later in April, I held a conference under the auspices of the Stratford, Conn., Teachers League at the high school. The questions discussed in all of these meetings, aside from those already mentioned, were: Tenure, conditions of work, adequate salary, just retire- 364 National Education Association ment laws, teachers’ organizations, and publications. The interest mani¬ fested in all of these topics indicates an active awakening among teachers as to issues that are vital, and as to the need of strong organizations. These meetings with my colleagues have been inspiring to me, and I wish to say, in closing, that I am grateful to the members of the department for giving me this privilege. SECRETARY'S MINUTES First Session, Monday Afternoon, July 1, 1929 The first session of the Department of Classroom Teachers was held at the Tabernacle Baptist Church at Atlanta, Ga., on Monday, July 1, at 2 p. m. The meeting was called to order by the president, Mrs. Edith B. Joynes. The following program was presented, after which the assembly divided into three discussion groups: Music — Harp Ensemble Directors — Mrs. Mary Griffith Dobbs and Mrs. Margie Keelin Griffith Address Martha M. Berry, Director, Berry Schools, Mount Berry, Ga. Teachers and World Peace Jeannette Rankin, Former Congressw’oman from Montana, New York City Discussion Group A — Elementary Education The meeting of the elementary education discussion group was called to order at 3 p. m. by the presiding officer, Miriam D. Eisner, member of the Executive Com¬ mittee of the department. Florence M. Dickinson, president, Camden Teachers Association, Camden, N. J., acted as chairman and the following program was presented : Teacher Participation Lois Coffey Mossman, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City Teacher Participation Through Curriculum Revision Georgia W. Aiken, President, Cincinnati Teachers Association, Cincin¬ nati, Ohio Teacher Participation Through Civic Contacts Lula Mock, President, Dallas Grade Teachers Council, Dallas, Texas Teacher Participation Through Determination of Standards of Certifi¬ cation F. Blanche Preble, Teacher, Chicago, Ill. Open Forum Discussion Group B — High-School Education The high-school education discussion group was called to order at 3 p. m. by the presiding officer, Charles E. Scott, secretary of the department. The following program was presented: Teacher Participation Daisy Lord, President, Waterbury Teachers Association, Waterbury, Conn. Teacher Participation Through Curriculum Revision Rush M. Caldwell, President, Texas State Teachers Association, Dallas, Texas Department of Classroom Teachers 365 Teacher Participation in Administration Gertrude Burke, Teacher, Syracuse, N. Y. Teacher Participation in Legislative Problems J. W. Vickerman, President, Cleveland Teachers Federation, Cleveland, Ohio Teacher Participation Through Social Contacts Nettie Rankin Bolland, Teacher, High School of Commerce, Portland, Ore. Open Forum Discussion Group C — Rural Education In the absence of the presiding officer, R. Ross Smith, the president appointed Eula F. Hunter, member of the Executive Committee of the department, to preside at the meeting of the rural education discussion group. The meeting was called to order at 3 p. m. The room was well filled by teachers who manifested much in¬ terest in the subjects discussed. The principal address, “The Participation of the Rural School Teacher in Determining the Rural School Curriculum,” was given by Florence M. Hale, state supervisor of rural schools, Augusta, Maine. This was followed by a brief discussion of a number of problems pertaining to rural school work. Second Session, Wednesday Afternoon, July 3, 1929 * The business meeting of the department was called to order on Wednesday, July 3, by the president, Mrs. Edith B. Joynes. The first order of business was the reports of officers. In giving her report as executive committee member, Eula F. Hunter spoke of her work as chairman of the Committee on Extracurriculum Activities as Related to Teacher Load. She called attention to the report of this committee which appears in the Fourth Yearbook. A motion to adopt the report and allow the committee to continue its work was seconded and carried. Charles E. Scott, secretary of the department, told briefly of his work and spoke of the use of the News Bulletin in reaching teachers in rural districts. In the absence of Miss Eisner, who was making preparations for the dinner that evening. Mrs. Joynes told of Miss Eisner's work in assembling the material for the Fourth Y earhook. Mrs. Joynes mentioned the advantage of selecting a member of the executive committee to assemble the yearbook material, leaving the president free to carry on other department work. In the absence of R. Ross Smith, the vicepresident, who found it impossible to remain for the meeting, Mrs. Joynes commented on the work he had done in the many conferences which he held. Sara H. Fahey gave a brief account of her work as executive committee member for the eastern section. The Report of the Committee on Revision of the Constitution was given by the chairman, Christine Jacobsen of Los Angeles. A motion to adopt the following changes was carried: Article V, Section 3, after “such proposed expenditures are to be made” in first sentence add, “except that the executive committee shall have the power to reappor¬ tion such funds when necessary.” To Article VI, Section 1, add, “Former members of the executive committee may be authorized to conduct regional conferences in their respective localities by the president with the consent of the other members of the executive committee.” To Article VII after first sentence add, “Business sessions shall be open to class¬ room teachers only.” From Article VIII omit “or by unanimous consent of the members of any annual meeting when notice of the proposed amendment has not been filed with the secre¬ tary and published as herein provided.” 366 National Education Association Jean L. Soules, past president of the department, gave a few words of greeting and called attention to the report on the study of class size in the primary grades, which is printed in the Fourth Yearbook. The next order of business was the report of the Committee on Resolutions, of which Nell E. Lain of Kansas City, Mo., acted as chairman. After a discussion of the report the following resolutions were adopted: Resolutions Entrance requirements — We reaffirm our support of higher requirements for certification of teachers in order to raise the professional status of the classroom teacher and improve the quality of the teaching service. Tenure — We favor an indefinite tenure following a probationary period. Rating — In order that improvement in service may result from ratings by super¬ visors, principals, and others, we recommend that every teacher be given a dupli¬ cate copy of his rating sheet. We are opposed to the practise of rating as a basis for salary. Contention attendance — Because of the vital importance to the classroom teacher of convention attendance, we call the attention of directors of summer schools for teachers,* and of summer sessions of colleges and universities to the value of so arranging their work as not to deprive their students of the opportunity of attend¬ ing the meetings of the National Education Association. Education Bill — We endorse the establishment of a Department of Education with a Secretary in the President’s Cabinet and the efficient integration of the educational activities of the federal government in this department. La* v enforcement — We regret that in many communities there has developed a spirit of disregard of laws, and endorse the efforts of those administrators who are seeking to establish law enforcement. Netos Bulletin — We recommend that there should be an increase in the number of copies of the NetJS Bulletin published in order to supply all affiliated groups. N. E. A. Journal — We recommend that every effort be made to secure a larger proportion of space in the N. E. A. Journal devoted to problems of classroom teachers from the standpoint of classroom teachers. Curriculum — We favor a revised curriculum that will develop in each individual child his abilities to their fullest and at the same time fit him for a place in a new economic society; that will awaken in the pupil a realization of his responsibility as a citizen; that will emphasize health and character development throughout the entire school system; and that will recognize the great human waste of trying to force boys and girls to accomplish impossible tasks. Professional improvement — We approve of the efforts to eliminate as nearly as possible the use of the time of a professionally trained teacher for making mechani¬ cal tabulations that could be well done by a less highly trained worker, and to emphasize the spending of more time on professional work. More recognition should be allowed for achievement and more freedom given in the selection of work done for professional selfimprovement, so that narrow college requirements leading to degrees should not limit the training by requiring experienced teachers to study subjects unrelated to their work and uninteresting to them. This is not meant to curtail the broadening influence of a wide educational training. Professional spirit — We support the development of a professional spirit en¬ couraging greater participation by teachers in teacher organization work. Department of Classroom Teachers 367 Salary schedule — We believe in equal salaries for all teachers of equivalent training and experience, so as to decrease the waste of placing teachers according to a salary schedule and to promote their happiness and the good of the children. In preparation of salary schedules where the single salary schedule is planned, proper recognition of preparation and experience should be expressed in terms of substantial differentials of salaries. Teacher participation — In the course of years of direct and intimate contact with childhood, the classroom teacher accumulates much knowledge regarding the needs of children which should be made available for the furtherance of the aims of edu¬ cation. Therefore we recommend that a closer relationship should be encouraged between the schoolboard, the administrative department, and the classroom teachers in the administration of school affairs, through some form of advisor}’ organization of classroom teachers making it possible for classroom teachers to assume their share of responsibility in determining and carrying out school policies. Retirement — We endorse legislation providing for a fair and just retirement of teachers, a retirement in which the state participates on an equal basis with the teacher. We believe that a sound plan for this purpose will contribute greatly to the growth and the stability of the teaching profession, and that it will provide for a more adequate instruction for the children by taking care of those teachers who are unable to continue their active work. IVorld peace — Since “World Peace” depends upon a mutual understanding of lives, industries, and ideals of the peoples of the world, we recommend that a survey be made by the Classroom Department of all available material for the teaching of World Goodwill through common school subjects, special school pro¬ grams, special projects, and visual education, and that the results be published and made available to teachers. Appreciation to Atlanta — We recommend that an expression of our deepest appreciation be extended to all of the citizens of Atlanta for the most outstanding “southern hospitality” which has made our stay in Atlanta a perfectly satisfactory experience filled with joy, sunshine, and flowers of sweetest service. We add a special tribute to the children of Atlanta who together with their teachers have made the educators of the entire country their friends and coworkers. The election of officers was the next order of business. Mrs. Joynes appointed the following tellers: Olga Erickson, Julia Sullivan, and Clarence L. Olson. Eula F. Hunter, Fort Worth, Texas, was nominated for president and unanimously elected. James P. Barron, Atlanta, Ga., was nominated for vicepresident and unanimously elected. Faye Read, Pueblo, Colo., was nominated for secretary and unanimously elected. Frances E. Harden, Chicago, Ill., and Georgia Aiken, Cincinnati, Ohio, were nominated for executive committee member for the middle section. Miss Harden was elected. Mrs. Joynes gave a brief report of her work as president. She announced that the teachers of ungraded classes voted to join the department and a discussion group will be conducted for these teachers at the next annual meeting. A motion of appreciation of the services of the retiring president was made and carried. A motion was also carried expressing appreciation of the services of Mr. Smith of Chicago, and Mr. Scott of Portland, the two retiring members of the executive committee. 368 National Education Association It was moved, seconded, and carried that the secretary write to the various schoolboards expressing appreciation of their cooperation in releasing the officers from school duties in order to carry on department work. The recommendations of the president as printed on page 192 of the Fourth Yearbook were adopted. The meeting was adjourned. Annual Dinner, Wednesday Evening, July 3, 1929 The seventh annual dinner was held on the terrace of the Atlanta Biltmore Hotel at 6 oclock. A program of negro spirituals was given during the banquet by the pupils from the Booker T. Washington High School of Atlanta. The principal speaker was the noted sculptor, Lorado Taft, of the Chicago Art Institute, who spoke on “My Dream Museum.” More than a thousand were in attendance. The Department of Deans of Women HE DEPARTMENT OF DEANS OF WOMEN (National Association of Deans of Women) associated itself with the National Education Association in 1918. Its meeting is first reported in Proceed¬ ings , 1918:391-417. The officers of the Department for the year 1929- 30 are: President , Thyrsa W. Amos, Dean of Women, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa.; First Vice-president, Helen M. Smith, Dean, College for Women, Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio; Second Vicepresident , Dorothy Stimson, Dean, Goucher College, Baltimore, Md. ; Secretary , Mary W. Sawyer, Dean of Girls, High School, Brookline, Mass.; Treasurer , Lydia I. Jones, Dean of Women, Michigan State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich.; Headquarters Secretary , Gwladys W. Jones, 1634 Eye St., Washington, D. C. Facts relating to the establishment of this Depart¬ ment and records of its meetings will be found in earlier Proceedings , as follows : 1918 :391-417 1921 :407-420 1924 :500-536 1927 :391-418 1919 :393-426 1922 :693-793 1925 :403-449 1928 :353-374 1920:357-364 1923:621-636 1926:423-457 [ 370 ] THE ART OF INTERVIEWING MABEL C. LYTTON, ASSOCIATE DEAN OF WOMEN, SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY, SYRACUSE, N. Y. The fields of employment and social case work have contributed a fairly generous fund of literature on the subject which we are now about to discuss — more considerable than is to be found in the literature of the field of education. This probably is due to the fact that the interview as a part of the technic of personnel procedure is comparatively recent when viewed from the standpoint of the length of time it has been used in the other fields just mentioned. There is nothing new about the interview as a tool. Deans of women have recognized its value and employed it since the earliest day of the profession. The physician, the lawyer, the minister find it one of the essentials in the practise of their professions. While all interviews, no matter what the field, have certain common psychological factors, processes are not identical be¬ cause purposes are varied ; and while the interview as a technic in the per¬ sonnel departments of the field of education may have grown out of the recognition of its value to other fields, this discussion will be limited to a consideration of the interview in our own profession. Counseling and advice have been the individual’s fortune during the entire period of his formal training, but it has been only within the past ten years, since the development of personnel departments with their programs, that the inter¬ view has developed as a special phase of procedure calling for a group of workers who can devote more time to the individual student than the more casual approach to her needs can offer. And so the increasing appreciation of the importance of the interview as a tool for understanding and assisting the student is being recognized and with this is appearing a small body of writ¬ ing, analytical and interpretative, of interviewing as an art. Someone has said that the act of interviewing is much less difficult than is the analysis of how the art is practised. Another writer has questioned the wisdom of attempting to analyze the art only to face the reply that certain processes are used by all in whole or in part, and why, therefore, not bring them to the front where we may direct attention to them. The place — The artist in any field seeks to create an environment which will react favorably upon the individuals who enter it. In part the art of interviewing involves the place in which the interview is held. For most of us in the departments of personnel, our offices will be used as the setting for the interview. Consideration of the details of the surroundings in which the interview occurs is important ; for the influence of environment is as significant a factor in this situation as in any other. It is desirable that the office be attractive and comfortable, with a suggestion of composure rather than that of business and hustle. Glaring windows, stiff and uncomfortable chairs, and bare walls generally do not create an environment in which people feel at ease. Desks cluttered with papers, reports, and correspond- [371] 372 National Education Association ence suggest to the student the interviewer’s lack of time for her call, with a subsequent effect upon the freedom of the interview. The interviewer — The interview involves two people, and its success is as dependent on one as on the other. It must be remembered that the student is as eager to interpret the personality of the interviewer as the latter is to more thoroughly understand the former. Long range observations may result in either favorable or unfavorable impressions which will be strength¬ ened or changed by more intimate contacts. One medium for the interpreta¬ tion of personality is the surroundings in which the individual moves. Further evidence of the personality of the interviewer will be revealed to the student by the personal appearance of the former. None of the advice given to any other person whose vocation brings her in close contact with aspiring young women can be overlooked by the interviewer. Neatness, cleanliness, and good judgment in dress are factors of much importance. Evidences of the interviewer’s vigor of mind and body react favorably upon the interviewee. The interviewer will, therefore, profit by not undertaking an interview when she is overtired. She should discover also how many inter¬ views she can have in one day without becoming so weary that she fails to contribute her share to the interest of the situation and to direct the inter¬ view into significant channels. The student will be very conscious of evidences of sincerity and sympathy in the interviewer’s reactions to the former’s statements. The student’s freedom and spontaneity during the interview depend very greatly upon her feeling that she has found some one who understands her. She will resent having ideas which are very important to her laughed at and cast aside as insignificant. Even the freshman who thinks she wishes to be a librarian, but who would relieve the severeness of rows of books and stiff tables and chairs, and give them atmosphere by planting a gift shop in the heart of them, has a right to have her point of view respected. The interviewer is fortunate who balances her more serious qualities with a sense of humor which not infrequently will prove her greatest asset. Also her calmness and poise must suggest to the student that there is no time limit to the interview with her, no matter how great may be the pressure of other duties; that she may remain as long as she wishes and talk as freely as she desires. As a final quality, but by no means an insignificant one, the interviewer must have a great interest in human nature. The observation of the nature of the student’s conditioned responses growing out of her native environ¬ ment, the environment itself, her present surroundings and reactions to them, her outlook for the future, must all prove stimulating and challenging to the interviewer. Interview voluntary — That interview will always be more successful which is sought by the student voluntarily. In the case of the first interview, particularly, the element of compulsion is apt to produce a feeling of fear of the experience with its accompanying restraint. If the student seeks the Department of Deans of Women 373 interview, the interviewer is relieved of any suspicion on the student’s part that the former is acting in the capacity of a disciplinary officer. It is our own practise to bring the attention of the women of the freshman class to the fact that an opportunity is offered them for contact with some one who is in a position to give them more personal attention than it is generally possible for either the deans of their schools, or for the individual faculty members with whom they may have formed an acquaintance ; that the counselors in the department of personnel for women are eager to know them, since it exists for the purpose of counseling and assisting them in making their adjustments to the campus in matters pertaining to their academic problems, to their social relationships, and to their vocational interests and possibilities. We encourage them to feel that at any time they wish they may make an appointment to become acquainted with this department and use it thereafter as often as they find it advisable and helpful. The result of such an an¬ nouncement has been that the students have sought us more rapidly than our present facilities have been able to care for them. Interview private — The reaction of the individual to his environment when he is alone is not the same as it is when he is accompanied by another. Therefore the presence of a third party in the interview is undesirable, since this one becomes a factor in creating a very different situation from that in which two people are found. The result is that there is an evident lack of freedom and spontaneity during the progress of the interview. Both parties are conscious constantly of the presence of the third. It would be advan¬ tageous to have a secretary record the interview verbatim did not her pres¬ ence in the room constitute an interference. It is a serious handicap to the progress of the interview if there are such interruptions as telephone calls, or announcements of various kinds by one’s secretary. Such interruptions break the trend of thought and become time consumers, since they delay the advance of the interview towards its climax. Methods — It is generally recognized that the personal interview exists by virtue of the fact that something still needs to be done for the student after all other resources used for his and society’s welfare have been exhausted. Physical examinations, intelligence tests, batteries of vocational tests, achievement tests, all represent expertness in scientific procedure in apprais¬ ing the individual student. The social impulse still retains its supremacy over whatever scientific and technical methods may be resorted to in the pursuit of efficiency. The impersonal and mechanical elements present in a strictly scientific approach to the problem of understanding any particular student have brought recognition of the fact that a valuable contribution results to both student and adviser in a situation in which “things can he talked over.” How, then, may this be done that the most satisfactory results may be experienced by both parties in the situation ? When the student enters the office, the interviewer’s first problem is that of helping the former feel at ease in the situation. If the student has not learned something about the interview from others, she may be apprehensive or she 374 National Education Association may approach it with indifference. Any preconceived notion of it may be favorable or unfavorable. The interviewer should be aware of this fact, her awareness being perhaps the first step in the direction of meeting the situation. The details of “get¬ ting set” for the interview will vary in each case because the factors present will never be the same. There will be various ways of establishing rapport with the student, depending upon the personality of the student and of the interviewer. An expression of hospitality will be perhaps one of the easiest approaches in which the student may be asked to remove her wraps and be seated. There may be comments on the coming social events, on where the student is living, on her vacations, and so on. A limited amount of time should be required to put the student at her ease, which is the beginning of establishing en rapport. Achieving the latter is a continuous process, since now it may be attained, now lost. The interviewer should readily ob¬ serve when it is lost and direct the interview into channels where it is regained. Method in interviewing brings to our attention the fact that the procedure of no two interviewers will be identical. Individual differences will be as evident in a study of interviewer’s technic as in a study of any other type of performance, and we are once again reminded that we are now entering a held quite unexplored so far as a body of scientific knowledge is concerned. Methods of interviewing should never be such that the interview may be said to partake of the elements of an inquisition from which the interviewee withdraws subdued and depressed ; nor must they suggest the confessional in which the interview becomes chiefly a medium for the expression of high moral principles, with the attendant advice for their realization. Unfruitful will be methods that result in an interview creating the kind of situation which provokes undue expression of sympathies and emotions, and again, they must be more effective than to produce an interview which partakes chiefly of the superficiality of pleasant conversation. The interviewer should recognize a purpose in each interview. She should distinguish also between the reason for the interview and its purpose. If the reason for it is a case of social maladjustment, the purpose quite naturally will be to discover why the maladjustment exists. She should expect each interview to progress from its initial stages, through a rising interest to a climax followed by a conclusion. While the time element should not seem to the student to be a factor in the interview, the artistic quality of the situation is lost if the interview is prolonged until it ceases to produce any¬ thing new or significant. Opinions vary as to whether each individual interview shall seem im¬ promptu in nature or whether greater results are obtained by following a previously devised standard interview" blank. A discussion of this point must take account again of the reason for the interview. An interview form may be used very successfully in the initial interview of accumulative record. Sub¬ sequent interviews occasioned by academic problems, by conduct, or by voca- Department of Deans of Women 375 tional problems will, as a result of their varied nature, require much freedom in ways of approach. The ease of the situation will be disturbed by the interviewer’s note-taking during the progress of the interview. If she observes notations of what she says the student is apt to be fearful that she has said the wrong thing. Such a feeling will result in a caution that will interfere with a continued freedom of expression. Of course, no interview is complete until a summary of the salient points of the interview have been reduced to writing. The inter¬ viewer’s power of discrimination will be given a test in this phase of the art of interviewing, since some facts will be significant, others not. What the student actually says is of far more consequence than the interviewer’s opinions of what she said. Opinions which the interviewer has formed during the interview may be kept by her for her own future reference, but should be used sparingly, indeed, in any written reports of the interview for the cumulative material. Time should be allowed the interviewer for this report before another interview is begun. It is unfair to a student to have other than the most accurate statements of her interview preserved. It is quite impossible for the interviewer to recall accurately what any one student has said if she has conducted several interviews in succession before she has had time to sum¬ marize each one. While the dual nature of the interview must never be ignored, it must be remembered that students are very much pleased to talk about them¬ selves and that the interviewer knows her art who encourages the student’s free expression of herself, of her ambitions, and of her problems. This is one occasion when even the freshman should find full satisfaction in having all the attention directed toward herself. There are times when the interviewer should slip into the background, an attentive listener watch¬ ing her cues for renewed participation or for directing the interview into purposeful channels. After the counselor has considered all the more specific purposes in having an interview with a student, she should keep constantly before her the great general purpose of giving the student inspiration, selfreliance, and courage. Methods which result in coddling the individual and in creating a feeling of dependence upon another should be recognized and carefully avoided. Until specific points arise calling for the advice of an expert in a particular field, the student should find the interview stimulating and productive of renewed interest on her part in making investigations for herself concern¬ ing the most fruitful means of arriving at a particular goal. For instance, it is far more wholesome for the student to browse around in the literature on vocations for women in pursuit of her vocational possibilities and pros¬ pects and for the purpose of obtaining information than for her to be ad¬ vised definitely to follow this or that vocation because tests or superficial interest indicate what she should do. Of course, sooner or later the time will come for giving definite vocational and educational advice, but certainly not until the student has done some analytical thinking for herself. 376 National Education Association In our own plan as conceived and initiated by Dr. Iva Peters, we have a group of four advisers who meet the freshmen women individually in the use of the standard interview blank, which is the first step in the collection of our cumulative record for the four years of her university life. Once the contact is established with our office, the student has formed an acquaintance with a service department which she is encouraged to use as often as she wishes and to which we find her frequently returning. WHAT THE DEAN LIVES' BY MARY ROSS POTTER, COUNSELOR FOR WOMEN, NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY, EVANSTON, ILL. Sometimes she seems to live by the skin of her teeth, or the sweat of her brow; and often, when the day comes to its close, and the discrepan¬ cies between the program with which she started courageously forth and the real day’s occupations loom large in her consciousness, she seems to herself to live largely by main strength and awkwardness. It reminds me of a restaurant where students consorted at meal time in my college days on Beacon Hill. It was interesting to give your order and then see what you got. So a dean’s accomplishment is like a run of fever in one regard at least — it cannot be adequately judged by the day’s gains or losses; its trends and its achievements must be viewed over longer periods of time in order to be fairly evaluated. Our program chairman must have had some such thought as this in mind in choosing as speaker for this particular topic one who, dean-ologically speaking, dates back well toward the year one, and has had opportunity certainly to estimate the wTork of the position over sufficiently long periods of time. But do not be alarmed. I have no thought of going back to the beginning of the world ; not even of the dean’s world. Furthermore, confronted as I am by a company of splen¬ didly successful deans of younger years, my thought turns warningly to the text of a sermon that I once heard : “Wisdom is gray hairs and old age is learning. How old art thou?” The discussion of this topic will be its best part, and to you younger deans we all shall look for construc¬ tive suggestion. I take my topic to mean something to this effect : Is there, running through the day’s turmoil, such a thing as an underlying principle in the work of a dean of women; a principle which should command her un¬ swerving loyalty and from the upholding of which she may derive her real satisfactions? What does the dean live by? Not by odd jobs, at least not of her own choice. Not by routine. There must be routine, of course; routine until sometimes she feels as if she were the janitor, with her chief occupation merely making the wheels go round. She must attend to many duties of administration, including varying amounts of responsibility in matters academic ; she must supervise the social life of the campus ; she must have Department of Deans of Women 377 an oversight of the extracurriculum activities; and there is the ever present question of housing. But routine cannot supply the bread of life to either student or dean, and her vision must reach beyond the mere machinery. The American college of liberal arts is, I believe, unique among the educational systems of the world. Its purpose is not, primarily, to impart a fund of knowledge which shall be usable professionally or vocationally, but rather to develop in rounded fashion the powers of the individual, with growth in sterling qualities of character as one of the prime ends to be attained. I say one of the prime ends, even though glibly we often assert character building to be the main purpose of the college of liberal arts; for, what with our highly specialized professors and, often, the many lines of work incumbent upon faculty members, and the ever-present fact that “what is everybody’s business is nobody’s business,” it is not strange if the “supreme importance of the moral personality” fails of maintaining always the front line in every day’s program, even though every individual professor acknowledges that supreme importance. My first point is that the dean of women is a unit of the educational staff, with her field the field of character building, and her laboratory the daily life of the student. Each instructor is interested in this field, to be sure, many a one eagerly and actively so ; but, even so, his specialty is English or mathematics or science, and the development of character is a byproduct. It goes without saying that from the point of view of either the instructor or the dean, on the sound principle of “first things first,” the first concern of the student must be his studies; but the by¬ product of the instructor becomes the special field and the real respon¬ sibility of the dean of women. By the contribution made to character, not merely to the more tangible virtues but to the power of discrimination and to that subtle element, tone, she judges everything on the campus, from the conduct of examinations to the candy table which fills the coffers of the Y. W. C. A. ; from financial campaigns for the sister college in China to the beauty contest in the college annual ; from choice of a major or even of an elective to college politics and the college circus. Surely every activity of the student should be judged for its value by the effect upon the doer in the doing, and never by any other end to be accom¬ plished, however worthy that end might be in itself. Students will not get this point of view, always; and faculty members may not get it, always; till sometimes the dean finds herself combating many opposing forces in her effort to pull the standards ever a little higher. “This is what society at large is accepting” they say; or, “There is no use trying to enforce something that the students will not accept.” I wonder whether some of you have had the experience which has been mine all too many times, of securing what seemed to be a fairly good step in advance, only to learn later that, if I had had the courage to suggest it, the students would have been ready to go the whole way. It is not Utopian to expect to meet a response from the higher side of human nature. But suppose they are not ready. Suppose they have no vision beyond that 378 National Education Association of the home community, where purposes are at variance, interests are con¬ flicting, and the grim necessity of making a living looms large. Here in college is a body of young people, a veritable mass of youth, lured hither, in the main, by a single purpose, namely, to grow; confidently expected by parents and communities to bring back something of finer quality than community or home could give. Is the college which surrounds its stu¬ dents with influences merely not inferior to those outside, not failing in both its opportunity and its obligation ? There are instances of approval from without of this stand for high ideals, notably the decision of the court a few years ago which upheld a dean of women who was instrumental in removing a group of young women from a teachers’ college for an in¬ dulgence not in any sense criminal. The victory for ideals is the greater for the fact that the indulgence in question is not even universally con¬ demned. One of these young women brought suit against the institution. The court decided against the plaintiff, and the dean of women was commended for demanding on the part of the teachers of the youth of the state allegiance to those virtues which make for a finer grain in life. This was a teacher’s college ; but shall the school which aspires to develop its students along broader lines than those of a single profession, and to send them forth with a foundation for any honorable walk in life, be satisfied with something short of the fine sense of values which, in the cold eye of the law, the teacher should have? That our present standards are right and final we have no assurance ; that marked changes in social sanctions are ahead one cannot doubt. The problem of knowing just when to stiffen is not easy; but we can at least draw a line between the pathway that leads to true freedom and the momentary and selflimiting satisfac¬ tion of license. In the words of Mrs. Bvrd Arnold Smith, ‘‘Freedom is not inherited, nor is it given to man; he must achieve it for himself. Free¬ dom is personality in control.” My second point follows closely: the relation of the dean of women to the personality of the individual student. Education cannot be adminis¬ tered, like taxes or tear gas, to crowds ; rather it must be evolved by the individual through personal relationships, and it is interesting to note the various ways in which institutions, as they grow large, are combating the influence of numbers and striving to keep the personal touch. Was it President King, of Oberlin, who said, “Character must be caught, not taught?” The personal touch must be kept; and, by deputy or other¬ wise, it can be kept. But what does the college mean by personal touch? Am I to endeavor to impress my personality on a student? Far from it. If she may not stand solidly on her own two feet in her search for char¬ acter, she will have a sorry time achieving an integrated personality. Should I not rather be concerned to see her grounded firmly along her own best lines, and growing into consciousness of her own worth as a unit in society? To resort to mere handling of a student in an effort to resolve a situation, in the slightest degree to let the end justify the means, is to violate a personality. To wheedle or coddle or threaten or otherwise Department of Deans of Women 379 maneuver a student into acquiescence is to violate a personality. Meet him squarely. The student of today knows how to face facts, and even to face discipline if its application to his particular case is clear to him. He resents discipline whose application is vague or of only general and diluted significance. If discipline is directed toward giving the student an equipment for evaluating the significance, in terms of basic principles, of the trends of his behavior, he will accept it. Count Keyserling com¬ pares the part which the spiritually conscious and selfgoverning life plays for man to the tuned instrument for the musician. “One can play only on tightened strings.” And by discipline I mean all the broad construc¬ tive program at any point where it turns counter to the immediate desire of the student. There is no place for sheer penalty, for the thing which Edith Wharton so strikingly calls “sterile pain,” in today’s scheme of edu¬ cation. That, though time was when it was administered conscientiously, is hard indeed on personality. To see our young women, then, go purposefully and happily through their college years; to see them and, we trust, to help them grow into per¬ sonalities which are fine and true and loyal to those principles which make, in very truth, for the abundant life — is that not something to live by t AN INTERPRETATIVE STUDY OF THE PERSONAL BACK¬ GROUND OF STUDENTS IN STATE TEACHERS COL¬ LEGES AS A BASIS FOR DETERMINING FACTORS FOR INSTITUTIONAL LIFE M. LEDGE MOFFETT, DEAN OF WOMEN, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, EAST RADFORD, VA. The material which forms the basis of this report has been collected as a part of the data to be used in an extensive study of the personal expe¬ riences and habits of students in teachers colleges. The entire study is an effort to determine some criteria for the evaluation of extraclass activi¬ ties in teacher-training institutions. This report, as given today, is a provisional summary of part three of the study, the figures used are based on the returns from six colleges located in Virginia, West Virginia, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, and Illinois. The data for the study are being collected from fifteen representative teachers colleges located in different sections of the country. The stu¬ dents used are a random sample of freshmen and students who have com¬ pleted practise teaching in these institutions. The data are assembled by means of an inventory of social contacts which the students are asked to check according to a number scheme of evaluation. The inventory in¬ cludes four major sections: first, a check list of leisure and work activities; second, a check list of clubs and organizations; third, a questionnaire and check list of personal information, including family and communin' rela¬ tionships, household furnishings, education, religion, travel experiences ; fourth, a check list and evaluation of enjoyment of certain types of books. 380 National Education Association magazines, newspapers, art, music, moving pictures and theatrical per¬ formances. It is planned to complete the study and have it ready for distribution by the fall of 1929. The transition period from normal school to teacher college has been marked by many changes in the popular conception of what constitutes a trained teacher. The slogan, popularized a few years ago by educational leaders, “a trained teacher in every classroom,” has been attained so effec¬ tively in many of our cities and states that it may now be changed to “a selected and trained teacher in every classroom.” This new selective element is challenging the best thinking of those engaged in teacher train¬ ing. A four-year course in a teachers college can give the professional training demanded by the public school authorities, if it maintains a faculty capable of meeting the changing conceptions of modern education and meets the standards of the professional accrediting agencies. To supply, however, those more subtle and intangible elements of personal quality which make a graduate acceptable to an employing agent cannot be so easily solved. The superintendent seeking a new teacher wants personality, whatever that may be ; he wants a teacher who is a compeer to the best people of his community; he wants character, he wants a teacher whose personal appearance is attractive ; he desires one who acts as if he knows what to do in the situations which arise in his contacts with other people. So insistent are these desires that they are rapidly becoming an actual require¬ ment for admission to the teaching profession. The teachers college must recognize them and prepare to develop them. Various schemes have been tried. Each has contributed something toward the solution of this problem, all have revealed a new phase in the difficulty of its solution. First, the curriculums have been extended and made to include more and better professionalized content subjects; second, greater emphasis has been placed on extraclass activities, students have been permitted to imitate liberal arts colleges and universities until the campus is a veritable beehive, swarming with activities of every conceivable nature. A study of thirty-nine handbooks, for the current year, published by the students of teachers colleges presents an array of 632 organizations, all of which greet the new student and urge him for the sake of himself “be loyal to his Alma Mater,” “learn to cooperate,” “develop leadership,” “get something no class in the curriculum can give,” “be happy while in college.” The presence of this multitude of activities on the campus is silent evidence of the students’ search for that something which seems essential to personal development. Third, practically all of the teachers colleges now have a dean of women, whose primary function is to deal with the personal and individual problems of college living. Other col¬ leges have supplemented the work of this administrative officer with a bureau of personnel; a director of extracurriculum activities; a department of psychiatric treatment. Fourth, still other colleges have tried to debar the problem from their campuses by using one or more of these plans: instituting entrance standards of selection for freshmen students, demand¬ ing a higher intelligence quotient in their student body, admitting students Department of Deans of Women 381 from only the upper half of high school classes, requiring a personal inter¬ view or using certain character and attitude tests. This policy, however, is not meeting with universal favor for state institutions and forces back to the college the need of a program for personal development of the student within the college. Whether this program should include an extension or elimination of present policies no one knows. What it shall include; what the method of its administration shall be, in fact, the ultimate goal itself, are subjects which challenge research and careful study of the findings. This seems, therefore, to justify a more careful and detailed study of the student mate¬ rial with which the college has to work. The freshman as he enters is the raw material to be shaped into an individual possessed of all the per¬ sonal and professional qualities now required of the teaching group. Who are the teachers college students ; whence do they come ; what are the controling personal experiences which they have had? What can be assumed or taken for granted in the program for their future develop¬ ment? Psychologists more and more are accepting the theory that, apart from nature, our character and personality are the integration of our re¬ sponses to the situations which have arisen in our experiences. These experiences are largely controled by the environment, physical and social, in which we have lived ; what, then, have been the environmental expe¬ riences of these students ; what contacts have they had ; do they fail to enjoy or profit by, yes, even appreciate, the efforts of the college toward their cultural education because they will not , or is it because the experience is so new they have no habit bonds with wdiich to express appreciation in so new a situation? It is such questions as these for which we seek an answer. The first study of the personnel of the students of normal schools was made in 1915 in connection with the Missouri Survey of Normal Schools, made by Dr. W. C. Bagiev and Dr. W. L. Learned, under the auspices of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Since, state surveys have been made in Michigan, Connecticut, Louisiana, Mas¬ sachusetts, Pennsylvania, again in Missouri, Indiana, Vermont, Florida, Virginia, and New Jersey. Individual colleges, as Greeley, Colorado; Charleston, Illinois; and Rock Hill, South Carolina, have surveyed them¬ selves. A comparison of the findings of these surveys show practically the same results. Dr. C. M. Hill in his comparative study of the Mis¬ souri schools, Decade of Progress in Teacher Training, gives us a pic¬ ture of the median teachers college student in the more rural states. He says: “A typical student in a Missouri teachers college in 1926 is eighteen years old, American ancestry, was born in Missouri, is a graduate from a first-class high school, is the child of a farmer whose annual income is about $2000, was reared in a community of less than 2500 inhabitants, is one of a family of four, is partially selfsupporting while in school, is attending the college nearest his own home, has no brothers and sisters who have taught, probably has not held a teaching position or has taught only 7.9 months, expects to teach in a secondary school for about five 382 National Education Association years, after which he will leave the profession because of matrimony or to enter some other line of wTork.” In the industrial states the students come from the homes of unskilled and partly skilled workmen, the ancestry is from countries of Southern Europe, the parents are largely foreign born. The income is low. The present study, as is shown later, gives practically the same pictures. The most significant factors of these findings are the occupational classes represented by the students and the income levels of the homes in which they have been reared. Both of these facts have a direct bearing on the problems of personal development. Terman has shown a close relation¬ ship between the intelligence of gifted children and the occupational status of the parents. To evaluate this status he used the Barr Scale of Rating. In his group of 526 gifted children he found 90 came from an occupational rating of 15 — 15.9, 19 came from the 10 — 10.9 rating, and 18 from the 7 — 7.9 group. Applying the same scale to the parental occupations of the teachers college student the median falls about 10.50 rating, the entire range coming between 7.17 and 15.42 on a scale of 0 to 20.17. For an interpretation of the opportunities afforded by the incomes, we turn to two studies made by the United States Government. The first of these is a Socio-Economic study 1 of 2886 white farm families in selected locali¬ ties in 1 1 states. In table 10 of this publication we find the percent of the total income spent for different goods in the farmers’ and industrial workers’ homes. With the farmer 41.2 percent goes for food, 16.6 per¬ cent for clothing, 12.5 percent for rent, 5.3 percent for fuel and light. Of the remaining 26 percent he spends 2.5 percent for household furnishings, 3.8 percent for maintenance of health, 6.6 percent for advancement, 2.6 percent for personal goods and 2.6 percent for insurance on his life and health. The unskilled and partly skilled worker who furnishes a large percent of the teachers college students in the industrial states spends 34.6 per¬ cent of his income for food, 18.7 percent for clothing, 12.1 percent for rent, 4.5 percent for fuel and light, 5.7 percent for household furnishings and has 24.3 percent left for miscellaneous expenditures. He ends the year with $217.21 to his credit.2 A glance at the budget allowances and expenditure permitted under these conditions explains at once the report given in the present study of the household furnishing of the homes of the students. Included in the inventory of social contacts, the medium by which the data for this study are being collected, is a check list of home furnishing. The list of fifty-four articles is compiled so as to represent three levels of homes ranging from the house of meager furnishing with no labor-saving device, artistic decoration or recreational equipment, to a more elaborately fur¬ nished home with oriental rugs, etchings, electrical equipment, etc. Of course, there is some overlapping, but, on the whole, the students check 1 Kirkpatrick, E. L. The Farmers Standard of Lizdng. United States Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 1466. 2 Cost of Living in United States, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Bulletin No, 357, table 2, p. 5. Department of Deans of Women 383 a home furnished consistently with the income level on which they live. Sixty-eight percent live in a six to eight-room house, which in 43 percent of the cases is furnished very simply with plain furniture and no decora¬ tions. In 56 percent of these homes all of the housework, except laundry, is done by the members of the family. Forty-five percent do not have bathrooms, 39 percent use separate heating stoves, 47 percent still cook with wood, 73 percent decorate with enlarged photographs, while 45 per¬ cent have copies of some standard masterpieces of art. Sixty-eight per¬ cent have an automobile, 57 percent have a radio, 54 percent have a phono¬ graph and 50 percent have as many as 200 books in the home. It is not the purpose of this report to show the implications of such facts to the policies of the college, yet one cannot refrain from asking “Have we not a sound educational argument for the artistic and completely fur¬ nished dormitories and social rooms on the campus?” Adolph Ferriere, the French educator, in The Activity School, says: “If the child comes to school with utilitarian preoccupations, as he will inevitably if poverty rules over his environment, the school, at least, should be an oasis of peace, the wondrous world of disinterested knowledge where every sort of curiosity finds its nourishment, where every live interest can be expressed in spontaneous and joyous activities.” If the creation of this sort of an environment is to be a responsibility of the future teacher we are train¬ ing, how doubly essential it is that her own soul be nourished before she takes up her more serious responsibility for others. But what of the home life lived within this physical environment ? The house never makes a home; a human contact is worth more than all the inanimate contacts of life. The study does not attempt any psycho-analysis of family relationship. The questions dealing with family life are for pictorial purpose rather than analytical. The parents are American born, largely of English, Scotch-Irish, German, French and Dutch extraction. Both parents are of the same national descent. In the majority of homes both parents are living and all of the children are still living at home. The median number of children is 4.7 and the college student who is 18.4 years of age is the second or third child. Thirty-four percent have brothers and sisters who are teachers. Some of the outstanding family charac¬ teristics are : The majority, so far as the children know, of the parents are congenial, 34 percent of the children, however, are more congenial to certain brothers and sisters than to all. In 24 percent of the homes there is much argument and difference of opinion. Thirty-eight percent con¬ sider the parental discipline as strict, in 69 percent the children form the center of the home, in the same percent money is spent freely for educa¬ tion, recreation, books, music. In 26 percent children who are earning money help in the upkeep of the home. The students, as a whole, have religious interests. Sixtv-two percent of the students attend church weekly, 0.6 percent teach Sunday school classes. Of all the organizations listed, those of a religious nature have the largest student membership and afford a greater opportunity for office holding as well as participation in programs. 384 National Education Association The chief recreational habits of the students, both at home and college, are shown when 46 percent daily scan the newspaper, 36 percent pass the time in idle conversation, 16 percent sit alone, thinking or dreaming, 18 percent listen to the radio, while 4.5 percent play an instrument, 7 percent dance, arid 5 percent swim. Ten percent work for pay. Finally, 31 percent have a “date” once a week. The majority of the 71 activities listed are reported as occasional. This life as it has been lived, this wholesomeness of family relations, the give and take of large family groups, the mutual sharing of limited resources, the necessity for hard work at household tasks, have produced in the teachers college student a stability and dependability of character, a readiness to share in the harder tasks of college activities, a certain lack of artificiality which is not found in students who come from a more individualistic and economically better circumstanced group. This calibre in the teachers college student makes her easier to satisfy, easier to interest and insures a greater readiness to learn when once her confidence in the leader has been established. The home, however, has not been the only influence which has given or failed to give to the students favorable background experiences. (It is interesting to note, in passing, from another part of this study, that deal¬ ing with leisure activities, that rich community environment does not play as large a part as would be expected in the individual student’s activities.) Community environment is important, however, because upon its resources depend the potential contacts of the students. About 80 percent have lived in one community all their lives. With the exception of a large urban school, the majority of the students come from rural and small com¬ munities. The characteristics of these places are again pictured in the reports of the students. Seventy-one percent are composed of the same families who have lived there for a generation; 71 percent have several churches, but are not of a majority of the religious sects; 32 percent have paid church choirs; 40 percent have not had more than 25 young people of their own age from whom to select their associates; 70 percent have not lived where there was formal social life ; 57 percent had access to a public library; 13 percent to an art museum; 43 percent have depended on small stores for their purchases; 57 percent report many professional workers, and 44 percent come from communities where many women work outside the home. The contacts of the home community have been supplemented by occa¬ sional trips. Fifty percent have been three hundred miles from home ; 51 percent have visited large cities, as New York, Washington, Chicago; 19 percent have been to cities of 100,000 population. In 11 percent of the cases, the college town presents the largest place ever visited. In fair¬ ness to the more rurally reared of our students, we report that of the group who live and attend normal school in NewT York City, very few report a trip to the country. How adequately these visits away from home have supplied new experiences can be measured by the duration of the visit and the number of contacts reported as occasional or as having Department of Deans of Women 385 occurred once in a lifetime. Fifty percent who visited large cities have spent at least ten days on such trips. To these informal, casual, and, in most part, undirected experiences of the student must be added those which have come from formal educa¬ tion. All of the students whose reports are used in the study are grad¬ uates of standard four-year high school courses. The greater majority completed the general academic or college preparatory curriculum. A very small percent attended high school in other than their home commu¬ nity, therefore, the high school environment is typical of the type of schools found in the kind of communities they represent. A decided parallelism exists between the activities they enjoyed in high school and the activities they are pursuing in college. This tends to show again the human char¬ acteristic of seeking and doing in a new environment those things which are done in the old. In contrast to this, practically all the students check highly the enjoyment they get from having new and unusual experiences. From the home, community, educational and travel experiences what fund of cultural contacts have the students built up? In the inventory of social contacts the students are asked to evaluate their enjoyment of certain types of music, art, books, magazines, newspapers, moving pictures and theatrical performances. This is the most poorly answered part of the inventory, and yet the answers which are given indicate that the items were considered. Some were checked and many left blank. It may be safe to assume that those left blank mean no contact or at best a very hazy or limited experience. A summary is presented here of the types which were checked as enjoyed by the largest percent of the group. In the field of art, 43 percent enjoy most the original paintings which they see in museums. Since the museums furnish 19 percent of all the art contacts and are visited only occasionally, a dearth of contact with master¬ pieces is obvious. Twenty-nine percent enjoy brass and copper hand¬ made vases, candle sticks, etc.; 32 percent choose antique furniture; 27 percent return to portraits, while 20 percent enjoy good sculpture. Enjoy¬ ment is used here as an index of contact, which, as explained above, is very limited. In the field of music, the percents run higher and music is placed higher as a source of pleasure than any other of the cultural arts listed. The popular song (musical hits from comedies or the compositions of Berlin and such composers) is ranked first by 49 percent; "heart songs,” as “Home, Sweet Home,” are given first place by 43 percent, symphony or¬ chestra music, which was heard over the radio, was enjoyed by 42 percent, while jazz was listed first in enjoyment by 41 percent. From such a background as this tentative report reveals, the teacher colleges are largely recruiting their students. They are receiving them in increasing numbers each year. The faculties are persistently working on curriculum and standards of academic and professional achievements; administrative authorities are pleading with legislatures for money for increased facilities, appointment committees are trying to place graduates. 386 National Education Association Just as assiduously the students are creating, imitating, and struggling with their dual burden of curriculum and extracurriculum activities — for what purpose? To develop, train and educate an individual who is profes¬ sionally and personally qualified to lead little children in a richer and broader living. If we take the individual as he is, then the fundamental question of this whole study becomes an effort to evaluate, in terms of professional and personal outcomes, the activities of a college campus. In conclusion, therefore, may I emphasize again to the reader that the above discussion of certain trends of background experience is but a small part of a more extensive study. There are obvious gaps in this report which will be filled and supplemented by the full report to be published later. GOD’S COUNTRY FOR ALL OUR CHILDREN— ABSTRACT HENRY TURNER BAILEY, DIRECTOR, CLEVELAND SCHOOL OF ART, CLEVELAND, OHIO All children ought to be familiar with the open country. They should know the joy of playing in healthful mud, of paddling in clean water, of hearing the rooster call up the sun, and birds sing praises to God for the new day. They should have the vision of pure skies enriched at dawn and sunset with unspeakable glory, of dew drenched mornings flashing with priceless gems, of grain fields and woodlands yielding to the feet of the wind, of the vast night sky “all throbbing and panting with stars.” They should feel the joy of seed time and harvest, of dazzling summer noons, and of creaking glittering winter nights. They should live with flowers and butterflies, with the wild things that have made possible the world of fable. They should experience the thrill of going barefoot, of being out in the rain without umbrellas and rubber coats and buckled overshoes, of riding a white birch, of sliding down pine boughs, of climbing ledges and tall trees, of diving head-first into a transparent pool. They ought to know the smell of wet earth, of new mown hay, of the blossoming wild grape and eglantine, of an apple orchard in May and of a pine forest in July; of the crushed leaves of wax myrtle, sweet fern, mint and fir; of the breath of cattle and of fog blown inland from the sea. They should have a chance to chase butterflies, to catch fish, to ride on a load of hay, to camp out, to cook over an open fire, to tramp through new country and to sleep under the open sky. They should have the fun of driving a horse, paddling a canoe, and sailing a boat, and of discovering that Nature will honor the humblest seed they plant. Things that children can do in cities are not to be compared in funda¬ mental cultural values with such country activities. One cannot appre¬ ciate and enjoy to the full nature books, novel, histories, poems, picture, Department of Deans of Women 387 or riiusical compositions, who has not had in his youth the blessed contact with that world upon the face of which our cities appear as stains that should be washed away. Out of the country and its experiences has come and always will come the most stimulating and healthful art of the world. It was Nature study that freed the Greeks from Egyptian conventionalities ; gave to Rome her portrait busts; enabled the Italians to throw off the shackles of Byzan¬ tine traditions; made Claude and Turner, Millet and Monet the torch bearers in landscape painting. Nature study has given us modern science and underlies all our boasted triumphs of the imagination. Therefore, all who believe in the coming of the Crowning Race of Tennyson should cooperate in every effort to give to all children the privilege of having fundamental experience with Nature. City schools should be equipped with nature material as with a reference library; school yards should have school gardens; a large city park should be within walking distance ; every city should have its zoo and its natural history museum. The school busses should be used to take the primary children to them and frequently — once a week at least — out into the coun¬ try to selected farms or reservations where the outdoor life is normal and obvious. Nature study and nature exposition should form a part of the curriculum in every normal school and college, that teachers of children may be leaders of children. Perhaps in the golden future rapid transit by car or plane will make it possible for all children to live in the country until they are of high school age, at least. Perhaps the state will require such residence by law, that all its children may really enjoy the life, liberty and happiness so confidently mentioned by the fathers as God- given rights. Some of the Nature music that all children should hear: Honking of migrating geese. Rasping of icy snow upon withered leaves. Droning of the wind through leafless trees. Creaking of wagon wheels on hard snow below zero. Muted song of a brook under its roof of ice. Continuous dripping of drops into water anywhere. Rippling babble of a brook in a rocky bed. Fluting of a bluebird. Fifing of the spring frogs. Trilling of toads in love. Solos of song sparrows, brown thrashers, catbirds, mocking birds, robins and orioles. Tremolo of the screech owl. Cascade of the ovenbird’s song from the sky at midnight. Vesper hymns of the thrushes. Muted violins of bees in blossoming trees. Sparkling mazurka of the bobolink and of the purple finch. Full bird-chorus of a June dawn. Mellow breezy bass of a bumblebee. Thumping of the feet of a company of running animals. 388 National Education Association Fiddling of grasshoppers in a hayfleld. Patter of rain on green leaves. Diapason of a tempest. Whispering of reeds and grasses under a strong breeze. Sound of the wind in pines and hemlocks. Roar of the sea in a storm. Clapping of the white hands of sea waves. Sighing of the surf on a sandy beach. Splashing of a waterfall. Dirge of fall crickets. Drumming of the wind in chimneys. Crackling and tinkling of icy-covered wind-blown branches. SECRET ARTS MINUTES First Business Session, February 20, 2 P. M. The annual meeting of the National Association of Deans of Women was called to order by the President, Miss Stimson, at 2 p. m., February 20, 1929, in the Hotel Statler, Cleveland, Ohio. The minutes of three Executive Committee meetings were read. The report of the Headquarters Secretary, Miss Jones, was accepted with great appreciation. Mi ss Helen M. Smith, First Vicepresident of the Association and chairman of the Local Committee on Arrangements, extended greetings to the Association, and took the chair while Miss Stimson read her report as President. The report was accepted with very warm appreciation. The reports of the Treasurer and Auditor were presented by Miss Hefley and their acceptance voted. The report of the Membership Committee was read by Miss Barton and accepted with appreciation. The recommendations included in the report were voted upon separately. It was voted to adopt the recommendation that the membership committee in the various state associations be urged to cooperate with the National Membership Com¬ mittee in securing a complete registry of deans in each state. It was decided by common consent to postpone action on the recommendation regarding lapsed membership until after the report of the Committee on Revision of Bylaws. It was voted to refer to the Program Committee for the next conference the rec¬ ommendation that the Association make some definite place in its organization for Deans of Women in Junior Colleges. It was voted by a rising vote of appreciation to elect to honorary membership Mi ss Florence Purington, Second Vicepresident of this Association. The secretary was authorized to telegraph to Miss Purington the announcement of her election. The list of those members of the Association who have died during the year was read by the secretary while the members stood in silent tribute. Miss Brown, chairman of the Press and Publications Committee, read the report of that committee. After the suggestions requested by the chairman had been made from the floor, the report was accepted. The report of the Headquarters Committee, recommending a fulltime secretary, beginning June first, was given by the chairman, Miss Rose, and adopted with its recommendation. Miss Smithies, chairman of the Research Committee, read a report of progress which was accepted. Department of Deans of Women 389 The report of the Health Committee was read by Miss Pierce and accepted with appreciation. In the absence of the chairman, Miss Morriss, Mrs. Franklin gave the report of the Special Committee on the Training of Deans. After considerable discussion, it was moved and seconded that the committee be requested to take under considera¬ tion the advisability of including in the minimum training of the dean a course in the fundamentals of religion. The motion was lost, and the report as presented was accepted with appreciation. Miss Hathorn reported for the Committee on Revision of Bylaws. It was voted to revise Article III, Section 1, to read as follows: There shall be the following classes of membership: active, subscribing, student, honorary, and life. It was voted that Section 4 should be inserted, as follows: “Students in training for the work of deans, or deans upon leave of absence for study or travel, may, upon payment of annual dues of three dollars, become student members with the privileges of attending meetings and of receiving the publications of the Association.” It was voted that Section 4 should become Section 5 and should be revised to read as follows: “The title of honorary member may be conferred by a two-thirds vote at any annual meeting of the Association upon any woman who has given dis¬ tinguished service in the field of education, provided the name has been proposed to and approved by the Membership Committee and the Executive Committee.” It was voted that Sections 5, 6, and 7 should become, respectively, 6, 7, and 8. The meeting adjourned at 4:20 p. m. Second Business Session, February 22, 2 P. M. Meeting was called to order by Miss Stimson at 2 p. m., Friday, February 22, 1929. The minutes of the previous business meeting were read and approved. The President extended greetings to the Association from Mrs. Phillips and expressed the regret of Mr. Shankland, the Executive Secretary of the Department of Super¬ intendence, that he was unable to be present at the dinner. The secretary read the report of the National Student Assembly of the Y. W. C. A. held at Sacramento last April, which was prepared by Mrs. Mary B. Davidson, the Association's repre¬ sentative at that conference. The report was accepted and placed on file. The results of the Section elections were announced. Miss Robinson gave the report of the Committee on Relation to Other Organiza¬ tions. It was accepted with its accompanying recommendation that the Executive Committee devise methods of keeping the members of the Association informed of the publications of these four organizations: Presidents’ Committee of Fifty on Col¬ lege Hygiene, Foundation for Positive Health, American Social Hygiene Associa¬ tion, and National Committee for Mental Hygiene. The report of the Committee on Revision of Bylaws was continued by Miss Hathorn. Article III, Section 9, wras presented as follows: “Members whose mem¬ bership has lapsed may be reinstated at their request on the payment of dues for the current year and one preceding year.” After discussion it was moved and seconded that the section be amended by the addition of the following: “Any dean on request may for sufficient reason have her dues remitted for one year.” The motion was lost and the section was adopted as presented by the committee. It was voted to amend Article IV, Section 5, to read as follows: “The secretary shall keep the minutes of the Association and of the Executive Committee, and shall conduct all correspondence called for by the minutes of those meetings except as otherwise ordered.” 390 National Education Association It was voted that Article VII should become Article VII, Section 1, and that Sec¬ tion 2 should be added as follows: “Annual dues for student members shall be three dollars, payable January 1.” After discussion it was voted to amend Article IX, Section 1, by omitting the word “health” and inserting “revision of bylaws.” It was voted to amend Article IX, Section 3, by inserting after “at the annual meeting” the phrase “these nominations to be included in the notice of the annual meeting.” It was voted to omit Article IV, Section 6, as it now stands, and insert the fol¬ lowing: “The Committee on Revision of Bylaws shall consist of three members, whose duties shall be to present for consideration at the annual meeting whatever constitutional changes may seem necessary.” It was voted to amend Article IX, Section 8, by striking out the word “five” and inserting the word “seven.” The recommendation of the Membership Committee regarding lapsed member¬ ships was adopted and referred to that committee for further action. The secretary read a letter from Miss Mildred R. Clark, National President of the Intercollegiate Association of Women Students, and President of the Women’s Selfgovernment Association of the University of Oklahoma, cordially inviting the deans to be the guests of the women of that university at the national meeting of the Intercollegiate Association to be held on that campus April 16-20, 1929. It was voted that the secretary be empowered to accept the invitation in behalf of the Association and to express for the members their great appreciation and pleasure. The report of the Committee on Intellectual and Educational Policies was pre¬ sented by Mrs. Blanshard, and was adopted, apart from the recommendations, with t much appreciation. It was voted to refer to the committee for further consideration and report at the next annual meeting the recommendation that the National Association put itself on record as urging the necessity of a Dean’s serving on committees of educational policies for her institution. It was voted to accept the recommendation that since the line of demarcation be¬ tween the field of the Research Committee and that of the Committee on Intellectual Policies is not sharply drawn, the President confer with representatives of both committees to determine for each its most useful function. The secretary read the recommendations of the Executive Committee regarding the Committee on Sororities. It was voted to accept the recommendation that the committee be discontinued at this time. After discussion it was voted to invite the Pan-Hellenic Congress to cooperate in approaching some outside organization or foundation for an independent study of the presentday sorority situation. The report of the Budget Committee was presented by the chairman, Mrs. Mc¬ Lean. Approval of the policy of the committee was voted. It was voted to adopt the proposed budget for the calendar year, January 1, 1929, to December 31, 1929, and to approve the supplementary budget for January 1, 1930, to May 31, 1930. The report of the Resolutions Committee was read by Mrs. Franklin. All the resolutions were adopted. Resolution VI was accepted with a rising vote of appre¬ ciation, “that this Association express to our retiring President, Dean Dorothy Stim- son, its deepest appreciation of her services during the past three years as our leader.” It was also voted to accept with a rising vote Resolutions VII and VIII, “that we express our appreciation of the services of our retiring Second Vicepresident, Miss Florence Purington, who for many years has been the personal guide and sympathetic friend of many deans, and who has gladly given of her time and energy for the growth and development of this organization,” and “that we extend to Miss Estella G. Hefley, our retiring Treasurer, the gratitude of this organization for her faithful and accurate work, her patience and cooperative spirit that have been outstanding in the performance of her duties.” The Department of Elementary School Principals The department of elementary school prin¬ cipals, temporarily organized as the National Association of Elementary School Principals at the Atlantic City meeting of the Department of Superintendence in February, 1921, became a de¬ partment of the National Education Association at Des Moines, in July, 1921. The officers of the Department for the year 1929- 30 are: President , Herbert C. Hansen, 315 Plymouth Court, Chicago, Ill.; First Vicepresident , Eva G. Pinkston, 5652 Belmont Ave., Dallas, Tex.; Second Vice president, James R. Floyd, 717 Garden St., Plainfield, N. J. ; Third Vicepresident , Mrs. Gene¬ vieve L. Stone, Principal, Whittier School, Minne¬ apolis, Minn.; Fourth Vicepresident , N. H. Price, Principal, Hemphill School, Birmingham, Ala. ; Fifth Vicepresident , Mrs. Margaret M. Smith, Prin¬ cipal, Mitchell School, Denver, Colo. ; Secretary , Cassie F. Roys, 2609 Bristol St., Omaha, Nebr. ; Executive Committee : M. E. Peterson, Principal, Twentieth Street School, Los Angeles, Calif. (Term expires 1930) ; Elizabeth McCormick, Principal, Howe School, Superior, Wis. (Term expires 1931) ; John Merrill, Principal, Lingemann School, Detroit, Mich. (Term expires 1932); M. Emma Brookes, Principal, Miles School, Cleveland, Ohio (Term ex¬ pires 1933). This Department meets twice each year — in February and July. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of Proceed¬ ings as follows : 1921:453 1923:653-666 1925:450-477 1927:419-456 1922:851-886 1924:545-564 1926:457-495 1928:375-409 1392] THE TECHNIC OF DEMOCRATIC LEADERSHIP- ABSTRACT JAMES F. HOSIC, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY Let us inquire how far the principal can be democratic and what his technic of democratic leadership should be. We observe that the head of a school has a double obligation. On the one hand he represents the people — the social group that maintains the school and through its board of education and superintendent chosen by that board determines the purpose the school shall serve, compels the attendance of the children upon it, employs the teachers and other helpers, sets up rules and regulations to govern the school activities, and thus sets bounds to the freedom of action of all connected with the institution. The school does not belong to the teachers and it is not merely a voluntary asso¬ ciation of the pupils. These facts are obvious but they have been somewhat obscured of late by idealistic discussion, with resulting confusion of thinking and more than a little insincerity of action. The liberty of the school is circumscribed, just as that of any other of our social institutions is and must be. Even as a nation we are learning to bend our collective will so as to harmonize our desires with those of our neighbors. In the same way the members of a school must adjust their conduct to the needs and desires of the community. In this relation the effective principal of the school appears rather as a good salesman than as a chairman of an independent group in charge of its own affairs. Like the good teacher, he must often content himself with causing the teachers and the pupils of the school to want to do what he knows they ought to do. He may at times freely consult with them as to ways and means when the end has already been set up. Sometimes, however, even ways and means are prescribed. Rarely may a public elementary school decide for itself when it will meet, how long it will remain in session, what kinds of books and apparatus it will use, what subjects of study shall be pursued, what attitude toward the established government it may assume, whether there shall be health ex¬ aminations, whether the ages of the pupils shall be recorded, whether reports of progress shall be handed in, whether provision for safety shall be made, whether a pupil shall attend the class to which he has been assigned, whether a teacher shall assume such share of general routine duties as may be allotted to her, and so on through a long list. Getting all such duties performed willingly, cheerfully, and well is good management and reflects social power and capacity, but it is not in the strict sense of the word democratic leader¬ ship. It may and often does exhibit that fine consideration for others, that tact, sympathy, and intelligence which we like to think a conscientious man or woman in our time seeks to achieve, but it differs in certain essential respects from democracy as a form of spontaneous cooperative effort. [3931 394 National Education Association The blurring of this distinction has had unfortunate consequences, both in schools and elsewhere. The present tendency to lawlessness is undoubtedly due in part to a garbled notion of freedom. The privileges of liberty have been emphasized at the expense of obligations and necessary limitations. Individuals assert as their rights opportunities that are possible so long as they are not abused, but that must be curtailed whenever it appears that improper use is being made of them. Children are encouraged to believe that the school exists for them alone, and that they may enjoy its life as may seem best, without reference to any compulsion whatsoever. Teachers, too, forget that they have enlisted in a cause, that they are public servants and not masters, and hence attempt to legislate upon matters that are not primarily theirs to decide. All are free in America, zuithin certain limits; it is not good leadership to pretend to ignore those limits. Indeed, such a course goes far to defeat the very purpose for which the schools are established, namely, to teach children the true meaning of liberty, freedom assured by law. The alternative to rebellion is not blind, unthinking obedi¬ ence but intelligent and willing acceptance of regulations made by repre¬ sentatives of the public for the public good. What Should a Leader Do? When we turn to the matter of leadership itself, we find a lack of specifications as to what a leader should do. The desirable personal qualifica¬ tions have been set forth at length again and again. A leader, we are assured, should be a paragon of perfection. Well and good, though para¬ gons are not so common as we could wish, but how proceed ? That question has gone largely unanswered. Consider what is to be accomplished : ( 1 ) A number persons are to be welded together into a social whole — they are to think and act together ; (2) certain problems are to be regarded as common problems; (3) their solution must be sought by cooperative effort; (4) decisions reached by the majority are to be cheerfully acquiesced in; (5) machinery for carrying the collective will into effect must be devised. Ideally each member of the group contributes all he is capable of to each phase of its activity, but as far as possible the welfare of the individual must also be kept in view and not sacrificed unnecessarily to the common good. The activities of the group must not become stereotyped, but there must always be the possibility of adjustment to changing conditions without disruption or undue disturbance. Something like this is accomplished by all successful organizers of neigh¬ borhood clubs. The better types of voluntary extraclassroom activities are launched and maintained in this way. The assembly of the school fre¬ quently affords a good example. The meetings of the principal with his corps should certainly on most occasions embody the same conception. With such an ideal in mind we may ask again, what should the leader do? 1. He should seek to bring about acquaintance , mutual respect, confi¬ dence, and good will . These factors are clearly essential to success in Department of Elementary School Principals 395 cooperative effort. If there is to be team play, there must be team spirit. Strangers never have this. On the contrary, there is a natural or native antipathy between strangers, not always recognized as a basic cause of strife and antagonism, between the highly civilized as well as the savage. The sense of strangeness must be replaced with a sense of comradeship. There must be also the complementary feeling of trust and confidence. The com¬ rade must have been tried out and not found wanting. Now the principal who aspires to leadership of his school must not overlook these essentials. He must achieve solidarity. Two practical sug¬ gestions as to how this may be accomplished are worth mentioning. In the first place, acquaintance means far more than recognition and handshaking ; it signifies meeting issues together. One does not know a person until he knows how he is likely to act in. various typical situations. Presence of mind is shown in emergencies. Magnanimity appears when there is oppor¬ tunity to show what attitude one will assume toward offense. The judicial temperament expresses itself in the seeking for and weighing of evidence on all sides of a live question. Imaginative sympathy comes out in the presence of a novel point of view. In the second place, people become acquainted in the informal contacts of purely social hours. The best principals know well the value of tea and cakes, a bit of tasteful service and the opportunity to pass the time of day. Those who do not, fall short precisely as does the church man who never reads his Bible or goes to worship. “He neglects/’ as our fathers used to say, “the means of grace.” Eating and drinking together are very old and profoundly significant human activities, \yorthwhile in them¬ selves and often doubly valuable on account of the more important activities for which they pave the way. The principal's office is after all a social func¬ tion ; he must deal with people. If he aspires to be more than simply a manager, he must deal with them not alone as individuals but also as groups. Being a good principal means much more than conducting an efficient business office. The really successful principal is a social engineer. 2. Make sure that the problem to be faced, the need to be realized, the purpose to be accomplished, is clearly defined. Autocrats do not share their thoughts; they give orders. The essence of democracy, however, is sharing. All members participate — not only in doing what is to be done but in decid¬ ing what is worth doing and how best to do it. This is a very different process from that of authoritative decision and direction. A leader may have a goal in mind quite as definitely as a commander, but he reaches it by a different road. Instead of feeling that he must do all of the thinking, he determines to make conditions as favorable as possible for others to think. To do this he must study the situation. Is a need or aim already clear to all ? Is he confident that the issue that should next be met is fairly well agreed upon? If not, bearing in mind that all participants should have opportunity to contribute as much as possible to the advancement of the general objects that have brought the group together, he will call for suggestions as to what forward step appears to be most desirable or feasible. 396 National Education Association In any case the leader will seek to have whatever issue is presented clearly defined. Half the difficulties people experience in getting on together are caused by lack of mutual understanding. 3. In order that the members of a group may act together they must think together. Democratic leadership involves the conduct of group think¬ ing and group discussion. Those who are interested in the problems touched upon in this paper, particularly in that of stimulation and guidance of free interchange of opinion, will find a wealth of practical suggestion in Professor Harrison Elliott’s recent book, The Process of Group Thinking .] The writer characterizes much current discussion as desultory. No one, not even the chairman of the meeting, has made any special preparation ; hence the talk is rambling. Certain persons monopolize the time. Relatively unimportant matters are overemphasized while important ones are entirely overlooked. Opinion is at times colored with emotion, and personal con¬ siderations crowd out impersonal ones. The results, if any, are scattering and undecisive and nothing of any consequence follows. To avoid these dangers the leader should provide a series of questions or an outline and place copies in the hands of all present. He should see to it that the time is distributed among the items to be considered, that the less aggressive are called upon to take part, that progress is summed up from time to time, and that the conclusions reached are clearly stated. This sounds like teaching, as indeed it is, and unless care is exercised to avoid it, the outcome will inevitably be that which the framer of the ques¬ tions intended it should be. Much presentday teaching that appears to he exceedingly solicitous as to the independence of the student is in reality only a thinly disguised method of indoctrination. To avoid this the leader may well hold his questions in reserve, invite the members of the group to analyze the problem together, place on a convenient blackboard the issues raised, assist in completing the list and in ordering it, and thus keep the endeavor informal throughout. That sort of chairmanship requires readiness and address. The chair¬ man must be able to think on his feet. He will often be compelled to restate in clear and simple terms an idea that has been imperfectly expressed. His function is not to secure acquiescence in his views but to aid the group as a group to reach views of its own. As this type of teaching becomes more common, we may doubtless expect to have more leaders of conference who can use a truly democratic technic. 4. Democratic leadership fulfills itself in bringing about appropriate action. Leadership implies movement, going somewhere. Thinking and talking should come to fruition in doing. This should certainly amount to something other than admiration on the part of the rank and file for the leader while he carries out the policies agreed upon. The final stage of free discussion should deal with provision for action. Here another char¬ acteristic feature of the socialized group appears, namely, division of labor. l Elliott, Harrison. The Process of Group Thinking. Association Press, 347 Madison Ave¬ nue, New York City. Department of Elementary School Principals 397 Each plays his part. Certain responsibilities are assumed by this committee, others by that. Real leadership appears not in undertaking all the tasks agreed upon but in choosing those persons more capable of performing them and in giving encouragement and aid as encouragement and aid are needed. In the course of the year there should be a part for everyone. Pupils who cannot take charge of traffic lines can carry messages. A boy who has small literary gift sometimes proves an admirable solicitor for advertise¬ ments, wffiere such are wanted, for the school paper. Nor should the places offering large possibilities be reserved for the few. One object is to carry on school enterprise ; another is to enable boys and girls to grow through the voluntary exercise of their powers. This second aim requires that oppor¬ tunities shall be passed around. The natural tendency in school as elsewhere is for the rank and file to concede the conspicuous positions to the few who by reason of engaging personality, persistent ambition, sheer aggres¬ siveness, general popularity, or real merit have attracted attention and gained reputation. Since the school is a place in which every child should have a chance to profit as much as he can by the experiences possible in it, the wise principal will do his best to impress upon pupils and teachers alike the danger of calling repeatedly upon the same persons for important service simply because a habit of doing so has been formed. What will gratify the group must be balanced against what is due the individual. When it comes to action, the leader has the special duty of seeing to it that the purposes in view are not forgotten. Once a movement is well started nothing is easier than to let enthusiasm run riot. Then the goal is easily lost sight of and energy is freely expended for the pure joy of doing. The good life, however, is one controlled by worthy ends. This holds for groups, of course, as well as for individuals, but it is probably less commonly recognized in the latter case. The essence of leadership is guidance toward the goal — if it be democratic leadership, then guidance toward the outcome foreseen, chosen, and agreed upon bv all. How much more worthwhile to inspire those seeking their anticipated goal than those blindly following, they know not where! THE PRINCIPAL AS A PERSON— ABSTRACT BESSIE BACON GOODRICH, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS DES MOINES, IOWA As I analyze the person the principal should be, the first quality I would find in him is a sincere graciousness founded upon understanding, kindness, and love of little children ; the graciousness that sees always the good before it sees the evil ; that respects, even reverences, the personality of each indi¬ vidual — the littlest child, the rudest boy, the fault-finding parent, the erring teacher ; the grace that breeds the finest courtesy, that would not allow a principal, in look or word, or deed, to treat a child as he would not be treated bv a child ; the grace that honestly recognizes the janitor as a fellow- 398 National Education Association worker, jointly responsible with him and with the teachers for the welfare of the school ; the grace that enables him to bring to every interview with children, with teachers, and with parents such understanding, wisdom, poise, and love that each one would come to the end of the interview with enthu¬ siasm kindled, and courage renewed. I would have him be a person who desires his school community to be a community in which pleasures and responsibilities are shared by all, because he believes that the good life is most fully realized through such sharing. This desire would express itself many ways. It would express itself through the kind of teachers’ meetings he holds — meetings in which principal and teachers discuss together their common responsibility for solving such vital problems as these : EIow can we best help our boys and girls to be creatures of understanding, not mere gatherers of knowledge ; seekers for truth, not mere recipients of the dogma of present forms? How can we help them not merely to solve problems, but to recognize problems which need to be solved ? How can we build not only deep interest in life but also a desire to do life’s work well, even painstakingly? How can we help them to be their best selves, not mere imitators of others? How can we properly bal¬ ance freedom and responsibility? How can we help them to share most fully in the life of the school ? This belief in the value of the shared life will also manifest itself through the principal’s never releasing himself from the responsibility of maintaining his own teaching skill. I talked with a principal not long ago who believes that this is important. He told me that, whatever his other responsibilities might be, he always keeps for himself the full responsibility of teaching at least one class. He believes that if he is to be an understand¬ ing leader he must have as a minimum that much firsthand contact with children and with teaching problems. Possibly the very best avenue which is offered by the school for sharing certain types of responsibilities and pleasures is the school assembly. The responsibility for the planning and presenting of the programs to be given during these periods, as well as the pleasure of listening to them, should be shared by the principal, teachers, and children. The principal who believes that the shared life is the rich life will also plan for the children’s participation in meeting such responsibilities as pro¬ viding for proper traffic regulations in the hallways, planning ways and means for beautifying school grounds, greeting and caring for the comfort of guests, solving safety problems on playground and in the street, planning for the pleasure of sick friends, studying such problems as undue amount of tardiness and lack of thrift. In addition to the two qualities already mentioned, graciousness of per¬ sonality and a belief in the goodness of the shared life, I would have my principal possess great skill in discerning the special contribution which each teacher, however young, however old, can make to the group and who finds his greatest satisfaction in developing and in giving due recognition to this personal ability. There is no finer proof of a leader’s worth than is afforded by his ability to submerge his own personality and to make other leaders. Department of Elementary School Principals 399 Furthermore, I would have my principal a lover of beauty and sensitive to the fitness of things. His office would be a place where little children as well as teachers would love to come. There would be green things grow¬ ing and if possible a singing bird. There would be color, either in pottery, in pictures, or in hangings at the windows or on the walls. There would be children’s work and children’s books and something from nature which would challenge children’s attention. I would have in my principal a spirit of adventure which would help him to enter with zest into some new undertaking of teachers or children, wdiether it be the building of a house by the first graders, or the perform¬ ing of a chemical experiment by the sixth graders, a spirit which would lead him to plan excursions to look at the stars or find first signs of returning spring, that would stop a class to listen to the wind, or see the beauty of a passing cloud. I would have him intellectually honest and morally courageous. If he himself has intellectual honesty or a thorough respect for it in others he will not create conditions which will stimulate children to work for stars, prizes, or other artificial rewards. Rather will he lead them to share the spirit of Kipling when he says: And only the Master shall praise us, and only the Master shall blame, And no one shall work for money, and no one shall work for fame; But each for the joy of working, and each in his separate star, Shall draw the Thing as he sees it, for the God of Things as They are. I would also have my principal have time for the intimate, leisurely con¬ tact with his coworkers, that contact which is indispensable if the day’s work is to bring the deep personal satisfaction which each worker has the right to expect. I now hear someone in my audience cry out, “How can I do all I have to do and be all you would have me be?” Someone has said, “Reports, records, schedules, examinations, filing systems . . . soon be¬ come insufferable to one who has never had a vision. There is not much blessedness in mere work; the beasts in the fields have plenty of that. It is precisely this capacity for illuminating today’s lowly labor with high and remote purposes that makes us men and not beasts.” No one ever accomplished more than the Master Teacher. Although he w^as occupied with many menial tasks he was ever about his Father’s busi¬ ness, and choosing always the more important task. It is our devotion to high purposes, the being always about our Father’s business which makes us what we are. And often what we are is a more powerful teacher than anything we may do or say. Whitman voiced this truth when he wrote : There was a child went forth every day: And the first object he looked upon, that object he became; And the object became part of him, for the day, or a certain part of the day, or for many years, or stretching cycles of years. Jesus voiced the same thought when He said, “And I, if I be lifted up, will draw all men unto me.” 400 National Education Association THE FIRST PROBLEM OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRIN Cl PA L—A BSTRACT ROBERT B. BINNION, PROVOST, GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS, NASHVILLE, TENN. The word “orientation/' having come under the reproach of technicians of nomenclature in our profession, I choose to define the first problem of the elementary school principal as being the “articulation” of himself, per¬ sonally, with his superior officers, the superintendent of schools and the Board of Education, and with those who have come in recent years to work under him, the supervisors, the teachers, the children and their parents. The training of the elementary school principal, his experience and all the methods, devices, and skills of his various operations have been volubly expounded by hundreds of authorities abler and profounder than I. The ignition points of his contacts, however, with his superiors, colleagues, and inferiors in office, are matters which have seemed evasive for all purposes of test, measurement, and statistics. This paper, therefore, is a kind of sym¬ posium of personal and private viewpoints of approximately fifty of the ablest superintendents and about the same number of the ablest principals of the elementary school world. If I were to try to summarize the consensus of opinion on these contacts. I should say they cumulatively agree that the elementary school principal must be poised and full of fire, humanly sympathetic and wisely stern. He must have profound training balanced by commonsense ; he must possess great energy with ability to rest and conserve ; he must be able to lead and to follow at the same time ; he must be able to coach, persuade and drive ; he must be able to orate and to refrain from oratory ; he must be really superior to the superintendent in his own technical field yet act as though he were not ; he must be able to outwit, outmaneuver, and lead the children in pleasant paths for pleasure’s sake ; he must winnow, weigh and sieve the supervisor even as McCormick among the grain ; he must be the beau ideal of his teachers but not too great a beau ; he must be human but a bit divine ; he must be divine but quite a bit human. THE TYPE , THE KIND, THE AMOUNT OF SUPERVISION WHICH ELEMENTARY PRINCIPALS SHOULD KNOW AND BE ABLE TO GIVE W. H. BURTON, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO It is an accepted fact that principals should do supervision. This group has already gone on record to that effect. Therefore, no time will be wasted presenting arguments on this point. The remarks to follow are for those who are willing and wish to do supervision. Before the principal can do any type of effective supervision, he must have certain understandings about supervision, and certain preliminaries Department of Elementary School Principals 401 must have been cleared out of the way. Some of the latter are not alw ays under his control, but he should call attention to the need for clarification. First, the principal must have the modern concept of supervision. This means that he must regard supervision as a complex and intricate matter going far beyond the traditional activities of classroom visitation and con¬ ference. These latter are activities of supervision, to be sure, but are far from being all of it. Supervision includes anything concerned (1) with the direct improvement of the teaching act, (2) with the general improve¬ ment of teachers while in service, (3) with curriculum reconstruction, (4) with needed, practical research, (5) with inspection, (6) with evaluat¬ ing teaching, (7) with building morale, esprit de corps , and professional spirit. Second, the principal must envisage supervision as a cooperative pro¬ cedure in which several people participate. The point involved is that the principal does his supervision in conjunction with others. In the third place, *there must be a clearly understood organization of the system for carrying on supervision. Functions should be defined for all workers and duties allocated functionally, that is, fields of operation should be delimited and cooperation provided for. This is an urgent problem and would need an entire lecture in itself. Suffice it to say that this thing must be done by the superintendent or central administrative staff. The prin¬ cipal should constantly urge it and should participate in setting up the desired organization. This problem is well treated in a recent volume 1 by Dr. F. C. Ayer of the University of Texas and Professor A. S. Barr of the University of Wisconsin. In the fourth place a general plan or program of supervision should be laid down, by the superintendent if it is a small system, by a supervisory council including the principals in a larger system. Where there is no general plan the principal should make a plan for his own building. This plan will consist of certain definite objectives which grow out of the needs of the situation as they have been determined by any of several methods of analysis. There will also be a statement of the supervisory means to be used in attacking these objectives, and lastly, methods of checking progress will be enumerated. Now we may come closer to the actual type and kind of supervision to be performed by the principal. On the basis of the foregoing we can see, first, that it will not be haphazard or random, but will be in the nature of a consistent attack on certain definitely stated objectives, either his own or those set up by the central council. In the second place, we can make a distinction between the direct and indirect activities involved in supervision. The principal is in the strategic position. He is the leader of a small and presumably united group. Where there is the proper spirit and attitude within the building there is then l Ayer. F. C., and Barr. A. S. The Organization of Superz'ision. Appleton Series in Super¬ vision Training. D. Appleton Co. 1928. 396 p. 402 National Education Association the ideal situation for direct personal contacts. The principal then should do the bulk or what we call direct supervision, leaving the more indirect supervision to the supervisory officers. When the full implications of this point are clear, there will doubtless be some disagreement, but this is because the newer idea diiters from the traditional concept. The principal, then, should do most of the visiting and conferring with the teacher. He should be competent to analyze and evaluate lessons, and to give the teacher assistance in terms of general methods of teaching. He should operate on the level of general principles and general methods, which most distinctly does not mean on the level of generalities. He should be able to help the teacher select the proper method, to plan lessons, to check up on errors in the application of known general principles, to direct the teacher to good illustrations within the building, and to direct her to sources of information. When he gets beyond his depth with general method, or when strictly special method problems arise, he should call upon the specialist supervisor, which is what the latter is* for. The principal, furthermore, should be responsible for directing the study of his own teachers in terms of their own needs. He will do much informal, frequent visitation, with conferences on minor individual problems, re¬ serving his more organized visits and conferences for followup on the objec¬ tives of the program. The problem most important for each principal is responsibility for devel¬ oping professional spirit and fine feeling among his group. To do this, he must absolutely know his material. He must be ready to take the time and the trouble to give help when it is asked, to seriously study through with teachers problems which they raise. All of his contacts with teachers must be sympathetic and kindly, and he must deal fairly with them. A contrast may help to make this matter clear. The supervisors other than the principal will answer the special calls noted above, will head up the course of study research which the principals will adapt, will evolve standards for evaluating materials and methods of instruction which the principals will use. The principal may even participate in the latter type of work, but he is not primarily responsible for it. The supervisor will head up such research as is necessary for furthering the real problems of the system. The principal might, under some circumstances, have some minor research going on within the building, but he will doubtless find enough to do with his other duties. Certain very obvious practical difficulties stand in the way of this theory of supervision by the principal. In the first place, most principals are not trained for this type of work, but this can be remedied. In the second place, this point of view is quite contrary to the traditional con¬ cept of the principalship. Very obviously a new and progressive concept of the job must be acquired. The principalship should not be a minor ad¬ ministrative job. A high-class clerk can take care of that. The principal is a high-class professional leader of technical workers. To really be this he Department of Elementary School Principals 403 must believe in modern supervision and secure the training for it. The third difficulty is time, but this can be remedied with reasonable ease, granted that the principal acquires the new concept of his position and can intelligently budget time and distribute administrative duties. Summarizing, we would say, first, that the principal must know what modern supervision is and that it is cooperative. Second, the superintendent or central council should have an explicit policy on supervision and a plan of supervisory activities. Third, the principal shall do the bulk of the direct, personal supervision, calling on the specialist when needed, and leav¬ ing to this specialist the more remote and indirect agencies. Certain ad¬ ministrative difficulties in the way of this can and should be eliminated. HOW AN EDUCATIONAL MUSEUM WILL HELP THE PRINCIPAL AND HIS SCHOOL— ABSTRACT AMELIA MEISSNER, CURATOR, EDUCATIONAL MUSEUM, ST. LOUIS PUBLIC SCHOOLS, ST. LOUIS, MO. All over the United States we find the larger cities and many of the smaller progressive towns establishing departments of visual education in connection with their school work, and what is more encouraging we find in the last five years a better understanding of the term visual education. It does not mean education by motion picture only, but is now understood in its broadest sense. Today we realize that visual education is carried on preferably by object illustration, and only secondly by pictorial illustration. The opening paragraph of the catalog of the Educational Museum of the St. Louis Public Schools attests this aim: The Board of Education maintains a school museum for the purpose of supplying the schools with material for the illustration of the daily lessons in geography, his¬ tory, nature study, and the contents of the reading lessons. The objects, pictorial illustrations and apparatus furnished by the Museum will, if properly used, make the school work more interesting and intelligible, will give the children vivid and lasting impressions of what is taught, and will bring them into personal contact with the world in which they live. The Educational Museum is a storehouse and distributing center of all kinds of illustrative material and supplementary books for the use of teach¬ ers and pupils in their classroom work. Every teacher in the St. Louis public schools is supplied with catalogs of the Educational Museum and the Traveling Library, and the museum delivery trucks reach every school every week to deliver what the teachers have ordered for that week, and to take back to the museum the material which was delivered the previous week. Some of you are wondering what percentage of the principals’ requests the museum can take care of? Also where does the museum procure its illustrative and other supplementary material ? During the year 1927-28 the St. Louis Educational Museum delivered to its clientele of 140 schools eighty-six percent of all the material those 404 National Education Association schools asked for. The fourteen percent of undelivered orders was due to insufficient number of duplicates of some of the very popular collections. In addition to the collections donated by the Louisiana Purchase Exposi¬ tion exhibitors when they left St. Louis after the fair of 1904, much valu¬ able material was secured from other museums and government agencies either by donation, or by exchange, or at nominal cost. Each year additional material was purchased by the St. Louis Board of Education, which has been most generous in its support of this institution, increasing the annual appropriations as necessary from year to year, until now they are appropri¬ ating about $50,000 annually for this purpose. Even at that we are spend¬ ing only fifty cents per pupil to place in his hands any one, or all, of the 20,000 different museum objects or any of the supplementary books or music folios listed in the Museum and Traveling Library catalogs. Except as donated by other institutions and individuals, all material added from year to year is selected after careful study of the unfilled orders of the teachers. In other words, only such material as the teachers or super¬ visors asked for is purchased. The Museum catalog lists : (1) Food products, and material for clothing and shelter and other industrial products, all from the natural state to the finished article; (2) models of homes and samples of costume of the different peoples of the world; (3) the animal world including mounted and dried specimens of practically all of the smaller mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibia, fishes, crustaceans, mollusks, corals, sponges, insects, and their near relatives; (4) botany specimens such as models and charts of plants and dried specimens; (5) mineral rocks and ores, principally those used in industrial processes; (6) apparatus for physics and physiography consisting of simple ex¬ periments for which all the necessary equipment is furnished; (7) pictorial illus¬ trations consisting of photographs, stereoscopic views, stereopticon slides, film strip slides, 16 m.m. moving picture films and 35 m.m. or standard moving picture films; (8) large colored charts, pamphlets, and booklets giving information on the museum collections; (9) musical and literary phonograph records; (10) orchestra and chorus sheet music; (11) song slides for chorus work. The Museum also maintains a Traveling Library which has been devel¬ oped along two lines ; ( 1 ) Boxes or sets of twenty-five duplicate books of literature, history, geography, science, civics, and art for supplementary class use; (2) boxes of “Room Libraries” each containing from twenty to twenty- five different books selected with reference to the reading ability of any one grade, with the idea of allowing considerable latitude because of the slow readers to be found in every group of children. This traveling library work has only been carried a few years and yet we are transporting more than 6000 supplementary books per day to and from our schools. Traveling library books are permitted to remain in the schools for a period of five weeks, orchestra and chorus music is permitted to remain in the school for ten weeks, while museum collections remain in the school for only one week. The amount of assistance which any one school draws from the educa¬ tional museum depends largely on the principal and teachers of that school. Department op Elementary School Principals 405 The effectiveness of the delivery system from one center, as compared with the plan of supplying each school permanently with a set of museum collections, is shown in the diversity of material called for by various schools ; if all were supplied in like measure, much material would necessarily lie idle in some schools ; whereas other schools would be restricted by an insuffi¬ cient supply for their activities. Some of the schools are located near nature’s sources of supply, hence the folly of stocking them with the same material as is needed in the down-town schools where nature seems so far away. The desire for investigation on the part of the child must always be awakened when presenting museum material. The teacher should use this material in such a way as to arouse the spirit of curiosity and research. The aim should be to give the child a knowledge of his tools, so that he may go out into the vast home of nature with eyes and ears and fingers ready and eager to continue these investigations, stimulated by the conscious desire to know, to love, and to understand. ONE PART THE PRINCIPAL MUST PLAY IN ANY REALIZA¬ TION OF THE PURPOSE OF THE SCHOOL— ABSTRACT SARAH M. HORTON, PRINCIPAL, TREMONT SCHOOL, CLEVELAND, OHIO In the discharge of the serious duty of developing initiative and the power of independent thinking in teachers, the principal must lead the way. Intel¬ ligence, courage, and initiative in discovering and solving his problems must characterize the principal’s administering of affairs in his building. He must be a student of current educational theory and practise, see clearly the principles underlying all that has any bearing upon his problem. However, with the courage of his convictions he will steadfastly refuse to accept for his teachers or impose upon them any scheme that promises an immediate realization of an educational heaven. If the teacher’s mind is to function in the solving of his problems they must be real to him and within his power to solve. The great responsibility of the principal is to make problem solving on the part of the teacher an educational process. Since this is true the principal must do just what is expected of any good teacher. He must apply sound psychology and common sense to his problem. He must make psychological laws just as true in their application to the development of a thinking teacher as they are to the educational growth of the child. In the application of these laws the principal must take into account the individual differences in ideals, abilities, attitudes, skills, and opportunities of the teacher, as he must of the child. One of the principal’s most important duties is to help the teacher set his goal. He is best fitted to do this because he comes most closely in touch with teacher and pupil, and understands the conditions. The goal must not be too far removed and must be possible of achievement. The teacher must be made to feel the joy of success in achieving his goal. The principal can best do this by limiting the field of endeavor, arousing in the teacher an attitude of study, investigation, and modest experimentation within this 406 National Education Association field. In this study he should focus the attention of the teacher especially upon a particular skill or technic to be desired. He must expect to find mistakes in this experimentation, and undoubtedly will. However, the greatest mistake the teacher can make is failing to think for himself. It is only through experimentation and investigation in his own classroom on his own problems that the selfactivity of the teacher can be developed. We have with us today, from past and present, numerous educational theories, each seemingly in conflict with the other. Shall the principal say, “Away with theory," and leave the teacher helpless to work out his own problem? Or, accepting authority without question, “This is the latest, let us try it at least once." Is either the way of progress and better sendee to the school ? Plainly it is the duty of the principal to aid the teacher in harmonizing theory with classroom practises. The attitude of mind in teacher and principal must not be that of seeking the triumph of theory, but the truth in practise. Hasty acceptance and hasty rejection of theory and results of investiga¬ tion are alike to be discouraged. These have been the cause of wasted time and energy. We have a clear instance of the former in the case of oral reading. Oral reading some few years ago was suddenly summoned before the edu¬ cational bar, charged with various offenses and banished from the school program. The teacher found teaching an oral reading lesson was looked upon with suspicion. Today we hear from all quarters of the educational world the cry, “We must have more oral reading.'’ In a current educational magazine we find a most excellent article by a wellknown authority giving many reasons why oral reading should be restored to its place on the pro¬ gram. We find in the article the statement, “The aims and values of oral and silent reading are different.” In other words it was procedure that was at fault and not oral reading. Today we find oral reading restored for the same reason it was banished — by the order of authority. Is teacher or prin¬ cipal asking why? And so project, “purposeful activity,” problem, correlation, socialized recitation have had their day and been thrown in the discard, the truth underlying each almost lost sight of. Individual and mass instruction are now in the focus of attention. Must we either accept or reject these ideas because they seem new? Or will the principal accept his responsibility and aid the teacher in seeing the truths in each, and how and when to apply them? The important facts for teacher and principal in this discussion are: That underlying all theory and method, old or new, are valuable educational ideas; that through these when stripped of their mystifying terminology, and elab¬ orate forms, the principal may point out the way of progress to the teacher ; that in the last analysis, the purpose of the school must be realized in the work of the classroom teacher. Common sense and reason, a balanced viewpoint, must dictate the part Department of Elementary School Principals 407 current educational theory is to play in the solution of our problem. Theory must be accepted, not blindly, or passively, as a cure for all our educational ills, but as a challenge to the principal and teacher, to a more thoughtful study of classroom conditions and practises. Only as theory is applied, by teacher and principal, in the light of classroom conditions, can progress be assured. When the teacher is trained and encouraged to bring common sense and reason to bear upon his task, he may find the old has become the very desirable new and the new may often prove to be something more than a passing fad. THE OPPORTUNITIES OF THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPAL AS SUPERVISOR IN FORWARDING EDUCATION TODAY FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT'S POINT OF VIEW- ABSTRACT WILLIS A. SUTTON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ATLANTA, GA. In the general field of supervision no individual plays a more important part than the principal. He should spend at least fifty percent of his time in supervision. His executive duties ought not to encroach upon his super¬ visory functions. Supervision by the principal should be real. In order to make it so he must understand the new world. It is the business of the principal to see what the new world needs are and then adapt the course of study to life as it now exists. In his program the principal must not shackle the freedom and initiative of the teacher. The principal is the supervisor of parents as well as of teachers and pupils. He should cooperate closely with the parent-teacher association, which, I believe, is the greatest force of the last twenty-five years. Through the school and the parent-teacher association the principal is the key to both the individual and the community. I believe in the freedom of the child. Too often the emotions of children are suppressed throughout their school career. It is little wonder that an explosion occurs when the child leaves school. Of course children need guid¬ ance. They should be given right motives so that they will then want to do the right thing by choice. All our thinking should be in terms of the life of the child. GEOGRAPHY FOR A NEW WORLD— ABSTRACT HARRIET SMITH, SAM HOUSTON STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, HUNTSVILLE, TEXAS It is my privilege to discuss some recent changes that seem significant to a geography teacher, and to emphasize the need in America for geography teaching founded on principles not subject to change. Changes have been far reaching and profound — Only yesterday, it seems, loads were lifted by human muscle ; today in the leading nations, more and more by gas and electricity. Yesterday, planting and harvesting were 408 National Education Association mainly by hand ; today one farm machine releases ten men for city positions. Yesterday, we had the home and hand stage of manufacture ; today, the fac¬ tory system with its standardization and specialization. Yesterday was a time characterized by isolation, ignorance, provincialism, and hatreds ; to¬ day, distance is being annihilated, ignorance is passing, and world conscious¬ ness is happily taking the place of neighborhood animosities. Outlook on life has cha?iged — More important than things recently ac¬ complished is the changed outlook on life among at least three classes. First, the men who are accomplishing these changes seem to accept no stage or condition as final. They find permanent satisfaction in no small neighbor¬ hood. They go on to new discoveries and applications, to the winning of new records, to new places and people seen, new adjustments made. Sec¬ ond, for the somewhat illiterate — the million or more released from routine work in America since 1920 — education has become a factor in their lives, if not for themselves, at least for their children. They see trained men and women passing them in competition for professional positions, and the result is that high schools and colleges are becoming crowded. To bridge the gap between these two groups, the teachers, as interpreters, find their work. They must parallel outside material progress with inside understanding of its meanings. Classroom practise needs to speed up to keep abreast with the interests of the young people watching the airplanes, the radio reports, the movies. Another change in the attitude that seems to me most wholesome is that of increasing confidence in the upward progress of the race. Modern teach¬ ers know it and youth is being trained to accept it. It is belief in slow but sure human achievement as against the belief in ready-made supremacy for the human race. Once the earth was thought to center about man. Today man knows himself to be but a small part of life on one of the smaller planets, kept alive by heat and light from one of the smallest of suns, far from the center of a vast universe, and he thinks of truth, not as something completely revealed but as something to be arduously sought and but partially found. Immeasur¬ ably less exalted from without, man is lifting himself superbly from within. He sees the past as a line of progress for humanity, and it affords basis for fuller confidence in his fellowman. JVhat can geography contribute f — Geography is the study of human re¬ sponses to earth controls, a broad and beautiful subject. Just what shall it contribute to this new world of change, of modified physical environment, of deepened confidence in humanity? Geography emphasizes people in relation to their environment — The text¬ books are leading the way to an increasing emphasis on how people live, and how their activities are influenced by the physical environment. Consider a few titles of recent books on geography: Man in Many Lands , Human Geography , Nations as Neighbors. The emphasis is on people. Also through school journeys into local environment the child sees how people Department of Elementary School Principals 409 are adjusting themselves to their physical surroundings. He studies typi¬ cal groups of people elsewhere in all his own land and in other countries. Through reading and through the movie, perhaps through travel, he is led into an ever expanding world in which he sees diverse men and women adjusting themselves to the same forces of nature, and to other human groups about them. His own experience tells him that geography is a study of man in relation to his environment, or as he may put it, a study of people making homes for themselves on the earth. Thus the study is seen to have out-of-school significance. Geography lays foundations for peace — In stressing people in response to their physical environment, geography sets itself the big task of laying foun¬ dations for peace. It does this by reasonable interpretation of the activities of people. It is against provincialisms that tend toward family feuds ; against “nationalism the full fruit of which is war,” says Zangwill; against a racial superiority complex which fosters the bitterest antagonisms. It would be in line with geography teaching to drop our childish, crude, offensive national boasting, and consider studiously how we can conserve instead of exploit our vast material resources, how we can elevate our social and economic standards, and by our own superior practise, win the right to lead our neighbors in their needed adjustments. Probably this can come only through the development of youth in the schools; all of us know that middle-aged people must die in their sins, but “whatever is put into the school process of today comes out in the social process of tomorrow.” Geography tends toward world brotherhood — Geography teaching, if sincerely carried put, will tend toward a more sympathetic knowledge of people and a diminution of racial friction. If we had more knowledge, we should almost certainly have less friction. Geography has its own scientific content — Geography can serve educa¬ tion best, it seems to me, if it is recognized as a whole science rather than a mass of mutilated fragments in a sea of social studies. It has its scientific content, strong enough to stand alone. Causal relationship is the keynote that binds together as a science all the factors of geography. Dr. Bagley says that “The firsthand records in the field of geography furnish the very best exemplification of the spirit and methods of scientific inquiry that can be grasped and appreciated by the average mind.” The conception of a vast lapse of tune — Contrasted with history, that gives the yesterday and the today of human action, geography tells the story of millions of years before human history began. For instance: the geo¬ graphic topic, ancient glaciation, calls for a conception of hundreds of thou¬ sands of years ; the formation of coal took millions ; in the development of continental platforms and ocean basins can be felt the very pulse of the uni¬ verse. Grappling with big fundamental thoughts like these tends to lift and make large the whole life of the student and to develop an attitude of patience, humility, and reverence. Geographic interpretation adds depth to the curriculum — The essence of 410 National Education Association geography is interpretation, by which it gives to elementary education bet¬ ter, perhaps, than any other subject of the curriculum its third dimension, depth. The elementary curriculum is well supplied with length and breadth. It embraces knowledges and skills of almost bewildering extent and per¬ plexity. Geography adds depth for its true function is to trace meanings. It centers about those talismanic words, relationships, and adjustments. “What relationships ?" you may well be asking. I shall mention three typical classes. It interprets relationships between two physical factors, as rainfall induced on windward slopes of high mountains. It interprets relationships also between a people and their physical environment, as maritime that de¬ velop where a people are hemmed in between highlands and the sea. Third, relationships between groups of men in business intercourse, as trade back and forth between the manufacturers of the temperate zone .and the pro¬ ducers of raw materials of the tropical zone. These are causal relationships that call for adjustment, a keyword in geography. Maladjustment means strain; adjustment gives relief. Politi¬ cal boundaries, the location of cities, trade routes, the development of com¬ merce, and the settlement of many international questions are founded on adjustments that have been made or should be made. Happy the pupil who, through a study of man’s proper adjustments can so modify his own con¬ duct as to conform pleasantly and constructively to the demands of his physi¬ cal and social environment. Geography is one of the new humanities — In the schools the tendency seems to be away from the merely disciplinary studies and the purely cul¬ tural subjects to emphasis on the socalled new humanities : geography, his¬ tory, biology, other sciences. ‘‘These contain,” say Chapman and Counts, “the larger knowledge before which popular mythologies cannot stand,’’ and they give the broad world viewpoint. If geography were only or mainly place, names, and boundaries, it would deserve no place in the new humanities. But through problem and project, through regional studies, through field trip and journey geography, through openminded search for truth, and a plea for increasing respect for other people, geography has a message for and should keep its place in modern edu¬ cation. -As I see it, this is geography for the new world. THE LIBRARY AS AX INTEGRAL PART OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL— ABSTRACT BESS CLEMENT, PRINCIPAL, ELIZA CLARK SCHOOL, CLARKSDALE, MISS. No matter what method a teacher may employ, be it Dalton, problem- project or simple socialized procedure, his class is not going to give one hun¬ dred percent effort unless the equipment necessary is provided. How use¬ less it is to plan a lesson requiring data which you know is not going to be available to the majority of your class. Better to return to the age of text¬ book worship, where youth is not discouraged bv such an obstacle as has just been mentioned. But we are not willing to retrace one step which has Department of Elementary School Principals 411 pointed toward progress, and we stand today with our feet firmly planted on the laws of learning, realizing that there is a paramount need for libraries in elementary schools. The N. E. A. Committee on Reorganization of Secondary Schools in 1911 listed as the third cardinal principle: mastery of the tools of learning. The acceptance of this aim in reorganizing elementary education so that the transition from elementary school to secondary school is accomplished with an equal chance to the child to succeed in pursuits of continued education, brings us face to face with one of the gravest problems for which we as ele¬ mentary principals are held responsible. Need I state that this problem is teaching children to read ? The public looks to us for leadership and cen¬ tralized attention in the promotion of better reading, that most funda¬ mental of all tool subjects. An analysis of that part of the reading process for which the elementary school is held responsible substantiates the evidence that the best and most modern methods call for many books, well graded, well selected, and con¬ taining diversified subjectmatter. How are we going to be sure that each child has access to these books unless we place them in the school as part of his equipment? Let us briefly consider the place and function of the library as judged through an analysis of that part of the reading process for which the ele¬ mentary school is held responsible. The greatest service that we can render boys and girls is to teach them to read. I accept as the definition of reading a series of habitual responses known as thought, feeling, and thinking which is stimulated by the printed page. New world education places emphasis on accuracy, speed, and comprehension. The laboratory for working out individual records in these attainments is the library. Consider the first period known as the Initial Period. If we neglect to furnish library facilities here, we impoverish the curriculum which calls for the reading of many books. As one author has fittingly expressed it, “A child must learn to read as he learned to talk, through unremitting exercise." In the second period, Rapid Growth in Reading, we find a different need. Here we wish to enrich the experiences of the child, and in order to do this there should be provided many books of a non-literary type. These books, however, should be interesting and fundamentally good. Challenge the mentally lazy boy or girl to find out things through reading and seeing. Provide wide variety here and note the outcome. No class as individuals will choose the same books. The dreamer still prefers his books with fan¬ tastic pictures ; the hero-worshipper wants his ideal ; and the lover of the great out-of-doors chooses a piece of work which presents replica of flower, bird, tree, or stream — all with the same motive — to learn more about it. The third period is termed the Period of Enriched Experience. Here the best teacher is the one who avoids many “telling situations.” He interests himself more in the followship than in the leadership of his class, for with proper training preceding this period, the children have acquired habits and 412 National Education Association skills which enable them to do much independent study. The average pupil enters this period unaware of any great transition. He begins his work in the social subjects without feeling any great change. His work or study type of reading utilizes his general habits and skills in reading and to these he adds others, such as power to organize, associate, and judge what he has read. Our job here is to sustain his interest, raise his standards, and provide a common background. We have briefly discussed some of the outstanding contributions w^e ex¬ pect from elementary libraries as integral parts of elementary schools. They seem logical, and yet little has been done toward furthering the project. Let us now briefly discuss some of the reasons why the average practitioner has been slow to accept the theory. First, our courses of study have not taken into account the possible maxi¬ mum growth of the child. They have been made to serve the average child, which sad to relate never exists in classes. A thorough revision of courses of study which take into consideration the superior child and the subnormal child, plus the possibilities of the library unit as a stimulus would result in a revision and reorganization of work which would eliminate much dissipa¬ tion of energy on the part of the teacher trying to teach the same thing to pupils of different capacities at the same time, many of whom do not need the lesson at all, being perfectly able to ferret out the thing by themselves. Second, there is only a vague idea of the workings of an elementary school library from the standpoints of administration, equipment, and initiation. Third, the financial support is not in sight, and our rapidly increasing public school population has all but left us mendicants, unless the need is outstand¬ ing. This same condition existed in secondary schools and was overcome. Surely we are going to demand equal rights from no selfish motive. Whenever a new unit of work is initiated into a system, the teaching force feels pressure of some kind. Just what type this pressure from the initiation of elementary libraries assumes will largely depend on the tactics employed by the principal. There are several truths which are worth consideration: 1. The library is the antithesis of compulsory education. It says, “Thou may’st.” Compulsory education says, “Thou shalt.” 2. The library gives value received for the time charged to the pupils’ school day. 3. The librarian’s job is not to supervise study, but to aid in developing habits of independent study. 4. Close friendship and cooperation between teachers and librarian are most de¬ sirable. 5. Children need to learn the rudiments of library organization and functioning, and should therefore be permitted to assist in the workings of the library. 6. Elementary libraries should guard against formal library conduct and some plan should be devised to permit at least ten minutes for exchange of ideas to precede every library period. 7. It is highly desirable to allow at least two library periods per week for all grades. These periods for pupils from grade three through elementary school should consume at least one hour of time. Below the fourth grade the teacher’s Department of Elementary School Principals 413 judgment should determine from the interest of the child when to call him to other activities. Usually the span of attention varies. 8. Courses of study should not omit such valuable types of work as book reports, bulletin board news, and club activities which are a direct outgrowth of library experience. 9. Have the children in the school take an active interest in buying the books and teach them to treat the books as they would treat good friends. 10. Sufficiently advertise the library advantages among the teachers and children so as to make them feel a contagious interest in the project. SOME MODERN TENDENCIES IN THE TEACHING OF CHARACTER EDUCATION— ABSTRACT N. H. PRICE, HEMPHILL SCHOOL; BIRMINGHAM; ALA. Many parents take time to live with their children and are doing their part in training them. But in face of all other agencies for building char¬ acter with which our schools cooperate heartily, our board of education, realizing that character is the outgrowth of habit, that habits are formed by acts often repeated ; realizing the intense interest of all youth in the present moment, that children are noted for spontaneity in action and expression, that their imaginative and emotional life is exceptionally strong; realizing that the present moment should be full and satisfying, yet in harmony with the best for all moments that follow, and that our aim should be to treat each child so that, if life broke off at any point, we could say of the chapter experienced by the child, “It was happy and worthwhile” ; realizing that children are taught ideals best by the indirect method at the opportune mo¬ ment by allowing them to live and act the ideals desired, but that incidental instruction is accidental instruction which is often insufficient, and, there¬ fore, as far as the teacher is concerned, at least, direct instruction, which consists not of moral lectures, should be used ; and believing that the oppor¬ tunity of the public schools lies not in further emphasis on studying or teach¬ ing morals, but in consciously creating situations that call for practise, adopted the plan of having a character slogan for each year. Every effort was made to enlist the interest and cooperation of the whole city in the plan. Local papers helped by giving publicity to the movement, ministers spoke from their pulpits regarding it, clubs and civic organizations requested speakers to explain the plan. The campaign became citywide. Every teacher seemed to catch the spirit and as he taught artithmetic, lan¬ guage, literature, or whatever the subject, he endeavored, without appear¬ ing to do so, to develop traits of character. The first slogan was “The Development of Character through Health.” The idea was that it is of vital importance to have a sound mind in a sound body. Special attention was given to our school lunchrooms. Children were weighed and measured and given red cards if they were more than ten percent underweight, blue cards if between ten percent below and nor¬ mal, and white cards if normal or above. Nutrition classes were formed for those children who were ten percent or more underweight. Special teachers 414 National Education Association gave definite health lessons, weighed and measured the underweight chil¬ dren weekly, and sought the cooperation of parents and children in carry¬ ing out the health program. Health and safety programs were given in the auditorium and attention everywhere directed to the health campaign. In an effort to measure the results the board of education found fewer ab¬ sences on the part of both pupils and teachers, and apparently a more cheer¬ ful and optimistic attitude on the part of all. The following year the slogan was “The Development of Character through Sportsmanship.” Probably the most evident results were seen in the high schools. But those of us who were in touch with the elementary schools felt the effects there. Definite opportunities were planned in con¬ nection with the regular work for teaching sportsmanship. By keeping the slogan ever in mind the teachers found many chances to let the children practise this splendid trait. Formerly our interschool athletic contests were often followed or accompanied by “rock battles,” the losing team attempt¬ ing “to run in” the winners. After much effort on the part of the prin¬ cipals trying to instill the proper attitude it is now the exception for a team to have such trouble. They are learning to be good losers everywhere. Our sport writers claim that our fans are for the most part better losers than those of other cities, that they are more inclined to cheer the good plays made by the opposing team. A new slogan is selected for each year, but the former ones are kept in mind. After six years we are as interested in health as ever and perhaps more so. The results this year seem to have been better than usual. Still our children are growing in sportsmanship, which may some day play an important part in world peace. Real sportsmen seem to be able to reason together and to settle their differences without fighting. Birmingham is an industrial city, but not all our boys are industrious. In selecting the slogan, “Development of Character through Work,” an effort was made to define work and to dignify all honest work. Everybody caught the spirit and many who had never worked found opportunities to be of service. Some work hitherto done by janitors and maids was done by the children. They hunted opportunities to work and were often satisfied with¬ out pay, taking only the satisfaction of a task well done. Certainly we have helped to give the children a better attitude toward work. Not so many are looking for white collar jobs as formerly. The following year, “The Development of Character through the Love of the Beautiful” became our slogan. Beauty is useful in the highest sense. The kind of beauty we want about our children is simple, natural, and harmonious. Pictures were added to our school collections, clean-up cam¬ paigns were started, flowers and shrubs were planted on the grounds, and the spirit spread through the community. Then we tried “The Development of Character through Thrift.” This slogan appealed to the president of the board of education, a true Scotchman, who did much to make the plan function among the children and with the Department of Elementary School Principals 415 employees of the board in general. Thrift was stressed in every way at school and at home. School banking was started with much enthusiasm. The total amount saved and on deposit at the end of the first year exceeded a hundred thousand dollars. We believe a large number are forming the habit of thrift. Almost all of our children have opened bank accounts. Last year the slogan was “The Development of Character through Cour¬ tesy.” A definite outline was worked out by the Committee. The behavior of love is courtesy. We cannot be too scrupulously courteous to children. Our aim has been to take advantage of opportunities arising for children to practise courtesy. Many reports indicate that they have caught the spirit. The traffic manager of the street car company wrote the superintendent a letter in which he said that marked improvement had been made by those riding the cars. A few days ago at a ball game I heard a man ask a soda water boy to bring him a bottle of water for which he would pay him a dime. The boy came back in a few minutes and reported that he could not get the water from the drinking fountain to run into the bottle. When the man wanted to pay him anyway he refused the money. His whole attitude was so courteous that he attracted the attention of those around him. My wife remarked, “That is certainly a courteous boy.'' I was delighted to say that he was one of my boys. Next year we shall add to our list “The Development of Character through the Study of Nature.'’ Enthusiasm for the plan has grown steadily from the beginning. This year the two local colleges have added courses in nature studv to meet the demand of the teachers who are studving this summer that they may be better prepared for the work next year. They are becoming more enthusiastic every day as they study flowers, bugs, and birds and realize how much more there is around them to observe than they ever dreamed. What the outcome of the slogan plan will be we do not know, but this systematic effort to have children do something that will have a tendency to develop and strengthen their characters has met with the cordial approval of school patrons. THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPAL AS A SUPERVISOR- ABSTRACT LOIS COFFEY MOSSMAN, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBL4 UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY Students of education are continuously bringing forward new evidence relative to the educative process. Sometimes the findings which they submit are somewhat disconcerting to those who are actually teaching. When pet theories and favored methods are condemned by statistical research, we are pushed as to what to do. These new findings are forcing us to continually modify the educational program. Admittedly, there is much that we do not know how to do well, yet the children keep coming to the schools. They and their parents are look- 416 National Education Association ing to the schools, for the help needed in learning how to fit into this complex problem of living. The children, and often the parents, are not fully aware of the mobile condition of the demands of life today. Often parents assume that things are as they were when they were children, and they want their children taught in just the same way. The teachers of these children are then confronted with the necessity of carrying on their education and satis¬ fying the parents while, at the same time they, themselves, do not know what is best for the boys and girls either as to curriculum or method. Sometimes the demands upon the teachers are so great, or the vision of the work so limited, that they cannot see beyond the walls of their classroom. Such teachers fail to look for a better program. Then there are teachers who have a greater vision but are either so busy or so burdened, or some¬ times so baffled by the disparity between what they believe education should be and what parents are asking of them, that they are sorely in need of someone to whom they may go for counsel and advice. Such teachers need help in checking what they are doing and in seeing what better to do. They want guidance, super-v ision, and it is their principals to whom they naturally should turn for this help which they are so fully needing. It is the principal who must have this super-v ision. What does it mean to be a principal who is truly a supervisor ? What sort of a person is needed if we would have the teachers go to the principal for this guidance and help ? What traits are peculiarly necessary for one who would be a real help to teachers? As I look back over my experience as a young classroom teacher, sorely in need of help, vision, and guidance, I find my attention centering upon the principal who gave me the help I needed. As I faced that class of sixty-six fifth-grade boys and girls in a middle western railroad town, I was con¬ fronted with a task which seemed all too great for one of ordinary experi¬ ence and training. I can remember clearly that morning when the principal stepped into the door, just back of me, looked over the array of youngsters in that long, narrow, basement room and then turned to me and said, “You have a hard job but remember that I am back of you,” and walked out of the room. In those few words he implied some things which seem to be essential in one who would lead teachers. He showed a sympathetic insight into the difficulty of my problem. He gave me a feeling that he believed in me and he gave me the confidence that he was a source of help to whom I could go. In the days that followed I found again and again that I was not mistaken either in his sympathy or his confidence or in his professional insight. I found that he understood boys and girls and had a very big heart for considering their points of view. On the other hand, I found that he knew how to go to teachers for suggestions and help in such a way as to convince us that/ he was seeking and did not know, and that he was big enough to recognize that there were others who had a fine point of view. As I think of this principal I am inclined to state some of the traits of personality essential in a principal who is able to lead his teachers: Ability Department of Elementary School Principals 417 to look at the teacher’s work from her point of view; ability to convince the teacher that he believes in her and respects her point of view; ability to help the teacher to consider a different emphasis or a new point of view ; ability to suggest fruitful, initial steps in pushing the work into new chan¬ nels; ability to lead the teacher in constructive thinking in such a way as to secure her best efforts. Such abilities presuppose some other fundamental traits. In order that one can do the things that have been suggested he must have a richness of experience which makes him a source of ideas, suggestions, and help. He, him¬ self, must have lived and enjoyed living. He must know sources of life. He must have an understanding of personality. He must be a friend. He must be possessed of a constructive philosophy about his work which is the result of very careful thinking on his part. This thinking should have given him a super-vision as to what the work of the school may be, as to what the abilities and problems of teachers are, as to what the possibilities of children as individuals are, as to the meaning of living richly and fully. Given a principal possessing such traits, how is he to do the work of super¬ vising? We find difficulty in stating clearly what is the work of supervision. There are those who entertain the hope that we can reduce supervision to a definite, objectively-measurable process. There are so many elements of the personal equation involved that it seems to some that supervision is an infinitely variable thing. Just as truly as each child is an individual who should be dealt with in terms of his individual experience, so is each teacher an individual and the leadership which the principal is able to exercise over her must be individual in its nature. Discussion of the work of supervision has usually implied the classroom visitation as a means of helping the teacher and we have had some research and suggestions as to how this classroom visit shall be made. Score cards have been proposed for tabulating the facts observed ; data has been col¬ lected showing what one can observe in a given period of time ; suggestions have been made as to charts and other equipment one needs to have with him to do an effective piece of observation ; but little has been said as to what is to be done after the visiting. Probably this is because the thing one does with the data that is obtained must vary according to the individual nature of the work and of the teacher who was visited. Obviously, the teacher and principal should discuss the visit. This discussion should enable the teacher to see her work with a new perspective, to evaluate it in the light of principles she understands, and to help her to grasp new principles. It has usually been implied that this discussion should center around the effort to help the teacher to do better classroom teaching. It has also been assumed that such help should center upon trying to show the teacher how to plan her work better for the next time. What are the factors that should be in mind in such an effort to plan the next work? It is offered that the principal should lead the teacher to consider a few definite things: 1. What are the group of children trying to accomplish in this piece of work? All too often it will be found that the work is so handled that the 418 National Education Association children have no very clear notion as to what they are trying to accom¬ plish other than to do what the teacher says. Much more value in the work can be secured where the boys and girls, under the leadership of the teacher, clearly know what they are striving for. Helping a teacher to see this may enable her to remedy much of the difficulty in her work. 2. What have the children and teacher agreed should be done both before coming to the next class meeting and the next session of the class? All too often the class is dismissed without any definite agreement as to what is needed next. If the children participate in the decision as to what is needed next they will have a greater sense of responsibility for accomplishing the work decided upon. 3. What are the children doing now by way of preparing for the next session of the class? Many teachers fail in their ability to visualize the children at work alone when preparing the things that are needed to be done before the next class session. The teacher cannot see the places where the children will go wrong in their thinking, where they will have difficulty in understanding the printed material, and where they will make errors in their efforts to do the work. If the teacher can visualize the children in their study and see the easy and hard places, she will be far better able to guide the work of the next class session and inspire the children with the con¬ fidence that she knows and understands their difficulties. 4. What should the teacher do by way of preparing to supplement the children’s efforts? Often the children attempt to gather supplementary material to enrich that in their texts. The teacher should think through what they will be likely to find and what she can get which they wfill not find so that she can come to the class prepared to enrich the children’s best efforts. Thus, will the children gain in their confidence in the teacher’s ability. 5. What should happen when the class comes together next time? If the teacher thinks through in advance what the children will be ready for, what they will be inclined to do, what she can do by way of enriching their ideas, and what ought to be accomplished in the time allotted, she will be far better able to guide the work of the next class period so that it is profitable. If she is uncertain as to what can be accomplished, she cannot very well teach boys and girls a sense of responsibility for using the time of the class period wisely. Another very fruitful source of help is the ability to make suggestions as to sources of material wdiich will enrich the work. Many classroom teachers lack breadth of experience either in travel or reading. They do not know the environment, the places where the birds nest in the spring, the neighboring embankment of clay and stratified rock, the local industries, or the community enterprises. They do not know what is available in the libraries, in the magazines, or in the world about them. All this seems to say that the work of a principal is the problem of leading teachers in their growth into ability to live fully in order that they may, in turn, bring richness of living to boys and girls. He who would show others Department of Elementary School Principals 419 how to grow, must also be growing. He must have an ever new vision of this changing world and of the possibilities of education for helping boys and girls. To do this, he must keep in touch with the recent findings of educational research, and with the new proposals as to the underlying theories of education. He must frequently take account of his own educa¬ tional theory and evaluate it in the light of the new ideas. He must fre¬ quently check up his own educational practise relative to his theory. He must be an active inquirer into the learning process as it is going on in his school. Then will he be able to lead teachers in their growth. He can put them in touch with new books and call attention to valuable articles in recent magazines. He can discuss with them new theories and proposals for the work of the school; he can help them to study their own practise; he can help them to evaluate their own experience in the classroom and to dare try better ways of conducting the work of the school. Such a person must have, indeed, super-vision. ADVENTUROUS AMERICA— ABSTRACT L. S. RUGG, PRINCIPAL, WEST ALEXANDRIA GRAMMAR SCHOOL, ALEXANDRIA, LA. Dr. Kilpatrick, in a little book entitled Education for a Changing Civili¬ zation, points out the fact of change. He expresses the belief that change in the future will be more rapid than in the past and that the problems of the future will be new and difficult of solution. But what has the fact of change and the problems which change will bring to do with the problems of elementary education? The responsibility for training children to make adjustments which society requires for successful participation in life has passed to other institutions than the home. Most of this responsibility must be borne by the school. In our complicated society the school is the only institution adequately equipped to give the training which will be required to fit them for living in the present. The elementary school must assume its share of the responsibility. Certainly it is the duty of the elementary unit of the school to deliver the pupil to the next higher unit unshackled in his mental equipment. In the next generation, adaptability, individual initiative, and self- expression will be needed in the solution of these new problems which our democracy is sure to have to face. The school should make the largest possible contribution to the freedom of mind and individual initiative. But the average school is making a big contribution in the direction of habituating the child in mass-thinking and mass-activity. The group system of instruction which is in effect in the schools tends to promote mass¬ thinking. Thinking and the activities of the classroom are largely by groups. Certainly a reasonable amount of group activity and group think¬ ing is desirable. There is a place in our schools for group work, but there is objection to an almost exclusive devotion of the entire program of 420 National Education Association the school to group work of a uniform type. It has practically shut out opportunity for adequate pupil-participation and pupil-activity in the class¬ room. At this point the ability of the principal of the school as a supervisor meets real challenge. His is the duty of organizing the instruction for effective learning. His is the problem of so training his teachers as to make it possible for them to see the problems of the classrooms in their right relationship to society and to the world at large. The average teacher has a very narrow concept of the duties of the school. Unfortunately this country has not developed a large number of highly trained professionally- minded elementary teachers. It is the duty, therefore, of supervision to give to the teachers, through cooperative training and cooperative leader¬ ship, the vision that is needed for successful work. Some of the questions, then, which confront the principal of the school are these: How can provision be made in the average classroom for a greater amount of pupil activity and pupil participation? For more co¬ operative effort? For taking care of individual differences? For the con¬ servation of the mental resources of all the pupils? For equality of opportunity. While full opportunity for an adequate amount of pupil-activity and pupil-participation cannot be provided in the classroom, under the present system of organizing classes, much larger provision for both can and should be made. The teacher is doing a much larger share of the work of the school than is desirable or necessary. More responsibility should be thrown upon the pupil. He is being deprived of his privilege to get desirable experiences and desirable training in facility and ease of expres¬ sion. The privilege of selfexpression through desirable activities and the spoken word is denied him. As to individual differences, the average classroom could do a great deal more than is done. All of the pupil’s needs could not be met, but there is a place in our social organization for every child; and just to the extent that the school fails in its duty to meet his needs it is also failing society. No intelligent person denies the existence of individual differences in native mental ability and the impossibility of elimination by education, of these differences. Yet the schools are going ahead with the program designed for the guidance of the growth of children, teaching all pupils of a grade in a single group, and giving to all the same treatment. If I understand what equality of opportunity for the child means, it is that each child shall have equal opportunity with every other child to de¬ velop to the limit of his native capacities. Much is said of equality of opportunity; but efforts to provide it have been limited largely to equipment and buildings, length of school term, qualifications of teachers. Until equality of opportunity is provided in the classrooms of this country we will not have it. No such thing will exist until it exists in the classrooms. We can provide equality of equipment and of dollars expended per pupil, but we must get down to more fundamental things before we can claim equality of opportunity for all children. Until each individual child is Department of Elementary School Principals 421 provided with opportunity for growth commensurate with his ability, we have no right to claim equality. Once the extent of individual differences is revealed and the ability of each individual known, instruction should be so administered as to take care, as far as possible, of these differences. The plan of arranging the pupils of the larger groups into smaller ability groups, and the assignment of the work of the school to the groups in accordance with the ability of the pupils of each group to do the work, has been practised successfully. Special assignments for individual cases are in line with modern practise. Individual work and directed activities for smaller groups tend to develop the individuality and initiative. Some may say that the principal of the school cannot make the necessary adjustments in his school to provide the kind of instruction and the kind of activities required for the proper care of the needs of the individual; that he has not the time. My reply is that he has as much time as he needs for other affairs of the school. He devotes his time, intelligence, and energies to those things which in his mind are most important and most urgent. The day is here when a larger share of his time and abilities should be apportioned and actually devoted to the higher aspects of supervision. Surely matters of individual adjustment, individual adaptability, individual initiative, and cooperative ability of pupils are among the things that need much of his attention. I know that the school environment of the child is not the only environ¬ ment with which the principal of the school is concerned in his work; that life outside of the school helps to determine the kind of individual the child will be, and the kind of citizen that he will become. I would not minimize the importance of the out-of-school environment. Many of the outside experiences of the child tend to the development of initiative, adaptability, and self reliance ; and they provide excellent opportunity for selfactivity of the desirable kind. But the child’s school and out-of-school experiences should supplement each other. The out-of-school experiences of the child are influential in shaping his character and conduct. The influence of the classroom, therefore, should carry over into the outside life of the child during the many hours when he is not in school. The school should help him to solve the problems which he will meet on the outside. The frontiersman was adventurous, but he knew how to succeed in his adventures. Americans are still adventurous. The mind of man will always embark on adventure. His adventures will always be accompanied with dangers; and the same character of individual will be required to face the new frontiers which will confront him. The new frontiersman must be no less adaptable than the old, and he must be as independent in his thinking. Responsibility for giving the future the type of independent thinker that will be needed to face new emergencies rests heavily upon society; and the elementary school must carry its share of the burden. Responsibility for the execution of the functions of the elementary school in this regard rests mostly upon the principal of the school. It is the duty 422 National Education Association of the principal to make the school a place where the child may find increasingly better opportunities for the exercise of his privileges to think and to act as an individual as well as a member of a group. He should endeavor to see that the school will not fix the thinking of the child. Since it appears that the machine and science are tending to mechanize the individual, the contribution which the school makes should certainly be in the opposite direction. In reality, however, the school is contributing to the direct development of mass-mindedness and the mechanization of the individual. Yet we would not, if we could, abolish either the school or the machine. Our civilization needs, and must have, both. The essential obligation of the school, therefore, is that of turning over to society an individual who can control the machine. Unless man does exercise control over the machine, the machine will control him ; and thus will the principles of human freedom in America be destroyed. We are justly proud of the achievements of adventurous America. Not only in physical adventure but in the fields of literature, of science, of medical research, and of education, there are reasons for pride. Physical adventure will still be important in coming generations but of more im¬ portance will be man’s spiritual adventures — adventures of thought, feeling, and esthetic experience. American adventure is destined to carry us to yet greater achievements and into ever broadening fields. Into whatever fields the adventures of our people may carry them whether in the classroom as little children, or out and far away, let us so direct the set of public education that they, young or old, favored or unfavored, will be ever mindful of the achievements of America and the blessing of American liberty; and mindful of the obligation of America to carry the principles of human liberty to all the world. SECRETARY'S MINUTES Atlanta Meeting From every standpoint the Atlanta meeting was a notable success. The pro¬ grams of the department were splendidly presented. The meeting was distinguished by the gracious hospitality extended to all by the citizens and school people of Atlanta. The department had breakfast meetings at the Ansley Hotel. At the first meet¬ ing on July 1, the president gave a brief report of the activities of the year. Mr. Ritow, Chairman of the Enrolment Committee, reported a great increase in mem¬ bership. Mr. Norton and Mr. Hubbard spoke briefly on the research studies being carried on in cooperation with the Research Division. The report of Mr. Cober, Chairman of the Research Committee, was read by the secretary. It was moved that a vote of thanks be given Mr. Cober for the fine work accomplished by his committee. At the second meeting on July 2, all present were introduced. The meeting was characterized by a fine spirit of goodwill. Principals were in attendance from many states, but the majority were from the South. “The Opportunities of the Elementary School Principal as a Supervisor in For¬ warding the Education of Today” was the theme of the general meetings of the department. Papers read at the first session Monday afternoon, July 1, were as follows : Department of Elementary School Principals 423 The Opportunities of the Elementary Principal As a Supervisor in Forwarding Education Today, From the Superintendent's Point of View Dr. Willis A. Sutton, Superintendent of Schools, Atlanta, Georgia Geography For a New World Harriett Smith, Sam Houston State Teachers College, Huntsville, Texas The Library As An Integral Part of the Elementary School Bess Clement, Eliza Clark School, Clarksdale, Mississippi At the second session on Tuesday afternoon, July 2, the following papers were read : Some Modern Tendencies in The Teaching of Character Education N. H. Price, Hemphill School, Birmingham, Alabama The Elementary School Principal As a Supervisor Dr. Lois Coffey Mossman, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City Adventurous America L. S. Rugg, West End Grammar School, Alexandria, Louisiana Tuesday afternoon, July 2, 1929, the business meeting was held. The secretary read the revisions to the constitution which were recommended for adoption by the executive committee. These proposed amendments will be voted upon at the Atlantic City meeting. Miss McCormick, the chairman of the Resolutions Committee, presented resolutions expressing appreciation for the gracious hospitality of the people of Atlanta : Appreciation of Hospitality — Elementary principals of Atlanta, a privilege and honor I consider it, to find myself delegated by our president, Miss Eva Pinkston, to offer you greetings from the Department of Elementary School Principals of the Na¬ tional Education Association. You have taught us the real meaning of that southern hospitality of which we had heard so much. Your cordial welcome made us feel at home with you immediately. We like your soft voices. We admire your gentle manners. We have been entertained by your peculiar humor. As we leave you to return to our homes in many widely separated places, we wish to assure you of our deep appreciation of your many courtesies. From the land of cotton we are carrying memories that will long linger with us. In Dixie Land we have gathered ideas that will broaden our comprehension of the educational problems of our country. From the home of Uncle Remus we have absorbed bits of your quaint philosophy that will mellow our lives and make us more optimistic in dealing with our teachers and children. We are grateful for your services so generously rendered and for those of your teachers and of the children of your schools. Your contribu¬ tions so generously accorded have meant much in the success of this convention of the Department of Elementary School Principals. Copies of the financial statement were distributed. The department will end the year with a substantial cash balance. Mr. Duffy, the chairman of the Nominating Committee presented a report which was unanimously adopted. The officers were elected for 1929-30 as indicated on page 392. On Tuesday evening the members of the department were entertained by the Atlanta principals at dinner at the Eastlake Country Club. A fine musical program was presented. The charm of Dr. Sutton as a story teller, the humorous review of the history of the department by S. D. Shankland, and the splendid address of Dr. John J. Tigert made this dinner the most delightful feature of the entire con¬ vention. 424 National Education Association MINUTES OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE The first meeting of the executive committee of the Department of Elementary School Principals was held on Monday morning, July 1, 1929. Those present were: President Eva G. Pinkston, Helen B. Shove, John A. Spargo, F. H. Duffy, Jessie M. Fink, Elizabeth McCormick, Frank W. Hubbard, Assistant Director, Research Division, Herman Ritow, National Chairman, Enrolment Committee, and Herbert C. Hansen, Secretary. The minutes of the Cleveland meeting were approved as published in the July Bulletin. Mr. Ritow, Chairman of the Enrolment Committee, reported on the work of his committee and presented suggestions for an aggressive membership campaign for the coming year. Mr. Ritow was given a vote of thanks for his valuable services as chairman of this important committee. There was a general discussion of the type of yearbook to be issued by the de¬ partment. At the Cleveland meeting it was voted that the 1930 yearbook should be prepared under the direction of a committee of elementary school principals, assisted by the Research Division of the National Education Associa¬ tion. The president was authorized to appoint an editorial committee to prepare the 1930 yearbook. The members of the committee are: Earl R. Laing, Burt School, Detroit, Chairman; Isabel Tucker, Shenandoah School, St. Louis; Arthur S. Gist, Training School, Teachers College, San Francisco. The editorial committee expects to concentrate the 1930 yearbook upon the ad¬ ministrative phases of the principals’ work. Emphasis will be given to the necessity for good administration in the successful conduct of a school. It is likely that the 1931 yearbook will contain several studies in supervision. The second meeting of the executive commitee was held on Monday evening, July 1, 1929, at the Ansley Hotel. Those present at the meeting were: President Eva G. Pinkston, Helen B. Shove, John A. Spargo, F. H. Duffy, Herman Ritow, Frank W. Hubbard, and Herbert C. Hansen, Secretary. It was voted that it be the policy of the department to appoint the retiring presi¬ dent as a member of the National Council of Education. The representatives from this department to the National Council of Education are as follows: Arthur S. Gist, term expiring in 1930; John A. Spargo, term expiring in 1932; Eva G. Pinkston, term expiring in 1934. It was voted that $100 be appropriated for the clerical expenses of the members of the editorial committee; that $1000 be appropriated for research studies in co¬ operation with the Division of Research; that 50 percent of the cash balance on hand July 1, 1929, be transferred to the Permanent Fund of the Department; that for the year 1929-30 the five issues of the Research Bulletin of the National Educa¬ tion Association be sent, free of charge, to all members of the department; that the expenses of the president and secretary be paid on the basis of the standard set up for the officers of the N. E. A. On motion the president was authorized to extend fitting recognition to Mr. Frank W. Hubbard for his splendid services to our department. On motion the secretary was directed to write to the members of the Budget Com¬ mittee and express the appreciation of the department for the liberal budget set up for the Research Division of the National Education Association. On motion the secretary was directed to present at the business session of the department a few revisions of the constitution which were recommended for adop¬ tion by the executive committee. The president expressed her appreciation for the cordial support and hearty cooperation of all members of the committee. A motion was made that a vote of thanks be given the retiring president for her able and efficient services to the department. Department of Kindergarten-Primary Education The department of kindergarten-primary education grew out of a meeting of the Froebel Institute of North America, which met in con¬ nection with the Association’s meeting in Madison, Wisconsin, in 1884. See Proceedings , 1884 :74. This department cooperates with the International Kin¬ dergarten Union, the National Council of Primary Education, and the National Committee on Nursery Schools. These three organizations cooperate in pub¬ lishing a monthly magazine — Childhood Education. The officers of the Department for the year 1929- 30 are: President , Mary Reed, Assistant Professor of Kindergarten-First Grade Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City; Vice- president , Clara Wilson, Training Teacher, School of Education, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr. ; Secretary -Treasurer, Eleanor Bogan, Director, New Orleans Nursery School, New Orleans, La. Facts relating to the establishment of this depart¬ ment and records of its meetings will be found in earlier Proceedings as follows : 1884: 74 1885 :349-368 1886:500-559 1887:331-391 1888:325-359 1889:443-482 1890:545-581 1891 :529-568 1892:253-303 1893:321-381 1894:679-704 1895:510-560 1896:471-514 1897:584-614 1898:589-620 1899:530-575 1900:365-403 1901 :500-540 1902 :409-430 1903:377-407 1904 :415-437 1905:341-373 1906 :626-630 1907:455-475 1908:501-543 1909 :437-457 1910:377-417 1911:477-517 1912:607-633 1913:425-447 1914:405-421 1915:629-671 1916:289-311 1917:417-431 1918:151-157 1919:171-179 1920:191-203 1921:461-471 1922:969-987 1923:705-719 1924:583-597 1925 :478-504 1926 :495-527 1927:457-472 1928:413-433 [ 426 ] EDUCATION FOR A NEW WORLD: THE BEST BEGINNING WITH YOUNG CHILDREN Activity Curriculums GENERAL interest in education is centering around the environment which best develops children’s potential abilities. Nowhere in a child’s educational experience is greater care needed to provide ade¬ quate opportunities for physical, social, and intellectual development than in the kindergartens and primary grades. The beginnings of all the informa¬ tion needed throughout life are contained in the work of these grades. So¬ cial attitudes established during the early years play a large part in deter¬ mining a child’s success in life. Physical wellbeing begins with the forma¬ tion of right habits of personal hygiene and correct safeguards of a child’s health. No one of these phases of child development is independent of the others. They are interdependent, and growth in each depends upon the other two. During the school day children should have opportunities to create and to meet social as well as intellectual problems. It should be considered a desirable and natural procedure for them to have a great deal of physical activity during the day. Activity curriculums seem to meet these needs. The extent to which activity curriculums are in use throughout the coun¬ try depends upon the interest and the confidence which school administrators have in them. This conference was organized to give all who were in¬ terested an opportunity to meet with those who were convinced of the value of activity curriculums, so that there might be a give and take from the experience of all. Instead of meetings wdth set speeches, this conference offered four discussion groups, each covering a phase of the problem of put¬ ting into actual practise this newer type of classroom procedure. Each group worked under the direction of a chairman and discussion leaders all of whom had given careful preparation to their particular aspect of the topic considered. The discussion of Group I centered around the working of an activity curriculum. It was intended primarily for members of curriculum com¬ mittees and supervisors and covered many of the supervisory and adminis¬ trative problems of carrying out an activity curriculum in a school system. Group II dealt with the classroom setting for an activity curriculum — home and purchasable equipment, local materials, as well as scientific, con¬ structive, and social activities, and record keeping. Group III analyzed the kinds .of technics of teaching essential for an activity curriculum. Teachers were given help in rating themselves along the lines of recognizing children’s interests and abilities. Group IV took up the idea of the unification of all the types of activity , from the home into the several parts of our school systems — the kinder¬ garten, primary, and elementary grades — showing the unity and continuity of experiences in the first educational unit. [427 ] 428 National Education Association A report of the points covered in each discussion group follows. In order to make fullest use of limited space, acknowledgement to individual con¬ tributors has been omitted. Group I — An Activity Curriculum at Work Chairman: H. F. Srygley, Superintendent of Schools, Raleigh, N. C. Discussion leaders: Miss Nena Deberry, Salisbury, N. C. Miss Mary Leeper, Asheville, N. C. Dr. John W. Carr, Jr., Durham, N. C. An activity curriculum may be defined as a series of school experiences designed to promote the maximum growth in children. Such experiences demand situations in which each boy and girl may be active ; may have free¬ dom to move, to develop an efficient body, to investigate, to try out his ideas in both work and play, to initiate activities, to think things out, to assume responsibilities, and to establish correct mental, social, moral, and emotional attitudes and abilities. Each must become part of the group and not only take pride in its achievements, but be ready to forget himself in working for the good of the whole. The Curriculum in the Making Attempts to approach these standards have led to a number of experi¬ ments, among them the Raleigh program. This program of curriculum revision is being conducted by the teachers and principals, with the assist¬ ance of the various supervisors, under the direction of the assistant superin¬ tendent in charge of instruction, who is responsible for the work. The pro¬ gram is now in its fifth year and has developed as outlined below: The first year was taken up with making a survey of the work going on in the field of curriculum reconstruction and with plans for needed revision of the cur¬ riculum of the Raleigh Schools. The second year was given to reading widely to set up general and specific objectives by subjects and by grades, for the elementary and the high schools. Subjectmatter committees were organized the third year to suggest definite sub- jectmatter for each grade that would help realize the objectives proposed the pre¬ ceding year. Each committee was composed of teachers representing every grade from the first through the high school, principals, and supervisors of the special subjects. The assistant superintendent worked with each committee on the call of the chairman, -who was elected by the committee. Grade committees were organized at the beginning of the fourth year for the purpose of integrating the work of the different subjectmatter committees. During this four-year period classroom teachers have been organizing their work on the basis of activities and large units growing out of centers of interesting and vital experience of the children. A very careful record has been kept by each teacher of the outcomes of the units developed. Standardized achievement tests have been given twice each year to see that the pupils are reaching the standard for each grade. The professional library established in the high-school building has grown with the work and has made available professional literature and reports of investiga- Department of Kindergarten-Primary Education 429 tions relating to the work of the various committees. Each committee, in carrying on its work, has made an effort to make use of the results of research in its par¬ ticular field. Specialists have given help in the work during the four-year period. The course of study as developed thus far consists of : 1. A general bulletin containing the aims, point of view and program of the Raleigh Schools. 2. A check list of objectives and subjectmatter for each grade with suggested units and reference materials. 3. Sections called “Teaching in Grade One,” “Teaching in Grades Two and Three,” and “Teaching in Grades Four, Five and Six.” Each of these bulletins contains a discussion of a program based on large units in each grade, together with several typical units reported in detail as taught in the Raleigh Schools. As the large unit organization is taught, the outcomes will be checked against the “check list” of objectives and subjectmatter, to see that the work of the schools meets the requirements suggested by the different subject- matter and grade committees. The course of study thus far developed will be tried out in the classroom this year and a very careful record will be kept of each individual pupil. Committees will continue the work of revision making use of the results obtained by the teaching staff. This will be continued over a period of years, special attention being given to testing and measuring the results obtained and to developing a sequence of units of work for the several grades. The program applies to every grade in the school system, both elementary and high, and the entire staff is engaged in the work. The fact that curriculum revision must be a continuous process is recog¬ nized and the program has been planned to extend over a period of twelve to fifteen years. It is hoped to evaluate the curriculum in terms of the growth of the pupils who will complete the work in the public schools dur¬ ing this period. The Salisbury city schools have also for the past five or six years been studying and experimenting with modern thought in education. The most interesting and encouraging part of the study has been the interest the chil¬ dren have taken in school since the experiment started. They feel that the school is theirs, and therefore they assume much responsibility for helping plan and run it. Educating Teacher Ability The administrators of the school are thoroughly convinced that a school program based on the needs and interests of children is much more desirable and more economic in every way than is the school which centers its pro¬ gram around the school subjects. All of the teachers do not as yet think as the administrators do, and as it seems unwise to force the program on them until they have had some opportunity for conviction, they are free to choose the kind of work they wish to carry on in their classrooms. There is a finer attitude when people are not forced into a thing they are not ready for, and then too, in case a teacher fails she is, perhaps, justified in placing the blame elsewhere ; whereas in selecting her own method of procedure, 430 National Education Association she assumes responsibility for success or failure. Those who have accepted the new idea are satisfied that a program based on purposeful activities makes for happiness, both in the teacher and the pupil. There is also another reason why the plan has not been made compulsory. This type of teaching takes special training. The Salisbury policy is to fill all vacancies with graduates, without experience, from colleges and normal schools because they are more openminded and, consequently, more pliable. Even though these girls have had good training, it is not sufficient to carry on a school program on the activity basis. This means that they must be given specialized training the first few years they teach. During this period they are thoroughly exposed to the point of view of the administrators by means of observation, personal conferences, teachers’ meetings, and sug¬ gested reading lists. A large percent gradually become converts to the new faith. One problem that has been studied diligently is that of organizing and evaluating large units for classroom work. This becomes a special prob¬ lem in most school systems, because it is difficult to produce anything of real worth with a group of teachers who in the main are not ready to ex¬ periment with education which centers around children’s activities. Special effort toward its solution has been made by certain teachers who have studied, organized and reorganized large units with the idea of finding out their scope and possibilities through working over a period of several years with various groups of children of the same grade who chance to select these particular units as centers of interest. Under the guidance of Dr. Trabue of the University of North Carolina, preparation of a yardstick for measuring teaching was begun last year. All the desirable habits of primary children were listed under several big head¬ ings. These lists or charts were made in terms of things children do that reflect behavior. For instance: What desirable habits should children practise in spelling? What are the things children do who assume re¬ sponsibility for their own work? What do polite children do that reflects politeness? What desirable health habits should children develop? These desirable habits were grouped under two distinct headings. One set included the desirable habits the child should practise at home, the other, the desirable habits the child should practise at school. The purpose of the home charts was to bring about understanding and agreement between the home and the school with regard to building desirable habits. The main purpose of the school charts was for checking teaching to see to what extent children were growing, and also, to serve as a check for evaluating the scope and possibilities of large units of work. Parent Cooperation The home charts were taken up and explained and discussed in grade mothers’ meetings; those mothers who desired took the charts that were needed most at that time, and checked their children for a given length of time. Of course, the children knew nothing of this. Mothers’ meetings were again held at the end of the period of checking, and many interesting Department of Kindergarten-Primary Education 431 things came up. Mothers who checked the chart systematically by the scale suggested were greatly pleased with the results. Some very helpful changes in charts were suggested by the mothers. For the first time they began to have some conception of what the school was really trying to do for the children. I hey acknowledged that the chart not only served as check on the child’s behavior, but it also served them in that it listed in a definite way the desirable habits the child should practise at home. The school charts were used by some of the teachers with much success. They were kept on their desks at all times, and as many charts were used as were needed to check all habits in evidence. Daily checks for each child were made only as there was desirable or undesirable behavior to record. Often during the day notes were entered for fear they might be forgotten later. Summaries of the charts were made quite frequently. These showed much fluctuation, but they also gave evidence of child growth in a very definite way. Even parents could see and appreciate the things the charts revealed. It was not expected that any one unit of work would be inclu¬ sive enough to include all desirable habits of primary children, but the idea was to find some definite check for judging something of the growth of children who helped plan and execute worthwhile units of work. Criteria for Units of Work After a considerable study a set of criteria has been evolved for use in the Raleigh program. These criteria are constantly being worked over as teachers and pupils live and grow through the various classroom activities. An effort is made to judge every unit of work selected in the light of the criteria suggested and where one does not measure very high it is not con¬ sidered. The criteria are as follows: 1. The unit of work must be selected from real life situations ; that is, it must be related to the present living experience of the children , not merely that of adults. The activity should appeal to children’s interests. It should not only satisfy present needs; but should contribute to some of the larger needs of life, as health, citizenship, group relationship, pride in school conduct. An activity should stimu¬ late the wise use of leisure — that is the “why” of a free period. 2. An activity or unit that is worthwhile should be hard enough to challenge and at the same time easy enough to insure some degree of success. In undertaking any unit of work it is well to ask these questions, “Does the activity present too many difficulties? Is it beyond the abilities of the children?” An activity should be suited to the stage of development of the child. A first grade could get some learnings from a study of wool, a third grade could get more, and a fifth grade could get still more than the children of either the first or the third grade. To be really worthwhile a unit should require real effort on the part of the children and should call for thinking as well as for manual effort. 3. The unit of work must stimulate many kinds of activities so as to provide for individual differences., In order to do this, the unit must have some easier possibilities than others. It is the place of the teacher to so guide the work that each child will get something to do that will bring him satisfaction. It is the doing of a thing successfully that brings satisfaction, although failure for some individuals may mean growth. The unit should challenge initiative and resourcefulness; should give opportunity for growth in leadership, in independence, in ability to assume responsibility; it 432 National Education Association should stimulate the exercise of judgment on the part of the children and the ability to plan and execute; it should tend to real investigation and perseverance. 4. An activity should lead on to other worthwhile activities. It should make the child want to do something bigger. It should tend to increase appreciation of worthwhile things. For example, the children should be taught to decide such questions as “Which is the more valuable or which serves best the needs of the community, a candy shop or a grocery store?” A unit is not very big if it does not cause the group to ask questions. All activities should foster an inquiring, investigative attitude. It should lead to other related units. Units should be so planned that they help each other. When we leave a unit, it should be with the feeling that here is a field that is interesting enough for further reading and study. The children many times are carrying on more than one unit at a time. The smaller unit may grow out of the large unit of work or it may be wholly unrelated to it. When we leave a unit we should feel that the children have learned something of how to do things, of how to cooperate, of how to carry a thing through, of how to judge the results. 5. The unit of work should add to the child’s efficiency. It should aid directly in realizing the learning objectives of the course of study, provide for progress in the tool subjects, develop good habits, desirable attitudes, or provide for the exercise of specific ethical habits, as thrift, promptness, obedience, courtesy, honesty. The unit should bring about the right attitude of the child to the members of the group and help him to become a contributing member. It should encourage co¬ operation. It should enrich the child’s experience ; make him realize the work of others in making his life comfortable and happy and what the past has contributed to his present environment. Pupils will come to realize the need to read, in order to find out some of the things they wish to know, to read stories for themselves; they will need to know how to use reference books; how to tell or write things in an interesting way; they will realize a need for number combinations in playing store. The unit should provide reasons for the need of certain skills and knowledges; the reasons for prac¬ tise or drill will then grow out of the development of the unit. 6. The activity should be practicable under school conditions. The teacher should make sure that materials and helps are available for carrying out the unit before it is undertaken. It is wise to plan the activity before undertaking it. It may not be carried out according to the plan made in advance, but planning helps the teacher organize his thinking and gives a better basis for judging the outcomes of the unit as it is developed. It will be possible to have ready for use some books with stories that will give the children the information they will want, reference books, pictures, construction or building materials, or art supplies that may be needed. It is not necessary to provide all the materials the children will need. They should be encouraged to use the things about them and to hunt for materials in the community. However, the teacher should know that the materials can be secured and where; then lead the child to get what he needs for himself. 7. In activities that involve challenging situations, where there is a question of doubt as to procedure, the attack should involve the fundamental principles em¬ ployed in the solution of the problem. The activity is not an end in itself, but should give an understanding of funda¬ mental principles which are learned through use and which the child may be able to apply when new situations arise calling for those learnings. As teachers we want to be sure that our theory does not run ahead of our practise. It is one thing to set up criteria, and quite another to apply them. We want to provide for the children who come to us an oppor- Department of Kindergarten-Primary Education 433 tunity to do what they would do anyway in a better way ; to give them a chance to express themselves. Let us study the child and while some of his efforts may seem crude and worthless to us, let us be sure that for this par¬ ticular child it does not mean a real step forward before we are ready to dis¬ credit his effort. Expressed in terms of personality traits, the activity curriculum aims to develop in the child such qualities as initiative, selfcontrol, critical minded¬ ness, social responsibility, originality. Such traits are not general, formal qualities ; they must be built into the behavior of children through exercise in concrete situations. They are expressed in changes of behavior ; changes which come about through modification of the habits, skills, knowledges, ideals, attitudes, and appreciation of children ; hence, it has become cus¬ tomary to express the outcomes of education in terms of those psychological factors which control conduct. An activity curriculum aims at measurable outcomes, but most of all it is concerned with changes in total behavior. The outcomes of an activity curriculum must be expressed in terms of all the changes in ways of be¬ having. This does not mean that these outcomes are intangible. Behavior, in children especially, is concrete and tangible enough if teachers will only give children freedom to behave naturally. Educational Results of Activity Curriculums In what fashion do the outcomes of an activity curriculum make them¬ selves apparent? In as many ways as the child has of expressing himself — in external forms of behavior which are indications of an internal develop¬ ment. The total of the outcomes of education is personality. A child re¬ veals his personality in what he says, in what he makes, draws or produces, in his bodily movements and gestures, in facial expression, in laughter, tears, and anger, in his reactions to social situations. Watch any group of chil¬ dren behaving naturally. A keen observer has no difficulty in judging many of the outcomes of the education of the individuals constituting the group. This is one of the main problems in evaluating the child-centered curricu¬ lum. Do our outcomes correspond to the aims which we have set up ? How can this problem be solved ? By a series of careful studies of children en¬ gaged in activity work — such studies to be carried on by experts in child study. The teacher cannot study herself at work while she is guiding the children through an activity program. An expert observer, one who knows the endpoints of child education, should watch the process and make a care¬ ful record of what takes place. A scientific analysis of a series of such records might yield a valid answer to the question : Does an activity pro¬ gram realize in actual behavior the aims which its proponents have set up for it to accomplish? A controversial point in regard to activity curriculums arises here : Should we try to predict in advance the outcomes of education? Not only should we try to predict the forms of behavior which a given activity will build into the nervous systems of children, but we must predict accurately if education is to realize its aim. Educational philosophers, psychologists, and 434 National Education Association sociologists must give the curriculum maker the general specifications for the kind of behavior which is needed for high-grade living in this com¬ plex civilization ; the curriculum maker must map out the detailed out¬ comes of the activity curriculum, expressing these in terms of trait-actions which are sufficiently definite to be recognizable by teachers ; finally, pro¬ fessionally-trained teachers, working in actual contact with children, must select the detailed activities which will result in the traits which constitute the aims of the process. We now know much more about what is desirable behavior in children than some conservatives in education have led us to believe. If teachers do not know what behavior outcomes are desirable for the children committed to their care, they have no business pretending to teach them. As teachers we must plan carefully and constantly the behavior changes which are needed to move our children up the scale toward high-grade living. There will not always be complete agreement as to the end-points which should be reached, and there should be, for the sake of experimenta¬ tion, much diversity as to means and methods; but we now know enough about what behavior is desirable and how to produce responses in children to ma*ke a substantial beginning in the right direction. A word of warning is necessary in conclusion. The school should be very modest in claiming credit for all of the behavior changes which take place in children. The school is not the sole educative agency. The home, the church, the playground, the Y. M. C. A., the Y. W. C. A., and the scout organizations — all of these should institute activity curriculums, aiming at the production of high-grade behavior in children. The school can merely supplement the work of other agencies, making a positive contribution in certain fields, augmenting desirable influences of other agencies wherever this is possible. When the home or any other educative factor exerts either negative or a negligible influence, the responsibility of the school is thereby increased. Above all, the school should strive to have its outcomes carried into the out-of-school life of children. Unless this is done, outside-of-school behavior will dominate and determine the real outcomes of the total educa¬ tive process. The necessity of transfer from school life to real life implies an activity curriculum. Only as we have children to learn by doing in school — and as much as possible to learn by wanting to do the things they do — can we expect them to practise desirable forms of behavior in the out- of-school life where the majority of their time is spent. Group II — Classroom Setting for an Activity Curriculum: Equip¬ ment, Its Selection, Construction, and Arrangement Chairman: Miss Anne Holdford, Supervisor of Wake County Rural Schools, Raleigh, N. C. Discussion leaders: Miss Agnes Douglas, Chester, N. C. Dr. Lois C. Mossman, Columbia University. Miss Annie Cameron, Hillsboro, N. C. Department of Kindergarten-Primary Education 435 Miss Lila Bell, Raleigh, N. C. Miss Mary Hyman, Hillsboro, N. C. Dr. John W. Carr, Jr., Durham, N. C. The point of view regarding equipment has shifted from the schoolhouse to the child and to the relationship of classroom setting to pupil growth. Therefore, the first question that presents itself in connection with this topic is : What standards of selection shall be set up as a guide in choosing equipment ? Truly standard equipment is that which fits a group of children in their particular setting. There is no more reason for permanent equipment of a set type in the kindergarten and primary room than there is in the home. The age levels and consequent needs of the members of the group must be a determining factor in making selection. Often the mere rearrangement of the old type of school furniture will produce astonishing results. The equipment must make some definite contribution to the development of the child. That is, it should lead him to express his own ideas, provide oppor¬ tunities for experimentation, or stimulate in him a desire to get information for himself. The next point to be considered is : What equipment shall be provided ? 1 The manner in which it is to be obtained is such a closely related problem that the two may readily be taken up at the same time. The teacher who desires to provide the right sort of setting for her group must have an ex¬ tensive knowledge of what may be included under the heading of equip¬ ment ; but it is equally desirable that whenever possible the procuring of materials be made a pupil activity, thereby becoming in and of itself an educative process. For example, easels, work benches, shelves, bookcases, lockers, files, chairs, reading tables, and other things of a permanent nature can be made in classrooms, as need for them arises. Equipment in one classroom is described in the following manner : We had a library table with books and pictures about home and family life. There were supply shelves with a pile of magazines that could be cut up, scissors, colors, paste, construction paper, and a print-a-primer. We had a victrola and some records. In one corner were some paints and an easel made for us by the sixth grade boys. In another was a pile of blocks made from odds and ends of lumber left over from the construction of a building. There were plants in the windows. There were shelves with toys and games, largely home-made. And then there were some tools, a miscellaneous collection of boards, a supply of old boxes and some scraps of lumber. One teacher described materials for nature study activities in a way that is suggestive of equipment for other school activities : 1 Helpful descriptions of equipment and apparatus which can be constructed at the school, and excellent lists of desirable equipment and supplies may be procured from the following sources: Childhood Education for February, 1929. 1201 16th St., N. W., Washington, I). C. Garrison, Charlotte G. Permanent play materials for young children. New York, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1926. 118 p. International Kindergarten Union. Committee on Equipment and Supplies. Frances M. Berry, Chairman. Equipment and Supplies for nursery school, kindergarten, and primary grades. Baltimore, Thomas & Evans Co., 1927. 48 p. Knox, Rose B. School activities and equipment. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1927. 368 p. National Education Association 436 1. For the study of animal life Cages or pens made of wooden boxes, large enough for the animal’s comfort. Shoe boxes with pieces of wire netting over the tops are useful for insects or small animals. Glass fruit jars with wire netting over the tops also pro¬ vide for insects. Feeding boxes, water troughs and bedding are necessary for animals that are being kept for any length of time. The feeding boxes can be made from planks, sides of orange crates, etc. Low tin cans, or tops of fruit jars make good water troughs. Grass, hay, or leaves can be used for bedding. Aquaria may be made of glass, cement, tin, zinc, etc. A glass aquarium holding from two to four gallons can be bought from a mail order firm, a department store, or a science supply firm for a price between $7 and $9. A much cheaper one can be made by using (1) plate glass and cementing the sides together; (2) a galvanized laundry tub, painted on the outside to pre¬ vent rusting. Frogs, fish, tadpoles, turtles, snails, water insects, and plants can be easily collected by the children. In one first grade a little boy brought his dog to school to spend the winter. The children thought it well to build a house for her in which to rest during the school hours. They used two wooden boxes for it (one for the main part of the house, and the other for extra lumber), nails, brass tacks, roofing, paint, brushes; the tools needed were hammer, saws, shears for cutting roofing, ruler and yard stick, paint brushes, dust pan and broom for cleaning up, newspapers to keep the paint off the floor. 2. For the study of plant life A part of the school grounds can be used for gardens of the different grades. It is economy to purchase gardening tools of good quality instead of toys or very cheap ones. It is best to buy the rakes and hoes from a hard¬ ware store but the trowels and small weeders can be found at any ten cent store at a very small cost. Light weight materials should be used by the younger children. It is well to have a special room in which all of the tools can be kept and cared for. Yardsticks are necessary for marking off distances between rows, and string is needed to check off plots. Waxing the string will strengthen it and cause it to remain clean longer. Markers can be easily cut by the children from slats of orange crates. Hose is obtainable at any hardware store and should be kept on a frame to prevent injuries. 3. For the study of bird life Bird houses should be built according to the children’s own initiative for use at school or at home. They may be constructed of chalk boxes, tin cans, bark, or small sticks. Feeding boxes can be made by nailing small pieces of planks on window sills, in trees or any high places. It is desirable in colder climates to put a roof over the platform for protection. A bird bath may be made of rocks piled into a mound and cemented to¬ gether with a large pan covered with cement or the top of a 20 gallon crock jar fastened at the top of the mound of rocks. The bath should not be over one inch deep. The teacher must familiarize herself with the environment of her group. Lack of funds may be the very eye-opener that she needs to force her to dis¬ cover its treasures. Only when she has gained this knowledge will she be able to awaken in the children a sensitivity to the best it contains. Department of Kindergarten-Primary Education 437 The clever teacher knows the knowledges, skills, and attitudes that she ought to develop in her children ; she has a wealth of suggestive information, and she is able to follow the children’s interests to keep them working pur¬ posefully and developing in the right way. How, then, does she arrange the setting so as to bring about the best results? Skillful arrangement of the equipment into centers of interest, if presented at opportune times, seldom fails to suggest desirable activities. A situation with hodge podge equipment and materials, however good each thing may be, is almost as barren of results as one with none at all. Books scattered hither and yon about the room make little appeal to a child, but a well-arranged library table in a bright corner with a few comfortable chairs lures a child to do just what the teacher wishes him to do — learn to love to read. There is danger, as well, from having too many centers of interest at one time, or too much material. Then the child becomes con¬ fused and rests satisfied with examining the materials. The closer the cor¬ relation between the units of interest and the life needs of the child, the more definite, more integrated and permanent will be his growth. What records of the use of equipment are valuable ? These points should be noted concerning each unit of work: the initial indication of interest, the minor activities and problems which came in as the unit was carried forward, the materials which teacher and children used, the outcomes ex¬ pressed in terms of changes in behavior, and further suggested activities. This should be done because it will be of value to other teachers ; it will show just what activities have been carried on and will prevent duplication in the future. The record will help to check the activities of the child and the behavior outcomes of these activities against the subject materials which the child should learn, and will show how these phases of the educative process are brought together. Group III — Classroom Procedures Which Promote Desirable Physical Development, Knowledge, Habits, Attitudes, and Skills Chairman: Dr. Winifred E. Bain, Director of Teacher Training, State Teachers College, East Radford, Va. Discussion leaders: Miss Mary Dickenson, Atlanta, Ga. Miss Lucille Wells, Atlanta, Ga. What specific procedures should teachers use in order to bring about a desirable, well-rounded development in children? Two assumptions are basic to a consideration of this question. The first of these is that we know what types of development to nurture in children, and the second, that we can at least find out wdiat procedures can be employed to obtain these favor¬ able results. If these assumptions were facts, all the mysteries of teaching would be solved, and there would be no question about what teachers should do in the classroom. Teachers could very readily discover for themselves what degree of efficiency they had attained and what they might do to im¬ prove their work. 438 National Education Association Although teaching is a much more subtle process than here pictured, there is in educational lore a body of knowledge gained from scientific studies and philosophical investigations which serves as a basis for tentative answers to the question : What types of development should be brought about in chil¬ dren? and What may teachers do to promote such favorable results? The lirst part of this discussion will be concerned with the exposition of this basic philosophy. Following upon this there will be an application of principles to the practical procedures which exemplify them. This latter discussion will center about a scaled analysis of teaching1 which has been put into print to aid supervisors and teachers in finding an evaluation of their work by matching what they do with samples of procedures described on the scale. Modern philosophy and attendant procedures can be made to stand out in relief by contrast with former practise. No longer are we content that children should be versed in the mere mechanics of learning. There was a time when it was thought that the whole function of the primary grades was to give children increasing practise in the mastery of reading, writing, and arithmetic, which they were expected to use when they should have greater ability to understand the meanings of life. The kindergarten did not so limit its aims, but its curriculum content was nevertheless rather formal and prescribed following the symbolic outlines of the Mother Plays. What we now desire for children is a breadth of outlook and a wide inter¬ pretation of meanings gained from experiences in life as progress is made toward maturity. The mechanics of reading, writing, and arithmetic should not be slighted ; but they should be mastered in a natural setting of experiences because the child purposes to master them and feels a need for doing so. Criteria for the School Program According to this newer philosophy the educative experiences should have the following characteristics : 1. They should be worthwhile learning situations. To quote from the sym¬ posium of Principles in the 26th Yearbook' of the National Society for the Study of Education: “The school should provide a succession of experiences and enter¬ prises having a maximum of lifelikeness to the learner. Traits learned in a natural lifelike setting give promise of emerging in appropriate conduct.” 2. Experiences provided should fall within children’s interests so as to intrigue their effort. Teachers here have the responsibility of discovering and promoting those interests which are of social worth. 3. Educational experiences should come within the range of children’s capacity to understand and ability to successfully participate in them. +. Because children vary in their traits and development, educational experiences must be varied if a well-rounded growth is to be secured. Procedures based on such a philosophy give children wider knowledge and greater comprehension of meanings, which come through wider experiences 1Bain. Winifred E., A Tentative Analysis of Teaching in Nursery School, Kindergarten, and First Grade. Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City, 1929. ^National Society for the Study of Education, 26th Yearbook. Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, Ill. 1927. Department of Kindergarten-Primary Education 439 and through the careful interpretation of them. In living through such experiences children themselves purpose to master such school subjects as were formerly crammed down their unwilling throats by conscientious and over-worked teachers. This contract between the “cramming” and the “purposing” school is voiced by Overstreet:1 Knowledge that expands us can never be knowledge that is stuffed in. It must be knowledge that we want, that we ourselves go seeking, that we sweat and toil for precisely because we will not for the life of us go without it. Better no schools at all than schools which so cram us to the bursting point that we have no wish nor spirit thereafter to go seeking on our own. We are then sated children; sated adults. Such a statement as this from Overstreet brings to consciousness the fact that a school full of experiences and purposing demands a new type of social organization. No longer are we content to have children “seen and not heard.” Social organization of a school based on modern philosophy is quite different from that of the older type in which the teacher carried all the responsibility and directed all the work. In the newer type of school the children must have freedom for choice, for experimentation, for contact with their peers. Are they then to know nothing of authority? Authority, according to the basic philosophy presented here, will be recognized as an aid to social wellbeing. Response to certain signals and conformity to certain routines will be recognized as contributing to personal and general well¬ being. In the earlier type of school the teacher was always right. The appeal to the child was made on the basis that a stronger and higher author¬ ity was demanding compliance, or that a benevolent despot desired to be pleased. “Miss Jones will not love you if you do that” was not an un¬ common cry. In the newer type of school the teacher is the authority to which children may appeal as an aid in solving difficult problems just as One goes to a book by an eminent author to find solutions for baffling situations. A social organization which will give children this freedom for practise in selfdirection for social adjustments with their peers and a recognition of authority as an aid to social wellbeing and the solution of problems is one well worth considering for the sake of development it should yield in the child. Routines have been mentioned as a part of the authority to which the child becomes conscious. These also have undergone a change in character. No longer are routines employed for the established purpose of getting large numbers of children through the day in an orderly fashion. Rather are routines so organized as to give children habits of right living. A considera¬ tion of health has come into prominence in the routines of the modern school. Personal cleanliness, out-of-door play, protection from physical danger, promotion of postural habits, inspection for prevention of contagion, habits of eating, rest, and elimination are all now considered as parts of the responsibility of the modern school. And with all these tangible objectives there is also a recognition of re¬ sponsibility for the emotional elements which accompany living and learn- 1 Overstreet, Harry. About Ourselves. W. W. Norton Co., New York City, 1928. p. 166. 440 National Education Association ing. It is not enough that a child eat the right kind of food but that he learn to like it. He should not only learn to read but should like to read. His progress should spell success on each level of his ability. Each step of his progress should mark a well adjusted emotional life. Changes in basic educational philosophy which have brought about changes in procedures may then be summarized as follows : 1. Recognition of the broader aspects of the school’s responsibility which include the physical, mental, emotional, and social development of children. 2. Recognition of the theory that in order to meet these responsibilities the school should provide a wide range of educative experiences. 3. Realization that children learn variously through responses to these experi¬ ences; that direct learning is accompanied by concomitant attitudes, emotions, and appreciations whether favorable or unfavorable. 4. Consequent change in conception of the function of the teacher: (1) She should provide a social organization which gives freedom for selfdirection, practise in social selfcontrol, and recognizes authority as an aid to social wellbeing. (2) She should provide educative experiences which will widen and broaden the child’s outlook and outward behavior. (3) She should so shape the children’s active responses that the resultant satisfactions and annoyances will tend to bring the child to higher and broader levels of thinking, feeling, and doing. With some agreement upon this philosophy which indicates the type of development desirable in children there is basis for analyzing the specific procedures which should tend to bring these about. Such an analysis has been formulated and may be taken as a basis for consideration. Various aspects of teaching in nursery school, kindergarten, and first grade have been organized into a scale on which varying levels of efficiency in rela¬ tion to each are shown by means of sample procedures. It is recognized that no analysis of teaching can be made upon topics which are mutually exclusive since all phases of teaching are interrelated. Teaching is recognized to be more than the sum of its parts. However, topics were made as specific as possible in order that they might be as clear and helpful as might be to the users of the analysis. Twenty-eight such items were used as headings in the analysis and each has been scaled on a basis of five points representing degrees of efficiency in teaching according to the principles adopted. These topics relate to the physical, social, and emotional development of children as well as to their intellectual learning. They are as follows: Habits of cleanliness in the school, physical conditions of room, habits of per¬ sonal cleanliness, regulation of wraps, out-of-door play, protection from danger, postural habits and development, prevention of contagion, habits of eating, habits of rest, elimination, social organization, social adjustment, emotional adjustment, arrangement of room for work, creative use of materials, problem solving, stimu¬ lating experiences, interpretation of social life, interpretation of nature, dramatic play, singing, rhythmic expression, drawing and painting, literature, language ex¬ pression, social skills, and reading. The way in which each item has been defined may well be illustrated by a sample taken from the analysis. The sample here given related to the creative use of play materials. It will be noted that a scale line is provided for making the rating, the teaching which resembles the definition num- Department of Kindergarten-Primary Education 441 bered one is placed at the point so numbered on the scale line. The defini¬ tions numbered two, three, and five describe the procedures which should be rated at the point corresponding to numbers on the line. In general the teacher described at number one is one who is oblivious of the possibilities of the situation. The procedures described at number two indicate teaching which is based on mistaken interpretations of philosophy of teaching. Teacher number three stands at a mid-point between efficiency and inefficiency, while teachers four and five are described as teachers of above average skill in exemplifying the basic philosophy. CREATIVE USE OF PLAY MATERIALS 1 XVI. Guides children to constructive thinking, desirable habits and skills through creative use of tools and play materials. 1 2 3 4 5 1. Suppresses children’s natural desire for creative use of materials. Ex: Denies children the use of materials which they might have. Or, dictates every step in the process of constructing something. Says: ‘Tut two blocks here, now two here, and now two on top. What does that make?” Uses mate¬ rial limited in creative possibilities such as finely cut weaving mats, sewing cards, and the like. In an effort to correlate “hand work” with other interests which are going forward, the teacher promotes the making of illustrative pieces which have little meaning or use to the child. 2. Makes technic an end in itself rather than a means to an end. Ex: Helps children to the point of doing the most of the thinking herself in order to have a nice result. Has children color within an outline which she has prepared in order to gain practise in smooth crayoning; has them build a store which she has planned. Insists on a technic beyond the children’s level. Permits individual children to specialize in one or two things which they can make skillfully rather than stimulating them to gain a variety of skills and meet a variety of problems. 3. Children’s creative use of materials at an average. Methods neither positively efficient nor yet inefficient, lying at the mid-point between 2 and 4. 4. Children encouraged to express themselves freely through the wise use of materials. Ex: Plenty of opportunity for experimentation, planning, executing and judg¬ ing results. Ingenuity in provision of materials such as boxes, waste materials, and things brought from home. Children work and play independently. Evi¬ dences of real child purposes directed toward supplying play needs or express¬ ing ideas. 5. Teacher evidences special skill in raising the level of the children’s performance. Ex: Shows skill in judging the level of the individual children and appealing to them on their own level. Sees the needs of individuals while they work and goes to them with suggestions and help. Gives them enough and not too much assistance. Goes back to children and checks up on progress during the work period. Encourages children to work with a variety of materials and to express themselves in a variety of ways. Gives every opportunity for group coopera¬ tion and encourages it through the natural avenue of spontaneous play. Stimu¬ lates the use of what has been made as a check on its worth. Encourages self 1 Bain, Winifred E. A Tentative Analysis of Teaching in Nursery School. Kindergarten , and First Grade. Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, 1929. p. 21. 442 National Education Association and group criticism according to the maturity of the children. Uses praise where it is merited and is satisfied with a crude result if it represents the child’s best achievement without strain. Many difficulties stand in the way of carrying out such procedures as are here described. In many cases the teacher works under hampering circum¬ stances. What can the teacher do in the prevention of contagion in the school when no physician or nurse are at her service? What can a teacher do to secure hygienic room conditions when the patent ventilating system makes necessary that all windows be closed, even though the ventilation is obviously inadequate ? How can a teacher bring about a desirable social organization when she has a crowded room, a formal type of furniture, and a dearth of material? Provision is made in rating to indicate that situations influencing a teacher’s rating are outside of her control. However, it has been the experience of those formulating this report that most of such con¬ ditions can be changed by continued and energetic effort on the part of teachers. If a teacher has strength, purpose, and clear insight, she will rise to her own level. Much interest has been evidenced in the use of this analysis as a help to teachers and supervisors in discovering where teaching procedures rate on a scale of values derived from modern educational philosophy. What types of development are desirable and what procedures will tend to promote them appear to be analyzed here for such practical use. However, the sense of this discussion is that any such analysis must be tentative pending changes in philosophy and a keener understanding of teaching principles. Group IV — Unity and Continuity of Educational Experience — Home, Nursery School, Kindergarten, and Elementary Grades Chairman : Dr. Beryl Parker, Assistant Supervisor of Upper Elementary Grades, Norfolk, Va. Discussion leaders: Miss Ada Woolfolk, Atlanta, G a. Miss Trix Barbour, Asheville, N. C. When we consider the principles underlying recent tendencies in social education, habit formation, creative expression, the making of textbooks and equipment, curriculum building, and the activity method, we must con¬ cede that the lines of progress marked out by pioneer kindergarten-primary teachers and now justified by physicians and psychologists, as well as educa¬ tional philosophers, are largely determining new ideals in education. 4 here was a period when we feared that these lines of progress would carry through the primary school only and then beat in vain against the dead wall of tradition. Lack of understanding in the home, serious compro¬ mise on the intermediate level, severe retrenchment in the high school, and nullification before the barrier of college entrance examinations threatened to limit seriously the application of fundamental principles derived from the early elementary field of education. Kindergarten and primary teachers did not trust their own judgment on the upper levels. Their limited training and experience made them hesi- Department of Kindergarten-Primary Education 443 tate to speak boldly in favor of reforms, which they intuitively felt would reshape elementary and secondary education eventually. Today the fear of limits is vanishing as we see to what an extent all de¬ partments of the school system are recognizing the value of interesting school books, pupil activity, centers of interest, attractive equipment, unified curriculums, creative work, and personal adjustments. Teachers of young children now have higher training and wider experience, so that they dare to speak with authority that carries conviction to principals, superintend¬ ents, schoolboards, and college professors. Many of the latter are reaching similar conclusions independently, because of modifications in the secondary schools, a few significant college experiments, and recent trends in adult education. We are here as a group which accepts the idea of unity and continuity in educational experience, but we need to define certain aspects of the prob¬ lems involved more sharply. All we can do in one brief conference is to define and outline the basic meaning of the topic. That will clear the way for a future presentation of the specific experiences in home, nursery school, kindergarten, and intermediate grades, which do lead to unity and con¬ tinuity in the development of the individual and society. The Integrated Idea of Education For the sake of clarity let us take a graphic view of the conference topic and think of unity as a horizontal control in education, knitting together all elements and agencies which affect the child at any one level, so that there are no gaps or conflicts in his development on that plane. Then continuity is a vertical control and implies the smooth joining of levels one above another, so that there is no undue overlapping, no lack of connections, and no sharp breaks in the child’s experience as he passes through the successive stages of educational growth in one flowing line, which Adler calls “straight line development.” Unity guarantees the normal development of the whole child in relation to his total environment at any one period. Somewhere Dewey has said that complete living at any one stage is the best preparation for the stages that follow. Continuity is desirable to insure strength and attainment in the many lines that educators regard as essential to the development of physical fit¬ ness, good personal habits, social power, intellectual capacity, and esthetic sensitivity. Organization conditions, to a remarkable extent, any attempt to secure unity and continuity in education. For example, when all agencies dealing with five year old children at school and at home unite on purposes and procedure, laying down their differences for the sake of common ends, we begin to get an integration of forces working for the welfare of the young child. When all the subjectmatter challenging the eight year old group is built into centers of interest, units of work, or an integrated program of activities, we readily see the possibilities of unification in the school curriculum. 444 National Education Association When identical social agencies deal with children through successive vertical stages or ages, as is frequently the case in settlement groups, we see the force of continuity in treatment. The family is ideally the prototype for continuity of development. In the case of the school, where somewhat separate departments claim children at different ages, there is greater diffi¬ culty in adjustment; but much can be done to secure related purposes and similar procedure throughout the school, so that continuity in dealing with human nature is approximated, even though each agency has a special function. Integration Demonstrated in School Organization, and Teacher Training Progress in securing unity and continuity has been made in several spe¬ cific ways. The home is bound to the elementary school by the parent- teacher associations and the home and school leagues. Many child study associations of national scope supplement its work. These and the nursery schools have created a parent education movement of considerable extent. The nursery school is bound to the kindergarten by many members active in both organizations. It reaches up to higher levels of the school system by contacts with physicians, psychologists, and domestic science instructors. In a few instances it is becoming a unit of the public elementary school. It is closely bound to the kindergarten and primary departments by common meetings such as this, and cooperation in the publication of the journal Childhood Education. Kindergarten-primary groups have been closely allied for years through duplicate memberships in professional organizations, joint meetings, shared responsibility for the journal, and outright attempts to erase distinctions in teacher training and school administration, so that their interests might merge in one department of Early Childhood Education. Primary and intermediate grades are held together more loosely in some ways because the numbers involved are greater, and more closely in others because they frequently constitute a single administrative unit, as in the rural schools and smaller towns. They are also bound to some extent by membership in the associations of classroom teachers, in their state and local associations, as well as by some reading of the same journals, and joint committee work on school problems. There is less conscious effort to draw them together than has been applied to kindergarten-primary fusion. Teachers are the keystone in any attempt to further unification. An in¬ dispensable condition is the democratic intermingling of teachers of all sorts from nursery school and kindergarten through college and university with the obliteration of caste distinctions due to salaries or degrees. No group should stand apart as select or superior. None should feel neglected and inadequate. Teacher training is taking account of the need of unity by requiring kindergarten-primary students to prepare for both fields and encouraging them to range still further in choosing their courses. The future inter¬ mediate teacher will know something of primary work, and even a few sec¬ ondary candidates have been allowed to include childhood education in their preparatory courses. Department of Kindergarten-Primary Education 445 The able teacher is occasionally allowed to move forward with her own group or to teach in different grades. Some schools expect their kinder¬ garten and first grade teachers to alternate regularly. Others allow for this shift in third and fourth grades. Whatever we may think of the pla¬ toon and departmentalized school, at least it does give the teacher acquaint¬ ance with various age levels, although it correspondingly limits her con¬ tacts with subjectmatter and activities. Supervision is so intensive in American schools that it can be a great factor for unity and continuity. Where there are supervisors for kindergarten only, there is danger of too little unification of kindergarten and primary, unless the individual supervisors coordinate their work consciously. The same difficulty arises when there are a considerable number of special super¬ visors for art, music, writing, physical education, etc. Certain gains in ex¬ pert instruction are offset by certain losses in unity. Curriculum building by the teachers of a single system inevitably brings together groups with diverse interests. This year in Norfolk an attempt has been made to put the social studies curriculum into better form by having senior high school, junior high school, intermediate, primary, and kindergarten teachers think out together some of the problems dealing with the course, materials of instruction, and units of work. It proved a diffi¬ cult undertaking and is far from successful yet. Cooperative curriculum building as carried on by teachers in Denver, Dayton, Raleigh, Des Moines, and dozens of other cities is one of the best means of embodying principles of continuity in actual practise. The visiting teacher is a forceful factor toward unification in Cities which have been able to add her services to those of the classroom teacher, who is unable to visit pupils’ homes often. Sometimes the school nurse, psychologists, and attendance officers serve the same purpose for under¬ privileged children, as they follow them through a series of school years. Let us consider several fields of education and the progress made in de¬ veloping them: Physical education of all levels now accepts the value of play, the necessity of physical examination and treatment, the advantage of feeding undernourished children, and of some responsibility for the school lunches of all pupils, the import¬ ance of instruction in physiology and hygiene, as well as the advisability of some training in habits of cleanliness and health. Personal habits and attitudes shaping conduct and character are to be considered in addition to habits obviously physical. There are behavior problems to be met and many factors in mental hygiene to be considered. This program is working out as a conduct curriculum on the lower level and as character education of the more fundamental sort on higher levels. Revised forms of the school report card give some evidence of this gain. Social education is chiefly bound up with the preceding division and touches every other. Its primary concern is group life and the reactions of its members to family and playmates, to school comrades and teachers. Home and school con¬ stitute the whole environment of the child during the years in which he establishes his “ultimate attitude toward reality, and his ability to meet the world with a calm mind and a stable emotional balance” which is the foundation of social behavior. 446 National Education Association Three things may be stressed as essential in the educational experience of the child if he is to acquire and maintain the mental and emotional stability expressing itself in social behavior, a sense of security in relation to his environment, a sense of oneness with and likeness to his group, and satisfaction through selfexpression so harmonious and complete as to prevent suppressions and conflicts within the per¬ sonality. These combine to produce in the child a sound mental attitude toward himself as an individual and toward his fellow men. On the other hand there are conditions that operate against the development of a sound mental attitude. One is the gulf that often exists between the home and school environments. Educational experience that is divorced from home experience tends to set up conflicts that destroy all sense of security. Occasionally it happens that the organization of the school emphasizes the child's difference from his group either in superior or inferior endowment, an unfortunate occurrence in either case. Again, the child from the dependent home is handicapped in normal social develop¬ ment by difference from his kind. His salvation lies in having an opportunity in his school relationships to be as other children. Relief giving, if it is to aid the child and not hamper his progress toward social adjustment, must be administered by a trained social worker. If the school becomes an almoner of charity and takes evident cognizance of the child’s economic status, it loses the opportunity to help him establish the independent attitude of mind that may make possible later his normal relation to society. Intellectual education has always sought continuity and usually violated unity by arranging subjectmatter in tight compartments and definite sequence, as well as by devising logical series of steps in method. Today subjectmatter and method are being integrated in centers of interest and units of work, which regard pupil activity as the determining force in curriculum building. In such a large field it may, perhaps, be well to isolate one element for discussion, for instance, science. The paucity of science in the education of young children has been partially responsible for the failure of many pupils to find adequate satis¬ factions in school work. Boys and girls are full of curiosity by nature, and they are intensely stimulated by the environment they live in today, filled as it is with ever-increasing scientific discoveries. Science training should aim at developing lifelong interests, attitudes, apprecia¬ tions, and mental alertness in observation. Science understanding should be a grad¬ ually expanding growth from the time a baby is first shown “the pretty flower” right on through nursery school, kindergarten, elementary school, and life. It is not a subject to be developed at any one stage of training. We need to keep in close touch with things about us every day and especially with the world of plant and animal life, with the forces of nature, and with man’s inventions. Most of us hesitate to use the many openings children’s activities present for scientific investigation and thinking. We suffer from a lack of science in our own education. Gradually some of the gaps can be filled as we work and learn with the children. We must begin in our own environment and learn to know the every¬ day things that challenge interest all about us. Esthetic education has been a rather vague field, but we are beginning to grasp some of the implications of unity and continuity here, also. For instance, we are looking beyond the limited conception of creative activity as selfexpression in handwork or poetry alone, and we are taking account of the complete cycle of a unified esthetic experience: (1) Impressions which occur when one is in a more or less passive state of receptivity. (2) Integration of impressions by some process of selection and organization. (3) Appreciation in proportion to the skill and sen¬ sitivity with which impressions are apprehended and assimilated. (4) Creative activity or re-creation, if you will, since it is the “reconstruction of experience” from elements received somewhere and sometime in the life of an individual, and given forth again colored by his own personality and experience. Department of Kindergarten-Primary Education 447 Last fall a mixed group was discussing the Kindergarten Union and the Primary Council. Some one suggested that their day of usefulness might be passing. “They have persuaded us all to buy movable furniture and in¬ troduce activities. What can they start next?” This conference is one answer to that question. Kindergarten-primary procedure may have reached a high state of perfection in many classes, but we shall not be satisfied until the whole school is correspondingly fitted to the needs of all children and the conditions of real life. SECRETARY'S MINUTES Atlanta Meeting The keynote of the Kindergarten-Primary Department was first sounded in Atlanta by the United States Commissioner of Education when, in the course of his inspiring presentation of the topic, “Education for a New America,” at the opening session of the convention, he commended the “cooperative enterprises of the elementary school,” urged the need of “helping young people to work out a philosophy of life and system of standards,” made a plea for the “development of individual personality” among our boys and girls, and stressed the importance of giving them the ability to make “the proper use of leisure time.” It aroused in one a pleasant sensation to know that the portion of the audience whose par¬ ticular interest centered in early childhood education might have risen in answer to his appeal with the reply, “Yes, Dr. Cooper, those are the things we have come to talk about.” Next, just as in a well-regulated kindergarten or primary group the first days are given to becoming acquainted, so the Atlanta Kindergarten Alumnae Club provided a most delightful opportunity for social intercourse in the form of an al fresco tea which was held on Sunday evening at six oclock at the Eastlake Country Club, on whose links Bobby Jones learned to play golf. The cap-sheaf to the festivity was, of course, our happiness in being able to share with Atlanta her great joy in the news of her favorite son’s most recent victory which had been won that very day. At two oclock on Monday afternoon, July 1, the first regular meeting of the department was called to order by the president, Dr. Mary Dabney Davis, specialist in Nursery-Kindergarten-Primary Education, U. S. Bureau of Education, in the auditorium of the Central Presbyterian Church. After introducing the other officers and having expressed the appreciation of the members of the division for the wonderful hospitality of Atlanta and the Southeast, Dr. Davis announced that the phase of the central theme of the convention “Education For a New World” that had been selected as the dominant thought for the after¬ noon’s program was The Best Beginning for Young Children, or, The Working of an Activity Curriculum. She explained that, departing from customary pro¬ cedure, the subject would be taken up in four discussion groups, a method that would permit participation by everyone. The assembly then divided into smaller units in the rooms assigned, where the leaders presented their material very informally. Those present were encouraged to raise questions at any time as the speakers expected and hoped to be interrupted. Further discussion followed each talk. The topics considered were: GROUP I - AN ACTIVITY CURRICULUM AT WORK Chairman: Superintendent H. F. Srygley, Raleigh, N. C. GROUP II — CLASSROOM SETTING FOR AN ACTIVITY CURRICULUM — EQUIPMENT, ITS SELEC¬ TION, CONSTRUCTION, AND ARRANGEMENT Chairman: Miss Anne Holdford, Supervisor of Wake County Rural Schools, Raleigh, N. C. 448 National Education Association GROUP III — CLASSROOM PROCEDURES WHICH PROMOTE DESIRABLE PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT, KNOWLEDGE, HABITS, ATTITUDES, AND SKILLS Chairman: Dr. Winifred E. Bain, Director of Training, State Teachers College, East Radford, Va. GROUP IV — UNITY AND CONTINUITY OF EDUCATIONAL EXPERIENCE - THE HOME, NURSERY SCHOOL, KINDERGARTEN, AND ELEMENTARY GRADES Chairman: Dr. Beryl Parker, Assistant Supervisor of Upper Elementary Grades, Norfolk, Va. The second meeting of the department took the form of a delightfully appointed luncheon served in the ballroom of the Atlanta Biltmore Hotel at 12:30, on Tues¬ day, July 2. The quantities of flowers that added so much to the beauty of the scene had been raised for the purpose by the children of Atlanta. Greetings were extended by Miss Lucy Gage, Dr. Trabue, and Dr. Blatz, speakers at the morning general session of the N. E. A., which at Dr. Davis’ request had been devoted en¬ tirely to the education of young children. Reports were made by representatives of the co-ordinating organizations of the National Council of Childhood Education — for the National Committee of Nursery Schools, Miss Martha McAlpine ; for the International Kindergarten Union, Miss Mary Leeper; and for the National Coun¬ cil of Primary Education, Miss Lucy Gage. At this point routine business was dis¬ posed of — the minutes of the Minneapolis meeting were approved and the report of the nominating committee accepted. The officers for 1929-30 will be: Dr. Mary Reed, Teachers College, Columbia University, president; Miss Clara Wilson, Uni¬ versity of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr., vicepresident; Miss Eleanor Bogan, Director of the New Orleans Nursery School, New Orleans, La., secretary. Summaries of the four discussion groups held on Monday were given by leaders of these groups, and the meeting closed with a most inspiring address — New World Expectations and Our Young Children — by Superintendent A. L. Threlkeld, Denver, Colorado. During the meetings, and especially that of Monday afternoon, much concrete evidence was presented to show that the best beginning for young children lies beyond doubt in the working out of an activity curriculum. Here is a particularly charming bit. One day a supervisor of rural schools in Orange County, North Carolina, found this note on her desk from a child in Grade 3 B: “Dear Miss Hyman, I’m making a book and I want the most beautiful thing in the world in it. Will you please help me find it.” What an appeal and what a challenge are in that simple request, for who would break faith with a little child! Not Miss Hyman. She spent a day collecting poems, pictures, stories, everything that might satisfy his soul’s hunger and then placed the material in his hands. After hours of absorbed study, he radiantly dis¬ played his selection. He had found these words: The year’s at the spring And day’s at the morn; God’s in his heaven — All’s right with the world! “Yes, Dr. Cooper^ those are things we have come to talk about, for they are what we are trying to do!” The officers of the department for 1928-29 were: Dr. Mary Dabney Davis, Specialist in Nursery-Kindergarten-Primary Education, U. S. Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C., president; Miss Winifred Bain, Kindergarten-First Grade De¬ partment, Teachers College, Columbia University, -New York City, vicepresident; Miss Florence Davenport, Principal, Deane School, St. Paul, Minn., secretary. The Department of Lip Reading HE DEPARTMENT OF LIP READING Was established at the Philadelphia meeting of the National Education Association, in July, 1926, following the required successive meetings of the group, and after a petition had been presented to the Associa¬ tion. The officers for the year 1929-30: are President , Caroline F. Kimball, 39 Jackson St., East Lynn, Mass.; Vicepresident , Coralie N. Kenfield, 617 Shreve Building, San Francisco, Calif.; Secretary- Treasurer , Alice I. Putnam, 3610 Milam St., Hous¬ ton, Texas. Meetings are held once each year in July. Facts relating to the establishment of this Depart¬ ment and the record of meetings are to be found in earlier Proceedings as follows : 1926:473-486 1927:473-486 1928:435-449 L 450 ] THE NEEDS OF THE HARD OF HEARING— ABSTRACT HUGH GRANT ROWELL, M. D., ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF HEALTH EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY. MEANS must be set up for discovery of these auditory defectives as early in life as possible ; and suitable measures instituted in each case which will result in that individual becoming as nearly a one hundred percent social being (in terms of normal) as is possible with any and every practicable aid which any science may or can give. Where does the work for the hard of hearing stand at present ? Has this foundation been laid, or is it being laid, or is there any foundation at all? There are two striking pieces of evidence that very little foun¬ dation, and yet a great deal, has been laid: (1) The recommendations of the Committee on the Problems of the Deaf and the Hard of Hear¬ ing of the National Research Council, and (2) the campaign for funds for research of the American Otological Society for studies along these lines. The first group approached the problem from the angle of the educator; the latter, from the point of view of the otologist. As a mat¬ ter of fact, neither group can work out the whole problem alone. It is difficult to determine just how to approach the problem. The end is socialization. The means are many. The broad programs now under way cover only part of the field at best. Just what is being cov¬ ered ? Roughly this — there exists means * of making surveys for dis¬ covery of auditory defectives, clinics for remedial treatment of those who need it and for investigation, at least, of all beyond the survey stage. Attempts have been made to set up a psychology of these defec¬ tives, and on this to build educational methods both from modification of methods used for normals and from the creation of new and different means and methods, such as lip reading. Vocational guidance has been tried with some success. But the program has fallen down terribly in socializing the hard of hearing individual. This being the end, it has not been reached. Perhaps it cannot be accomplished till the defective in¬ dividual is discovered, studied, treated, made as economically inde¬ pendent as possible. Is it necessary that the hard of hearing find that it is not wTorth the effort to strain every faculty to try to hear what their fellow humans say? Is it necessary that the hard of hearing find themselves, not objects of pity as in the case of the blind, but objects of actual dislike because, in an age of hurry, they must slow down conversations through re¬ quested repetitions of misunderstood phrases? It is from this social sui¬ cide that they must be rescued. The aids to this rescue are research and education. Education must include the individual and the normals, that is the community or what is called society. What must research contribute? Many things. Today it is possible to make a crude sort of survey of unselected groups and find among [451] 452 National Education Association them certain individuals whose hearing needs further investigation. The audiometers of today, wonderful as they are, are by no means instru¬ ments of precision. To construct such a mechanism means far more than duplicating the tones of a tuning fork. How can an audiometer be built to set up, as nearly as possible, a life situation? Yet it must be done, just as it is done in objective mental testing in general. What value is it to be able to detect a tone which one hears rarely, if at all? What signs are there which, if found, may be considered the precur¬ sors of an auditory defect? At present the answer would be enlarged or defective tonsils and certain other signs or symptoms. This is not enough or if it is enough then tonsillectomy must be performed as early in life as possible and in all children. To put it another way, it is neces¬ sary, in the case of the auditory apparatus as in the case of the rest of the body, to build up a new science of health, before true preventive measures can be discovered and made available. Research workers are expected to produce new and striking results almost immediately from a zone of investigation where the student is more likely to run up against a blank wall and have to retrace his steps with negative report than he is to bring to light at once some world- influencing principle. Unfortunately, also, the research worker is not a good salesman. Much is expected of lip reading. These hopes seem logical. To state today that lip reading is a complete answer or that any special method of teaching it is the last word seems premature. Most assuredly at¬ tempts should be made to standardize methods on the basis of what is best in any or all. Lip reading seems to be an intrinsic human posses¬ sion since normals have it and actually hear with their eyes in part. The auditory defective, if not a congenital case, seems to improve this intrinsic ability upon necessity caused by hardness of hearing. WLy not then find out how the individual himself acquires this ability and use this, and not opinions, as the basis for any improvements in teaching methods. The strongest point for lip reading as a method of education is that it seems to be a natural gift anyway — a potential power avail¬ able if needed, a power which can be developed. GUIDING THE DEAFENED CHILD VOCATIONALLY— ABSTRACT ESTELLE E. SAMUELSON, INSTRUCTOR, METHODS OF LIP READING, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY. Slowly — like a “tide that moving seems asleep” — the world is be¬ coming aware that partial deafness has an economic meaning. This huge tide of impaired hearing seems to be rising. What shall be done with it? Shall we continue to force the hard of hearing into economic disability — to make paupers of them— or shall we become wide-awake and approach this acute problem with intelligence, good judgment, and sympathy ? Department of Lip Reading 453 This problem calls for a special type of vocational guidance and the technic involved is unique. It is based upon the fact that acquired deafness presents just as many vocational problems as there are deaf¬ ened individuals, for this kind of deafness cripples in many different ways each of which has its psychological effect as well. We then find that the hard of hearing child must be educated and trained in such a way that the limitations imposed by his handicap will be minimized. The deafened child must be habilitated , the deafened adult, rehabilitated. Observing that forty percent of those who become deafened in late adolescence or later on are obliged to change their occupation and that many more must adapt themselves to some other phase of that occupa¬ tion, we can grasp the importance of early discovery of deafness and se¬ lection of an occupation which will not have to be changed in case the ear trouble progresses. Early discovery of deafness through periodic surveys will do still more for the vocational counsellor. It will ex¬ pose the cause of many speech defects. ' Every counsellor knows the prob¬ lem of overcoming a double handicap in guidance. Guidance of the deafened worker should weigh his potentialities, aptitudes, desires, and inclinations against the limitations raised by his handicap. Chief among these is his degree of deafness at the time his vocational guidance is under consideration. This must not be over¬ looked because he must be able to follow instructions in his vocational school. Is he too deafened to do this? Are the classes too large? Have you made sure that he has, or is in the way of acquiring, a workable knowledge of lip reading? Above all, why is he in vocational school or continuation school? Is it because he couldn’t hear enough to con¬ tinue in the grade school? This happens rather often. In addition to the child who leaves grade school to go to work and thereby escapes the handicap of deafness we are finding deafened elementary school graduates being guided — may I say misguided? — into commercial high schools on the fallacy that commercial studies require less hearing and offer better economic opportunities. In reality, placement is most diffi¬ cult in commercial pursuits, especially for the male client. Again, it is important to select an occupation which shall conserve his remainder of hearing. Guidance should be based upon the otologist’s diagnosis and prognosis, for types of deafness and their possible develop¬ ments must determine to a degree where and under what conditions the deafened person can work. There are two main types of deafness, ob- structional and perceptional. Persons having obstructional (catarrhal) deafness must avoid exposure, extremes of temperature or varying tem¬ peratures, as in laundries, irritating fumes, as in some local industries. In cases of perceptional deafness, where the auditory nerve has become affected through disease or accident, nerve strain must be avoided, as the person cannot maintain his efficiency under it. Such persons work best in comparative quiet — we do not mean auditory quiet — while those 454 National Education Association with obstructional deafness hear better in a noisy, bustling place. Re¬ cently ten deafened girls were discovered in a commercial high-school class of forty students of stenography. The noise of forty typewriters as¬ sisted their hearing, hut this apparent advantage will never prepare them for stenography, in which keen hearing is essential. It is easy to under¬ stand that any increase of deafness would mean the loss of the occupa¬ tion and the necessity of restraining in another, with all the drifting about and economic loss and psychological setback which the change would entail. Placement of the deafened, even after a suitable occupation has been selected and the individual is well skilled in his work remains. This is still exceedingly difficult — not because he can’t make good, but because the public won’t let him. The vocational counsellor of the deafened worker, while he can as¬ sist materially in helping to solve this economic problem, should also, if any abiding results are to be secured, do his utmost to help in the edu¬ cation of the public regarding this handicap. For it is, after all, a problem which concerns everybody. LIP READING IN OUR PUBLIC SCHOOLS— ABSTRACT MARION S. CLARK, TEACHER, LIP READING, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, CAMBRIDGE, MASS. Many of our school children are hard of hearing. They are meeting these manifold difficulties now. Some of them know that they have a “bad ear” but many cannot tell what the trouble is. They think in unhappy be¬ wilderment as we, to our great discredit, have led them to think, that they are woefully slow. It is important then to find out the existence of auditory defect in children and to find it out early enough so that simple cures may be effected, progress of impairment checked, and a great psychological blessing in the form of a known difficulty to be faced and offset bestowed before the confused, in¬ feriority tinged frame of mind becomes fixed. The audiometric method of testing is the best now available and while the cities employing it may still be counted easily their number is increasing. Old methods are very faulty and even sympathetic questions often fail in the few cases where time affords to put them. Adequate testing compels the facing of the problem ; if medical attention is not enough to remove it then there remains to help in the fight against it the art of lip reading. His own public school ought to give to each hard of hearing child this weapon with which to attack his handicap. As the near-sighted child needs glasses to wear in his accustomed environment, so the hard of hearing child needs to practise lip reading in his natural circle. The former, seeing, if imperfectly, needs no intensive tactile training; the latter, speaking because he has always heard, if imperfectly, needs no tutor- Department of Lip Reading 455 ing in the mechanics of speech. The one is not blind, the other is not deaf ; neither belongs in an institution, yet each must be helped where he is. Lip reading belongs then in our school programs and its introduction there is not a difficult matter. No special schools, no special supplies are needed. A special teacher and the books required for his use is all that is necessary. Generally a peripatetic teacher trained for this work holds graded classes two or three times a week in schools where the most hard of hearing children have been found and to which smaller numbers from nearby buildings may come. After periods of from half to three-quarters of an hour the pupils return to their regular classrooms increasingly masters of lip-reading theory. For their success in this practise, of course, the coopera¬ tion of the room teachers, almost always gladly given, is essential. There is no hard and fast rule for the selection of candidates for the lip- reading class among the lesser cases of auditory defect. About the more serious ones of course there is no doubt. We advise enrolment for special help when a loss of twelve or more sensation units for each ear is found by the test with the 4A audiometer. We advise enrolment when the medical reports prophesy or fear a future increase of hearing impairment even though little difficulty in understanding is being met at the time. The ex¬ periences of our evening school adults, as well as our own, commit us to the opinion that a little unnecessary and harmless lip-reading training early is infinitely to be preferred to a belated, more expensive, and more wearing effort to acquire the skill then become essential to success and peace of mind. In every case of even slight impairment some knowledge of the nature and possibilities of lip reading should at least be given. It falls upon the lip-reading teacher herself to explain to school people and parents alike the possibilities and limitations of this work. She can show how by the early study of lip reading a great saving is effected not only in school money and time through the prevention of needless repeating in grade, but in nervous energy and in calmness of spirit. She can staunchly claim that lip-reading skill varying in degree with the capacity of the in¬ dividual is always to that extent a strong asset. Primarily, however, in spite of all its important ramifications, the business of these special classes is to give training in the art of reading the lips, to give practical compensation for a handicap. And this, these classes are doing. Our convention theme this year is “Education for the New World.” We in our classes are trying to make ourselves new, to replace our weakness with strength, our diffidence with courage, to change our old explanation of failure voiced in the words: “I can hear you but I don’t know what you say,” to the new and heartening claims, “I understand you whether I hear you or not.” We offer our new selves as more constructive units for the building of the new world. 456 National Education Association LIP READING SHALL NOT FAIL— ABSTRACT ALICE G. BRYANT, M. D., OTOLOGIST AND LARYNGOLOGIST, BOSTON, MASS. Lip reading for the hard of hearing is not an abstract question ; it is a concrete question in its everyday interests and demands. Lip reading is an economic question. We are thus equipping the pupils with invested capital and by gradual growth they will be better able to adapt themselves to their environment. We have been too poverty-stricken, detached, and apologetic in our points of view of lip reading, but enough has been done along these lines to give us refreshing impressions of what could be done by means of vast aggregations of cooperative actions. Education is the common ground on which every class may meet, and yet in denying the hard of hearing the right to acquire lip reading, we exclude them from the full educational advantages. To succeed in life we must have the full realization of its possibilities, but with lessened educational facilities for the hard of hearing, we deprive them of knowledge which otherwise they would have and of their incentive to better themselves. The hearing individual is too often a disturbing element in the life of the hard of hearing, for he is too willing to scrap their knowledge and their ability. The hearing individual has lost the delicate adjustment with his environment when he impedes the ability, educational training, and progress of the hard of hearing. We must not undermine the foundations of knowl¬ edge of the hard of hearing pupils by depriving them of lip reading, for with lip reading they will be able to acquire, to maintain, and to extend their educational conquests. Without lip reading they are handicapped in meeting the diversified problems in life. Lip reading for the hard of hearing helps remove the stresses of life and it serves as a factor of safety in meeting more complex stresses. Without lip reading they have a restricted outlook on life from lack of continuity in their educational training and from lack of coordinated experiences with fellow students. They have true grievances when they meet monotonous, fatiguing, retarding, disabling, disheartening, and non-constructive suc¬ cessions of class repeatings, and these redundancies of repetitions in class¬ room work lead to inefficient, delaved, and uneconomic education. We ought to find the hard of hearing in each school. We stress in our minds the rural schools where no concerted movement has been made to discover and instruct them in lip reading, and yet they present conditions similar to those of the city. The lack of widely extended use of lip reading is near becoming one of the educational puzzles of our time. Dr. Fletcher and Dr. Tdward Prince Fowler have investigated the hear¬ ing of thousands of pupils and in their admirable and. exhaustive reports they claim that there are more than three million pupils in our public schools who have defects in hearing. The audiometer, invented by Dr. Fletcher, may well be looked upon as an essential part of our school equip¬ ment. Its field of usefulness is enormous, and its potentialities beyond calculation. Department of Lip Reading 457 The medical world is waking up to the seriousness of deafness. The aurists are encouraging a team spirit by calling to their aid a group of ex¬ perts: physiologists, physicists, neurologists, and psychologists. They are backed by capable organizations and the old line of workers — lip-reading teachers and other educators of the deafened. Instead of waiting for the deaf¬ ened, they intend to wait on them, and thus the preschool child, who has been sadly neglected, will come into his rightful share of study. To investigate the conditions and training of the hard of hearing child in each school forms one of the fundamental and essential features of the new regime in their education. We want to leave no place for former dis¬ heartening, unprofitable, and purposeless training of the hard of hearing child. The unfortunate hard of hearing pupils are involved in heavy and unjustifiable handicaps and to them there seems to be a general weakening and discrediting of their educational opportunities. These children claim and maintain the capacity for efficiency, and they are confronted and in¬ fluenced by the factors which control and influence such efficiency. Inherent, inborn traits of these hard of hearing children are waiting to be developed in the great New World, and it is our duty to train them with the invested capital of fair play. Our investigations and studies are driving these thoughts deeper home, and we are coming forward to rescue the hard of hearing children from their long-continued dehumanizing education. Lip reading equips the pupil with invested capital. It helps remove the haunting dread of unemployment and of unremunerative occupations. It serves to bring into action the upbuilding of human effort. We should offer for all equal training, and not mortgage their lives in advance by pur¬ suing the elusive shadows of education. Lip reading should become a mind habit, an obsession. Lip reading for the hard of hearing is a work that did not fail, and more¬ over it shall not fail. LIP READING OPENS A NEW WORLD TO THE HARD OF HEARING ADULT— ABSTRACT MAUDE DOUGLASS HUBERT, TEACHER OF LIP READING, CHARLESTON, S. C. I am going to tell you of a few of my experiences as a teacher of lip read¬ ing, for one can always see in others the good which has been brought about by the study of the subject in which one is most interested. A mite of a little woman drifted into the Speech Reading Club one night. To her slender form a shapeless black dress clung like a shroud made the more somber by lusterless black hair, solemn black eyes, and a smileless face. The tragedy of deafness personified. Not of congenital deafness, where mercifully the victim has never heard, but that of one born with normal hearing, and doomed to the heartbreaking strain of helplessly awaiting the approaching deafness which no power known to man could stop. What could be done with such a case? The games the others played and found diverting, that coaxed the smile back to the face, were lost to her. She had never learned to play. 458 National Education Association But persistence was a force still at her command. To every meeting she came. No night was too stormy to deter her. Gradually she learned to see the words formed on the lips. She was hearing again. The long van¬ ished smile returned to the eyes as well as to the lips. She joined in the sport and laughed as others laughed. She began to live again. Lip read¬ ing had restored the world to her. Another instance was that of a young naval officer. He had faced duty without fear, but heard with a sinking heart the words of the surgeon that progressive deafness could not be checked and that retirement was in¬ evitable. He was a young man, not yet forty, trained by the government to be an officer. Surely he was too young to give up and wait for the end ; yet he was too old to start in a new profession. A situation truly difficult even to one with normal hearing, and to one who had not yet learned to listen with his eyes, the question seemed unanswerable. It was then that he came to me, for the surgeon had said, “Take lip-reading lessons, young man, it is all that you can do now.” We had hardly finished the course when he said, “Not only have you helped me, but you have helped my wife as well. Things do not look so bad. I have a good position in a large industry as superintendent, and I smile when I realize that at first I felt there could be no solution to my problem.” Lip reading had placed him on his feet again. May I tell you also of the experience of a young lady who found during her college days that deafness was approaching. It did not seem possible at the age of eighteen, that there could be happiness in life where there was no hearing. Never again could she be one of the crowd, and join in the laughter and fun. No more music; the songs of the birds; the roar of the waves — all these she realized were lost to her. But more than all else was her ambition ; and at eighteen one is sure one would have been a success. Her ambition required hearing, for she wanted to be a second Sarah Bern¬ hardt. Was there anything left in life for her? She didn’t see how, but deafness was not new to her. Her father was deafened, yet he was cheerful and had been able to carry on his life’s work. So she determined to follow in her father’s footsteps ; but as always in this world, where each generation takes the work a little farther, she refused to use the time honored pencil and paper. She was going to hear — at least with her eyes. She was going to under¬ stand everyone, not only those who could and would take the time and trouble to write to her. She began the study of lip reading. From the first she could understand the family; then she found it easy to follow the con¬ versation of her best friends. As a teacher of lip reading, she was granted the privilege of finding it nec¬ essary to be cheerful always, never to mind if she did not understand, and to enjoy those things which one may see, and never to even remember, that outside of some disagreeable noises there was nothing much to hear, that could not as well be seen. Department of Lip Reading 459 Through lip reading we are brought in contact with others who are hard of hearing. Gradually we find ourselves an integral part of a huge machine, doing the most interesting things in the world, for we are helping others to help themselves. I hope I have been able to show you, how, we who are deafened, and who through lip reading have overcome our deafness, have seen the ray of light from the open window when the door of deafness was closed. FINDING THE HARD OF HEARING CHILD— ABSTRACT KNIBLOE P. ROYCE, RESEARCH PRODUCTS DEPARTMENT, GRAYBAR ELECTRIC COMPANY, NEW YORK CITY According to the Journal of the American Medical Association there are about three million American school children who are partially deafened. This deafness handicaps them in school and later on it is going to be a serious handicap in earning a living. The majority of these cases are admittedly only slightly impaired, but it is the opinion of leading otologists that the greatest hope for preventing deaf¬ ness in adults lies in finding mild cases in their early stages and instituting treatment before these cases have become chronic. Because of the difficulty of detecting slight defects, and the expense of careful individual tests, a new method of testing was sought by the Amer¬ ican Federation of Leagues for the Hard of Hearing, the American Medical Association, and several otological societies. These organizations appealed to the Bell Telephone Laboratories to de¬ velop a better and cheaper method of testing. The Western Electric 4-A Audiometer is the result of several years experimenting along these lines by the Bell Telephone Laboratories. Experiments were made with various devices and methods, but it finally appeared that the most desirable method was one which allowed testing of large groups at one time and one in which the test was made of ability to understand spoken words. An effort was made to make tests by means of a loud speaker, but this proved unsatisfactory, on account of the varying acoustic qualities of rooms and because it is almost impossible to exclude one ear when the other is under test. The 4-A audiometer which tests one ear at a time by means of a telephone receiver, which reproduces speech sounds from an electric phonograph was finally approved by the organiza¬ tions interested in this development. What can be done for the hard of hearing children when they are found? In cities where record has been kept of the diagnostic examination and prognosis of the children selected by the audiometer as requiring further test, the prognosis has been good in fifty to eighty-five percent of the cases. Leading otologists agree that the greatest hope of preventing deafness in adults is in the early detection of mild cases, so that treatment can be started before cases have become chronic. 460 National Education Association This still leaves fifteen to fifty percent of the partially deafened children for whom a cure is doubtful in the present state of medical knowledge. Even these children can be helped in several ways. One very simple meas¬ ure that can be taken is the placing of handicapped children in front rows and with the better ear turned toward the center of the room. Those who are quite seriously handicapped can also be helped by the use of hearing aids and by the teaching of lip reading. It has been found that from one to one and a half percent of all children need lip-reading instruction. In many cases pupils have been able to keep up with their classes after a few months of lip-reading instruction, who had previously been chronic repeaters. I believe that some specific statistics are in order here. Tests in many public school systems have shown that the incidence of deafness is from sixty to one hundred and forty partially deafened children per thousand. Even the lower figure of six percent is higher than most people are ready to believe because where old-fashioned testing methods are employed, the per¬ centage is given as one to one and one half. Studies made in a number of schools, including the public school systems of Rochester, N. Y., and Minneapolis, Minn., show that partially deafened children repeat about three and one half times more than others. In various cases, we find from one to one and one-half repetitions per deafened child. The variations depend upon quality of teaching, curriculum, and other local conditions. A recent study made of a school in Massachusetts showed 159 deafened children, eighty-four of whom had repeated from one to five times. The total was 156 years of retardation. The total cost of the repetitions was about $9300. You may be wondering where these figures are leading us. We are headed straight towards the taxpayer’s pocketbook. It is expensive to buy audiometers, to make tests, and to provide lip-reading instruction. The taxpayer wants to know what he is going to get for money invested in this way. Those who have put most study on this problem feel certain that he is going to collect dividends on the investment. Suppose we take an example and try to estimate the results of a hearing survey and corrective work following the survey. We have seen that there are from sixty to one hundred and forty partially deafened children per thousand in the schools. We may expect these partially deafened children to repeat from twice to three times. This means that there will be from one hundred twenty to four hundred twenty repetitions per thousand at an average cost of $7200 to $25,200 per thousand children during their entire school careers. Now we can reasonably hope by medical treatment, lip-reading instruc¬ tion, the use of hearing aids, and more favorable seatings to cut the repeti¬ tion by at least fifty percent. If we do this, we save from $3600 to $12,600 per thousand children, or from $450 to $1575 per 1000 children every year. (The figures are based on eight grades and do not include high schools.) 4 Department of Lip Reading 461 I believe you will agree that the saving in school funds and the increased earning power of those children who are cured or prevented from becoming very deaf more than justifies the expense of all corrective measures. We have talked of expenses and savings at some length. I also want to call your attention to another side of this picture of the hard of hearing child. I suppose my acquaintance includes a thousand deafened adults. A distressingly large number of these are irritable, depressed, introverted, sus¬ picious, unhappy people. Many of these people could have had normal, happy lives, if their deafness had been cured or arrested in its early stages. Happiness is not to be appraised in terms of dollars ; let us forget, then, for a moment, the economic waste in retardations and in lost earning power and ask ourselves this question : Does not every school child deserve an equal chance for the pursuit of happiness without the physical handicap of preventable deafness? SECRETARY'S MINUTES Atlanta Meeting First Session An informal reception was held at the Central Congregational Church, Monday, July 1, from 1 :30 to 2 oclock. After the reception the following papers were given : The Needs of the Hard of Hearing Hugh Grant Rowell, M. D., Assistant Professor of Health Education, Teach¬ ers College, Columbia University, New York City. (Dr. Rowell was unable to come to Atlanta; his paper was read.) Guiding The Hard of Hearing Child Vocationally Estella Samuelson, Supervisor of Educational and Employment Work, New York League for the Hard of Hearing, and Instructor in Methods of Lip Reading, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. Lip Reading In Our Public Schools Marion Spring Clark, Teacher of Lip Reading, Public Schools, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Second Session An informal reception was held at the Central Congregational Church, Tuesday, July 2, from 1 :30 to 2 oclock. After the reception the following papers were given : Lip Reading Shall Not Fail Alice G. Bryant, M. D., Otologist and Laryngologist, Member of the Society of Heating and Ventilating Engineers, Boston, Massachusetts. (Dr. Bryant was ill and unable to attend, but her paper was read as scheduled on the program.) Lip Reading Opens a New World to The Hard of Hearing Adult Maude Douglass Hubert, Teacher of Lip Reading, Public Schools, Charleston, S. C. 462 National Education Association Finding The Hard of Hearing Child K. P. Royce, Research Products Department, Graybar Electric Company, New ^ ork City. (Mr. Royce illustrated his lecture with slides and demonstrated the audiometer which was received with very much interest.) At the business meeting for members which followed, the following officers were re-elected : President, Caroline F. Kimball, Teacher of Lip Reading, Public Schools, Lynn, Ma ss. 39 Jackson St., East Lynn, Mass. Vicepresident, Coralie N. Kenfield, Teacher of Special Adult Lip Reading Classes, San Francisco, Calif. 617 Shreve Building, San Francisco, Calif. Secretary-Treasurer, Alice I. Putnam, Teacher of Lip Reading, City Schools, Houston, Texas. 3610 Milam St., Houston, Texas. Dora Schulman of New York City was elected to the National Council of Educa¬ tion to serve for two years. The Department of Rural Education The department of rural education grew out of the Department of Rural and Agriculture Education which was authorized by the Board of Directors in 1907. See Proceedings , 1907 :44-45. At the Chicago meeting in 1919, the Department was reorganized with three organized rural groups then existing — The National Association of State Supervisors and Inspectors of Rural Schools, The County Superintendents’ section of the National Education Association, and the National Associa¬ tion of Persons Engaged in the Preparation of Rural Teachers — under the name of the Department of Rural Education. See Proceedings , 1920:279. The Department meets twice each year, in Feb¬ ruary and in July. The officers of the Department of Rural Educa¬ tion for the year 1929-30 are : President , Mabel Car¬ ney, Professor of Education, Teachers College, Co¬ lumbia University, New York City; Vicepresident , E. N. Ferriss, Professor of Rural Education, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. ; Secretary , Mrs. Kath¬ erine M. Cook, Chief, Division of Rural Education, U. S. Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. ; Executive Committee , Fannie W. Dunn, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City (Term expires 1930) ; Agnes Samuelson, State Su¬ perintendent of Public Instruction, Des Moines, Iowa (Term expires 1931) ; J. C. Muerman, South¬ eastern State Teachers College, Durant, Okla. (Term expires 1932) ; C. H. Barnes, County Super¬ intendent of Schools, Duluth, Minn. (Term expires 1933) ; M. S. Pittman, Director of Rural Education, State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich. (Term ex¬ pires 1934). Facts relating to the establishment of this De¬ partment and the record of meetings are found in earlier Proceedings as follows : 1906: 716 1908:1187-1217 1909: 953- 993 1910:1081-1108 1911:1365-1391 1912:1365-1391 1913: 801- 812 1914: 877- 909 1915:1131-1161 1916: 613- 637 1917: 599- 615 1918: 271- 295 1919: 281- 289 1920: 271- 278 1921: 523- 617 1922:1099-1197 1923: 745- 841 1924: 651- 715 1925: 522- 563 1926: 536- 600 1927: 497- 560 1928: 453- 543 « [ 464] THE FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION , WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO RURAL AREAS— ABSTRACT R. E. TIDWELL, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF EDUCATION, MONTGOMERY, ALA. For the past decade the student of rural economics has observed an in¬ creasing willingness on the part of rural life leaders, and, to a certain extent, of the rank and file of rural citizenship, to participate in an effective manner in those organizations that provide for group effort, and that have for their purpose the establishment of certain economic controls which will tend to stabilize agriculture as a business, at least to the extent of saving it from the disasters incident to overproduction at home or abroad. Our rural economists tell us that a short crop may be a calamity to an in¬ dividual, but that with the widespread means of transportation now avail¬ able it does not spell disaster in so serious form as does overproduction. What have these matters, production and marketing of crops, to do with the support of public schools in rural areas? I shall assert, without giving much in the way of proof, that the only successful method of attacking the problem of financing schools in rural communities is through a study of the economic status of the farmer, including relationships to the other large industrial groups of our own country, and to foreign agricultural and industrial interests which affect in a most serious way his economic status and ability to provide for the material essentials of life within his group and in harmony with other groups whose way of living influences his out¬ look on life. It is unnecessary to give more than brief attention to the present status of rural school support. In varying degrees this support comes from local property taxes, ordinarily collected in small units having a very low per capita wealth. The money raised is usually based on relatively low assess¬ ments. When it is recalled that the amount of wealth behind each child varies when the states are taken as units by as much as eight to one, how much greater must be the extremes when the smaller tax units are con¬ sidered. There are other local sources of revenue for the support of rural schools. Most states collect a poll tax which accrues to the educational fund, but the amount derived from this source is relatively negligible. The greatest amount of funds other than local property taxes in the vast majority of the states at the present time, certainly in the southern states, comes from legislative appropriations, or constitutional tax levies which provide a statewide fund for the support of educational service, including rural areas. These appropriations are provided through levies on the various types of business enterprises, and include franchise, license, and privilege taxes, and in the majority of the states income and inheritance taxes. In a few states various forms of severance taxes have provided substantial additions to school funds, and a number of the states are at the present time levying and collecting consumption taxes levied on such articles as [ 465 ] 466 National Education Association tobacco, cosmetics and the like, the amount collected being a fixed percentage of the sale price of each article. Excellent discussions of all forms of taxes referred to may be found in numerous magazine articles, books, and special reports, which are easily accessible to students of education. The Research Division of the National Education Association recently issued a bibliography on the subject of taxation and one on distribution of state aid in the several states.1 The methods of apportioning the state funds referred to above are many, and space limitation prevents discussion at any length. It is, therefore, thought best to consider only the most important development of recent years, which in reality has made its greatest contribution to rural education. I refer to the movement on the part of legislatures in the several states to bring about a more equitable distribution of school funds, to the end that an equality of opportunity, might be afforded all the children. In the state of Alabama, for example, of the funds available for rural education, that part derived from state sources runs as high in some counties as 80 percent of the total cost of the program. In the more wealthy counties, state ap¬ propriations and apportionments do not exceed 20 percent of the total cost of the educational service. The reason for this wide variation is due to the unequal distribution of wealth in the several counties of the state, and the effort of the law makers by appropriate legislation to provide a modest minimum program of education for every child in the state, regardless of his place of residence. The Alabama plan of equalization is a modified form of the Mort Plan submitted to the New York Legislature by Dr. Paul R. Mort, Director, School of Education, Teachers College, Columbia Uni¬ versity. The expansion of the “equality of opportunity” to include more than teachers’ salaries has already had extensive practical application in many states. No inquiry into what constitutes the cost of a program of “equality of opportunity” for all the children of the state will be fair or thoroughly sound without taking into consideration, in addition to the usually accepted current costs of the school two other factors; namely, transportion costs and expenditures for capital outlay, including site, schoolbuildings proper, teachers’ homes, garages, shops, and equipment. I know of rural communi¬ ties in my own state, which could be duplicated thousands of times over in the majority of the states of the Union, that will never be able to provide adequate housing for the schools unless definite provision is made for equal¬ izing the load through some sound basis of state aid. Equality of opportunity for education will never be provided in the small, one, two, or three room school that is so prevalent in rural sections. Even when modern buildings are erected, funds for salaries provided, and conditions made favorable for the employment of trained teachers in these centers, there will still remain other minimum essentials, accessibility and transportation. Therefore, any 1 “State Revenues for Public Education” and “Apportionment of State Aid to Schools.” (Bibliographies.) Research Bulletin 7: 24-29 and 29-34; January, 1929. Research Division, National Education Association, Washington, D. C. Department of Rural Education 467 modern system of educational service which proposes the ideal of equality of opportunity for the children of the country as compared with the children of the village and urban communities must take into consideration and provide all-the-year-round highways and a well organized and approved plan of transportation. Students of education have been and are still studying these problems, and technics are available by the application of which the measure of educa¬ tional need may be determined, including transportation costs. Little has been done to develop a technic for determining what is an equitable pro¬ gram of state aid for capital outlay. The refinements which may be de¬ veloped through further scientific study of problems of equalization may bring about total discard of many of the present practises. The state de¬ partment of education and the institutions engaged in research will un¬ doubtedly continue investigations and develop new methods of attack, which will have for their purpose the solution of the problems related to the financing of rural schools. More satisfactory results to all concerned may be expected as students of education develop more scientific methods of attack. Most students of rural economics heartily recommend the abandonment of ad valorem taxes as the sole or even the chief means of providing funds. This means of support has been growing less and less adequate. The accep¬ tance by the state of a major responsibility for the support of all education, and particularly the responsibility for equalizing educational opportunity among the several communities of the state, carries with it the necessity of providing larger amounts for the support of public schools from statewide sources. No state can support and develop modern educational service with all that this means in better facilities, the use of improved teaching technics and the like, unless the statewide responsibility for providing the funds is accepted as fundamental. In conclusion, let me bring to the attention of this group the economic value of national aid for rural schools as a matter of relief to rural areas. If the relief of the farmer is a serious problem of national import, and wTo can doubt that it is, and it is desired to utilize the great powers and resources of our federal government in bringing about equality of economic opport¬ unity, then it seems to me that no surer method could be adopted than that of affording substantial assistance to the rural areas of the United States in the matter of financing their public schools. If the federal government will assume a substantial portion of the cost of providing adequate facilities for the education of the boys and girls in rural America, there is not the slight¬ est doubt but that the farmers themselves will receive a substantial measure of economic relief. The greater part of taxes paid in rural communities everywhere goes for the support of the schools, and in all too many instances the rate of taxation must be high, up to ten times the. rate paid in nearby urban centers with greater per capita wealth. If the American people are really interested in 468 National Education Association farm relief, then let the National Congress provide an adequate fund through an appropriation of $1,000,000,000 or more for rural education to be distributed among the several states. This would more nearly give the rural youth of this great nation an equality of opportunity for an education than all the fine spun schemes that have heretofore been proposed. Further¬ more, this aid would not by any possible legerdemain of high finance be absorbed by the middle-man, or any other group that is a part of the economic forces touching rural life problems. THE SUPERVISION OF RURAL ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTHERN ST ATES— ABSTRACT ANNIE M. CHERRY, RURAL SCHOOL SUPERVISOR, ROANOKE RAPIDS, N. C. There is urgent need for rural supervision — When one analyzes the rural school situation and realizes the disparaging inequalities that exist between the rural and urban schools not only in the south, but throughout the coun¬ try at large, it becomes apparent that better and more efficient supervision is both an economic and an educational necessity. The urgency of this need is made plain when the facts are viewed clearly. If the county superintendent carries out the requirements of the public school law, his administrative duties alone claim the major part of his time. With these manifold duties increasing constantly, it is not surprising that there is almost no opportunity left to attack the other phase of his prob¬ lem — that of supervising the classroom work carried on in the schools under his jurisdiction. With this small time allotment left for visiting, directing, and supervising the work of his teaching force, it appears selfevi- dent that in consideration of the large amounts being spent for the mainte¬ nance of the rural schools of a county this is not sufficient to enable the country child to receive adequate service from the money spent for his growth and wellbeing. It may be stated further that if the large rural school population, representing seventy-two percent of the total, is given the best possible opportunity to grow and develop physically, mentally, and socially, careful consideration must be given to the improvement of the quantity and quality of instruction administered. Viewed from every standpoint, this has become a problem nationwide in its significance and in the urgency of its successful solution. It is the general consensus of opinion on the part of the state and county superintendents that there is a growing need for professional supervisory assistance if satisfactory school work is to be accomplished. Rural school supervision, as a specialized field having for its purpose the improvement of instruction through constructive leadership of teachers, may well be considered a development of the past decade. This well- defined notion of the function of such a service indicates rather clearly that a distinction is now being made between administrative supervision and instructional supervision. And today, there is unquestionably a tendency Department of Rural Education 469 and indeed a marked progress toward an enlarged vis/on of the work of the supervisory officer. We have reached a better understanding of the real function of supervision and have progressed in defining and delimiting the supervisory field. Expert supervision of rural schools is now recog¬ nized as an important means of promoting teaching efficiency and of equal¬ izing educational opportunity for rural school children. It is true that in¬ structional supervision is yet in its infancy, yet rapid strides are being made every year toward improving the teaching performance and the conditions affecting it. General statement concerning rural supervision in the south — In the evolution of rural school supervision throughout the country, the southern states have contributed their share of variety to the general program. Let us make a brief survey of the work as a whole, regarding both adminis¬ trative and supervisory features. Every state in the group has made provision in its state department of education for one or more state rural supervisors. The appointment of such supervisors was initiated by the Southern Education Board and the General Education Board. The majority of these workers are still paid by the General Education Board. It appears that the county is the unit for supervision in practically all of the southern states. The exceptions to the rule are Delaware with the state as the unit, and Virginia with the “division” as the unit. Either the county, township or district may be the unit of supervision in West Virginia. Under the countywide plan of organization, supervision varies according to the specific provisions which prevail in the particular county or state. The general employment of supervisors, the supervisory load, salary re¬ ceived, and nature and scope of program show wide differences. For ex¬ ample, the Maryland law provides that the county board of education of every county is required to employ supervisors for each county in propor¬ tion to the number of teachers in service and the state pays half of the salary from the general state school fund up to a certain amount. On the other hand, there are states employing only one supervisor to the county regardless of the size of the territory to be supervised. In all of the states, with the exception of Kentucky, in which the county board of education has control and management of schools and authority to control funds, there were some counties with professional supervisors dur¬ ing 1927-28. There were supervisors serving 217 counties out of a total of 1269 counties. In other words, 17.1 percent of all the counties in this group were given some supervisory assistance. On the basis of number of counties under supervision and the number of supervisors employed, Georgia has the smallest percentage of any state in this group. Maryland leads with 100 percent followed by Alabama with 68.7 percent and North Carolina with 31 percent. Among the states having a different plan — Delaware, Virginia, and West Virginia — the record shows that all of the counties in Delaware have super¬ visory assistance and 50.9 percent of the total in West Virginia. 470 National Education Association General Methods of Supervising Rural Schools as Practised in Three Southern States 1. Supervision in Maryland — In Maryland concentrated supervision of instruc¬ tion is carried on in every county in the state on a thoroughly cooperative basis. During 1927-28, fifty-five supervisors or one for every fifty teachers were employed to serve twenty-three counties in this capacity. Out of this number, only 11.3 percent were serving in their present position for the first time and the average supervisory experience of those in service was 5.2 years. A very definite plan is set up for each county based on the needs and conditions most prevalent at the time. In turn, the supervisory force at work directs the efforts of all to the end that the efficiency of classroom instruction may be increased. The state de¬ partment staff works in close harmony with these workers. The wealth of splendid material available from this state represents the progressive supervisory activities being participated in to improve the quantity and quality of work and indicates quite clearly the general trend of the educational program as it is being carried out. 2. Supervision in Alabama — In Alabama, the state department maintains one supervisor in elementary supervision and a regional supervisor at each of the normal schools for these purposes: (1) to give authorities at institutions closer contact with the field and (2) to give the state department more intimate understanding of the work of the institutions in training teachers for and in service. 3. Supervision in North Carolina — Rural supervision had its beginning in North Carolina in 1911 when $1500 was secured from the George Peabody Fund with which to encourage county boards of education in the employment of rural super¬ visors to assist the county superintendents. In 1915 this fund was exhausted. In 1919 The General Assembly, for the first time, made appropriations for it, thereby enabling the state to pay one-half the annual net salary of the supervisor up to and through a certain stipulated amount. Since that time, the number of super¬ visors in the state has increased 400 percent. At the present, the state supervisory force is made up of a state supervisor of elementary instruction and two assistants who spend their entire time promoting, directing, and unifying the work as a whole and helping to increase the efficiency of the program already launched in the state. During the past few years, this department has concentrated upon two of our most pressing rural school problems; better rural-school supervision, and the building up of larger and more efficient rural schools through consolidation and the public transportation of pupils. Today there are more than 812 white consolidated schools having more than six teachers that are more adequately meeting the needs of the country children. Supervision in Halifax County, North Carolina — a Type Study A resume of the work carried out in Halifax County, North Carolina, for the year 1928-29 sets forth such a supervisory program in action. This study includes twenty rural schools ranging in type from one to eight teachers and covering an area of 680 square miles. The objectives decided upon, the means of accomplishing these goals will be stated briefly. On the whole, the plans for the term were centered around the outstand¬ ing needs of the county schools and were defined in terms of and in direct relation to the accomplishments made previously. In order that the unity and the continuity of our educational procedure might be understood and followed more intelligently, a handbook was published for the purpose of presenting to parents, teachers, and all others interested in the schools the Department of Rural Education 471 detailed program of work for the year. This information was likewise shared with the teaching force at the fall conference and discussed in full. Objectives 1. Increasing the quantity and quality of classroom instruction in every school in Halifax County: a. To reach absolute national standard in problem solving in arithmetic and to maintain the standard already achieved in other fundamental subjects b. To develop a more comprehensive reading program c. To continue the improvement of language teaching throughout the grades — to improve the quality of learning, to use language in correlation with the social subjects and to help each child grow consciously in his ability to speak English more correctly, fluently, and effectively d. To introduce nature study in a few additional elementary schools and to continue the work in those schools that initiated the project last year e. To correlate the industrial art work more closely with large school projects f. To broaden and enrich the music program in the schools g. To encourage creative effort among the pupils in the schools h. To promote large unit teaching in the schools i. To make a careful and accurate check-up of the year’s work to determine results. 2. Increasing the teaching efficiency of the entire teaching force. 3. Increasing the efficiency of the school as a whole along certain definite lines : a. To wage an intensive program to reduce retardation and to work to prevent further development of such a condition b. To foster and develop proper ideals and habits of good citizenship among pupils in every school. 4. Developing school and community cooperation through organized effort : a. To have a permanently established working community organization through which the interests and needs of all may function b. To conduct a parents’ conference week in every school. Means of Carrying Out Objectives 1. Educational conference a. Annual educational conference b. Countywide meetings c. Group teachers’ meetings d. Study-conference with teachers e. Special committee meetings f. Individual conferences g. Monthly principals’ meetings 2. Educational measurements a. Standard tests b. Countywide testing program c. Uniform seventh-grade examinations d. Countywide promotions 472 National Education Association 3. Followup work of supervisor a. Classroom visits and personal interviews with teachers b. Demonstration teaching c. Circular letters d. Mimeographed outlines e. Official notebook 4. Educational days a. Parents’ visiting week b. Teachers’ visiting schedule c. Patrons’ meetings d. Community meetings e. Community fairs f. Local and county commencement program 5. Certificates for pupils a. Attendance b. Reading circle c. Health certificates for improvement and standard attainment d. Seventh-grade diplomas 6. Community organizations 7. State course of study 8. County handbook 9. Professional magazines 10. County newspapers NEGRO EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH— ABSTRACT LEO M. FAVROT, FIELD AGENT, GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD, BATON ROUGE, LA. The missionaries came to the south to do their work under the most trying circumstances. They came to a region where the teaching of slaves in many states had been forbidden by law; where the Civil War had en¬ gendered sectional bitterness ; they came to engage in a cause which seemed entirely out of harmony with the traditions of the old south. It is not surprising that the white people on both sides regarded the mission schools as forts in the enemy’s country. Only now are we beginning to appreciate the services rendered by the church missionaries of that day. Their schools have trained the present leaders of the negro race and continue to render invaluable service in training negro teachers and leaders. How heroic, too, has been the work of scores and hundreds of patient and persistent souls among the negro teachers. This group of steady, pa¬ tient, and persistent workers includes the Jeanes agents. They visit the remote rural schools and represent their cause in council. While these Department of Rural Education 473 agents can hardly be called professional supervisors, they are close to the people and can interpret their school needs to the county superintendent. Of courageous far-seeing school officials, the number grows yearly. There are the men in state departments of education called state agents for negro schools who are devoting their time and abilities in trying to advance it. Behind them are the state superintendents of education. These agents are concerned with problems of statewide importance. Among county superintendents are found an increasing number who have made the improvement of the negro schools a paramount professional purpose. Sometimes this county superintendent, man or woman, has taken into his confidence the business men of the community and enlisted their co¬ operation in a forward looking program with remarkable success. Philanthropy has rendered two outstanding services to negro education in the south. It has, first, helped to fasten the attention of schools officials and negro leaders upon specific needs and objectives, and second, by giving small amounts of money, it has stimulated the south to invest increasingly larger amounts in negro education. When the Jeanes Fund, for example, began to supply aid for helping the remote rural schools twenty years ago, it was frequently necessary for the Fund to pay the salary of a Jeanes county agent in order to start the work. Gradually, the proportion of money invested in this cause from public funds has risen. There are now 351 Jeanes agents in about half of the counties of the south with a large negro population rendering signal service in helping the most backward negroes to enjoy the benefits of a richer life. The Slater Fund has helped colleges and secondary schools. Its most significant contribution has been to help develop county training schools in counties where none existed and where they were badly needed. These were organized in the beginning to furnish rural schools with better teachers. Many training schools have become four-year high schools and states have in more recent years done much to stimulate negro high-school development throughout the south. There are now 471 four-year negro high schools in fourteen states of the south, of which 256 are accredited. Three-fourths of these schools are public high schools. Outside financial aid, including the Smith-Hughes Fund for vocational education, has stimulated such schools to receive increasing appropriations from public sources. Eight southern states now supply special state aid to negro high schools; some¬ times on the same basis as to white high schools, and sometimes out of special funds provided by the legislature. The General Education Board has worked as a silent partner with state departments and with the Jeanes and Slater Boards in their pro¬ grams for the improvement of negro education. Outside of cooperation with the Jeanes and Slater Funds, its two significant contributions have been toward the establishment of divisions of negro education in state departments, and toward the development of adequate state schools for negroes; schools in which teachers, particularly, are trained. By giving 474 National Education Association from one-fourth to one-half of the cost of a building program states have not only been stimulated to give the remainder, but the added cost of maintenance has invariably been borne by the state. State A. and M. colleges and normal schools for negroes are becoming recognized as dis¬ tinctly superior institutions. The Julius Rosenwald Fund during the past twelve years has assisted in the construction of more than 4500 school buildings. To each one of these 4500 communities there has come a new vision, a new outlook, a community selfrespect. The buildings are admirably constructed, modern, and attractive. Here, too, the contribution of philanthropy has been stimu¬ lating. The proportion of the cost of buildings borne by the Rosenwald Fund has diminished from fifty percent to less than eighteen percent today. Considerably more than fifty percent of the cost of these buildings is borne by public taxation and year by year this proportion grows. Two movements in negro education have vitally affected all education in the south. One of these is the influence of Hampton and Tuskegee. Perhaps no two institutions have ever studied their task with greater care and mapped their programs with greater regard for the needs of the people they were designed to serve. It is not uncommon to hear from white school administrators, after the service of institutions like Hampton and Tuskegee has been described to them, “I can’t see why such service wouldn’t also benefit the white child.” So this influence has helped to create the demand in the south for vocational agriculture and home eco¬ nomics, for home and farm demonstration and girls’ and boys’ club work, for health work, and for every movement that tends to tie the school or educational agency closer to the people. The other movement is the Rosenwald building movement. Hundreds of white schools have used the Rosenwald building plans. The division of schoolhouse planning in the state departments of education, and the Interstate Building Service recently inaugurated at Peabody College in Nashville, Tennessee, owe their origin to the emphasis placed by the Rosen¬ wald Fund upon the careful planning and construction of schoolhouses especially in the rural districts. Notwithstanding the hopeful and encouraging signs, there are elements in the picture that are not encouraging. With all of the fine service in catering to the real needs of the rural negro rendered by the Jeanes agents in 351 counties in the south, there are still 306 counties with heavy negro populations without Jeanes agents or their equivalent. Most of these counties are in darkness as regards negro education. Even though the Slater Fund has helped to provide 400 county training schools, or high schools, and while public high schools in cities have sprung up in increas¬ ing numbers, there are still 281 counties in the south without any high school, public or private. High-school enrolment in fourteen southern states is less than ten for each 1000 negroes, while in the United States there are thirty-nine high-school pupils for each 1000 persons. Department of Rural Education 475 Notwithstanding the fact that more than 4500 Rosenwald schoolhouses have been built, and the special effort made by adding a bonus to build the first Rosenwald schoolhouse in a county, there are still 189 counties with a material negro population without a Rosenwald schoolhouse. The problem before school administrators in the south is to stimulate interest in negro education in the weakest and most backward counties and in the black counties. Reports issued by the state departments of education show that in com¬ parison with the schools for white children the negro schools, as a whole, are far behind. While in fourteen southern states the average number of pupils assigned to the white teacher is thirty-one, in the case of the negro school the average number of pupils for each teacher is forty-four. The average length of school term for the white school is 159 days, while in the negro schools it is 129 days. The average annual salary of the white teacher in the fourteen states is $900, while that of the negro teacher is only $458. The average expenditure for salaries per white pupil enroled in these fourteen states is $28.88, while for each negro pupil en- roled it is $10.04. A significant condition in the negro public schools is found in the fact that sixty-five percent of the children enroled are in the first three grades, while in the white schools in the same states only forty-five percent of the children enroled are in these grades. In the primary departments, inade¬ quately staffed, there are serious problems of retardation and the cost of education of the negro is considerably increased by the number of repeaters, especially in the lower grades. One state superintendent of education has computed that in his state the average cost of keeping a child in school for the year is $45, while the average cost for each child promoted is $90. It is estimated that the fifteen southern states have an average per capita wealth behind each child, six to thirteen years of age, of $9783 with a range from $5777 in the poorest state to $17,408 in the richest, while the per capita wealth in the United States for each child six to thirteen years of age is $17,618. The problem of financing a dual system of schools for the children of the south is grave at best, and the economic problem is intensified by the high cost of educating the repeaters. One of the serious problems is that of school attendance, especially in the negro schools. The economic needs of the family, the failure of parents to realize -the value of each day’s schooling, and the failure to enforce com¬ pulsory attendance result in a serious waste -of time and effort. There are negro schools in the south trying to operate for eight months that have in attendance fewer than thirty percent of the maximum enrolment for the first few weeks of school, and that lose sixty or seventy percent of the pupils several weeks early. Some of the prevailing attitudes on the part of the dominant race will have to change materially before real progress is made. The feeling of hostility to negro education is rapidly disappearing but the feelings of in- 476 National Education Association difference and lack of responsibility are too prevalent. The negro school child cannot continue to subsist on the crumbs from the white man’s table. The negro has a just claim upon this region for a school system adequate to give his child the opportunity to develop to the limit of his capacity toward the standards of civilization for which we strive in America. We have been seriously handicapped by the large amount of illliteracy. Negro illiteracy in the seventeen states that maintain separate schools for negro children ranges from twelve and four-tenths percent to thirty-eight and five-tenths percent of the population ten years of age and over. Many of the states are engaged in campaigns to reduce illiteracy. In one state at this time there are in operation night schools for adults in which more than 70,000 people, three-fourths of them negroes, are learning to read and write. Before the end of the year it is confidently expected that 100,000 adults will have taken the course prescribed. While learning to write one’s name and to spell out a few simple words and sentences may not have much significance in training for citizenship, it will have tre¬ mendous value in the selfrespect brought to thousands upon thousands of fathers and mothers, and in the heightened demand on their part for better school facilities for their children. The attitude of the negro teacher toward securing a fairer share of public support for his school has been one of patient waiting. He is striv¬ ing to advance a little here, a little there, toward the goal of his aspira¬ tions. Each small favor has been thankfully received and the evidences of appreciation which he has displayed have frequently paved the way for the next step. But a new attitude is developing in the group. More and more they are presenting to school authorities the cold, hard facts regarding their situation. This method is effective, especially when presented in the semi- humorous vein which characterizes the negro. It was rare wisdom which prompted Booker T. Washington to call attention to grave discrepancies in the measure of support given to w’hite and negro schools by asking, “Isn’t it too great a compliment to the intelligence of the negro child to assume that he can receive for an expenditure of $10 a session the oppor¬ tunity for training that it costs the south $29 to extend to the white child ?” The world of today is a different world from the one in which our fathers lived. Our mode of life is different. Not only have we seen changes in the material world, but w’e are undergoing a transformation in our social thinking. We realize more fully the heavy toll that we pay for ignorance. Our physical wellbeing, our moral progress, and our cultural standards, are all dependent upon our attitude toward the unprivileged classes. There is evidence that we are finding our way out of the dilemma. The future holds for the dominant white race a brighter day when we have all realized our obligation to give the negro a fairer chance, and the negro people of our region, meek and patient still, are biding their time and seizing the opportunity as it presents itself. Perhaps no one has better Department of Rural Education 477 described the attitude of the negro than the teacher-poet, Leslie Pinkney Hill, in his poem entitled “Selfdetermination” : Four things we will not do, in spite of all That demons plot for our decline and fall; We bring four benedictions which we meek Unto the proud are privileged to speak, Four gifts by which amidst all stern-browed races We move with kindly hearts and shining faces. W e ‘will not hate. Law, custom, creed, and caste, All notwithstanding, here we hold us fast, Down through the years, the mighty ships of state Have all been broken on the rocks of hate. We ‘will not cease to laugh and multiply. We slough off trouble and refuse to die. The Indian stood unyielding, stark, and grim; We saw him perish and we learned of him To mix a grain of philosophic mirth With all the crass injustices of earth. We ‘will not use the ancient carnal tools. These never won, yet centuries of schools, Of priests, and all the work of brush and pen Have not availed to win the wisest men From futile faith in battleship and shell; We see them fall, and mark that folly well. We will not waver in our loyalty. No strange voice reaches us across the sea; No crime at home shall stir us from this soil. Ours is the guerdon, ours the blight of toil, But raised above it by a faith sublime We choose to suffer here and bide our time. And if we hold to this, we dream some day Our countrymen will follow in our way. THE CONTRIBUTION OF THE SOUTH TO RURAL ED UCA TION—ABSTRA CT CHARL ORMOND WILLIAMS, FIELD SECRETARY> NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. It seems especially appropriate that we should discuss the contribution of the south to rural education here in Georgia, the birthplace of the new south and the home of the south’s pioneer advocate of public education, Dr. J. L. M. Curry. The public schools of the south today and the general progress of this section are vindication of Dr. Curry’s eloquent pleas for application of that principle of a true democratic order which Lee had ex¬ pressed when he declared, “The thorough education of all classes of people is the most efficacious means for promoting the prosperity of the south.” While the south of today is in marked contrast to the south of a quarter century ago, agriculture is still its chief industry. The resultant large rural population, combined with an unusually high percentage of children 478 National Education Association gives this section of the country a great responsibility toward rural educa¬ tion. Despite comparatively small wealth per child, the south, I am proud to say, is meeting this responsibility more and more fully, and in so doing has made a worthwhile contribution to rural education. Most widely known, and doubtless of first importance, is the south’s development of the county unit system. Not only has this plan been applied most widely in the south, but it is in a southern state — Maryland — that it has reached its highest development. There the county, as a single unit of educational organization and administration, is analagous to a city school organization. The cities are included in the county school administration in Maryland and Florida, and the same is true, with two exceptions, in the parish system of Louisiana. Some form of the county unit system is now employed in every southern state except Oklahoma and Arkansas, and the latter state provides for a county board of education, elected by the people, which shall select the county superintendent. The south also ranks high in consolidation, though this plan originated in the north. More than 8000, or nearly half of the 16,674 consolidated schools reported by the Bureau of Education in 1925 were in the sixteen southern states. That important factor of consolidation, transportation, is given its due consideration. In fact, North Carolina held first place among the states of the Union in 1927-28 by providing 136,980 children with transportation. The county unit system is largely responsible for the fact that supervision in the rural schools of the south is unusually good, while the fact that mem¬ bers of the south’s most cultured families enter the teaching ranks, has re¬ sulted in more cordial and human administrative relationships between superintendents and teachers than exist in many other places. It is to the south, too, that we owe the development of state school im¬ provement associations. Although they originated in Maine, they showed greatest growth in the south. Like the Congress of Parents and Teachers, by which they have been replaced in many states, these associations have demonstrated that there can be close cooperation between professional and lay groups. So successful have they been in securing progressive school legislation and in raising money for school and community that they may be said to be responsible in considerable degree for the south’s progress in public education. This educational progress is indicated to some extent by the fact that public school expenditures in the south increased 1116.4 percent from 1900 to 1927. In 1926 the south spent $426,200,000 on its public schools, or four times its expenditure of but twelve years earlier and nearly double the amount the entire country spent in 1900 on public education. Such progress as I have touched upon so far did not just happen in the south. It was, rather, the result of the earnest, aggressive work of a large group of far-seeing men and women who waged a veritable crusade for the ideals of public education. . , Department of Rural Education 479 On this program with me today are two outstanding representatives of this group — Dr. James H. Dillard and Dr. Edward Mims. Then there is the group of southern men who are directing the work of various founda¬ tions in the advancement of Negro education. This list, which constitutes an honor roll far too lengthy to give in full includes S. L. Smith of Ten¬ nessee, general agent of the Rosenwald Fund; B. C. Caldwell of Louisiana, Dr. Dillard’s assistant; and Jackson Davis of Virginia, special representative of the General Education Board. Their work might have been much more difficult had it not been for two of the great leaders which the Negro race has furnished — Booker T. Washington and his successor at Tuskegee Institute, Robert R. Moton. Illiteracy among both whites and negroes has been a blot upon the south, but conditions are improving due to the good work of such people as my good friend, Wil Lou Gray, state adult school supervisor of South Carolina ; Martha Berry, whose school for mountain boys and girls in Georgia is nationally known ; and Cora Wilson Stewart of moonlight school fame. Annie Webb Blanton of Texas, the south’s first woman state superintendent of schools, and Mrs. Theodore Birney of Georgia, founder of the National Congress of Parents and Teachers, have also made a notable contribution to southern education. According to its population, the south has probably furnished its just quota of educators in two outstanding positions of leadership in the nation. Three of the eight United States Commissioners of Education, Dr. John Eaton, Dr. P. P. Claxton, and Dr. John J. Tigert, have come from Ten¬ nessee, while Missouri proudly claims Dr. W. T. Harris. Among the sixty-eight presidents of the National Education Association, ten have been southerners, of whom at least two were outstanding in the field of rural education. They were James Y. Joyner of North Carolina, who according to our secretary, Mr. J. W. Crabtree, coined the phrase, “Equality of edu¬ cational opportunity,” and the late Dr. D. B. Johnson of South Carolina, who recently rounded out a half century of work in this field. Orators, public officials and editors have played their part in the educa¬ tional advance of the south along with the teachers. Memories of brilliant careers and earnest work for public education are brought to life by mention of such names as Henry Grady, Walter Hines Page, C. P. J. Mooney, Clarence H. Poe, Governor Aycock of North Carolina, Governor Mon¬ tague of Virginia, Governor Patterson of Tennessee, or former Senator Hoke Smith of Georgia. Mr. Smith has left us a legacy in the Smith-Lever and Smith-Hughes Acts, providing for agricultural training in schools and colleges. He was also author of the Smith-Towner Bill for a Department of Education, with a Secretary in the President’s Cabinet, when that measure was first introduced in Congress in 1918. With certain changes, such as elimination of provision for federal aid, this bill has been reintroduced in every succeed¬ ing Congress, and we now predict that its enactment would make available, 480 National Education Association through establishment of the Department of Education, such increased knowledge of education that the number of great leaders, such as I have just mentioned, would be multiplied many fold, and Southern schools would be enabled to contribute far more to the progress of the south and of the nation. CONTRIBUTIONS OF A CONSERVATIVE PROVINCE TO A PROGRESSIVE NATION EDWIN MIMS, PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH, VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY, NASHVILLE, TENN. Andre Siegfried at the end of his remarkable analysis of American condi¬ tions in America Comes of Age represents Europe as hesitating to adopt the methods and points of view that have led to this country’s unparalleled prosperity. “There is in America,” he says, “a growing tendency to reduce all virtues to the primordial ideal of conformity — Can the individual pos¬ sibly survive in such’ an atmosphere? Will Europe end by adopting these methods? She hesitates.” That is just the way a Southerner, be he ever so modern and liberal, feels as he contemplates some of the extreme tenden¬ cies in industry, education, philosophy, and literature today and attempts to find his place and the place of his section in contemporary America. The south looks one way to old traditions and standards and modes of living and another way to other sections of the country where modern forces are in the ascendancy. She hesitates for herself and for the nation. Held back for half a century and more for reasons that any intelligent and imaginative man can readily understand, she feels impelled to catch up with the pro¬ cession, to keep step with all progressive movements. And yet not only stubborn reactionaries but liberals themselves hesitate to climb aboard the great American bandwagon. In the country at large, certainly among the most intellectual and artistic, there has been a reaction against Puritanism, and here is the very strong¬ hold of Puritanism ; a reaction against the pioneer spirit that impoverished life, and yet here among the mountains and hills is a large body of people still in the pioneer stage of culture ; a reaction against the Anglo-Saxon dom¬ inance of America, and yet every state and city here prides itself on the over¬ whelming Anglo-Saxon population and the absence of foreigners ; a reaction against certain qualities of mind and heart, such as sentiment, romance, chivalry, optimism, and yet here these qualities survive. Yes, the south hesi¬ tates to join the procession of those vcho lead the reaction and especially those who have reacted in every instance to the opposite extreme. May not the south find the middle of the road, the balance, the moderation, and in so doing reinforce those who in other sections are fighting the same battle? Many people have passed from sentimentalism to sophistication, from “rose- pink” literature to “dirty-drab,” from Pollyanna optimism to the most de¬ pressing pessimism; from “uplift” to iconoclasm, and from “service” to Department of Rural Education 481 rampant individualism and selfishness, from commonplaceness and medioc¬ rity to abnormal eccentricity, from suppressed emotions and inhibitions to unbridled passion and undisciplined thinking, from success as an idol to fail¬ ure as the chief glory of man and of art, from the reign of dullness to the cult of smartness — smartness at any price — and from opposition to science to a glorification of it as the supreme authority in philosophy and religion. The south may well serve the nation by avoiding the extremes. THE ADJUSTMENT OF EDUCATION TO THE NEEDS OF FARM-DWELLING PEOPLE— ABSTRACT NORMAN FROST, PROFESSOR OF RURAL EDUCATION, GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGE, NASHVILLE, TENN. The United States now has fewer people living on the farm than at any time since 1910; probably since 1900. On January 1, 1929, there were 27,511,000 persons on farms, according to the estimate of the Bureau of Agricultural Economics. This is about four and a half million less than the farm population of 1910, an actual decrease of more than one-eighth. During this same period farm production has increased. Fewer farmers are now producing more. The efficiency of the farmer is increasing. The farm labor thus released from agriculture constitutes a grave prob¬ lem. The way in which it shall go, and what will happen to it there, is of vital concern to the farm folks. This is particularly true because labor can¬ not be disassociated from the person doing the work. From the standpoint of the farmer and his wife, the labor that leaves the farm is “our son John and our daughter Mary.” This stream of young people leaving the farm is no new thing. Galpin says that “a rather fixed percentage of farm youth do, will, and must, so far as we can foresee, go to cities as a normal thing.” Here, then, is the first adjustment our rural schools must make to the needs of farm-dwelling people. The schools must so educate the farm boys and girls that they can leave the farms or stay on the farms, according to eco¬ nomic opportunity at the time they have to go to work. Too long we have talked and attempted to practise the doctrine that country boys and girls must be educated for country life. Education for life is the need, not for country life. We know that “a rather fixed percentage of farm youth do, will, and must, so far as we can foresee, go to the cities as a normal thing.” Increased knowledge of agriculture, better distribution of that knowledge, and increased use of machinery and power, all of these are likely to increase rather than decrease this percentage. Entirely apart from the task of educating young people so that they can leave the farm if that seems wise, is the task of so educating those that are to live on farms that they may be prosperous and happy. Even though half the farm children are likely to leave, it is equally true that half are likely 482 National Education Association to remain. The responsibility of the school to those who remain can be no less than its responsibility to those who are to leave. One of the evidences of unsatisfactory farm life is the fact that many of the farm families are moving to town. The Bureau of Agricultural Eco¬ nomics recently made a survey of 20,000 farmers living in every state of the Union who had left farms for the city during the last eight years. Their reasons for leaving were the following: 7500 went on account of small profits and high taxes on the farm 5000 went because of old age 2200 went to get adequate schooling for their children 500 went because they had saved enough money to get in cities what they had always wanted but could not get in the country 400 went because they were giving up the farm to sons or sons-in-law 4400 gave scattering reasons hard to classify. For individuals the school can remedy the difficulty of small profits, at least to a large extent. Vocational agricultural education has shown many farmers how to increase their individual production, and consequently their profits. The number of young people who should leave the farm is corre¬ spondingly increased. If the school teaches one boy to do the work previ¬ ously done by two, this extra boy will have to go somewhere else for work. This second adjustment, therefore, of increasing the vocational efficiency of farm youth, is the complement of the first. As more young people leave the farms, the efficiency of those remaining must be increased, and as the efficiency of the people on the farms is increased, a greater number of young people must go elsewhere. If these two educational procedures can progress together, the adjustment to changing agricultural and general vocational situations can be made with much less friction than in the past. Those who leave the farm can do so easily and those who stay can do so profitably. Unsatisfactory marketing of farm products contributes to unsatisfac¬ tory economic situations of farmers. An attempt to remedy this phase of the situation is all that can be claimed for the recent farm aid bill. Whatever relief is to be found in reorganization of marketing would seem to depend very largely on the success of rural schools in teaching country people the sound bases of marketing. The extravagant and frequently selfish claims made by professional organizers of cooperatives are likely to do as much harm as the pessimistic conservatism that sees no use in any change. Apparently real improvement in this field comes back again to the school. Intelligent farmers, fully informed as to the possibilities of cooperative efforts, can pro¬ tect themselves from exploitation by the mere threat implied in that knowl¬ edge. A system that will protect ignorant and helpless farmers seems more unlikely than an education that will make the farmers wiser in their market¬ ing. This constitutes a third adjustment of education to the needs of farm¬ dwelling people. Department of Rural Education 483 For the 5000 who left the farm because of old age there seems little that can, or should, be done. As advancing years restrict activity, the con¬ veniences of town become more imperative. The 2200 who go to town for school advantages constitute a direct chal¬ lenge to the country school teacher. Certainly it should not be necessary for a man to stop his business, change his place and manner of living, and take up a new vocation when his children reach school age. Either the quality of school work, or the breadth of the offering, must be at fault when so large a proportion of farmers who move to town give this as their reason. The adjustments called for are obvious, better teaching and a richer cur¬ riculum. i'll i The 500 who go to town as soon as they have enough money to get what they have always wanted and could not get on the farm constitute a mal¬ adjusted group. The maladjustment may be the fault of the school, or of other things. Some of these people may have been held on the farm to care for elders or to look after property when they would normally have moved to town. Many of them have not been interested in country things. This is the fault of the school. Those interests and tastes that can be satisfied in the country should be stressed. A broader curriculum might have made those 500 families happier. That they were already prosperous is shown by their saving enough money to go to town. The 400 who gave up their farms to sons and sons-in-law have little need of special treatment in the schools. More attention to the development of interests and tastes that find their satisfaction on the farm might have held them on smaller places in the country rather than allowing them to move to town. There is one further demand that might reasonably be made on the coun¬ try school. Education provided those who are to live in this country should be broad enough to aid them in making adjustments to future as well as present needs. This implies, for example, a general course in chemistry as well as one based largely on soil analysis ; a course in physics as well as one in farm mechanics. The meeting of this demand falls in line with the adjustments called for previously. The adjustments called for may be summarized as follows: 1. Education which will enable farm boys and girls to go to town or stay in the country 2. For those who remain in the country, increased vocational efficiency 3. Understanding of marketing 4. Better instruction 5. Broader curriculum 6. The development of interests and tastes which may be satisfied in the country. It may prove helpful to attempt to define the kind of country school that may be expected to make these adjustments: 1. It must be large enough to provide one teacher for not more than two grades; preferably one for each grade. 484 National Education Association 2. It must provide departmentalized work beginning at about the sixth or seventh grade. 3. It must employ well qualified teachers and principals. 4. It must provide shopwork, home economics, agricultural work, and laboratories for science beginning at about the sixth or seventh grade. 5. It must have available about 5000 books. 6. It must have enough pupils in the high school to justify offering at least five or six differentiated courses or curriculums. 7. It must provide for the health and safety of the pupils in buildings, athletic programs, and instruction. 8. It must offer sound work in economics. 9. It must provide practise in social activities through a strong program of extra¬ curriculum activities. 10. It must be supervised by welltrained supervisors. To provide such schools for country children means a reorganization of school support, possibly involving federal aid. Such schools constitute real farm relief. In this way, and apparently in this way only, can the farm problem be satisfactorily and permanently solved. ADJUSTMENT TO RURAL INDUSTRIAL CHANGE WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO MOUNTAIN AREAS— ABSTRACT OLIVE D. CAMPBELL, DIRECTOR OF JOHN C. CAMPBELL FOLK SCHOOL, BRASSTOWN, N. C. When I have been away in the cities and return to our mountain country, I am struck anew with its beauty. I find myself wondering why anyone lives anywhere else. Why the noise, the confusion, the dirt, the scramble, when one may have the fresh stillness, the independence of life among these blue and green hills? With an odd sense of shock one faces the fact that our young people, at least the majority of the more energetic and ambitious, do not feel the same way. What is the difficulty? Certainly the condition is not peculiar to the mountains, or to the south, although topography, climate, diet, and special diseases play their part. If one could give the answer in one word, the nearest word would be poverty — economic, social, cultural. Economic poverty — In our immediate section the average annual income of the small farmer is between $85 and $90. The land-owning farmer, and our people are largely land-owning, has his land, his garden from which he gets most of his living, and his corn ; but $90 does not offer a wide margin for taxes, clothes, books, education, seeds, fertilizers, etc. We pay the doctor for a single trip from the county seat $7. Poverty in social life — The old occasions for getting together, logrolling, houseraising, quiltings, and the like, have largely passed. We still have some all-day “singin’s,” “decorations,” and an occasional singing-school. Sickness and funerals furnish always an opportunity to get together. But Department of Rural Education 485 all in all the church is still the main social institution of our mountain country. The protracted meeting is our spiritual and social outlet. The consolidated school helps its more or less immediate neighborhood, but parents at a distance find it next to impossible to share in most of the activities. One dares to say that under present conditions in our rural mountain sections, the consolidated school breaks up more than enriches the social life of the little community. Poverty in cultural resources — The topography and history of the moun¬ tain country explain why, over large areas, our elementary schools have been very poor. While they are improving greatly, they are still inade¬ quate. As a result we have a large population which if not actually illiterate, is very limited. We must have elementary education for all, if we are to progress, but elementary education cannot solve our problem. The high school is largely for those who are to leave the farm and the more rural districts. Because it is standardized it must set emphasis upon acquiring certain definite amounts of information and it does this, usually, without relating these facts to the life of the student in the country he has to live. It does not try to help him to an understanding and control of his life and environment, and to the joy that comes from such understanding and control. It is one thing for the country boy with high school or college training to go out into the city. When, however, the untrained, uneducated, coun¬ try boy goes to the city or industrial center, that is to the “public works,” as we call any large operations, whether factories in Ohio, mines in Ken¬ tucky, or mills in North or South Carolina, he is fitted only for heavy or unskilled labor. He is used to widely-scattered farms where he does not have to consider the preference of his neighbors and where ignorance of modern hygiene and sanitation do not have such immediately disastrous effects as in an industrial settlement. Crowded into close living quarters he becomes, in his indifference to all social regulations, a problem to the city. If he is unmarried or leaves his family back on the farm, he can save, if he is so minded, and may bring back, if he returns, enough capital to give him a good start at home. On the other hand, if he takes his family with him, the expense is so great that, unless all the family work, he finds himself in worse financial condition than if he had put in a crop at home and too often much poorer in health. The uncertainty of industrial work is another difficulty. The mountain worker may be thrown out of work at any time and have to return to rented or depleted land. In any case he is restless and unsettled whether at home or abroad. I believe a careful study of our very rural areas would show that a surprising number of young, unmarried men go to the public works for a season ; return perhaps to put in a crop but often only to live on their parents for a few months while they spend lavishly what they have accumulated outside, and I do not need to suggest for what untrained, uneducated young people are likely to spend their savings. When money or welcome is exhausted or the restless city calls, they drift back again, a 486 National Education Association part of the floating, unsettled labor which is such a problem to the economist, the social worker, the police, and the state in general. I am not, of course, discussing the successful individual or family which finds its place outside, as many do. I am speaking from the angle of the effect on our rural sections which inevitably grow more impoverished. I am asking you to think of education in these terms. Can our mountain country offer a full life to the energetic and ambitious? I cannot answer that question, though I have my own convictions at least as to large sections. While I am weary of the survey that piles up laborious material which is not utilized, we do need a careful, practical, economic survey of the mountain country to guide us in our thinking and planning. All I can say here is that no rigid or blanket state program will help the mountains. The topography is exceedingly varied and so are the resources. Doubtless it would be most unwise to encourage the submarginal farming of certain areas. We need larger forest reservations, more small decentral¬ ized industries. But equally unreasonable does it seem to me to hope to work out such a serious and fundamental problem with a standardized form of education. We must be open in mind, flexible in method, if we are to contribute any real help to the development of better rural life in the mountains. For these reasons we are trying out, school and community together, in a little place called Brasstown, in the extreme southwestern corner of North Carolina, a new venture in adult education. The John C. Campbell Folk School is an independent corporation under the laws of the state but has the cooperation of three of the denominational boards, the Board of National Missions of the Presbyterian Church, the American Mission¬ ary Association, and the National Council of the Episcopal Church. It has no connection with the public schools nor does it in any way compete with them. The school has its inspiration in the folk schools of Denmark — unstand¬ ardized adult schools which have done so much to build up the rural life of Denmark, social and economic, and to make it the most broadly cultured in Europe. The aim of such schools for young adults is not primarily to present information, although such information as is presented is usually sound and carefully prepared. It seeks to start thinking and growth, in the belief that if the young man or woman once gets a glimpse of a better life and is truly stirred to realize it, he will determinedly try to secure for himself the information necessary to his life work and development. In the words kof one of their great teachers, it tries to start youth “growing so it will never stop.” These schools hold that development of the indi¬ vidual comes in large part through doing well the everyday work of the world. Cultural subjects are emphasized, the teaching being largely through lively, personal lectures and discussions in which the personality of the teacher has free play. Singing, gymnastics, and folk-dancing have a large place. Out of such schools, short-term and entirely voluntary, with¬ out requirements, examinations, or credits, young people go back to their Department of Rural Education 487 own communities, enlivened and enlightened, a progressive force in all phases of community life. They have learned how, as the poem puts it, “To sing behind the plough.” The John C. Campbell Folk School is naturally an adaptation. Pri¬ marily it is to help the people, enrich their life economically, socially, cul¬ turally. Though it is called school, it has three distinct sides, the demon¬ stration farm, community activities, and the school proper. It is hard to measure the help to our section of the steady upbuilding of our farm under the able direction of a young Danish farmer: the use of manure and green fertilizers, the care and increase of good stock. We are making every effort to put the farm into such shape that it will pay and help to support the school. The paying of the farm is closely related to community activities, especially to our four cooperative organizations: The Brasstown Savings and Loan, the Farmers’ Association, the Cooperative Hatchery, and Co¬ operative Creamery. I cannot take the time to tell you of these associations in detail. They are small but very much alive and growing. Probably no one of the ventures has had or will have a more profound effect on our economic life and help more to produce a social mind than the Mountain Valley Creamery, built and owned by its members. And finally there is the school proper, or short-term school for young adults, also in its beginnings and very small. For the first time this coming winter we shall have real boarding accommodations and then can hope to grow. The peculiar features of this school are these: no requirements except that the student shall be seventeen or over and with a serious desire to learn, no examinations and no credits, no formal study of books, instruction being largely through simple stimulating talks and discussions ; a very friendly, comradely family life; a great deal of singing and gymnastics. We also lay a good deal of emphasis on reading, writing, and arithmetic, and on practical and hand work of various kinds ; but these are not peculiar except as they are ungraded and to interest and open a new world to the student rather than primarily to make expert carpenters, surveyors, cooks, weavers, and so on. The study of geography, history, English, arithmetic, and other subjects is definitely linked with the life of these people in such a way as to con¬ cretely enrich their lives in this mountain community. We are, it goes without saying, by no means skilled in this new technic. We are frankly watching, studying, and experimenting. However, I am amazed at the power of this type of education in which the personality of the teachers, the relations of natural comradeship and home, the stimuli of new vistas and ideals, the variety of cultural and practical, create a soil most favorable for the growth of new life. In such an educational venture, however, we cannot ask for immediate results. Only now, in our third year, do our neighbors really see the first fruits of our farm policy. When one thinks of the many steps to be taken 488 National Education Association before the farms around us are even as far along as ours today, before our little cooperative organizations are entrenched and of full service, one will not expect immediate financial returns tempting to energetic youth. Further¬ more, our section is a large one. The influence of the little group of young people who go back to their homes outside our community must of necessity be small and slow. If you will ask me to come again in ten, or better fifteen years, I can perhaps, speak with more authority. In the meantime we will be happy to send you our literature, have you come and see for yourself what is going on, and ask such questions as occur to you. LARGER CONTACTS AND WORLD OUTLOOK— ABSTRACT HARRY W. CHASE, PRESIDENT, UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA CHAPEL HILL, N. C. We must recognize the fact that more and more all western civilization is becoming tied together, unified, into a common pattern of thought and action that rapidly tends to become standardized and complete. The south has hitherto lain somewhat outside the main sphere of attraction of the great forces that have been at work. The phrase, “The Solid South,” is much more than a political concept. It stands for a common body of tradi¬ tion, ways of looking at things in general, attitudes and reactions, that de¬ rived in the beginning from a peculiar social and economic order and have outlived its passage. The south, to put it briefly, has had a psychology of its own. The old southern system of values may be in some respects sounder than that of modern industrial society. I personally believe there is a great deal to be said for that point of view. The south ought to make a creative con¬ tribution to modern life. At its best, it has understood the gracious art of living better than most Americans. It has in its traditions the courage of utter loyalty to a cause ; it has the conviction that other things about a human being are of more importance than his wealth. Such values as these are not lightly to be discarded. But, if they are to maintain themselves, if they are to be at all impressed on a skeptical, rapidly-moving, and large scale civiliza¬ tion, it will be only because it turns out that they can be held by a people that at the same time is about to hold its own in the relentless competition of modern industrial civilization. We cannot merely say that we will have none of this civilization. It is upon us ; the more we refuse to reckon with it, the more certainly will we be submerged by it. We must seek to under¬ stand and to master it if we are to make our own contribution to it. We are, then, at a time in which we must attend to the implications of the larger contacts and outlooks with which we and our children will be concerned. If we are to do this, if we are to make successfully our transition to this new world order, we must concern ourselves about the stimulation of certain attitudes in ourselves and in our pupils. If the south is to maintain Department of Rural Education 489 itself in this more complex order into which she is inevitably becoming ab¬ sorbed, there are certain adjustments of outlook and habit that must be made. First, standards of achievement must be revamped. We must concern ourselves less about comparisons with each other and more with our rela¬ tionship in terms of achievement to the nation and the western world. It is a matter of secondary importance how Georgia and North Carolina compare with each other in education or in any other enterprise. The real question is how they both compare with the best national standards. It is dangerous and misleading to attempt to judge any area simply in terms of itself. As long as we think about southern education in terms of how it compares with yesterday, or of how its various parts compare with each other, so long do we run the risk of a complacent selfsatisfaction about things that, judged by more absolute terms, are really not good. We are all too familiar with the boosting type of persons and publications that magnify second-rate achievements beyond their real deserts because they are southern. The phrase “the best in the south’’ is one that I wish could be eliminated. We must measure our own productions in literature, in business, by the same impartial yardstick with which they are compared by the rest of mankind. As teachers we need to preach and practise discrimination. The south is not to be advanced either by blind praise of all that it is and does, nor by the equally blind dismissal of its status as that of a backward and desert land. It will be advanced only as men see more and more clearly its real short¬ comings, and try to abolish them, not by assertions that they do not exist, but by hard work; and as men see its real achievements and cling to them. I plead for a teaching profession in the south which will realize and teach that we must judge ourselves in terms of the best standards of achievement that the modern world can furnish. Second, we must have respect for ideas. It is a commonplace to say that our civilization is based on science. But this is true in a special sense. We have learned that problems get solved just as we adopt toward them the particular attitude that is the attitude and spirit of science, namely, that of a calm, deliberate search for truth based on facts, not prejudices; on ideas, not on emotional assumptions. In those areas of human enterprise in which we have been most successful, as in our large industrial enterprises, we have gone already very far in the direction of adapting throughout such an attitude with laboratory research, elaborate accounting systems, efficiency studies, cost data, and so on, all designed to eliminate the personal equation and to base procedures and decisions on facts, rather than individual opinions. The same spirit underlies modern work in health and sanitation ; it begins to appear here and there in government ; it distinguishes the newer approaches toward educational and social prob¬ lems. We are living in a civilization in which the realist appears to be win¬ ning from the romanticist in human enterprises. We are learning that with its emphasis on ideals and facts the realistic attitude works, while reliance on tradition, on emotionalism, on prejudice, bring only obscurity and confusion. If the south is to take its proper place in the modern world, we must develop the habits of mind that underlie this attitude of respect for ideas. 490 National Education Association We must learn to face our shortcomings, as well as our virtues with re¬ straint, patience, and in a spirit of inquiry. We must build, not on a ro¬ mantic picture of what we wish our states and communities to be like, but on what they are. We must allow the intelligence to play freely over the surface of our life. One of our great missions as teachers is to train young people, not to accept uncritically the preconceptions with which they are surrounded, but to possess the attitude of mind that fits them to respect, and to share in the processes of finding truth. W7e need to consider the virtue of openmindedness, of disinterested inquiry. We need to be more critical of ourselves, and less inclined to assign the critic to unmentionable destinations. Third, we must deepen our sense of the value of cooperation. The whole trend in life is toward the establishment of conditions under which men must live and work together in large units. Great cities like New York and London are possible only because men in large masses are learning how to get on with others. Industrial life brings people together. Even in the south the drift is toward towns and villages where men must live with their neighbors. More and more on this rapidily shrinking planet, our neighbors become not only those in our own country or state or section. As business men, as teachers, in a hundred relationships, we have today to learn to understand and to respect men of other sections and nations. More and more are we dependent on other people, and on our ability to cooperate with them for success. We have not yet gone as far as we might in this respect. The history7 of farmers’ cooperative efforts in this section, for example, is not so very happy. Only the other day a textile manufacturer told me of his deep conviction that the underlying trouble with that industry was that people had never learned to cooperate within the industry. The difficulty of creating and working together in large units in schools, highway con¬ struction, and the like, is overcome, where it is overcome, with a good deal of resistance. Now the essence of tolerance is the ability of people to work together with mutual respect for common ends even though they differ widely in belief and outlook. Tolerance is not necessary7 where all people think alike ; but in modern civilization we must cooperate with people who think and believe in a great many different ways. More and more will this be essential, as the isolation of the south ydelds to the great unifying forces of the time. We, as teachers, must do what we can to make people coopera¬ tive and tolerant. We must either work with the world or it will work us as a section. Here, then, are three attitudes that seem to me necessary in southern life as the south enters on a day of wider contacts and outlooks. We must set high valid standards; we must respect ideas; we must develop cooperation and its associated virtue of tolerance. Such attitudes as these underlie modern civilization in the western world. I have chosen to stress the neces¬ sity7 of developing attitudes rather than the necessity" of increasing our in¬ formation about the world. The necessity for that, indeed, I have assumed. Department of Rural Education 491 But it does little good merely to accumulate knowledge about such things if we ourselves do not come to participate in the habits of mind that are re¬ sponsible for their existence. We really participate in these larger out¬ looks only when we come to possess the attitudes that underlie them. Do we feel that the south has something to say in the world ? Then it must be able to maintain itself and understand the modern world before it can contribute to it. Surely such contacts and outlooks are a vital need for the oncoming generation that must face the complex and intricate realities of life in a section whose future, for good or ill, is enmeshed with that of west¬ ern civilization as a whole. GROUP VERSUS GRADE CLASS ORGANIZATION HELEN HEFFERNAN, CHIEF DIVISION OF RURAL EDUCATION, STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, SACRAMENTO, CALIF. The purpose of education is to guide each child to a realization of his potential possibilities and to a successful adjustment to his social situation. In my state, this complete understanding of each child essential to the first of these purposes is becoming increasingly complicated for the urban teacher. In many of our cities, teachers are carrying a teaching load of between forty and fifty pupils. To make an individual study of the needs of forty or fifty children is humanly impossible. Although, the difficulties of the one-teacher school are appreciated the average number of pupils to a teacher in the one-room schools of California last year was sixteen. The same smaller groups existed in the two, three, four, and five teacher schools. To be sure, these children represent a hetero¬ geneous group ranging in age from six to sixteen years, varying in social background, ability, and in all stages of educational development, whereas the urban teacher is handling a group supposedly homogeneous in character. Our faith in the actual homogeneity has been severely shaken by recent research. We remain unconvinced that a grouping based on an intelligence test or the teacher’s judgment does not overlook other factors equally signifi¬ cant in child development as health, bodily equipment, social background, interest, attitude and emotional response. The modern teacher is con¬ fronted by a more serious problem with forty-five children each with in¬ dividual problems but nearer in chronological age and educational achieve¬ ment than a teacher with half the number of children of a wider chrono¬ logical and educational range. The great difficulty in securing effective teaching in rural schools is largely due to the fact that we have shackled ourselves with an artificial and mechanical type of grade organization which however satisfactory it might be in the urban situation is wholly unsuitable to rural needs. Grade organization is a relic of tradition. There is nothing divinely inspired about it and rural education will progress more rapidly when it frees its teachers from the burdens which grade organization imposes and develops new technics of greater flexibility in terms of its needs. 492 National Education Association With rural teachers better trained in child psychology and imbued with the conception of education as growth, with better trained rural supervisors becoming available in increasing numbers, it is possible to attack the problem scientifically rather than to accept the traditional organization. During the past two years, we have been making an experimental study of the problem of group organization in eight rural centers, representing rural schools of all sizes. The experiment is too incomplete to measure ob¬ jectively but the results secured so far justify the continuation and exten¬ sion of the experiment. As a basis for grouping, it is necessary to make a careful case study of each child. The rural school has been woefully lacking in adequate systems of child accounting. Data concerning the child’s health, bodily equipment, family background, school attendance, intelligence, educational achieve¬ ment, personal attitudes, emotional responses and mechanical ability are essential to proper school adjustment. These data which are kept on a cumulative record card should be thor¬ oughly understood by the teacher. The supervisor’s most effective work is helping the teacher to make a suitable educational plan for each child. In an ordinary rural school which was one of the experimental centers, enroling 145 pupils and employing five teachers the survey revealed the need of special adjustment because of: 1. Low mentality 2. Unusual mental proficiency 3. Foreign language handicaps 4. Health 5. Physical defects 6. Special sensory or motor abilities 7. Meager social background. For each individual child these case studies make it possible for us to determine: (1) his placement for more effective school work, (2) special instructional problems arising from individual needs, and (3) special abilities desirable to develop. Grouping on the basis of individual needs results in better attitudes, better habits, better adjustments and more rapid progress. Of three neglected and maladjusted groups for which the group organization cares, special mention may be made: (1) the immature beginners, (2) the over¬ age, mentally retarded children, (3) the mentally and socially accelerated pupils. The fact that thirty percent of our beginners fail in the work of the first year points to a serious lack of adjustment of the school program to the needs of children who are chronologically of school age but who are not ready to read. We group these children into a preprimary or junior primary group and give them a program designed to develop a background of experience, make the social adjustment to the school environment, and develop vocabulary. Department of Rural Education 493 Better adjustment in the rural school is especially needed for the over¬ age, retarded child. With group organization, it is possible to place these children in rooms and with groups where they are not socially misfits. Attention is given to adjusting the curriculum to their needs. In the graded organization one of the tragic monuments to our incompetency in providing a suitable program is the over-age, physically developed boy or girl in the lower grades. In the rural school, with flexible group organization it is possible to vary the standards so that these less fortunately endowed children may not suffer retardation and consequently lose the opportunity of experiencing the multiple curriculum offering of the secondary school. When the child is definitely known to be of less than normal mental ability, the teacher con¬ sistently adapts his program to his ability in a way to make it possible for him to experience success. At the other extreme of the normal curve, we have the socially and mentally accelerated child for whom grade organization is particularly detrimental. He frequently does mediocre work because it is enough to satisfy grade standards when he is actually capable of work of superior quality. Grouping makes it possible to challenge these pupils to their ca¬ pacity and to determine for them an educational plan which will develop any special aptitudes they may possess. To economize the time of the teacher and to make possible educational progress at a rate commensurate with each child’s ability, the textbooks are organized into small units. These units are accompanied by largely self¬ directing instructions, so that pupils can work with a minimum of super¬ vision. Some excellent commercial material is available. In addition, we have constructed other materials to meet our needs. The child reacts to the material, learns to follow directions and assumes responsibility for accom¬ plishment. The old wasteful recitation method is replaced by small group conferences whenever new principles involved in material need explanation. The greatest service we can render the rural teacher is to make available scientifically constructed instructional material which will economize her time of preparation and free her energies for the actual work of guiding and instructing children. All of the work in arithmetic, spelling, writing, and formal work in language is handled in this way. In reading, pupils are grouped on the basis of reading tests given six times during the year. In one school, the group representing superior ability in reading, had pupils formerly classified as grades five to eight. Other groups showed the same or greater range. The reading material is carefully suited to the level of ability represented by the group. Grouping is not carried to an extreme of social maladjustment. The shopwork, school gardens, and committee work in the care of the school provide opportunities for children to work together in small groups. The social studies are approached through large projects. It is difficult to picture such an organization because it is somewhat different for each school depending upon the needs and interests of the 494 National Education Association groups. However, the pupils are keeping record of their progress and all activities are recorded by the teachers or the pupils. In the school previously mentioned the average progress during the last school year was nearly a year and a half based on Stanford Achievement Tests given in October and May. These accomplishments are insignificant as compared with those intangible outcomes in terms of initiative, selfdirection, originality and responsibility which escape statistical measurement. These schools encourage us to take advantage of the opportunity of the rural school as the place where the “new education’’ can flourish most successfully. With all the opportunity for flexible adaptation to individual needs, with freedom to develop initia¬ tive and originality through activities with no need for formality, who will say that the progressive rural school cannot satisfy the demands of an education which develops individual potentialities and raises the level of human excellence? INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION MARY D. PIERCE, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, FARMVILLE, VIRGINIA “Individual instruction” is here conceived, not as a new philosophy of education which regards the individual as its endpoint, not the instruction of one pupil at a time, not a “system” of instruction guaranteed to meet in¬ dividual needs, but rather as that individualizing quality which is present in all instruction, varying in degree from approximately zero in the broad¬ casted lecture to a maximum in the education of Helen Keller. The case is not one of “individual instruction” versus group instruction but of the individualization of group instruction. The individualization of instruction changes with changing conceptions of individual needs. The complexity of our civilization, the demonstrated extent and variety of individual differences among children, the undisputed value of group life for normal growth, and the demand for individuality of character result in a veritable host of individual needs, which may be roughly classified as follows : ( 1 ) a very large number having to do with assimilating civilization,* (2) others concerned with that wide range of creative activities employed in making one’s contribution to the life about him; (3) those related to the establishment of a personal balance; and (4) those having to do with living with other people. In any adequate program of individualization the group must remain. Individuality must emerge in group life. Individual differences must be provided for. Individualization of instruction must mean the meeting of individual needs through group instruction ( 1 ) by adapting to individual differences and (2) by providing for maximum development of individuality. The problem of adaptation to differences — The problem resolves itself into ( 1 ) a clear and sympathetic view, on the part of those responsible, of the whole adaptation problem; (2) very definite knowledge of each specific Department of Rural Education 495 unit of pupil achievement in attitude, knowledge, skill, creative selfexpres¬ sion, personality adjustment, social living; (3) a thorough acquaintance with the individual pupil in the manifold aspects of his nature; (4) pro¬ vision of needed stimulation and help; (5) checkup and records of indi¬ vidual progress. More specific aspects of the problem are ( 1 ) securing properly balanced and detailed statement of all specific units of pupil achievement; (2) find¬ ing a composite of various bases of grouping which will effectively reduce the range of individual differences within the group; (3) providing oppor¬ tunity for the teacher to become intimately acquainted with each pupil — smaller classes, teacher time for contact, tests and other means of diagnosing, individual records, diagnostic ability of teachers; (4) provision for meeting all kinds of needs — wonderful teacher resourcefulness, teacher time for all pupils, abundant and varied selftraining, selftesting, selfrecording instruc¬ tion materials, pupil opportunity to progress at own rate, opportunity to acquire skills in natural settings, additional enrichment courses, and equip¬ ment in the elementary schools for bright pupils, interplay of pupil minds, group life. The problem of developing individuality — Important factors appear to be ( 1 ) a clear understanding, on the part of those responsible, of what con¬ stitutes desirable total personality and of the respects in which conformity and individuality are respectively desired; (2) definite knowledge of specific characteristics contributory to individuality in relation to integrating forces which make for proper balance; (3) recognition in individual pupils of latent possibilities, along lines both desirable and undesirable; (4) arrange¬ ment of a variety of significant situations conducive to artistic creation or other expression of individuality which in toto is appropriate to the occa¬ sion ; (5) avoidance of situations conducive to unbalanced or otherwise un¬ desirable selfexpression ; (6) provision for transfer to new situations through conscious comprehension of underlying principles. More detailed aspects of this problem are ( 1 ) provision for abundant practise in independent thinking; (2) habit formation in thinking things through to their conclusions and making up one’s mind about them; (3) activities requiring acting upon convictions in situations requiring courage ; (4) situations necessitating prompt decision after due consideration; (5) activities demanding prompt and sure execution of decisions; (6) practise in initiating and executing worthwhile undertakings; (7) organization of the school in such a way that pupils become its bona fide, respected citizens, responsible individually for their own progress and collectively for the life and activities of the school ; (8) protection of children from inferiority com¬ plexes due to immaturity and habitual lack of respect accorded them by adults; (9) evoking from pupils artistic creative expression through the arts. Accomplishment — The bits of individualization which have succeeded in getting themselves into practise, infinitesimal though they be, are epoch- making in their effect. Though they have only touched the problem, they 496 National Education Association have touched its important phases. In the main they have adapted the schools to one of the hundreds of individual differences, namely, varying rates of learning ready-made subjectmatter. In doing this they have pro¬ vided for the partial exercise of two important traits of personality; namely, ( 1 ) individual responsibility for progress in acquiring tool sub¬ jects and for budgeting time (Dalton), and (2) independent work in accomplishing what is included on assignment sheets. They have done this with groups (at Dalton in natural group life) and have attempted to atone for the artificiality (Winnetka) of the situation by providing group activities on the side. In concentrating upon a tiny part of so enormous and intricate a problem, leaving largely out of consideration its other manifold phases, they face in¬ evitably the danger of a lopsided result. In omitting to provide for all the consequences of their mode of attack (little teacher-time devoted to bright pupils, postponement till high school of enrichment courses for bright pupils), they are risking both ill and good effects, the comparative weights of which have not been determined. Next steps — With the problem thus opened up by the pioneers in the field, what is needed is not so much further accretion of piecemeal attacks but the careful designing of a complete program of individualization with much experimentation to determine relative weightings of the parts — a challenge to the mighty and the task of a century! POST-GRADUATION RESPONSIBILITIES OF A TEACHERS COLLEGE— ABSTRACT E. C. HIGBIE, PRESIDENT, EASTERN STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, MADISON, SOUTH DAKOTA Followup, as indicated in the title of this paper, is a three-way institutional responsibility : ( 1 ) A responsibility to the school in which the recent graduate is teaching; (2) a responsibility to the graduate himself; and (3) most im¬ portant of all, a responsibility to the institution itself. Only the first of these could be considered a function of a state department of education, and this, to the training institution, is an incidental resultant — very valuable, but not to be confused with the other two. It is true that this is the ultimate responsi¬ bility of the institution as a whole, but it is best carried when the institution focusses its thought and energies on its intra-mural work. The supervisor doing followup work best serves the schools and pupils of the state when he or she carries back to the training classes the causes and results of outside failures or successes and uses the knowledge gained to improve procedures within the college walls. Followup service as an organized effort within the teacher-training in¬ stitutions of the country is relatively new. As an incidental service, used largely for the purpose of checking up on failing graduates and providing basis for final certification, it has been in vogue for years. Department of Rural Education 497 In order to learn just how great a movement it had become, the speaker sent a questionnaire to the teacher-training institutions of the country. This questionnaire was sent out to 180 state teachers colleges or normal schools. From this list 131 responses were received, forty-nine only failing to answer. On the basis of followup service, the institutions classify as follows: 1. Institutions having what may be termed an organized followup service.. 21 2. Institutions having only an incidental service of this kind, e. g., sending out letters of inquiry regarding the success of recent graduates . 62 3. Institutions having no service that may be termed organized or even incidental . 48 4. Additional institutions not reporting that should probably be classed under #3 . . 49 A second questionnaire was sent to state departments of education — forty-eight in all, from which forty-one replies have been received to date. To the question, “Has your state provisions for systematic followup of re¬ cent graduates in their first positions?” the following data were obtained: Rural City High Schools Elementary Schools Number answering “Yes” . . 5 5 5 Number answering “No” . . 36 36 36 A third questionnaire was sent to the state universities — thirty-six replies were received. Of the thirty-six, four have a systematic followup which includes visitation ; twenty have an incidental service, and twelve have no service of this kind. What seem to our own people to be guiding principles for the future of an institution’s post-graduation responsibilities for its product are: « 1. A state teacher-training institution should rather definitely delimit its field to an area that it can cover somewhat intensively, becoming acquainted with its teacher needs both as to number and types. 2. Such an institution should conceive of its total service as involving factors of selection of students for training, of academic and cultural back-grounds, of actual professional training, of placement of graduates, and of followup service — each factor being vitally dependent upon and affecting all others. 3. An institution’s placement activity should be a definitely organized service handled in the light of as full knowledge as possible of both the needs of the situation to be filled and the qualities, abilities, and prospects of the candidates to be suggested for the positions. The number of students trained should not greatly exceed the market needs, for every available dollar should be required to con¬ tribute to quality of training rather than quantity. 4. Placement procedures and followup activities should work hand in hand, and both in turn should be very closely allied to, if not under, the direct supervision of the division of education and training. 5. Followup work should be conceived of as having these phases: (1) Teacher salvage and benefit; (2) Pupil benefit; (3) Training institution benefit. In all probability, the last named is most important, for the improvement of the training within the institution works ultimately and lastingly to the improvement of public school teaching in general. 6. In order to make sure of this latter benefit, the followup service should be done so far as possible by those who do the actual training of the cadets within 498 National Education Association the institution, namely, room teachers, training supervisors, directors, and special methods teachers. Incidentally, distributing the opportunity for this work over a large group lessens the expense and class disorganization, and spreads the benefit to be derived more generally over the whole institution. EXPERIMENTATION IN RURAL SCHOOLS UNDER UNI¬ VERSITY SUPERVISION C. C. MCCRACKEN, PROFESSOR OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION, OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, COLUMBUS, OHIO The university of the state should extend its service to all agencies within the state. This applies particularly in the field of education, since the stu¬ dents coming to the university must be supplied by the schools of elementary and secondary grade. If these boys and girls are not suitably prepared, the work within the university must ultimately suffer. It is a matter of common comment that the rural schools throughout the entire United States are in need of reorganization and rehabilitation. With the rapid development of transportation and of means of communica¬ tion, people living in the rural areas are no longer the uninformed and non¬ progressive factor in our population. They may be more conservative, but this in turn may be due to a less strenuous life which allows them more time to think matters through in a careful way. Their schools, however, must be comparable with those of the city, for there will be a considerable shifting from the farm to the urban area. Experimentation has been conducted very extensively in our cities in the past two or three decades. The National Education Association and other agencies have been very active in these studies. This suggested similar investigations under the direction of professors of the Ohio State Uni¬ versity. Superintendents and principals in county and village units have been very active in pursuit of advanced degrees in universities. They have felt the need of further preparation if they are to advance from positions which have been purely political in many states and which have possessed no pro¬ fessional or financial standing in others. Unfortunately many of these men have gotten the idea firmly established in their minds that there is not and cannot be, any future in education except in the big cities. They seem to have created for themselves oftentimes a disrespect that has meant pro¬ fessional stagnation. Ten years ago the rural school men came into our graduate school with hanging heads and shamed faces as they admitted that they were holding positions in non-urban areas. Almost invariably, they stated that they wished to prepare themselves for city positions. There were, of course, reasons for this feeling on their part for they were often isolated from conveniences and educational and social opportunities for themselves and their families. With the good roads, the autos, the radio, and other means of communication and transportation this isolation is rapidly disappearing. Department of Rural Education 499 Our first problem at the Ohio State University was to create in the minds of our graduate students in rural education respect for themselves and their jobs. This has been no small task. It was usually a man-to-man task. Acquaintance with the size of the rural education problem was one phase. Comparison of the economic value of salaries so that the non- urban school official was able to see that he was often better fixed financially than the urban superintendent, principal, or teacher was another. The significance which he might have in educational associations because of numbers was still another. But probably the most powerful incentive in raising the level of these officials has been to have these men take their own problems for minor research projects and for master’s theses. They soon learned that their problems were the same in principle as those of the city man. Their data were just as valuable and often more valuable than those of the city men, because their fields had not been touched. They were able to go back to their communities with carefully prepared programs that soon gained the attention of patrons and boards. In short, they had created for themselves a selfrespect that enabled them to meet their associates in a professional way without hanging heads and shamed faces. Our rural men have become a vital power in our educational associations and the city men know only too well that they can no longer domineer. With the greater selfrespect and training have come better salaries and we now have in Ohio many capable, welltrained non-urban school officials that say with a genuine ring of the voice that they are proud of their connection with rural education. We have not reached the millenium in non-urban education by any means for there are many things that must be changed. State laws must undergo changes and systems of financing must be revamped. But we have confidence that these changes can be brought about if the men in the field know their business and are able to command the respect, not only of them¬ selves, but of their patrons and colleagues. We have been told many times recently that we are able to accomplish certain things because we have a much better system and a better grade of men with whom to work than is the case in other states. Bear in mind that fifteen years ago we had no county superintendents and no system that would in any sense assure us of success in securing competent men in non- urban schools. In 1914, Ohio enacted a new school code that set up an elaborate system with definite qualifications for men in administrative posi¬ tions. These qualifications were so low that they brought no respect either to the men or to the positions to be filled. Politics was rife in the whole situation. Consequently, a great part of the intervening fifteen years have been spent in reducing powers assigned in 1914 to county superintendents and in readjusting the powers of men within the county. Our county super¬ intendents now have legally very little power. Their decided significance in Ohio has come more from professional preparation with a resulting dignity than from legal rights. 500 National Education Association Those of us in the university who were interested in rural education were careful to enlist the cooperation of capable county and other non-urban school men in a study of their problems. The beginnings were very small and not widely advertised. In time our efforts became known and gradually more and more requests have come to us for cooperation until now we are forced to limit our field activities. The university does not allow any money for travel, so that all expense must be borne by the community. This expense is reduced to the minimum since many of these men are students with us and can carry on their projects with few, if any, visits on our part to the field. The study of the effect of economic and social factors seems to me to be of fundamental importance and we now have such studies completed in eight counties with a number of others nearly finished. In three cases, cities have instituted similar studies to determine their obligation to surrounding non- urban areas. Two of these are completed. In Logan County the question soon arose as to the curriculum needs and adjustments that developed due to the changes gradually being made. Mr. Drummond suggested that a study of curriculum similar to that being made by the N. E. A. in cities be instituted. The plan as finally approved was as follows: The county was to establish an assistant county superin¬ tendency and pay the salary; the University was to nominate the man for this position and assume direction of his work. This was to extend over a three year period. The city of Bellefontaine which is not a part of the county school district, asked to be included in the study. This was granted, the city adding an amount to the salary of the assistant superintendent. The experiment continued two and one half years under Mr. F. O. Russell, who was called to the University of Kansas, as Associate Professor of Rural Education, at the beginning of the present semester. Under his direction, a scheme of curriculum revision through supervision has been put into operation and has attracted attention widely throughout Ohio and other states. At the end of the first year of Mr. Russell’s experiment, Mr. Yawberg, Superintendent of Cuyahoga County, lying around Cleveland, asked for a similar arrangement. We were fortunate in securing Mr. R. L. Carter, Professor of Education, University of the City of Toledo, to undertake this work. He will complete his two year study next June. The results of the work of these men will be used to satisfy the dissertation require¬ ments for the degree of Ph. D. at the Ohio State University. I suggest that you visit the office of Mr. Yawberg in the Old Court House, on the Square in Cleveland and learn more in detail of the work of Mr. Carter. Two things are essential in conducting experimentation in rural schools under university supervision. First, the professors in the university must have a vital interest and concern in the great problem of rural education and, second, the growth of this plan must be gradual, growing out of capitalizing every capable man in non-urban education in the state. Department of Rural Education 501 SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVING RURAL SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPPORT WILLIAM JOHN COOPER, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION When I speak of one-teacher rural schools I do not wish to be under¬ stood as filing a brief for them. The “little red schoolhouse” like the old oaken bucket may make strong appeals to sentiment but we must, in the light of presentday conditions, look upon both of them where they still exist as necessary evils. Just as we should try to keep the open well sanitary for our health’s sake, so we should modernize in every way possible the one- teacher school ’if it is the only type of school possible or practicable under existing conditions. If we keep ever in mind that it grew up under pioneer¬ ing conditions, when land and the improvements thereon were fair measures of wealth and the ability of citizens to pay taxes could be fairly measured thereby; when roads were poor or nonexistent; when transportation was slow; when rural life in its freedom from crime, epidemics, conflagration, and unemployment terrors was to be preferred to urban life ; when trained teachers, good textbooks, and scientific methods were nonexistent ; if, in a word, we fully realize that the conditions which produced the one-teacher school no longer prevail, we will endeavor to eliminate it wherever possible. My remarks therefore will be concerned with how we may administer such schools to better advantage. First, we need a unit of administration much larger than that served by the present one-teacher school, since (a) the area of administration should be large enough to support a complete school unit, elementary and secondary. In only most unusual situations should one person be expected to teach both elementary and high-school grades, (b) The number of pupils of junior and senior high-school age should be adequate to make possible the richer curriculum offerings, the better opportunities for adequate counseling and guidance and more varied the extracurriculum program of our larger high schools, (c) Enough elementary schools should be in the area to warrant employing at least one trained supervisor. To offer such educational opportunities, without undue hardship on the taxpayer, a district of large area is obviously needed. In some states such a unit probably exists in the county. If so, preparation of a law is simple although political influences will doubtless oppose its passage. If, however, the county area is very large or county lines exist primarily for defining jurisdiction of courts or possess mainly historical significance, new units must be established. This unit, I believe, should be a real community unit, and its center should be the place where the adults shop, go to church, and attend lodge. To accomplish such reorganization I recommend a compre¬ hensive survey of an entire state and the establishment of a commission with power to carry out the survey recommendations. Second, we need a new plan of school finance. Doctor Swift and others have told us that ability to support governmental agencies, and especially 502 National Education Association schools, is no longer adequately measured by the general property tax. An increasing number of states report other types of tax used in whole or in part to support schools such as income tax, inheritance tax, occupational and license tax, and sales tax. In the latter are included five states with a tobacco tax and one with a tax on malt syrup. It is reasonable to assume that wealth in these new forms and found chiefly in cities is dependent more or less on the existence of a “back country.” If so, its prosperity and its advantages, especially in educational opportunity, are matters of vital im¬ portance to the possessors of such wealth. All this appears to call for a large unit — probably a state unit if just and fair taxes are to be levied. The law which levies the tax must of course provide the machinery for handling and apportioning the funds. Third, we need a new system of distributing state funds. It might well be inferred from what has been said above that any system which antedated the end of the World War or even the year 1900 would be unlikely to allot school money justly. Several states have given this problem attention and are now experimenting with new plans. Fourth, we need better trained teachers and better equipped staffs in state departments of education to handle certification problems. It is implied in my remarks on distribution of state school funds that the state department is likely to need more help if such funds are handled properly. But in addi¬ tion to this financial responsibility, the state departments are rendering each year greater service in certificating teachers. In thirty-six states certificat¬ ing authority (excluding, in some states, the independent cities) is vested in state agencies. In four others, state control is practically accomplished, though some certificates are still issued by counties. The examination method of issuing certificates has been eliminated in all but fifteen states. In view of the fact that the oversupply of teachers seems to be nation¬ wide, I can see no good reason why any state should allow local units to set standards, examine, and certificate teachers. It is not fair to children to permit local authorities to certificate a poorly trained person when trained teachers are available. It is not fair to the great body of American teachers who are endeavoring to professionalize their calling to have such a door opened to those who are for the most part mere job hunters. Nor is it fair to those who have invested heavily in their education and professional train¬ ing to be compelled to accept salaries fixed by law of demand and supply when the supply can be increased arbitrarily by local examining boards. And in the long run it is not fair to the best of those who enter teaching by the examination route for often they must migrate in order to obtain pro¬ motion and salary increase. The local nature and unstandardized char¬ acter of their certificates tend to prevent migration and consequently to lessen their opportunities and remove the chief incentive to selfimprovement. We also note a marked increase in professional standards for certification. A minimum prerequisite of high-school graduation and two years’ profes¬ sional training in addition has been established in five states, a minimum of Department of Rural Education 503 high-school graduation with one year in addition in another fourteen states, and of high-school graduation with professional training either included or in addition to high-school graduation in several others. That the movement is a constantly growing one is shown by the fact that eight states have re¬ ported raising certification requirements during 1927-28. Certainly no state can be criticised for increasing standards in view of the oversupply of teach¬ ers. I should recommend, therefore, state statutes along such lines as these : 1. Granting sole authority to fix standards for teaching certificates to the state department of education or to some board or professional commission with authority to act for the state. 2. Placing all power to issue certificates in the hands of the state department of education or in such teacher-training institutions, public and private, as may be accredited by the state department of education. 3. Empowering the state department of education to grant certificates on its own examination or on examination by such local boards as the state board may estab¬ lish or approve. This will care for emergencies similar to the World War period when a great shortage of teachers justified emergency recruiting methods. 4. Empowering state agencies to classify school districts in such a way that those without adequate resources to pay a properly trained teacher will not be forced to close school. Such classification should care for these situations until a plan for adequately financing all school districts whose continuation is approved can be worked out. Fifth, we need better supervision of rural schools. It is obvious that un¬ til there are much larger districts in the rural areas, improvements in super¬ vising instruction must fall on the county and state units. It is with satis¬ faction, then, that we note upward trends in salaries and qualifications for county superintendents’ reports for the five-year period (1922-27) indicate higher median salaries for these officials in thirty-four states ; the increase amounting to about $500 per year. During the same period sixteen states have raised the minimum salaries and thirty states have raised the maximum salaries paid their county superintendents. In fact, the number in the $4000 to $9000 class has increased. The high-water mark in selecting a superin¬ tendent so far as I know has been fixed by Los Angeles county, California. The county charter provides for selection of the superintendent under civil service regulations by the board of county supervisors who also fix his salary. The salary of the next superintendent has been fixed at $9000. The quali¬ fications set were about these: a. Education; at least a bachelor’s degree from a recognized college. b. Successful experience in administering schools. c. Professional, holding an administrator’s credential issued by the state depart¬ ment of education and ability to pass an examination set by the county civil service examination. The questions for this examination were written by a special com¬ mittee consisting of one member of the civil service commission, the state superin¬ tendent, and three college presidents. The four professional members marked the papers, each independent of the other. From a list of three certified by this commission the board of supervisors will elect the superintendent who will serve for life or until removed for 504 National Education Association cause. It can be confidently expected that any county superintendent so selected, so well paid, and protected in his tenure will establish a splendid educational program and give professional supervision to his rural schools. State departments of education also show encouraging progress. In com¬ menting on this, Mrs. Katherine M. Cook of the U. S. Bureau writes: State supervision of rural schools began as an inspectorial function generally practised in connection with the distribution of state aid. While certain inspec¬ torial duties continue, they are subordinate in amount and number of persons en¬ gaged in supervisory functions, using the term “supervisory” in its modern mean¬ ing as concerned with the improvement of instruction. In numbers state education staff members assigned to rural school work have increased in ten years from forty- six officials in twenty-six states to one hundred and seventy-two in thirty-eight states. The number of such officials and the states employing them have steadily increased with the exception of a backset encountered in 1926 when two states were obliged to drop state rural school supervisors. In salary, professional training, and type of duties performed rural school supervisors in practically all states employing them have a status equal to that of other members of the state education staff. We have so much evidence of the beneficent effect of welltrained leaders in developing courses of study, improving teaching skill, and otherwise fur¬ nishing educational opportunity for the country child approaching that of the city child that we can safely recommend legislation along three lines as follows : 1. Acts to increase the salary, improve the training, and raise the standards for the county superintendent. 2. Acts to allow from state money a supervision fund to be used for employing professionally trained rural supervisors in each county. 3. Acts to provide a state rural school staff adequate in ability and size to stimu¬ late, lead, and assist the county officials; to direct the local school attendance super¬ visors; and to safeguard the educational rights of the children of migratory workers. Knowing that the time at our disposal today was limited and realizing that everything cannot be accomplished even by state legislatures at one session, I have made no effort to outline any comprehensive plan for rural school improvement. My purpose has been rather to suggest several steps which I believe are in line of advance and which may be undertaken with¬ out waiting for extended research and to offer two suggestions for research study — namely, to develop in each state a plan for financing schools and to discover the best unit for rural school administration. EDUCATION AS AN INVESTMENT— ABSTRACT GEORGE A. SELKE, PRESIDENT STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, ST. CLOUD, MINN. Until comparatively recent times education was generally considered a privilege restricted to the children of the nobility, to those born in the families of the wealthy, or to the fortunate few selected from the masses for some special service. It was in northern Europe and particularly in the United States that people first demanded the opportunities for an education Department of Rural Education 505 as a right to be claimed for each child. In answer to this demand, we established our tax-supported public schools. However, the people soon found that more was necessary to guarantee an education to each child. Some parents were ignorant of the advantages of an education ; others were in¬ different to the welfare of their children, while in some countries people would self-exploit the legal rights of their children. It was then that we enacted the compulsory attendance laws. This was official notice to the parents that they no longer could do to, with, or for their children as they pleased. Education was first considered a privilege, then a right, and now it is recognized as a necessity. This change in viewpoints has brought about great changes in the United States. When our country was first organized, less than ten out of every one hundred people over the age of ten could read or write intelligently. About ninety out of every hundred can now read and write intelligently. Today one out of every five of our population is in school — approximately 25,000,000. Of these four and a half are attending our secondary schools. Eight hundred thousand are enroled in colleges and universities. If our population had increased as rapidly as our high-school enrolment, the popu¬ lation today would be not 125,000,000, but a billion and a half. The im¬ portance of these statistics can be appreciated when we recall that there are still more people in the world as a whole who cannot read or write than there are who can. This is still an illiterate world. If an education is a good investment, then the dividends should be ap¬ parent in the United States. The evidence is easily produced. America is the only country to which people from all over the world are anxious to come. Were it not for our immigration laws, they would come in greater numbers than we could assimilate. They come to seek opportunities for themselves but even more for their children. It is interesting to know that the lowest rate of illiteracy of any group in our country is among the children of the foreign born. The opportunities for education and its attendant advantages has made the United States the most desirable country in which to live. The dividends from the investment in education are apparent in things material as well as social and spiritual. The workmen of America produce more per capita than any others. While our natural resources are a factor in our production, it is equally true that the superior training of our work¬ men makes it possible for us to take advantage of these resources. We are also the best consumers in the world as is evidenced by our high standards of living, when we consider food, shelter, clothing, or the conveniences and luxuries of life. Despite the criticisms that we are great wasters, the facts show conclusively that we are the greatest savers in the world. Nowhere has wealth been accumulated as rapidly and as generally as in the United States. Nor is our saving a selfish saving. More than any other country, we contribute from our surplus of material things to the welfare of the world. 506 National Education Association Our people are the healthiest in the world. This is particularly true when we consider our area with its varying climate and its many large cities. Through the application of our knowledge of the health problem, it was possible to build the Panama Canal after France failed. The importance of education is also revealed in the stability of our govern¬ ment. Only in countries where the masses are educated could a situation such as arose during the election of 1916 be met without a disturbance. History shows that where the people are educated, they can make their changes in government peacefully and in times of crises need not turn to a dictator. Education has increased the amount of leisure time. The people of America have more free time than do those of other countries. We still have the problem before us of learning how to invest that time profitably and wisely but this can only be solved by increased and special emphasis on education. There are some who object to the cost of education. Most certainly the amount expended for education should be within the means of our people. However, when we consider the cost of education, it is also necessary to con¬ sider the price of ignorance. Some nations today are paying the price of ignorance rather than the cost of education. We pay the cost of education from our material surplus. The price of ignorance, however, is paid in terms of human suffering and human lives. America has definitely decided that it is more economical to support education than to tolerate ignorance. We may confidently look forward to the continued support of this policy. THE PREPARATION OF RURAL TEACHERS— ABSTRACT O. G. SANFORD, DIRECTOR, TEACHER TRAINING, STATE DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, JEFFERSON CITY, MO. There is no greater problem in the field of education today than that of the one-room rural school. We find rural teachers with no college training graduating boys and girls from the eighth grade and these boys and girls going to our towns and cities to enter the high schools, where they will sit beside and recite with the graduates of the eighth grades in those systems where all of the elementary teachers have had at least sixty hours of college training. This inequality of preparation will continue until we demand rural teachers to be as thoroughly prepared for their work as are the ele¬ mentary teachers in all other schools. A few of our states have taken the initial step in solving this problem by discontinuing the one-room rural schools and establishing consolidated schools in their stead. The writer recently visited such a school out in the open country in North Carolina where more than three hundred boys and girls were enjoying the privileges of twelve grades of standard school work, an accomplishment for which we should all strive, but because of road con¬ ditions, finances, and public sentiment at the present time this practise cannot be made universal. Department of Rural Education 507 It is not the intent of this paper to criticize any type of teacher-training institution, especially our state normal schools and teachers colleges, but it is evident these schools have not met the specific needs in their work of preparing rural teachers. The Teachers College Record of May, 1928, contained a report of some research work done by R. L. Bunting and Verne McGuffey in the study of specialized effort for the preparation of rural teachers in public normal schools and teachers colleges, as made under the direction of the department of rural education of the teachers college. The report covers the work of one hundred forty-nine institutions in forty- four states and Hawaii on nine points or topics. These topics had to do with the classification of distinct rural groups of students, distinct curricu- lums for rural teachers, special practise teaching for rural groups, rural life clubs, extension service to rural communities and teachers, rural teacher placement, special equipment for rural service department, budget for rural teacher-training, and the number of instructors devoting time to rural inter¬ ests. Their findings show that those institutions which have organized spe¬ cial curriculums for rural teachers employed competent directors of their rural service, supplied them with needed assistants, gave them special offices in which to work, and backed them with special budgets, are rendering relatively six times as much service to rural schools and communities (as measured by the nine items in the study) as similar institutions which have not adopted the theory of special preparation for rural teaching and the policy of employing specialists in rural education to direct their rural programs. “It seems apparent, therefore, that approximately half of all students in normal schools and teachers colleges are going into rural schools annually and that at least half of this number have had no specific prepara¬ tion to meet the particular differences which they are to face. The implica¬ tion here is clear, normal schools and teachers colleges are not adequately serving their rural constituencies. ” Of the above named nine items only three pertain to the specific training of rural teachers, which fact increases the service rendered more than six times that of those not offering such courses. A recent report from the State Department of Education of New York shows that the rural or semi-rural districts use sixty-four percent of all new teachers in that state, which is five times as many as the third class schools, the next largest number, needs. The villages used ten percent, cities of first class seven percent, and cities of second class six percent. It is high time that our rural schools should cease to be the dumping ground for those who lack experience, cannot qualify, or who fail to secure positions in graded systems. We need a single standard of qualifications for all teachers with special preparation for the positions they are to occupy. The normal schools and teachers colleges are the legal and logical institutions for the training of rural teachers, but few of them are so equipped at the present time with the necessary facilities that this work can be done upon the same plan as the preparation of grade teachers. Those in the department who have charge 508 National Education Association of the training of rural teachers should not only have special preparation in this field, but they should have an interest and a love for the work. They should have an equal ranking with other members of the faculty and the bright promising students who enrol in their courses should not be solicited by other members of the teaching corps to change their programs in order * that they might qualify for grade or high-school positions in our larger school systems. 9 INITIATING PROJECTS IN RURAL SUPERVISION FROM STANDPOINT OF STATE SUPERVISOR OF RURAL SCHOOLS— ABSTRACT HELEN HAY HEYL, ASSISTANT IN RURAL EDUCATION, RURAL EDUCATION BUREAU, ALBANY, N. Y. New York is attempting to develop a democracy in rural supervision in a state too long held down by an inspectional s)rstem. Rurally speaking, New York State is one of the largest, poorest, coldest, and most variously populated states in the Union. Supervisory projects initiated in the field must necessarily vary widely in a state presenting as widely varying topog¬ raphy, educational levels, and types of people as does the Empire State. The largest supervisory district in the state is 1725 square miles, the smallest is 53 (Median district 184). The supervisory load varies as greatly as the size of the territory. In the 1725 square mile territory there are but 37 schools, 34 of which are one-room buildings, while the total number of schools per supervisor varies from 15 to 67 with 48 as the median and half the super¬ visors having 43 to 54 buildings. The smallest total building load of 15, however, represents a teacher-load of 175 teachers and nearly 6000 chil¬ dren ; while the district containing 67 separate buildings has but 80 teachers and 1500 children. There is great variation, therefore, in the size of the territory, distribution of school buildings, type of school, and teacher-load. The typical district superintendent or supervisor is a man (40 out of 208 are women) fifty-two years old with credit for two years of education be¬ yond high school (varying from none at all to holders of the Doctor’s de¬ gree). His age varies from thirty to seventy-eight years. He holds a cer¬ tificate entitling him to teach for life in any public school in the state which certificate is based upon the old normal school diploma issued for two years of professional training. His experience previous to appointment as superin¬ tendent was thirteen years. He has served twelve years as superintendent and has a total credit of twenty-five years teaching and supervisory experi¬ ence. His minimum salary is $3000 plus $600 for expenses and about fifty percent of his group will reach the age of retirement during the next two years. The law governing the activities of this typical superintendent outlines his duties as follows: “Such time as shall not necessarily be de¬ voted by the district superintendent of schools to the performance of the clerical and administrative work of his office, shall be devoted to the visi¬ tation and inspection of the schools maintained in his supervisory district.” Department of Rural Education 509 Under conditions such as have been described above any effective program of supervision must be based upon sound principles that grow out of local needs, problems, defects, or new procedures which may be legitimately car¬ ried on in any single territory and the program must always provide for flexibility. From the standpoint of the state supervisor of rural schools, therefore, those projects should be encouraged which meet such criteria and in addition, it is the state’s obligation to initiate and foster such other proj¬ ects in the field as will best promote creative activity on the part of district superintendents and assist them in realizing for rural girls and boys those major goals of secondary education and elementary education toward which pupils must be led in the process of growing into life. For elementary education, both rural and urban, these are conceived to: 1. Help every child understand and practise desirable social relationships 2. Help him discover and develop his desirable individual aptitudes 3. Help him to cultivate the habit of critical thinking 4. Lead him to appreciate and desire worth while activities 5. Help him to gain command of the common integrating knowledge and skill 6. Help him to develop a sound body and normal mental attitudes 1 The cardinal principles of secondary education need no recapitulation here. In line with these principles or guides district superintendents during the past year have undertaken the following major supervisory activities in different territories throughout the state. No one superintendent has at¬ tempted all the activities in the list, but every superintendent has successfully undertaken some of them. 1. Working out local courses of study in which subject fields are better integrated 2. Setting up new standards for improving school management (progressive methods in education vs. conservative) 3. Working out criteria for judging pupil-activity 4. Studying individual differences among children 5. The local construction of objective tests based on new ideals in education (35 territories cooperated in this undertaking) 6. Reorganizing one-teacher schools on the basis of such objective tests 7. Improving daily programs for one-teacher schools (block vs. time schedules) 8. Reorganizing one-room schools into teaching groups instead of grades 9. Introducing socialized recitation, individual instruction, and emphasizing directed study 10. Demonstrating problem teaching 11. Emphasizing child development, development of pupil-personality, and growth (character education projects with a curriculum built in the field by pupils and teachers) 12. Developing demonstration schools In fostering such activities and in further improving the quality of instruc¬ tional supervision the Rural Education Bureau has : 1. Approved 250 general and group conferences for teachers, helping to plan these and setting up criteria for judging their worth 1 This statement of the principles of elementary education is taken from the tentative report of the Committee on Elementary Education of the New York Council of Superintendents. 510 National Education Association 2. Conducted five regional conferences (working conferences) for district super¬ intendents 3. Fostered a summer short course for superintendents at Cornell University 4. Worked with committees to develop a state rural school syllabus and to con¬ duct the experimental edition of materials through the field “try-outs” 5. Attempts to further improve supervisory technics by meeting groups of super¬ intendents in the field and helping them solve common supervisory problems 6. Visited many of the small rural schools with district superintendents, helping them plan supervisory problems for their territory on the basis of needs revealed 7. Developed an active interest in rural education within the state department of education by working for the unification of programs in the various bureaus and divisions, and throughout the state by working with parent-teacher associations, home and farm bureau groups, granges, and other citizen organizations 8. Has prepared materials for use in the field and many bulletins and reports. 9. Has promoted or encouraged the following rural studies: (a) a study to de¬ termine the effect of rural environment upon the information of rural children, (b) a study to determine to what extent rural teachers make use of the environment in teaching pupils, (c) a study of educational needs in the town of Crown Point, (d) a study of the clerical duties of district superintendents, (e) a study of the activities of district superintendents. Now what part can a state worker have in such projects to maintain the democracy in supervision which was the aim stated at the beginning of this paper? Perhaps incidents from the field will illustrate. Following two days spent in visiting schools with a group of superintendents two of them asked me to send them written criticisms of their work as superintendents. I agreed with the understanding that they would write me in return a criticism of my work. They accepted the challenge and one replied as follows : May I sav first of all that just the kind of personal analysis you have made of me in both of your letters seems to me one of the very helpful things you can do for us. (A woman superintendent) Incidentally I must be honest enough to confess that my analysis was partly incorrect as she speedily proved to me. The other said: It helps me as a superintendent to have someone whom I feel knows to criticize my technics and my plans and work . . . but where there is so much that needs doing it is vital to be encouraging as well as critical. I feel that you do en¬ courage every good thing which you see teachers trying to do; but you’re a bit inclined to try to do too much at once ... I want to remind you that there are times when the greatest caution and the most discriminating judgment must be exercised by you . . . try to go slow, do a few things well. (A man super¬ intendent) I do not deserve the kind things which these superintendents said, but I appreciate their fine professional spirit, and I am deeply grateful for their helpful criticisms. Truly I shall try “to go slow,” to do a few things as well as I can and to be as “discriminating" as I know how! But are not such letters as these excellent on which to grow? I wonder if we state workers do not have need of such mutually constructive criticisms from those who work under us? Perhaps this is one service which state departments and Department of Rural Education 511 the field can render each other in developing this partnership in education. Another example of the same thing were letters which came pouring into my office last fall from the superintendents telling me what services they expected from me this winter. These came at a request from our bureau in which we explained the limitations imposed by the size of the state and asked them to choose the activities on which they wished the assistant to concentrate. TEACHER GROWTH THROUGH CREATIVE ACTIVITY- ABSTRACT ORVILLE G. BRIM, PROFESSOR, ELEMENTARY EDUCATION, OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, COLUMBUS, OHIO It is my purpose this afternoon to report briefly upon the supervisory work in two counties in Ohio. I do this because while these two pro¬ grams in rural supervision are quite unlike in their details of procedure, both observe to a remarkable degree modern principles of educational leader¬ ship. I will not take time to show even briefly that creative thinking is not merely the central objective but the best means of education. Evidence for it abounds. The implications for the school are likewise evident. To make creative thinking both the means and end of education the school must be a laboratory, provide for- an active rather than a passive child, become a doing rather than a sitting school. The curriculum must be composed of problems meaningful to the learner, vital and challenging to him. The child must be a finder rather than a learner of answers. He must be an investigator, a research student on his level as truly as is the graduate student. He must have guidance but not dictation for while freedom and individuality are precious they are not gifts. The curriculum must be flexible. Standards must relate to growth in freedom and in power to think creatively to social ends. It must be a happy place. Selfconfidence, courage, and respect for one’s self and for one’s intellect are essential to selfexpression or creative thinking. So one might go on adding to the picture. While elementary educational practise seems in turmoil this surely is the direction in which we are moving and should move. Now such an idea is difficult to put into practise upon the elementary level. Obstacles are endless. But the supervisor is a teacher of teachers. He must observe in his supervision all the principles of teaching as truly as the teacher in dealing with the child. He must provide for the teacher the conditions necessary to foster growth through and for creative thinking. While we may excuse ourselves from modernizing the rural ele¬ mentary school because of obstacles, the excuse does not hold equally for rural supervision. The program here is in its infancy. We can try anything. We are blazing new trails. We are not cursed by the mechanizing influence of a large system. In our efforts to help teachers we have no fixed curricu- 512 National Education Association lum, no hallowed assignments, no specific objectives, no standardized and fixed goals for teachers to reach. Our public, that obstructs an activity curriculum for children for fear the sacred arithmetic and spelling will suffer, puts no similar limitations upon teacher learning. As I see it you are free to lead your teachers as you will. You can build as modern a supervisory program as you are able to grasp. Rural supervisors are limited by vision not by conditions. I say this because two men in Ohio have created such a program. Two years ago Mr. Carter was asked to assume responsibility for supervision of rural schools in Cuyahoga County. The efforts were centered upon con¬ struction of a curriculum for the county. The needed committees were determined, leaders selected. Teachers chose places on the various commit¬ tees and the work was under way. The committees assumed responsibility. Mr. Carter visited schools, met with them, found their needs, sought to supply them whenever possible or wise. He issued bulletins of suggestions and summaries of progress, he secured the cooperation of the Cleveland Library. Lists of books on many topics were prepared and material made easily available. Extension classes were organized in connection with Kent Normal School, Cleveland School of Education, Bowling Green Normal. The topics considered grew out of and related to the curriculum program. For this work credit was given. Numerous problems were taken up for special study by individuals and groups. Many enroled for problems in minor research at Ohio State University, and a few are carrying on major research problems that will not only contribute materially to curriculum but earn for the individual his Master’s degree. The spirit and enthusiasm have grown steadily. Professional study has taken on a new meaning. Many a teacher wonders why his normal training could not have been thus mean¬ ingful and vital. While Mr. Carter has been everywhere guiding and aiding, he has deliberately put responsibility upon his teachers. He attended their meetings. Difficult questions arise in trying to modernize a curricu¬ lum. The committee would turn to him with a question and he with rare discretion would hand it back to them with a suggestion or two. Whenever he felt his presence obstructing their independent solution of the question, he would leave at once. Teacher thinking, teacher independence, teacher happiness, teacher growth, better schools, and better children have followed as surely and naturally as night the day. The second county to which I wish to refer began its program a year earlier. Mr. Russell was asked by Superintendent Glenn Drummond to come to Logan county to promote the improvement of instruction by enlist¬ ing the teachers in a study of the curriculum. While Mr. Carter has been able because of certain conditions to carry his project of curriculum con¬ struction to completion, Mr. Russell has moved more slowly. His has really been a period of curriculum study; his curriculum is not appearing upon paper, but the curriculums that have matured in the minds of his teachers are a monument to his efforts and success. Department of Rural Education 513 Mr. Russell is a firm believer in the principles of democratic leadership and is an adept at practising them. During the autumn institute he out¬ lined his program. He had a plan that capitalized individual interests, indi¬ vidual differences, teacher thinking, and cooperation. A short time after school opened, they held a county-wide meeting to discuss lesson assign¬ ments. The purpose of this was to break the ice. Mr. Russell and Mr. Drummond went about the county visiting schools, raising questions, en¬ couraging differences of opinion wherever found. Enthusiasm grew rapidly. Three people came fifty miles to the University library to spend the day reading. The county meeting was organized to foster discussion and espe¬ cially teacher participation. Needless to say it was a success. In brief this is a picture of the entire three years work. From here on Mr. Russell visited schools, doing classroom supervision wherever he was, getting acquainted, encouraging, helping but always on the look out for actual or potential leads. When he discovered a teacher concerned about some teach¬ ing problem, he immediately became the interested coworker. Together they talked it over, developed its possibilities, outlined a program of study. Oftentimes Mr. Russell would discover one the teacher himself had scarcely sensed. After a period of salesmanship this teacher was left to himself. Mr. Russell had no sacred scheme into which others had to fit. His pur¬ pose was to stimulate all teachers to study their jobs, to find a vital problem, and follow it. As a result the curriculum in the minds of the teachers and the curriculum experienced by children grew daily. Teachers grew in happiness, in self- confidence, in enthusiasm, in professional spirit, and teaching ability. In both of these counties teacher growth was put foremost. Only a happy, self- confident, thinking, growing teacher could do the work these men had in mind. Constructive, creative thinking on the part of each teacher was the basic principle of progress. Freedom was granted, individuality respected, dictation avoided. Leadership supplanted control. The supervisor was a humanized helper and friend. THE PROFESSIONAL COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT- ABSTRACT A. C. BURTON, WESTERN KENTUCKY TEACHERS COLLEGE BOWLING GREEN, KY. The problem of the professional county superintendent is large and im¬ portant. Every state, if we count the township superintendent, and those of the old New England town, has such officials. Fifty-five million people on the farms and in the villages owe some allegiance to such officers. Twelve millions and more of country boys and girls look to them for all they can hope to have of effective leadership in their elementary and high-school careers. As well might we hope to repeal the law in physics which says water cannot rise above its source as to plan a rural school system, in any 514 National Education Association county, that is to reach above and beyond the ideals and objectives of the county school superintendent. The American public school system judged by cost, number engaged, and value of the finished product is the biggest business in the world. Your jobs need elevating and dignifying quite as much as any jobs in which men and women engage. In the first place, to make the office highly and widely professional the candidates should not have to meet any conditions as to local citizenship, politics, religious creed, or sex. Anything that stands in the way of getting the best man or woman available will be a barrier in many places. Usually the greater the need the greater the barrier. I do not believe the official should be quartered in the county courthouse. The psychology is bad and the escape from the spoilsmen more difficult. He should be elected by a non¬ partisan lay board whose duties are legislative, advisory, and confirmatory. They should advise and support the superintendent and help him to build a program, but should not have administrative and supervisory duties. Their chief duty and greatest glory should be to appoint a competent super¬ intendent and back him up. In the second place the professional superintendent should be trained. He should have enough academic and professional scholarship to challenge the respect of every teacher, officer, and patron. He should have some kind of degree if those who work under him must have them. He should be able to do some research work and to evaluate the countless pieces of research which come to his desk, good, bad, and indifferent. He should be able to make a budget and a salary schedule, the best possible within the limits of his income. He should know how to select and place teachers, the biggest job of all, and that should be his job. He should know how to provide for the growth of the teachers in service, be able to rate them, and measure the results of their work. He should understand how to select and purchase equipment or direct the purchase, including school libraries. Enough money is wasted now in many counties buying books that children cannot and will not read to pay for trained superintendents at good salaries. Third, he should understand the technical problems of administration and supervision. Many counties need more money for schools. Please do not feel that I fail to realize that. But the poorest county in all the lot be¬ tween the two oceans does not need more money so much as many counties need to learn how to get one hundred cents’ worth of rural education for every dollar they now spend. The waste in poor attendance, bad grade dis¬ tribution, poorly located schools, surplus schools, little struggling inefficient high schools, and the archaic district unit in places is almost appalling. Fourth, if professional, he must study. Years ago the city superin¬ tendents had a sort of unwritten rule that they should devote one-third of each day to office work, one-third to visiting, and one-third to study. The country man could not, most likely, so equally divide his working day, but he might closely approach that proportion of time for each at the end of a week or month. Surely he should not be expected to devote the major part Department of Rural Education 515 of each working day to reading and writing letters, answering telephones, receiving callers, and working on stereotyped reports. A fifty-dollar clerk could do most of this work as well, some of it even better. Fifth, the county superintendent must be paid a living salary. In my section the typical county town has about 5000 people, four schools, forty teachers, and pays its superintendent of schools $3600 to $4200 a year. The county around that town has 20,000 people, sixty schools, 150 teachers and pays its superintendent $1800 to $2000 a year. Usually he visits schools in his own Ford and often buys the gas and oil. Can you wonder that that man, if effective, is looking for a city job? I know of no kind of work properly called professional in which the worker is always or even often looking for a new job or struggling to retain the old one. There must be some kind of decent tenure. I do not care to discuss the basis on which permanence should be achieved, but surely with¬ out some hope for stability one very vital incentive is absent. Nearly all social and uplift work is slow and permanence of leadership is needed. Now if we could be rid of politics in rural education and could learn how to make the dollar do its utmost we should still have inequalities un¬ thinkable in a land where equality of opportunity is supposed to be the watch¬ word. Every state must soon or late have stimulating and equalizing funds to aid the poorer counties when they have done their best. The federal government must help if the poorer states are ever to realize the boasted claim of the Declaration of Independence. But let us suppose the cities and wealthier counties were ready to help and that Uncle Sam could see his way to aid the weaker states. Then we should be almost to the place where dreams come true, provided our county superintendents were all ready to administer as experts. Otherwise, in many places, waste, waste, and that is all. Cities are rapidly growing willing to help. They know they must look to the country not only for food and raw material, but for men and women to head their business, their industries, and to be the fathers and mothers of their children. Men and women who are three generations removed from the soil do not rear children. In the fifteen largest cities in America whose superintendents are written up in Who’s Who, thirteen were born and reared in the country and the villages. Jones of Cleveland and O’Shea of New York are the' only exceptions. The cities need to give assistance quite as much as the country needs help. But we must be ready to receive aid. How, does some one ask? By professionalizing the county super¬ intendency, the biggest single step in the program. Some one recently said a new wind is blowing across the world and that wind is for every worker to love his work and have faith in reaching his goals. He told of a big business man who died recently in a small city. One of his admirers said in a memorial service, “Nature never marked that man for genius or a great man at all, but he loved his business and everybody in it. That enabled him to touch and make over the lives of 10,000 men and 516 National Education Association women.” Every county superintendent can vitally touch ten thousand men and women. From three to six thousand boys and girls he must touch if he is effective. God never gave a group of men and women a nobler or a more important task than he has given you. Go home and carry on. The smaller and the poorer your county the more it needs you, and the more you can do there if you are willing. HOW PROVIDE CREATIVE TEACHERS— ABSTRACT A. G. YAWBERG, SUPERINTENDENT OF CUYAHOGA COUNTY SCHOOLS, CLEVELAND, OHIO The terms “creative teaching” and “creative teachers” recently have as¬ sumed prominence in the educational world. These terms are something more than catch phrases. They indicate a new emphasis upon educative and teaching power, rather than upon subjectmatter. We are beginning to come to a realization of the meaning of education as an unfolding process rather than a pouring-in process. It is true that for years we have glibly used the term “no impression without expression,” but it has been a lip service. In practise we have continued to teach on a basis of maximum activity for the teacher and minimum activity for the pupil. It is to be hoped that such practises may soon cease. The time has come when teachers must understand that subjectmatter is secondary; that covering a certain number of pages of subject is no indica¬ tion of good educational results ; that subjectmatter wrongly used may be, and often is, detrimental to constructive educational power. We now re¬ alize that the first two laws of learning, namely, readiness and effect, are just as important, in fact, must be operative before the third, law of exercise, has any real educative value. The question under discussion is, “How shall teachers who recognize this be provided ?” This question can be answered largely by our teacher-training institutions. The problem is one largely of training and attitudes. Five general conditions or types of training should provide the fundamentals for the creative teacher. They may be character¬ ized briefly as follows: 1. Teachers in training must come to a realization that the curriculum is some¬ thing more than regular doses of subjectmatter to be administered regularly to stu¬ dents. They should be given training in constructing types of courses of study which practically ignore instructions to teachers but which do emphasize pupil activity. Heretofore, there have been very few courses in curriculum construction offered to teachers and still fewer that really emphasized good curriculum construc¬ tion. No teacher can be a creative teacher until he is able at least to recognize a good curriculum. 2. Teachers in training should study thoroughly the general objectives to be sought in teaching all subjects he expects to teach. These are the general, broad educational results he should expect to accomplish. When these objectives are determined upon, the subject should then be broken up into the teaching units with appropriate specific objectives. Until the teacher is able to do this he is not ready to teach pupils with this subject as a tool. Department of Rural Education 517 3. Probably too much time is not now given to the study of devices and lesson plans but too little time is given to a study of why devices and lesson plans are valuable. Much time is wasted in making long lesson plans which are nothing more than a compilation of subjectmatter with little idea of what the educative value is to be. Every lesson plan should have three characteristics: a definite teach¬ er’s aim, a probable pupil aim, a clear distinction between pupil activity and the textbooks, subjectmatter, and materials that are to be used. 4. Teachers in training should also come to realize that the byproducts of teach¬ ing are often of greatest value. The concomitant and associate learnings are funda¬ mental because they are really the springs of action. Teachers should understand that these are never absent. They may be detrimental. They will be most helpful if the teacher understands how to arouse right attitudes. 5. Finally, every teacher in a training school should teach prospective teachers in exactly the same way he expects the student teacher to work upon assuming the role of teacher. So long as normal and training school instructors violate every prin¬ ciple of good teaching we can expect very little improvement in their graduates. Rapid strides are being made in this direction. We shall have creative teachers for our schools just as rapidly as we have creative teacher-training instructors. Until the principles stated above are used in all training schools every superintendent must train his teachers in service along the same lines. It is a huge task but one that should challenge every public school teacher and administrator. A CO UN TY WIDE PLAN OF SUPERVISION— ABSTRACT NETTIE E. BROGDON, COUNTY SUPERVISOR, GUILFORD COUNTY, GREENSBORO, N. C. A countywide plan of supervision should be built on guiding principles which embody the following: 1. The program must provide for the superintendent as the administrator, and the supervisor as an assistant in charge of instruction. 2. The program must consider the supervisor as a professional advisor, giving each principal the responsibility for the instruction in his school. 3. The program must find the big controling problems and the contributory fac¬ tors which influence the development of the children within the school. 4. The program must provide for the wise use of the supervisor’s time through economical agencies. 5. The program must give the principals and teachers freedom and responsi¬ bility which will develop initiative and encourage them to find and solve their own problems. 6. The program must be big enough in scope to challenge and inspire growth of those participating, but at the same time must be kept within a range which will create desirable emotional attitudes and promote mental and physical health. 7. The program must be flexible to the extent that provision is made for the individual needs of each school and teacher. 8. The program must be in harmony with the administrative policies. 9. The program must provide for close relationships between the home and the school. 518 National Education Association In order to be more specific in the interpretation of the meaning of a countywide plan of supervision, the story of a plan which the writer has developed with the thirty consolidated elementary schools in Guilford county, North Carolina, during the past two and one-half years is told. These schools employ two hundred twenty-seven elementary teachers with an average training of three college years. Nineteen of these schools have seven or more elementary teachers, fourteen of which maintain a four-year standard high school ; this program however, does not include the high- school wTork in the system. During the first year of the growth of this program, the status of the situation was analyzed through every available channel, in order to set up a controling countywide objective. The following are some of the studies worked out by each principal in the county for the purpose of knowing the status and needs of his own school : An age-grade study, percent of promotions in each grade, causes for failures, relation of failures to the intelligent quotients, accomplishments in the fundamental school subjects as revealed by a battery of educational tests, correlation between pupil attendance and educational achievement, influences affecting attendance, and physical defects of the children as shown by records in the school health files. This series of studies throughout the first year disclosed many problems of vital concern which were of remedial nature. These were analyzed and ranked as to importance and influence within the lives of the children. The large percent of failures in each grade which had been occurring from year to year was ranked as first in importance. It was found that these failures had been a big factor in influencing the high percentage of retarda¬ tion which was another situation warranting attention. To increase pro¬ motion would necessitate the solution of contributive problems which were iound through this analysis. Therefore, “Maximum Promotion of the Grade Enrolment” was selected as the primary objective for the supervisory program for the second year with a view of working towards this goal until a normal situation could be attained. From an investigation of the causes for failures, the following were selected as remedial measures and were accepted as secondary objectives: 1. Improved instruction 2. Every child physically fit and positive health teaching 3. Maximum attendance 4. Cooperation of parents. The objectives having been selected and accepted, a method of procedure was outlined which included a few agencies — countywide in nature — through which efforts were concentrated in accomplishing the above objec¬ tives. These agencies were annual education conferences, countywide teach¬ ers’ meetings, group teachers’ meetings, school visitations, office conferences, and parent-teacher organizations. The illustrations given below show how these agencies are used in continuing the development of the program dur¬ ing the present year. Department of Rural Education 519 A four day education conference was held just prior to the opening of the schools. This conference consisted of a series of sectional meetings which were planned in order that those who are entrusted with the educa¬ tion of the children in Guilford county might arrive at a common under¬ standing of the plans and policies of the school system. The principals’ section was held on the first day, the aim of which was to analyze some of the best practises growing out of the experiences of the principals in per¬ forming their duties, which are: supervision of instruction, administration, teaching, community leadership, and clerical work. The program for this section had its beginning in the second year of the development of the countywide plan of supervision under discussion. The parent-teacher section, which was the second of this series, pointed out the relation of this organization to the school. The countywdde objec¬ tives and the attainments thus far were explained. The first-grade teachers in the county met on the third day and outlined a study which wTould aid in the interpretation of the school entrant. This study consisted of information about the family history, the development history, which includes physical, mental, and social interpretation of the child. On the fourth day a general teachers’ meeting was held, which was the last of the series of meetings during the educational conference. At this time the accomplishments of the preceding year relative to the primary and secondary objectives of the countywide supervisory program were explained. The method of procedure for continuing work toward attaining these goals was discussed. In addition, the professional study groups for teachers of the early elementary grades, the upper elementary grades and principals were organized. At the close of this four-day conference, the teachers were instructed to report to their respective schools on the following Satur¬ day in order to attend a faculty meeting and get acquainted with their school situation. A monthly teachers’ meeting is held on the second Saturday of each month. Through this agency teachers are kept in touch with the best edu¬ cational practises. The professional study which was begun during the annual education conference is continued. Two courses are given to the teachers of the elementary grades which are taught by college instructors. The classrooms are serving as laboratories where theories and principles which are taught in these courses are being applied. The first course deals with the technic of teaching big units of study and guides the teachers in the development of their own big teaching units within the classroom. Health education is given as the second course and has as its broad aim the development of the child mentally, physically, socially, and emotionally. The supervisor, working with the county superintendent, directs the study course for the principals. This is the most significant contact which he has in the supervisory program for professional leadership. This course during the past three years has been divided into three rather extensive topics 520 National Education Association dealing with the analysis of each individual school situation, the princi¬ pal’s time budget study, and the technic of principal supervision. The supervisor spends approximately four days each week in visiting the principals and teachers at work for the purpose of analyzing with them their school and classroom situations. The conference in the supervisor’s office is an economical agency in that many contacts can be made with many teach¬ ers in a short time. The results of certain types of professional assistance are as effective as if given in the classroom. This program provides that definite office hours be kept by the supervisor. The test of any supervisory program should be in terms of educational outcomes and evidences of continuous growth of those participating in the program. In measuring the results of the Guilford county program of su¬ pervision one cannot state concretely all of the tangible developments since this work is in its beginning and is unfolding gradually. However, over a period of two years, records show appreciable results in outcomes which can be measured statistically. The promotions have been increased 11.7 per¬ cent, and at the same time, data gathered from educational tests show an improvement in the fundamental school subjects. While this program, built on teacher growth, with the child as the center, has brought objective results toward the county goal — “Maximum Standard Promotions of the Grade Enrolment” — the fundamental and dynamic outcome has been the esprit de corps which has developed throughout the school system. In the classroom there is evidence of a statement made by a business man who visited the schools recently, “Teachers are teaching children and not books.” COUNTYWIDE PLAN OF CONSOLIDATION AND ORGANI¬ ZATION OF SCHOOLS— ABSTRACT J. T. JEROME, SUPERINTENDENT, WAYNE COUNTY SCHOOLS, GOLDSBORO, N. C. One of the most difficult tasks North Carolina has had to face in her program of education has been that of equalizing school advantages to all of the children of the state. Our school population is about three-fourths rural. The cities, of course, developed a school system by reason of their ability to finance a school program. But the rural sections have been handi¬ capped on account of shorter terms, poorly qualified teachers, ineffective organization, and very poor equipment. We believe that much of this in¬ equality will be eliminated when we have provided for every rural school child a consolidated elementary and high school with a minimum eight months school term. We have been thinking in terms of the consolidated school since about 1918, and statistics show that we had in 1923 two hundred and five con¬ solidated schools, having six or more teachers, scattered over the state. We also had about four hundred rural schools that were offering high-school instruction. Department of Rural Education 521 Under “permissive” legislation, consolidations were being effected by county boards wherever and whenever a vote of the people in the districts paved the way. Schools were organized without regard to other districts and had no relation to the county or state as a whole. In many cases, the district lines were fixed for the purpose of including some tax paying cor¬ poration, such as railroads, and too often excluded large areas of semi-barren lands, with their sparsely settled school population. They were not distrib¬ uted in such a way as to insure the best and most economic instruction for all the children. No equality of educational opportunity was even possible under this haphazard plan of consolidation. It was more a question of in¬ creasing financial aid than of educating all the children. Each of the small high-school units was anxious to enlarge its territory, so that it could become accredited under state high-school regulations. Lack of a well formulated plan for the consolidation and organization of the rural schools tended to confuse school officials, caused jealousies between districts, fights over the location of schools and made even harder the task of providing for all the pupils within the county. The necessity for a statewide measure to control the organization of these schools, led the General Assembly of 1923 to enact a law which provided for a countywide plan of consolidation. Under the provisions of this act, each county board of education must adopt a countywide plan before pro¬ ceeding further with consolidations. Section 73-A of the school law said that no district could be created, divided, or abolished after this, except in accordance with a countywide plan of consolidation. It set forth the man¬ ner in which this countywide plan of organization would be adopted and executed. Briefly the plan is this : First the county board of education must make a study of the present situation for this purpose, preparing a map of the county, with present location of schools, roads, natural boundaries, etc., and then make a new map or diagram showing the proposed location of schools, having in mind the educational needs of all the children and terri¬ tories in the county. This new plan for the consolidation must be presented to the school committeemen and trustees for their consideration, advice, and suggestions. After that is done the county board may adopt the plan and it is recorded as a part of the permanent school records. It may be amended or changed in much the same way. The adoption and any changes which are made must be known and understood by all the school officials of all the schools. But the county board of education has final authority in making the countywide plan. This countywide plan of school organization has done more to insure to the rural school pupils equality of educational opportunity than any other piece of legislation in North Carolina. We have already seen some very definite results from this act. Since the adoption of the countywide plan in 1923, the number of consolidations has been increased from two hundred and five to seven hundred. Five thousand small inadequate schools have been eliminated. The number of children enroled in rural high schools has 522 National Education Association increased sixty percent. The number of high-school graduates has increased eighty-four percent. The school term has been lengthened from one hun¬ dred and twenty-six to one hundred and forty-five days, while the average attendance on the part of rural pupils has increased about five percent. The Legislature in 1921-23 gave impetus to the building program also by issuing state bonds and lending to the counties over $17,500,000 to be used for the purpose of carrying into effect the countywide plan of consolidation. I think that the county which I represent may be taken as a typical North Carolina county, and the conditions which existed in Wayne county prior to the county-wide plan law, and since that time are duplicated in nearly all of the one hundred counties in the state. Perhaps a more accurate pic¬ ture of these conditions may be seen from the countywide plan which was adopted by the board of education in Wayne county, and put into effect during 1924. We had sixty-five one, two, three, and four-teacher schools scattered over an area of six hundred square miles and serving approxi¬ mately five thousand white school children. We had sixteen one-teacher schools, fifteen two-teacher schools and ten three-teacher schools, all of which have been eliminated by consolidation. In 1923 we had ten schools which were attempting to do high-school work, only one of which was accredited by the state department. Only one of these high schools had as many as forty-five pupils in average daily attendance. In Wayne county the people were convinced that the consolidated school was what they wanted. In fact, the feeling was so strong in the county that every two or three-teacher school was demanding that it be made the center of consolidation for its territory. Each of the ten high schools was making desperate efforts to enlarge its territory at the expense of other high schools. After the adoption of this countywide plan for consolidation of schools in Wayne county progress in the schools has been very rapid. We have built twelve consolidated school buildings at an average cost of $50,000. The average enrolment is about four hundred. The area of consolidation aver¬ ages about fifty square miles. We are operating eighty school busses and transporting three thousand children. We have seven accredited high schools with an average enrolment of about eighty. The school term has been increased from one hundred and twenty-six days to one hundred and fifty- seven days. The scholarship index of the teachers has been raised from four hundred and seventy-seven to six hundred and eighty-one. In all of the ele¬ mentary schools of the county, grade standards have been raised a little over twelve months in this five-year period. The percentage of over-age pupils has been materially reduced, and the number of seventh grade graduates has more than doubled. Under this countywide plan of consolidation we are offering to every child in Wayne county an opportunity of attending a standard elementary and high school, and slowly but surely the educational level of the rural school child is being raised to the equal of their more fortunate brothers and sisters in the city schools. Department of Rural Education 523 FEWER AND LARGER VILLAGE AND RURAL HIGH SCHO OLS—A BS TRA C T O. H. BENNETT, SUPERINTENDENT, HAMILTON COUNTY PUBLIC SCHOOLS CINCINNATI, OHIO The number of village and rural high schools in any township, county, or state should be governed by the following factors : 1. Enough pupils to justify a high school from the standpoint of pedagogy and economy. 2. A tax duplicate large enough to furnish funds for buildings, equipment, and operating expenses at a reasonable tax rate. 3. Transportation problems. If village and rural high schools are too small there is danger that the pupils will be handicapped from the standpoint of academic and social development as has definitely been shown by surveys in New York and other states. Academic development is improved by having enough pupils enroled and enough money to spend for high-school purposes to insure a corps of teachers of sufficient size and preparation. Social development is stimulated by contact with others. Opportunity for contact is greater in larger groups. Numbers create inspiration and reduce costs per capita. High-school education, in some localities, is determined upon the cost basis. Non-high-school districts with large tax duplicates often refuse to join a high-school district because it is cheaper to pay high-school tuition than to pay the higher rate of tax which prevails in the high-school dis¬ trict. Democracy in education means taxing wealth wherever it is found and using the proceeds therefrom to educate boys and girls wherever they are found. Why not follow this principle ? Local school district lines, township lines, county lines, and state lines often present insurmountable difficulties to the county school administrator. Local pride and prejudice are factors not to be ignored by those attempt¬ ing to organize high-school districts of the proper size from the standpoint of finance and enrolment. The rural school administrator who proceeds arbitrarily to eliminate local school district, township, and county lines in the process of securing larger high-school districts is sure to incur hatred and meet bitter opposition. The wise administrator pursues another course. * He creates sentiment for larger centers before he acts. “Offering the work required for college entrance, however, has exhausted the energies of the small high school,” says Ferris.1 Compulsory education laws passed in a number of states compel large numbers of pupils to enter the high schools. A wide variety of abilities is found in the high schools today. This demands a curriculum broad enough to care for the needs and abilities of all. Small high schools are frequently unable financially to employ a large enough corps of instructors to provide all of the subjects which must be offered if these individual needs are to be met. 1 Ferris, E. N. Secondary Education in Country and Village, p. 251. Appleton, 1927. 524 National Education Association From the standpoint of transportation and travel, a township is no larger today than was a local sub-school district a generation ago. Cen¬ tralization projects consummated a generation ago are found today to be too small in area and in some instances present the problem of further cen¬ tralization for high-school purposes at least. The following data leads one to believe that there is still need for fur¬ ther consolidation of high-school districts in Ohio. In 1927-28 there were 1397 high schools in Ohio. Of these, over 1000 were in village and rural school districts under county supervision. More than 350 of the high schools in Ohio under county supervision in 1927-28 had an enrolment of less than 50. More than 350 had an enrolment of more than 49 and less than 100. More than three hundred had an enrolment of more than 100. There were enroled in the high schools of Ohio under county supervision during the school year under discussion 87,980 students or an average of 83 to each high school maintained. In cities and exempted villages in Ohio, the same year there were enroled in high schools 202,568, or an average of 606 students per school.1 Section 7663 of the Ohio school laws provides that “A board of educa¬ tion may establish one or more high schools, whenever it deems the estab¬ lishment of such school or schools proper or necessary for the convenience or progress of the pupils attending them, or for the conduct and welfare of the educational interests of the district.” It would seem that some limitation should be placed upon this power. “With the consent of or upon the recommendation of” the state director of education and the county superintendent might be inserted with profit in this section of law. The establishment of any high school should follow a scientific survey of the situation, covering the following items : a. Size, from the standpoint of taxable property and square miles. b. Present number of high-school students residing in the district. c. Topography of the country and condition of the roads. d. Future development based upon authentic data. e. Accessibility of school from different sections of the proposed high-school district. The only control which the state of Ohio has at the present time over the size of village and rural high schools is vested in the state director of education. Under section 7651 of the Ohio school laws, he may inspect, classify, and issue charters to high schools. He would have power under this section to refuse charters to schools that are organized upon too small a scale. Proper high-school organization might be brought about through a system of state aid for all of the high schools of the state. Some states have separate funds for high-school purposes. Cubberley recommends that state aid for high schools be so administered as to encourage con¬ solidation.2 1 Ohio State Department of Education. Educational Directory — 1927-28. p. 36-106. Columbus, Ohio. 2 Cubberly, Elwood P. State School Administration, p. 325. Houghton Mifflin, 1927. Department of Rural Education 525 Several states have adopted plans for organizing larger units for rural and village high schools. A union district act was passed by the legislature of California in 1891. In 1919, Illinois enacted a law known as the “Com¬ munity High School District Law.” Minnesota has a plan which provides for the organization of associated schools. The rural school survey com¬ mission of New York state recommended the organization of community high-school districts. Ohio has a joint high-school law which authorizes local boards of educa¬ tion to unite local school districts for high-school purposes. There are two weak points in the Ohio law upon this subject as follows: 1. Any local district belonging to a joint high-school district may withdraw from the high-school district at any time by resolution of the board of education of said district. 2. In voting bonds for erecting and equipping a high-school building the bond issue must carry in all of the local school districts of the joint high-school district before it is operative in any of the districts concerned. A survey of the present high-school situation in Ohio shows these facts: Since 1914 the date on which village and rural high schools in Ohio were placed under county supervision the number of first-grade high schools increased from 520 to 812. This report sets forth the fact that public high schools in Ohio in¬ creased by 98 in 1927-28 over 1926-27 in spite of the policy of the state depart¬ ment not to encourage the beginning of small schools. It is pointed out, however, that part of this increase was due to the organization of junior high schools. This report also emphasized the fact that the range in number of high schools in the counties of Ohio is from 4 to .25. This range includes only the high schools under county supervision. There are too many small village and rural high schools in the nation today. The application of the gasoline tax and other highway taxes is rapidly improving road conditions throughout the nation. Larger centers for village and rural high schools will follow this program of highway im¬ provement. This change in the high-school conditions cannot be made by legal enactment alone. Leaders in rural education must create sentiment for better school organization. THE COUNTY SURVEY— ABSTRACT KATE WOFFORD, SUPERINTENDENT OF LAURENS COUNTY SCHOOLS, LAURENS, S. C. The word survey is used to designate anything from a visit of a day to a single school by a state superintendent of education to a comprehensive study of a whole state system of schools, involving years of investigation and an expenditure of thousands of dollars. In this paper a county survey is defined as a study of a county’s educational system with recommendation for betterment of the system by a group of qualified education experts. 526 National Education Association But why a county survey at all? It is an effort that is expensive. Many unpleasant facts are brought to light. The county superintendent, if he encourages one, makes himself a target for criticism for wasting money and tampering with already established school policies. However many reasons there are for delaying such a study, the average county superintendent does not hesitate to order it made, provided sufficient funds are available. The wise superintendent knows that an objective program for his county extend¬ ing ten or twenty years into the future carries weight by the opinion of outsiders, experts in their fields. The county superintendent of 1929 faces a vastly different world from the one of fifty years ago. Life was simple then, and so were rural schools. For the past twenty years the rural schools of America have been under¬ going tremendous changes. Consolidation of effort in education has become as important and much more significant than consolidations in other fields. Consolidation of schools is more significant because it involves so many changes in human relationships. We take the consolidation of schools too lightly. It is a solemn responsibility for a county superintendent to en¬ large school district lines and thereby create an entirely new community, a thing of his own creation which in time can either make or break the future of the boys and girls within it. The county superintendent, especially on a countywide consolidation program, needs advice as expert as he can get. The county survey can give him that advice. It goes further than meeting the needs of the county superintendent. It offers help to the local committeemen and the teachers on the field in a countywide program to rejoice in and work toward. There is nothing quite so helpful as this group, informed on a county program, and working united toward it. With no other publicity than that furnished by an enthusiastic, informed group of local trustees and teachers, any program no matter how ambitious can be made successful. The study may involve many points of departure. Usually, however, it is made for two purposes : first, to determine educational inequalities, and sec¬ ond, to suggest a feasible plan for meeting these inequalities. The actual solution of the problems involved belongs to the county superintendent of schools, and not to the survey group. It will be necessary for me here to draw upon the experiences in our county survey as I am more familiar with this study than with any other. The investigation took twelve lines of departure in which studies were made: 1. To locate the home of each child in the county on the school map 2. Of the school census to show the trend of population for that school and for the county as a whole 3. By schools and by types of schools to show the type of school with the best holding power 4. By an age-grade table by types of schools to show holding power 5. A testing program was established for all children in the fifth grade to show the results in different schools and types of schools 6. Of school buildings 7. Of community centers and relationships in the county Department of Rural Education 527 8. Of the cost of different types of schools with an estimate of the cost of any proposed changes 9. Of the cost of different types of schools with the finances available, tax receipts, etc., showing the ability of the county to pay 10. Of the teachers in schools of various types, their training, and experience 11. Of high-school curriculums, present and recommended 12. Of road conditions and prospects for improving them in the near future The fact that inequalities, in so small a unit as a county, actually exist is beyond dispute. Recently there was dedicated in my county a beautiful, modern high-school building. Although it is in the open country it has every equipment and every convenience. The school was made possible because eight small districts pooled their slender incomes and resources into one. Adjoining the district on the south is a district, nine square miles in size. The people in that district are served by a one-teacher school in a house that is a disgrace to any educational system. The teacher struggles daily with seven grades and forty lessons. The school term is only seven months in length. The children are listless, uninterested, and apathetic. It is the duty of the county survey to discover such inequalities and recommend the remedy for them. Such inequalities are not indigenous to any one section of America. All of the states are guilty. According to a rural school circular the per pupil current expense spent on a basis of average daily attendance is $100.31 for the urban child and $62.72 for the child of the county, a difference of $36.69. The per pupil capital outlay on a basis of average attendance for the city child is $29.51 and for his country neighbor $12.29. Why this difference? Almost all questions of the equalizing of opportunities for children resolve into a question of finance. When once that has been solved all the other problems will be easier. The county survey not only discovers inequalities and suggests a remedy, but it also discovers whether the county is able to pay for the remedy. Finally the county survey ought to be used. The county superintendent is no better off with the inequalities of his system made plain, if he takes no step to remedy these inequalities. A copy of the survey should go into the hands of all those people in the county interested in education — the local trustee group, the parent-teacher association, the teachers, civic organ¬ izations, and all other groups who will give the survey the concern and study it deserves. The American public is fair, it will act reasonably and wisely, particularly on questions of education, if it is informed. It is the county superintendent’s duty to keep his public properly and efficiently informed. The county survey offers him that medium. His largest task, however, lies in his using all the powers of his office for the equalization of educational opportunities for the country children who look confidently to him for their leadership. With the county survey, the county superintendent may also find help to meet this responsibility. 528 National Education Association DEMOCRACY IN EDUCATION— ABSTRACT GEORGE MORRIS, STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, COLUMBUS, OHIO A study of surveys made in various states relative to comparative school costs and pupil achievements in the one-room schools, and centralized and consolidated schools, shows results much in favor of the latter kind of schools. Not a great deal can be said today in favor of the one-room schools but much is said in favor of the centralized schools: 1. Good buildings, proper heating, lighting, ventilation, and sanitation 2. Good school equipment, such as maps, globes, charts, libraries, and laboratories. Also facilities for physical education 3. Efficient high schools, competent teachers and broadened curriculum 4. Better classification of pupils, good attendance and vitalized courses of study 5. Better janitor service and less cost for fuel and other items of upkeep 6. Children on the farms have an equal opportunity for as good education as those in the city 7. The cost and inconvenience of sending children away to school or moving to town is saved 8. In the centralized school building is found the community library. The school is the real center of the community interests. The people come here to be enter¬ tained and instructed by their own children. Here is the place for farmers’ institutes, lectures and music courses, debates, oratorical, dramatic, and ath¬ letic contests. 9. The term of school is longer and the average percent of pupil attendance is much higher than in the one-room school 10. The cost per month per pupil is less for the centralized schools than for the one-room schools 11. Better teachers are to be had for centralized schools than for the one-room schools 12. The teachers have more time to give to classes and to pupils individually in the centralized schools than in the one-room schools / RETARDATION AND PROMOTION— ABSTRACT FANNIE W. DUNN, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY Retardation is ordinarily expressed in terms of numbers or percentages of pupils above the ages accepted as standard for the respective grades. It is also frequently described in terms of the percentages of pupils who have repeated one or more grades, one or more times. The standards employed for the grades are most commonly those set up by Ayres, twenty years ago, in his study of “Laggards in Our Schools.” Recognizing the fact that many children do not enter first grade at the earliest permissive age, which is age six in most states, Ayres set any age up to but not including eight as normal for Grade I, and added one year to this for each succeeding year. Dickson and Terman have taken the position that children begin school at the average age of six and one-half and add one year to this for each grade thereafter, thus making their norms a half year lower than those of Ayres. Department of Rural Education 529 Age-grade statistics taken at their face value and alone amount to very little. Many schools or school systems are able to present highly desirable percentages by the simple expedient of promoting children by chronological age, without consideration to achievement. Thus the fifth or sixth grade may be made up largely of pupils at age, or even below age for grade, who, however, when measured with the aid of standard tests, show achievement one or several years lower than the grade standard which has been based upon the average achievement of many thousands of children of that grade in many types of schools. Mere placement in eighth grade does not make an eighth-grade pupil, and mere pushing children ahead each year only serves to blind us to the deficiencies of the education which is being provided for those children. Many educators, however, maintain that just this type of promotion is the desirable one, that non-promotion is futile and even hurtful, and that no child should fail. This position is in harmony with the findings of Keyes,1 in 1911, that “repeating a grade does not result in any permanent improvement of the scholarship of the arrest. There is usually some im¬ provement the next year after repeating . . . but . . . the third year finds the arrest back to his old level of low scholarship. . . . Of the whole number of ar¬ rests, 21 percent do better after repeating than before, 39 percent show no change, and 40 percent actually do worse.” “This,” Keyes adds, “is clearly evidence that current organization of schools fails to meet the con¬ dition of the backward children in our schools. To go at a pace to which they are unequal, even with the help and oversight of special teachers, and then to return and spend another year on the same work with children younger and of better capacity, and for whom the subjectmatter has not been robbed of its interest, is not the solution of the problem.” In my judgment, the key to the whole situation lies in a phrase from the statement just quoted: “to go at a pace to which they are unequal.” More and more as I have studied the returns from school surveys and standard tests have I become convinced that this is just what we are ask¬ ing of the majority of our school children, and that this unreasonable de¬ mand accounts for a very large proportion of our total percentage of re¬ tardation and non-promotion. Presentday data point to a serious need for immediate curriculum re¬ organization. This need, in my judgment, is of two types. The one, gen¬ erally recognized, is for definitely adjusted offerings and requirements for distinctly deficient children. The other is not generally recognized, and I suspect that I may be considered reactionary in suggesting it. Neverthe¬ less, as I see it, all the facts point to a necessity, for the average children of our schools, of a longer period of elementary education. That is below a four-year high-school course. I believe that, certainly where children enter school at any age lower than exactly six, we need a nine year curricu- 1 Keyes, C. H. Progress through the Grades of City Schools. Doctor’s Dissertation, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1911. 530 National Education Association lum. The only place I see any chance of adding a year is at the begin¬ ning, for the pressure of public and parental opinion would certainly pre¬ vent it at the top. But nobody, to judge from the figures, cares very much about the beginners. In a large number of cases they do have an additional year, but it is unplanned and unadjusting, consisting only of putting them at a hill too steep for them, and letting them roll futilely back to the bottom to start over again, not fresh and interested, but discour¬ aged and dispirited. Let us set up our curriculum of a slope such that the average child can go up it in high. Let us then provide, as for example, in the old Cambridge plan, for rapid promotion at about two intervals, that is into the third or fourth grade and into the sixth or seventh. In the one-teacher school organized on a group basis, this can be done by providing for three groups, A, B, and C, of three grades or year’s work each for the average child, with possibility for the highly superior child, of completing each in two years, or all in six. In conclusion, let me quote from Keyes’ study of promotion made in 1911. The 5,000 children who were the basis of his study were in a super¬ visory district where the elementary course was nine years in length. “If,” he says, “we exclude from the reckoning all pupils who do not enter first grade until 2/3 of the school year has elapsed, the accelerates are much more numerous than the arrests. . . . The facts seem to furnish little or no warrant for the suggestion or assumption of the possible injurious effects of acceleration (on subsequent scholarship). Not only do accelerates as a rule maintain their ground, but they maintain high scholar¬ ship. Some gain a second and some a third double promotion.” More than 85 percent of accelerates, he found, entered school at six or under, the average entrance age being 5.9 years. More than 67 percent of them graduated at fourteen or younger, the average graduation age being 13.9 years. Late entry does not contribute to acceleration. His two constructive suggestions for curriculum reorganization were : 1. A plan, such as the Cambridge, making possible the completion of the cur¬ riculum in 6, 7, 8, or 9 years; and 2. A curriculum in each year with a minimum, a mean, and a maximum re¬ quirement, so as to provide for the differentiated abilities and needs of each child in the class. These suggestions seem to me as sound today as when he made them, and as necessary. THE AMOUNT AND TYPE OF DIFFERENTIATION DESIR¬ ABLE IN THE PREPARATION OF RURAL TEACHERS MABEL CARNEY, TEACHERS COLLEGE; COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY; NEW YORK CITY I. Preliminary theses — Rural education is but a phase of general educa¬ tion and rural-teacher preparation but a specialization of teacher prep¬ aration in general. From this it follows that: Department of Rural Education 531 (a) Normal schools and teachers colleges supported at public expense are under obligation to prepare teachers for schools enroling the children of farmers as well as for other types of public schools. (b) Separate normal schools devoted exclusively to the preparation of rural teachers are undesirable and unwarranted. (c) All provision for the preparation of rural teachers on the secondary level as in high schools and county training classes, should be regarded as a temporary expedient to be replaced ultimately by more adequate prepara¬ tion on the collegiate level in the state normal schools. (d) When rural teachers are prepared in state normal schools and teachers colleges there should be some differentiation in organization, curriculums, practise-teaching, and extension activities designed for this purpose, but only enough to give the work sufficient emphasis and to make it meet the community life. II. Differentiated phases of professionalized preparation for rural teachers — Partial differentiation for the preparation of rural teachers is desirable in normal schools and teachers colleges at the following points : (a) Courses — Three special rural courses should be offered, namely: 1. A course in nature study and agriculture based upon the physical environment of country life. The agriculture presented here should stress farm life appreciation, not the vocational aspects. 2. A course in rural sociology and economics dealing with the social and economic effects of the physical environment upon farm-dwelling people. The chief purposes of this course should be to give prospec¬ tive rural teachers a sympathetic appreciation of country life and a definite understanding of the broader social functions and relation¬ ships of the school and the teacher in rural society. 3. A course designated preferably as Rural Education in which the various adaptations desirable in the whole educative process as con¬ ducted in rural schools shall receive consideration. This course may well begin with an introductory survey of the sig¬ nificance, conditions, and needs of rural education throughout both the nation and the individual state concerned. Subsequent to this introduc¬ tion a study of desirable adaptations in the following special phases of the educative process in rural schools should be made: Curriculum — General objectives of education: appreciation and use of the advantages of the rural educational environment in realizing these objectives, supplying educational deficiencies or lack in the en¬ vironment, methods of approach, emphasis. Technic and method — As in teaching many classes, small classes, holding primary children for long days, using rural resources, etc. Organization and management — Classification and daily program, seatwork and study programs, management of playground, etc. This phase is usually covered in courses or units on rural school manage¬ ment. Community functions and relations of the farm and village school — Definition and statement of the community functions of the rural school, community obligations of the rural teacher and their evaluation and priority, cooperative relationships of the school and teacher with other social agencies, sources of help for rural teachers, the rural school as a community center and as an agency for adult education. 532 National Education Association The administration and supervision of rural schools — This topic should receive only enough attention to afford students a general understanding of their state school system and of its special needs for rural school betterment. Consolidation, county unit, state aid, and the chief points of current school law should receive consideration. In two-year curriculums each of the foregoing courses should cover one semester; in four-year curriculums a full year. (h) Topics and projects — In addition to the three special courses outlined above there should be provision for special rural topics and projects within all regular courses in professionalized subjectmatter. Examples of this are readily apparent in geography, arithmetic, and history. Such courses are best taught both to rural teachers and to others by the regular teacher of the subject, but these instructors should have some knowledge and appreciation of rural school conditions and some skill in showing student-teachers how to adapt their teaching to the rural environment. (c) Special rural practise — Practise teaching for prospective rural teachers should be both general and specialized. The general practise referred to should include both group teaching and room management and may be conducted most economically in the grade rooms of the campus train¬ ing school or local town. Here principles and habits fundamental to all good teaching may be fixed. But for best success in the rural school general practise of this type is not sufficient. In addition to this the normal student contemplating or likely to enter rural service, even tem¬ porarily, needs specific practise designed to meet actual conditions and done in one-teacher, two-teacher, and consolidated schools. (d) Participation in rural student clubs — All institutions preparing rural teachers or other country life specialists will do well to encourage the organization of “Rural Life Clubs” among their student bodies. Such clubs should be open not only to rural students, but to all others interested in rural affairs and should be so conducted as to provide definite training in rural education leadership for all who participate. III. Special staff needed for rural work — At least two specialists in rural education will be needed to conduct the differentiated instruction and other activities advocated here for the preparation of rural teachers. One of these, to be known as the Director of Rural Education, should teach one or more of the special courses offered, and should assume general responsibility for the direction of the rural student group and the development of direction of the rural student group and the de¬ velopment of rural education interests throughout the institution and its territory. The other, designated as the Supervisor of Rural Prac¬ tise, should have general supervision of all practise teaching done in one-teacher and consolidated schools and should also teach some units (especially that on curriculum) in the course on “Rural Educa- . • >) tion. In addition to these two rural specialists, rural critic teachers will be needed in each of the schools or classrooms used for rural practise. In the judgment of most leaders in this held special rural instructors are needed for this work even when rural courses and activities are not definitely differentiated. Department of Rural Education 533 IV. Departmental organization desirable — A recognized department of rural education within the teachers college, distinct but properly co¬ ordinated with other departments or interests, is also endorsed as being the most certain means of providing the differentiation desirable for rural teachers and of giving adequate attention to their welfare. MODIFICATION IN TYPICAL TEACHERS COLLEGE CUR- RICULUMS FOR MEETING THE NEEDS OF PROSPECTIVE RURAL TEACHERS IN THE COURSES OFFERED— AB¬ STRACT THOMAS J. SMART, FORMER ASSOCIATE SPECIALIST IN RURAL TEACHER TRAINING, U. S. BUREAU OF EDUCATION The first step is to seek sources from which desirable and essential tech¬ nics in organization, management, and teaching procedures for these small schools may be drawn. 1. Vicarious experiences should be provided for pupils in one-teacher schools. Professor Reeder of Teachers College has discussed this topic briefly and a few of his statements are reproduced in introducing this point of view. One will readily agree that what has significance for a city child may have none for a country child; what has meaning for the child today may have had none for him yesterday. . . . The whole difficulty in this matter of the origin of significance or meaning in the lives of the children is the failure to recognize that in a very real sense children lead dual lives; the one is circumscribed by their immediate environment and the other reaches out into fields of imagination and fancy. The details of the latter life are, of course, traceable to the experiences of the former, but the limits of the patterns and colors into which these details are woven are not set by the humdrum of everyday experience. . . . The duty of the schools now seems clear. It is not alone to select life situations but to create them through enriching and beautifying the vicarious lives of the children and giving significance and meaning to various facts and ideas which might enter into their actual everyday existence. Several significant changes in the environment and the outside factors that condition the lives of rural people make vicarious experiences quite essential for rural children. One hundred and fifty years ago probably nine out of every ten people lived in the country. Now fewer than one-third are on farms. Beard writes: The cities overshadow the country from the Elbe to the Pacific. They increase in numbers, grow in size, and absorb an ever larger proportion of the population of each industrial nation. Every invention adds strength to them, every increase in production draws the sons and daughters of farmers to their homes and fac¬ tories. Economically it is impossible to go back to handicrafts, to restore the selfsuffi¬ cient community. Whether we like it or not, the machine drives relentlessly for¬ ward crushing the old order to earth. 534 National Education Association If larger numbers of the boys and girls reared on the farms must live their mature lives and find their life work in the cities, the rural schools should acquaint them with conditions beyond their immediate environment. If rural progress must rest upon a minority leadership, the problem of supplying such a leadership becomes an important one. Rural towns have been relatively nine times as productive of eminent individuals as the open country. If the rural leaders who must cross swords with those from the cities are to be recruited from the farms, something should be done about acquainting them with conditions under which the city boys and girls grow up. Rural children use the telephone ; read newspapers ; attend movies ; hear music from records ; travel in automobiles ; listen to the radio ; are undisturbed by the hum of aircraft ; plan to see and hear the talkies, and some are interested in television. A hundred other appeals are made to vicarious interests. Distance does not describe the boundaries of rural environment. Just as surely as the opportunity has come to city children to master the big outside world, is this same opportunity within the grasp of country children. It has been suggested that “ability to utilize the experiences of other people” is one measure of intelligence. The school stresses having pupils actually see, hear, feel, smell, and taste. Reading is listed as a tool subject. All pupils supposedly acquire this tool, yet they are often treated as if they did not know how to read. Pupils with intelligence can often learn more from carefully selected books in a few hours, than they can get in many hours of personal investigation under a teacher who is struggling with six, seven, and even eight grades in the same school. These small schools should have access to adequate libraries. A series of articles prepared by county librarians in various states is appearing in School Life. Specialist Lathrop in the Bureau of Education has made a digest of state library laws; has completed a study of what the states are doing to improve the library fa¬ cilities in rural schools, and is making a careful study of county libraries.1 Carefully prepared exhibits and collections from art galleries, museums, etc. may offer a way out that personal contacts and excursions have not. Provision for vicarious experiences calls for carefully organized teaching procedures which teachers can probably secure most quickly and success¬ fully while in training. 2. The application of the project method to schools employing one and two teachers has promise. The method challenges the interests of pupils and demands both initiative and professional training of teachers who apply it successfully. The principles are not new. Skillful teachers have prob¬ ably used them for centuries, but they have only recently been grouped under this label. The method may readily be employed with one or more pupils in a class, grade, or group. The pioneer attempt by Collings to 1 Lathrop, Edith. Unpublished manuscript in the Bureau of Education. The digest of the state laws has been published. Department of Rural Education 535 adapt the method to schools employing one and two teachers is a step in the right direction.1 Professor Dunn applied the same principles, in a somewhat different setting to be sure, in the experimental one-teacher school in New Jersey that she supervised. 3. Individual instruction offers another technic that can be used by these teachers. The outstanding contribution for ready use by them probably is the Horn-Ashbaugh method of teaching spelling. A number of texts and several practise exercises in arithmetic use the method to good advantage. W ashburne has developed it in Winnetka. The plan has quite definite limitations as have been pointed out by its critics. Teachers who are unfamiliar with its principles and are unaware of its serious dangers and handicaps should not use it. Few professional educators would entirely eliminate drill activities from school work. If pupils are unaware of the importance of learning to spell commonly used words that have meaning and use for them, there appears to be no serious reason why they should not master them by drill. 4. Dr. Rosamond Root pointed out in 1926 that the preparation of teachers is a type of strictly vocational training and that careful studies should be made of just what the duties of a teacher are. Such a comprehen¬ sive study has just come from the press.2 All types of public school teach¬ ers were found performing 1001 different activities. Professor Bode and others insist that finding teachers performing certain activities does not prove that what they are doing is desirable. The studies referred to on the whole probably present the practises of the better teachers. Professor Thorndike in a recent discussion on curriculum research has stated : When a mind of broad scope and keen insight also takes pains, to possess all the relevant facts about learners, learning and the things to be learned, it will often be able to solve a problem about the curriculum nearly as well in a hundred hours of thought and study as could be done by thousands of hours of research. The facts disclosed in these two studies have significance and there is a real danger of accepting what is for what ought to be. Probably a modified form of the point of view presented by Professor Thorndike should be pur¬ sued relative to these two studies. Those concerned with the rural school curriculum, those directing the training of rural teachers, and those giving instructional supervision to these teachers should give these two studies their cooperative consideration. After a detailed study of them has been made, at least a tentative decision should be agreed upon as to just how much in the studies will be incorporated in the courses that are offered for teachers in schools that employ only one and two teachers. 1 Collings, Ellsworth. An Experiment with a Project Curriculum. The Macmillan Com¬ pany. New York. 1923. 2 Charters, W. W. and Waples, Douglas. The Commonwealth Teacher-Training Study. The University of Chicago Press. 1929. 536 National Education Association The problem of organizing such a course as has been proposed extends beyond the institution that offers it out into the schools in which the students will teach. The course needs the assistance of those interested in the im¬ provement of the elementary school curriculum. It needs the hearty ap¬ proval of and the sympathetic touch from a supervisory force that will direct the teachers in their schools. It must have the effective support of county and state administrative officials. If teachers are compelled to use obsolete methods when they arrive in their schools, it is wasteful to train them in the use of modern methods. Certainly the training should bear a close relation to the practises which the teachers follow in their schools. Many whose judgment should be sound think it quite unwise that teachers should be trained to teach in one-teacher schools just as they are now organ¬ ized. A decision should be arrived at as to whether the students should be trained to teach in one-teacher schools as they are now organized ; as they should be organized ; or given a training quite similar to what is given other teachers in the elementary school. MODIFICATIONS IN PRACTISE TEACHING IN TYPICAL TEACHERS COLLEGE CURRICULUMS FOR MEETING THE NEEDS OF PROSPECTIVE RURAL TEACHERS— ABSTRACT ETTA O. CHRISTENSEN, DIRECTOR OF RURAL EDUCATION, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, WINONA, MINN. Every year’s experience in rural- education convinces us that we must have more efficient teachers in our rural schools if the country boys and girls are to have “a square deal.” These teachers must not only be good administra¬ tors, masters of subjectmatter and method, but they must be able to give us this new school which is minus “the unnaturalness and unreasonableness of our day; where selfguidance and individual responsibility is practised; and where the fullest development of the gifts of each child will be the goal.” How much can be done in developing this right kind of person in a year’s time for this hardest of all teaching jobs? Very little, and yet at present this is our problem, for only a small part of those taking rural training enter the two-year course. The time, however, is near at hand, when the minimum requirement for this preparation will be a two-year curriculum. In Minnesota we need to develop in the patrons of our schools the desire for better teachers. Too many of our teachers in the country are hired with little regard to their rating during their training period or their success in former positions. Within the last few years two regulations have been passed by our state department that will help to raise our standards. 1. State aid to the amount of $275 is given to each school that can classify as a “superior” school 2. If a school can qualify as an “accredited” school its pupils may go from thy eighth grade into high school without taking the state board examinations. 537 Department of Rural Education I here are six requirements that must be satisfied if schools are to qualify. 1 he one regarding the teacher concerns us : The teacher shall be graduated from the advanced course (two years) of a state teachers college, or possess training accepted by the state department as equivalent, and shall be chosen with the approval of the county superintendent. It is expected that teachers will have special training in rural education or have rural teaching experi¬ ence. Our teacher-training institutions, in order to insure the rural schools against the weaker people who may apply for admission, require that not more than one-fourth of the final high-school subject averages in the case of any student registering in this rural program shall be less than 80 percent ; his English marks in each of his high-school years shall be at least 80 per¬ cent ; and he shall rank above the lowest quarter of his high-school graduat¬ ing class. Two years of training which will include professionalized subjectmatter courses, cultural courses, courses in observation and practise teaching, plus many opportunities to make social contacts of various kinds, must be our minimum requirement. The first year of this two-year curriculum should be spent in pursuing professionalized and cultural courses. The teaching period, which should come in the second year, should be preceded in the first year — preferably in the spring term, by a course in observation and participation which is done under supervision, carefully worked out as to points to be observed. The observation should be followed by a conference with the person in charge of such a course and occasionally the teacher in charge of the class of chil¬ dren. This observation has several purposes : 1. It helps the student to see the many problems of the teacher 2. It helps him to appreciate that teaching is a complicated process made up of problems of many kinds 3. It will help him to do some of the things that will lead to the development of each child 4. It will help him to feel that teaching is a science and an art. Students may participate in this course by assisting the room teacher in making equipment such as graphs, charts, and seatwork, and by collecting supplementary materials as books and pictures. Invaluable to the boy or girl who teaches in the country where there is scarcely no supervisory help is the state curriculum. Every course dealing with the elementary school subjects in the curriculum should emphasize its use. If the student is to feel the need of it in his own teaching, he must appreciate its value while he is in training. During his practise teaching period he should refer to it constantly, both as a guide to subjectmatter and to method. In this training period much stress should be laid on the use of the library, the collecting of pictures and other complementary materials. A require¬ ment for the completion of this curriculum might well be a collection of 538 National Education Association pictures and clippings, and a goodly list of books which the student has learned to value and to appreciate because he has used them and found them contributing to his success in his practise teaching. Although our rural libraries are small and contain many books not suitable, there are always some good books. These our student teachers must know and use. The first practise teaching, which should come in the fall term of the second year, should be done in the training school, or in the grades of the public schools provided these grades are in charge of superior teachers who have supervisory ability. At this time the ideal situation would be to induct the student gradually, making him at first free from the material things as ventilation, proper lighting, and discipline, so that all his creative impulses may be freed. This is the reverse of the observation experience where he was made aware first of the importance of good physical conditions. We want him now to be free from this responsibility, which he knows that he must eventually take ; so that he may in the very beginning tackle the big thing — the development of the best in the child. The last teaching should come in the spring term of the second year and should be done in the rural schools. I believe this intervening period, the winter term, can be of great value. Here the student will be aware of many things that have before passed by unnoticed. Dr. Thorndike says, “We learn to skate in the summer.” May not the student be learning much about teaching during this interim period? May not his critical attitude now perhaps remind members of the faculty that their methods are not always up to par? Again in this last teaching we find the student gradually inducted into the work until he is carrying the full teaching program. This program should include all the responsibilities — the regular school work, and the extracurriculum activities such as attending, and providing programs for community meetings, calling on patrons of the school, meeting board mem¬ bers, etc., that are assumed by our capable, interested rural teachers. That our prospective rural teachers may catch the vision of the possibili¬ ties in a one-teacher school there should be a model rural school within easy walking distance of the college. Such a place would be invaluable for observation and group work, if not possible for individual practise. The final teaching experience should be obtained in the one-teacher and semi- graded schools. Another phase of practise of value is the monthly conference of teachers in the affiliated rural schools and students taking the rural curriculum. Discussion based on experience, and taken from printed matter, and par¬ ticipated in by every member of the group, either by giving facts and opinions or by asking questions, prove helpful in keeping practical issues before the group. Such meetings are designed to help these people keep abreast of the times, to give familiarity with the best literature regarding administration and methods, and to help teachers to know the newer and best textbooks. Department of Rural Education 539 FUTURE NEED IN THE PREPARATION OF RURAL TEA CHERS—A BS TRA C T ROBERT DODGE BALDWIN, PRESIDENT, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, STEVENS POINT, WIS. The topic under discussion is clearly stated. May I, momentarily at least, turn it into a question : Will there be future need for preparing rural teachers ? Some vision the time when a more intensely industrialized America will have so consolidated educational functions and facilities as to make available to all boys and girls carefully graded and fully accredited ele¬ mentary and secondary schools. If one-room rural schools should continue to disappear at the rate of about 4000 per year, and consolidated schools to increase at the current rate of 1000 per year, the time might truly come when the problem of training rural teachers, if we think of rural teachers as those conducting one-room schools, will be less acute, if not practically obsolete. But it is altogether improbable that these rates will be maintained. The problem of preparing one-room teachers will persist, how long few will hazard a guess, but in all likelihood well beyond the close of the' twentieth century. The factors which constitute the basis for differentiating the training of rural teachers are : ( 1 ) The environment out of which rural children come ; (2) six or eight grades housed and taught in one room; (3) the character¬ istics of rural people. Because of these three factors teachers colleges which purpose to prepare rural school teachers must give them, I should say, three lines of study and activity over and above those deemed essential for teachers in graded schools. These are : ( 1 ) More than passing acquaintance with the world best known to country boys and girls through course work in and field contacts with agricultural production and marketing and nature’s open book — all this as the foundation of method; (2) rural school manage¬ ment, stressing the use of time and facilities in such a way as to cover, on the average, about six times the territory covered by the grade teacher; (3) a course in rural social organization and rural social psychology, supple¬ mented by numerous actual contacts with farm dwellers at home, at church, and in social gatherings. To sum up the future in the preparation of teachers of one-room schools, we may say that, while they may grow less, we shall have them with us long enough and in sufficient numbers to justify our giving them far more atten¬ tion than they have yet received. We should strive to have the courses required for their preparation at least as long and as carefully organized as those for any other teacher. There alone is a job to tax the patience of a Job and the ingenuity and statesmanship of a Horace Mann. Most of what has been said thus far has assumed that rural teachers and teachers of one-room country schools are synonymous and coterminous. Let us now discuss briefly a few aspects of rural teacher preparation as its 540 National Education Association future appears to be determined by steady progress in consolidating rural educational functions and facilities: 1. The teacher in the grades of the consolidated school will still need to know the rural environment, the experiences to which rural children have been exposed, the activities of production and marketing, and the characteristics of rural folks. 2. Another problem which the teachers colleges must face more earnestly is to provide adequate preparation for teachers for the secondary department of the consolidated school. The same sort of preparation beyond that given the high-school teacher preparing for city work is required as the one-room rural teacher needs beyond that given the city elementary teacher. 3. The consolidated school also requires a superintendent or principal who understands rural conditions and rural folks, and who is likely to have to teach a high-school class or two, superintend transportation and physical plant, give con¬ structive supervision to both grade and high-school teachers, and furnish educa¬ tional leadership, or at least counsel to the schoolboard. 4. Another future need in the preparation of rural school teachers is that of training rural school supervisors. Here again is an opportunity for the teachers colleges to provide the means for developing constructive and progressive rural leadership. The need for more adequate supervision of teachers who have so heavy a responsibility as that carried by one-room rural teachers is being more and more recognized. As long as the one-room school remains, this need will exist. Thus far it is being pitifully met, even with respect to funds and numbers provided. If teachers colleges are looking to the future, here is a practically uncultivated and potentially fruitful field in the preparation of rural teachers. 5. The last need I shall mention is for a vital professional training for the county superintendency. Perhaps you have already begun to question the emphasis placed on positions of less importance numerically in consideration of the future in the preparation of rural school teachers. Effective rural educational leadership can demonstrate the value of lengthening and strengthening the training of rural teachers, of consolidating school facilities and functions where feasible, and of de¬ veloping a system of adequate rural supervision, to mention just a few things regarding which the rural public needs to be convinced. Hence I submit this thesis for your consideration at least: That the teachers colleges cannot do, in any other way, so signal a service for rural education as to open to those young people whose first love is the rural field, the possibility of professional advance¬ ment in rural education, instead of, as at present, the practical inevitability of moving on into the cities if they desire either some slight lessening of the respon¬ sibility or the assumption of administrative or supervisory functions. SECRETARY'S MINUTES Cleveland Meeting The annual business meeting of the Department of Rural Education was held in Cleveland, February 25. The meeting was called to order by President William McKinley Robinson who offered for consideration of the department the following recommendations of the Executive Committee of the Department: The Executive Committee suggests that the Department of Rural Education re¬ quest the National Education Association to add a member to its staff properly to interpret problems and ideals in the field of rural education and to get such inter¬ pretations and problems before the public in an effective manner. Department of Rural Education 541 The Executive Committee reaffirms its action taken at the Minneapolis meeting, July, 1928, requesting the United States Commissioner of Education to find means, if possible, to carry on nationwide studies in rural education and renews its request. The Committee suggests also that this department go on record as in favor of urging upon Congress in all legitimate ways at our command the desirability of adequate appropriations for the above purpose; and respectfully requests that the legislative committee of the National Education Association incorporate this request in its legislative program. The president also offered the suggestion that the Committee on Publications and the Committee on Constructive Studies be combined and work as one com¬ mittee. The change was approved on motion of Mr. Jacobson of Minnesota, which carried unanimously. Certain questions concerning the duties to be assigned to the committee and coordination of the two types of work were raised. It was moved by Mr. Selke that questions of coordination be referred to the Executive Committee and reported on at Atlanta. Carried. Dr. Butterworth, Chairman of Committee on Publications, then asked the depart¬ ment for an expression of its suggestions concerning the kind of publications to be issued. The group apparently favored a plan proposed to distribute to members of the Rural Department reprints of the proceedings of the Department of Superin¬ tendence which pertain to rural education. The Report of the Committee on Resolutions was then read by the Chairman, M. S. Pittman. Miss Carney suggested that the clause concerning teacher certifica¬ tion requirements be made stronger. The chairman accepted the suggestion. The report was adopted as read and amended. An appreciation of James L. Sibley, an outstanding leader in rural and negro education, was submitted by the Special Committee appointed by the Committee on Affiliation of the National Education Association with the National Association of Teachers in Colored Schools and adopted by the Department of Rural Education, July 3, 1929. . The Department of School Health and Physical Education The department of school health and physi¬ cal education was known as the Department of Child Study until July 13, 1911. See Pro¬ ceedings , 1911:870. The Department of Child Study was created at the Asbury Park meeting, 1894:40. In July, 1924, the department was merged with the Department of Physical and Health Education under the name of the Department of School Health and Physical Education. See Pro¬ ceedings , 1924:96. The officers of the Department for the year 1929- 30 are: President , James E. Rogers, Director, Na¬ tional Physical Education Service, 315 Fourth Ave., New York City; Vice-president , Jay B. Nash, Profes¬ sor of Physical Education, School of Education, New York University, New York City; Secretary-Treas¬ urer^ Mary E. Murphy, Director, Elizabeth McCor¬ mick Memorial Fund, 848 N. Dearborn St., Chicago, Ill.; Executive Committee , N. P. Neilson, State Supervisor of Physical Education, Sacramento, Calif. (Term expires 1930) ; William E. Burdick, State Director of Physical Education, 7 E. Mulberry St., Baltimore, Md. (Term expires 1931) ; Ethel Perrin, American Child Health Association, 370 Seventh Ave., New York City, (Term expires 1932) ; F. W. Maroney, Director, Department of Health Education, Atlantic City, N. J. (Term expires 1933) . The Department meets once each year, in June. Facts relating to the establishment of this Depart¬ ment and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of Proceedings as follows : 1893: 615-678 1902:737-759 1909: 745-789 1916:681-699 1923: 744-842 1895: 944-950 1903:817-847 1910: 921-949 1917:521-535 1924: 637-651 1896: 893-937 1904:803-843 1911: 905-939 1918:339-359 1925: 577-598 1897: 870-916 1905:755-781 1912:1141-1153 1919:315-323 1926: 600-624 1898: 929-959 1906:711-713 1913: 667-695 1920:311-323 1927: 561-581 1899:1064-1097 1907:925-951 1914: 683-721 1921:517-523 1928: 545-567 1901:758-771 1908:999-1047 1915:971-995 1922:1085-1099 [544] EDUCATION FOR LEISURE— ABSTRACT JAMES E. ROGERS, PRESIDENT, DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION; DIRECTOR, NATIONAL EDUCATION SERVICE, NEW YORK CITY. A Greek philosopher once wrote a note to the teacher requesting that the children be given a vacation so that they could learn something. He was not joking but was in earnest. He was indeed a wise old philosopher, for he understood the needs of growing youth. Recently a superintendent of schools stated that he wmuld rather have a playground without a school than a school without a playground. Here was truly a sensible educator, who must have read carefully the writings of those educational leaders who have made modern educational practise. Froebel, Pestalozzi, J. Stanley Hall, Herbert Spencer, E. L. Thorndike, William Kilpatrick, and John Dewey have all stressed the value of physical activity, play, and recreation in education. Educators throughout the country are taking a keen interest in the education for “the wise and whole¬ some use of leisure.” In the seven cardinal principles of education as adopted by the National Education Association after many years delibera¬ tion, one is “training for the wise use of leisure.” What a person does in his off-duty time often determines the character of work he does in his on-duty time. Big business has recognized this salient fact and so has entered into the playground and recreation business. Most industries now maintain playgrounds and recreation centers within the plant and outside in the industrial community. At a number of state and national meetings of various kinds, the writer heard speaker after speaker talk of the need for the training for the wise use of leisure. President Lewis, of Lafayette College, at a state teachers meeting stated this as his main theme to the whole state teaching body. A president of a state university, at his inauguaration, declared that the prob¬ lem before this country was not education for production, but education for leisure. In brief, educators and statesmen have come to realize that with the new day and the new age, a new curriculum is necessary and that the training in play habits and the conservation of free time is essential to the integrity and salvation of our national life. We do not do wrong during our working or sleeping hours. It is during our free time that idleness finds mischief for empty hands and minds. Mischief is perverted play and quickly drifts to delinquency. Last month at a meeting of educators the writer stated that the four main signs of health and physical education were: To train for health and physical fitness ; to train neuro-muscular skills ; to promote sportsmanship and character ; and to prepare for the wise use of leisure by the develop¬ ment of wholesome play habits and interests. The chairman, one of our leading school superintendents, in response said that in his estimation the last objective mentioned was the biggest task that physical educators had. They have a fundamental job that is of supreme educational importance, [545] 546 National Education Association and if well done, it will gain due recognition as a significant part of the school curriculum. With our crowded cities, industrialism, specialization, standardization, and congested living, provision and leadership for play and recreation will more and more become one of the primary tasks of the school system. The tendency in this direction is well marked today. That “play is education” has long been accepted. Joseph Lee, in that masterly book, Play in Education, has clearly demonstrated this statement. A better title might have been “Education Through Play,” because the book definitely shows the educational lessons and values to obtain through proper play facilities, program, and direction. The kindergarten teacher is perhaps one of the best recreation and physical education instructors we have. She knows child psychology, age aims, and adapts her program accordingly. What is her curriculum? Ring games, singing circle games, rhythmics, folk dances, sand play, doll play, block play, simple dramatics, and story telling. An individual largely makes or breaks himself in his recreation. A nation rises or falls according to how the leisure of its people is used. The conservation of leisure is one of the first responsibilities of government and the first concern to the statesman. We have had conservation movements for natural and animal resources. Our national government, through the agricultural department, spends more for the welfare of the pig life than it does through the Children’s Bureau of the Labor Department for the child life of America. It is about time we had a movement for the con¬ servation of human resources. In such a movement the need of provision for play, recreation, and outdoor leisure time activities is apparent. Rapidly this situation will become a matter of national necessity. Hence, one of the first objectives of education is to train for leisure. A child plays to gain life, while an adult recreates to regain life. Play creates the child. Through recreation man is re-created. So schools are doing much for the upbuilding of the boy and girl of today, who will be the man or woman of tomorrow, by providing them with the physique, the health, the neuro-muscular skills, the aptitude, and what is more, with the desire for wholesome play and clean recreation. There are 26,000,000 school children between the ages of five and eighteen. Throughout these twelve years of growing youth and adolescence, the educator has an excep¬ tional chance to not only teach the skills and the knowledge of games and sports, but better still, to create the interest and desire for outdoor living activity. To educate for leisure is truly one of the Seven Cardinal Principles of Education. Department of School Health and Physical Education 547 EDUCATION OF THE CHILD AND COMMUNITY THROUGH HEALTH EDUCATION— ABSTRACT WILLIS A. SUTTON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ATLANTA, GA. The immediate object of health education is, of course, strengthening and bettering the individual human body of the individual child. The far off, divine event toward which the whole creation moves should be the strengthening and developing of a perfected body for the races, through which the race may keep and serve and glorify human life. When human¬ ity honors the human body, glorifies its form, trains its every muscle, develops its every resource, it becomes a great intellectual, cultural, esthetic, and strictly moral people. When a race despises the human body, be¬ lieves that it is weak, frail and incapable of anything that is good, when the chief desire is to mortify the human body, then the race or individual languishes in medieval darkness and superstition, is lulled into inaction, the mind becomes stagnant, the spirit without vision, and life itself a drudgery. To those who think at all, health is the most important subject in the entire curriculum. Taken from the standpoint of economics, nothing can touch it in importance. Dr. Bublin, Chief Statistician for the Metro¬ politan Life Insurance Company, Dr. Leo Franco, of the same great cor¬ poration, Dr. Thadius D. Hyatt, and a number of others whose names are synonyms of authority, tell us in no uncertain terms that sickness cost America in 1926 from seven and a half billion to ten billions of dollars. These enormous sums represent the failure of education in the past. Education in health constitutes the greatest social problem facing the people of the United States or of any nation. Recently in a certain city in the United States 277 divorce cases were disposed of at one term of court. By thoughtful, thorough, and careful looking into these cases it was found that 143 of them were caused by illness on the part of one or the other contracting parties. Various excuses -were assigned in the records of the court, but the sickness of the wife, the nervous irritability and patho¬ logical condition of the husband was really the cause of the divorce. The social status of the community is being constantly disturbed by sickness and death. The educational development of the entire country is more retarded by sickness than by possibly all other factors combined. A recent study has been made to show the effect of a child’s health on class standing. These figures show that from fifteen to twenty percent of all non-promotions or retardations in studies are caused by lack of proper health conditions. This is a terrible educational waste. Nowhere in all the history of the world is there greater opportunity for saving money, for prolonging life, for produc¬ ing clear thinking and educational advantages as there is in the health pro¬ gram. There may be some money wasted in the educational processes of this country, there may be much graft in municipal, state, and national government on account of bad politics, but the school and nation lose more on account of bad health than from all of these causes combined. As 548 National Education Association wicked as may sound the news of oil scandals and other forms of graft in national and city government, no amount of loss is so great as that entailed upon the human race by the lack of efficiency in our human parent. The national life suffers today on account of the nation’s ill health. Much of the poverty, eighty to ninety percent of the loss of positions, and prac¬ tically all that is known as “ill luck’’ comes from the lack of proper care of the health. Many a man has missed success by the length or distance of one headache. The difference between success and failure is sometimes sim¬ ply the difference between a healthy and an unhealthy body. Human man¬ power and woman-power must serve by good health. Possibly we have said more than sufficient to emphasize the importance of health education. How shall a health program be conducted ? There are three phases of every health program that are really worthwhile. First, there is the stage of investigation and periodical inspection and examination. It is impossible to remedy any situation unless we know what are the defects which need remedial care. The annual or semi¬ annual inspection of every child is an absolute necessity of every health program. If the state has a right to compel a child to go to school, the state must know the condition of that child in order that the officers may be able to determine whether or not he is capable of carrying out the obligation. This cannot be known without a thorough medical and dental inspection. Every child in America should have a thorough physical ex¬ amination by a competent physician and thorough dental examination by a competent dentist every year. This examination and the results which follow prove the most essential thing in the child’s entire health education. He gets in the habit of seeing to it that each year a physician and a dentist look him over, tell him how to correct his defects, and give him the proper kind of advice. If it can be thoroughly instilled into the child once a year that this must be a rule of his life, the impression is made so deep and so lasting that when he leaves the public school he will continue to go to a competent dentist and a competent physician for a thorough examination. Every teacher of physical education, of health science, every home eco¬ nomics teacher, every teacher of chemistry and physics, in fact, every teacher of a grade in the entire nation, should make a definite and effective appeal to the school authorities and to the parents of the children whom he teaches to see that every child has an annual inspection. The second stage is the remedial. After the defects are found, after cer¬ tain tendencies are noticed, the most important thing is to see that this defect or tendency is corrected. The followup of the medical or dental ex¬ amination is the important phase of the work. Who shall make this fol¬ lowup? There are not enough nurses, there are not sufficient hygienists. I he first and most important individual in making this followup is the teacher himself. The teacher should be given a record of the child’s de¬ fects. From day to day, in a quiet, constructive way, avoiding all tendencies toward creating a morbid state, the teacher should constantly bring to the attention of the child and to the mother the need of correcting the physical Department of School Health and Physical Education 549 defect. The need of buoyancy and strength and constructive health should be constantly emphasized on the mind of the child. In speaking of having a defect corrected, the emphasis should always be on health, not on the defect. After the child has secured the dentist’s or physician’s certificate, certifying that the defect has been remedied, the child’s name should be brought before the entire class as one who has looked after the most im¬ portant phase of his life. A beautiful chart, bearing the names of those who have secured their dental certificates or medical certificates should be made and placed upon the board. The third phase of the health program is that of prevention. The child and the teacher should work together to prevent sickness. The ideal of health constantly held in the child’s mind, the right attitude toward health, will continually bring the idea of growth and development into the consciousness of the child. The health program to really be effective throughout life, commences, of course, with the prenatal influences play¬ ing upon the life of the child, seeing that the child is well born and well brought into the world, and that his preschool age has been one in which he has been constantly brought under the care of a physician through a child guidance clinic or through the baby clinic held in various schools. Then when he is brought into the classroom there will be but few defects that need correcting, and the great emphasis should be placed on keeping him in sound healthy condition. Here, again, the emphasis should be on health and not on sickness. There are four great factors in the prevention of disease. The first of these has to do with the subject of diet. Here, not only the physical edu¬ cation teacher, but the teacher of home economics, the cafeteria department, are brought into play. The child must be constantly reminded that certain things bring bone and muscle and strength and power into his individual life. He must be encouraged to enjoy eating these things because he knows that the result will be greater efficiency in his entire being. After diet comes the great problem of how to care for the body. Care for it through exercise. The department of physical education should teach how to care for it through posture, proper ventilation, fresh air and all of those contacts which we have with nature and with each other. In the third. phase, more emphasis should be placed on sleep and rest. This nation of ours needs a crusade of sleep. The jazz music, the dance, the parties, the radio, the phonograph, the late hours, the bright lights — all the forces we call modern civilization — have turned night into day, and have kept the child and the adult away from sleep too many hours of the day. The nervous diseases of our country, the sanitariums for the insane full to overflowing, the highly emotional and over developed sensitive na¬ tures of thousands of our people show that one of the greatest needs of modern civilization is to go to sleep. It needs rest, and childhood not only needs rest at night, but rest at mid-day. Along with these three great factors, special emphasis should be placed on proper elimination. Proper elimination of the body through the bath, 550 National Education Association proper elimination through the kidneys and bladder, and proper elimina¬ tion through the bowels. Every child should be taught not that he is a life, but that he is the life, and that life runs through him, and that he is but the vessel holding that wonderful treasure that shall pass on from him into others, through all the future years, and that if he keeps the bloodstream pure and if he keeps the strength of body and mind clean, alert, and active, he is a part of a great adventure that shall some day culminate in a mankind and a womankind approaching nearer and nearer to perfection. He should be taught that laughter, joy, and happiness is a great part of his life, and that those who follow him shall laugh a little louder, shall be a little bit happier, and shall be very much stronger in service, if he will live honorably, nobly, and well these years of his particular life. It is relatively easy to inculcate this idea of health in the mind of a child. Children are imaginative; they are highly romantic ; they love to enter upon a great adventure ; they can be easily told that they have started on a great adventure that it will take millions and millions of years to complete, and that each one must do his part in his day. This attitude toward health and toward life will create the atmosphere in which children may grow in strength of body, in com¬ prehension of what life means, and in the knowledge that all of yesterday contributed to his today and that his today must make mankind tomorrow. THE ESTHETIC VALUE OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION- ABSTRACT KATHERINE DOZIER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PACOLET MANUFAC¬ TURING COMPANY, NEW HOLLAND, GA., AND PACOLET MILLS, S. C. The aim of our physical education teachers is training for each and every boy and girl in school. This is done by having a regular schedule for physical training classes for every grade carefully planned and daily followed. The purpose of our department is set fofth in our motto, “A sound mind in a sound body,” and as you observe our class-work you will see that head- work as well as muscle coordination is very evident. The plan of our physical training is far-reaching and embraces far more than gymnasium and field. It is correlated with every other department of our school ; teachers, school nurses, dentists, physicians, all have a part in our scheme. For instance, the care of children in our village begins before their birth with proper instruction of mothers by our community nurse and village physician. From birth until school age, the children are regularly examined and kept under observation by the community nurse. A pre¬ school round-up is made in the spring preceding the fall session and each boy and girl has a physical examination. Following this examination neces¬ sary corrections are made at tonsil and dental clinics; toxin-anti-toxin, and Department of School Health and Physical Education 551 vaccination are duly administered, and the child made ready for school entrance. After the child enters school, he is weighed and measured at regular intervals and any loss or failure to show proper development is imme¬ diately noted and corrective measures taken. The nurse takes charge of any malnourished group and organizes them into classes for instruction. The domestic science teacher helps the nurse in her teaching by instructing the child or some member of the child’s family in the proper preparation of suitable food to correct diet and secure nutrition. The physical director gives attention to the proper exercise for the development of a better physique, the grade teacher follows up the nurse, the domestic science teacher and the physical director with classroom instruction and, most im¬ portant, with home visits to talk with the parents about the child’s welfare. You have now the aim, training for each and every child; the purpose, “a sound mind in a sound body”; and the plan, correlation of all agents and agencies in contributing to the health and to the physical education of the child. Let us discuss now the types of training used in the varied aspects of physical education. At a recent meeting of physical training supervisors I heard the complaint made that “Some schools train only in formal gymnas¬ tics, others all go to clogging, others to folk dances, a few to esthetic dancing, while some pay attention to sports alone, and none of them appeal to all the pupils.” A properly graded course taking into account the age, ability, and taste of the child can be formulated to provide suitable training for everybody. Beginning in the primary grade with singing games and rhythmic play, interpreting catchy music by running, skipping, marching, and hopping, introducing from time to time rhythmic counting in four-four and three- four time, the child is prepared for simple folk dancing. In the third grade he can add a little formal drill and experience the thrill that comes from harmony of movement and action in group work. Here too, begins the elementary lesson in dance technic and grace of movement in muscular control has conscious attention. The first lessons in form so essential to sport as well as to gymnastic perfection are given here. In the intermediate grades dance technic receives more attention and following coordination of arms, legs, and feet in muscular control are taught the waltz steps and rhythms, the minuet, the polka, the schottische, and the various dance steps used in many lands. Folk danc¬ ing is emphasized in these grades with the added charm of proper costumes made by the girls in regular class project. Formal work is continued to keep precision of movement and harmony in group control. Clogging is introduced and the comic effects possible appeal to both boys and girls making this work most popular, with its added attractions of “Snap and Pep.” In the junior high school more finished work is done and the dance technic finds expression in simple esthetic dancing. 552 National Education Association To tie all these various interests together and unify the course for all grades each and every boy and girl has a part to play in the annual pageant. This pageant is planned with the following purposes. To give every in¬ dividual an opportunity to show his father, mother, and friends the results of his training and the achievement of himself and his fellows, both alone and in team work. To present in pantomime, drill, and dance something that is really worthwhile for amusement, entertainment, education, and training. To prove that head, soul, and body are a trinity, no one of which is complete without the other two ; to show that love of the beautiful and appreciation of the esthetic can be developed in rhythm and dance and music; to add to the grace and beauty of the temple of the soul; to strengthen the mentality while developing the physique — all this and more can be acomplished in physical education by using good common sense and organizing a balanced ration. Good form and excellence in sports follow naturally the proper training and development of the mind and body in intelligent coordination. And good teamwork is a natural result of har¬ monious group work in the grades. HEALTH TRENDS— ABSTRACT ETHEL PERRIN, STAFF ASSOCIATE, DIVISION OF HEALTH EDUCATION, AMERICAN CHILD HEALTH ASSOCIATION, NEW YORK CITY Health is one of the objectives in secondary education according to the Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education of the National Education. Association. Consideration for the health of the pupils then, should be a policy consciously but inconspicuously followed by every member of a sec¬ ondary school staff. If, for instance, through the physician’s examination, a child is found to have headaches caused by faulty vision, and some time may elapse before the glasses are on, every teacher who has that child in his class should feel a responsibility in the use of the eyes of that child. A health counselor or coordinator is needed who acts as chairman of a school health committee. The committee works for an integrated school health program built on the present knowledge of the development and needs of pupils at the secondary school level. One test of right attitude toward health is the response of secondary school pupils to some preventive measure such as vaccination. If pupils voluntarily and cheerfully cooperate with health authorities they have developed a right health consciousness. The ultimate goal should be the formation of right habits and right attitudes toward the physical, mental, social, and moral aspects of health. Health should not be a “subject” for pupils to “take,” but rather an underlying policy, so constant that it is taken for granted as a natural part of education. Department of School Health and Physical Education 553 PROBLEMS IN SCHOOL HEALTH EDUCATION- ABSTRACT ELM A ROOD, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR, NURSING EDUCATION, PEABODY COLLEGE, NASHVILLE, TENN. Of the many problems which confront workers in school health pro¬ grams, a major problem is to find a way to coordinate all the forces which contribute to the health of children around a common objective, expressed in terms of “abounding health” for every child. It may be well to state a few underlying principles, which are quite universally accepted : 1. The health of children is one of the objectives of all education. 2. The responsibility for the realization of this objective is shared by every per¬ son in the school, home, and community who has direct or indirect contact with children. 3. Since major attention, in this type of program, is focussed upon the develop¬ ment of healthy children in each classroom, it becomes necessary for every person, from the superintendent down, to contribute not only to the protection of children from every influence which might hinder this development, but also to participate in assisting and encouraging the children to develop to their fullest. We hear frequently the statement of teachers in our training centers that they have never seen a child health program functioning. Hence, there is pointed out the need of developing the health program in our demonstration schools. There is need also for making the health principles taught on the college campus function more fully in the environment and practises of students in the dormitories, cafeterias, and classrooms. Im¬ provement in these respects would undoubtedly clear much of the haziness that apparently exists in the minds of young teachers. In assisting these teachers to visualize the aims and possibilities in the health program, active support of the school administrator becomes the crux of this situation. His recognition that doing is most valuable educa¬ tional procedure will immediately place his approval upon such activities as excursions, and investigations, rather than upon formal teaching from a textbook, to the crowding out of educative experiences, and teachers will thus feel that these activities need not be limited to after-school hours or Saturdays. His recognition of health as a responsibility of the school, and one which is intimately associated with the daily activities of the classroom, secures for the children the benefit of the teacher’s influence. He also may clarify the position of specialists who come to make certain contributions. There is also indicated a great need for more definite aims on the part of special health workers, who are apt otherwise to think in terms of their specialty and not in terms of changes to be produced in live children. More and more communities are realizing the need for untangling a confusing situation and are struggling to find the basis for unity — some objective big enough to make people forget themselves and their special¬ ties, and some vision with enough practical elements to induce them to enter with enthusiasm into a community wide effort for the building of fine chil¬ dren. 554 National Education Association The development of health standards for children has thus become one of the outstanding problems in child health. Whether we approve or dis¬ approve, the movement is growing and spreading. Every successful at¬ tempt means new converts; every failure means reorganization and a new trial. As evidence of the working out of this problem, we now find, in tangible form, the Virginia Five-Point Child, the West Virginia Standard, the Tennessee State Health Badge, the Peabody Health Standard, the Kentucky Blue Ribbon Child, the Missouri Six-Point Child, the Kansas Health Standard, and many local standards in Indiana, Ohio, Michigan, Oklahoma, Florida, and Alabama. A study of these naturally discloses great variation, as all have been developed to meet local needs and according to the facilities in each in¬ dividual community. As an indication of an effort to reach a wise and workable standard, we find questions being asked on such points as — Shall we rate children on effort, or shall we build an ideal? Shall we accept children in the standard who have such defects as cannot be corrected, if all other requirements are met? Shall we expect parents to participate actively in habit training? Shall we base our standard of physical excellence on the findings of the physician’s examinations or shall we use to the greatest extent the observation of the teacher or the nurse? Shall we rate children on health knowledge? Shall immunity treatments be included, and if so, how many? Shall we require a rating of good mental and social health and how shall these be determined? Shall children’s attitude and behavior be measured and, if so, how shall we do it? Looking at this conflicting situation frankly and accepting as inevitable these differences of opinion in the beginning of a pioneef effort, we must recognize at the same time that these all represent earnest, conscientious attempts by people in the field to focus interest and effort upon one thing, the development of fine children. While accepting the difficulties of the trial and error method in education, we recognize experimentation as the only real scientific method of finding a solution to a problem. However, a survey of this new territory might even now begin to recog¬ nize certain guide posts appearing above the horizon pointing the way for those with a genuine enthusiasm for the development of standards for chil¬ dren. The standard should be allowed to grow in response to the needs of the particular field and as many people as possible should participate in its growth. Its requirements should be stated simply and concretely enough for the public to understand. It should consider so carefully the available facilities that it will be possible of attainment by a reasonable number of children. It should provide the necessary satisfaction that should always follow child achievement. It should constantly be in process of growth and should eventually state definitely what points each child should realize in bodily condition, in habits, in attitudes, and in under¬ standing of experiences. The statement of a standard seems to give parents a definite aim toward which to work. For the teachers and the school administrator, the stan- Department of School Health and Physical Education 555 dard motivates the work of the entire year, since all worthwhile health activities contribute to it in some way. For special health workers, it brings a definite objective on which they may all concentrate. Enthusiasm for the standard has often made an individual worker submerge personal aims for a bigger objective. To the community at large, it measures results in terms that people can understand. It justifies expenditures of public money for child health work, since fine healthy rosy-cheeked children have an irresistible appeal. Finally, it gives the child the satisfaction of achieve¬ ment, so necessary to help him go further. It overcomes much unpleasant anticipation of corrective work because of the clear picture of the end to be realized. It develops pride in looking well, in feeling fine, in weighing more, in being strong, and this should hold great possibilities as a protective influence in the child’s life. HEALTH AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION NEEDS IN THE SOU TH—A BS TRA C T MARY CHANNING COLEMAN, PROFESSOR PHYSICAL EDUCATION, THE NORTH CAROLINA COLLEGE FOR WOMEN, GREENSBORO, N. C. In discussing physical education needs in the south, may I begin by indicating the salient features of the situation. We are still a rural popula¬ tion ; more than three-fourths of the southern school children go to the rural schools. We are a thoroughly homogeneous racial stock, with a racial background rich in folk art and social activities. We are naturally a con¬ servative people, especially in the rural sections ; and as a result, we are finding difficulties in adjusting ourselves to the social and economic changes of the age. Since we are a rural people, and since the physical education must to a large extent be done through the regular teacher, it is clear that the crux of the whole situation lies in the training we give the grade teacher. With the exception of a few city systems, the future of physical education in the south lies with the grade teacher, under the town or county leadership of a professional director who has had adequate technical training. This is too obvious to require further discussion, and yet there are few states that have attempted to meet the situation squarely. Perhaps nine-tenths of our young teachers, coming from the best normal schools and teacher-training institu¬ tions in the south will tell you, if you ask them what courses they have had in physical education, “Oh, just gym and basket-ball,” nothing that bears the least relation to the health and physical education problems of the elementary or secondary schools. We are surprised that superintendents and principals will accept so little, when they might have so much by demanding that specific training in health education and recreation be given to prospective teachers. Next in importance to the question of training given to grade teachers, comes the correlation of our existing organizations in physical education 556 National Education Association and in recreation. We are only too familiar with the “can’t afford it” comeback to our suggestions for a program in physical education. Ala¬ bama has answered that by planning a statewide program of health and physical education because the state is poor — not in spite of, but because money is scarce in other words. Alabama cannot afford to waste money on instruction for minds and bodies that are unfit. Economy is a word that sounds good to the public ; so we are interested in the promising results from the combination of the recreation and physical education programs in many of our cities. We need a more critical evaluation of the training presented by the can¬ didate for a position in physical education. We will get results from our programs in health and physical education only when principals and super¬ intendents realize that this is a technical profession, and one that cannot be acquired in a summer term. In these days the physician, the nurse, the apothecary, and the dentist each makes his own contribution to public health. It is possible that in the future “physical education” will be the term used for the teacher who has had a minimum of four years training in his special field, while the teacher of lesser training will be the “play teacher” or the athletic coach, working under the physical director as the nurse does under the physician. The encouraging factor regarding; physical education in the south is our increasing insistence on keeping an eye on the ball. In discussing problems of athletic contests, superintendents are talking not of what harm may be done by interschool contests, but of what constructive results are produced by this or by other types of organization. There are, I believe, only two southern states that sponsor state basketball tournaments for high-school girls ; the others have dropped them, not because of their possible evils, but because of the increased benefits they believe to be found in contests within smaller areas. We believe that this emphasis on positive rather than negative factors is decidedly a step in the right direction. Another healthy symptom is the increasingly frank criticism of certain ancient and almost honorable fallacies current in physical education. We are recognizing that it takes more than crowds of interested spectators, or even new stadiums and playing fields, to indicate progress in physical educa¬ tion. We are echoing Dr. Dunlap’s skepticism as to whether “teamwork” in intercollegiate athletics is any more productive of cooperation and loyalty than the teamwork of section hands under the railroad foreman ; and we are evaluating the mutual understanding and fellowship supposed to be produced by intercollegiate sports. As our faith wanes in these regards, we turn more hopefully toward the experiments in student coaching and in undergraduate leadership being made in some of our southern schools. In summarizing the needs of physical education in the south, I would urge that we concern ourselves more with where we want to go, and less with what road we are to take. I believe we need to appreciate our ;peculiar resources, and to recognize our peculiar limitations, with especial Department of School Health and Physical Education 557 reference to working out our problems through better training given to the grade teacher, and higher standards demanded of the professional leader. THE PLACE OF SAFETY EDUCATION IN THE PRO¬ GRAM OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE SCHOOLS— ABSTRACT HERBERT J. STACK, RESEARCH FELLOW. IN SAFETY EDUCATION, TEACHER OF SAFETY EDUCATION AT GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGE AND COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY The most recent report of the United States Census Bureau showed that 93,078 persons lost their lives through accidents in 1927. Although the figure is not available for 1928, it will probably exceed 96,000. Of the total for 1927, approximately 19,000, or twenty percent, were under fifteen years of age and 5985 more were between the ages of fifteen and twenty. Not only do we have this large loss of life that is caused by accidents but there is a very large number of non-fatal accidents. From accident reports of schools and insurance companies, it is found that a ratio of 200 to 1 exists between reported non-fatal accidents. On this basis it may be assumed that considerably more than 10,000,000 non-fatal accidents take place yearly, approximately twenty percent of which are accidents to children under fifteen years of age. The increasing toll of accidents should cause serious alarm to all of us. While the death rate from contagious diseases has fallen from 220.5 per 100,000 population in 1919 to 140.3 per 100,000 in 1927, the death rate from accidents has increased during the same period from 71.9 to 78.4 per 100,000. Fatalities from accidents have increased approximately twenty percent since 1911. Motor vehicle facilities increased 1050 percent from 1911 to 1927. At the present time accidents rank first as a cause of death during the school age, being nearly three times as numerous as those caused by tuberculosis which ranks second. While great strides have been made in preventive methods and education in the elimination of the diseases of child¬ hood, the most important work now needs to be done in attacking the prob¬ lem of accident prevention. By the very nature of the subjectmatter, safety education is closely tied up with health and physical education. In the first place, studies of school accidents which were made in St. Louis and Los Angeles tend to show that nearly half of the accidents reported on or about junior or senior high schools take place in gymnasiums, playgrounds, or athletic fields. If these activities which are a part of the general physical education program, result In fifty percent of the school accidents, then the first place for physical directors to focus their attention will be in the elimination of such school accidents. 558 National Education Association The organization of curriculum in safety education for elementary and secondary schools — In general such a course should include content in the following fields: 1. The prevention of home accidents 2. The prevention of motor vehicle accidents 3. Fire prevention 4. The prevention of public accidents such as drowning, railroad accidents, and pedestrian accidents 5. First aid 6. The safety activities of national and state agencies such as the coast guard, the weather bureau, and the state motor vehicle department 7. The safety activities of the police and fire departments 8. The safety activities of private organizations that are working to prevent accidents 9. Safety in health SECRETARY'S MINUTES Atlanta Meeting The Department had two splendid meetings in the main auditorium of the con¬ vention hall. The two sessions of the program were as follows: First Session, Monday, July 1 Address James E. Rogers, President of the Department Health Education in Education Willis A. Sutton, Superintendent of Schools, Atlanta, Ga. The Esthetic Value of Physical Education Katharine Dozier, Superintendent of Schools, Pacolet Manufacturing Co., New Holland, Ga., and Pacolet Mills, S. C. Demonstration By the School Children of the Pacolet Manufacturing Company, New Holland, Ga. Second Session, Wednesday, July 3 Problems in School Health Education Elma Rood, Associate Professor, Department of Nursing Education, George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn. Health and Physical Education Needs in the Southland Mary Channing Coleman, North Carolina College for Women, Greensboro, N. C. A Program of Safety Education in the Elementary and Secondary Schools Herbert J. Stack, Fellow in Safety Education, Teachers College, Columbia Uni¬ versity, New York City Maryland's Play and Physical Education Program William Burdick, State Supervisor of Physical Education, Baltimore, Md. At the demonstration on Monday, July 1, 3000 people were present, and on Wednesday, July 3, 600. The regular business meeting was held on Wednesday, July 3. It was called to order by President J. E. Rogers. The main business of the meeting was the election of officers. Names of officers may be found on page 544. The Department of Science Instruction The department of science instruction is an outgrowth of a State Department of Natural Science Teachers which was organized at a meeting of the Colorado State Teachers' Association in 1894. See Proceedings , 1894:951. It was first known as the Department of Natural Science In¬ struction. The officers of the Department for the year 1929- 30 are: President , E. Lawrence Palmer, Professor of Natural Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. ; Secretary , Ralph K. Watkins, Associate Professor of Education, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. This Department meets once each year, in July. Facts relating to the establishment of this Depart¬ ment and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of Proceedings as follows : 1895: 951-959 1902:759-790 1896: 937-968 1903:847-897 1897: 916-959 1904:843-897 1898: 959-985 1905:781-827 1899:1097-1118 1906:719 1900: 592-609 1907:951-959 1901: 771-803 1908:965-999 1909: 789-829 1910: 949-969 1911: 939-993 1912:1153-1195 1913: 695-717 1914: 721-773 1915:995-1029 1916:699-751 1923: 843-861 1917:535-557 1924: 753-775 1918:295 1925: 598-609 1919:289 1926: 624-636 1920:305-309 1927: 583-597 1921: 663-667 1928: 569-589 1922:1239-1267 [5601 THE CURRICULUM IN HIGH-SCHOOL SCIENCE- ABSTRACT FRANCIS D. CURTIS, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION AND OF THE TEACHING OF BIOLOGY AND GENERAL SCIENCE, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN, ANN ARBOR, MICH. Science has been and continues to be one of the most popular subjects in the high school. This is no accident. Subjects compete with one another and survive or are eliminated as they are able to be adjusted to meet the everchanging demands in our school. In this scientific age, there¬ fore, it is no wonder that science holds a firm and unique place in the popular regard. The past fifty years have witnessed in the teaching of science, as in all other high-school subjects, an increasing attempt to provide a more demo¬ cratic training. This is in part due to the rapid spread of high-school education as evidenced by the fact that, dating from about 1890, on an average of one new high school has been established in this country for every day over a period of more than thirty years. The emphasis upon the college preparatory aim which was dominant before 1900 gave place early in this century to the practical aim in science teaching. This in turn is coming to be relegated to a position of secondary importance to the emphasis upon training bo}rs and girls in habits and methods of scientific reasoning and thinking. The past twenty years, moreover, have witnessed remarkable advances in the improvement of methods and materials for science teaching. These advances have been due to several causes but chiefly to the influence of edu¬ cational research in helping to determine subjectmatter and teaching methods better suited to the individual pupil. The science curriculum of today is far simpler than that of thirty years ago. In those days physiology, physiography, hygiene, botany, zoology, and astronomy were very commonly found in the high schools. But today their places have been taken largely by general science and general biology. These new courses are rapidly growing in popularity because they give the boys and girls an all-round, practical training impossible before their in¬ troduction. Future indications point unmistakably to the introduction of a broader and more extensive training in science in the elementary grades. BOOKS THAT MEET INSTINCTS HANOR A. WEBB, DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY AND GENERAL SCIENCE, GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS, NASHVILLE, TENN. The instincts that most concern teachers are those of young folks. The instincts of young people that advertise themselves most notably are those of adolescence. Among the most valued tools with w’hich teachers handle adolescent instincts are books. Fortunately, there are many of these volumes particularly suited to “crowd out evil with good” at this particular [561] 562 National Education Association age. Science books on the high-school level are probably without a peer for this purpose. It is my privilege to show that each year a very large supply of books are placed upon the market that will stimulate certain of the most pro¬ nounced instincts of youth in helpful interest and development. Let the year, for example, be the most recent one — 1928, and early 1929, in which all titles listed below have been published. 1. Books for the “gang instinct ” — Boy Scout troups are “gangs” under noble oath and law, and the Boy Scout Handbook is their “bible.” Never was a book with so much of nature lore and practical science crowded be¬ tween covers. Supplementing the 1928 edition is The Scout and His Law by Chalmers (Macmillan) — an inspiring amplification. Scout troups are “outdoor gangs,” so Tracks and Trails by Rossell (Mac¬ millan) furnished footprints for them to follow. The Young Collector by McMillen (Appleton) will keep hands, eyes, and minds busy. Walk, Look, and Listen by Fullet (Day) posts signs along the naturalist’s high¬ way for young “highwaymen,” and Outdoor Adventures by Shirling (World) opens eyes wider, and gives many games to play. A Handbook of Stunts by Rodgers (Macmillan) puts muscles to work anytime, any¬ where, while there are places where Build A Winning Model Yacht by Moore (Stokes) and Canoeing, Sailing and Motor Boating ( Revised ) by Miller (Appleton) will “start something” worthwhile. Keep the “gang” busy, particularly outdoors, and watch them grow! 2. The love of adventure — Every adolescent craves adventure. Fortu¬ nately, vicarious adventure often serves, if it be virile, and turns out all right. A peculiar psychology — which we will not stop to explain — gives zest to tales of adventure far away, where strangeness is a feature. Hence the year’s two greatest adventure books — Safari, A Saga of the African Blue by Martin Johnson (Putnam), and Beneath Tropic Seas by Beebe (Putnam) give thrills of intimacy with African plains and Haitian bays where few youngsters go. Some fortunate ones do, as Three Boy Scouts in Africa by Robert, David, and Douglass (Putnam) and its opposite, Three Boys in Alaska by Tomlinson (Appleton) attest. Seascouts “man” the ship in an actual voyage, The Cruise of the “Northern Light ” by Mrs. Bordon (Macmillan) ; high-school youth visits Europe as Young America Travels Abroad by Breenbie and Davis (Stokes) or spends time Seeing South America by Guitteau and Winter (Row, Peterson). They may project themselves back to other days of travel, as on The Clipper Ship by Daniel (Dodd, Meade). Adventure also thrills in the rollicking tales, Jamaica “ Ginger 'J by Mar¬ tin (Lothrop) and Panther Magic by Baker (Dodd, Meade). 3. Books for the instinct of hero-worship — Where shall we start with the heroes of youth? Today? Then Lindbergh the Lone Eagle by Fife (Burt) is uptodate except for the “lone” reference. Shall fiction replace fact, for variety merely, since truth is yet stranger than fiction? Then Renfrew Rides the Sky by Erskine (Appleton) serves. Shall history turn Department of Science Instruction 563 back a few years for heroes? Try Boys’ Life of the Wright Brothers by Charnley (Harpers) as a merited tribute to unostentatious heroism. The air, however, has no monoply of heroes; read Famous Seamen of America by Powers and Webster (Crowell) and be convinced. To prove that pa¬ tience may be as heroic as daring let The Boy Who Found Out by Wade (Appleton) testify; he was Jean Henri Fabre, the world’s most patient, and long most unappreciated, scientist. American soil has long known heroes’ footprints, even in moccasins, as Indian Heroes by McSpadden (Crowell) impartially tells us. We can call this science too, as so much of primitive life was close to nature indeed. Even closer was The Tamer of Herds, who lived 8000 years ago, by Fran¬ cis Rolt-Wheeler (Appleton) and who is more seriously — possibly more accurately — described in Prehistoric Man by Henderson (Dutton, 1927), yet loses little of the heroic to the active imagination of a youth. To clinch matters, however, one peruses Man the Miracle Maker by Hendrik Van Loon (Liveright) and looks at the typical “van loony” pictures. May animals be heroes? Surely Flash, the Lead Dog by Marsh (Penn), Steeldust, the Story of a Horse by Birney (Penn), and Long Horn, Leader of the Deer by Lippincott (Penn) are proof enough, yet there are many others that ran through the presses in 1928. 4. Books concerning heroic professions — Youth decides his prospective vocation many times. Had you stopped to observe that an occupation which youth deems heroic is always his selection? No matter how prosaic the job of a locomotive engineer, a city fireman, a motorman may seem to the adult occupant, youth anticipates it with a thrill. Are there really heroic professions? From the tone of certain books, we would believe there are. Read The Story of Engineering in A?nerica by Fraser (Crowell) or What Engineers Do by Binger (Norton) and resist if you can a yearning to become one of them. Perhaps the serious book The Engineer, His Work, and His Education by Sackett (Ginn) will temper your zeal with knowledge. Are machinists heroes? Possibly even adults would more highly re¬ spect their craft if they read Marvels of Modern Mechanics by Wilkins (Dutton) or The Boys’ Book of Remarkable Machinery by Hawkes (Dodd, Meade) and realized true ingenuity, patience, and skill of hand and brain forged into metal. Engines by Andrade (Harcourt) leaves little more to be told; Inventions and Patents by Wright (McGraw-Hill, 1927) gives every needed bit of information to allow you to embark upon a me¬ chanical career of your own. If you are to run it by a motor, however, take a simple Book of Electricity by Parker (Houghton) or a comprehen¬ sive one on the economics of electric power, Aladdin U. S. A. by Green¬ wood (Harper) for practical information. Flying, of course, is a heroic life. The youngster should begin safely, with smaller “ships”; Building and Flying Model Aircraft by Garber (Ronald) and Model Airplanes, How to Build and Fly Them by Allen (Stokes) start them aright. They will reach the level of Elements of 564 National Education Association Aviation by Clark (Ronald) and The Airplane and Its Engine by Chatfield and Taylor (McGraw-Hill) in due time. Meanwhile let Conquering the Air by Williams (Nelson) and Aviation Stories by Thomson (Long¬ mans) keep up the interest. Even the little boys and girls may begin the acquisition of “airmindedness” with Pioneers of the Air by Gravatt (Mentzer) as their simple reader. Is radio heroic? Perhaps it has settled down to a more serious business, merely transmitting the heroics of the world. This year’s books are sub¬ stantial: The Outline of Radio by Hogan (Little), Practical Radio by Moyer and Wostrel (McGraw-Hill), The Radio Manual by Sterling, each desperately trying to keep up with runaway radio. There is a new thrill, however, in The Electric IV or d — The Rise of Radio by Schubert (Macmillan) in which the worldwide politics of radio transmission be¬ tween nations is given as a new kind of history. There are other heroic occupations, of course. The Boys' Book of Coast Guards by Crump (Dodd) tells of but one of them. 5. Non-heroics in book form — Shall we exalt heroics, however, as a stimulant of youthful instincts? Truly, there should be some time spent with books that stay at home. With many young folks the practical theme, About Your Dog by Lemmon (Stokes) and its mate, The Boys’ Book of Dogs by Barbour (Dodd) will bring them back to earth. Minds, like bodies, cannot always wander. It is to be hoped that even Our Farm World by Ullrich (Longmans) or Practical Poultry Farming by Hurd (Macmillan) may mark the passing of storm and stress in the desires of the youthful instincts, and prove real friends and close advisers. Possibly Estimating Building Costs by Arthur (Scientific Book Corporation) is an equally practical direction into which ideas may be directed. For pleasure, Beginning to Garden by Woodell (Macmillan) and a host of companion volumes may be most appropriate. For evenings indoors try Fun with Figures by Collins (Appleton) as a mental comedy for variety’s sake. Last, but not least, it might be hoped that youth would learn to value books on health. Studies have shown that of all fields that might be called scientific, the young people of high-school level place physiology as of least in¬ terest to them. Health books of last year are by no means dull. There is the snappy volume The Daily Health Builder by Crampton (Putnam) that is so rollicking in style you want to do the exercises just to keep up the joke! More serious, but equally to the point, are Your Nerves and Their Control by Kennedy and Stephenson (Appleton), and Laughter and Health by Walsh (Appleton). The time will come to all when youthful founda¬ tions, instinctive or acquired, will have builded a body, a business, and a character, and with thrills passing rapidly into reminiscences, the book Keeping Young After Forty by Whitmore be the most valued of all! Department of Science Instruction 565 WHAT SHOULD TEACHERS KNOW IN ORDER TO TEACH SCIENCE IN A MODERN DEMOCRACY f— ABSTRACT RALPH K. WATKINS, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI, COLUMBIA, MO. What should science teachers know in order to teach science in a modern world? lArst , these teachers must know science as taught in the best col¬ leges and universities, more science than most high-school teachers now know as expressed in college hours. In a world which is growing daily more dependent upon the most recent findings of science, teachers must be better trained in subjectmatter than ever before. Second , teachers must be versed in recent literature in the field of science. Science changes overnight. Science teachers must keep abreast of the rapid movements in their own fields. The markets and libraries are filled with volumes on science for lay readers. The science teacher must have such material at his tongue’s end to satisfy the voracious reading appetites of growing youth. Third , science teachers, in addition to the science of the textbook, the laboratory, and the savant’s lecture, must know the science of the world in which their pupils live. High-school science teachers have been disgraced in this generation by a multitude of twelve, fourteen, and fifteen-year old boys who have built radio receiving sets and even transmitters by the hun¬ dreds and have come to school to have simple questions about radio an¬ swered, if at all, in terms of crystal detector, sliding tuning coil, sets as antiquated as the dodo. Teachers must get out of the realm of pickled specimens and embalmed information into a world of growing trees, flower¬ ing plants, and singing birds, to keep up with the youth of a generation that has turned to the outdoors and the immediate. But what are the poor maligned science teachers to do about it, go to summer school until they are gray, stooped, crabbed, anemic, and tooth¬ less? Yes and no. Science teachers need to continue college work until they can assure themselves of adequate fundamental training in the subject- matter which they use. Too often the matter of graduate credit is a stum¬ bling block to continued college training. Teachers sometimes need specific training in courses which do not provide credit for Master’s degrees. They need to be willing to secure needed training, although it may make the attainment of an advanced degree somewhat slower. On the other hand, the colleges and universities could help. Require¬ ments for specialization should be modified in recognition of the need of the high-school teacher for breadth of training rather than for research proficiency. Some courses should be organized for teachers rather than for specialists who are seeking research degrees in special fields. Many college courses need to be reorganized from within in such fashion that they will not only teach theory and law but also help prospective teachers to make contacts with the applications and uses of science in the world. 566 National Education Association Continue to go to school indefinitely? No. Today is the day of the renaissance of the selfeducated man. No college or university can ever complete and guarantee the completion of the education of a growing in¬ dividual. Science teachers must read. Teachers need to become as pro¬ fessionally minded as physicians, dentists, barbers, and union laborers. They must come to a continuous reading program of the material with which they work. If high-school teachers would read the material of the con¬ tinually revised reading list recommended in course syllabi, library lists, and bibliographies of science books for their own high-school pupils, a paper of this sort would in a school generation become unnecessary. Teachers can undertake their own training in observation, identification, construction, and experimentation. It does not pay in these days of mass production to construct a radio receiving set at home. This statement is true for everyone but science teachers and growing boys. If I had to teach electricity to junior or senior high-school boys I would make a radio set before schools open this fall. If I couldn’t name twenty or thirty trees of my vicinity at sight I would buy a popular tree guide, a Gray’s Manual of Botany and embark upon an interesting hobby and worthwhile program of selftraining. If the preliminary science training of teachers means any¬ thing at all it means training in how to find out. All teachers preach this maxim to students in high-school science classes. Let them turn this in toward their own training and we shall have adequately trained teachers for the newer generation in this democracy of ours. THE PLACE OF THE GARDEN IN NATURE EDUCATION DAVID A. WARD, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CHESTER, PA. Nature education is one of the broadest fields of educational endeavor. In its general sense, nature education includes the natural sciences as well as the elementary forms of instruction, commonly known as nature study. In our common conception of nature education, we eliminate such spe¬ cialized branches of knowledge as botany, zoology, agriculture, physics, chemistry, geology, and astronomy, and restrict our attention to the more superficial examination of nature in its broad sense. Of course, any study of nature involves some of the body of knowledge belonging to one or more of these sciences. A well-arranged course of nature education, therefore, may serve as an introduction to the natural sciences. It is not, however, the scientific knowledge to be gained that gives to nature education its value. Nature, as music or art, to be of value, must be appreciated. It is of no consequence to know the names of trees, flowers, birds, insects, rocks, and soils, unless that knowledge contributes in some way to the fuller realization of life by the individual. The mechanical memorization and recitation of the common facts of nature are uninteresting and burdensome unless learned in contact with nature itself. In order that nature lore be taught effectively, from the standpoint of appreciation, it is necessary that facilities be provided for bringing pupils Department of Science Instruction 567 regularly into contact with nature. Among the facilities in the scheme of nature education, the garden holds first place. It is a laboratory for experimentation and observation, and a study of one of the most common phases of nature education, namely, plant life. There are many advantages of the garden as an aid to the study of nature that can not be had if the instructor must depend alone upon uncultivated plant life for instruction material. In the first place, the feeling of owner¬ ship, which goes with the garden, creates and intensifies the interest in the study of plants. The school or the class as a group may own a garden, or the individual child may own a section of the school garden. In any case, there is a pride of ownership that adds interest, which the study of the plant in its native environment does not inspire. Ownership is one of the most compelling forces in sustaining interest. Just as the customer studies the market with reference to the stock in which he owns shares, the child will study the garden or the part of it which he can claim as his own. From the standpoint of interest alone, the garden is a worthwhile part of the nature study equipment. A second advantage of the garden in nature study is its convenience for illustration and class instruction. The garden, if planted near the school or in miniature form in the schoolroom, is always at hand for use without the formality of a field trip. A third advantage the garden holds is the opportunity it affords for continuous observation of the growing process. The child can visit his garden every day and observe the development of his plants. The teacher can explain plant growth. The child will receive a clearer idea of the growing process and besides will have the inspiration and joy of observing one of nature’s mysteries. Through the agency of the garden, conveniently located, the growing process can be better taught, and the plant relationship to the child will be more keenly appreciated. Beautification of environment is another important function of the gar¬ den. The fundamentals of landscaping may very well be taught through the medium of the garden. There are unusual possibilities for the train¬ ing of children in the appropriate arrangement of flowers and shrubbery. The school grounds may be used and the children instructed in the care of gardens. If a portion of the school ground is set apart for flowers and shrubbery, and placed in the care of the pupils, under supervision, it be¬ comes not only a means for studying landscaping, but a source of pride in the beauty of the school that teaches respect for property and appreciation of beauty. There is a practical aspect to the school garden also. Actual work in the garden produces a familiarity with a phase of nature that mere observa¬ tion will not afford. As an exploratory course, the garden offers the oppor¬ tunity for the child with talent for agriculture, forestry, or some other of the nature fields, to discover his bent. There are, therefore, possibilities of an industrial value in the school garden. While it may not lead directly 568 National Education Association to an occupation in the field of nature, it will provide for the discovery of interests which later may lead to life occupations. For recreation, the garden provides a form of activity which is both healthful and promotive of nature interest. The recreational value of a period of work in the garden is probably as great as that of a field trip for the study of wild nature, and, besides, the child has the inspiration of use¬ ful work. Thrift education is regarded as one of the important phases of educa¬ tional activity. There are many lessons in thrift in the school garden — the conservation of space in planning the garden, conservation of cost in preparing and planting the garden, and in harvesting the products, budget¬ ing and utilizing time are examples of thrift lessons that may be had through the medium of the garden. The teacher, who is alert, will find many opportunities for instilling into the children lessons of thrift and conservation that will aid in the formation of character and life habits. The exaltation of feeling that comes from achievement is another funda¬ mental element in the development of the child. This the garden affords. There is no more wholesome result of work than the consciousness of hav¬ ing achieved something worthwhile. The child, when he views the grow¬ ing garden and when he harvests the products of his labor, is elevated to a higher plane of selfconsciousness in beholding the accomplishment for which he is responsible. In this there is a distinct educational value and a contribution to his love and appreciation of nature. There is a strong moral or spiritual value in the growing of plants. Firsthand contact with nature tends to broaden the child’s life, to give zest and interest and develop a wholesome moral attitude. The garden fur¬ nishes a convenient means for giving the child this contact. The element of ownership gives to it a strong appeal to the child. The emotional life, on which character so largely depends, has a most wholesome development through the influence of the garden. There are, without doubt, unlimited opportunities for instilling into the children of America, through the school garden, a love of nature that will be a strong factor in the development of higher standards of character. There is no more vital force in our lives for the development of character than frequent contacts with nature. It is the function of the school garden to provide this contact. It is, there¬ fore, as a laboratory, of prime importance in the general field of nature education. SPECIAL EXPERIENCE IN TEACHING NATURE- ABSTRACT THOMAS I. DOWLING, DIRECTOR OF NATURE EDUCATION, PARKER SCHOOL DISTRICT, GREENVILLE, S. C. In Parker School District we do not distinguish between nature study and elementary science. Such a differentiation, we find, only tends to hinder instruction, and there is no particular reason for such a differentia- Department of Science Instruction 569 tion, as these two fields naturally merge one into the other. Nature study is more than biological science. An outline of some of our experiences in teaching nature will be helpful here : 1. Parker School District maintains a three weeks summer camp in the Blue Ridge Mountains of North Carolina for its teachers. 2. Within four miles of the schools the district maintains a cabin on a mountain for excursions, overnight hikes, etc. 3. There is an organized group of teachers who spend a greater part of their spare time helping to solve the problems in this field. 4. The first winter camp for nature teachers was carried on this past Christmas with great success. 5. Nature trails near schools have been established. 6. A handbook for teachers of nature study or natural science has been prepared by our teachers of this subject. 7. A very satisfactory library of reference books and materials has been estab¬ lished, and this information is available for use of teachers and pupils. A materials bureau, a division of our library, is maintained for securing and organizing all available materials. 8. There is a continuity of nature science principles from the first grade through the eleventh, with a closely woven correlation of other subjects. The summer camp, “Reasonover,” in the Blue Ridge Mountains of North Carolina, conducted by the Parker School District for teachers, is unique and one of the most outstanding features of the district for training its teachers, especially in natural science. Our superintendent was quick to realize the importance of such a training place and period for his teachers. This camp is particularly adapted for the study of natural science. It con¬ tains a lake which occupies approximately sixteen acres, and affords an opportunity for the study of aquatic and amphibian life. The mountain sides are covered with typical mountain plants and trees, with its share of animals from the kingdom. Rivers and streams are nearby, as well as interesting geological formations. And the heavenly bodies may be viewed without obstruction. A small laboratory is established which enables work where apparatus is required to proceed unhindered. Nature excursions and hikes are frequent and extremely profitable. Each year a very capable instructor in this field has been employed to cooperate with the school staff in carrying on a real natural science train¬ ing course for our teachers. We were indeed very fortunate to have Miss Marjorie Ross during our first camp; and since then Dr. Gerald S. Craig, of Teachers College, Columbia University, has directed this work. Our camp likewise has had the services of the late Dr. A. C. Moore, of the University of South Carolina, and Dr. S. A. Ives, of Furman University, who have contributed much to our cause. Furman University, of Greenville, S. C., maintains a nature study camp within four miles of our camp, which is available to our teachers. With thorough instruction in theory, methods, materials, and practical application of all of these, we feel that a forward step has been taken toward placing our nature work upon a thorough and organized basis. 570 National Education Association The spirit with which all of our teachers have cooperated with the special group in helping to solve various problems that constantly confront us, has been another great help towards the goal to which we are working. This special group of teachers, eighteen in number, and especially trained in natural science, spent their Christmas holidays in our winter camp study¬ ing winter science. A result of this camp was oUr teachers handbook in natural science to help meet the need of the other teachers of this subject. We consider this handbook as the first milestone of our work. This syllabus or handbook is intended for teachers. It contains fifty topics, or larger objectives, of natural science, as The Sun, Green Leaves are the World’s Food Factories, Dependence of Animals upon Plants, Gravity, The Work of the Wind upon the Surface of the Earth, Magnet¬ ism and Electricity, Protective Coloration, Rocks, Heat, Migration of Birds and other Animals, etc., dealing with the fundamental principles of natural science. These larger objectives are a permanent part of our curriculum in both the elementary and the high school, and are not to be considered as certain principles lifted apart from the rest of the curriculum. In developing this material we kept in mind the importance of these objectives and their essential meanings which were to be developed by the teacher. In order to give you some idea of how this was done we selected a num¬ ber of major principles of natural science which have to do with the environment and the interpretation of the phenomena which commonly challenge children. In reference to our unit on the sun, the following specific objectives were advanced: 1. The sun is the center of our solar system 2. The sun is the source of all energy Care was taken to express the objectives and essential meanings in as simple language and terminology as possible, this being the part which the child was to retain. The specific objectives were a part of some larger principles which we have already referred to, for example: 1. Space is vast 2. Man’s conception of truth changes 3. Much knowledge remains to be discovered 4. Earth’s position and relation to other astronomical bodies The essential meanings to be developed were then listed and from these the teacher could select those which applied to her particular unit of work. Those listed under our unit on the sun are: E The sun is the center of our solar system 2. Our sun is in reality a star 3. Our sun is composed of burning gases of the same elements as found on the earth Department of Science Instruction 571 4. Our sun is approximately 1,300,000 times as large as our earth 5. Our sun is approximately 93,000,000 miles from the earth 6. There are other suns larger than our sun 7. The sun is the source of all energy 8. The sun gives off heat and light 9. Only a small portion of the heat and light of the sun reaches the earth, but it is sufficient to sustain life 10. Our earth rotates around the sun causing day and night 11. Our earth revolves around the sun causing change of seasons 12. Sun spots are disturbances on the sun which cause the intensity of the heat and light to increase and decrease at intervals 13. An eclipse of the sun occurs when the moon passes between the earth and the sun 14. Sunlight keeps our world healthy 15. The light of the sun gives leaves their color 16. There would be no changes in weather, rain or sun on the earth if it were not for the sun Following the essential meanings comes the content material for this unit in as simple language as possible, and finally a bibliography listing all mate¬ rials available, as books, pictures, pamphlets, lantern slides, etc. There is no attempt made to teach all of the major or specific objectives, and their essential meanings, in any one year or period of years. Once an objective or essential meaning is learned, more can be added from year to year with increasing complexity. A word should be said here concerning the correlation of natural science principles with other subjects. Miss Mary Cornelia Barton, one of our elementary teachers, was very interested in putting on a unit of work on Byrd’s Expedition to the South Polar Regions. Some of the questions asked by her pupils were: 1. Why is the south pole cold? 2. What will Byrd take with him? 3. How is he going? 4. Who first found the land around the south pole? 5. How will Byrd care for the health of his men? 6. How will he communicate with people at home? And some of the natural science which came out of this unit was : 1. The compass. How constructed and operated? 2. Seasonal change. 3. What causes snow? 4. Effect of heat and cold on food. 5. How weather records are kept. 6. Need of warmth and sunshine for plants. 7. Adaptations of animals to cold and how man adapts himself to such conditions. At the same time this unit lent itself to a study of English, mathematics, industrial arts, social science, geography, civics, and health. Not all of our units are such that as much science could be included as in the Byrd unit. But thus far we have only found a few that are not so adapted. There are times when we have units that are practically all natural science units. Thus natural science has found a permanent place 572 National Education Association v in our curriculum, through correlation with other major subjects, thereby not really supplying an additional Subject to our already crowded elementary curriculum. The correlation of natural science with other subjects in the high school has been fairly successful. There is more or less an overlapping of subject- matter in mathematics, social science, health, English, and industrial arts, with natural science principles. By the use of a large correlation board and different colored cards for each subject, we have visualized this corre¬ lation, and wherever possible the teachers of subjects which lend themselves to correlation are taught at the same time. In conclusion we find that : 1. Natural science finds its place in our curriculum through correlation of other subjects and without an additional subject. 2. Our summer camp for all teachers affords the best and the most unique method of training our teachers in this particular field. 3. The organization of the natural science curriculum in the Parker School Dis¬ trict around the major objectives or principles of this subject establishes a continuity or core which runs through the entire curriculum and affords a method of presenting natural science on a well-organized basis. NATURE EDUCATION IN KENTUCKY— ABSTRACT EMILIE YUNKER, DIRECTOR OF NATURE STUDY AND GARDENING, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LOUISVILLE, KY. There is no state in the Union which affords so many opportunities for serious work in nature study as Kentucky. Here we find a wealth of deciduous trees, a great variety of wild flowers, the loveliest of song birds, the mountain streams, Cumberland Falls, and Mammoth Cave — all ours to enjoy. > Our aim — Firsthand experiences, thus making life more worth living, creating beauty wherever possible, developing character, health and better citizenship. More and more the practical, as well as the esthetic, side is being employed. Nothing has led to so close a relationship between the school and the neighborhood as the planting of trees. The children made a survey of their respective neighborhoods, planted seeds and seedlings, and have taken part in the dedication of memorial trees. Living Christmas trees were planted. The children attract the song birds by making bird baths and cafeterias, and providing food and drink. Plants bearing fruit for the birds are being grown; bittersweet for the cedar waxwings, dogwood for the bluebirds, and purple beauty fruit for the mockingbirds. Rabbits at school led to a series of valuable studies in a primary grade. Building an enclosure, feeding and care of the pets, their health, and kind treatment were all the basis of much thoughtful work. The aquarium project was very interesting. A visit to the pet shop, fish hatchery and pond, stocking the aquarium with fish, and the need for Department of Science Instruction 573 scavengers furnished wideawake studies for weeks. The more the children observed, the more they sought. Every good book on the subject was eagerly read. Great interest was manifested in our nature exhibit. It contained habitat groups of Kentucky birds and butterflies. The tree posters featured technical information, miniature articles of wood of the trees, fruits, nuts, blueprints of leaves, and quotations from the poets. Art literature, science, industry, chemistry, and manufacture were represented. As for nature study in the south, there is a great future. It is going for¬ ward rapidly. We have a better field for bird life, for insect life, and for plant life, and it reaches more nearly around the school year than in the north. “More teachers trained for the work and more stress on nature study” is our slogan. HOW THE UNIVERSITY MAY HELP IN TRAINING THE NATURE TEACHER— ABSTRACT W. B. BAKER, PROFESSOR OF BIOLOGY, EMORY UNIVERSITY, ATLANTA, GA. The requirements of the successful nature teacher — The most important element in carrying out any educational program is the teacher. He is the key to the educational situation. His responsibility is especially great and his importance is to be particularly emphasized when new ideas and projects are inaugurated. The success or failure of the nature program rests largely with him. A few characteristics of the successful nature teacher should be consid¬ ered before we can discuss intelligently the part the university can play in his training. (1) In the first place the teacher should have a pleasing and attractive personality, a keen imagination, great personal enthusiasm, and not be so bound by methods that his teaching lacks freshness and vigor. (2) He must have a sincere and well grounded appreciation of nature, together with a wholesome personal outlook on life and the natural world with all its objects and phenomena. (3) He must be trained to observe accurately, correlate carefully, and draw conclusions correctly. (4) He must be thoroughly familiar with the facts as related to natural objects and phenomena. He must likewise know the generalities and principles which operate throughout nature, as illustrated by individual objects of interest and significance in the great out-of-doors. (5) Finally he must be able to teach and inspire his pupils from an abundant reserve of information and enthusiasm. No current can flow except from higher to lower levels. No teacher can inspire his pupils unless he himself is well grounded in the facts of his subject, has a deep and abiding faith in its value, and has an abound¬ ing enthusiasm for presenting it. How the university may help in training the nature teacher — (1) The university should in the first place give a thorough grounding in the use of the scientific method of thinking. Experience has shown that observa¬ tion of given phenomena, correlation of observed data, and experimentation in order to check the conclusions deduced, is the safest and most accurate 574 National Education Association method of discovering truth. Exhaustive knowledge of science is not a prerequisite of a nature teacher but it is most essential that he be able to use the methods of science. These methods are not limited to the truly scien¬ tific fields. They are equally as good in other phases of intellectual en¬ deavor. Hence the pupil who has been properly trained in nature study under a teacher who uses the method of observation, correlation, and experi¬ mentation is better able to cope with any of the problems of life which he is called upon to face. (2) The university should impart thorough knowl¬ edge of nature and natural phenomena to the prospective teacher. Emphasis has been placed in the past on the statement that the teaching of nature study means primarily the stimulation of a love for nature in the mind of the pupil. Likewise it has been said that the most important mark of the successful nature teacher is a great love for nature. Have love, teach love, and let the knowledge take care of itself. Because of this attitude much of nature fake has crept into our teaching. An example of this sort of thing is to be seen in the widespread teaching of a use for every structure found on plants and animals. An attempt is made to explain every spine, every hair on leaf and stem, the presence of poisons in the plant as definitely developed protective mechanisms. The various accidental relationship be¬ tween structure of flowers and insect visitation are interpreted as perfect adaptations of means to ends. The broader meaning of adaptations as seen in living organisms is usually lost. Here indeed the truth would be stranger than fiction. Nature study without a solid foundation and background of truth and fact is superficial and hazardous. I do not mean to imply that the teacher must be a master of every field of natural science, but that he should have a reserve of information from which can flow a vigorous and spontaneous current of interesting things, which will stimulate the pupil’s interest, com¬ mand his respect, and arouse within him a love and an enthusiasm for the great outdoors which will be far reaching and continuous. In order to acquire this background of information the prospective teacher should be required to take at least introductory basic courses in each of the natural sciences and then advanced courses in the particular science in which he becomes most interested. Emphasis on methods of teaching is not nearly so important as many would have us think. (3) The university should lead the way in the investigation of the prob¬ lems regarding natural phenomena which give to nature study a firm scien¬ tific background. There are those who draw a sharp line of distinction between science and nature study. They attempt to make science cold, impersonal, and uninspiring. On the other hand, they would have us believe that nature study alone is inspirational ; that it is a matter of heart rather than head reactions ; that one is a matter of cold intellectual interest, the other a matter of warm and comforting love and adoration. As a matter of fact, nature study and science are not mutually exclusive, but rather useful and important adjuncts. True science is not mere classi- Department of Science Instruction 575 fied knowledge as usually defined. It is rather the search for and study of the truths of the universe around us. Scientific study has had a great influence on the life and mind of man. It has freed him from superstition ; it has increased his material comforts ; it has given him greater leisure to think ; it has increased his selfreliance and his selfrespect. To the rational mind, truths are only satisfying when solidly grounded on observed facts. A teacher can have little enthusiasm for teaching nature unless he feels the genuine satisfaction of facts acquired from a solid founda¬ tion. Such a foundation can only be provided by patient and persistent research. The university should have for one of its most important func¬ tions the carrying on of research. (4) The university may help in training the nature teacher by inter¬ preting the facts of nature for him so that he in turn may be able to inspire the proper attitude toward natural laws and toward life in the minds of his pupils. The acquisition of facts is the mere beginning of an education. If there has been a reaction in the elementary schools against the “dry as dust” science teaching in the university, it is largely due to the fact that the university courses have become masses of facts to be memorized by the student. It is an interesting fact to know how many bacteria may be lodged on the point of a pin, but it is far more important to know what it means to pick a pimple on the face with that pin ; to know the number of miles from the earth to the sun, but it is far more significant and inspiring to know the importance of the life-giving rays which come from the sun to the earth ; to know how much carbon dioxide is given off per minute by the human body, but far more significant to know the marvelous economy of nature by which the carbon dioxide is transformed into life-giving food by the action of green plants in the presence of sunlight. (5) In training the nature teacher, emphasis should be placed on the materials found in the local environment. The courses should familiarize the student with these materials by field trips, laboratory observations, and correlated discussions. To be most effective, nature study should be made to include those things that are most common in the experience of the child. An examination of the texts and reading references in use in many of the elementary schools, shows materials listed and discussed as types which are found in localities remote from the one in which the pupil is working. This is especially true of biology. In the desire to make the biology of the col¬ lege and university different from that of the lower schools, resort is too frequently made to pickled specimens. It is not strange that some have recently defined biology as the science of life with the life left out. It is not unusual to find a course in which no living specimen, plant, or animal, is presented to the student. Needless to say, such a course fails to arouse much interest, instill much respect, or inspire much love in him for nature and natural objects. He comes to think of the course in terms of the odor of formalin and of preserved fish and frogs. In contrast, however, are those courses given by teachers inspired by the marvels of living phenomena, thoroughly conversant with living things as 576 National Education Association they occur in the natural habitat, and imbued with love for nature and nature’s God. From the first lecture and laboratory period, in the field, in the classroom, in the laboratory, laws of life as found in living plants and animals, are presented to the student. The moss, the fern, the tree, the flower, the insects, the frogs, the birds, are considered, one after another in all their relationship to each other and to their environment. The forests as well as the trees are seen. Students go from such a course not only with a knowledge of living creatures but better still,, a knowledge and appreciation of life. The university should insist upon such a course as training for the nature teacher. (6) The university should maintain in connection with its various de¬ partments a museum of materials of local as well as of general interest. No more important adjunct to nature training can be found than a well organized museum. Not only can the teacher become acquainted with a much wider range of materials in the museum but he can likewise depend upon it for the identification of new materials which he and his students find in their nature work. This phase of activity of course presupposes the accumulation of files of taxonomic reference works, as well as some training in their use by the student. In connection with the museum as complete a herbarium as possible should be provided and as many trees, shrubs, and plants as practicable should be kept growing in an arboretum or botanical garden. Here firsthand knowledge can be had from the grow¬ ing specimens. (7) A great deal of emphasis should be given to conservation programs as related to the wild life of a given region. Man in his zeal for conquest and wealth, has made many mistakes in the past. He has killed off the birds and his crops have been devastated by insects; he has cut away his forests and his soil has been robbed of its vital nutritive element ; he has polluted his streams and has caused great damage to his fisheries. Nature enthusiasts have sounded a warning as to the results of such practises, but not until recently has the public at large shown much interest or concern in the matter. Much yet needs to be done if we are to pass on to posterity a country dotted with beauty spots unspoiled by the lumberman’s axe, the stockman’s cattle, or exploited by other private interests. The university should cooperate to the fullest extent in the national park movement, in the preservation and reforestation projects, in the conservation of the wild animals and plants, in the campaigns against the pollution of lakes and rivers. In no better way can we cooperate than in the training of the nature teacher, for after all, the real success of the conservation pro¬ grams depends largely upon education, and the building of a sentiment in that direction. (8) Finally, as a part of the help the university may give in training the nature teacher, it should provide a contact man between the elementary schools in which nature study is taught and its departments in which nature teachers are trained. It is difficult to outline definitely the duties incident to such a position. The individual who fills the place should act in the Department of Science Instruction 577 capacity of adviser rather than supervisor. He should be first of all a scientist of broad training and proven teaching ability. He should be sympathetic with the problems of the teacher in the elementary and high schools and should have a keen appreciation of the relationship of the sciences to the ordinary affairs of life. He should be experienced in the technic of research and know the fields in which the most interesting and enticing problems are to be found. In addition he should be thoroughly familiar with the materials found in the area influenced by his university. His work should be both in the field and on the campus. In the field he should assist in every way possible in carrying out specific nature study programs. It is recognized that nature study should not become stereotyped either in content or method of presentation. The adviser should therefore assist each individual teacher with local problems, such as the selection of most appropriate local materials, formation of specific projects, organization of the work in the different grades, and the possible correlation of nature study with the other subjects of the curriculum. On the campus, the contact man should be charged with the organiza¬ tion of college programs which have nature teaching as their chief objec¬ tive. The science departments should be brought into close cooperation in such programs. He should maintain close connection with the teachers of nature study through correspondence and extension courses. He should have general charge of the exhibits in the museum which relate specifically to his work. This would involve the collecting of materials from the type localities, the bringing together of exhibits from various schools for loan to the university museum, the encouragement of both teachers and pupils in the maintenance of aquaria, school gardens, and the like for study of living specimens. SECRETARY’S MINUTES Atlanta Meeting First Session, Monday, July 1 The meeting was held at 2 o’clock in the Second Baptist Church with President Francis D. Curtis presiding. Papers were given by the President and Doctors Webb and Watkins in accordance with the program. Professor Glenn was unable to be present and therefore distributed reprints of his paper. In the business meeting which followed the program Dr. E. Lawrence Palmer, Professor of Natural Science at Cornell University, was elected President, and Dr. Ralph K. Watkins, Associate Professor of Education at the University of Mis¬ souri, was elected Secretary for the coming year. Three members were elected to the National Council of Education in accordance with the request from that organization. These members were: Dr. Francis D. Curtis, University of Michigan, his term to expire 1931; Dr. Hanor A. Webb, George Peaoody College for Teachers, his term to expire 1933, and Dr. Elliott Downing, University of Chicago, his term to expire 1935. In the absence of the Secretary, Dr. E. Lawrence Palmer, Grace Smith acted as Secretary. " ■ 1 • ' >hn {-/. "fb 1 ,i • i . ■ ■ x . ■ . • r •: The Department of Secondary School Principals The department of secondary school princi- pals was organized in Topeka, Kansas, in 1886, under the name of the Department of Second¬ ary Instruction. See Proceedings , 1887 :396. Antici¬ pating the proposed merger of the National Associa¬ tion of Secondary Principals with the National Edu¬ cation Association, the name of the Department has changed to the Department of Secondary School Principals. The officers for the year 1929-30 are: President , Milo H. Stuart, Principal, Arsenal Technical High School, Indianapolis, Ind. ; First Vice-president, M. Channing Wagner, Principal, Wilmington High School, Wilmington, Del.; Second Vicepresident , W. F. Warren, Principal, High School, Durham, N. C. ; Secretary-Treasurer , H. V. Church, Superintendent of Morton Secondary Schools, Cicero, Ill. ; Executive Committee , Arthur M. Seybold, Principal, Thomas Jefferson Junior High School, Cleveland, Ohio, Chairman of Junior High School Section; John W. Harbeson, Principal, Pasadena Junior College, Pasa¬ dena, Calif., Chairman of Junior College Section. Facts relating to the establishment of this Depart¬ ment and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of Proceedings as follows : 1887:395-442 1896:557-619 1905 :423-479 1913:469-499 1921 : 667-678 1888:403-433 1897:644-699 1906 :633-637 1914:445-488 1922:1267-1293 1889:499-533 1898:664-700 1907:521-710 1915:723-753 1923: 861-880 1890:615-655 1899 :601 -818 1908:577-667 1916:517-574 1924: 775-802 1891:617-687 1900:428-453 1909 :479-522 1917:253-284 1925: 450-477 1892:332-373 1901 :565-604 1910:443-533 1918:177-189 1926: 636-652 1893:177-242 1902:455-492 1911:555-657 1919: 195-204 1927: 599-677 1894:743-794 1895:579-635 1903:429-486 1904 :473-536 1912:663-765 1920: 209-230 1928: 591-650 L 580] ADVISORY CONTROL OF SCHOOLS— ABSTRACT FRANK D. BOYNTON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ITHACA, N. Y. Teachers more than financiers or captains of industry realize that, un¬ less we develop through presentday education and training a genera¬ tion able to cope with the problems of the future, the United States will turn into a Russia with a Lenin or into an Italy with a Mussolini.” Such is the recently expressed opinion of Mr. Roger Babson, eminent statis¬ tician, speaking before the Massachusetts Schoolmasters Club of the rapidly changing conditions in presentday society and industry. Whether or not one shares his apprehension as to the possible fate of the United States, one can agree heartily with his recognition of the superior perspicacity of the teacher over that of the industrialist or the financier in the field of education. In matters pertaining to the study and training of youth, teachers are at last coming to be recognized as experts whose recom¬ mendations in the educational field are to be followed as are the physician’s in medicine, or the lawyer’s in legal matters, or the engineer’s in matters of construction. In other words, education is winning recognition as a definitely estab¬ lished profession whose practitioners, having mastered a certain field of technical knowledge and a definite technic, are entitled to recognition as professionals, and in many cases as experts, and have a right to demand that they be freed from the burden of lay interference heretofore imposed to an extent that no other profession would tolerate. It is inevitable and entirely desirable that with the increasing development and organization of the teaching profession, this body of trained workers shall exercise a growing influence and direction of legislation in the educa¬ tional field. From them youth has nothing to fear. They are the guardians of the rights of childhood. In every state of this union the teachers have been found on the side of the children in all matters pertaining to their health and welfare. They believe that every child should be born and live under conditions of health and be free from injurious labor, and that he should have full opportunity through education to develop whatever of talent he may be endowed with. They have steadily opposed those indus¬ trialists who “by resolution and supporting appropriations” boast of fighting compulsory education and child labor laws in every state of the union and loudly assert the right of a fourteen year old child in the sixth grade to de¬ termine whether he needs further education. Teachers are the implacable foes of those who, interested not in human welfare and an everyday applica¬ tion of the Golden Rule to all men but in a dependable source of cheap labor, stand ready to short circuit their fellows and to coin the birthright of childhood into coupons, sending their own children meantime to private schools and loudly decrying the expense of public education. And the teachers have not made their fight for the rights of childhood from merely selfish motives. A little time ago I saw a letter written by a representative of one of these “interests” anxious about the education of 1 581 ] 582 v National Education Association youth and its possible effect upon the supply of cheap labor. The writer admitted frankly that the interest of his industry in education was selfish, adding, “just as superintendents are interested in education because of their selfishness.” I really wonder if he believed the cases parallel, or if it were not an exhibition of spleen ? Certainly exerting one’s influence either indi¬ vidually or through organization for the wider extension of educational opportunity offers small hope of increasing one’s individual salary as teacher or superintendent. On the other hand, exerting one’s influence as an in¬ dustrialist to curtail educational opportunity as a means of assuring an ade¬ quate supply of cheap labor has for its primary and sole purpose the in¬ creasing of one’s personal profits. No, the cases are not parallel. When the men engaged in industry and in the other professions will accept the same compensation that teachers receive, when at the end of their careers they will turn over their keys and the results of their life work to strangers with no vested interests to pass on to those they love and leave behind save what they have been able to save from the pittance received as wages, then and not till then can they afford to invite comparison between their motives and the motives of the teaching profession. Since I have been superintendent of schools in Ithaca I have known a man, starting with me at my salary level, to rise in manufacturing to a financial position where, sitting on the same board of directors, I have seen him write and give away a check for a sum greater than my city ever paid me for a year’s work ; I have seen a notions merchant, beginning in a small way in the same city and at the same time when I began my career as a high-school principal, steadily expand his business until today he is rated by Bradstreet as being worth a half million dollars ; I have seen a pupil of mine enter upon business in a small news stand and retire in early middle life, a wealth man, driving a Cadillac while I must toil on notwithstanding the accumulation of years on the Ford level. This experience can be duplicated in every city in every state of the union. I would not be misunderstood. I feel no personal envy of these men nor of the thousands they represent. I am not grieved that not one of the fifteen hundred new millionaires reported in 1927 was a teacher. But unless society can be led or driven into offering rewards for the training of its children more nearly comparable to those it is willing to pay to the makers of its automobiles, it must expect to see a large proportion of its finest potential teaching ability expending itself in business and industrial enterprise. Isn’t it a fair question, even if disturbing to the established order, to ask : Are these material things more important than the training of youth in which is wrapped up the general welfare? At present it would seem that the way out is through organization, through the selection of leaders of ability and courage, and through the adoption of all legitimate methods which other interests and blocs have used successfully. Thus may we hope to hasten the day when bankers and manufacturers cease to draft the laws for the control of public education. We have been piously told that ours is a noble profession. Let us make it Department of Secondary School Principals 583 an effective one for the protection of our own interests and the interests of the youth entrusted to our care. Let us remember that when we entered upon the profession of teaching we did not lay aside a single duty, respon¬ sibility, or privilege which other citizens enjoy. We are still Americans with all the rights and privileges thereunto appertaining. Let us not be de¬ terred from using them effectively by any cry of “Wolf, wolf” from the camp of the interests. EXAMPLES OF SCIENTIFIC PROCEDURE IN SUPER¬ VISION-ABSTRACT CHARLES H. JUDD, DIRECTOR OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL. High-school principals have begun to supervise their own activities. There is no clearer evidence than this that the day of mere arbitrary direction of school procedures is past. There was a time when high-school principals were satisfied to stay in their offices or to visit classes as seemed to them individually most expedient. Today there is a new force at work. The principal of a school has become aware of the fact that he is isolated and that possibly he is not infallible in his judgments. He writes to principals in other cities and asks them how much time they spend visiting classes, and how many conferences they have with teachers. He tabulates the answers and compares himself with other members of the profession. A series of tabulations on these general topics which has recently come into my hands varies in an interesting way from the usual questionnaire procedure of con¬ sulting one’s colleagues. A principal in one of the Michigan towns has induced his fellow-principals to ask representative teachers in their schools how often the principal visited their classes for purposes of supervision, how much time the principal spent on the average in making these supervisory visits, how useful the principal’s comments were, and so on. It is probable that Michigan is at least no less active in supervision than other parts of the country, but the results of the inquiry just described will certainly cause some careful thinking on the part of high-school principals who read the report. One impressive detail may be reported here. In answer to the question : “Will you answer frankly — did the supervision which you re¬ ceived last year make you a better teacher?’’ Fifty-three teachers said “Yes,” and fifty-one said “No.” Any principal who pretends to be scientific and confines his attention to teachers and pupils is still in the primary stages of mastery of the science of education. The science of education ought to make the administrator critical of his own methods. The supervisor who can guide his own con¬ duct by standards derived from careful, impersonal, impartial examination of results is the truly scientific supervisor. Perhaps I can make the point more cogently by using a negative illustra¬ tion. There are some principals who unload on teachers responsibility for results of class instruction. There is a high-school principal who, to my 584 National Education Association knowledge tells his teachers that a failure of more than five percent of the pupils in any given class is a reflection on the ability of the teacher. I am disposed to think there is some validity in a general way in this principal’s pronouncement, but certainly an individual teacher has a right to point out that the pupils in his class came to him, not of his choice, but as the result of a series of promotions for which the school system as a whole is re¬ sponsible. The individual teacher has a right to point out the fact that the textbook which he uses is chosen by the department of which he is a member rather than by himself, or even worse, that the textbook is chosen by some¬ body so remote from his class and school that the chances are at least even that the book is not suited to his class. The individual teacher can properly call attention to the fact that the policy of the school with regard to the number of courses which a pupil is allowed to elect, with regard to the amount of home study expected, with regard to extracurriculum activities are all factors of the first importance in contributing to the success or un¬ success of his teaching. In short, no individual teacher is responsible for the success of the pupils in his class. The school is a cooperative enterprise and the principal is more powerful in determining the outcome of the Latin class or the class in algebra than he has been accustomed to recognize. If supervision is to be truly scientific, it must recognize the justice of dis¬ tributing responsibility. A recent study made in one of the high schools near Chicago shows that the boys in one of the groups which is chiefly engaged in shopwork are far less likely to be found in the social clubs than are the boys in other groups. The explanation given of this fact is that the shop boys do not regard their clothes as suited to social occasions. It is perfectly evident that the shop boys ought to be in some of the social clubs. They, more than any of the other boys, need the training provided by these clubs. The mere recording of the comparative numbers of participants in social clubs brings out a defect in the scheme of supervising extracurriculum activities. Who is respon¬ sible for the defect? Certainly the head'of the school will have to recognize that here is a factor of school life which has indirect relations to all of the activities of the special group. The principal if he is keen will see the bearing of this fact on the democratic attitude of the whole pupil population. We may pause at this point in the discussion to make two comments re¬ garding scientific method. The first remark relates to socalled educational measurements. The struggle of the last two decades to demonstrate the possibility of measuring educational products has left so vivid an impression on the minds of school people that there are some who believe themselves to have satisfied the demands of science when they have compiled a table. There are not a few persons who think of quantitative statements of any kind as the final goal of the science of education. It will be evident, I think, to anyone who is not overwhelmed by figures that exact measurements are in reality useful only when they make possible fruitful comparisons. For example, it throws very little light on a pupil’s achievements to say that he Department of Secondary School Principals 585 solved five problems in algebra in ten minutes. We have an estimate of the real character of the pupil’s performance only when we know that the average of the class to which this pupil belongs is three problems solved in ten minutes. Exact measurement is the means of securing a basis of com¬ parison. Scientific evaluation must go further than merely to measure. The second comment which I wish to interject is that educational science will never accomplish its purpose so long as it merely studies present prac¬ tises. Here again many people have fallen into a misconception which is perhaps natural but seriously limiting. There are a great many practises exhibited in the schools of America. Among these many practises there are some which are extreme and some which are average. If a comparison is instituted, the extreme practises will be brought vividly to attention. For example, if the Michigan principals who were mentioned a few minutes ago visit their teachers, as they are reported to do, on the average 2.1 times in a year, that principal who is extremely industrious and visits his teachers five times each year will readily be recognized as a supervisor having un¬ usual habits. It would be overhasty, however, to conclude without further analysis of the situation that the principal who visits teachers five times a year is better or worse than his fellows. If the five-time visitations are of a kind which irritate teachers, perhaps the large number represents a com¬ pounding of inefficiency. On the other hand, if the 2.1 visitations which represent average practise is relied on as a guide, it may be that the five-time principal may be unduly discouraged in well-doing. Average practise has come to be recognized as having a kind of superior sanction because it is assumed that in the long run experience will gradually reveal the most expedient forms of behavior. The fact is that very often average practise represents not a highly evolved wisdom but rather a highly calloused complacency. Practise must be critically examined. It must be studied with regard to its consequences and very often the largest possible service which scientific analysis can render is to overturn and wholly revise average practise. THE PRINCIPAL’S PROGRAM FOR TRAINING PUPILS IN HABITS OP STUDY— ABSTRACT J. B. EDMONSON, DEAN, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN, ANN ARBOR, MICH. In the last decade, principals, supervisors, and teachers have taken an increasing interest in the pupil, in contrast to the former absorption in the subjectmatter of instruction. This is a change of great significance. It is certain that when all teachers devote their major attention to the pupil and make a genuine effort to adjust materials and methods of instruction to the abilities and needs of the individual pupil, our school system will have un¬ dergone a very complete revolution. With the increasing emphasis on the pupil, teachers are coming to accept the idea that their chief function is to stimulate and guide the pupil’s learning rather than as formerly to impart 586 National Education Association information. Teachers are also much more concerned than formerly about effective ways of aiding the pupil in forming right habits of learning in order that he may meet with the maximum of success in his work. There has come a recognition by teachers that the secondary-school work is far from satisfactory unless pupils are trained “how to attack their work through study” and how to study “in the level of selfdependence.”1 With this development has come the demand from teachers for help and guidance from supervisors and principals in the matter of training pupils in habits of study. P'or several years the instructors in one of the required courses in educa¬ tion in the University of Michigan have directed the students to interview freshmen. These interviews have been for the purpose of adjustment to the university work. Year after year these university students have re¬ ported that freshmen complain particularly of the lack of specific training in matters of study. “We do not know how to study” is the common com¬ plaint of students entering our higher institutions. This is a severe indict¬ ment of the training in our secondary schools. In many cases the charge is not well founded, but too often it is true that schools have not given definite and specific training in the application of valid principles of study to differ¬ ent fields of learning. It appears to be easy to secure agreement among high-school principals that the neglect to train pupils in habits of study is entirely unwarranted, but it seems to be difficult to secure agreement as to the effective plans to follow in correcting the weakness. Numerous administrative schemes for insuring the training of pupils in habits of study have been proposed and at least a dozen of these have, according to Monroe,'2 been given a trial. Monroe 3 declares, however, that we have not gone far in the solution of the problem. He says, “Examination of the descriptions of the plans of supervised study reveals that practically nothing is said about instructional procedures that the teacher should use in directing the learning of students. The voluminous literature on supervised study deals mainly with adminis¬ trative provisions designed to facilitate the stimulation and direction of learning. The writers appear to have assumed that, if a period was pro¬ vided, teachers would be able to supervise study.” In our inspection of high schools in the state of Michigan, we find that many schools are interested in the problem of improving the study habits of pupils. In spite of this interest, it is seldom that we find a school com¬ mitted to any definite policy or practise in the matter of training its pupils in effective habits of work. Through our inspection we are, therefore, urging that every high school in Michigan adopt some definite plan. We hope eventually to require that every school on the accredited list of the university shall have some definite plan for training pupils in study habits. 1 Morrison, Henry Clinton. Practise of Teaching in the Secondary Schools. University of Chicago Press. 1926. p. 161. 2 Monroe, Directing Learning in the High School. Doubleday, Doran and Co., Garden City, N. Y. 1927. p. 418. 8 Ibid, p. 413. Department of Secondary School Principals 587 In order to help schools set up a plan, we have prepared the following plan of a program for training pupils in habits of study. Step 1. At the beginning of the year the principal or superintendent should give a talk to the pupils on the importance of acquiring efficient habits of study. This step is given first place because any plan will fail unless a desire is aroused on the part of pupils to acquire effective habits of work. The reason for this advice is well stated by Kornhauser1 who declares, “There is one fundamental and indispensable requirement for effective study, more basic than any rules or technic. Without it, real study is impossible though everything else be favorable; with it, results can be achieved even in ignorance of all the fine points of how to study. This key requirement is a driving motive , an intense desire to learn and to achieve, and interest in things intellectual, a ‘will to do’ in your college work. If you would learn to study, first develop a feeling that you want to master your studies and that you will master them. All else is subordinate to that.” It is clearly a part of the duty of the principal to arouse pupils to an awareness of the value of right habits of study. Step 2. On or before the time of the assembly talk to pupils, the principal or superintendent should discuss with the teachers the problem of training pupils in efficient habits of study. The principal who assumes that his teachers do not need training in order to do effective work in training pupils in habits of study is making a very serious mistake. It is unfortunately true that few of our teachers have had any special training for this important kind of work. The typical teacher is well trained in testing the preparation of pupils, but poorly prepared to diagnose and care adequately for individual pupil weaknesses. If any plan for improving the technic of study is to succeed, the principal must give special attention to the training in service of his teachers. It is therefore imperative that Step 2 be a part of a principal's program. Step 3. A list of specific study helps should be prepared by a committee of teachers and adapted by the teaching staff, or use may be made of the study helps 2 issued by the Michigan Education Association which are printed herewith : 1. Be certain that you prepare the correct assignment in scope, content, and form. Consider such questions as: What readings, problems, experiments, or topics were assigned? Was part or all of the preparation to be written? What dangers, diffi¬ culties, or important points were emphasized by the teacher in making the assign¬ ment? Which of these study helps did the teacher urge students to follow? 2. Have a study program. Budget your time so as to have a definite time and a definite place to prepare each lesson. (The teacher will explain how to make a study program card.) 1 Kornhauser, Arthur William. Hot a to Study. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Ill. 1924. p. 4. 2 These study helps may be secured at cost (75 cents per hundred) from the Michigan Edu¬ cation Association, Lansing, Mich. Permission is granted to any school to reprint its own supply. \ 588 National Education Association 3. Have proper study conditions and needed materials — a quiet room not too warm, plenty of light at your left, a straight chair, a table, the necessary dic¬ tionaries, rulers, pencils, and other materials. 4. Make careful preparation of advanced assignment as soon as possible after a class, but allow time in your study program for review of essential points before going to class. 5. Do your studying with vigor and determination. Work while you work. When actually tired, change your work, take exercise, or go to sleep. One must be rested in order to study effectively. 6. Learn to do two kinds of reading. Read rapidly when seeking to find major points or to make a survey of a lesson. Read cautiously and critically such material as problems, directions, explanations, and any material that must be interpreted or mastered. Never read rapidly when you should read cautiously. Acquire the habit of analyzing confusing statements. To test the efficiency of your reading and to guard against “skimming” or “day dreaming,” pause at the end of paragraphs or natural units and seek to recall the gist of what you have read. 7. Avoid acquiring the habit of half mastery. In committing material to memory learn it as a whole. Do not learn piece-meal. Keep going over the material until you have it letter perfect. In learning rules, forms, poems, dates, vocabularies, etc., it is helpful to repeat them aloud especially if you are expected to give them orally in class. (The teachers will explain the mistake of memorizing material that should be analyzed and understood.) 8. Hunt for key words, phrases, or sentences and master the full meaning of these. Write them on a slip of paper for later review. 9. Work independently. Ask for help only after you have exhausted your own resources. Cultivate selfreliance, determination, and independence in work. Pride yourself on your ability to get your lesson done. 10. Frame questions to test your preparation of a lesson and use these questions to measure your preparation before going to class. 11. Attempt to answer to yourself every question that is asked in class and thus review, test, and drill yourself on essential facts. (Teachers will seek to conduct their classes so as to stimulate you to do this.) 12. Strive to excel. Do not be contented to “ get by.” Convince yourself of the genuine value of doing your best work in each of your studies. Be honest in all work. Be able to answer such a question as: Why is the subject worth studying? (Your teachers will seek to emphasize the invaluable character of the information or training in each study.) The foregoing Study Helps are based on the contributions of authorities and writers in the field of the psychology of learning. The rules do not, therefore, represent any original contributions of the authors. Some recent writers have very vigorously attacked the contents of certain of the sets of study helps for high-school pupils, and have pointed out that the giving of rules to pupils will accomplish little. You will find that Monroe 1 declares that study helps are certainly a “far cry” from the elaborate plans for the immediate direction of study called for in other schemes. I fully agree with the criticisms of certain of the sets of study helps. It is a mistake to assume that pupils will be able to take a set of rules and apply them effi¬ ciently without much assistance from the teacher. In the set of study helps that has been prepared for Michigan schools, special care has been taken 1 Monroe, Walter Scott. Directing Learning in the High School. Doubleday, Doran and Co.. Carden City, N. Y. 1927. p. 413. Department of Secondary School Principals 589 to emphasize the responsibility of the teacher in the training of pupils. This is well illustrated in the first one of the study helps, where questions are in¬ cluded to define the responsibility of the teacher in the making of an assignment. Again the responsibility of the teacher is emphasized in the second item relating to a study program where the statement is included, “The teacher will explain how to make a study program card.” In other paragraphs you will find similar reference to the responsibility of the teacher. If your teachers prepare a set of study helps or guides to be placed in the hands of the pupils of your school, may I urge that you insist that the type of service that a teacher should render to a pupil be made an essential part of the statement. Step 4. Printed copies of the study helps should be distributed to the pupils through their classrooni teachers and the pupils directed to paste a copy in each of their textbooks . Step 4 is a very necessary step in order to insure the united efforts of all teachers. I urge this step because of the tendency of some teachers to neglect to contribute their part to the training of pupils in habits of study. Unless Step 4 is emphasized by the principal, a few of the teachers in a school will become the “trainers” of pupils in effective habits of work while the others will continue to be the “testers” of preparation. If pupils are to be effectively trained, all of the teachers in a given school must be both “trainers” and “testers.” Step 5. The teachers should be directed to take at least ten minutes of each recitation at frequent intervals to teach the pupils how to apply the different study suggestions to their subjects. I wish to warn principals that the distribution of study helps to pupils will accomplish very little unless the teachers observe Step 5. Pupils need specific instruction in how to apply rules of study just as much as athletes need specific instruction in good form in running, jumping, or swimming. Whipple 1 has stated the reason for Step 5 when he says, “To bring these rules to the attention of high-school or college students and have them understand them is, accordingly, not difficult. But to have them apply the rules to the actual process of studying a given subject is quite another thing. Furthermore, to apply a rule correctly to the actual studying of a subject under the direction and guidance of the teacher is one thing, and to use the same rule daily, without being directed to do so, is quite another thing.” As principals you know that it is easy to acquaint pupils with the rules for effective studying but it is a real and difficult task to cause pupils to cultivate habits of effective studying. It should be every teacher’s business to see to it that the rules are applied in the work going on under his direc¬ tions. A principal should give special attention to the practises of his teachers in showing pupils how to apply certain rules of study. Step 6. Teachers should use the study helps as a guide in seeking the causes for the failure of individual pupils. 1 Whipple, Guy Montrose. Hozv to Study Eff actively (rev. ed.). Public School Publishing Company, Bloomington, Ill. 1916. p. 9. 590 National Education Association I do not know of any more effective method to arouse in teachers a desire to discover the real difficulties of pupils than to insist upon Step 6. It is also an excellent way for a teacher to measure the effectiveness of his own instruction in habits of study. I wish to urge that principals refuse to be satisfied with the traditional explanations of pupil failures and insist that teachers use diagnostic aids in discovering real causes. Many teachers are handicapped by insufficient training in the use of diagnostic instruments. Such deficiencies in preparation can be readily overcome through the study of a number of excellent books on pupil measurement and guidance. A principal should take advantage of the presence in his school of failing pupils to stimulate his teachers to become more expert in discovering and removing the learning difficulties of pupils. Step 7. Teachers should be encouraged to devise supplementary sets of suggestions to be used by pupils in the study of particular subjects — e. g., algebra } Latin. (For suggestions consult references 4 and 6.) It is needless to argue the necessity of Step 7. While it is true that cer¬ tain rules of study are equally applicable to all subjects, the fact, neverthe¬ less remains that pupils need different directions for work in Latin than they need for work in some field of English or mathematics. Step 8. A copy of the study helps should be mailed to the parents of each pupil with a letter urging cooperation in carrying out rules 2, 3, 5 , and 9 of the Michigan list. I do not mean to convey the idea, by proposing Step 8, that parents should be held responsible for training pupils in effective habits of study. It must be apparent, however, that certain of the items in the study helps cannot be observed without active cooperation of the school and the home. The necessity for encouraging parents to create more favorable conditions at home for study is very effectively set forth in a poem by Edgar A. Guest, entitled, “Temptations of Youth.” A reading of this poem will convince one that Guest knows the difficulties that pupils encounter in home study. He says in part — I may tell him that I studied through the winter evenings long, That I proved my tough examples till I knew that none was wrong; But when I was reading C*sar by the lamplight’s mellow glow, The room was always quiet, for we had no radio. Now the nights are filled with music, and the air is full of song, There’s a prize fight in the parlor; you can hear the ringside gong, You can hear the crowds applauding as the battle is begun, And I wonder that a youngster ever gets his homework done. The majority of high-school pupils must do a certain amount of studying at home or risk low marks. In view of this it seems to me that principals should seek to instruct parents concerning home conditions that are most favorable. Step 9. A copy of the study helps should be printed in the local news¬ paper with the same explanation of the importance of the problem. In view of the fact that many parents believe that the high school is neglecting to train pupils in effective habits of work, I would strongly Department of Secondary School Principals 591 recommend that some attention be given to acquainting the public with efforts made to improve the quality of training in habits of study. Unless this is done, the public will continue to voice criticisms. As a part of his public relations program a principal should give the public some informa¬ tion concerning his program for training pupils in habits of study. I think there is a further reason for printing the study helps in the local paper, which is to be found in the desire that many people possess, outside of school, to improve their own habits of study. Step 10. Teachers should be urged to take an experimental attitude to¬ ward the undertaking , and should at frequent intervals be required to make an inventory of results. This last step is proposed because it is extremely important to encourage teachers to take an experimental point of view towards the problem of training pupils in habits of study. It is highly desirable to cause them to feel that the problem is not one that lends itself to an easy solution. It is, therefore, a problem on which all classroom teachers may make some valuable contribution. It is, in my opinion, a mistake to introduce any plan for training pupils in habits of study in such a way as to suggest to teachers that the proposed plan is a “cure all,” and that if it fails the teachers are to blame. If Step 10 is followed, teachers will from time to time be called upon to pool their opinions and their findings relative to the changes that have been taking place in the study habits of the pupils. Such an invoice of results is quite certain to reveal some elements of strength and other elements of weakness in the program that has been set up in the school. The question may be raised by some, do we need a program for a given school or may we safely leave this problem to the individual teachers? It is my own observation that a specific program is needed. Many of the teachers are not prepared to work out procedures of their own for the training of pupils in habits of study. Other teachers will say as one of the teachers of my own state said to me this past year, “I am so busy trying to cover the outline of my course that I do not have time to train pupils in habits of study.” In turn there are many habits of study that can only be developed and strengthened through united emphasis on the part of all the teachers. I have also found in my inspection of high schools that where the problem was left to the teachers, only a small minority of the teachers were giving any attention to the problem. In view of the helpful material now available in books and bulletins, there is little excuse for a school failing to work out a plan for training pupils in habits of study. The plan outlined in the foregoing paragraphs may be followed with modifications, or a school may develop an entirely different procedure. It is presented in order to get a program before you. What appears to be most needed, however, is a more positive conviction on the part of principals that it is part of their responsibility to insure that teachers train their pupils in effective habits of work. To do this requires the con¬ stant and vigorous efforts of the principals. 592 National Education Association SELECTION AS A FUNCTION OF AMERICAN SECONDARY ED UCA TION— ABSTRACT W. CARSON RYAN, JR., PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, SWARTHMORE COLLEGE, SWARTHMORE, PA. I regard the ideal of high-school education or the equivalent for every boy and girl as not only feasible but essential. We who are concerned with American education must not allow ourselves to be diverted from this goal of universal secondary schooling by the wails of those who complain on principle, in terms of “sanctified squander,” about expenditures for public education. W e are clearly committed to a policy of universal secondary education in this country, much more clearly in practise than many of our own group seem to realize, so rapid has been the development. I remember Dr. Clax- ton saying in 1913: “Think of it! We have a million boys and girls in high school!” It was an unheard of thing. If some one had said to Dr. Claxton and the rest of us in the Bureau of Education at that time that this enrolment was to double in a few short years and then more than double again, I doubt whether the most sanguine among us would have believed it ; yet that is precisely what has happened. The question of selection. — Is there, then, a real place for selection as a function of the secondary school? I believe there is. To have faith in education for all is not to have faith in the same kind of education for all. Our real task is to use selection, but to see to it that this is not selection for elimination, but selection for further and better opportunity for each in¬ dividual youngster. Somehow we must find a way of solving the very old question of mass education on an individual basis. Admitting the very great importance of going to school together through youth, of working, playing, and living together, in schoolroom and on the playground, we must save these gains and yet help our people to realize that to have different in¬ terests, to be able to do different things, mentally, socially, emotionally, artistically, is not inconsistent with democracy, but is, on the contrary, a necessary part of real equality of opportunity and real cooperative effort for democracy. If we are to have, in accordance with some of the principles underlying the articulation program presented at this Cleveland meeting, a genuine provision of secondary education for all between the ages of twelve and eighteen or twenty years of age, what are we going to do about it, and where does the selection come in ? What are we going to do with these precious six or eight years through which Ross Finney says teachers are going to make the future as truly as soldiers and diplomats have made the past? Briefly, I believe the steps we are going to take will include at least these : 1. Reorganization of the curriculum — Any one who takes a long-time view of education is obliged to conclude that a real reorganization of con- Department of Secondary School Principals 593 tent has only just begun. Somebody will have to do a blasting job on the secondary school curriculum similar to the one Rugg began two years ago, mainly for elementary education in the Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education and has recently continued in “The Child- Centered School,” which I believe is destined to be one of the significantly controversial books of our time. It is going to be a more difficult thing to do it for the secondary period, for there are more entrenched absurdities and most of us do not see any fundamental reason for change. What we really eventually ought to do, but what nobody is yet ready to do, is to face the whole problem of content for the secondary school anew, without preconceived notions in favor of what we find there. We need to sit down and say to ourselves: What is this modern life of ours anyway? What are its beauties, its opportunities, its needs? What is this culture that we are to pass on, to use the words of Briggs in the 1929 yearbook? 1 What are these heritages and these creative things that we are to put into the secondary school, and how shall we see that everybody — regardless of whether he’s in the upper quartile, regardless of whether he can survive a linguistic scholastic aptitude test — gets at least some glimpse of these richer things that are the only real excuse for modern civilization? If we did this conscientiously I think almost nothing of the traditional secondary- school content would remain. That it would have been the answer at one period probably nobody could deny — for it was a noble effort, and a success¬ ful effort, to open the accumulated cultures of at least two ancient civiliza¬ tions to a newer age. Today almost none of it could stand any such test. Think of the insistence of language as an instrument of selection — which by the way, appears to be on the increase as a means of admission for college, at least, instead of on the wane, as we had thought. There is a tragic story here on the Greek and Latin side which I will refrain from telling, only reminding you that insistence on the mere verbal survivals of two once great civilizations, with no real effort to make the vital intellectual and emotional relation to our own, has cost us one of the most precious aids to an understanding of modern life. Now language as language has practi¬ cally no intellectual value; the content is the main thing. Professor Hen- mon, reviewing the results of the Modern Language Inquiry, points out that there is little correlation between teachers’ marks and actual achievement as measured by tests in the foreign language, because the teachers tend to put all the emphasis upon the grammar in their marking, and he character¬ izes this as one of the real defects revealed in the investigation. I use the situation in modern-language teaching merely as an example of the need for dynamiting followed by constructive rebuilding that will be necessary in the whole content situation, whether for determining and putting into operation a common basic material or arranging offerings of a specialized sort for groups and individuals beyond the common materials. Even in an activity like English we tend to take too much for granted. Though we 1 Briggs, John W. “Issues in Secondary Education.” Seventh Yearbook, Department of Superintendence, National Education Association, Washington, D. C. 1929. p. 182-207. 594 National Education Association have taken some real steps towards freedom here, on the whole we still think of English as meticulous correctness rather than as creative expression and appreciation, thereby placing ourselves under the suspicion — which you will find quite audibly expressed at Adult Education Association meetings if not elsewhere — of sending out high-school graduates who do not read books any more because they have been so completely conditioned against reading as a result of assigned task-reading in school. If the theory that I have tried to express has any validity it means that only those “constants” will eventually deserve a place in secondary education that can stand the test of modern usefulness in terms of cultural understandings or industrial and social needs. That even these constants, given as part of a mass educational provision, can be usefully adapted to different abilities, interests, and needs, I believe can be demonstrated. In any case, these constants, this common material, whatever we decide it shall be and however we decide it shall be given, must be supplemented by the widest possible offerings at public expense. However much synthesis may be found to be necessary, in the last analysis, proper economies of a practical nature being kept in mind, I see no reason why society, through public ex¬ penditure, should not provide any possible training that can be proved to have social value or the kind of value for the individual that ultimately contributes to the welfare of all. Furthermore, the possibilities of a varied offering, especially in small schools, are often not realized. Not caring much to make the change, we have not tried very hard to do it. 2. Individualizing secondary education — One of the real clues to secur¬ ing attention to individual differences in a mass education program is indi¬ vidual learning . We are still so under the spell of rigid grades, rigid sub- jectmatter stratification, and formal class-teaching that we have so far de¬ clined to make on any really great scale the experiments in individualizing the secondary school that need to be tried. One may quarrel with certain of the accompanying philosophy of Winnetka and Dalton procedures as one finds them in different localities, but enough has been done to show that there are real possibilities here ; that the individual method for certain things at least is not only desirable, but feasible and efficient — efficient and economi¬ cal indeed, in the truest sense of the terms. At least one secondary school that I know of — a large secondary school in what some people would regard as a less favored environment — has demonstrated that the most gifted chil¬ dren can be accommodated under mass conditions, getting magnificent gains as individuals without in any way jeopardizing the democratic quality of the school or its essential standing as a cooperative enterprise. Such a plan, if worked out carefully, apparently avoids the social and emotional losses that so far have seemed to be inevitable accompaniments of the socalled homogeneous grouping method — there being, of course, no such thing as real homogeneous grouping in any sense, not even in the narrow academic ac¬ tivities usually covered by this practise. Much of the despair over our supposed inability to provide differentiation in the thousands of smaller high schools in the United States is due to our Department of Secondary School Principals 595 blindness to the possibilities of individualizing under superior leadership. E. E. Windes made a suggestion when he was in the Bureau of Education two or three years ago that has never had the attention it deserves. Ap¬ parently the plan, as he advanced it, sounded so radical that none of the several thousand school people who heard him gave it another thought. He proposed, as some of you may know, that instead of weak staffs of four and five underpaid, under-educated and overburdened teachers for these schools of from twenty to eighty pupils, one university man or woman of unusually good training and a salary several times what would ordinarily be paid in such a community, be put in charge, with a very fine teacher-iibrarian as the other member of the staff. The job of this staff of two would be direct, in a way none of the typical high-school teachers could have done it, the enterprise of learning in that school. If this seems unduly fanciful to you, let me remind you that many of the most famous and successful academies of the early nineteenth century were organized on precisely this basis, ex¬ cept that present resources for directed learning are so superior to what they were a century ago that there is no comparison. Mr. Windes’ proposal in¬ cluded professional supervision of a good type on a county or regional ar¬ rangement. It will be noticed that the plan would not be more costly than at present, on the wThole, it would provide expert direction instead of hap¬ hazard teaching; it would capitalize the individual initiative of pupils, not only in intellectual learnings of the book type, but in athletics and other similar activities, where at present nearly everything is the wholly unedu- cational method of coaching from the side lines ; it would make possible a synthesis, an interrelation of learnings quite impossible under any present plan of isolated departments and courses; it would emphasize achievement rather than “time-spent” — one of the curses of the present scheme of things, as Morrison has so well shown ; it would allow considerable differentiation, in rates of learning, in kinds of material learned, in treatment for further learning opportunities or vocational opportunities — in other words, educa¬ tional and vocational counseling. If we are to carry all our youth through a secondary-school period, in city and country alike, we shall have to carry on experimentation with the types of individualized learning here described. There will always, for certain purposes, be advantages in grouping small units into somewhat larger ones, doubtless, but we have not begun to explore the possibilities of skillfully directed individual learning in the literally thousands of small country high schools that will always exist, as well as in the large city high schools where differentiation, because of sheer numbers has superficially seemed more prac¬ ticable. 3. The quality of the educational process — In the plan just suggested, attributed to Mr. Windes, the quality of the direction of the educational enterprise was the key to any possible success. We have certainly had to give our energies so much in the past to taking care of the numbers that we have had to pay less heed to the quality of the job we were doing. I do not mean that we should feel discouraged about it ; quite the contrary. There 596 National Education Association are some very encouraging signs. Since I have put on record my personal conviction about the teaching of French and have called upon the Modern Language Inquiry to support my statement, I must be honest with you and state that the same investigation apparently shows that in actual achieve¬ ment in foreign language the pupils in American secondary schools surpassed (on the same standard tests) corresponding pupils in both Canadian and English secondary schools. The North Central Association has for some time had from ninety to nearly a hundred percent of its teaching staffs at least four-year college and university graduates, and has been able to insist upon some professional preparation besides. The Southern Association, with only a seventy-five percent requirement, recently announced a more than ninety percent achievement on the basis indicated — that is, college and university graduation. But here after all is our real weakness. Those of us who are engaged all the time in placing teachers know only too well about the alleged over¬ supply in certain regions, which turns out to be, as one might expect, an oversupply of poorly qualified candidates for teaching and a tragic under¬ supply of the kind of teachers that are needed to put genuine quality into American secondary education. Any real program in secondary education waits upon this. SELECTION AS A FUNCTION OF AMERICAN SECONDARY EDUCATION 1 GEORGE S. COUNTS, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY Discussion of Selection as a Function of American Secondary Education would seem to rest upon an assumption which I would like to challenge. That assumption is that the determination of the degree to which the public high school in the United States is to be selective rests largely with us, that is, with the teaching profession. This I do not believe. What we may say or decide here regarding the proportion of the population to be admitted to the public high school will not in the long run greatly affect the situation. If we were living in a society with a highly organized central government dominated by some selfconscious minority, we might expect a different re¬ sult. But in America with our decentralization of government and the absence of any such selfconscious minority the masses of the people will sooner or later get what they want. In order to make this point clear let us turn our attention to an examination of the recent expansion of secondary education. We are all familiar with the fact that since 1890 the number of boys and girls attending our secondary schools has grown at an ever more rapid rate. Thirty-eight years ago there were probably not more than 300,000 pupils in these institutions, while today the total is certainly as much as four and one-half millions and perhaps not far from five millions. Almost within 1 Much of the material in this paper is drawn from the author’s Inglis Lecture of 1929. Department of Secondary School Principals 597 the span of a single generation attendance at a secondary school has ceased to be a rare privilege and instead has become an opportunity or almost a right enjoyed by half of the nation’s adolescent members. Indeed in many communities practically all children of appropriate age are in high school. This truly extraordinary phenomenon, without precedent, I think, in the history of education, should be ranked among the great social movements of our dynamic age. This crowding of boys and girls into the public high school suggests some great natural phenomenon, such as the advance of an avalanche down the mountain side, the increase of an animal species after the discovery of a new food supply, or the migration of a people following the conquest of some natural barrier. Great events, though often precipi¬ tated by relatively feeble happenings, can be adequately explained only in terms of equally great causes. In brief we may say therefore that the growth of the high school is the product of a new social order — the resultant of a whole series of forces and conditions which we call industrial civiliza¬ tion. And by industrial civilization we do not refer merely to the appear¬ ance of great cities and huge economic combinations but rather to the com¬ ing of highly integrated society which holds within its close embrace the metropolitan center and rural hamlet, industrial enterprise and vegetable garden, shop and field and factory. But let us turn to a more specific answer to our query. To my mind there are seven factors which working in intimate union have been largely responsible for bringing the secondary school into the fourth great creative period of its history since the fall of the ancient em¬ pires. The rapid democratization of secondary education in our time may be traced to the presence of certain social ideals in the United States, the prior extension of the opportunities of elementary education, the appearance of a highly integrated society, the growing complexity of civilization, the increase in wealth and income, the decrease in the death rate, and the de¬ cline of the birth rate. A brief examination of each of these factors will reveal its bearing on the question at hand. The first of these seven factors is a heritage from the agrarian civilization. In response to a rare combination of life conditions our ancestors developed certain ideals regarding the nature of man and the place of the individual in society. Under the influence of the frontier and the simple farming com¬ munity of pioneer origins, they threw off the artificial social distinctions which had characterized the oldeV civilizations and evolved a theory of democracy suited to their mode of life. According to this theory the indi¬ vidual should be judged in terms of inherent worth and be permitted to achieve that station in society to which he is entitled by reason of his own talents, efforts, and character. While some may prefer to call this view of life individualism rather than democracy, the point which I wish to make is that it would seem to underlie our educational system and to have fur¬ nished the inspiration for the creation of the public high school as an upward extension of elementary education. We should observe, however, that the agrarian civilization which produced a system of schools open to all classes 598 National Education Association from bottom to top made but little use of the upper levels of that system. Before the coming of industrial society the high school was theoretically open to all, but few took advantage of the opportunity offered. We may say therefore that the older and in many ways more democratic society fash¬ ioned the educational channels through which in a later age powerful popular currents were destined to flow. The extension of the opportunities of elementary education also consti¬ tutes one of the achievements of the agrarian civilization. Although our states have enlarged the scope and improved the administration of their com¬ pulsory education laws during the past generation, the really creative period in the development of the elementary school centered largely in the second and third quarters of the nineteenth century. And this achievement was of course a necessary foundation for the subsequent growth of secondary educa¬ tion. Since the high school is based upon the elementary school, the expan¬ sion of the former could not go forward until the development of the latter was well advanced. The extraordinary increase in attendance at colleges and universities during the past ten years is no doubt in part the natural fruit of the earlier growth of the high-school population. It was the appearance of the new civilization, however, that furnished to the masses of the people the motive and the opportunity to attend the sec¬ ondary school. And one of the most characteristic features of industrial society is that of integration. From coast to coast and from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, to confine our attention entirely to the domes¬ tic situation, our society is bound together by a billion strands which multi¬ ply and grow stronger with every passing year. On the one hand, regions, groups, and individuals specialize increasingly and become more and more dependent upon each other and upon the whole ; and, on the other, the evolution of the means of transportation and communication provides the instruments of this specialization and interdependence. If we take the spread of these inventions as an index of the increasing integration of so¬ ciety, we shall find that it has proceeded pari passu with the expansion of the high school. The bearing of these changes on the question of the extension of educa¬ tional opportunity is obvious: 1. The development of means of rapid transportation in a relatively thinly popu¬ lated country made attendance at high schools practically possible where formerly it had been only theoretically possible. In other words, during the past generation secondary education has been made geographically accessible; and various studies have shown the vital significance of distance in determining school attendance. 2. The integration of society makes necessary a widening of the intellectual and social horizon of the individual. Particularly does it require the bearing of heavier burdens in the realm of politics and social life. The citizen is brought into a larger society, a society which in considerable part he can know only indirectly and from a distance. This means that he must come to depend less and less on immediate and unorganized personal experience and more and more upon various formal agencies of education and report, such as the school and the press. 3. The integration of society opens up to the individual occupational oppor¬ tunities of the most diverse kind. Because of increased mobility he is no longer Department of Secondary School Principals 599 confined in his choices to the life of the narrow and limited geographical and social circle into which he was born. He therefore feels the need of being equipped to range far from home and family, to meet strange situations, and to control the course of his own life. 4. A highly integrated society is of necessity correspondingly complex. But this leads us to our next point. Industrialism has given birth to a society of enormous complexity. As function has been differentiated from function and as the base of society has widened, social structure has been reared upon social structure until industrial civilization has come to take on the likeness of one of its own children — the modern skyscraper whose bones of steel and flesh of stone reach towards the heavens in every metropolitan center. A very good measure of this complexity may be found in our occupational life. Whereas before the days of industrialism our occupations could be counted by hun¬ dreds, now they can only be numbered by thousands. In securing occupa¬ tional data in 1920 the Census Bureau found it necessary to compile an index containing “20,000 or more occupational designations.” But as a measure of societal complexity the character of the occupations and their interrelationships are probably more significant than mere numbers. In order to coordinate the work of different groups and to operate our compli¬ cated system of exchange and distribution an ever increasing proportion of the population has been removed from direct participation in the production of goods. Thus, according to one investigator, while in 1850 there were approximately four producers for every distributor, in 1920 these two groups were equal in number. i\lthough such estimates no doubt contain a large probable error, they nevertheless speak most emphatically of the appearance of a new type of economic order. They show that upon the old foundation of farmers and artisans there has been erected a huge super¬ structure of clerks, accountants, salesmen, managers, brokers, longshoremen, and locomotive engineers. Back of this complex social mechanism, as back of the skyscraper, stands the supporting spiritual structure of science and technolog}7. The knowledge and experience necessary for managing the old agrarian order could be gained for the most part through the ordinary processes of living; the knowledge and experience necessary for managing industrial society must be gained increasingly through the more systematic methods of formally organized educational agencies. While in the rural community of 1850, book learning was often despised and generally regarded as of little practical value for the ordinary citizen, in the present social order it is coming to be looked upon as essential to individual success in almost every field of practical endeavor. As this new view began to penetrate the consciousness of the masses in a society organized about the principle that the individual should seek his own social level, there could be but one result. Parents engaged in a mad scramble to place their children in the line of succession leading to the more favored and profitable occupations. Men and women whose fore¬ fathers for generations had been pioneers and farmers sacrificed their own 600 National Education Association comforts in order that their sons and daughters might gather the material fruits of industrialism. Although they sang the praises of the dignity of manual labor, they knew well the aches and pains and meager pecuniary re¬ wards of hard physical toil and hoped that their children might be admitted to the easier, more comfortable and more remunerative social berths. Con¬ sequently as soon as society provided the motive in the form of new occu¬ pational opportunities at the more favored levels, the scene was laid for an expansion of the secondary and higher schools which could be limited only by the bounds set by the advance of industrialism. If, however, society had not provided enlarged material resources for the support of an extended educational program, the extraordinary growth of the high school population could not have taken place. But industrialism in the United States represents a mastery over the forces of nature and the processes of production that places it in a unique position in the economic history of the race. The increase of the wealth and income of the American people since the opening of the present century constitutes one of the miracles of civilization. During the five year period from 1921 to 1926 our income increased almost fifty percent. We seem even today to be in the midst of a new economic revolution which may prove as significant as the invention of power-driven machinery in the eighteenth century. That this growing mastery over nature has affected the extension of edu¬ cational opportunity cannot be doubted. In fact, I am convinced that the expansion of the high school during the past generation is largely the fruit of victory in the economic field. We must never forget that the attendance at our secondary schools of one-half of the children between the ages of fourteen and eighteen years places an enormous financial burden upon society. There are of course the obvious direct expenditures involved in the purchase of school sites, the erection of buildings, the payment of teachers’ salaries, and the meeting of current expenses; but the major social burden is the gift of leisure to young persons of both sexes who have reached the age of possible selfsupport. There are many peoples in the world today for whom such an extension of privilege would mean literal bankruptcy. In¬ deed there is probably no society other than our own that could afford this extraordinary luxury. But in our case the growth of the secondary school has gone forward without putting the least apparent strain on the economic system, and the universal extension of the opportunities of secondary educa¬ tion to all children of appropriate age would probably consume only a frac¬ tion of the economic gains of a single year. We come now to the consideration of a series of changes in our civiliza¬ tion which, while somewhat less obvious than the growth of our systems of communication and transportation and the increase in wealth and income, are certainly no less significant. I refer to changes in vital phenomena. For a century and more, and particularly during the past half-century, both our birth and death rates have steadily declined. A hundred years ago the limita¬ tions of the birth-rate were left to natural law, the lust of man and the will of God. As a consequence large families were the rule and probably the Department of Secondary School Principals 601 average number of children per mother was not far from six. Today this number has been reduced by half. With the spread of material comfort, the advance of medical knowledge, and the application of the principles of personal and social hygiene the death rate has likewise been greatly reduced. What the average expectation of life was in our country at the time of the founding of the nation no one can say with certainty, but it was probably somewhere between thirty-five and forty years. In the meantime, and more especially in the last generation or two, this has been increased to approximately fifty-eight years. In sum¬ marizing our more recent gains in this field a student of the question has said that “over one-third of the total burden of disease and early death which weighed upon the human race fifty years ago has been lifted from its shoulders.” The decline of the birth rate and the extension of the life span working together have produced changes in the ratio of children to adults that are genuinely revolutionary in character. And it is only when we examine this ratio and its social, economic, and educational implications that we realize how the cultural advance of the great masses of the people must hang upon the voluntary control of birth and death. In 1920 there were in the United States close to 63,500,000 white persons above sixteen years of age. Now, if the ratio within the white population between persons above sixteen to those below sixteen had been the same in 1920 that it was in 1790, in other words, if the same general conditions with regard to birth and death rates had prevailed in the later as in the earlier period, these 63,500,000 persons above sixteen would have been supporting 61,000,000 children below that age. As a matter of fact in 1920 there were only 31,500,000 white children under sixteen in the United States. This means that where the earlier society had two children to care for and educate ours has but one. Indeed the ratio now is probably greater than two to one because our figures are already eight years old and these vital changes have been going forward more rapidly in recent than in former years. Before commenting on the bearing of these figures on the expansion of secondary education let us consider one other relationship. If we may re¬ gard persons above twenty years of age as adults and persons below sixteen as children, the ratio between these two groups would seem to possess un¬ usual significance. In 1790 for every 1000 children, according to our defini¬ tions, there were but 780 adults. Down almost to the middle of the nine¬ teenth century there was comparatively little change in these figures, but since that time the proportion of the population above twenty years of age has grown at an extraordinary rate. By 1900 there were 1580 adults for every 1000 children, by 1920 approximately 1880, and today the figure can¬ not be far from 2000. These statistics should be pondered again and again, and then they should be pondered some more. While there is perhaps some truth in the statement that whereas children were an asset in 1850 they are a liability now, we must not overlook the fact that they were an asset in the earlier period in part because they were put to task4; which robbed childhood 602 National Education Association of much of its freshness and spontaneity. Although today we often make ill use of the leisure which we are able to extend to our children, we at least have fashioned a society in which our good intentions are limited only by our collective intelligence. We have emancipated ourselves from those harsh material circumstances which cut short the period of childhood and doomed the masses of the people to a life of physical privation bounded by a narrow intellectual outlook and sustained by the hope of rest beyond the grave. Even though the rise of industrialism and the control over production might conceivably have been possible in the absence of these far-reaching changes in death and birth rates, the great expansion of secondary education could scarcely have gone forward without them. It is an old economic prin¬ ciple that value is largely a function of scarcity. Even in the case of children we may assume, as a general rule, that as the number increases the solicitude of the parent for each tends to decrease. Perhaps this is less a purely psycho¬ logical matter than it is a response to the inadequacy of parental income and the pressure of population upon the means of subsistence. But whatever may be the metaphysics of the question, the fact remains that with the increase in the proportion of adults in the population the economic burden can be lifted from the shoulders of children. This is precisely what has been hap¬ pening in our country during the past generation ; and there is no reason for believing that we have reached the end. We may even witness, despite the protests of college presidents and university faculties, the much further ex¬ tension of educational opportunities beyond the high-school period. Today the total enrolment in all of our institutions of higher education exceeds the registration in our secondary schools in 1910. The energies generated by steam and electricity, transmuted into social movement and human aspira¬ tion, are causing old cultural landmarks to crumble and time-honored cus¬ toms to take the road to oblivion. If my analysis of the social forces playing upon the public high school is fundamentally sound, as I think it is, society sets definite limits to the task which we as specialists in secondary education may perform. In the large it would seem that the broad outlines of the secondary school are fixed by the social order. Within these boundaries we are free to work, but if we essay to pass beyond them our efforts are certain to be sterile. In other words any defensible or sound theory of secondary education must be in essential har¬ mony with the great social trends wdiich characterize the age. So it is in this matter of selection. We might all wish to bring back the highly selective secondary school of history, but industrial society has decreed otherwise. That society has brought into the public high school children from prac¬ tically all social classes and all levels of ability ; it has rendered obsolete much of the theory and many of the practises of the secondary school of the past ; it has raised a whole series of new problems and plunged the sec¬ ondary school into one of the most critical periods of its history ; it has shat¬ tered the traditional molds of secondary education and opened the way to bold experimentation along new lines ; it has broken the ties which bound the secondary school to the privileged classes and to the aristocratic ideal in Department of Secondary School Principals 603 social life ; it has given us a new conception of secondary education — the conception that it is the function of the public high school to meet the edu¬ cational needs of adolescence as it is the function of the elementary school to meet the needs of childhood. Our task is to create a totally new second¬ ary school within the limits set by the new civilization. FUNCTIONS OF THE JUNIOR COLLEGE W. W. CHARTERS, OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, COLUMBUS, OHIO The functions of the junior college have emerged from specific local con¬ ditions and with the passing of the years these functions have evolved in re¬ sponse to educational demands. The first well-known junior college and the one which gave concrete body to the junior-college idea was established at the University of Chicago by President Harper at the beginning of the twentieth century. The function of that junior college was, in theory, a terminal one. It was intended for students who wished no further schooling. In practise, however, it was chiefly preparatory for a professional curriculum. Thus emerged the preparatory function of the junior college and later this germinal idea has been elaborated in a variety of ways. The junior college has come to be looked upon by the professional schools as an institu¬ tion to offer courses which prepare for the more intensive professional work of the schools. Hence have arisen premedical, predental, prelegal, and pre¬ engineering courses. The professional schools reaching down into the jun¬ ior-college area prescribe preparatory and fundamental courses which, in the judgment of the professional schools, will facilitate professional training but which, for lack of time, cannot be offered in the professional schools. The junior college from this point of view provides a preparatory curric¬ ulum for those who intend to pursue their education to graduation with a university degree. But it provides preparation in another form. It gives the student the opportunity to study his aptitudes as he gains greater ma¬ turity. Over half the graduating class of 1925 in an important university changed their choices of vocation at least once during their undergraduate careers. This alteration of choice necessarily dislocates a students program and hampers his efficiency greatly. Hence a period of “shopping” among professions is highly desirable. This is provided by the Harper type of junior college and is one of the reasons for the delay of professional training until after two years of junior-college work has been taken. Unfortunately, however, this period of orientation has not been utilized to the best advantage by the universities. The orientation is still largely a hit or miss procedure carried on by the student himself with meager assist¬ ance from the university. However, we find that advice is being increas¬ ingly given to students. Several institutions are offering courses in the junior-college division in which the opportunities and limitations of the pro¬ fessions are discussed and compared with the native qualifications of the students. Aptitude tests are being slowly developed and applied as rapidly 604 National Education Association as they are developed to the students as a routine procedure of the junior college. Vocational-guidance officers are installed in other institutions whose major responsibility is assistance to students in selecting a profession for which they are best fitted and particularly to divert them from pro¬ fessions for which they have little native aptitude. In these two respects — curriculum preparation and vocational choice — the junior college has an important preparatory function. The second function of the junior college emerged historically in connec¬ tion with the private independent junior college. The first conspicuous ex¬ amples of the type originated in the state of Missouri in the second decade of the present century. Prior to 1910 there existed in Missouri and elsewhere, a very large number of women’s colleges which were colleges only in name. In substance they were high schools of quality none too good which gave some advanced courses and conferred a baccalaureate degree which was recognized neither by the students nor the faculty of the colleges conferring the degree ; nor by graduate schools or universities as standard in quality. Interestingly enough these colleges competed with the state universities of the middle west for students by employing agents to canvass the young women students in the high schools. They also competed with the local high schools for students. It is recognized, as a matter of course, that dur¬ ing fifty years these colleges had performed a service of value when public high schools were scarce and state universities were small and poorly sup¬ ported institutions. But when the high schools had increased to the point where every community was provided with a good high school, the women’s colleges began to be pinched in their enrollment. When, in addition, the state universities had secured funds sufficient to maintain excellent faculties and curriculums and when the parents of young women discovered that credit from women’s colleges would not be transferred without loss, the women’s colleges began to be pressed from above. In this situation, it was necessary that the colleges change their policies or close. At this point President Hill of the University of Missouri formulated a policy for the colleges to the effect that they should discard their pretentious degrees and do two years’ college work well. In such fashion the accredit¬ ing of junior colleges by the University of Missouri arose. The function of this private junior-college movement was distinctly that of improving the scholarship of private women’s colleges of the type just described. That this service was performed is evidenced by the fact that a score of these col¬ leges, nearly all of which would have become extinct, are operating as re¬ spectable institutions of learning which no longer compete with the local high schools and which supplement the training given in state universities. The state institution is thus relieved of the training of a number of young freshmen and sophomores and can devote its attention more fully to the pri¬ mary university function of training for the profession and for research. A third type of junior college illustrates a third function of the institution. The public junior colleges of California are the earliest examples of the effort to spread collegiate education widely among the communities of a Department of Secondary School Principals 605 state. It is a matter of common knowledge that a large majority of the stu¬ dents in a great university live within a radius of sixty miles around the in¬ stitution. This fact means that whenever a college is located in a commun¬ ity, a very great number of students who would not have attended if the school had not been located nearby, now secure a college education. The reason for this increase in enrolment in college by the establishment of new colleges is simple. The apparent cost of education is reduced to limits within the family budget. A family might not be able to provide the funds neces¬ sary to feed and house the child away from home and yet be able to absorb these items in the home budget if the child lives at home. This difference in cost might be the crucial factor in providing a college education for the chil¬ dren in the family. Then, too, parents are anxious about the moral welfare of their immature children who in a distant institution may be perilously placed upon their own responsibility. For such parents the presence of a college in close proximity to the home again becomes a crucial factor in the decision to support children for a longer period while they prepare them¬ selves more fully for life in college. While the public junior college lowers the cost of education to the family, it similarly provides college education for two years at a lower cost to the community. Not all taxpayers realize the fact that education in the junior college costs the taxpayers a lower amount per capita than does the senior college and the professional school. They do not understand the financial importance of full sections. By that I mean this. In the junior college only elementary courses are taught — courses such as freshman English, beginning French, and the like. The courses are few in number in relation to the num¬ ber of students. Consequently, all the classes and sections are full of stu¬ dents. In the senior colleges there are many advanced elective courses and necessarily only a few students enrol in each. Thus in the junior college the faculty is small and the student body large. While in the senior college the faculty is large and the number of students relatively small. Consequently, for the taxpayer, the junior college provides the cheapest form of higher education. From the point of view of society, this demonstration of higher education is the fundamental function of the junior college. It provides an enlarged opportunity for a higher education for an increased number of individuals and thereby approaches the ideals of equal opportunity for the people. The study of a fourth type of junior college reveals another significant function of the junior college. This is the municipal junior college. Its functions are numerous and parallel the functions of other types already mentioned. It has a preparatory function like the Harper type. In increas¬ ing numbers its graduates enrol in professional schools and it is hoped by universities that in time the local junior college will be the accepted channel through which all students will flow into the professional schools. Johns Hopkins is at present insisting that all the students in its professional schools shall be trained in other institutions. Many pressing problems of many state universities would be solved if all freshmen and sophomores were 606 National Education Association trained at home in junior colleges. The municipal junior college functions also, as do the public junior colleges in California, in democratizing college education. It has, however, another function and it possesses certain significant opportunities which these other types do not possess. It becomes a terminus of secondary education. In the other three types we feel that the junior college is part of the university. Harper’s was preparatory to the univer¬ sity. The private junior college is a two-year unit isolated from the high school belowT and from the university above. Students who go through the private junior colleges are educated in three systems — the public high school, the public junior college, and the university. The same is true of the reg¬ ional junior colleges of California. They are isolated from the high school, The municipal junior college in contradistinction, is, or may be, an integral part of a system that controls education from the kindergarten up through the junior college. So in the municipal junior college we have the outstand¬ ing example which illustrates the claims of educators that the junior college is a secondary school. Because the junior college is the apex of an educational system, it lends itself to the function of providing what is known as terminal education. It can, to an unequaled degree, prepare students for those vocations or for those positions within vocations which are better filled by people with an ad¬ vanced education but not requiring a complete professional education. Situ¬ ated as it is in an urban center with many opportunities for superior persons in business and in the skilled vocations, it is sensitive to the needs of the city and responds by providing terminal vocational courses. The number of such terminal opportunities is great. In business, for instance, there is an increasing demand for executives who have a somewhat better training than the average of the employees. For these positions col¬ lege graduates are popular. But it is not at all certain that four years in college is a better preparation for service in business than two years in college and two years in business. That is to say, there are substantial rea¬ sons for believing that a graduate of a rigidly professional business curric¬ ulum in a junior college will be as well fitted for business at the age of thirty, let us say, as is a graduate of a four-year college. The junior-college graduate is compelled to take minor positions and in working is sent up through to major positions whereby he learns the business. The four-year college graduate skips much of the drudgery or is delayed for two years, and in escaping the drudgery he loses an important element in his executive background. Other types of terminal training come easily to mind. The occupation of nursing is one in which a woman is not justified, in terms of economic returns, in taking a four-year college course nor has the state a right to demand it until the returns are more equitable. Minor specialists are needed in indus¬ try. In chemical laboratories situated within industries, are found many attractive positions of a semiexpert character which are too simple for college graduates and too technical for untrained workers. For such positions, the Department of Secondary School Principals 607 junior college is admirably situated to give training by providing courses. Executive training for men in service which offers, perhaps at night, courses in leadership, education, psychology, and administration, is a field peculiarly appropriate for terminal training. Rochester Mechanics Institute is an example of an institution which has deliberately set as its objective the training of executives in industry. The plan is briefly this. They train their students to take certain intermediate positions in an industry and give them the fundamentals of executive train¬ ing against the time when maturity and skill will entitle them to become foremen and minor executives. Industry needs many of these men who, without training, would never have become executives and who would be satisfied with minor executive positions. In a well-run army there is need for corporals, sergeants, and lieutenants. Not many generals can be used. So in industry there is need for men trained for minor executive positions which for them will be ter¬ minal. This attitude towards the graduates of junior colleges may lack sentiment ; but it is right. In brief, the municipal junior college is the best example that we have of the terminal function of the junior college in accordance with which students are trained to fill those positions in life where training beyond the high school, but below the professional level, will benefit the individual and the community. We turn now from the functions illustrated in types of schools to other functions which have no distinctive habitat. The junior college is the terminal for cultural education in school. We agree, of course, that cultural education should continue throughout life but if students go no further than the junior college their cultural educa¬ tion in school obviously terminates. If, however, they enter a professional school, it is possible that they may continue to carry nonprofessional courses but the probability is slight. It is well for the junior college to recognize that in the professional school there is ordinarily no time for extraprofes¬ sional courses and, therefore, students have opportunity to carry cultural courses only in the years before graduating from the junior college. In a very real sense, therefore, the secondary school which includes the junior college is the guardian of culture. It is the people’s college where the student acquires the culture of his civilization. Somewhere in this period he must learn how to vote intelligently, to appreciate the beautiful, to acquire good health habits, to understand people, and perform his duties as a man among men. This is the peculiar responsibility of the junior college which is the inspector of the product and sees that the quality is right. The preparatory function of the junior college will be cared for since both students and professional schools make urgent demands for pre¬ paratory courses. The cultural function, however, has no organized ad¬ vocates. The administration and the faculty of junior colleges must be the guardians. 608 National Education Association The junior college is favorably situated to perform another function. It can become a curriculum-research laboratory. Let me illustrate this func¬ tion by contrast. In the university, the curriculums of freshman and sophomore years are dominated by the faculty of the departments, as they should be. But unfortunately in universities the faculty of departments are primarily interested in advanced undergraduate and graduate courses. Their deep interest lies in the students who major in the department. Con¬ sequently, the faculty tend to view their freshmen-introductory courses in a department as one of a series, an introductory unit which is taught from the departmental point of view. Therefore, to change a course so as to make it function in the life of a layman is exceedingly difficult. The junior college is more fortunately situated. Its faculty are ac¬ quainted only with freshmen and sophomores. They do not have their eyes fixed upon advanced courses. It is, therefore, likely to be more sen¬ sitive to the needs of student laymen. Particularly in the terminal courses, practical life is just beyond and, therefore, has a more powerful influence. Granted, then, that a faculty is selected with a functional point of view and a scientific attitude toward the problems of education, the possibility for changing the constituent content of courses is ideal. There is no pres¬ sure from above to overcome and the only limitations upon improvement are those that come from the lack of interest in the faculty itself. In brief, I am hoping, and seeing my hopes realized here and there, that the junior college will become the center of research in curriculum con¬ struction. Similarly, the field of teaching the junior college can perform a dis¬ tinct function. It can provide examples of superior junior-college teach¬ ing. In the great universities the freshmen and sophomores for the most part are taught by graduate students whose primary interest is in research and a graduate degree. Teaching is ordinarily of secondary importance to them. There mind set is not favorable. In the junior college is found a different situation. The teachers are not primarily interested in research. Their future lies in teaching. Usually, too, they are more mature and more experienced teachers. This is in general a correct contrast. If, then, these junior colleges have a scientific attitude toward education they can do much toward the im¬ provement of teaching- They have arrived professionally so far as pro¬ motion is concerned. They are experienced teachers. The conditions are ripe in such a situation for significant work in the field of research and in¬ struction. Faculties of junior colleges are being watched with interest and with hope. We have thus six significant functions which the junior college performs. It prepares for the professions, it brings college education within the reach of a wide range of people, it provides terminal training for vocations, it is the guardian of culture, and it should be the intimate home of educational research in the fields of curriculum and classic instruction. Department of Secondary School Principals 609 THE NECESSITY OF THE SECONDARY SCHOOL CURRIC¬ ULUM GIVING ADDED EMPHASIS TO THE PACIFIC WORLD— ABSTRACT WALTER D. COCKING, GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS, NASHVILLE, TENN. We have known little and still know little concerning the’ vast waters and domains in and about the Pacific. There are reasons why this con¬ dition is so. Up until the present time little has been written in this coun¬ try concerning the Pacific world. Practically nothing has been taught in the schools concerning this section. What little has been taught has had to do largely with purely geographical relationships. Our histories, our readers, our sociologies, and our books on economics have been strangely silent regarding the lands, peoples, and possibilities lying to the westward. An examination of courses of study reveals an astounding lack of atten¬ tion to anything concerning these lands and these peoples. Only last year we examined a score or more of the leading courses of study in school sys¬ tems where curriculum provision programs have been conducted recently. Not only were history and geography courses examined, but all others as well. What did we find? Little, if any, attention was directed toward these sections. Such attention as was given was of the most meager sort. No¬ where did we find a complete, well-developed list of objectives, activities, and procedures dealing with these lands. It had been our thought before such an examination was made that especially the states on the west coast would be giving a large place in their courses of study and in the work of the school to an' endeavor to teach to the youth an understanding of these lands and these peoples, their immediate neighbors. If we are to judge, however, as to what is taught in the school by the materials outlined in the courses of study, such is not the case. So scanty, in fact, are the materials dealing with this subject that one is driven to the conclusion that those responsible for the curriculum in these systems must indeed judge this section of the world worthy of little or no attention. Our examination of courses of study disclosed that it was a city in the east, Baltimore, Maryland, which stood almost alone in its seeming recogni¬ tion of the importance of this problem. Even here, however, not nearly as much attention was directed to these western lands as was given to those of the Atlantic. A letter directed to the various publication houses producing books for school use, disclosed practically the same condition. They were almost unanimous in their reply that they had no printed materials dealing di¬ rectly with the Pacific and its countries which were suitable for school use. It is only through the expenditure of tremendous labor, searching hither and yon, that one is able to gather together a bibliography of materials in English which deals primarily with the Pacific world, and many of the articles that can be finally listed are translations from other languages. 610 National Education Association The question then arises, why this situation ? Are the schools correct in directing so little attention to this tremendous section of the world? Is it to be wondered at that so little has been written about these lands, these peoples, and these cultures? Talk with the people you meet, the man on the street, the educator in his study, the lawyer in his office, the doctor in his clinic, the business man at his place of business, and you must realize that in reality little seems to be actually known by adults and youth alike regarding this section of the world. Is this section of the world then unimportant and of little con¬ cern to the people of this country ? Is it true that we have no relationships with these peoples and these lands? Are we satisfied as a nation to con¬ tinue to develop our relationships solely with the peoples across the Atlantic and to leave in isolation those beyond the Pacific? Even if we would, we cannot. Forces stronger than our own are compelling our relationships with these people of the Pacific world to become as intimate as those with the east. What are these lands and who are these people? What are some of the possibilities to be found in this Pacific world ? Even a hurried examina¬ tion develops the fact that here we have areas of the world’s surface far larger than those of the Atlantic; that here we have peoples far more numerous, far more diverse in character, manners, and customs than those in European lands; that here we have economic resources not only more diverse and numerous, but probably of more importance as well. The vastness of this last great area may best be appreciated when we state “that it exceeds in compass and extent the whole of the four conti¬ nents taken together and occupies more than a third part of the earth’s area.’’ Thus it is that our contacts in recent years with this Pacific world have made it of supreme significance to our own selfish development. The acquirement of lands in the Pacific, the opening of the Panama Canal, and the development of trade that it caused, the recent development in trans¬ portation intensified by rapid development of great airways and airplanes, the increasing facilities of communication headed by radio, the necessity of finding other sources of natural products, the annihilation of time and dis¬ tance as given to the United States and other nations as well an enhanced interest in the life and affairs of this Pacific world. Our selfish interests demand that we must be ready to mutually share with the peoples of these countries and islands, the civilizations, laws, customs, wealth, and political interests in human welfare ; and to desire to further the growth of interna¬ tional progress. That such a condition is already coming about is mani¬ fested by such organizations as the Institute of Pacific Affairs, an organiza¬ tion composed of educators and statesmen from all the lands bordering upon the Pacific. Their interest is in bringing about closer associations among the peoples of the lands in the Pacific. The object of such an asso¬ ciation seems primarily to be the promotion of scientific problems of com¬ mon interest. In one of these recent conferences, the purpose of the meet¬ ing was stated as follows: Department of Secondary School Principals 611 1. To bring about wider and more rapid exchange of educational thought and practise through a. Establishing centers for exchange and distribution of adequate translations of laws, decrees, texts, publications b. Exchanging teachers, lecturers, students, research workers c. Formulating principles and standards of evaluation 2. To establish national standards of child welfare through a. Proper care of mothers b. Fixing minimum years of instruction c. Instruction in health habits and provisions for recreation 3. To study and promote vocational education — its place and its plan 4. To study problems of colonization 5. To develop plans for recreation — parks, etc. It may be readily seen that the results of such conferences should be of untold importance to the United States and to the world. Much closer relationships have inevitably been established since the beginning of these conferences. Wide varieties of subjects are discussed frankly and freely. The delegates must be “scientific experts or those who may be trusted to act in a scientific spirit,” and everything is absolutely “non-political.” Why should the United States and particularly the public schools of the country seriously give attention to the affairs of the Pacific world? Dr. Sisson, who has for many years made a study of these lands and peoples, probably gives the most adequate answer when he says : We must seek ever to raise our youth from the narrowness of selfish aims and the poverty of materialism, to the richness of human relations and the nobility of idealism; to foster his sense of the beauty of his own land and his own people, and at the same time of the common humanity which transcends language and customs and complexion, knowing always that the aims of the nation and the great impulses of world order can be realized only if and when the prevailing majority of the people have themselves attained the necessary qualities of intelli¬ gence and heart. Among the objectives set forth by commission on secondary education a few years ago as cardinal principles of the secondary school were these two : the development of worthy citizenship and the determination of vocational choice. In achieving the above objectives through the medium of the school, it is always difficult to know just what the schools should do and just what should be taught in order to aid boys and girls to the realization of these ends. It would seem clear that these aims cannot be achieved without giving proper recognition and attention to a world environment. No longer can we, if we would, minimize the importance of the Pacific world. The secondary school of the present and of the future through all of its agencies must recognize its obligation to teach the youth of the lands, of the cultures, of the peoples, of the economic possibilities of these lands which stretch westward from our shores. It is my purpose to ask that as you continue to study the revision of your curriculum, you give a greater attention and a larger place to the affairs of the Pacific world. 612 National Education Association SOME FACTS AND FANCIES IN SECONDARY EDUCATION M. R. TRABUE, DIRECTOR OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH, UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA, CHAPEL HILL, N. C. In the first place the American public has developed some extraordinary fancies about its public high schools. One of the most common of these is the fancy that all children would obtain great profit by attending a high school. If one has in mind high schools as they now exist in most Amer¬ ican communities, he must admit after examining the facts that such a fancy is entirely false. Fewer than half of the children in this country ever reach the first year of the high school, and fewer than one fifth of them graduate. The teachers in these schools assert that only a small proportion of those who graduate have really obtained great benefit from their study. Even though we admit that the teachers who make such judgments are prejudiced, we yet must confess that many of the pupils who attempt to take our regular high-school courses of study would actually gain more by putting an equal amount of time and energy into some other activity. The fact is we do not even know in any objective way how valuable a high- school course actually is to the average boy or girl who is successful in tak¬ ing it. This is one of the problems in secondary education that still awaits scientific study. Another fancy held by the general public, but of doubtful trustworthi¬ ness, is that the secondary schools have some great aim, purpose, or philosophy by which they shape their activities and programs. The truth of the matter is that the secondary schools are trying to serve so many different purposes, all at the same time, and without having clearly deter¬ mined in advance their relative values, that it may honestly be said that secondary schools have no consistent philosophy. One subject is taught for one purpose, another for another purpose, and there is no great dom¬ inating purpose that will include all of them. The public seems also to fancy that secondary education is of greater value than elementary education. This is no doubt due in part to the ancient idea that children are of value in proportion to their age — the young being of small importance, except as they give promise of ultimately becoming adults. Whatever the source of the fancy may be, boards of education throughout this country are spending two or three times as much per pupil for secondary school instruction as they spend for elemen¬ tary school instruction. Is it really necessary for the public to continue to be misled in these fancies? Is it not possible for this organization of secondary school prin¬ cipals to convert these fancies into demonstrable facts? Why should you not make the public American high school so broad in the opportunities it offers to adolescent youth that every boy and girl would gain greater satis¬ faction from life and contribute more to social progress after spending a few years in your schools than after spending an equal time in any other way? Why should you not define secondary education in terms of the Department of Secondary School Principals 613 ages of your pupils and adopt a great comprehensive purpose that would stimulate, direct, and integrate your efforts ? Is there any good reason why you should not declare boldly some such purpose as that of studying the capacities of all children between twelve and eighteen years of age and developing in each of them those habits which would make them most per¬ manently satisfactory to themselves and most useful in the improvement of society? I can see nothing that would prevent this organization, if it cares to face the issues squarely and energetically, from so reorganizing the purposes and procedures in secondary education that everyone would be willing to admit, on the basis of scientific evidence, that the value of a unit of secondary instruction was greater than the value of a similar unit at any other level. Another group of fancies to which I wish to call attention is held or at least suggested by the activities of those who have determined the curric- ulums for our high schools. Many of these curriculum makers are appar¬ ently entertaining even yet the fancy that the most important task of the public high school is to prepare students to meet college entrance require¬ ments. So much has been said about this that I shall not elaborate upon it here. It is a fact, however, that you high-school principals have the power, if you only have the courage to cooperate in its use, to determine not only what shall be taught in your high schools but also what the college entrance requirements shall be. The colleges are at your mercy in this matter, if you will only agree upon a definite purpose and philosophy of secondary education and plan your curriculums accordingly. If you really are agreed that growth in the personality of the student is more important than meet¬ ing the ancient requirements of the colleges, you need no longer plead the domination of college entrance requirements as an excuse for not recon¬ structing your curriculums. Those who have dominated in determining high-school curriculums have apparently fancied that education or culture is not concerned with mate¬ rial things but only with “the higher things in life.” Respectable maga¬ zines still encourage this fancy by publishing clever articles having such titles as “To Be or To Do.” Brilliant speakers still support the purely academic type of curriculum by such catchy statements as that “one should learn to live rather than to make a living.” The implications of this doctrine are exceedingly interesting, but its results in modern life are often tragic. My own state of North Carolina, for example, maintains a high-school cur¬ riculum which is academically as pure and undefiled by vocational purposes as can be found in any state in this country. North Carolina life, on the other hand, is rapidly becoming industrialized. The factories employ the graduates of our high schools, if at all, in subordinate positions; but these same factories go to the technical high schools of the New England states to obtain experts and foremen to put in charge of our children. Our native graduates have presumably learned “to live,” but their bosses from outside learned “to make a living.” Only a fraction of one percent of our North Carolina population was born and educated in those distant uncultured cen- 614 National Education Association ters where a student sometimes learns to make a living while yet in high school, and yet the economic, political, and social life of North Carolina is rapidly passing into the control of that fraction of one percent. High-school curriculum makers seem to fancy that to be educated in modern America means to know the same types of facts and to have the same types of skills as educated persons had in the Middle Ages. Certain subjects were absolutely necessary in those medieval centuries as keys or tools for connecting students with the best thoughts and practises of the world about them, but many of our high schools preserve and teach this same sub- jectmatter, even though an entirely different set of tools is necessary now for understanding equally well the thoughts and conditions of modern American life. We need an education that will do for our children what the classics did for intelligent students in those days, but the conditions of intelligent living have so changed that the tools actually needed now are very different from those needed in solving the intellectual problems of that day. We may as well face the fact that the life of man is becoming increasingly complex at an accelerating rate. Our social and economic problems are be¬ coming more and more difficult to solve or to foresee. We do not know what problems our students will be required to meet, but we must prepare them to solve their problems intelligently. Speaking in the language of one of our most tenderly preserved high-school subjects, their problems will all be “originals.” The standardized formulas and solutions used in the past will not serve future problems, although successful experience in facing new problems, in seeking and evaluating evidence, and in testing conclusions would certainly serve each student throughout his entire life. We hope our children will work out far better solutions to the old prob¬ lems than we have been able to obtain, and we must therefore see to it that they do not memorize and follow blindly our more or less standardized answers, which we sometimes call “facts.” But we must also see to it that they develop adequate power and skill in the use of appropriate technics of clear thinking, in order that their solutions may fit their needs. High-school teachers usually have a choice assortment of fancies among their more useful items of mental furniture. One of the most interesting of these fancies is the one which leads them to believe that they are really achieving the “seven cardinal principles of secondary education’0 by means of their teaching of their subjects. Many of them are actually making ex¬ cellent progress in the right directions, but more of them are teaching their subjects in exactly the same ways they were taught before the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education ever came into existence. High-school teachers show an unusual genius for professing to believe in the objectives set up by the Commission and then making assignments and con¬ ducting their classes in such a manner as to obtain results that are not at all in harmony with their professed objectives. The fact of the matter is, these teachers have learned the cardinal objec¬ tives of secondary education in exactly the same sense that their pupils learn Department of Secondary School Principals 615 their lessons — by verbal memorization. If this organization of secondary school principals could only bring the high-school teachers of this country to give up the fancy that memorizing constitutes learning, secondary edu¬ cation would be well on its way. But so long as these teachers are, putting their emphasis on what the books say, and what professors in the colleges think, rather than on what their pupils feel, and think, and do, the objectives of secondary education are not going to be reached in any significantly large number of cases. All over this country you can find high-school teachers of English who are making their pupils hate Shakespeare, Milton, and Words¬ worth. I blame these high-school teachers of English, also, for killing the interest in creative writing, which many young people might readily be led to develop. Boys and girls, and the great possibilities in them, weigh en¬ tirely too little in the practise of these teachers who have allowed subject- matter to become their objective. Another absurd fancy of the ordinary high-school teacher is that the scholarship grades he assigns have definite meanings. To him at the time they are assigned, they may have some significance, but to another teacher at that same time, or to himself at another time, their significance is remark¬ ably small. The sooner teachers can be brought to see the importance to the school of objective records of achievement and straightforward reports to parents, written in the English language rather than in the meaningless symbolism of the usual report card, the more hope may we entertain for clear thinking and scientific evidence about instructional problems. There are in secondary education many other interesting and injurious fancies that one might mention, if time permitted, but there is one which concerns this group especially, and I cannot close without calling your at¬ tention to it. Administrative officers who employ high-school teachers seem frequently to be possessed by a fancy that attendance at a college or a uni¬ versity in itself qualifies one to teach high-school pupils. One still hears occasionally, and sees put into practise constantly, the vicious statement that “one who knows his subject can teach it.” If the word “subject” in this statement were understood to mean “adolescent youth,” there would be less danger in it, but as the statement is commonly used it refers to subjectmat- ter. In my judgment this fancy that knowing mathematics qualifies one to teach mathematics in high school, or that majoring in English at college qualifies one to teach English in a high school, is one of the most disastrous fancies in the entire field of secondary education. College and graduate study of a subject under specialists commonly lead one to a reverence for the subject for its own sake. The high-school teacher, who is to develop the personalities of his pupils and to fit them for meeting life problems which cannot now be foreseen, must think of subjectmatter as merely one means for attaining his cardinal objectives. The two points of view are opposed to each other and cannot be reconciled. The modern teacher, who is to use subjectmatter as a field in which to exercise and de¬ velop the initiative, strength, and skill of the student, cannot be worried by what the student does to the subject; while the antiquated teacher, who 616 National Education Association learned in college to fear the lash of his professor’s tongue, is practically incapable of worrying about what the subject is doing to the student. The usual college or graduate course in subjectmatter tends to build up in the prospective teacher attitudes and habits of thought which thoroughly dis¬ qualify him for training high-school students to meet the problems of modern life. The fault lies not in knowledge of subjectmatter, but in the attitudes built up by the professors of subjectmatter and by their methods of instruc¬ tion. A modern teacher needs to know more subjectmatter than the tradi¬ tional teacher, for he needs to be able to select the materials that will be of most value to each particular pupil. But this larger knowledge of the sub¬ ject needs to be acquired in ways that will make it available for his use as an effective tool in the development of individuality, resourcefulness, and originality in his pupils. The subjectmatter specialist in the ordinary college or graduate school has an entirely different view of his subject and trains his students to take his view of it. But as long as you employ his product with¬ out protest, your pupils will continue to be forced to accept his doctrines and judgments or to be flunked out of school. The issue is clearly drawn: Shall we prepare pupils to meet the responsibilities of an increasingly com¬ plex modern life, or shall we continue our vain attempt to make them con¬ form to a pattern which was once labeled “culture?” THE ZERO HOUR OF THE HEAD OF DEPARTMENT HENRY P. MILLER, PRINCIPAL OF ATLANTIC CITY HIGH SCHOOL, ATLANTIC CITY, N. J. Economic and professional influences are now actively operating in the field of education to create for every school executive a serious situation. In increasing numbers, out of proportion to the increases in our popula¬ tion, children are crowding our schools. Not only does the increasing com¬ plexity of our rapidly changing civilization make necessary their presence there, but laws are enacted and enforced to get them there and keep them there for longer periods. The service of the school is being expanded to meet the needs of all sorts of special groups. Adult education is being provided for in many places and even parental and preschool education are receiving special consideration. Our most captious and carping critics, even when they rail at our “fads and frills” ask, and by legislative enact¬ ment command us, to enlarge our program of studies and to take over functions that other institutions have neglected or have failed in their effort to perform. These factors of larger attendance and broadened service with a depreciated dollar cause a real, as well as an apparent, mounting of the cost of education. This added to the other increasing demands upon public funds produces higher assessed valuation of property and a rising tax rate that in turn brings from tax payers a demand for rigid economy. At the same time, the amazing developments in educational theory and practise demand that our organization, procedures, and products be in har- Department of Secondary School Principals 617 mony with a clearly defined philosophy of education, with the results of scientific research, and the purposes that justify the expenditure of public funds in support of schools. These insistent and persistent demands that the school expand in range, quality, and effectiveness its service to all the people and do it with a maxi¬ mum of economy in time and money, create for the school executive a critical situation. What I wish to emphasize is that this situation brings to the heads of departments, as well as superintendents and principals, an intellectual challenge that should be welcomed, and a professional oppor¬ tunity that must be seized by them if they are to justify their existence as essential agents in a truly functional organization of a system of schools. As a result of this economic and professional pressure, the school execu¬ tive is compelled to make new appraisals. He must determine the effi¬ ciency of the activities in his system and the value of the results of these activities in relation to the efficiency and value of the classroom instruc¬ tion. This must be followed by a revaluation of his organization in terms of function. He must see that there is specialization of function with clearly defined responsibility and authority, and that provision is made for efficiency and for expert advice in his deliberations, planning, and adjustments, such as is provided by a line and staff type of organization. This reappraisal forces him to scrutinize every agent in his system, including the head of de¬ partment, and the economic and professional pressure compels him to eliminate all those not absolutely essential to a truly functional organization. In such an organization the principal emerges as a member of the super¬ intendent’s staff and the administrative head of a school. As such he is responsible for all the activities of his school. He must organize, deputize, and supervise. He must provide for the efficient operation of his school and for assistance and expert advice in his deliberations, planning, and ad¬ justments. In his heads of departments he should find the membership of his executive-administrative-instruction council. I need not dwell upon the service they may give in this relation. The service rendered by the head of a department of social studies in helping to make the school, through student participation, a place of training for future citizens, is only typical of what can be done. The most important function of the principal, however, is the improve¬ ment of instruction in his school. It is true that he can, in a large school, delegate this to an assistant principal but since the professional leadership of his teachers and the effectiveness and value of the instruction in the school is his responsibility, I believe it far better for him to delegate the administration and supervision of the noninstructional activities to the assist¬ ant principal and retain as the principal's chief task the direction of instruction . The magnitude of this task is more fully realized if we compare the con¬ ditions reported in numerous educational surveys with those suggested by our newer definitions of teaching, of the aims and purposes of public educa¬ tion, as well as the considerations suggested by newer guiding concepts. 618 National Education Association Surveyors report that the high-school teachers of a large number of schools are in personality and qualities of leadership distinctly superior ; that they show a high degree of scholarship and a background of high ideals of scholar¬ ship ; that their classroom management is of high order. Unfortunately, at the same time, they report that the objectives of these teachers are for the most part information and skill; that they lose sight of qualities of char¬ acter, abilities, ideals, skills in clear thinking, of attitudes, appreciations, tastes, and ambitions ; and that the technics they use are not, on the whole, outstandingly modern. It is such groups of teachers that must, by someone, be persuaded to ac¬ cept Mr. Rugg’s suggestion that for our guiding concepts we must give consideration to selfcultivation, freedom, activity, and creative selfexpres¬ sion and not confine ourselves to those of discipline, skill, organized knowl¬ edge, order, and social efficiency. Bear in mind that most of the teachers in service have been trained under the older ideals and are habituated in the older technics. Even many of those recently trained in good teacher-training institutions are found en¬ gaged in poor practise, because they did not receive the proper kind of supervision in the new situation and because the training institution did not follow them through a probationary period. The change from the old order to the new therefore can be brought about permanently only by a superior grade of supervision. This is not supervision that is inspectional, autocratic, or dictatorial. It is not the administrative type that merely maintains standards. A study of any analysis of the activities of a supervisor will reveal that the head of department, of all agents in the school system, is in the best strategic position to make a significant contribution to the solution of this great and urgent problem of supervision in the high school. His special knowledge of the subjectmatter of his department, much greater than any principal can have of all the subjects of his program of studies, earns the confidence of his group and makes them receptive to his leadership. This knowledge goes far in preparing him to select and organize the subject- matter for instruction. His knowledge of the ideals, purposes, and policies of the school of which he learned and which he probably helped to formu¬ late, as a member of the principal’s council, enables him to help lay the foundation of supervision as a cooperative enterprise in a common knowl¬ edge and common point of view. As a teacher of a few classes he is in a position to experiment and to demonstrate artistic teaching. From this he is able easily to pass to the direction of systematic observation by his group. Since as a class teacher he must daily meet the problems of the teacher, his opinion as to what can or cannot be done in a given situation carries great weight with others. The transition to the direction of instruction is easy. As a teacher he must know the best methods of measuring pupils’ progress and should have some yaluable ideas about checking teachers’ progress. The superintendent and the principal must be in sympathy with this attempt. They, too, must give professional leadership, create a situation Department of Secondary School Principals 619 conducive to growth, give constructive criticism, freedom and time to do creative service and, above all, adequate recognition, to the heads of de¬ partments. On the other hand the head of department must get the vision and prepare himself, even while in service, to realize the dream. If this is done the head of department can raise his position to one of high professional level and render a unique service. If he fails to do this, he will disappear from the high-school field. The heads of departments are in the front line trenches. Many eyes are focused upon them. All of us are concerned about their training and equip¬ ment, their realization of their opportunity and responsibility, their spirit and eagerness. The zero hour is set, perhaps without their knowledge, when they must go over the top with their leaders and by thus helping to attain the great objectives that advance the cause of education, justify their existence as indispensable parts of a modern school system. THE IMPROVEMENT OF PRACTISE IN THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS— ABSTRACT A. C. ELDREDGE, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CLEVELAND, OHIO Before the junior high-school movement will be able to attain the level in the educational scheme to which the cause is rightfully entitled, those charged with the administration and supervision will of necessity be com¬ pelled to do more creative thinking and free themselves from the slavery of custom and from the tendency to accept without challenge the pronounce¬ ments of selfpromoting propagandists who now seem to infest the field. We will be compelled, therefore, to do more thinking and doing but less talking about what should be done, and to place emphasis upon constructive planning based upon pupil need rather than upon the type of advertising it may produce. After the prime requisites of intelligence and independence in thinking have been fulfilled, I am suggesting the following things which will tend to improve generally the efficiency of junior high schools: 1. A real educational philosophy 2. Efficient organization both administrative and supervisor}* 3. A better plan for preparation of prospective teachers 4. The selection of teachers, for which the superintendent must assume re¬ sponsibility 5. Provision for the continued and sustained growth of teachers 6. The elimination of those who after a reasonable probationary period, fail to show promise of future efficiency 1. Junior high-school executives and teachers must have a real genuine educational philosophy as applied to education in general, as well as to the junior high school in particular. It goes without saying that one’s educa¬ tional philosophy is all important. “Call it what you will/' says Mr. Whitney, “a social vision, a cosmic view or a philosophy, it is the thing that lifts the job above the petty round of duties, and plants it at the 620 National Education Association very heart and core of life itself.” This is the determiner of standards, the harbinger of destiny, the maker of worlds in the great educational scheme and it applies with double significance during the period of early adolescence. Tis the set of the soul That decides the goal And not the stress and strife. So the future junior high-school teacher must have a philosophy. For this philosophy, he must look to the best of our teachers colleges. The largest service they can render is to give prospective teachers a real philoso¬ phy of education wffiich in the final analysis is a philosophy of life. The question is not “Is this important?” but rather “Is there anything else that is really important?” 2. Efficient organization plays the same vital part in the success of an educational plan as it does in business. General organization to be efficient must be as free from complications as possible, with a clearly recognized and accepted line of responsibility, where lines of authority are not crossed, where the machinery is not so complicated as to get into its own way and thwart the very purpose for which it was installed. Administration and supervision are two separate and distinct functions. Both require a high degree of leadership, but the distinctive nature of the service each renders, calls for a different type of mind and training. Ad¬ ministration has to do with the machinery of organization and should pro¬ vide for a clear cut line of responsibility in management. It attempts to build a properly balanced and as smooth a working organization as possible so that people may work both efficiently and happily. Nothing is more fundamental than that teachers be contented, optimistic, and happy. Supervision is concerned wdth the technic of teaching, with the selection and presentation of subjectmatter, and with adapting matter and methods to the capacity of the varied groups and individuals within the groups. These varying capacities must be recognized if effective work is to be done. Supervision then is a function which keeps the teacher in the classroom alert, vital, and efficient in his work. It savors more of a personal service which, to be effective, must be kept and applied within the school itself. It is not a headquarters’ function but a field or building function. It must be kept apart from general administration in large city units where the general office is quite apart from the field. General supervision from the central office, coupled with administration has never succeeded anywhere in the United States. Its utility has been de¬ termined through the testimony of those who apply it and not by the word of those upon whom it is imposed. If you are in doubt, ask the teacher in the classroom of any large city in the country whether he believes in general supervision or whether he believes in supervision applied by one within the school itself who daily is available for help and who must learn to so direct the work as to have the confidence and respect of those with whom he is constantly associated. Department of Secondary School Principals 621 I have asked many teachers and I believe I have their honest answers. Teachers generally are for supervision, they want it and appreciate the constructive sort. They want it applied by one within the unit in which they work, and who must work in sympathy with, and have the confidence of the teacher with whom he works. The mechanical organization of a junior high school, in itself, may carry with it a very definite plan for the improvement and continued growth of teachers. In a talk before the junior high-school principals of Cleveland, Mr. Lake stressed the importance of a definite assignment of duties or responsi¬ bilities to each teacher outside of his regular classroom work. Nothing is more fundamental than that some means be provided to keep the teacher from constantly but unconsciously sinking into the narrow groove which devotion to a single subject makes inevitable. The principal, who, by either a change of departments or special yearly assignments, outside of the teacher’s regular subject, insures his teacher against early infection from educational inertia, is doing a service to the teacher and a larger service to the pupils who are destined without choice to be sent into his classroom. The constant burden upon the mind of the thoughtful administrator is the question of training in service. How can he preserve in the beginning teacher the optimism of youth, and interest in life, and the perpetuation of his ideals? How can the administrator best help the other to build up a sound philosophy of life, and so avoid becoming the shop-talking, single- track being, whom strangers and even children upon the streets a decade ago instinctively characterized as a teacher. Until there is provision for free exchange of ideas among those who wish to improve practise in the junior high schools and until we are anxious for this means of help, we shall not be able fully to meet our hopes. The National Education Association has already set up a department for meeting this need in all grades of schools by attempting to make the association a clearinghouse for the best plans now in use throughout the United States. These facilities will be enlarged from year to year and eventually a very much needed, valuable, and reliable source of information will be available. Too much encouragement cannot be given to this department of the National Education Association, neither can its effectiveness as a means of growth be over estimated. 3. There may be a difference of opinion concerning the function of the college in the preparation of the prospective teacher for this work. I be¬ lieve those who employ yearly a large number of college graduates without experience, will agree that there must be a changed conception of what con¬ stitutes training, and how it shall be applied, by colleges and the schools they attempt to serve, before increased effectiveness can be expected from the prior training of prospective teachers. There should be a better understanding of what each can best contribute and a closer tie-up of administrators and teachers in service with agencies for improvement, including teachers colleges and institutions for advanced 622 National Education Association study. If this can be brought about, I believe these institutions should emphasize : (a) A living comprehensive philosophy of education as suggested above which is without question the greatest contribution our foremost teachers colleges are making and can at present make to the cause of public education. (b) In addition to this philosophy, instead of offering so much theory and method and principles and bookish technic, the teachers colleges should aim to give a com¬ prehensive knowledge of subjectmatter, together with training in the development of discriminating judgment as to relative values. That is, to help students to de¬ velop the power to judge what is important and what is not. Again the colleges, because of their charter rights, independence in position, in means of support, and in management, stand in a most strategic position relative to their ability to increase the efficiency of teaching through careful selection of those who are admitted to training. Teachers colleges are giving the schools very little assistance in attempt¬ ing to keep out of teaching those who should never be admitted. At a time when there is a great oversupply of teachers, there is pre¬ sented to the college an opportunity for professional service superior to almost any service they are capable of performing, namely, that of careful selection of those who enter the college of education, and elimination of those who after a reasonable probationary period seem to lack the qualities necessary for good teaching. A pupil in any grade of school work has as inherent a right to sit under the leadership of one whom he can respect, for what he is physically, so¬ cially, and morally, as for what he knows about the subject. He has the right to have, as his teacher, one of whom he can be proud, who becomes a model in physical fitness, in presence, in appearance, in poise, in whole¬ someness, in broadmindedness, in optimism, in energy, in adaptability, as in intelligence, discrimination , judgment, in the knowledge of subject and in the ability to present it to any group regardless of their backgrounds or in¬ telligence quotients. 4. After the college has done all in its power to eliminate the unfit, the duty of selection for the immediate position is a service for which the super¬ intendent must assume responsibility. Ability to select teachers does not come alone with education nor with practise. It is a highly intuitive process in which those who uniformly select wisely find it difficult to explain the mental processes by which eliminations are made and selections are deter¬ mined. Probably more selections are made upon the general impression which one makes in an interview than upon his rank in the college class or the commendations which he may present. The general physical pres¬ ence, poise, art of approach, wholesomeness of manner, neatness, quality of voice, sincerity, intelligence of response, energy, consideration for others and ability to meet an emergency, are as a rule, the type of quality upon which selection is made more often than upon the academic standing one has attained. 5. The selection of a teacher is important, but it is more important that after he is chosen he displays evidence of continued and sustained growth. Department of Secondary School Principals 623 There should be provided in every junior high school a definite plan for careful and adequate training in service. The teacher must meet the actual problems of control and instruction in the classroom. I am assuming that the setting for effective stimulation and correction may best be handled in the place where the need for it arises. Hence, if we hope to get the best out of the material selected for classroom instruction, we will be compelled to provide a well-organized continuous system for improvement of class¬ room instruction within the school itself. Curriculum making in the field is a tardy recognition of the fact that after all the one who knows most about the child and his needs is not the college nor university professor, nor the superintendent, but the often times equally intelligent and more practical teacher, who is in touch with child life, and who must meet, not the theoretical, but the practical problems which his composite group presents. This intelligent teacher is discovering for us that variety is just as much the law of life as conformity, that we must provide for individual differences on the one hand, while we follow certain rather definite standards on the other. We are gradually changing our emphasis on standards as we know more about classroom practise. We are destined to make more discoveries relative to curriculum adapta¬ tion as wTe continue to center the intelligent and intensive study of the ques¬ tion in the children. The teacher must take the philosophy which the col¬ lege is so able to give him and use it as a means of adapting the subject- matter to children with whom he has to deal. As a means of teacher training, curriculum building furnishes one of the most fruitful fields because it is possible so to construct the curriculum in any subject that every child, every teacher, every principal, every super¬ visor, and the superintendent cooperates in building up the curriculum. I have the testimony of many of the teachers engaged in this work that they experienced more stimulation and satisfaction from the work than from any credit course they had pursued. As a means of stimulation and improve¬ ment to teaching, the use of a continuous internal survey offers one of the most profitable fields. It must be so set up and so impartial that it reveals the truth and determines the value or the futility of practise. Some of the educational surveys in this country have been quite severely criticised, at least locally, because of the belief that previously formed conclusions were being verified rather than that faults were being discovered that they might be corrected. A continuous check-up by those who know the local field with a sincere desire to discover the truth, whether it be adverse or commendatory, that the findings may be utilized in correcting and perfecting practise is the type that is of greatest service to the community. By such a plan, morale is preserved and increased efficiency is insured. 6. No school system can long maintain a high degree of efficiency which, after it has made a conscientious and sustained effort to improve the teachers 624 National Education Association in the quality of instruction and in general efficiency, does not eliminate the unfit and those who do not show ability to improve, as well as to show growth in knowledge of the work they have to do, the most important of which is to create the right attitude toward life. The dismissal of unsatisfactory teachers is the most disagreeable and at times proves the most hazardous duty which confronts a superintendent. There is a comparatively small number of eliminations each year in most school systems. The Board of Education would perform a service to the community if it were to establish a policy of requiring one year of substitute or probationary service before any inexperienced teacher could be regularly employed. This plan would provide against the hazard one takes in employing a teacher without actual experience or dropping him after a failure during regular employment. At any rate the highest efficiency cannot be possible where there is not free choice to employ or not to employ regardless of where the teacher’s home may be or where his education has been attained. In the application blank of one of our fine western cities the question is asked whether the applicant has sought political or social influence in attempting to secure this position. To do one’s best work he must know that only merit can either secure or perpetuate service. Nothing is more fundamental or vital than the attitude of the worker toward the work in which he is engaged. The teacher to be at his best must be in an environment which is conducive to professional spirit and growth. He must meet his daily duties with a relish and with the confidence that comes from natural, wholesome relations with those with whom he asso¬ ciates. There are no personal qualities that teachers admire more in an administrator or a supervisor than approachableness, integrity, frankness, decision, and justice tempered with a sense of humor. TEACHER TRAINING AS RELATED TO CLASSROOM PROCEDURE GLADSTONE H. YEUELL, HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA, UNIVERSITY, ALA. Before going to the University of Alabama with the purpose in mind of training teachers for that state I had the fortune to have spent some five years at a state normal school. I say fortune, for in a sense that is the burden of this paper. However, let me go back a few years. Shortly after the war many new movements in education began to find rather general acceptance. In fact, all of the current educational literature and most of the teachers’ meetings were interested in the socalled newer education. Among the movements which got, and are still getting, wide publicity are the socialized recitation, supervised study, and the project' and problem method. Department of Secondary School Principals 625 There can be little doubt but that the educational world is thoroughly convinced as to the efficacy of these methods as types of activity. Professional books are full of their technics. The young high-school teacher in train¬ ing has been bombarded on every hand with the superiority of classroom procedure which employs these methods. This is well and good, so far ! The crux of the matter is this, as I see it: In spite of all the talk and ex¬ pended energy most high-school teachers teach just as they always did. The newly trained high-school teacher insists that the textbook be memorized and that questions be answered just as of yore. It is the old problem of psychol¬ ogy, theory, and practise. The statement is frequently made that the best teaching is found in the elementary school, the next best in the secondary school, and the poorest in the university or college, and this generalization has much truth in it. The question is, why ? I am willing to admit that there may be many factors, but possibly the most important is that of controled observation and prac¬ tise work. Up to the present in most instances the high-school teacher has been trained mainly by theory, whereas the elementary teacher has been pretty thoroughly exposed to the training school and all that goes with it. I am willing to admit that socialization of classroom procedure did not mean much to me in a concrete way until I saw one teacher use it. I submit therefore the following statement: We shall not be able to change classroom procedure until our trainers observe and participate in the reorganized type of work. This means that the university and college must take seriously the problems of the training school. I am going to give you the results of a brief study made last fall. This study was confined to state universities and I believe that this is the situation in general. What is the number of hours of practise teaching} observation , and par¬ ticipation? An attempt was made to get in detail the number of hours which the cadet used for observation, for socalled participation, and for actual practise teaching. However, the nomenclature was so varied that the only possible solution was to group together the gross number of hours devoted to this type of work. The speaker is convinced that there is practically no uniformity, that there is comparatively speaking very little real practise teaching, and that in the main the facilities for this type of work are woe¬ fully inadequate at most state universities. Many of the men replying to the questionnaire admitted that their attempts along these lines were purely makeshifts and of doubtful validity. Even at the universities where there is a university high school it appears that there is not usually space for all of the cadets, and recourse must be had to the surrounding country with varying degrees of efficiency. Two universities admitted that they were starting this type of work the present session, one expected to start in the near future. Of the thirty-four attempting some phase of practise teach¬ ing the number of hours varied from six to one-hundred-eighty with the median at sixty. JVhere is the work carried on? Of forty-two universities replying, twelve did all of their work on the campus, twenty-five oft the campus, and five 626 National Education Association did part of the practise work on the campus and part in cooperation with city or county schools at varying distances from the university. When it it realized that practise work must usually be fitted into an already crowded program for most cadets the finding here is obvious. Where is the control of practise schools vested? It is quite possible for a director of practise teaching to control conditions in a practise school even though he does it purely by his own ability and personality. It is, however, highly probable that unless there is some legal right on the part of his institution to dominate the situation that the cadet will suffer. Ten of the state universities in the present study absolutely control their prac¬ tise schools directly, twenty-two do so through a city board of education, one through a county board, eight control the schools on their campus and cooperate with city or county boards for their off-campus work, while one as yet does no practise teaching. The plans used for control through city and county boards are in gen¬ eral as varied as the number of institutions carrying on this type of work. In most cases this control is too slight for efficiency, though two universities state that their agreements are satisfactory. Efficiency would seem to de¬ mand that the director of practise teaching might at any time and at any place so control the situation that his cadets might observe, or participate, or practise in such manner as would lead to their highest development as teachers, providing the interests of the children in the school are properly taken into account. This would mean that the principal and teachers of the practise school would recognize in the director a type of authority which usually necessitates more than a simple cooperation of institutions. Who directs practise work ? Eight out of forty state universities have what they call a director or supervisor of practise teaching, six use one of the professors of secondary education, while thirteen turn the work over to a professor of education. In the last case these appear to be secondary men though the university does not use the special title of secondary. Eight universities use the principal of the high school for directing practise work. Four use the term professor of secondary education and school administra¬ tion, specialists in academic subjects, supervisors of instruction, and Ohio State replies “no special title.” In one university which does practise work only along vocational lines, the state directors are also responsible for prac¬ tise work. Perhaps there is no reason why uniformity should be sought here, but the writer feels that the department of secondary education should be in some way directly responsible for the practise work in that department. To whom is the director of practise work responsible ? It was obvious in answer to this question that the men replying frequently were not sure as to responsibility. One of the major problems of school administration, par¬ ticularly of university administration, is the fixing of definite responsibility for different types of work. The replies, therefore, are probably not very accurate. Twenty-five universities stated that the director of practise work was responsible to the dean or head of the college, school, or department of Department of Secondary School Principals 627 education. In two cases he was responsible to the professor of secondary education. In five universities the dean and professor of secondary edu¬ cation are the same person and the responsibility is vested there. The di¬ rector is responsible to the presidents of two universities. In three univer¬ sities he is responsible to the head of the department of principles of educa¬ tion, to the professor of school law and administration, or to the department of education faculty respectively. No doubt the size of the institution should in part determine this placing of responsibility. As in the questions just previous the writer is of the opinion, however, that there should be considerable, if not complete, re¬ sponsibility vested in the departments of secondary education. Who nominates the critic teacher ? Naturally all state universities do not use the term “critic teacher.” However, in this report the term is used in its wide connotation to include all those who do work of the type which the critic or demonstrator is supposed to do. The speaker feels that unless the university authorities have a very definite part in this selection that practise work is apt to be largely beyond the control of the director of this phase of university activity. Of the thirty-four universities replying to this question eight state that the city superintendent nominates critic teachers. In ten cases the dean of the school of education exercises that prerogative. Three universities report that this function is delegated to the director of practise work, four to the principal of the training school, two to the university, and two to the city schoolboard. The two latter cases undoubtedly mean the college of educa¬ tion and the city superintendent of schools respectively. In two universities the dean of the college of education and the director of practise work nomi¬ nate cooperatively. In three cases the director of practise work and the principal of the training school, the chairman of the department of the art of teaching and the professor of secondary education, the superintendent of schools and the high-school principal nominate critic teachers. Who hires critic teachers? Fifteen state universities hire the critic teacher entirely, eleven hire them in part. Eight institutions report that they do not hire the critic teacher at all. Two hire critic teachers used on the campus and in part those beyond the campus limits, one hires those used on the campus but not those used off the campus. In one case some of the critic teachers are hired by the university and some by the city board of education. One institution replies that the university hires the critic teacher but that the city pays the salary. This probably means that the university authorities nominate. As in the case of nomination above it appears that university control and efficiency would be much enhanced if the critic teachers were at most hired in part by the institution using their services. What percent of the critic teacher s salary is paid by the university , or what plan is used by the institutions in paying critic teachers? Where a percentage basis is used for paying critic teachers the range is from five percent of the salary to fifty percent. The median is thirty-three percent, and the average twenty-eight percent. Other plans used are to supplement 628 National Education Association the critic teacher’s salary by $100 per year, $25 per cadet teacher, $20-$25 per cadet, depending on the number of cadets, and the probating of the salary in terms of the amount of time given to university activities. If the above statement of the situation in respect to practise work is correct, I believe that the main problem in secondary education today is not necessarily research, though it is badly needed ; it is not more theory, though perhaps we cannot have too much ; but it is the transition into prac¬ tise of that research and theory, which can only be brought about by trained teachers who will actually do the things taught and advocated. The high-school principal should raise his voice in no uncertain terms and thus help the secondary education departments of colleges and universities to persuade the proper authorities to give us the materials whereby we may train teachers who will revolutionize classroom procedure. CHARACTER EDUCATION CHARLES A. BROWN, ASSOCIATE SUPERINTENDENT, BIRMINGHAM PUBLIC SCHOOLS, BIRMINGHAM, ALA. Development of character is not a new objective in education. From earliest to latest of educational records, we find set up, variously stated, aims which indicate the importance of moral training of the young. The widespread interest in character education at the present time reflects uni¬ versal agreement that ethical character is one of the most desirable results to be obtained. While there is practical agreement in aim and some in the materials of instruction, there is sharp division of opinion as to method of approach. Shall it be direct or indirect? It is not the purpose of this paper to enter into the relative merits of the direct or indirect method of character education, but rather to give a brief statement of a plan that has been followed in the Birmingham schools for the past six years — ‘‘not for the purpose of further emphasis on study¬ ing or teaching morals, but for opportunity thus offered in constantly creat¬ ing situations that call for practise. Not so much to deal directly with the cardinal virtues, but rather with the application of these virtues and with conditions conducive to their practise.” A character education slogan for each of the past six years has been adopted, usually by popular vote of the teachers, around which the cur¬ riculum and work of the year should center. Publicity has been eagerly and generously given by the press through parent-teacher organizations, and through the children, until the whole city has become interested in these slogans. Everybody has played the game with the children. The first slogan, “Development of Character Through Health,” selected six years ago and continuously emphasized since, as have been the succeed¬ ing slogans, is one of the major objectives of education. The emphasis was placed on knowledge of the principles of healthful living, the development of health habits, the appreciation of the value of health, and a wholesome attitude toward personal and community health problems. The quality and Department of Secondary School Principals 629 kind of food served in school lunchrooms were carefully looked after; the members of the parent-teacher associations studied the subject at their monthly meetings; children were not only weighed and measured, but by proper diet the percentage of underweight children was greatly reduced, and to all such children who came up to normal during the year the board of health presented certificates of health at public exercises. In our platoon organization physical exercise was already well organized in the schools under the direction at play period of a teacher trained for physical educa¬ tion work. In lieu of the regular monthly teachers meeting several Satur¬ day mornings were spent in hikes by the teachers. Better attendance on the part of pupils and teachers during the year and a more optimistic attitude on the part of all were evident from the records and spirit of the work. The next year’s slogan, “The Development of Character Through Sportsmanship,” suggested by the Department of Physical Education, and adopted by the Board of Education and by the teachers, was enthusiastically supported by the children in all the schools. The president of the board of education offered a handsome loving cup to the high school manifesting the best spirit of sportsmanship during that and each succeeding session. A committee of three citizens acts as judges each year, visits the schools, observes the conduct, attitude, and spirit of pupils in classrooms, lunch¬ rooms, assembly, corridors, and on the playgrounds ; attends interschool athletic contests and observes the conduct of the teams and of the student spectators. Much interest and rivalry have developed over the contest for the cup. Another of our fine citizens offered $100 each term of that year and since to each of the high schools to be awarded to the group making the best record ; in school work as evidenced by regular and prompt at¬ tendance, scholarship, deportment; in student activity, on school paper, in club work, in athletics; and in working out the most original and success¬ ful project in the school. A committee of teachers appointed by the prin¬ cipal, and of students appointed by the president of the student council and approved by the principal, acts as judges. The sportsmanship slogan has given opportunity for direct and inci¬ dental study of ethical principles involved. Considerations of its meaning and manifold applications were taken by the student council to each ses¬ sion or homeroom, where general discussion was encouraged. This dis¬ cussion and thinking was crystallized by having pupils write out the points which in their opinion should be incorporated in a sportsmanship code. The resulting code, entirely the work of students in high schools, has been widely published and highly commended. The characteristics of a good sportsman are thus set out in this code: A Good Sportsman Is Courteous On the field he does not jeer at errors; he does not cheer at opponents’ penalty; he treats them as guests, not as enemies. In life he is respectful to elders and superiors in authority; he treats the other fellow as he would be treated. 630 National Education Association Is Modest On the field, he works for the good of the team rather than for individual honor; he will even sacrifice his own prestige for his team; he is gracious as a winner. In school he does not become conceited over his success, neither does he feel himself superior to his classmates. In life he does not “blow” about what he is going to do; he does not boast about what he has done. Is Generous On the field he applauds a good play of his opponents; he gives the other fel¬ low the benefit of the doubt. In school he does not “knock” other schools or individuals; he appreciates an¬ other’s merit. In life he does not ridicule the man wTho is “down,” but encourages him. He is not afraid to think for himself and to voice his opinions straight-forwardly and clearly. Is Game On the field he plays hard to win; he fights though he may already be defeated; he accepts adverse decisions; he is a good loser. In school he does his work, he keeps on working in the face of almost certain failure. He has “the vim to think straight, the pluck to act straight.” In life he does his part, however hard it may be ; he accepts reverses with a smile and tries again. Is Obedient On the field he observes the rules of the game. In school he observes all the regulations. In life he respects the civic laws and the demands of the community. Is Fair ! On the field he competes in a clean, hard-fought but friendly way; he helps an injured opponent; he has no alibis. In school he does not waste his time nor that of the faculty; he does not copy his classmate’s work; he does not receive aid from any source on examinations. In life he tries to see both sides of a question; he uses no underhanded methods; he is not influenced by money; he is not partial in administering justice. We feel that some good has resulted. The presidents of state colleges whose students have their annual games in Birmingham have said that the emphasis on true sportsmanship in the public schools has spread to their student bodies. An editorial writer who attended all the baseball games between the Birmingham team, winner of the Southern League pennant and the Houston team, winner of the Texas League made the following com¬ ment : The Houston fans are not nearly such good sportsmen as Birmingham fans. They are not generous with their applause when an opponent makes an unusually brilliant play. They “boo” visiting players a lot more than they do in Birming¬ ham. In the Magic City when a pitcher strikes out a good hitter with men on the bags, the fans applaud the pitcher for his feat; In Houston they rather lean to feeding the old raspberry to the batter who has fallen down. One wonders if the fine sportsmanship campaign conducted for several years in our public school system hasn’t helped our Birmingham fans to appreciate the importance of sports¬ manship and courtesy to visiting players more than is normally the case. One doesn’t unsually visit a professional baseball park to find a high degree of sports¬ manship in the crowd, but in Birmingham the type of sportsmanship displayed is unusual. The Houston fans are by no means the worst in the world, but neither are they in a class with Birmingham. Department of Secondary School Principals 631 The next slogan “The Development of Character through Work” gave opportunity for student participation in work at school, in the home, in industry. In one high school the girls in the home economics building asked that all janitor service in that building be left to them. In another high school the boys in the shop classes removed the tops of about 500 old or abused desks, one room at a time, took them to the shop, and resurfaced, stained, and varnished them. In the elementary schools cards were sent to the homes on which parents were requested to grade children on home duties and to send reports back to the teacher. Work may or may not have any influence in development of character. The proper attitude is import¬ ant and one of the good ways to create proper attitude toward work is to work ; the schools thus provide systematically for it and encourage the pupils to engage in it. “Character Development Through Love of the Beautiful” brought many attractive pictures, statues, bas-reliefs into our schools ; art leagues were organized, and art exhibits held. School buildings became cleaner, school lawns and grounds more attractive ; the school environment of the children was made more wholesome and stimulating. The next slogan “The Development of Character through Thrift” gave an opportunity to conserve school supplies, to better care for free text¬ books in the elementary schools, personal and public property in all schools. One measure of the results of the slogan was seen in school savings ac¬ counts that year and the gradual increase in such accounts since. Ninety- five percent of the pupils from the third grade through high schools have participated in banking; for the two years, the pupils have deposited over $300,000 and had a balance of $169,447 on May 18, 1929, the last bank¬ ing week. The slogan for the past year was “The Development of Character through Courtesy.” It is a difficult one to measure. The Department of Tests and Measurements did set up a measure of courtesy in certain situa¬ tions and did test the knowledge of all the pupils in certain acts of courtesy. The board of education visited every school in the city and besides rating general conditions, especially observed the courtesy or the lack of courtesy on the part of the children and used brief record forms for scoring. Five committees from the P. T. A. volunteered for the same type of service. All these reports, turned over to the Department of Tests and Measure¬ ments, indicate some progress in courtesy. To those of us who visit the schools from day to day this improvement is marked. Reports from the street car conductors indicate much improvement in consideration for others shown by school children who ride the cars. The slogan for next session announced some time before the close of the past session is “The Development of Character Through the Study and Love of Nature.” The chairman of the committee and most of the members who have direction of this slogan are in summer schools, working out plans for the session. The board of education appointed a fine woman of the 632 National Education Association city whose special knowledge and interest in this field are widely recognized in our city. Keen interest is manifest in many ways. What the results will be we do not know, but this systematic effort to have the children do something that will have a tendency to develop and strengthen their character has met with the cordial approval of school patrons and friends.” The following is a formulation of principles recognized in our plan : 1. People are more essentially doers than knowers or thinkers. 2. Character is known as a matter of action: the habitual performance of cer¬ tain kinds of deeds rather than others. To learn to know these deeds the pupil must begin to do them. 3. The influence of personal leadership and example is a very potent factor in the development of attitudes and mind sets leading to right actions. 4. The environment surrounding the child at school is also a powerful factor in the development of these attitudes. 5. Any program of character education that places a strain on the honesty of pupils by having them report their progress for credit promotes a lack of honesty and truthfulness. 1 hese principles suggest : ( 1 ) The highest type of leadership in prin¬ cipals and teachers; (2) a school environment that is clean, wholesome and stimulating; (3) the socialization of the school program in studies and through extracurriculum activities; (4) singling out one field of work or character trait at a time for more intensive emphasis, working out plans of activity for this field and making the whole school program a laboratory and practise ground for its development; having always in mind the warning against the adoption of artificial progress-rating schemes of character education. Someone has said “School life should be organized around the idea that all are expected to make a free offering of their best to the progress of the class and the school and through these of the larger community.,, The Department of Social Studies The department of social studies was for¬ merly the National Council for the Social Studies and was created as a Department of the National Education Association by the Board of Di¬ rectors at the Indianapolis meeting of the Associa¬ tion in 1925. The officers of the Department of Social Studies for the year 1929-30 are: President , A. C. Krey, Professor of History, University of Minnesota, Min¬ neapolis, Minn.; First Vicepresident , Edgar Daw¬ son, Professor of Political Science and History, Hunter College, New York City; Second Vicepresi- dent, R. M. Tryon, Professor of Teaching of History, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill.; Secretary- Treasurer, Bessie L. Pierce, Associate Professor of History, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. ; Board of Directors , A. E. McKinley, Professor of History, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. ; J. M. Gambrill, Professor of History, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. Facts relat¬ ing to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier Proceedings as follows : 1926:652-663 1927:679-695 1928:651-654 [ 634 ] NEW INTEREST IN THE TEACHING AND STUDY OF HISPANIC AMERICAN HISTORY— ABSTRACT A. CURTIS WILGUS, PROFESSOR OF HISTORY, UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH CAROLINA, COLUMBIA, S. C. The rise of this new interest is due to a number of reasons. The World War turned the American mind to international affairs and centered particular attention upon our increasing political, social, intellectual, and commercial relations with our neighbors in this hemisphere. The treaty of Versailles called attention in a new way to the Monroe Doctrine and suggested new interpretations and limitations. The recrudescence of Pan- Americanism since the War has concentrated new attention upon Hispanic America. And finally President Hoover’s recent friendly visit to Hispanic America emphasized our growing interest in the territories south of the Rio Grande. It was about thirty-four years ago that pioneer work was done in the teaching of Spanish American and Portuguese American history in the schools of higher learning in the United States.1 In 1895 Professor Bernard Moses of the University of California offered a course in “Spanish American History and Institutions.” Ten years later (1904-05) the University of Texas began a course on Spanish colonization and in the same academic year Columbia University announced a course dealing with Spanish America. In 1909 the University of Illinois commenced a course in gen¬ eral Hispanic American History. Harvard offered its first course in 1915. Within the next two years such schools as Brown University, University of Colorado, University of Indiana, Notre Dame, University of North Carolina, Northwestern University, University of Pennsylvania, Goucher, and others began to offer courses touching upon Hispanic American history. By 1918 interest in the field had increased to such an extent that the Hispanic American Historical Review was founded to meet the needs of teachers and students of the subject. In its first number the editor, Dr. James A. Robertson, reported that twelve Ph. D. theses were in prepara¬ tion in this country in the field of Hispanic American History, that three more such theses were in press, and that one other was about to go to press. The teaching of Hispanic American history like that of some other sub¬ jects must grow downward from the college and university into the lower ranks of the educational system. This will not be a rapid growth in all probability, but it should be a steady and a certain growth. All of us will live to see the readjustment of the curriculum to meet this demand for Hispanic American instruction, for if interest in the subject continues to increase in the next ten years as it has in the past ten years, it is destined to find a permanent place in all of our educational institutions. Such a consummation is devoutly to be wished. 1 Hispanic American Historical Review, 7:352-3. August, 1927. [ 635 ] 636 National Education Association THE PROFESSIONAL PREPARATION OF JUNIOR AND SENIOR HIGH-SCHOOL TEACHERS OF HISTORY AND THE OTHER SOCIAL STUDIES IN ALABAMA— ABSTRACT B. L. PARKINSON, DIRECTOR OF TEACHER TRAINING, STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, MONTGOMERY, ALA. Alabama’s plan of teacher certification declares a senior high-school teacher professionally prepared when he has the following minimum training: baccalaureate degree from a standard four-year college or uni¬ versity with an academic major of twenty-four semester hours; an academic minor of eighteen semester hours; and eighteen hours in education, three of which must be in directed observation and practise-teaching. It de¬ clares a junior high-school teacher professionally prepared when he has graduated from one of the two-year state normal schools having pursued the curriculum designed to prepare junior high-school teachers. Where do Alabama high-school teachers receive their professional prep¬ aration? What higher institutions prepare them for their work in the high schools of the state? The total responsibility of giving Alabama’s present high-school teaching staff the preparation that it now has was shared by four groups of institutions as follows: Eight degree-granting four-year higher institutions of learning located in Alabama . 47 percent All degree-granting four-year institutions located outside of Alabama.. 24 percent Alabama normal schools . 25 percent Out-of-state normal schools . + percent Total responsibility . 100 percent Of the total training provided by four-year colleges and universities located in Alabama, state supported institutions gave fifty-seven percent of the preparation as compared with forty-three percent given by denomina¬ tional colleges. Inservice growth of Alabama high-school teachers is provided for through summer schools, extension classes, and reading circles. In the sesssion of 1928-29 more than three-fourths of the high-school teaching staff of the state were enroled in one or the other of these three groups to promote pro¬ fessional growth of teachers while in service. MODERN TENDENCIES IN RELATION TO THE SOCIAL STUDIES— ABSTRACT NANCY MILES BATMAN, HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL STUDIES, EASTERN JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL, LOUISVILLE, KY. The tendencies of the modern world are towards ( 1 ) the merger idea or system; (2) socialization of the masses; (3) heeding of the adolescent child; (4) practicability of training; (5) science. The Department of Social Studies 637 What relation do these world tendencies have to the social studies? First, I shall illustrate the merger idea prevailing in the world of today. Social studies is a combination of history, civics, geography, and economics. One cannot be taught without trespassing on the premises of the other. So the merger idea has been adopted in the educational world in order to prevent an overlapping of the subject material with the consequent loss of interest on the part of the student as well as economizing his time and effort. A second tendency in the world of today is toward social efficiency. Emphasis is being placed upon preparation for social service, to help in the general welfare, to be aware of civic and moral responsibility, to desire and to be able to cooperate with one’s fellowmen. How does this socializing of the world relate itself to the social studies? Very clearly, through the study of government and history. The study of these aids the student to understand the meaning of social service. The basis of education for citizenship is to broaden the group spirit. The study of history makes intelligent voters. History inspires ideals of social service and unselfishness. A third tendency of the new world order is the attention given to the adolescent child. Formerly, a lawbreaker of youthful age and experience was placed in the same jail or penitentiary with a lawbreaker older in age and experience, and the young sinner emerged from confinement with an old head on young shoulders. Now the juvenile court takes care of the youth. Formerly, a child of tender years did the same amount of work, working the same number of hours as did an adult. Society as a whole suffered. Now^ the child labor laws in many states look after the welfare of the junior citizen. It did not occur to people that a healthy, happy child is a good business proposition ; that sickly, undernourished and im¬ moral children become citizens who must be reckoned with in the future of the community. Now many cities provide parks, playgrounds, libraries, museums, and art galleries and furnish free band concerts and public dance halls. A fourth tendency of the modern world is the practicability of training. Before the war, children were taught to be seen and not heard ; they were not taught to reason out a situation. The school world and the business world seemed as far apart as the north and south poles. Even a hard- headed business man of pre-wTar days assumed that an employee just out of school must go through a period, long or short, of adjustment to the new environs; a sort of apprenticeship, a relic of the guild system of the middle ages. Due to Commander Byrd’s flying trips we know that the north and south poles are not so very different ; neither is the business world so very different from the school world. An individual should emerge from the school environment and fit comfortably into the business com¬ munity. The last and most interesting tendency of the modern world is the scien¬ tific aspect. This is the age of exploration and research in religion, medi- 638 National Education Association cine, food supply, prehistoric life, work, and psycholog}*. History, to be worth anything at all, must be scientific. We must accept much of what is commonly called history as fiction, pleasant, perhaps, but not true. His¬ tory is as much a science as chemistry or mathematics. The historian must combine or add just as conscientiously as either chemist or mathematician if he truly desires to obtain man’s real story on this earth. SOCIAL STUDIES IX THE SAX AXTOXIO JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS— ABSTRACT C. C. BALL, DIRECTOR OF JUNIOR EDUCATION, SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS Teachers of history, geography, and civics in past years have been too much inclined to think in terms of their subjects, and too little about the effect their teaching is going to have on the lives of boys and girls. The essential thing in teaching social studies is not the imparting of knowledge, valuable as that may be, but the developing of desirable attitudes toward, and understanding of, the institutions and conditions of modern life. It little behooves a citizen to be familiar with the facts and events of history, if he fails to comprehend the significance of his own times. Courses of study in the social studies have been based, in the past, chiefly on subiectmatter found in textbooks, and textbook writers have formed the habit of including in their texts factual material usually considered of sufficient importance to teach to the young, without special regard to whether or not the facts presented and discussed bore any particular relation to conditions and institutions with which the average citizen comes in con¬ tact, and which he should understand. In other words, history textbooks are written from the point of view of the historian, rather than from the point of view of the average citizen. The situation must be reversed. The child — the citizen — must be the flrst and main consideration, and subiectmatter to be taught him must be selected because it will serve a definite purpose in producing predetermined effects in his life. General and specific objectives, attainable by children, must be set up, then subjectmatter chosen which will develop in the child those desirable attitudes and comprehensions which we have determined upon. Searching for material to produce a given result may take us into any or all of the fields of social studies — history, geography, government, economics, soci¬ olog}* — it matters not just so we reach our objective. Special methods of teaching are necessary to make such a plan successful. An adequate library, suited to the varying needs of children ; a teaching procedure based on a sympathetic understanding of child needs ; a procedure making use of some kind of directed study technic, which will change the child from a lesson learner to a seeker after knowledge, and the teacher from a taskmaster to a sympathetic guide and leader. The Department of Social Studies 639 THE X EH7 SPA PER AS A FORCE IX THE CHAXG1XG WORLD— ABSTRACT GLADYS BOYIXGTON, INSTRUCTOR IN EDUCATION, NORTH CAROLINA COLLEGE FOR WOMEN, GREENSBORO, N. C. During the past ten years we have been watching the evolution of world understanding and are coming to realize that modern international life is based on relations worked out between peoples, not between sovereigns or states. As a result public opinion will come to replace secret diplomacy and the press is the instrument through which this will be made possible. We saw democracy reach a milestone when, as a result of the pressure of public opinion, the British and American governments signed the Kellogg Pact. Today we are watching the spread of the term, “outlawry of war and the press is the greatest force in forwarding or retarding this ideal. A knowledge of the influence of the press in the past is necessary if we are to develop a reading public that will be more interested in constructive articles than in sensational dispatches predicting war or stressing political differences. The research workers are continually separating the wheat from the chaff and showing us the part propaganda plays in influencing public opinion. We ask ourselves what can be done to keep the newspaper readers and the newspaper makers of tomorrow from repeating the mistakes of yesterday and today. The activities of the press itself are a most hopeful sign. The exchange of professors of journalism and the visits of American and British editors, fostered by the Carnegie Foundation, should do much to establish the rela¬ tions which will make possible the ideals of the new world. The bulletin of Public Opinion , published by the State Department of Education of Maryland, contains excellent material for an understanding of the press. But we need to go much farther and make this study of the “Fourth Estate' an integral part of every year’s work. It is only through actual experience in reading several newspapers that students will become critical readers and acquire “that tolerant understanding of presentday activities and problems such as will dispose them to leaven the public opinion of .America in the coming years." Numerous activities need to be provided so that students will learn the problems of the press through experience. Sufficient use should be made of various papers to enable students to set up a criterion by which they will be able to judge the papers they wish to read. What are some of the tests that can be applied ? What are some of the activities that can be provided ? One of the most obvious tests is that of the appearance of the paper, for the external dress, like that of an individual, often indicates the personality of the paper. A comparison of the several papers based on the standards given by Lucy Salmon in “The Newspaper and the Historian should furnish material for a tentative opinion. 640 National Education Association Certain habits of examining articles need to be established such as look¬ ing for the source of information, seeing where the dispatch was filed, look¬ ing for the name of the correspondent, and the name of the press service. These are only a few of the types of activities that can be used in the study of the press, a study that is of paramount importance if we are to have a public that will let the newspaper makers who speak as though what they said of foreign peoples could not be heard beyond our own boundaries, feel an honest resentment. A referendum is going on every day in the American press. We may hope by creating an intelligent reading public to influence that press so that it may really serve as a true guide to its millions of readers, and become a force in the changing world. TRAINING FOR CITIZENSHIP THROUGH EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY— ABSTRACT FLORENCE BERND, INSTRUCTOR IN HISTORY, LANIER HIGH SCHOOL FOR BOYS, MACON, GA. The ancients recognized the influence that comes from accurate ac¬ quaintance with accepted institutions. Lycurgus refused to have his laws written except on memory. Every school boy at Rome had to learn the Laws of the Twelve Tables. To be sure, the task in Sparta was not arduous, for “men of few words require but few laws,” and in Rome bronze tablets in the Forum minimized efforts in mastering the work of the decem¬ virs. Even in little medieval Lindau this method still prevails for every¬ one entering the tiny townhall is confronted with the Ten Commandments. In line with such precedents there is consistent and persistent teaching of the principles of our government as set forth in the Constitution, not as has been sometimes done in the past when man’s inhumanity “made count¬ less thousands mourn” by memorizing it “line upon line and precept upon precept,” but by so integrating it with whatever may be in hand as to make it an honored and respected intimate. This may come with the very beginning of the oriental world. The initial step into its civilized life brings contact with some sort of orderly organization. Immediately this suggests the question, What is government ? Why is it necessary? What is the best type? The search for a standard leads to the opening lines of the Declaration of Independence and the preamble of the Constitution. The decision comes that every human being — and with some reservations every living creature — is entitled to “life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness,” and that to insure these it is necessary to provide for union, justice, tranquillity, common defense, and general welfare for the purpose of developing each to his utmost. Here it is likewise pointed out that along with rights go corresponding duties. With this as a measuring rod the various governments are tested as they arise. For instance, take early Babylonia. Under Hammurabi there was security, for the invader was driven out, a legal code promoted justice, dikes and The Department of Social Studies 641 canals provided for general welfare, but there was no liberty, for one man's will was paramount over all and the law made distinction between rich and poor. There are endless instances for presentation of other points. The two kings at Sparta lead to a discussion of checks and balances in our con¬ stitution ; the protective power of the tribune recalls the right of appeal, its use and abuse ; the provisions of the Magna Carta relate themselves to the question of taxation and the right of fair and speedy trial. Solon’s freeing of debtor slaves suggests the amendments that followed our civil war, while Athenian division into property classes corresponds in a measure to the plan of our income tax. Mohammed's injunction against strong drink invites inquiry into the problem of the eighteenth amendment ; the duty of the censors and the Doomsday book are in line with the reapportionment bill and the vital and varied importance of the census. The whole process of the history course is concerned with the develop¬ ment of character. Whether it is the loyalty of the Hindu Savitri redeem¬ ing Satyavan from seemingly relentless death, or that of the Spartans refusing to survive Thermopylae, whether it is the courage that sustained the burgers of Calais or that of the old blind king of Bohemia at Crecy — these and countless others drive home the lesson of high-hearted life. Students are also required to learn certain significant passages, as for instance the ringing words of Homer, “Hateful to me as are the gates of hell is he who hiding one thing in his heart utters another,'' Pindar’s “Arm thy tongue with truth,” Alcaeus’ “What constitutes a state? ", Terence's “I am a man and nothing human is alien to me,” Marcus Aurelius’ “As emperor I am a Roman but as a man my country is the world.” These, too, furnish a basis for profitable discussion. It is not likely that all desirable subjects can be considered in any one term. Care must be taken to avoid crowding or confusion or a tendency to obscure the fact that the subject in hand is early European history. Nor can the same amount or procedure apply to even* group for “The poor we have with us always.” Furthermore, association must follow normally either from some statement in the text or in the parallel. Any forced issue would destroy the significance which comes from making it clear that human nature has been the same in all ages, that the problems of today differ from those of the past in degree and complexity rather than in funda¬ mentals, and that shouldering one's part of the world’s work should seem not so much a matter of duty as of desire. SECRETARY'S MINUTES First Session, July 1, 2 P. M. The first session of the meeting of the Department of Social Studies was held Monday, July 1, at 2 p. m. in the Trinity Methodist Church Auditorium. Profes¬ sor W. O. Payne of the University of Georgia presided. The program was as follows: 642 National Education Association New Interest In The Teaching And Study Of Hispanic American History A. Curtis Wilgus, Professor of History, University of South Carolina, Co¬ lumbia, S. C. The Professional Preparation Of Junior And Senior High School Teachers Of History And The Other Social Studies In Alabama B. L. Parkinson, Director of Teacher Training, State Department of Edu¬ cation, Montgomery, Ala. Modern Tendencies In Relation To The Social Studies Nancy Miles Batman, Head of the Department of Social Studies, Eastern Junior High School, Louisville, Ky. Second Session This session was held Tuesday, July 2, at 2 p. m. in the Trinity Methodist Church Auditorium. Mr. J. B. Barron, Atlanta, Georgia, presided. The following ad¬ dresses were delivered: Social Studies In The Junior High Schools Of San Antonio, Texas C. C. Ball, Director of Junior Education, Public Schools, San Antonio, Texas The Newspaper As A Force In The Changing World Gladys Boyington, Instructor in Education, North Carolina College for Women, Greensboro, N. C. Training For Citizenship Through Early European History Florence Bernd, Head of the History Department, Lanier High School for Boys, Macon, Ga. At the Business Session the officers for the present year were continued. An¬ nouncements were made as to the activities and publications of the Department of Social Studies. The Department of Superintendence The department of superintendence — At the meeting of the National Teachers’ Association in Harrisburg, Pa., 1865, the state and city superintendents present decided to form an organ¬ ization, to be composed exclusively of those engaged in supervisory work in the schools. This group decided to meet in Washington, D. C., in February, 1866, at which time the work of organization was completed. The new organization was called the Na¬ tional Association of School Superintendents. Nine states and twenty cities were represented. In 1870, the National Association of School Super¬ intendents merged into the National Education As¬ sociation as a Department. Following a change in the Bylaws of the Association, adopted in 1921, the Department was reorganized under a new constitu¬ tion, with a full-time secretary. It publishes a re¬ port of its annual meeting and a yearbook which are sent only to members. The officers of the Department for the year 1929- 30 are: President , Frank Cody, Superintendent of Schools, Detroit, Mich. ; First Vicepresident , Frank D. Boynton, Superintendent of Schools, Ithaca, N. Y. ; Second Vicepresident , Norman R. Crozier, Superintendent of Schools, Dallas, Texas : Executive Secretary , S. D. Shankland, 1201 16th St., N. W., Washington, D. C. ; Executive Committee , E. E. Lewis, Professor of School Administration, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio (Term expires 1930) ; Frank M. Underwood, District Superintend¬ ent of Schools, St. Louis, Mo. (Term expires 1931) ; Paul C. Stetson, Superintendent of Schools, Dayton, Ohio (Term expires 1932) ; David E. Weglein, Su¬ perintendent of Schools, Baltimore, Md. (Term ex¬ pires 1933). Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of Proceedings as follows: 1873 :244-271 1874:297 1875:291 1877:253-261 1879 :223 1880:235-237 1881 :252 1882: 7-112 1884 :281-292 1885:160-192 1886 :335-353 1887:511-538 1888:515-547 1889 :613-617 1890:367-545 1891:379-527 1892:559-745 1894 :252-592 1895:213-429 1896 :231-391 1897:195-317 1898:303-489 1899 :251-380 1900:183-297 1901:189-349 1902:151-306 1903:139-301 1904:173-333 1905:155-271 1906: 29-215 1907.145-329 1908:129-329 1909:159-232 [ 644] 1910:143-307 1911:161-331 1912:329-499 1913: 99-355 1914:133-293 1915:253-527 1916:895-1099 1917:661-853 1918:473-685 1919:483-675 1920: 407-537 1921: 679-851 1922:1295-1465 1923: 881-1025 1924: 803-963 1925: 633-863 1926: 663-838 1927: 697-871 1928: 655-830 ADDRESS OF WELCOME CLARA TAGG BREWER, MEMBER, CLEVELAND BOARD OF EDUCATION The city of Cleveland welcomes the Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association. That you should choose this city three times in ten years as a meeting place is a compliment that adds to our worthy civic pride. We are convinced that our lives in Cleveland are cast in pleasant places, and we believe you will find this city a delightful place to visit. I need not remind you that Cleveland is commercially, financially, and industrially important. We, also, have an intellectual and cultural life in which we take much satisfaction. As you go about the city this week, I believe you will be conscious both of our industrial importance and our cul¬ tural traditions. This is a city that loves art, music, and learning, and there are manifestations of our affection in our museums, our Cleveland orchestra, our great public library which reaches out to quicken the life of every neighborhood, and our schools and colleges. Many conventions come to Cleveland. This very hall was built, in part, for their accommodation. We are especially pleased when this kind of con¬ vention comes to Cleveland because we believe that you are going to inspire and energize us. Frankly, we expect to profit from the spiritual and in¬ tellectual stimulation of these meetings. In the field of education, all is not perfect with us. We have heard here in Cleveland the echoes of rumblings of discontent in the country at large, and we have some peculiar rumblings of our own. Since that January day when I took office, eleven years ago, as a member of the Cleveland Board of Education, I have seen the art of education, with the rise of psychological tests and measurements, take on some of the dis¬ tinguishing characteristics of a science. We are using homogeneous grouping and special schools for those children who deviate from the normal. Today in the United States one dollar out of every ten in our national in¬ come goes for some public purpose — national, state, or local. That all of our people should accept the new burden with enthusiasm is more than we should expect. The forces released by discovery and invention have woven a complex pattern of existence with breath-taking swiftness. It is not much more than half a century since the state, for the first time, committed itself to the education of the entire population at public expense. The conse¬ quences of that momentous decision are continuing to unfold in a manner which our parents could not foresee, and perhaps the generation that is pass¬ ing will not accept all of those consequences with complacency. We may find a grain of consolation in surveying the rest of the world. We are spending only half as much for public purposes, in proportion to income, as Great Britain, or France, or Italy, or any other first-class nation. As the growth of population and wealth makes our once simple rural civiliza¬ tion more and more complex, we must cope with social and industrial prob¬ lems which older nations already have encountered, and we must pay the full price. My own belief is that this nation is rich enough to afford anything it [645 3 646 National Education Association genuinely wants. And I believe it wants education. In Cleveland, at least, under a non-political school administration, the people have had con¬ fidence in their schools and have loyally supported them. If we merit that confidence, it is because we have tried to give the community the best educa¬ tion we knew how to give with the money available. You will be told many times this week that you are the saviors of the nation, that the destiny of American civilization is in your hands, that your cause is a holy one. These assurances will be flattering to your ears, but I beg you not to be misled by them. If I may presume so far, I urge you to put away personal ambition. Does your city actually need a bigger and more expensive high school than your rival city, or do you advocate it to flatter local pride ? As much as you would like to go in for all the modern refinements, with special schools and special classes, can your community afford them ? I believe that what is sound in education, eventually will win the support of the people, but you must take the people with you. If you go too fast, you jeopardize the cause of true education, not only in your own community, but in the country as a whole. N ou will need a historic perspective of education. You will need a real¬ istic sense of the relative importance of the public school in community life. To you who are very properly enthusiasts, education will seem to be the most important thing in the world. I do not say that it is not. But you must not blind your eyes to the pressing problems of other individuals and groups. You must understand the psychology of the man with a mortgage on his home, and the plight of a hard-pressed industry fighting for existence. Your community has a right to expect that you will be able to interpret your tax rates and your tax duplicates in broad social terms ; that you will know how to see that a dollar’s worth of value is obtained for every dollar spent for purposes of education. The future of education in this country is tied to no teaching method, however useful it may be, to no type of organization, and to no psychological discovery. Methods and devices come and go. Administration and man¬ agement are eternal. On that side must you succeed by managing wisely with the resources available, keeping within the limits of what your com¬ munities expect of you, while working patiently and persistently to induce them to set their aims higher. I hope you 'will not think that these remarks have tempered the warmth of our welcome. The welcome is genuine and sincere. You are welcome in our city and in our schools. We have attempted no elaborate exposition of education in Cleveland for your edification. Our schools are their own exposition. You will find them in session this week as usual, and you are invited by every principal and teacher to go where you will, see what you wish to see, ask any questions you care to ask. You will see the best we have — and the worst. We have nothing to conceal and no apologies to offer. We, in Cleveland, will remember this week for a long time to come as a happy and inspiring interlude in our lives. We hope when your last meet¬ ing has been adjourned and you have returned to your homes, that you will hold us so firm in your affections that you will wish to come here again. Department of Superintendence 647 EDUCATION: WHAT PROGRAM ? WHAT PRICE? FRANK D. BOYNTON, PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERIN¬ TENDENCE OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, AND SUPER¬ INTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ITHACA, NEW YORK IT would be impossible for anyone with a spark of imagination to stand unmoved before this assemblage. We are gathered here from the four corners of this great republic, adventurers in the continuously creative enterprise of developing and perfecting the American public school. Four days are to be devoted to the consideration of this fundamental proposition. If as a result we return to our classrooms and offices with a clearer vision of the meaning of our tasks, a firmer grip upon the practical methods by which the end sought is to be attained, a renewed courage, and determina¬ tion to achieve, then this meeting will have served its purpose. But before we enter upon the quest for the best practical means for secur¬ ing these ends, let us look for a little at the thesis which we have chosen as the central theme for this convention, “How can the public schools better serve democracy , increasingly produce a higher type of citizen ?” In this one terse sentence we are calling public attention to the ultimate goal of American education, stating a major objective of the church, and expressing the hope of good citizens everywhere. Recognition of the value of the work of our public schools by great leaders is not lacking. President-elect Herbert Hoover says: “The progress of the race is upon the marching feet of healthy, instructed children,” and that “if we w^ere to suppress our educational system for a single generation the equipment would decay, the most of our people would die of starvation, and intellectually and spiritually we would slip back four thousand years in human progress.” About a year ago, Roger Babson, set down to the credit of the American public school system the following credit-results. Mr. Babson says: During the past twenty years the public schools have practically eliminated illiteracy and materially raised the general level of intelligence. They have supervised the health and safety of the nation’s children to a much greater extent than ever before and to their great good. They have absorbed the great flood of immigration which inundated the country, and kept it American. Through courses in vocational education, they have prepared young people for specific trades and have increased the earning power of those thus educated. Our great advance in material prosperity can be ascribed in part to the higher educational levels and thinking to which the work of the public schools has raised the masses. Quotations of like import could be multiplied indefinitely. But the im¬ portant thing to know is not that the service of the school is valuable, but how valuable it is. What measure of value can be applied to an institution that has practically banished illiteracy; looked after the physical wellbeing 648 National Education Association of twenty-five million children; raised the level of living and thinking; in¬ creased the earning and purchasing power of the worker, thereby creating and building up a home market which consumes ninety percent of the prod¬ uct of farm and factory ; and despite the flood of immigration kept the nation American? He is a brave man, or a fool, who ventures to place a money value upon such a service. No considerable fraction of the public would deny the desirability of public education or the right of every child to some amount and some kind of education. The question is not “Shall we have public education at public expense?” That question is settled permanently. The question is rather “How much education and what kind shall we have and how much shall we pay for it?” “Are we trying to buy too much and too many kinds for too many people, and are we paying too much for what we are getting?” These are the questions the critics of the schools are asking. For it has be¬ come the fashion of late for certain speakers and writers on taxation and public expenditures to point an admonishing finger at the steadily rising cost of public education, questioning the value of much that has gone to enrich the curriculum, and leading the taxpayer to regard himself as the victim of ruthless exploitation at the hands of the professional educator. But who is it that bewails the high cost of public education, declaring that we are trying to teach too many people too many things ; whose heart is it that so yearns with sympathy for the over-burdened taxpayer and who sees in the reduction of school costs the easiest road to his relief ? Is it the working man living in a small rented home striving to support a large family on a small income and struggling against the approaching day when his older children must give up school and join the ranks of the wage earn¬ ers ? Is it the less numerous middle-class worker, owning his modest home, whose children can look forward with a fair degree of assurance to attend¬ ing the high school for a season ? No, not these. They know that in edu¬ cation lies the hope of realizing for their children what circumstances have denied themselves; that through the American public school runs the straightest road to success and a more equal distribution of the world’s wealth. Who is it, then, that wishes to curtail the school budget and reduce the opportunities offered accordingly? It is that small but powerful and active class, made up in part of those who believe apparently that education, above the line of illiteracy, is the exclusive right of a few select souls and who claim it for their own by a sort of divine right bestowed by heredity and wealth, forgetting that they themselves and their prestige are the product of that democracy which they now desire to strangle ; a class made up in part of these, and in part, also, of those gold-greedy go-getters who have always been willing to rob childhood of its birthright and to coin it into coupons, in order that, with unconscious irony, they may build monuments to themselves upon college campuses. These are our “conscientious ob¬ jectors” to the school budget. But these enemies of universal education have been met before in the fight for free elementary, and again for free Department of Superintendence 649 secondary schools and state universities, and were defeated. Once more they are riding to a fall. For see what has happened. The American public school is not something fixed, static, unchanging ; it is a growth, reflecting the growth, the prosperity, the changing social, domestic, and economic arrangements of the national life. More accurately and completely than any other institution, it mirrors the national ideals, prosperity, and aspirations. The traveler in Europe on entering a town first sees the great cathedral ; in America he sees the school- house. It is ubiquitous and dominant. It gathers into itself an ever larger share of the life of our youth. Now it is reaching out for the adult also, offering him a share of its wealth, and providing profitably for his increas¬ ing hours of leisure. At the time of the adoption of the Constitution the average length of attendance upon school for the individual was sixty days; in 1920 it was 1200 days, the highest average length of school life for a whole population ever attained by any nation. In 1775 the elementary curriculum consisted of the three R’s with spelling and the Bible added. Fifty years later gram¬ mar, geography, and bookkeeping had been added. Another twenty-five years and we had added history and begun the use of object lessons. By 1875 the “ frills’’ of the previous fifty years had passed to the stage of * ‘essentials,” grammar, geography, and history holding secure places in the program while new ‘‘frills” appeared in the form of civics, music, drawing, and health education. By 1925, one hundred fifty years after the beginning, the curriculum included not five but twenty-three subjects. As it stands today, the program reflects and always has, not so much the abstract theories of educators as to what constitutes correct educational pro¬ cedure, as it does the popular conception of what constitutes a satisfactory school. When the public school idea was first thought out, the home was the primary and authoritative institution and the most interesting. In large measure it was independent of all other institutions. The art of living out of paper bags and tin cans had not yet emerged. If the grocery boy over¬ slept the family could still have breakfast. The railroad, the telephone, the factory, the department store, and the bakery had not then made of the home a shell. The school when it came was merely a supplementary institu¬ tion created by the home for the performance of certain of its own functions which it chose to delegate but for which it recognized its responsibility. Around the fireside the family gathered evenings; friends were entertained in the home and welcome. We had not learned then to rent halls for entertaining and to drive out to dinner in luxurious automobiles. The home designed the family clothes and made them; it did the canning and preserving ; there was always something creative to be done there ; and because of these things it was the most interesting and best beloved place in the world — a place about which poets sang. As our social and industrial organization has grown more complex the former activities of the home have been delegated one after another to other agencies and the responsibilities which the* home once bore have been 650 National Education Association definitely placed upon the shoulders of other institutions, principally the factory, the church, and the school. The result has been the gradual trans¬ formation of the school from a place of mere training in the essentials of academic learning for the children of such parents as were rich enough to dispense with their labor, to great service stations, tax-supported and buttressed by child labor and compulsory attendance laws in every state in the nation, dedicated to the service of all the children of all the people. A service program, therefore, has been built up which accurately reflects the changes in our domestic, social, and economic life. There is not a subject in the program but has found its place there as a result of either mandatory or permissive legislation or of pressure upon school officers by organized, active, persistent, local groups. Our present program, therefore, is the people’s own, worked out and adopted in response to their demands. As it has been made, so it will be continuously remade — changing, developing, expanding to meet the needs of a changing social order. This does not mean, however, that the schools will respond to the de¬ mands of every group that conceives the idea of furthering its own selfish interests or disseminating its pet propaganda by implanting its particular dogmas in the youthful mind. Our critics say that we are not teaching the children to read and write and spell correctly, but fail to show how this is to be done better by adding to our present program the items that they propose — instruction in aeronautics, in conservation of natural resources, in fire and accident prevention, in thrift and economy, in automobile driving and the theory of the gas engine, in music appreciation through radio broad¬ casting, in moral and religious education, in garment and dressmaking, in cherry and egg harvesting, in the advantages of private ownership and the failure of public ownership of public utilities (the glitter of whose gold has tripped some of the weaker brothers of the craft and tempted school board members), in the extended use of rubber in industry, in the best way to solve the liquor problem. The schools should remain closed to all illegitimate demands seeking to further private or group interests ; but it is obvious that if the public school is to serve the national life to the extent of its potentialities, it has a pro¬ gram of expansion ahead, an expansion to be achieved without loss to edu¬ cational efficiency. But here is a danger to be guarded against, a danger frequently more apparent than real. The educational efficiency of American schools, for example, has been criticised as being below that of Europe. Let the friends of American edu¬ cation remember that there is no European system that is not a class system based upon privilege. So severe is the cutting in the European schools, at the fifth, eighth, and twelfth grade levels as to indicate clearly the European belief that to the few belongs the right to be educated. Prussia has fewer than nine percent of those of secondary school age in attendance upon these schools; England has fewer than fourteen percent; while in the United States over fifty-two percent of those of high-school age are in attendance upon secondary education. Thus we reverse the figures of Europe as we reverse its objectives; and our upper quarter, man for man, equals any Eu- Department of Superintendence 651 ropean class in age, mental power, and attainment. Europe’s educational system has been unable during the centuries to get wooden shoes off the feet of the common people or thatch from the roofs of their homes or to reduce its standing armies which make it an armed camp in times of peace. When every European child stands equal to every other European child before the schoolmaster’s desk, Europe will have taken the longest step toward inter¬ national peace and goodwill in its history, a step longer than has ever been suggested by her statesmen. The difference in the level of living in Europe and America is accurately measured by the systems of education in each. Expansion without the loss of educational efficiency has been achieved and this policy must continue in order to meet the changes in our expanding national life. Never in the history of the world has any people been the beneficiary of a material prosperity so great and so widely diffused. More and more the burden of assisting in family support is being lifted from young shoulders. The old theory of the vicious circle with its underprivileged classes is being replaced by the newer philosophy of the never ending spiral of expanding opportunities to the end that poverty, the last stand of vice and crime, like illiteracy, shall have its hold broken everywhere. Evermore the demand for universal free secondary and higher education grows insistent. “Maintained equality of opportunity” is a phrase made familiar to the ears of the people by the President-elect during the late campaigning. This phrase means, he tells us, “that there should be no child in America who has not been born and who does not live under sound conditions of health ; who does not have full opportunity for education from the kindergarten to the university; who is not free from injurious labor; who does not have stimula¬ tion to ambition to the fullest of his or her capacities.” Continuing this thought, Mr. Hoover says, “If we are to maintain America as the land of opportunity where every boy and girl may have the chance to climb to that position to which his ability and character entitle him, we shall need to be increasingly on our guard. If I could drive the full meaning and importance of maintained equality of opportunity into the very consciousness of the American people, I would feel I had made some contribution to American life. It is the most precious of our possessions that the windows of every home shall look out upon unlimited hope.” But, my brethren, do not be deceived. Greed of gain will contest every inch of the way to the realiza¬ tion of this goal. The same industrial and economic changes that are gathering the children out of the shops and factories and pouring them into the schools are creating for their parents a growing margin of leisure whose proper use constitutes a major social problem. Already the more ambitious and intelligent elements of the population from whose shoulders the machine has lifted a portion of age-old burden of drudgery, are turning to the public school with the de¬ mand that for them also, through provision for adult education and recrea¬ tion, the way be opened to the more abundant life. Here is a new problem, calling for a new educational procedure and technic, a problem that must be met and solved if the added leisure is to be the blessing hoped for. Already 652 National Education Association the socially destructive forces are finding here an enlarged field for their operation. Already the schoolmen are fighting a public opinion set up for the moron. Birth control artists have furnished the information which makes sex indulgence for youth as safe as kissing; discredited judges are spewing the sewage of their courts through salacious magazines until our newsstands groan under the weight of putrefaction which they contain ; our theaters aim at a sex appeal so crass at times as to disgust the guilty; the press, civilization’s greatest agent, is becoming the chief source of the criminal’s information, where he finds himself daily featured upon the front page ; our churches are clinging to man-made creeds hundreds of years old while their doors are closing rather than devoting themselves to interpret¬ ing the times to a befuddled and bewildered multitude. I am taking no de¬ light in writing this paragraph nor am I shirking my share of the responsi¬ bility for the conditions mentioned. What I am trying to do is to draw a picture of the conditions which schoolmen are called upon to combat; to indicate, if only roughly, the character of the defense upon which we must rely, namely, a greatly enlarged school program which shall call to its aid in ever larger measure the cultural resources which civilization has slowly built up for its defense and perpetuation — physical and health programs, science, technology, art, music, literature which records the march of the soul, the drama — and shall place them all freely at the service of the people ; to cultivate a changed attitude toward the church and what is expected of the press; and to plead for the seeing eye and the understanding heart wherever the question of expenditure for school purposes is under discussion. For, rest assured, the cost of maintaining the public school will be and should be a steadily mounting sum. Our population, rapidly increasing, and the demand for an expanding program as herein set forth are discourag¬ ing indices to those looking for a reduction. Can the cost be borne ? How are we spending our annual income estimated by federal authority to exceed ninety billions? According to federal authority we are spending out of each earned dollar twenty-four and one half cents for necessities, twenty-two cents for luxuries, eleven cents for investment ; eight and one half cents for crime ; four and one half cents for government, local, state, and national ; waste, fourteen cents; miscellaneous, thirteen and one half cents; one and one half cents on education ; and three fourths of a cent on religion and philanthrophy. In 1927 we added fifteen hundred millionaires to our al¬ ready handsome total, so we were told by the Treasury Department. With¬ out taking any of the joy out of life is it not possible to double the amount expended for education and religion twice by a reduction of the waste and still be a long way from an economic breakdown from these two causes ? Like a dinner, a school program costs in proportion to the service. Recently in a city where the cost of schools was under criticism by the Tax Dodgers League the sum of $175,000 was voted for a snake house without arousing protest. We complain about and sometimes eliminate the cost of athletics from the school program and at the same time maintain municipal golf courses and tennis courts and swimming pools. Each state is under Department of Superintendence 653 constitutional mandate to maintain a system of free public schools ; but there is nothing in the constitution of any state requiring it to maintain a system of pleasure roads through its mountains, or a state fair, or fish hatcheries, or pleasure parks and camping sites for the sportsman tourist and the gentle¬ man of leisure. I am offering no objection to these activities of the state. I approve them since they help the people to live larger and better lives, the objectives of our existence. But what I am objecting to is any curtailment in the expenditures for education, the most important the community, state, and nation makes, excepting where it can be shown by the friends of Amer¬ ican education to be a wise economy which can be effected without abridg¬ ing educational opportunity for anyone. Upon the principle of the equal right of every individual to “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness” this government was founded. This concep¬ tion of the right of the individual to equality of opportunity, which does not mean the same opportunity necessarily, is unique and fundamental to our whole scheme of national life. To preserve this principle inviolate and to train each individual for such efficiency — civic, economic, moral, politi¬ cal — as his capacity makes possible, is the primary function of education in this great democracy which we call America. We live in proportion to our ability to respond to our environment. Education multiplies the points of contact with environment ; trains man to interpret, to modify, and, in a measure, to control environment ; and leads him upward from savagery toward his Maker. Through education we have discarded the strongback method of advancing civilization — the method which reared the pyramids and built the ancient temples. Through educa¬ tion we have lifted the burden from the sweating backs of men. Through education we have raised the standard of living; enlarged the circle of those who can eat white bread till it circumnavigates the globe ; and have made the bathtub, once a luxury in the homes of the rich, a health necessity in the homes of the poor. Through education we erect our skyscrapers, span rivers, bore through mountains, annihilate distance, reduce the ravages of disease, and distribute more equally the blessings of prosperity. Through education we are bringing nearer a realization of the brotherhood of man and are welding the nations of earth into one great family. Through edu¬ cation our lamp of reason is lighted and set in the candlestick to give light to all the house. No longer is it hidden under the bushel of superstition and fear. Each year the march of the nation’s war heroes toward the setting sun increases apace. I wonder sometimes if on their westward march they pause for a moment to catch a glimpse of the New Grand Army of the Republic, an army whose line, marching in “fours” past a given point, would be paralleled by the children of the front ranks before the rear “fours” could pass the reviewing stand ; an army marching against the citadels of ignorance and superstition and race hatred, upholding the traditions and defending the ideals of the republic they love; an army gathering every school day from hill and dale, from city and village, from the farm, the 654 National Education Association workshop, the mine, from industry and commerce, with the blood of the Occident and Orient coursing through its veins, speaking one language, loving one flag, destined in each of the forty-eight states of this great Amer¬ ican league of nations to become citizens not subjects, masters not servants; an army trained to useful and intelligent citizenship and dedicated to the task of making a better today than yesterday, and a tomorrow better than either ; an army whose proud accomplishments in the past and whose prom¬ ise for the future lends glory to the wisdom and leadership of the nation’s founders; an army whose high destiny lays upon every American citizen a sacred obligation to support to the limit of his power this stronghold of our democracy, this bulwark of our free institutions, the pride of the republic — the American public school. OUR CHIEF CONCERNS WITH THE FUTURE SCHOOL BUILDING PROGRAM JOSEPH MARR GWINN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SAN FRANCISCO When President Boynton assigned me this duty and subject he did not advise how far in the future our concerns for the school building program should extend. The future is a long period and unknown. As we, in the light and under the educational needs and demands of this good year, 1929, survey the school buildings of so recent a date as 1910, we see how inadequate and illsuited these buildings are for use in the opera¬ tion of a program of education adapted to the requirements of today. When we take cognizance of all the rapid and tremendous changes affecting educa¬ tion that are overwhelming us now with promises of still greater epoch making discoveries both in the physical world and in the mental world, and which discoveries will make the future even more unlike the present than today is unlike yesterday; when we read what the wisdom of today has to say about the stupidity of those who planned the school houses of one or two decades ago, we might conclude that our chief concern with respect to the school building programs of the future is that by that time we may be quietly resting in some sound-proof urn so that our ashes be not disturbed by what the makers of school building programs in 1950 will have to say about the criminal ignorance of school superintendents and school archi¬ tects in 1929. If the dead past should bury its dead perhaps we should per¬ mit the unborn future to make its own school building programs undisturbed by ancient and antiquated ideas and practises. During the past several years there have been numerous school building surveys and a large output of literature on the subject of school buildings. A survey of these surveys and a review of the literature impress one with the similarity as well as with the flagrancy of the errors and defects of the past school planning and with the need for facts and scientific methods as guides for future planning. The surveys reveal in practically all if not Department of Superintendence 655 every instance that school buildings have not been built according to a program. Like Topsy, they just grew. The need of the hour, the push or pull of the politician, the plans of the past, the performance in neighboring school districts or other forces of opportunism, together with a large ab¬ sence of proper conception of the meaning and purposes of education and future needs, have determined school buildings of the past. The surveys reveal that buildings within what is called a school system have been located, planned, and built with little regard for relations to other buildings, the purposes of education, future trends of population, and ability of the people to pay. As typical I quote from a survey of one of the great cities omitting names: “No building program has been developed in X which prog¬ nosticates the need of X.” I conclude, therefore, that our first con¬ cern for future school building programs is that there be a program. School buildings should be provided, planned, and erected according to a definitely formulated guiding policy, drawn in accordance with the best educational theory and practice, and calculated to meet the requirements of a progres¬ sive educational program suited to the present and yet capable of adjust¬ ment to future educational and population needs. Under that conception of education which made the teacher an imparter of knowledge and the pupil a receiver of instruction a log might serve as a schoolhouse. Under the present-day conception of education quite a different schoolhouse is required. It is no longer a log where a single pupil sits, receives, and recites, but a building with grounds and equipment where children and teachers may live and move and have their being. It is a far cry from the log of Mark Hopkins to a modern school building, and yet universal education today is much more cheaply provided than it could be provided under the old log plan with one teacher for one pupil. Democracy’s demand for universal education has been met through devel¬ oping a school plant where both quality and quantity in education are possible. Education costs more today than it used to cost because we have more of it, much more of it. Economy in future school building programs is to be served through providing buildings, grounds, and equipment adapted to the needs of a modern program of education. A factory that turns out goods for which there is no market is an expensive factory. Better it were torn down and replaced by a factory of uptodate type. In the organization of a building program it is fundamental that the form of organization, the program of education, and the objectives to be achieved by and for the children and adults attending the schools, and the methods and materials to be employed in attaining these objects, be the determining factors. The educational ideal with its expression in a form of organization, and a method of operation is the lode star for makers of school programs. One of the principal objective expressions of the educational ideal is found in the curriculum. It is imperative that the curriculum must be the precursor of future building programs. Since the curriculum must respond 656 National Education Association to changes that will ever come, it is evident that ways and means for intelli¬ gent and continuous curriculum construction and reconstruction must be provided. The form of organization — how the pupils are to be grouped for ad¬ ministration, instruction, and learning — must also be decided before a build¬ ing program can be made. What years are to be accommodated in the various classes of buildings? This is one of the most pressing problems of the present. Shall the tenth year be added to the junior high school and the lower two years of the college added to the upper two years of the present high school, is typical of the problem of organization now confront¬ ing us. Economic and educational requirements will doubtless continue the group form of instruction, but demands for adjustments for individual needs will modify plans for grouping. Schemes for individualizing instruc¬ tion in group organization will continue to modify building plans and sizes. At present, in order to provide many levels for grouping, larger schools are needed. The list of the forces and facts that will influence future school build¬ ing programs is long. Economy is to be served through a proper recogni¬ tion and balancing of these forces and facts. Economic pressure may force curtailment of the movement to expand the school downward to include part of what is now the preschool period, upward to include the junior college, and outward to include adult and extension education of various forms. It may force larger numbers to be taught by one teacher thereby necessitating classrooms, laboratories, and shops of larger dimensions than are now approved ; it may force the platoon and shift devices of operation to make two or three pupils receive educa¬ tion in the space where now one is educated and thereby reduce the number of school buildings required ; it may force the continued use of antiquated and temporary buildings and in other ways greatly modify the form and extent of education in the future. From a direction almost opposite to the economic force there are power¬ ful social and psychological forces which would provide an expansion of education downward, upward, and outward. They would make the school assume new and additional responsibilities once borne by the home, the church, the vocation, and by other agencies which aFe of recent development due to changes in the social and economic orders. The necessity under educational, social, and economic pressure to provide for feeding school children at the school has greatly modified school building plans. The cafeteria and the kitchen occupy much space and clamor for more. The crowding of people into cities forces an expansion of playgrounds, gym¬ nasiums, and recreation rooms, and the end is not yet. From the fields of educational research, experimentation, and philosophy th ere are many forces acting from all sorts of directions. Some of these neutralize others; some support and some oppose the economic and social forces. Altogether they result in a variety of practices and theories which Department of Superintendence 657 give little sure foundation for future buildings. Some researches find that large classes give better educational results than §mall classes, while some experimenters tell us there must be individual instruction. If the first of these is right, then classrooms must be larger and fewer. If the latter is to be followed then classrooms would disappear. Some find that unified course of study 'with one instructor is better for little children while others adhere to a segmented curriculum with departmentalized instruction under a number of teachers. If one of these views is followed the instruc¬ tion rooms would be quite alike ; if the other be followed the instruction rooms would be widely differentiated. Discoveries and inventions and their application to the structure and functions of society have modified, and will continue increasingly to modify education and the means employed in its development. The electric train, the autobus and good roads, the airplane, the telephone, the radio, and other means of rapid transportation and communication have greatly expanded the dimensions of neighborhoods, local communities, and school districts. It is to be deplored that conservatism in education and the lack of social and economic television on the part of many have not permitted the one-room rural school to be replaced to any considerable extent by a many-room school building in a much larger school district with a school four or five times as distant in miles yet much closer in time, safety, and comfort than the one-room school only one or two miles away. Practically all other elements of economic and social living have been remade under the influence of rapid, safe, and comfortable transportation and communica¬ tion. The farmer takes his eggs to market thirty miles away; the doctor calls on his patient forty miles away more quickly than he did six miles away in the day of the gig and mud road. I cannot believe that the anachorism of the small school district can much longer exist. Future build¬ ing programs must be governed accordingly. Recently the nursery school, the kindergarten, and the university of the air are coming to us over shorter or longer wave length and on the screen. Some we now call radio and visual education fanatics would have us almost believe that education by means of the radio may in the near future enable us to beat all the school houses into loud speakers and silver screens, and compress a million school teachers into a half dozen broadcasters. Each day school building plans and specifications are changed in order to adapt the building better to education under the influence of the radio, the moving picture, and other inventions. Health with emphasis on physical development and wellbeing is a com¬ paratively recent objective in education. The dependence of mental and moral growth upon the physical, and upon environment, has received in¬ creased recognition in recent years. These two have greatly influenced plans and recent programs for buildings. The school buildings of a few years back gave little heed to health, environment, or the relations of the mental and moral to the physical. Because of the changed conceptions of education these older buildings are found quite defective on modern stand- 658 National Education Association ards. Means of rapid transportation in cities and development of industries and business areas have .caused shifts in population resulting in leaving some school buildings empty and overcrowding others. A survey of the surveys of school buildings warns against the following mistakes common in the past: Shifts and trends of population not taken into account; sites too small; schools not properly spaced or related to one another; many rooms unhygienic and ill- suited to purpose for which they are used due to lack of light, ventilation, size, location, and structure; combustible materials used and improper planning with extreme fire and other hazards; inadequate storage accommodation; building placed in improper environment of noise, dirt, and traffic; accommodations lacking now required in a modern program of education; location, size of site, and form of building making additions impossible; gloomy and depressing, unadorned and with drab coloring, narrow halls, and squalid surroundings. The extent to which the present school plant is utilized should be as¬ certained. The mistake of erecting new buildings or adding to old ones when the existing plan is entirely adequate is often made. Akin to this error is that of making buildings with classrooms too large for ordinary use or with more rooms than can be utilized. A master’s thesis by Gardner W. Spring, written at the University of California, shows that in 38 California high schools the median percentage of time that classrooms are occupied is 69.96. The range of percentage of time used runs down as low as 39.45 percent. In terms of percent of student stations used the median is 43.56 percent and the lower range 30.71 percent. In terms of percent of standard sittings used, that is, the number actually using a room compared with the number that could use it if the standard number of seats for that size of room were in use, the median is 33.43 percent and the lower range 14.18 percent. For the sake of econ¬ omy a building should be as nearly 100 percent utilized as possible. The figures quoted show a low degree of utilization of classrooms. This means that money was spent for rooms that are only partially used. A fewer number would have sufficed. It is evident that there are many forces and conditions which must be taken into consideration in shaping school building and educational pro¬ grams. Time has not permitted my mentioning more than a few of them. The almost impossible is demanded of the schools. Dean William F. Rus¬ sell of Teachers College, Columbia University, in his recently issued annual report has expressed the situation clearly and forcefully. The Dean said, “One of the most perplexing of the problems arises from the simultaneous impact upon the schools of three popular demands — that pupils be accom¬ modated in greater numbers, that training of a better quality be offered, and that there be greater economy in all public expenditures.” Education is met with the same demands as is commercial production — quantity production and quality improvement with cost reduction. These demands will have to be met by the makers of future school building pro¬ grams. The schools will respond to these demands and in doing so will Department of Superintendence 659 doubtless make changes in the grouping of students and the methods of teaching. There are numerous problems of organization, administration, and method of teaching pressing for solution, or at least for more adequate expression in education. Shall the scheme of organization be 6-3-3 ; 6-3-3-2 ; 4-4-4-4 ; 6-4-4 or 5-3-4? Shall there be less of book learning and more of activity? Shall there be individual instruction or larger classes? Shall the demands of economy defeat those of democracy for an equal chance for all? Shall we pay-as-we-go or borrow the money? It is evident that the future school building program is complex and difficult — a problem in the composition and resolution of many forces. Nothing short of a thorough-going, complete building survey can provide boards of education a satisfactory solution of the difficult problems. The survey must show the past, present, and probable future distribution of the school population, the appropriate locations and sizes of school sites and buildings. That a proper and adequate survey be made in preparation for building programs is certainly a chief concern. A large concern for future school building programs is that a proper method of financing the building program be provided. School buildings cost money and the taxpaying public is entitled to as light a burden as is consistent with supplying educational needs. There are three ways of paying for school buildings. The most common way is through bonds authorized by vote of the people and running for twenty to forty years. The second way, pay-as-you-go, is to raise the tax rate high enough some year to provide the funds for the erection of a building. A third way, sometimes called the depreciation plan, is through an additional tax each year for several years in advance of the year in which the building is to be erected ; the yearly payments to be placed on interest which, with the accumulated payments and interest at the end of the given period, produce an amount sufficient to pay for the building. The actual tax cost, I refer to tax money only, of the same school build¬ ing under these three different methods is very different. Assume twenty year serial bonds at 5 percent and a twenty year accumulative period at 5 percent, the total tax cost of a $300,000 school building by the bonding plan is $481,454.60, by the pay-as-you-go plan $300,000 and by the depreciation plan $181,454.60. The difference in the actual tax cost to the public is the cost of the building, $300,000, between the plan of paying in advance and of paying afterwards. On the face of it, it is apparent that anticipating future needs by ten or twenty years, and accumulating year by year to the end of the period is by far the cheapest way to provide schoolhouses. It is equally apparent that the most extravagant method of paying for school buildings is by bonding. The depreciation plan requires foresight of a type rarely found and a willingness to sacrifice the present for the future equally rarely found. There is also the danger that the accumulating funds will not be wisely 660 National Education Association and honestly handled. Rapidly growing communities have enough to do to care for their present needs. For these and other reasons the deprecia¬ tion plan of financing school buildings, while less than half as expensive as bonding in actual taxes, is seldom used. It is desirable as the rates of growth of our districts approach the normal for the country that the neces¬ sary legislation should be enacted and the practise established of saving year by year in advance for capital school outlays. Between the pay-as-you-go and bonding plan it is evident that the first is better adapted to school districts of such size that each year there is need for a new school building. The assessed value of such a district must be great enough to provide sufficient funds from a tax within the legal limits to erect a building or buildings as required by growth or replace¬ ment. The pay-as-you-go plan, in order to avoid wide fluctuations in the tax rate, must be followed up year after year. To do this requires a board of education of business ability and continuity of purpose, and with absolute control over its school building budget. It is usually very much easier to gain the consent of the people for a bond issue than for an immediate greatly increased tax rate. Consequently bonding is frequently the only means possible for providing funds for school buildings. Districts with rapidly increasing school enrolment and districts with a small property assessment must resort to bonds because of their inability to secure a sufficient amount of money through current tax rates. In the interest of economy districts should issue bonds only when it is impossible to provide the necessary school buildings through the deprecia¬ tion or the pay-as-you-go methods. The poet Burns says, “The best laid schemes o’ mice and men gang aft a-gley.” So it is with school building programs. Boards of education and school superintendents with their experts may develop a perfect building program which will fail in whole or part when the people of the district through lack of understanding are opposed to it. It is essential that the people be informed and brought to the support of the building program. The program will run counter to local and selfish interests of many of the taxpayers, and counter to the political interests of many a politician. In most any city there will be need for much expenditure of time and energy in educating the people of certain sections to the fact that educationally the city should be considered as one whole unit, and not an aggregate of com¬ peting neighborhoods. A sound educational program, a well considered building program, an abundance of well organized facts with courage and perseverance, will win the way but with great difficulty. One of our chief concerns with the future school building programs is to educate the people to the need and meaning of a modern program of education and the execution of a building program to make this type of education effective, and to save them from repeating the mistakes of the past. Department of Superintendence 661 # Economy in future school building programs is not served through the continued use of old buildings illsuited to the purposes of education. It is economy in industry to build modern factories to replace the obsolete old ones. It is more important that the modern school have a modern building and equipment. We are concerned that the educational ideal ex¬ pressed in the curriculum, method, and form of organization of education have a full chance for expression in a proper school building. Economy in future school buildings is chiefly to be secured through wise and long visioned planning. The population, together with educational, social, and economic conditions past, present, and future must be surveyed. All that goes to make a thorough, scientific, and continuous school building survey is prerequisite to wise spending which is our greatest economy. HOW IS EDUCATION TO BE FINANCED IN VIEW OF THE INCREASING COST? GEORGE D. STRAYER, PROFESSOR OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY Governmental expenditures have been increasing rapidly during the past twenty years. The' government — local, state, and national — is providing services today that were unknown or offered much less extensively a genera¬ tion ago. In no case is this increased expenditure more apparent than in the field of public education. In 1910, the total expenditures for public educa¬ tion in the United States were approximately $500,000,000. In 1926, the last date for which we have the data concerning expenditures, we spent for the same purpose approximately $2,250,000,000. Of course, a part of this increase is apparent rather than real. In order to get a correct comparison, we must take account of the change in the purchasing power of the dollar but, with this correction made, we still have an increase of approximately 230 percent. A further correction must be provided on account of the in¬ crease in population. With this correction made, the cost of education per pupil shows an increase of 180 percent. It is evident, therefore, that there has been a change and a real increase in the amount spent for public educa¬ tion during the period under consideration. A considerable part of the increase in expenditure for public education is explained by the larger percentage of the population now in attendance in our schools. This increase has occurred throughout the school system. Our compulsory attendance laws have added hundreds of thousands of children to the school rolls in the elementary grades, but even more striking is the increase in attendance in American high schools. In 1900, these schools enrolled 519,000 boys and girls. In 1926, there were 3,750,000 high school pupils in the United States. But even the increased percentage of our popu¬ lation in attendance will not account for the increased expenditure. Educa¬ tion is costing more because we have increased the length of the school term, because we are providing better buildings, equipment, and books, because we are differentiating our curricula in such manner as to provide for pupils 662 National Education Association varying in ability and in vocational outlook and, most of all, because we are employing better qualified teachers, supervisors, and administrators. And the end is not yet, for we shall have a larger percentage of our population enroled in our schools, and we must certainly seek for further improvement in the adaptation of our schools to the needs of those who attend them. There are those who believe we are spending too much for education. These critics sometimes propose that we are wasting our resources in at¬ tempting to provide secondary and higher education for those who do not greatly profit from this experience. They might just as properly focus their attention upon the provision made in the lower schools. We still need to provide more adequate service for the physically and mentally handicapped, for the boys and girls of superior ability, and for all of our children educa¬ tional opportunities suited to their needs as citizens in our modern industrial society. The more certainly our school program is adjusted to the needs of individual boys and girls, the more certainly it will cost more money. Our program for boys and girls beyond the elementary school must be expanded to the point where education is provided for all of our population until eighteen years of age. The program of adult education has just begun, and will in its full development involve still larger expenditures. In the light of this developing program, it is appropriate that we ask how the schools are to be financed. Our first answer must be found in the economic ability of the people of the United States. There has been a continued and rapid increase in the income of our people. Never before in our history, nor in the history of any other people in the world, has there been as large a surplus available for capital investment and for use in luxurious expenditures. The people of the United States com¬ monly save as much as 15 percent of their income. Public education is costing approximately 2.68 percent of the income of the people. Surely, we may propose that we can afford to spend this small percentage of our total income for education, and we may even suggest that a larger expendi¬ ture would be productive of even larger returns in individual and national income. The question is not whether we can afford to provide sufficient funds to support our schools, but rather what kind of education shall we provide and what methods shall we employ in advancing the undertaking. Education produces a certain valuable product. If we desire that product more than we want those things in which we are now investing our income, it is possible to devote moneys now used for other purposes to the support of public education. The problem is one of permitting the community to record its choice with respect to expenditures, and of seeing to it that an adequate return is secured for the money invested. In many communities of today, the people are not permitted to express directly their choice in regard to the use of tax money collected. The argument has often been advanced that governmental expenditures must be weighed one against the other and a central board must determine the expenditures for each of the several functions of government. This form of control often operates to Department of Superintendence 663 the disadvantage of public education. We have developed a professional service which is not interested in playing politics, and which does not return to the political organization any reward in service for the money expended. Indeed, it may be proposed, without fear of contradiction, that in the public school service today we have the best example of governmental service to be found in the United States. The people believe in their schools. They would, in many instances, willingly increase their support, but at the time of the election of the body which is to control expenditures other issues are kept to the front and the question of the support of public education is never really considered. We are more fortunate in those communities in which the board of educa¬ tion enjoys fiscal independence. In this case, the board may levy taxes in support of public education and may increase the amount of revenues to be so derived so long as the people support them in this undertaking. If the people believe that the school service justifies the burden which they are asked to carry, they will return to the board of education those who are re¬ sponsible for the developing program. If they lack confidence in their repre¬ sentatives on the board of education or in the efficiency of the administration of the schools, they will place in charge of the school system those who will provide for retrenchment. Since our whole social life is based upon the work done in our schools, that provision which enables the people to record their judgment with regard to the program developed and the cost involved is essentially sound. We may look forward to the day when the separate financing of schools will be found even more commonly than it is today. But the local support of education is not sufficient. In every state in the Union today, communities vary greatly in their ability to provide school facilities. It is not uncommon to find one community ten or even twenty times as able to support public education as is another community within the same state. We have long accepted the ideal of the equalization of edu¬ cational opportunity. We propose in our Constitution and in the laws of the several states that uniform opportunities for education shall be provided for all of the children of the state. Perhaps it would be fairer to propose that we seek to provide for every child within the borders of a given state a suitable minimum program of education at a uniform effort throughout the state in terms of the burden of taxation. In order to accomplish this desired result, certain conditions must be made. It is of very great importance that the acceptable minimum program of education be as clearly defined as is possible. For the purpose of offering state support, the definition must be translated into a measure of the cost of providing this minimum acceptable program. Obviously the state cannot afford to equalize up to the standard of the most expensive school system located within its borders. It is fairer to propose that the cost of education in those communities which approximate in wealth the average of wealth for the state be taken as the measure of the cost of the program that the state seeks to equalize. For one state in which this type of investigation has 664 National Education Association been carried on, this cost amounted to $70 per pupil. In other words, the cost per pupil in those communities whose wealth is approximately the aver¬ age of wealth for the whole state averaged $70. In order to equalize the burden of taxation the state must measure the ability of each community to meet the cost of its school system. The wealthiest community within the state under an ideal scheme should receive no aid. Carrying through our illustration of the equalization of the cost at $70 per pupil, that tax which would produce $70 per pupil in the wealthiest district would, when applied to all other districts in the state, leave a deficit and this deficit is the amount that the state should contribute to each of the other localities. The carrying out of any such scheme requires first of all that there be an equalization of assessments among the various school areas within the state. If all assessments are at 100 percent of the true value, then no problem would arise in this connection. Since the relationship of assessed values to true values often varies greatly, it is of the utmost importance in the de¬ velopment of a state program of support that accurate knowledge be had with respect to this relationship. The state may choose, if it will, to allow the local assessment to remain as it is, but for the purposes of calculating state support all assessed values must be reduced to a common basis. After this has been done, it is possible to calculate the revenue that would accrue to each administrative area if a minimum tax were levied throughout the state, and to propose the amount of the deficiency that would have to be made up by the state in order to equalize the tax burden. But unfortunately the case is not quite so simple as this. We may not take the number of pupils enroled without correction. Where children are assembled in a small rural school having from five to twenty pupils, the actual cost per pupil of providing the minimum program will be greater than in an urban community in which there are commonly from twenty-five to thirty-five pupils in each classroom. In the state of New York, it was dis¬ covered that for every rural school having less than twenty-seven pupils it was necessary to calculate the cost as equal to that involved in providing for twenty-seven pupils in village and urban school systems. It is also true that a different weighting of the number of pupils to be educated must be given to those in secondary schools. In most communities this will require that the allowance made for high-school pupils be double that for elementary school pupils. Additional corrections will have to be worked out, one of which (the cost of transportation for rural schools) has already received attention. The state’s obligation to furnish an equalized opportunity and to provide for an equalization of the burden of support rests upon the well established principle that education is a function of the state. There is no possible justification for the neglect of children who live in the rural or other less favored neighborhoods. After each school unit has made an equal effort to support the program which the state seeks to equalize, it is a simple matter of justice that the state, from all of its resources, make good the promise of Department of Superintendence 665 the equalization of opportunity and that it equalize the burden of support. It seems possible that this program which is now being advanced rapidly will be carried into effect throughout the nation within the period of the next fifteen to twenty years. In like manner, the nation has an obligation for the support of public schools. The citizens of the state are also citizens of our common country. Nothing is more significant in modern society than the mobility of our population. The failure of any state to provide education is a handicap to the whole people. The states vary greatly in their ability to support public education. In the ten states spending the least for public education, the average expenditure per pupil in average daily attendance is $38.38. In the ten states spending the most per pupil the expenditure for elementary and secondary schools is $118.74 per pupil. The states spending the least per pupil devote 1.88 percent of their income to education. The states spending the most per pupil devote 2.75 percent of their income to education. If the states spend¬ ing the least were to increase their expenditures so as to devote as large a percentage of their income to education as do the states spending the larger amounts, they would average $56.24 per pupil. This is less than one- half of the amount spent by the states which spend the most per pupil. In other words, the states which today spend the least amount per pupil would have to spend approximately six percent of their income for public education were they to provide as much per pupil as is done in the states spending most. Along with more adequate support must come better fiscal administra¬ tion. Good fiscal administration as well as good educational administra¬ tion is dependent upon having a unit large enough to make possible the employment of a competent executive, supported by an adequate staff. It is only as the local unit of administration is large enough to require the full time of a superintendent of schools and of a staff devoted to the super¬ vision of instruction, the classification of pupils, the development of courses of study and curricula, the maintenance and operation of buildings, and the fiscal administration of schools, that we may hope for any high degree of efficiency. Indeed, it may well be contended that more money spent for the administration and supervision of schools is essential to the economical administration of public education. The development of an adequate fiscal administration of schools requires a strong state department of education competent to administer a scheme of state support such as has been proposed above. It is necessary, as well, that this state office supervise and inspect, at least through reports that are made, the local fiscal administration. Waste and inefficiency due to poor accounting and budgetary procedure, lack of care in the safeguarding of school funds, the failure to plan buildings to best advantage, unsound methods in the writing of insurance, and unwise and inefficient borrowing are to be found today in most of our states. The situation calls for reform 666 National Education Association first of all by strengthening the state office and, secondarily, by providing sufficient funds for the employment of competent executives for local school systems. Any satisfactory solution of the problem of the financing of public educa¬ tion will involve, in many of our states, a reform in our system of taxation. As has already been indicated, assessments must be equalized throughout the state. This will require a state tax commission removed from political control. There will be needed, as well, local full-time assessors who can be removed for inefficiency in carrying out the work of their office. The development of an equitable system of taxation will doubtless include the acceptance of the state income tax, of a tax on business profits whether derived from incorporated or unincorporated business, the continuance of certain fees and licenses, as well as the inheritance tax. The acceptance of the severance tax and of a gasoline tax for state purposes seems also to be indicated. But it is not my purpose to discuss the methods of securing sup¬ port. It is rather my purpose to call attention to the fact that it will be necessary to secure larger revenues from taxes imposed throughout the state if the equalization program that should be developed by the state is to be sufficiently supported. In conclusion, it may be proposed that education will cost more in the years which lie ahead than has been spent for this purpose in the past. The American people will certainly continue to strive to realize that ideal which was so ably expressed by Herbert Hoover : At no time have we had more able leaders in economic life than today. At no time have we been more certain that the fibre and intelligence of our people fur¬ nishes a vast reservoir of such leadership adequate to the future. But able ad¬ ministrators, skilled workers, professional and moral leaders cannot be made by birth or money. They cannot be selected by divine right or through bureaucracy. Nor can their ranks be filled from a limited class. Our leadership can be found and it will be sympathetic to our ideals if we maintain the decency and dignity of family life through a stable economic system; if we maintain free and universal education and thus provide them the open stair to leadership; if we maintain for every individual an equality of opportunity to attain that position in the community to which his character and his ability entitle him. Then our supply of leadership will stream forward of its own impulse. It is in this insistence upon an equal chance and a free road to rise in leadership that our great American experiment has departed from those of history. It is our sure guarantee of the future. In its vast possibilities is the hope of every mother for her boys and her girls. Any careful analysis of our resources will indicate that we can afford to spend more for education if we desire the results of education more than we desire the products of other industries. The realization of our ideal of the equalization of opportunity rests upon the development of a more adequate program of state and national support. We must develop our school system in such a manner as to provide more and more adequately for the needs of our whole population. We may rest assured, as was pro¬ posed by the late President Eliot almost thirty years ago, that : Department of Superintendence 667 Every educational improvement has been costly, everyone has justified itself in the eyes of the taxpayers. . . . Not one would now be recalled, and the total encourages the expectation that large new expenditures would commend themselves to the people at the start and in the end would prove to be both profitable in the economic sense and civilizing in the humane sense. THE WORK OF THE ARTICULATION COMMISSION HERBERT S. WEET, Chairman , COMMISSION ON THE ARTICULATION OF THE UNITS OF AMERICAN EDUCATION AND SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ROCHESTER, N. Y. The purposes of this paper are to sketch the major fields in which this Commission deems its work to lie ; to review briefly what has been attempted up to the present time; and, finally, to indicate what the Commission pro¬ poses and hopes to accomplish during the next two years, at the close of which the second yearbook to be prepared by this Commission will be presented. As this Commission views its task there are three important fields with which it must concern itself. The first has to do with the larger units of school organization such as the elementary school, the junior high school, the senior high school, the college and university, the teacher-training insti¬ tutions, and finally the unit for adult education. That we have not as yet solved all the problems of coordinating these larger administrative units is a proposition that will be accepted without serious debate. The second field of work involves the smaller units of school organization such as the grades, or whatever other subdivisions may lie within any one of these larger administrative units. This field takes us at once into the whole subject of promotions. And, finally, in the third field the Commission hopes to press back to those conditions which surround the pupil in his journey from one point of transition to the next and which so largely determine the nature of the problem at the transition point itself. The very working conditions as regards the curriculum, or the size and varying abilities in any given class, for example, may be such as to defeat all other attempts at proper coordination. Each of these three fields will be com¬ mented upon in turn. The presentation of the work in this first field that deals with the larger administrative units may well begin with a contrast. First of all we shall try to see conditions at the beginning of our educational journey in this country as they are set forth by Henry C. Morrison in his work on "The Practice of Teaching in the Secondary School/' In referring to elementary, secondary, and higher educational institu¬ tions, Morrison declares that these three schools with which we are familiar have developed not by differentiation from a common institutional origin for the better service of a common purpose, but from three distinct schools, each of them founded to serve a rather definite purpose and each of them in the beginning substantially unrelated to the others. 1 he eight-grade elementary school as we know it is the indigenous common school modi¬ fied by the efforts of administrators in the second quarter of the nineteenth 668 National Education Association century to adapt the Prussian theory of common school organization and institutional purpose to American needs. The high school, on the other hand, comes down to us in direct descent from the academies which flour¬ ished in the northeastern states throughout the first three quarters of the nineteenth century. The oldest of our existing institutions is the college, which early became essentially a preprofessional school. Each of these original schools had its own purpose and its own separate existence. The old common school was not ordinarily set to prepare for the academy, or later the free high school, nor was it the main business of the early high school or academy to prepare for college. The above is the first picture in our contrast. It is essential that we keep it clearly before us in any attempt to appreciate or properly appraise the significance of this problem of articulation. In so far as we can bring to our minds these three institutions, each isolated from the others by time and locality and purpose, then to that extent we shall better understand the difficulties that have had to be faced and the progress that has already been made. But there is another picture that is at least of equal importance. In this very city of Cleveland in which we are meeting, each individual child has today the opportunity to begin his career of formal education in the kinder¬ garten and to continue that career in public or tax supported institutions on through the elementary school, the high school, the college, and even the professional school. This is true in not a few of our larger city centers. In many of our states where the entire journey cannot be made in tax sup¬ ported institutions within the local community, it can be made within the boundaries of the state through the state colleges and universities. And frequently in those states where these latter institutions are not found it is entirely practicable through state supported scholarships for the indi¬ vidual to make the entire journey without tuition charges. Add to these benefits from tax supported institutions the opportunities afforded by pri¬ vately endowed colleges and universities and the picture is one in striking contrast to the first picture presented. We have an American system of education at least in the sense of a widespread opportunity for a child to go from the beginning to the end of our formal educational institutions and thus go out into life equipped with the best that American education has to offer. This, then, is the second picture in our contrast. Even the most casual reflection upon the changed conditions shown by these two pictures, reveals a degree of progress that is both illuminating and encouraging. This appreciation of the progress made, however, will not blind us to the many important problems that still need attention. Some years ago that distinguished educational leader who is next to address us at this morning’s session focussed the attention of school admin¬ istrators upon this subject of articulation or coordination in such an effective and convincing manner that its influence has persisted during all these years. In referring to the conditions at the beginning of our educational Department of Superintendence 669 journey in this country he set forth substantially a picture like the one of Morrison’s that has just been presented. And then John Dewey made this very significant statement: “All organization is nothing but getting things into connection with one another, so that they work easily, flexibly, and fully. Therefore, in speaking of this question of waste in education, I desire to call your attention to the isolation of the various parts of the school system, to the lack of unity in the aims of education, to the lack of coherence in its studies and methods.” It is now thirty years since those words were written. Interestingly enough it is only about forty years ago, according to Morrison, that this effort to make the elementary school, the high school, and the college pull together for a common educational purpose, began. He points out that down until nearly the end of the nineteenth century the number of pupils who passed on from the common school to the high school, and from the high school to the college, was so small as to be almost negligible. But “the surpassing educational awakening which began to be evident about 1900 changed all this. Ordinary folks in ever increasing numbers began to send their children to college. The easy going w’ays which have an¬ swered for a century would no longer serve.” And Morrison closes with this significant statement : “Thus the history of educational administration since 1890 has been to a large extent a history of endless effort to make the elementary school, the high school, and the college pull together for a com¬ mon educational purpose.” This, accordingly, is an occasion for sincere congratulation. John Dewey, the man who more than any other awakened the educational world thirty years ago to the waste that was resulting from lack of coordination, is here this morning to discuss the same subject. He has lived and worked through thirty of the forty years that this effort at coordination to which Morrison refers has been under way. We appreciate his coming, and we shall listen with profound interest to his message. To present as strikingly as possible the contrast with which we began, the most favored centers were selected for the second picture. But it would be a mistake for us to suppose that these favorable examples are representa¬ tive of conditions in the country at large. Quite to the contrary. While in some places these larger administrative units have been brought into juxtaposition in such a way as to make for conditions favorable to con¬ tinuity in educational progress, yet on the whole there are widely different practises in the makeup of these units and widely differing theories as to what the most desirable units are from the standpoint of this problem under consideration. I suggest that if any person doubts the accuracy of ' such statements he attempt to define in terms of current practise just what constitutes any one of these administrative units of school organization. Is the elementary school unit, for example, distinguished from the other units by the number of grades involved ? Obviously not, for the number varies anywhere from five in some parts of the country to nine in other parts. Is it to be defined by the number of days of schooling provided by 670 National Education Association the elementary school ? Clearly not, for five grades or years of elementary schooling in some states will provide only about half the amount that the same number of grades or years will provide in other states. By the same token the elementary school unit cannot be defined in terms of common cur¬ riculum practise, or teacher training, or any other one of these elements that are so closely linked with the elementary school. Equally pertinent questions may be asked with reference to the fields of secondary and higher education. The Commission has accepted the definition of the elementary school unit adopted by the Commission on the Curriculum. This unit, accordingly, consists of the kindergarten and the first six grades. Its defi¬ nition, however, is based rather upon present trends than upon present practise. In other words, there seem to be good grounds for believing that the development of the future will be, and ought to be, in the direction of the elementary school of six grades. And there is no less uncertainty when we enter the field above and beyond this elementary school. What is the period of secondary education and what are the administrative units that are best adapted to an accom¬ plishment of the things that secondary education should accomplish ? Shall this secondary period, for example, accomplish all the work from grades seven to fourteen, inclusive, thereby regarding the first two years of the arts college as coming essentially within the field of secondary education? Certainly this appears to be the direction in which we are moving. And if this is to be accepted as the period of secondary education, then how shall it be divided? Shall there be a separate junior high-school unit consist¬ ing of grades seven, eight, and nine, with a separate senior high-school unit consisting of grades ten, eleven, and twelve, and then the junior college for the two remaining years or grades? If these are not to be regarded as separate administrative units, then what combination of these units shall be made? If we declare that the six-year high school, including grades seven to twelve, is more favorable from the standpoint of coordinating the dif¬ ferent elements or providing favorable conditions for coordinating the dif¬ ferent elements, are there losses in other directions that will more than offset the values from the articulation side ? These questions are broadly suggestive of the problems to be faced in the future work of coordinating these larger administrative units. Of the limitations that are inevitable because of local community conditions, we are all conscious. The most important of these have been discussed in the opening chapter of this Seventh Yearbook. There are, however, good grounds for believing that there is much that can and should be accom¬ plished in the way of coordinating these units after even the most liberal allowance has been made for such limitations. But while these points of transition from the elementary school to the high school, and from the high school to the college are matters of real concern, they are not the only, nor are they the most important points of Department of Superintendence 671 transition involved in continuity of school progress. What shall be said, for example, about the transition from grade to grade, within any one of these administrative units? This at once raises the whole question of promotion from within the unit itself. It is a subject to which the Commission believes it necessary to give much attention in its studies of the next two years. It is entirely conceivable and in fact it is very probable that in many instances condi¬ tions may be quite as unfavorable for continuity of progress because of abruptness in the transition between any two of these smaller units of administration as they are at this changing point between any two of the larger administrative units of which we have been speaking. Just wdio, in the last analysis, determines whether a child shall or shall not be pro¬ moted ? Upon what basis does the teacher, principal, or superintendent, determine that the pupil or class in any one grade is ready to proceed to the work of the next grade? Exactly what promotion records are kept? Are records simply in the form of non-promoted, or is there a record show¬ ing exactly the subject in which the pupil failed of promotion and a state¬ ment of the causes in each case? What use is made of such promotion records as are kept? These are simply suggestive of the many very impor¬ tant questions that merit careful and continuous study. It is unnecessary here to do more than suggest the important ramifications of the whole subject of the promotion of pupils. It is the second field with which the Commission will concern itself, and it hopes through the studies of the next two years to contribute something out of the varying experiences of the country with this matter that will be of real help. But there is a third field of work that takes us directly into the funda¬ mental issues involved in the whole subject. That field has to do with the curriculum and with the conditions that are essential to the fullest realization of what the curriculum is designed to accomplish. Certain type questions at once arise in this connection. Just what is American education to do for this individual who begins the journey in the kinder¬ garten and continues it on through the professional school, or withdraws at some one of the stages in the journey? Of course the answer to this question determines the aims or objectives of education all along the way. If anyone supposes for an instant that this question of objectives has been answered, let him simply attempt to formulate for common acceptance the purpose or purposes of American education as a whole, and the peculiar contribution that each of the administrative units involved in the process is supposed to make. In the Yearbook just submitted the attempt has been made by the Committee on Elementary Education to formulate such ob¬ jectives for the elementary school unit. In like manner the Committee on Secondary Education has submitted what it conceives to be the ten special functions or purposes of secondary education. In both cases what¬ ever is submitted is wholly tentative in nature and the chief purpose has been to offer something definite that may continue to provoke discussion and clarify our thinking, to the end that during the next two years there 672 National Education Association may be developed with respect to these objectives a formulation that will meet with common acceptance and serve as a helpful guide. Out of all these efforts at coordination that have been made during the years there have gradually emerged more clearly defined notions as to what education in this country should accomplish and what the elementary school, and each of the other units, should contribute to this common purpose. Have we as yet gone sufficiently far to interpret the meaning of it all? This is a question which the Commission hopes to throw some light upon. And then related to this are conditions that determine how effectively the cur¬ riculum and all other means of realizing these educational goals are to be used. The attendance of a pupil is one such condition. Failure to secure regular attendance is by common consent a very potent factor in prevent¬ ing continuity of educational progress. Is it too much to say that all pros¬ pects of making the required transition from unit to unit have been for¬ feited by many a child through ill health conditions that could with proper care and foresight have been remedied at the very beginning of the child’s school career? Equally significant questions arise with reference to the training and attendance of teachers. Here, again, are we working as favor¬ ably as possible within the unavoidable limitations that exist? Is it pos¬ sible to get further light upon the problem of the temporary supply or substitute teacher that will enable us in the necessary absence of the regu¬ lar teacher to reduce the loss on the part of the pupil to the minimum? And what is to be said concerning this very important and much discussed subject of homogeneous grouping? The whole history of the graded school from "the days of Horace Mann down until the present time has been essentially an attempt so to group pupils as to enable them to go forward with a degree of progress commensurate with their industry and ability. No one, of course, supposes that the Commission will in the next two years be able to answer these and similar questions to the satisfaction of all con¬ cerned, but if it can select some of the fundamental ones and in a patient and judicial manner throw light upon them that will serve somewhat to guide in the days that lie ahead, its fondest ambitions will have been realized. Having briefly sketched the major fields within which the work of this Commission will lie and suggested certain illustrative problems in each field, it seems important to refer briefly to the controling principle in accordance with which the Commission must carry on its work. The application of this principle is a highly controversial question, and because of this, what I believe to be the attitude of the Commission in the use of it should be frankly set forth. It is the principle of standardization. We are fre¬ quently told that standardization is dangerous to education. It happens here as it so frequently happens elsewhere with generalizations of this kind, that a bill of particulars is required if fruitless discussion is to be avoided. There is a kind and degree of standardization that is dangerous to educa¬ tion. Back in 1923 the late President Eliot of Harvard pointed out a tendency to carry over into school procedure the standardization practises Department of Superintendence 673 of industry, and entered his characteristic protest against the practise. With the dangers here there would be common agreement. If reports are true, there is no industry in our country today in which the units involved are more closely and efficiently articulated than is the case with the Ford Motor Company. There is no uncertainty whatsoever as to what the finished product is to be. Every specification has been drawn with a nicety that baffles understanding. And if this be true of the finished product it is equally true of every step or unit of the process from the begin¬ ning to the end of the journey. Controls are so operated that flexibility is neither required nor allowed. In short, it is a well-nigh perfect example of industrial standardization. We would all join in protest against any attempt to bring either this kind or degree of standardization into education. Children are not things of wood or metal or textiles. Social controls, varying abilities of children, and in fact practically every factor that grows out of the differences be¬ tween human beings on the one side, and inanimate materials on the other, strikes out all attempts to draw analogies between industry and education in these matters. We would all, furthermore, join in equally emphatic protests against the attempts of standardizing agencies, either within or without the field of education, to force any kind or degree of standardiza¬ tion that would prevent the legitimate and essential exercise of that flexi¬ bility without which the educational process cannot be effectively carried on. But having said all this, we shall nevertheless not blind ourselves to the fact that in all this work we cannot escape standardization if we would, nor would we escape it if we could. Nobody knows better than does the school administrator the Scylla and Charybdis between which we must steer in attempting to get all that standardization has to offer and at the same time prevent its possible deadening effects upon the processes them¬ selves. A large part of his thought and time must be given to the task of establishing standards and then of so administering the affairs within his jurisdiction as to have such standards help and not hurt. With the admin¬ istration of whatever standards may be established as a result of the work of this Commission, the Commission itself can have no concern. That naturally must be and should be the responsibility of each community or unit of administration. But this in no sense relieves the Commission of the responsibility and the opportunity of seeking out and setting up such standards as in their best judgment will guide toward improved educa¬ tional procedure. The first part of the work of this Commission is to sift out from the three fields here briefly sketched what may be considered the most im¬ portant and far-reaching problems concerning which there is reason to sup¬ pose help can be given. In other words, up until the present time the chief attention of the Commission has been given to the nature and extent of articulation problems. The Yearbook here presented is essentially an inquiry. The manner in which this inquiry has been carried on is clearly presented in this Yearbook. The whole purpose of the meeting this morn- 674 National Education Association ing is directed toward this same end of giving perspective with reference to problems. This afternoon some eight or nine roundtable discussions will be conducted each upon some phase of this work. In a very real sense, therefore, Part I of the work of this Commission will be completed at the close of this day’s session when the last of these round-table con¬ ferences adjourns. And then the Commission will begin at once a study of such problems as are selected. This study will extend over a two-year period and if present plans carry, the results of the studies thus made will be set forth in the yearbook of the Department two years from now. A knowledge of present practises throughout this country is bound to be invaluable in this study. I cannot do less than express in behalf of the Commission gratitude for the cheerful and intelligent responses that have been given to the Commission thus far, and I wish to make it as clear as possible here that nothing will be so genuinely welcomed by the Commission as volun¬ tary requests on the part of school systems of whatever size or kind to participate in this study. In like manner our schools of special education and the many laboratory schools that are in a position, as the public schools are not, to conduct experimental studies on important phases of this work, have given and will continue to give invaluable aid to the Commission. Insofar as this Commission can ascertain present trends, interpret their validity, and point out such modifications as future improve¬ ment in school welfare requires, it will have accomplished its purpose. In this manner only will it contribute to the theme of this entire conven¬ tion by pointing the way by which the schools can better serve democracy through increasingly producing a higher type of citizen. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATIONAL ARTICULATION JOHN DEWEY, PROFESSOR OF PHILOSOPHY, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY NEW YORK CITY There are two ways of approaching the problem of elimination of waste in the educative processes of the schools. One is the administrative. This takes the existing system as a going concern, and inquires into the breaks and overlappings that make for maladjustment and inefficient expenditure of time and energy on the part of both pupil and teacher — useless and therefore harmful mental motions, harmful and not merely useless because they set up bad habits. The other may be called personal, psychological, or moral. By these adjectives is meant that the method starts from the side of personal growth of individual needs and capacities, and asks what school organization is best calculated to secure continuity and efficiency of development. It sets out from the side of pupils and asks how the suc¬ cessive stages of the school system should be arranged so that there shall be a minimum of blocks, arrests, sudden switches and gaps, futile repeti- Department of Superintendence 675 tions and duplications, as the children and youth pass from one stage to another, from kindergarten to elementary, from this to high school, and from the latter to college. This statement of two modes of approach does not imply that there is a necessary opposition between the two. They should be complementary. What is common to both is that each looks at the educational system as a whole and views each part with respect to what it does in making education really a whole, and not merely a juxtaposition of mechanically separated parts. Each avenue of approach is equally concerned to eliminate isola¬ tions and render the function of each part effective with respect to the others. There is no more necessary opposition between the two than there is when engineers in tunneling a mountain bore from opposite ends. Before they start work, the tunnel must be considered as a single thing and the work done from either end must be thought out and undertaken with ref¬ erence to examination of the entire project. But a preliminary intellectual survey of the whole is necessary to make the two modes of approach meet at a center. When the consideration of the problem is undertaken from either side without regard to the considerations which necessarily exist at the other side, there are dangers and evils that cannot be avoided. Thus an approach from the exclusively personal side will overlook certain administrative necessities that seem to be inherent in the situation. An important consid¬ eration here is pointed out in the general introductory report of the Com¬ mission. The area of the region drawn upon and the different numbers of children and youth who go to school in the elementary and higher grades must be considered. Younger children as a rule must be in buildings nearer their own homes, and because of their greater number there must be a cer¬ tain amount of physical segregation from older pupils. Moreover, for the older pupils there must be a greater variety of courses, differentiation of teachers, and amount of equipment. These facts demand a large number of pupils in the high school and this, in turn, demands that they be drawn from a wide area. Hence consideration from the personal development side must take into account administrative necessities. Consideration of the latter must, however, be checked at every point by taking into account the conditions that make for effective mental and moral growth of individuals as individuals. Undue attention to the adminis¬ trative side tends toward “rationalization” of the divisions that happen at a given time to be institutionalized. Reasons are found which justify their continued existence as more or less independent units. Then the problem of articulation becomes an external one, that of smoothing transitions from one to another and getting rid of the more obvious sources of friction. This is a gain as far as it goes, but it does not go far enough to touch the basic matter of securing adequate and complete personal growth. In consequence of this external approach, there will be a tendency to assume that mental and moral growth is marked by “epochs” which correspond, at least roughly, to the isolated units of the school system. 676 National Education Association The fact that interests and capacities change with age is undeniable ; that the boy and girl of sixteen differ markedly from those of twelve and those of the latter age from those of eight and the latter, in turn, from those of five and six is too evident to escape notice. But the underlying problem is whether the changes occur gradually and almost insensibly or by sharply marked off leaps which correspond to the conventional institutional school divisions. This is a question which must be investigated and the answer found by independent study of the facts of development in individuals. The need of this independent inquiry as a check and test is the more acute because the divisions that exist among school units react upon personal develop¬ ment. It is in consequence easy to assume that changes in personal growth are inherent, when in fact they may be the relatively artificial products of the existing school divisions and insofar abnormal and undesirable. For this reason the study of the best methods of articulation should be checked by a comparative study of those schools in which division into units is minimized; that is, “unified schools” in which children of different ages, from primary- to high school, are found together and wherein there is no administrative break between junior and senior years in the high schools. Only by such a comparative study can the elements, if any, that are arti¬ ficial and conventional in the schools where units are emphasized be de¬ tected. This statement does not contradict what was said earlier about the problems of area of distribution and the need of increased variety of courses and equipment in higher grades. For, in the first place, cities vary greatly in population and there may be median range of size to which the unified school is well adapted. In the second place, the results of compara¬ tive inquiry would throw light upon the methods of organization to be adopted in the schools of towns of such a large size that the unified system cannot be literally adopted. For there is a question of limits, and edu¬ cators can work in either of two directions, toward opposite poles, either to that of independent units, or to the maximum possible of relative unifi¬ cation of the assembling of pupils, without carrying either principle to its logical extreme. This consideration seems to me to be fundamental in the whole problem of articulation. Mere convenience of administration should not be permitted to override it. It is recognized that adequate treatment of the fundamental problem here — the mutually complementary character of the administrative and the moral psychological development of individuals — must wait upon command of greater knowledge of the actual process of normal growth than anybody now possesses. Nevertheless, reference to the latter is important for it in¬ dicates, in the first place, the necessity of continued study of personal growth as an inherent factor in the problem of articulation from the admin¬ istrative side. And, in the second place, it serves a warning. It cautions us against a too ready assumption that the present institutional division into separate units has necessary inherent value on account of correspond¬ ing “epochs” of personal development. It warns us against attaching too great value, decisive value, to matters of administrative habit and inertia. Department of Superintendence 677 A complete examination of the question of articulation can be attained only when the experiences of classroom teachers in immediate contact with pupils are procured and utilized, as well as the experiences of administra¬ tors. This statement does not signify that principals and superintendents in their reports do not take advantage of the experiences gained in actual classroom work. It is, however, a reminder that specialized experience always creates a one-sided emphasis, in habits of thought as well as of out¬ ward action, and always needs to be checked. There is much evidence in the various reports of the extent to which conference and exchange of reports and information already obtain as necessary methods of avoiding unduly sharp breaks in subjectmatter, methods, and harmful repetitions. What I am pleading for is a more direct obtaining of data on the whole subject of continuity of personal development from classroom teachers, and a direct inclusion of such reports in the gathering and interpretation of material along with those of superintendents and supervisors and principals. The findings of experimental and progressive schools must also be included, not as models, but as providing data regarding processes of personal devel¬ opment under different conditions. Conceding that we have not adequate knowledge of the course of men¬ tal development in individuals, I propose now to consider the bearing of what is available in this respect upon the general problem of articulation. I begin with a statement which is so general that it can hardly arouse dissent. The ideal is that the achievements at any one period of growth supply the tools, the agencies and instrumentalities, of further growth. The statement is not one that refers simply to the transition from one unit to another. It is of constant application. That is, whatever the pupils gain at any period, whether in skill or knowledge, should be promptly funded into something actively employed in gaining new skill and knowl¬ edge.1 A new level of intellectual achievement should mark off each suc¬ cessive month and week of school life, and not be thought of as occurring only in the transition from one unit to another. The bearing of this prin¬ ciple upon the specific problems of articulation which the various reports of the Commission bring out may be postponed until another basic principle has been stated. The idea of ripening, maturing, is evidently fundamental in the question of individual growth. Now what needs to be especially borne in mind with reference to maturing is that it is plural, that is, various powers and interests which coexist at the'same time mature at very different rates. Ma¬ turing is a continuous process ; the mature fruit may appear, as with fruits on a tree, only at some later stage, even if we assume, which it is probably wrong to do, that there is ever any such completely matured fruit in the case of a human being as in a plant. But the normal maturing as a process 1 This principle is recognized in the almost unanimous denial that there is a period of “imi¬ tation,” or receptivity, and one of application, or active initiation and use, on the part of those reporting in the second chapter of the general report. There is very general agreement that the acquiring and the application of what is used as tools must go hand in hand from the start and be continued all the way through, the difference being at most one of emphasis. 678 National Education Association goes on all the time ; if it does not, there is something the matter with con¬ ditions. Arrest of growth, incapacity to cope with subjectmatter, and ina¬ bility to respond to methods employed at a later period are all signs of some¬ thing wrong. They need to be studied as symptoms and diagnosed with a view to constructive remedies. Since maturing is a continuous process and also a plural one it is not a uniform four-abreast thing. One has only to observe a baby to note how one ability ripens before another, the ability to fixate objects with the eye, to grasp, to sit up, to creep, to walk, to talk ; and how each operation as it matures is utilized as a factor in bringing about some maturing of another ability* and adaptation. No parent ever makes the mistake of overlooking this plural nature of maturing. When we come to schooling, however, I wonder if there is not too much of a tendency to assume an equal, uniform, ;our-abreast maturing, and if that does not underlie the conception of ’epochs" of growth which correspond to various units of the school system. If the assumption is not made in a positive form, it is made in a negative way, that is, by overlooking the specific needs and capacities that are ripen¬ ing, or that may ripen, during each year and month of school life. It is this neglect which is responsible for the idea that each stage is merely prep¬ aration for some later stage, particularly that the aim of the early years of the elementary school is chiefly the purpose of gaining social tools to be independently employed and enjoyed later on. I am always surprised and disturbed when I find persons who insist that the high school must not be dominated by the idea of college preparation ready to assume as a matter of course that the first two or three primary years must have as their main purpose the securing of “social tools” for later use, instead of being devoted to gaining those experiences which are appropriate to the powers that are ripening at the time. I must express my profound dissent from the position taken in the general introduction that sets up a dualism between the actual experience of children in the early years and the requirements imposed and dictated by the needs of later school years. At this point, the two principles laid down cease to be innocuous gener¬ alities. The way to get possession and command of a tool for later use is by having the experiences proper to the immediate time, experiences which awaken new needs and opportunities and which, just because they are achievements, form the natural agencies or tools for later activities. Any theory which sets out by denying that this is possible misstates the prob¬ lem of articulation, and its “solution” is bound to be defective. Unless powers as they ripen are put to immediate use in acquiring new knowledge and skill, tools are not shaped for later use. The problem, from the side of earlier years, is that of discovering those particular needs, interests, and capacities which are ripening then and there, not attempting a premature introduction and forcing of others ; and then of finding that use and appli¬ cation of them which passes insensibly into the ripening of other more com¬ plex tendencies. From the side of later years, it is the same problem, but Department of Superintendence 679 with the added factor of adjusting subjectmatter and methods so that the powers already relatively ripened shall be used in developing the new pow¬ ers that are showing themselves. Only in this way can the maximum of continuous growth be secured and an internal, rather than mechanical, artic¬ ulation be secured. The point and force of the two principles laid down is found in their concrete application. I propose, accordingly, to consider some phase of isolation and waste, of non-articulation, in their light. In the first place, they suggest that reasonable integration within the school cannot be secured by limiting the problem to what goes on in the school. The fundamental problem of articulation takes us outside the school to articulation of its activities with the out-of-school experience of the pupils. It is for this reason, of course, that the curriculum is so funda¬ mental ; to articulate successive phases of subjectmatter with one another, there must be an articulation of the curriculum with the broadening range of experiences had at home, in the neighborhood and community. This principle applies at the beginning and all the way through. I remember hearing an intelligent parent complain that kindergarten teachers seemed to assume that children came to them blanks and treated them as if every¬ thing had to begin afresh, thereby boring children with things they could already do and were familiar with, and failing to utilize the capital they had already acquired. This complaint was made over thirty years ago ; doubtless cause for it no longer exists. But it is typical of what is meant by the present point. Except for highly specialized matters, the ripening of powers does not go on exclusively nor mainly in school. This fact gives great significance to matters contained in the various reports which at first sight are remote from the question of school articulation ; matters of health, nutrition, regularity of attendance, home life, reading and occupations out of school, economic status of parents and children, as well as the general changing demands of a rapidly changing civilization. But it extends to the whole matter of utilizing in school the experiences gained out of school. More specific points are involved in the application of the two principles. One of these is the principle of alternate concentration and remission of work in special lines. While great improvements have taken place, there is still an undue tendency to a uniform four-abreast treatment of the subjects that make up the school program. Certain studies tend to appear in every month and in every year of a school program. There is need for flexible experimentation in periods of intensive concentration upon such things as reading and number work in the elementary grades, followed by periods of relaxation in which achievements gained are capitalized in concentration upon other studies. The same principle applies to history, geography, na¬ ture study, and science. Each might be made for a time the relative center with subordination of other factors. The effect would be to disclose better 680 National Education Association than does the uniform method special aptitudes and weaknesses and would, I think, greatly minimize the breaks that now come with change of pupils to a new year and new unit. Other difficulties in the present situation arise, I believe, from the isola¬ tion that comes from the confining of teachers to single years. The pupils are the only ones who come into direct contact with the whole process. Artificial breaks, sudden introduction of new demands and new methods of discipline, teaching of new kinds of subjects, duplications and need of re¬ view of subjects already supposedly mastered, are the result. They are in large measure due, I think, to the isolation of the teacher resulting from too exclusive confinement to a single year. Articulation is secured only as at each stage of the school system, pupils' activities are directed in reference to a continuing wholeness of growth. One year is too short a span in which to survey the process of growth. Much has been done, as appears from the reports in exchange of records and data, and in joint committee to form the curriculums. Unified supervision helps. But these things do not cover the whole situation. There are administrative difficulties attending transfers of teachers from one grade to another, or in having a teacher give instruc¬ tion during the same year in more than one grade. But I do not believe that, without a greater use of these methods, teachers can get that real ap¬ preciation of continuity of school movement which will enable them to secure articulation from within. One aspect of this matter involves the question of having younger chil¬ dren in contact with more than one teacher. I recognize the objections that are so clearly pointed out in the section of Chapter II of the Report dealing with departmentalization in the elementary grades. But these objections have to be offset not only against the point already made regarding the need of intimate acquaintance on the part of the teacher with children at differ¬ ent stages of development, but against the evils of the conditioning of a child to the habits and methods of a single person, and against the fact, frequently noted, of the friction that arises when the pupils enter a unit in which de¬ partmental teaching does exist. It does not follow because departmental teaching can easily be overdone in the early grades that children may not profitably get used to more than one teacher even in the first grade. It is a concrete question of proportioning. We need also to bear in mind that the one-room, one-teacher plan tends to perpetuate the regimes of either formalism or undirected spontaneity in the early years. No one teacher can know enough to answer all the questions children ask that need to be followed up if that growth is to be secured which gives a firm basis for future work — although one teacher is enough to allow children to do what they please or to teach the traditional formal subjects. Nor does it follow that in high schools teaching should be rigidly departmentalized. We need a little more “give'’ at both ends. Still less does it follow that department¬ alized teaching in high schools should be confined to a teacher having many sections of algebra or geometry or physiography in only one year of the Department of Superintendence 681 school. Genuine correlation or integration and genuine continuity of articu¬ lation may depend upon a teacher having more than one topic and in teach¬ ing a subject through more than one year. As Ella Flagg Young used to remind teachers many years ago, what often passes for departmentalization is in reality only a subdivision of labor such as obtains in a factory where each worker is confined to making a part of a shoe, which part is then passed on to the next worker. A point frequently mentioned in the reports is connected with the last two. Attention is called to the difficulties arising from the fact that teachers in training often specialize on some one phase or unit, to the neglect of knowledge of the system as a whole. It would seem to follow that all teachers in training should have at least one thorough course to familiarize them with the system in its entirety, with special reference to the place, in the whole, of that part of the system for which they are especially prepar¬ ing. If this were a regular procedure, it is possible that the reluctance of teachers to change from one grade or one unit to another might give way to desire for a broader experience. In connection with the training of teachers there are so many problems relevant to the issue of articulation that it is possible to select only one. Graduate schools of universities are in a large measure training schools for teachers in colleges and in an increasing degree in high schools. Through instruction given to those in colleges who go out to teach in high schools there is, in any case, a reaction into high-school teaching. These condi¬ tions account in large measure for the gaps and maladjustments frequently referred to in articulation of senior high schools with the junior, and in gen¬ eral of high schools with upper elementary grades. I allude to the distinc¬ tion often drawn between greater attention to development of pupils on one side and to subjectmatter as such on the other. No survey of the causes of bad articulation is complete that does not take into account the influence, direct and indirect, of the training of future teachers in graduate schools of universities. It is a phase of the old question of the isolation of normal schools from colleges with the greater emphasis of one upon method and of the other upon subjectmatter. Although the problem is not as acute as it used to be, since there has been reapproachment from both sides, it is still an important factor. Time permits only of these few selected illustrations. I conclude by re¬ curring to the original statement of the problem: that of coordinating the administrative approach with the psychological-moral approach through per¬ sonal development. It makes a great difference how we take up the problem of articulation. If we accept too readily any existing distribution of units as even relatively fixed, I am skeptical of any solutions being found which do more than eliminate some of the more striking cases of external friction. It is a natural trait of the human mind to “rationalize” what exists — that is, to find adventitious reasons that justify what is found. We should, it seems to me, viewT the problem of articulation as one of differentiation. 682 National Education Association The metaphor of organic growth is helpful if not pressed too literally. The problem of coordinated physiological growth is not one of coordinating bones, muscles, lungs, and stomach together ; not until mal-coordinations have been established does the latter problem arise. There is a gradual differentiation of different organs and functions, each cooperating with the others. The problem of educational guidance may be conceived as that of bringing about differentiation in a consecutive way. The meaning of this general statement may be briefly illustrated. For this purpose I select once more a portion of the Introduction of the Commission which in its implica¬ tions appears to diverge from the principle. I refer to the contrast which is set forth between the earlier and later years in reference to docility of a passive type in the former and personal independence and individualistic initiation in the latter, and the conclusions about legitimate separation of units drawn from the alleged contrast. The statement seems to overlook several facts, such as that well known to parents, the fact called “contrary suggestion” in very early years; the fact that development in the school years comes through activities, and also the adoption of the method of social¬ ized activities in the kindergarten. Receptivity and assertive activity are constant functions. What differs with different stages of growth is range of exercise and field of exercise. Be¬ cause a child of six or seven cannot assume the same active responsibilities that he can when he is eight or nine does not mean that some field for its exercise is not available at the earlier age nor that it is not an indispen¬ sable factor in normal development. To generalize wholesale from the regions in which the capacity does not exist, and infer from them that the willingness of children to accept what is put over on them “dictates” certain subjectmatters at that period, is to fail to prepare pupils for greater inde¬ pendence in other fields later, and thus puts a premium upon excessive “in¬ dividualism” later. The problem is one of constant differentiation of powers of independent action through prior utilization of those which already exist. A normal differentiation will create in pupils a willingness to recog¬ nize later their need of guidance and receptivity in respect to that in which they are not developed to the point of independence, and thus reduce an abrupt and undesirable “individualism.” The example is taken from a limited field, but it applies throughout. At each stage the pupil, whether in elementary grades, junior high school, or college, has a certain region of experience in which he is relatively at home and has certain tendencies which are relatively mature. Attention to these things as the agencies to be connected with in securing new powers of independent and responsible action in wider fields of experience gives the key to a continuous process of differentiation which will place the problem of articulation in its proper light. I cannot conclude this exposition, at once too fragmentary and too gen¬ eral, without acknowledging my great indebtedness to the studies embod¬ ied in the Report of the Commission. More important, however, than any Department of Superintendence 683 personal indebtedness is the evidence afforded that the educators of the country are alive to their responsibility. In our American system of dif¬ fused control, in the absence of any central directive body, our sole guar¬ antee of constant improvement is the method of cooperative voluntary in¬ quiry and mutual conference. The report of the Commission is a notable contribution to the accomplishment of this task in a problem of fundamental importance in the advancement of education. We all owe them thanks for the alertness and thoroughness with which the task has been performed. THE PROBLEMS OF ARTICULATION AS SEEN BY THE COLLEGES AND PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS EDWARD C. ELLIOTT, PRESIDENT OF PURDUE UNIVERSITY, LAFAYETTE, IND. “A man is old on the day he begins doddering of the past instead of plan¬ ning for the future.” Such is a whimsical observation of the chief of that long known Hoosier tribe of humorist-philosophers. George Ade did not write De Senectute. Yet the old Roman who did must have laughed in¬ wardly when he wrote “You must become an old man in good time if you wish to be an old man long.” Under these precepts, I would choose to be an old man for a moment, and to dodder of the past. Merely for a moment though. Our profession may not relinquish its claim to youth without risking its power. The articula¬ tion, with which we are here concerned, must be articulate to those who only know and speak the new language of this revolutionary new age. Twenty-nine years ago, almost to this day and hour, I attended my first meeting of this Department of Superintendence. Then I first experienced the thrill of sitting at the feet of the giants of that profession into which a blind fate had hurtled me a year or two before, hurtled, perhaps like many of you, without any special preparation or proven fitness. What a galaxy of seers had places in this Department’s last meeting of the nineteenth century. Harris, the great Philosopher-Commissioner of Edu¬ cation ; Harper, the creator of that then new ferment in education — the University of Chicago; Page, the founder of The World's Work (who of us listening to his address upon “Right Use of Speech in a Democracy” realized that it was prophetic of his own responsibilities years afterwards as our Ambassador to Great Britain during the World War days) ; Andrews, the fighting-for-freedom superintendent of schools of Chicago ; Parker, the ever militant crusader of the rights of the child ; Draper, the wise educa¬ tional statesman of the University of Illinois; and Alderman, the captivat¬ ing orator from North Carolina whom this generation remembers as the leader of the University of Virginia. There it was I first heard Nicholas Murray Butler, professor of educa¬ tion in Columbia, with masterful personality and brilliant scholarship, de¬ scribe and interpret the status of our education at the close of the century. For many years afterwards I carried in a much thumbed notebook his effec¬ tive climax: 684 National Education Association The glory of founding educational systems cannot be ours; but the effort for im¬ provement by building wise practise from sound theory is within the reach of all of us. Immediately following, in the same old notebook I find I recorded the utterances of the dominant and revered Eliot, of Harvard, given during his discussion of Butler’s address : I do not know a more sacred occupation than the function of a superintendent of schools in the United States. During that meeting I had a never-to-be forgotten day in John Dewey’s pioneering laboratory school of the University of Chicago. That night I read my first professional book on education — Dewey’s School and Society, the most significant book on education yet produced in America — as vital and prophetic today as when published thirty years ago. His declaration therein was that : The great problem of education on the administrative side is to secure the unity of the whole, in place of a sequence of more or less unrelated and overlapping parts, and thus to reduce the waste arising from friction, reduplication, and transi¬ tions that are not properly bridged. This thesis which he has so admirably upheld this morning anticipated the revolutionary task now being formulated by the present Commission on the Articulation of the Units of American Education. I am vain enough to doubt whether anyone in that small gathering of superintendents in 1900 had exerted upon him greater influence than I. Then, Mr. President, I thought myself to be, indeed, I claimed to be, a superintendent of schools. Through the years I have remained, always in spirit, if not by official title, a superintendent of schools. Even the years of the quarter of a century as a university teacher and executive have not sufficed to suppress or transform me. Throughout I have remained a su¬ perintendent of schools, primarily concerned with what seems to me to be the highest duty of this high office ; to serve youth by searching out the gifted, the trained, and the inspiring teachers ; to provide that teacher with the greatest freedom and the best facilities for practicing his high profession to stimulate him and, above all, to protect him from the enemies of all great artistry7 — poverty of material things, his own sophistication, and the self- seeking of others. All the foregoing may sound like irrelevant autobiography. In fact, though, it is the tap root of my first and perhaps main argument. The essence of effective articulation of our educational system is a state of mind of the whole of our educational leadership ; a leadership that con¬ ceives education as the discovery and development of a maximum content¬ ment and usefulness of human beings — contentment and usefulness not alone desired by the individual, but at the same time desirable for society. I understand the articulation job to be the cautious selection, discarding, repairing, and strengthening of the old joints of the parts of the educational Department of Superintendence 685 system. And more than this, the building of new joints so that every part of the educational mechanism may be brought into a proper productive con¬ tact with every other part of that mechanism. And the material for these joints, let us never forget, is human material. The first condition for the solution of the problem of a better and more effective functioning of our entire scheme of public education, including thereby state as well as non-state schools, is that executives, administrators, presidents, superintendents of schools, principals of schools, by whatever name known, shall not consider that they, and the particular institutions they represent — whether schools of grades one to four, or schools of grades sixteen to twenty — are agencies ordained and operated independently from the other parts of the educational system. The essential condition for com¬ plete, economical, efficient human unification of our educational system is a clear and determined consciousness on the part of the whole of the educa¬ tional profession of the unity of purpose, as well as the unity of organiza¬ tion, of the American educational system ; and also the reciprocal responsi¬ bility of each unit for the health and aspirations of the other units. The spirit of genuine articulation means, if you please, more comprehension and less condescension. The key question is not, college or kindergarten, but college and kindergarten. No school is superior to another save in the su¬ periority of the results of its appointed work. Articulation will continue to be a problem as long as we lack a leadership that visions an educational system, not as a single artificial ladder to be climbed selfishly alone by individuals, but rather as a broad high road along which all of any generation may travel under the guidance of the best of all generations. This Department of Superintendence must accept the responsibility of emphasizing and enlarging the constructive participation in its work of the leaders of all phases of our education ; especially those representing the col¬ lege, the university, the professional, and the technical school. Every socalled pupil or student may be regarded as a potential indictment of the school and its teachers. A sound ethical code will impel the craft of education to try itself, fairly and rigorously, in the court of its own con¬ science and its own competency. In view of the comprehensive report now presented by your Commission on the Articulation of the Units of American Education, it is a risky per¬ sonal undertaking to attempt to place within my narrow time space on the program, either a bird’s-eye or a worm’s-eye view of that portion of the problem of articulation bearing upon schools I am supposed to represent here. Let us say then from now on that mine will be a gnat’s-eye view — a brief series of flitting glimpses. The establishment of a genuine working unity of the educational system, designed to secure a maximum conservation of human aspirations and abil¬ ities — after all that is what conservation means — is not alone a problem of the attitude of the professional mind. There is also an underlying problem b8b National Education Association of political philosophy. There are defying tasks of practical administra¬ tion. The substance and methods of instruction in any one grade of school may not be lightly disregarded by any other grade of school. And after our problem has been subjected to the usual analytical processes, which should bring its elements into clear solution, it is fairly certain that we shall find remaining undissolved a refractory residue. This residue will more likely be composed of emotional moral-conduct stuff than of any intellectual sub¬ stances. During the preparation for my half hour of this program I found among my notes some odd bits from the minds of others that seemed to have a cer¬ tain amount of illuminating irrelevancy to my theme. Illuminating or not, irrelevant or otherwise, they are, in my mind, proof of the multitude of problems concealed within that which appears as a single problem on our program. All of us, who strive to cling to a philosophy of idealism in this day of idols, have a feeling of indebtedness to William C. Bagley for his coura¬ geous opposition to that new doctrine of autocracy called determinism, which, since the War, has sought to invade the democratic realm of educa¬ tion : To endow the masses with genius is biologically impossible ; but to endow the masses with the fruits of genius is both educationally possible and socially most profitable. What did you articulators think when you read that provoking, pre- sumptous, and prophetic analysis of the future chances for ability and su¬ periority in America which Walter B. Pitkin has lately made in his pessi¬ mistic volume, “The Twilight of the American Mind”? How can you escape the conclusion that, if we merely educate and train the su¬ perior children of today up to their capacity, the world will suffer from an appall¬ ing oversupply of best minds? And what must we begin doing now to provide for such a colossal horde of thwarted, discontented, and probably rebellious vagrants whose minds will be keen enough to upset the world ? W as your articulating faith aroused, or did your spirit falter when you read the recent remark of one of the present day industrial leaders? Education to be worth the cost must be harnessed to the industrial machine. Will the mechanism for the articulation of the various units of American education provide a practical answer to the fundamental social question contained in this authoritative statement ? Of the twenty thousand nurses who will receive diplomas from hospital training schools, ten thousand are not eligible for jobs as sales girls in an enterprising de¬ partment store because they do not have the educational requirements. Did the technical institutions of the country engage in any new thinking and planning when the officials of the National Industrial Conference Board, after an analysis of the relation of engineering education and Amer¬ ican industry, published more than five years ago this statement? Department of Superintendence 687 In other words, American industry may need four hundred thousand more persons for positions of responsibility in 1930 than it did in 1920. This is in addition to the replacements necessary during the ten year period. W as that great surgeon. Dr. William Mayo, educationally constructive or not when he recently announced himself in favor of a twelve months’ school year for high schools, colleges, and medical schools ? Who is to be the gainer if, as he says: The cost of medical education, the number of years before a man can be self- supporting and the age at which students are graduating, average about twenty- seven years, is driving bright men into other professions. That more complete coordination and functioning of our entire educa¬ tional organization, which we are here calling articulation, is fundamentally a human and individual enterprise rather than a mechanical mass produc¬ tion of opportunity. David Starr Jordan has described a form of determin¬ ism that is entitled to wider application in all of our educational institutions: I have learned that it pays to look up a man’s good points. My experience with the first student I admitted to Stanford bears me out in this. When he came up for graduation, as a mining engineer, he was still deficient in certain minor technical¬ ities of English composition, though he had presented several excellent papers on geology. However, as he seemed to have all the other requirements of a useful citizen, we graduated him anyway, and let him take his chances in the world. The boy’s name was Herbert C. Hoover. I repeat, some of the most fruitful articulation will come from an infor¬ mal, determined, personal willingness to gamble your insight into an indi¬ vidual nature with the hind sight of the years to come. It may be doubted if any one of the social formulas of democracy has had the practical significance of the formula of the “equality of educational opportunity.’’ One looks in vain through our histories and our philosophies of education for the origin of these oft-repeated words. I have wondered when, where, under what circumstances, and by whom the pronounce¬ ment of the “equality of educational opportunity” was first made. Certain it is that there was but little appreciation of the results of this formula when once lodged in the conscious faith of such a people as ours. In this generation, as you well know, it has become almost a spiritual principle. At the same time, it has produced a multitude of complicated difficulties for the school and for society. In the beginning our democracy looked upon the socalled common school as its minimum safeguard. In the end our democracy must include in its conception of the common school those stages of education and training found in the college, the professional school, and the universitv. A completely unified and a humanly interlocked school system is the only reliable educational guarantee for a united people for our United States. It has taken nearly a century of concerted effort to secure what looks to be elementary education at least in theory. The high school has been absorbed as a vital part of the common school idea of the nation. 688 National Education Association Our generation has witnessed the raising of our democratic ideal of education by the enlargement of college and professional school oppor¬ tunities for an ever increasing number of our youth. The inevitable con¬ clusion of the present trend is that, in the not distant future, the higher training afforded by our colleges, universities, and technical schools will come to be regarded as the expected preparation of all of those fittted for the responsibilities of complete American citizenship. In other words, the higher educational system of today is to be, indeed must be, amalgamated completely into the common school system of tomorrow. Already society is asking, with an insistent if not sweet reasonableness, why not the college trained baker, blacksmith, and candlestick maker; why not the professionally trained policeman as well as the professionally trained lawyer as a partial solution of our crime wave? Why not, from the standpoint of public health, the scientifically educated dairyman, as well as the scientifically equipped physician ? The forces of modern life, especially economic forces, constantly operate, and we forget this frequently, to separate humanity into classes. Under these conditions the formula of “equality of educational opportunity” is not sufficient to solve the problem of American democracy unless there is applied at the same time the human formula of “opportunity for economic equality.” To accomplish this means that the selection of, and training of, youth by our educational institutions must be founded upon a new and a right assessment of qualities and abilities other than the merely intellectual. As human life becomes more and more entangled in the meshes of mod¬ ern civilization it becomes more and more important that we make our youth unafraid of life. From my own book of experience I read that vastly more men fail in college and university because of a lack of moral drive rather than by reason of a low I. Q. My contention is that articulation is but a most difficult phase of the application of our dominant democratic doctrine of the equality of educa¬ tional opportunity. A completely articulated school system would be a worthless goal for a generation inarticulate as to the things that magnify the inequalities of men. I have one pronounced disagreement with the educational conditions within which I have worked these many years. Herein is to be found a real obstacle to a closer and more productive interaction between the sev¬ eral types of schools which compose our American system. The teaching and the learning processes from the beginning of the elementary school to the end of the professional school are overbur¬ dened with factual knowledge. This overburden is felt by those who are gifted as well as by those who must be lifted. More and more in recent years we have fallen under the spell of a new priesthood — the highly bred and refined specialist, the maker of school and college textbooks, the expo¬ nents of a new scholasticism. The achievement of a discipline based upon thoroughness and mastery of essentials has all but disappeared from the consciousness of teachers, pupils, and students. Effective articulation would Department of Superintendence 689 seem to require a drastic simplification and reduction of the mere quantity of information by the means of which we seek education. Today in the performance of its traditional function as an agency for the selection and classification of youth on the basis of that which we call ability, the school is creating outside of its walls great scrap heaps of discarded human mate¬ rial. One wonders 'whether articulation would not be achieved more easily by increasing the scrap heap of discarded facts. Perchance the human scrap heap might automatically be thereby diminished. I am not one of those who accept the stereotyped fallacy regarding the poor quality of teaching in our higher institutions as compared with the teaching in the lowTer schools. At the same time, I believe that much could be gained for the harmonious effectiveness of our educational system if more of our college and university teachers would spend some time each year in studying the teachings of our best elementary schools and high schools; and what perhaps is of equal importance, if more of our superintendents, high school teachers, and principals would study the teaching methods found in the institutions to which their educational products go. Blessed be he who has found his own work is a platitude from which it is impossible to exclude the truth of life. Whatever may be the ultimate compound of concerns of our educational enterprise, we cannot, civilization trends being what they are, divorce learn¬ ing and labor — separate the training of the man and his job, especially in this day when it has become altogether too easy to separate the job from the man. Has not the youth today — utilizing education to become physician or poultry man, bacteriologist or butcher, teacher or toolmaker, mineralo¬ gist or machinist, engineer or engraver, lawyer or linotypist — the right to a scientific forecast of his opportunities to correlate training and career. Education as a whole should possess conclusions covering the whole of the diverse range of human work, similar to those secured by the Commission on Medical Education of the American Medical Association, to the need for physicians in the country; not only at the present, but for the years ahead for the generation of physicians now in training. We need such a national survey and such a national projection of the practical goals of education. Otherwise, how may we confidently expect to set up a prop¬ erly articulated scheme of education for those for whom the immediate, if not the ultimate values, of education will be measured in terms of work demanding training and skill, and work yielding the enduring satisfactions of life. In a recent synthetic biography of Moses, a dramatic picture of the closing scenes of the prophet’s life has been painted by the French author. Moses prays to be permitted to enter the Promised Land. But the Lord utters a stern refusal : Thou has doubted Me: I forgive thee. Thou has doubted thyself: I forgive thee. But thou hast doubted * * * mankind, wherefore Thou shalt not enter into this Land of my Promise. 690 National Education Association Our high road to the Land of Promise may not be blocked by feudal toll gates erected and maintained by any medieval barons of education. Amer¬ ica may not doubt mankind, traveling as today’s youth, if youth is to reach, through education, the Land of America’s promise. THE NECESSITY OF COORDINATING EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES WITH PUBLIC AFFAIRS CAMERON BECK, PERSONNEL DIRECTOR, NEW YORK STOCK EXCHANGE, NEW YORK CITY Our mutual friend, Frank D. Boynton, wired me three weeks ago, asking if I would speak before this convention on the subject of bringing the schools and business closer together. Oliver C. Billings, Chairman of the Committee of Arrangements of the New York Stock Exchange, happened to be in my office when the telegram was delivered. I passed it over to him and his comment was, “This is an order.” I agreed with him, to which he replied, “If you can do it, wire Mr. Boynton and tell him wTe will be glad to have you go with our compliments.” As a representative of a great American business organization whose management has a deep and abiding appreciation of the contribution the public school system of this country has made toward the civic, cultural, educational, and business life of the nation, I extend to you the greetings of the Board of Governors of the New York Stock Exchange; and as one who has had the rare privilege of intimate contacts with you in forty states, I offer my personal greetings. This vast gathering has not happened by chance. The cause you repre¬ sent has reached its heighth and breadth and depth because of the devo¬ tion and sacrifice the public school teachers of the United States have made across the years. Many of you have passed aside opportunities for greater material rewards — for the joy of labor in the vocation that has become your life work. For when all is said and done — what vocation exceeds in importance the one of providing the American boy and girl a chance ? My message is that of a business executive and is nothing more than a few observations and suggestions on this vital subject which is a part of the discussion of this morning hour. As I came in a superintendent said that he hoped I would pass out a few tips on the market. Wall Street — strange that it still seems to be a mysterious place, to citizens generally. It is the recognized headquarters of the great financial and industrial concerns that mean so much to the financial and industrial life of the nation. There will be found the leaders from the main streets of the nation. Men who by reason of their character and ability have been hand-picked from every state to be the directive heads of our great concerns. It was but a little while ago, while sitting in the office of Seward Prosser, Chairman of the Board of the Bankers Trust Company, Department of Superintendence 691 that he told me the following incident. He had recently been in a meeting of fifty of New York’s great bankers. He knew every man by his first name and the amazing thing to him was that there were but two New York men in the group. These leaders are a product of the public schools of the nation. You can be proud of them. They passed through your hands; your leadership inspired them; your patience with some of them excelled even that of Job. Your example created in them aspirations for worthy living. Your service was not in vain. Wall Street is accustomed to deal with large figures — with great organizations — but today Wall Street gives way to Cleveland, for the public school system of the nation represents a personnel with 23,000,- 000 children under 700,000 teachers, 263,000 buildings, and an invested capital of $4,000,000,000. Therefore, for every two persons earning money, one is in school. America stands preeminent as the greatest industrial nation of the world. Her place in the financial world is recognized. The automatic machine, technology of production, efficient methods and standardization have been mighty factors in attaining this place. Standardization may have its place in industry. I question its place in the educational life of the nation’s children, at least, until the time comes when some wise leader will show us the way to stand¬ ardize the individual. The stock exchange offers many vocations. On our payroll, together with affiliated companies, we have a personnel of over 2100, representing 62 vocations. In this group we have the largest number of ’teen-age boys in the employ of any financial organization in the country. Now a man does not see interviewed in his own office 16,000 people a year or be the responsible head for everything that has to do with employ¬ ment, the education of the wrorker on his job, wrages, promotions, separa¬ tions, group insurance, and pensions without recognizing that this high¬ speed age in wffiich we find ourselves has caused many folks to face problems and make decisions for wffiich many seem illprepared. Eight years ago we made a survey of our junior employees. These lads serve as pages on the floor of the exchange. Their wTork brings them into intimate, per¬ sonal contact with 1100 members, 800 of whom are representatives of other places. Their job is a high-speed mental one. It calls for imagination and the discipline of instant obedience. Yet we found in this group of employees but one high-school graduate. It was right there that business and the schools found a common ground for cooperation. We w^ent out and got acquainted with you. We like you, and wTe hope you like us. It is worth the trip to Cleveland to stand on this platform and bear witness to the fact that you have helped us to build a staff of young folks — the like of wffiich I do not believe can be excelled by any business organiza¬ tion in the United States today. It was but the other morning that Richard Whitney, Vicepresident of the Exchange, at the close of an address to our 692 National Education Association Institute of 600 said to me, “My audience this morning consisted of the finest and most intelligent group of onward-looking young men it has ever been my privilege to address.” (This from a Harvard man). Facts, I take it are what you want. Here they are. Eight years ago we had but one youth with the equivalent of a high-school education. Today, our educational institute, under the able leadership of Mr. Shultz, (a former high-school principal and teacher at Teachers College) has 407 students, 1113 enrolments, and 100 on a waiting list, functioning 6 mornings a week, 5 afternoons a week, before and after work. All attendance is volun¬ tary and there is a waiting list of 100 for whom classroom space is not as yet available. We have over 900 junior employees. They have come to us from thirty-one states and the District of Columbia, five Foreign Countries, England, Ireland, Canada, Germany, Switzerland. All states east of the Mississippi are represented except four. West of the Mississippi, Iowa, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Colorado are represented. Wyoming is represented by the son of a rancher; Texas by the son of a cow-puncher; South Dakota by a rare chap from the Groton High School; and California — of course that state would be represented. One hundred seventy-six commut¬ ing zone high schools are represented and 103 high schools from over the country. This year 70 percent of our evening school enrolment represents enrol¬ ments in schools of college or university standing. Eight college graduates representing Stanford, Harvard, Princeton, Springfield College, and New York University are in the uniform of pages. Six college graduates have acquired college education and are still on the payroll. Six college graduates will complete college courses this year. We have loaned the lads on our payroll $6000 for the cause of educa¬ tion in the past three years and have never lost a cent. Out of our experience we are ready to say that the public schools of this country are doing their part to turn out young men with character and trained minds. This is the vital requisite. Sometimes I wish that I might be an oculist — what a joy it would be to change the spectacles of a lot of pessimists in their out¬ look on the youth of this generation. I see in this closer cooperation of business and the schools another service. Our personnel staff has given hundreds of vocational interviews to high- school graduates sent to us by high-school principals. Because of our con¬ tacts with various business concerns we have rendered practical assistance in helping graduates to find the type of work they have wanted to do. What do we want with a boy whose heart is in the electrical business? What do I know about the closeup of the actual job requirements of an electrician’s vocation? It is easy, however, to place a lad alongside of an expert in that line. Not once in twelve years have I asked a big man on Wall Street to give a boy a vocational interview and had my request denied. Would it in¬ terest you to know that we have an order from our board of governors Department of Superintendence 693 that if at any time we discover a young man who seems to be wrongfully placed vocationally — that we have an obligation to the Exchange — no — an obligation to the lad to help place him in the vocation or work he wants to do. What do we want with commercial artists on our payroll ? I sent for Kenneth a while ago. He was a high -school graduate and a fine lad with a good record as an employee. When he came into my private office I said to him, “Kenneth, you don’t like your work here, do you?” “Well,” he said, “the hours are fine and the wages all right.” “Tell me — you are not get¬ ting anything out of it though except your wages? What would you like to be ?” Quick as a flash it came. “I would like to be a commercial artist.' We already knew that, with his four year high-school record on file to¬ gether with his night school attendance four nights a week studying com¬ mercial art in front of us. What an easy thing it was to get him an inter- view with a commercial art firm. He left us on a Saturday noon and went to work up town Monday morning with no payroll deduction. He has found his place. The economic losses produced by the misfits of industry would almost pay the school budget of America annually. Much has been accomplished in giving vocational counsel and I believe in it thoroughly but I would offer this suggestion : we can test, we can suggest, we can guide. But forbid that we ever reach the place where we believe we are the ones to insist that individuals are only fitted to follow the vocations we pick out for them. In the world I represent, it just does not work out that way. The joy of labor in the thing we are now doing, plus an expanding mind, have been the steppingstones to a bigger tomorrow for most of the folks I know who have come up through the crowd. Why is it that the majority of young people seeking employment ask us first of all — How much is there in it? What are the hours? For the most part they have spent ten or twelve of the most plastic years of their lives in your hands. Is it not possible to teach children that work should be something more than a job and that wages can be something more than money? Last year in answer to your calls I travelled over 43,000 miles and spoke on the subject under discussion to your students and citizens in over 20 states — an indication that you welcome help from the business world. On my desk today there are over 800 unfilled invitations. But is this type of service to be the work of one man and one business organization ? Can the business men of America refuse to answer a concentrated appeal from the National Education Association for more voluntary help of this kind ? I think not. On the other hand I have discovered very few teachers who are willing to make visits to business organizations and secure first-hand knowledge of the job requirements their students must face when they go to work. At a recent convention of 150 commercial teachers I discovered that not one of them in the twelve preceding months had made one call on the business men of their communities. I am not an educator. I merely venture to make this suggestion — that prospective teachers electing to teach commercial subjects be required as 694 National Education Association a part of their teacher-training program to spend at least three months in the business world before receiving permission to teach. I have an idea it might help to secure a better product and that you would find business men ready to cooperate with you in providing partime posi¬ tions in this venture. We are doing this at the Exchange. In forty-five cities of California and in many other states business men have responded to invitations from school authorities to attend special assemblies and occupy seats on the platform. Such attendance has been helpful to the students, faculty, and business men. Just as I was ready to be introduced to a high-school assembly — a prominent business man of the local community turned to me and said, “I have been criticising this high-school principal all over town. I never realized until this minute that he has 1700 kids to take care of. Why, I cannot take care of my own boy." And it was in a western state that I thought a super¬ intendent of schools was going to give me a “French salutation.” He said to me, “Thank God for your message. Do you see that woman over there on the platform ? She has been a thorn in the flesh of the board of education for a year but today she had to listen.” In my own state adjacent to New York I am told that 59 percent of the children do not finish their secondary education. I often wonder, is something fundamentally wrong with the present secondary educational program that produces such a turnover? Let a turnover like that happen in a modern business establishment and the powers that be would snap into action over night. When will children be taught the things they are fitted to do? In one of our smaller cities I spoke to 600 wide-awake young people in a private business college and I asked myself this question : what were the circumstances that forced these young people out of a million dollar high school to pay from their private funds for a course of training they knew they wanted? Six hun¬ dred future citizens whose only memory of the public school was that it was inadequate to meet their needs. They simply refused to be stand¬ ardized. Some day, perhaps, you will be allowed to teach children and not subjects. As I stand here inspired and awed by this great audience, I am thinking of your teachers and your children and I am asking myself this ques¬ tion: Do your teachers and your children think of you as their superin¬ tendent or as their friend? Do they seek your counsel or do they hold aloof? After all the way they feel toward you establishes your credit in your community. I am thinking of some of you who have warmed my soul. Some of you may be here today. I think of Mr. Snyder of Holly¬ wood High School. Two seniors of that school turning to me between the door of the school and his office and saying with one accord, “Gee! how we love Dr. Snyder.” I am thinking of the high-school principal up there in Wisconsin who said to me in the quiet of his office after an assembly last year, “I don’t know that I have made much of a success of this job — but there is one thing I have tried to do. Each year in the ten Department of Superintendence 695 I have been here, I have sent a hand-written letter to each of the graduates who have passed through my hands. There are a thousand of them now.” I turned to him and asked him if he would allow me to see his “Treasure Chest.” He said it was over in the corner. Never to the end of time will I forget the thrill as I reached in at random and pulled out a letter. It read like this — “Lawrence College, Appleton, Wis. Dear Prof: — Do you know I do not remember a single thing you taught me during my four years at Manitowoc High — but what an influence your life has been on mine.” Are you a superintendent and teacher with an understanding heart? It was not so long ago that I was told that the teachers of a certain school would rather contribute twenty-five dollars to their retirement fund than have an interview with their own principal. Within the year a young coach full of enthusiasm and good wmrks told me in a conference that lasted after the midnight hour that he was ready to quit — and all be¬ cause in the eighteen months he had been in the school system his superin¬ tendent had not even noticed him. And this came to me recently. “I have had the most uncomfortable feeling during the last two years of having lost that great asset — an understanding heart. Teaching here seems to be a mad rush from lecture to lecture, meetings at least three afternoons a week, professional improvement courses — at least two during the school term, individual progress of from forty to fifty children to keep track of, and intelligence tests until we forget in our hustle and bustle that our children are human beings at all. Our supervisors come in with their poker faces to do one thing — find fault.” I bring this to you from my heart and not written notes, that an under¬ standing heart, a word of sympathy seems to be a lost art. Men and women, boys and girls in industry and in school, rise to the heights not by criticism but by way of encouragement. The biggest men in the busi¬ ness world, who have the finest organizations, are men with understand¬ ing hearts. The biggest men and women that I know in the public school system have understanding hearts. If we can go back from this great convention to our respective fields of labor with this asset, then great days are ahead. There will be a better understanding not only of the problems of the business man, the teacher, and the child, but of the nation. How can the start be made? As an outsider looking in I pass on for your consideration the following suggestions: First, the creation of a vocational advisory committee in each community. This committee may consist of representative men and women from various occupations and professions who would serve voluntarily in giving in¬ dividual interviews and occasional talks to students. What greater op¬ portunity presents itself to the local superintendent of schools than to train for this service such an advisory committee of counselors? Such a group of carefully chosen men and women, given an intimate contact with the school program and an appreciation of school problems, should be of vital 696 National Education Association help in the launching of new projects that demand public approval for adoption. It would assist in securing special gifts for the cause of educa¬ tion, such as pipe organs and libraries. Second, raising the standards of commercial and industrial education to the standard of academic training may call for 1. A more adequate salary scale that would attract men and women with business and industrial experience plus ability to teach. 2. Reducing the size of classes to provide more individual instruction. 3. Modern up-to-date equipment in the commercial and manual training de¬ partments. 4. Faith and courage to challenge a community to great ventures. No one knows this better than the business man. Keep forever in mind that your product is America’s greatest asset — her boys and girls. Third, the Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association should seriously consider the advisability of arranging a meeting with leaders from the schools and from business, industry, and the professions. Invitations might be sent to such organizations as the United States Chamber of Commerce, American Bankers Association, American Investment Bankers, Iron and Steel Institute, and American Bar Association. The object of such a conference would be: 1. To devise plans whereby there might be created a council of business execu¬ tives to cooperate with the public school system of the nation. 2. The members of the council to be ready to serve on call from the Head¬ quarters of the National Education Association to give inspirational talks to students and to give them authentic information regarding the vocations they represent. 3. The council to participate in commercial and vocational teachers confer¬ ences, sharing with them their experience and training. 4. To assist in preparing and making available material which will help young people in making an intelligent choice of life work. If any action at any time is taken by the National Education Associa¬ tion upon these suggestions I am sure the management of the New York Stock Exchange would wish me to assure you of their hearty cooperation. FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION AND RESEARCH M. R. KEYWORTH, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, HAMTRAMCK, MICH. The approach to educational organization must be based upon the philosophy underlying such public activity and must be conceived of as a means to an end in the attainment of the objectives set up in the accepted philosophy. In a democratic organization there must be centralization of planning and control, and decentralization of execution. In every activity, individual or group, private or public, there are defi¬ nitely three functions. These are planning, executing, and appraising. Although each is of coordinate rank and value, yet by their very nature Department of Superintendence 697 they represent different types of activity. To secure the most efficient operation of a purpose, careful provision must be made for their proper functioning. Since necessity developed through strong competition tends to accelerate progress, it may be conceded that the recognition of func¬ tional organization in commercial activity has proceeded faster and more efficiently than in public activity. In so far as the general underlying principles of planning, executing, and appraising apply to the private as well as public activity it is possible to use private organization as an illus¬ tration without approving of the detailed practises or methods used by a specific economic organization. The development of most city school systems, particularly those whose growth has been fairly normal and continuous, has been a process of piece¬ meal evolution. Changing educational demands and needs have necessarily been treated as matters of expediency. Schools have either lacked or have not utilized the means for determining their needs by objective evidence. They have either lacked or not utilized the means for measuring their products. Inevitably the development of the schools has been modified by such factors as group requests, individual opinion, political influence, and entrenched personnel. A subject has been added or a position created in a manner best suited temporarily to avoid opposition and to satisfy as far as possible insistent needs and demands. Sooner or later such a school system becomes disorganized and inefficient. Community dissatisfaction, outside surveys, reorganization, and displacement of personnel follow. Industrial development — The stress of competition and the inexorable demands of stockholders for profits have forced the successful industries to become efficient. Those that have not done so have either become bankrupt and disappeared, or have been absorbed by a successful competitor, or have been reorganized and re-financed. Certain industries have made colossal mistakes. The high mortality rate among industries is evidence of this.1 Such industries can disappear without disrupting society. Schools can not. School systems must correct their errors and proceed. Out of the stress of industrial conflict, the surviving industries have cer¬ tain characteristics that are so general as to be significant. These are : (a) Specialization of work into departments on a functional basis. (b) The combination of the line and staff types of organization. The line type for efficiency and the staff type for planning, deliberation, and adjustment. (c) The keeping of minute and accurate records in all departments. (d) Experimentation and research for improvement and growth. Diagrams 1 and 2, illustrating these characteristics, are of specific indus¬ tries. Functional organization — Functional organization is as applicable to school systems as to industry. Every school system in fact does have func- (Continued on page 701) 1 Report No. 62, Business Death Rates, A. W. Shaw & Co., 1925. 698 National Education Association a o U s •o < Cl 3 1/1 i 3 C/3 a 3 C/3 w« I* CO O p > «-S w c n3 4> 44 = 44 rt .£ o -m rt sT ** >> 44 c a rt p a o S ° o « ° c be Sj c . rt .ti J3 tfi H 3 ^ o 3 3 Department of Superintendence 699 a < O > ■*-> >•4 > c Planning an activity DIAGRAM IX 11 - Executing Department of Superintendence 713 Putting an approved means of procedure into effect DIAGRAM X 714 National Education Association 60 C • M u Cu C- < N o < «/» C Appraising the results of an activity DIAGRAM XI Department of Superintendence 715 The continuing cycle of planning — executing appraising 716 National Education Association The forms should be so designed that they may be cumulative without duplication. A few minutes per day on the part of each agent in keeping records will suffice. Answering objections — The capability of each agent to do research work may be questioned. Each agent does not need to be a research specialist but does need to know the amount of progress he is making, to recognize problems that arise, to offer suggestions, and to try out these suggestions for improvement. This is the crux of the principle of democracy in school administration. Democracy provides for initiative and creative effort. Problems which an agent discovers but cannot solve can be turned over to division specialists whose business it is to find solutions to problems. There is an oft repeated objection to the application of the methods of industry to education. “Human beings can not be treated as machines and a school can not be made into a Ford factory.” The objectors should under¬ stand purposes and recognize achievement. Keeping records, conducting research, applying statistics, and using curves are not for the purpose of treating human beings as machines but to discover how human beings should be treated because they are human. Research and experimentation are the very means by which remarkable progress has been made in the humaniza¬ tion of education during the past twenty years. Research and experimenta¬ tion supplant custom and opinion. Research is forward looking. Research displaces guesses with facts. Research says: “Let’s have more facts and less discussion.” THE FUNCTION AND VALUE OF A PUBLIC SCHOOL RESEARCH BUREAU W. W. THEISENj ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, MILWAUKEE The function of a public school research bureau is primarily to collect and organize whatever data may be necessary or available for the intelli¬ gent solution of the problems of the school system. Just as in industry, it is the business of the research department to make careful and accurate analyses of the facts, in order that the executive staff may plan more wisely for the success of the institution. Its task is to furnish the information on the basis of which administrative policies and teaching practises may be evaluated, their strength or weakness discovered, and measures for their improvement found. Whatever else it may be, the research bureau is pri¬ marily a fact finding, fact digesting institution. Its job is to determine the merits of our educational practises, not upon the basis of opinion, but upon the basis of objective evidence insofar as that evidence is to be had. Busi¬ ness concerns whose success has been noteworthy have long since passed the stage where new and important ventures are broached on a guesswork basis. The probable volume of business which may be expected from a given expenditure is determined in advance, with a remarkable degree of accuracy. Unfortunately in school administration, we are too often obliged to act first and determine our facts afterward. Department of Superintendence 717 A proper respect for facts would go a long way toward eliminating that wholly unwarranted feeling of complacency which so often exists when school administrators are unaware of the true situation, or its dangers. If there is any charge of which school boards and school executives in the past have been guilty, it is that they have assumed that all was serene and lovely with the schools, when, as a matter of fact, there was little real evidence to justify any such feeling. In many cases grave and serious errors of judg¬ ment have been committed. As proof of our errors we are confronted on the one hand with overcrowded school buildings, inadequate playgrounds, large classes, outworn curricula, and underpaid teachers. On the other hand we find inadequate funds and a public reluctant to approve increases in the school budget. To meet the situation produced by poor guesswork and shortsightedness it has been necessary to make unusual increases in our expenditures upon relatively short notice. In many cases this has produced a severe strain on public confidence, and only strenuous campaigning and high pressure sales methods have made it possible to save the day. Had there been a more wholesome respect for the facts and a more sincere effort made to determine what was actually needed, long enough in advance, such crises might have been avoided. Increases in budgets might have been made far more gradu¬ ally and with a far better understanding of the needs and purposes of such increases on the part of the tax-paying public. A research bureau, function¬ ing as it should, will discover the needs in terms of new buildings, additional salary appropriations, or other expenditures long in advance, and in so doing will enable the administrative staff to formulate and secure the ac¬ ceptance of plans for meeting the situation. Few cities are really too poor to support good schools and few are unwilling to do so, if the way is prop¬ erly prepared. The problem for the research leaders is to assist in determin¬ ing what is needed, educationally and financially, and to present the support¬ ing facts required for an intelligent appreciation and understanding of the situation. It is the business of the research agency, regardless of whether it is or¬ ganized as a separate entity or not, to aid the superintendent in determining the scope and nature of the job to be done. For example, such facts as the probable enrolment that may be expected in the various divisions of the school system in years to come, the curriculum best suited to meet the needs of each of the various groups of children, the personnel and equipment needed, together with the revenues that will need to be raised and their possible sources, represent data which every superintendent must have. Every superintendent should inquire, and every teacher should inquire, whether his educational output in terms of pupil achievement and progress represents a fair return on the money invested. The superintendent should inquire whether methods of teaching employed are such as to warrant him in expecting satisfactory results. He should seek to ascertain whether the , educational program is adequate for the needs of the community. He should 718 National Education Association find out whether his system is as efficiently and as economically organized as that of the better systems of schools. In his search for the answer to these questions the department of research will render him valuable as¬ sistance. By keeping the superintendent and his staff accurately informed so that grievous errors of judgment may be avoided, and by pointing out the true achievements of the schools in ways that are easily understood the research bureau can do much to forestall criticism, for criticism will then be met offensively rather than defensively. The work which ought to be per¬ formed by a research staff is practically unlimited, for there is no phase of public school administration or teaching which can not profit by a judicious use of its services. When superintendents, who have had experience with research departments, research directors, and college professors familiar with the field of public school research, were asked to state what they deemed the functions of a city school research office to be, they listed almost every conceivable problem likely to be encountered in running a system of public schools. Types of service bureau should render — In the time alloted to me I can barely touch upon some of the various types of service which in the judgment of these competent critics a research bureau should be prepared to render. There is, first, the whole field of instruction, which in most school systems is very greatly in need of research service. There is a dire need for the evaluation of materials of instruction. Those responsible for the development of the course of study desire to ascertain whether the cur¬ riculum offerings are in keeping with present day social demands, what the best practices at the various divisions and levels of the school system are, what the objectives should be, and how generally they are being accepted and followed by the teaching staff. As evidence of the demand for research in this field we have such illustrations as the work done in Denver, St. Louis, and other cities, and the various yearbooks dealing with the cur¬ riculum. It is true that many of the published curriculum studies are scarcely worthy of being called research products, but, nevertheless, they bear witness of the fact that here is a fruitful field for research. If textbooks are to be selected not upon the basis of impression, prejudice, or political considerations, but strictly upon merit, their contents must be subjected to critical and searching analyses. When those financially or otherwise interested in a textbook adoption learn that superintendents and their associates are actuated solely upon considerations of merit, we shall probably witness fewer attempts to thwart their recommendations. The research department must be prepared to render service in measur¬ ing the abilities and achievements of pupils; in organizing and directing testing programs, and interpreting their results ; in the development of new instruments of measurement; in the diagnosis of teaching difficulties; in the analysis of difficult pupil cases ; in the study of problems of educational guidance; and in the evaluation of methods of teaching. Probably one of Department of Superintendence 719 the most significant functions of the research department is to stimulate teachers and others to undertake research investigations of their own, and to advise and direct them in the solution of problems which grow out of such studies. On the administrative side studies of population, child accounting, and teaching personnel must be made. In matters of finance the superintendent must endeavor to discover whether the school district’s money is being well spent, whether it is receiving a fair return on its investment, and, if not, how such conditions may be brought about. He should know whether the school budget is well proportioned and balanced ; whether the division of funds between business and educational activities is a reasonable one ; whether the amount spent for overhead is too much or too little ; or whether the district is spending so much on certain activities that others must go short-handed. He should know whether the unit cost in each of the various divisions of the system is defensible ; what parts of the system are wasteful and what ones represent good use of money; which subjects are expensive and where the expensive classes are ; what changes in organization or policy ought to be made in order to reduce exorbitant costs. Are we paying too much for our school buildings ? Does our school building construction and use represent good economy in terms of space utilization or service as well as cost ? How much ought we to spend for new buildings in the next five or ten years? If we are planning a building program it may be important to know the facts with reference to changes in birth rate. When the annual birth rate in a city of 500,000 in 1928 is found to have dropped from 274 for every 10,000 of total population, as it was before the war in 1913, or from 236, as it was in 1920, to 204, it is evident that the need for school facilities is changing, to say nothing of important social considerations. Translated into terms of building needs it means that, other things being equal, a city of that size can reduce its annual school building program by 40 classrooms over what was necessary in 1920. We need also to know whether our method of financing the building program is sound. What are the relative merits of a “pay-as-you-go” policy as compared with a bonding policy? The superintendent should be able to show whether the school district is receiving its fair share of the tax money raised by the community. Is the community really able to pay for the educational program it is asked to provide ? The critics who demand an explanation of why our costs have mounted so rapidly must be given the correct answer. A recent study in a large western city shows, when the figures are analyzed and proper allowances made (1) for actual growth. (2) for the enlarged program of activities which the public is demanding, and (3) for the decreased purchasing power of the dollar, that it is only because of the many economies which have been brought about in organiza¬ tion and management, that the schools are able to operate on so little money. The answer to all of these questions as well as the presentations 720 National Education Association of the results of such studies in an effective manner, very properly corner within the range of activities which a research department should undertake. I realize perfectly well that hundreds of cities have no research bureaus and that many of you are from such cities. I am not so much concerned that every city have a research bureau as I am that somewhere in the system there shall be persons who find the answers to such questions as I have raised. In small communities the superintendent will need to do much of the work himself. In larger communities there should be persons in the system who have been trained in research methods, who can help to lift that burden from his shoulders. I doubt if we shall ever arrive at a satis¬ factory state of affairs until every executive officer, every supervisor, and every teacher has had some training in methods of research. Division of functions between bureaus — Not all of the research can or should be performed by city schools themselves. We need at present to agree upon a proper division of the field between local bureaus of research on the one hand and university and state, or national, bureaus on the other. Few local school systems are equipped or could afford to do all that should be done. If a local school system were to attempt to perform all of its own research, much unnecessary duplication would result. Studies based largely upon comparative statistics should, in the opinion of a number of competent judges, be left largely to state or national bureaus. In the interests of economy and service there should be centralized production of all com¬ parative research, leaving to the local bureau the filling in of its own data. The splendid service which the Research Division of the National Educa¬ tion Association has rendered, under the able leadership of John K. Nor¬ ton, is an illustration of what cooperative endeavor can accomplish. While this bureau has been supported by funds of the department, received from membership dues and the twenty-five dollar subscriptions, the school boards of the country could well afford to assume the major responsibility for the support of an institution like this. Even though this bureau has done splendid work, much more could undoubtedly be accomplished were it more liberally supported. That the executive officers of the Department of Superintendence recognize this is shown by the fact that they are right now endeavoring to create an endowment fund of $1,000,000 for research pur¬ poses. Every one of the 500 or more cities of 10,000 population or over could vcell afford to spend $100 annually for the services which an enlarged department would render. The larger cities could afford to contribute much more than this. May I pause at this point to say that one of the most severe handicaps, under which the Research Division of the National Education Association and all other bureaus which must make comparative cost studies are labor¬ ing, is the lack of a thoroughly uniform system of records. In spite of all that has been done thus far, records and accounting practises are still far from uniform. A shrewd observer can find damaging flaws in almost any Department of Superintendence 721 study of cost comparisons that can be made between cities at the present time. I have said that not all of the research required by cities can be per¬ formed by their own bureaus, nor will it be sufficient if they receive help from national and state bureaus. There is need of assistance from the colleges and universities. Ultimately, most of the research necessary for the scientific evaluation of materials and methods of instruction, and for the development of new technics in administration and teaching, should be delegated to the universities and colleges. We have not yet reached that stage, but many of our universities are already rendering splendid service in this direction. Not the least important is the work they are doing to train prospective teachers, and administrators in the methods of research. A number of universities are rendering a very helpful service in collecting and publishing summaries of the more significant research contributions, as the University of Chicago is in reading and arithmetic, for example, and as the University of Michigan has just done for research carried on within its own state. However, if the university research bureaus and departments of education, are to meet the needs of the public schools, they must be liberally supported by ourselves and by the general public. On their part they must endeavor to make research contributions which are so practical that no school can afford to disregard them. To this end we must also be willing to extend to them the use of some of our laboratory facilities in the form of actual classrooms where experimental studies can be made under practical schoolroom conditions. How research bureaus may be improved — Not all of the problems of improvement will be solved by delegating work to national, state, and university bureaus. In the opinion of many persons, local bureaus of re¬ search could be improved by better internal organization. The lack of a sufficiently large staff is the most common complaint of research directors. Superintendents who replied to the questionnaire were rather brutally frank in suggesting that the best way to improve bureaus of research is to employ better people in them. I almost regretted that the research directors were not given a chance to express their opinion as to how super¬ intendencies might be improved. The replies might have made interesting reading. If a research department is to function properly, the responsibility for its direction should rest upon an individual whose rank is on a par with that of an assistant superintendent. Unless the person in charge is suf¬ ficiently high in rank, the position will lack the prestige necessary to create a proper respect for its authority. Without such status there will be per¬ sons in every system who will question the right of a research director to probe into their particular domains. The director must have sufficient rank to enable him to meet any other employee of the school system at least on an equal footing. 722 National Education Association A frequent source of complaint on the part of directors is the fact that they must perform too many administrative duties of a routine character. So long as this condition exists the highest type of service cannot be ren¬ dered. As one individual has suggested, the bureau must not be allowed to become a “catch-basin,” but its director and his staff must have time for creative thinking. The relative emphasis which should be placed upon administrative and instructional research is a matter of dispute. In years gone by many bureaus were largely bureaus for the administration of tests, and some appear still to be such. If much of the work in measuring the results of teaching could be left to supervisors directly responsible for instruction, as it can be if they are properly trained, research bureaus wTould have more time for the solution of the more pressing problems of the superintendent, as well as some time to think about original research problems. The replies received from superintendents indicate, that approximately one-half of them feel that at least fifty percent of the energy of a bureau should be devoted to administrative research. It is interesting to note that more than two- thirds of the research workers say that they are actually devoting only twenty-five percent of their time, or even less than that, to administra¬ tive research. This seems to indicate a significant difference of opinion as to the proper distribution of effort. A proper respect for the needs of the chief executive would appear to dictate that directors of research should heed the practical demands of superintendents who are, after all, charged with the responsibility for the successful administration of the schools. Superintendents are far more interested in research that will assist them in solving their major administrative difficulties than they are in the minutia of measurement. A very important factor in determining the value of a bureau’s service is the success with which that bureau is able to form effective personal rela¬ tionships with those with whom it comes in contact. It must be successful in forming cordial relations not only with every member of the local staff but with board members and business men of the community as well. The research bureau must “sell” its services. As one person has expressed it “educational statesmanship as well as research technic is needed.” One other aspect which must receive more attention than it has in the past is the use that is made of facts, after they are found. Too frequently the results of important researches receive inadequate publicity. One of the most immediate needs is to determine just how we can make the results strike fire in the minds of those whom we wish to have alter their prac¬ tises or their attitudes. Too many well-meaning citizens still form their opinions of the adequacy or success of the local educational program on incidental or even trival considerations. Do the children like to go to school? Do they like the teachers? Do the parents approve of the teachers’ out-of-school conduct? Do the teachers enforce discipline in the schoolroom? The schools often are praised or condemned on the basis of Department of Superintendence 723 the answers to such questions. Most of you could cite instances where the slightest provocation caused an upheaval that threatened to wreck the ad¬ ministration and sometimes succeeded. So long as public support of our educational program rests upon such insecure foundations, there is little hope for permanent educational advance. The public must be taught to appraise the schools in terms of such objective measures as our research agencies have produced. More thought must be given to methods of pre¬ senting and disseminating the fruits of research. As one specialist in edu¬ cational publicity has expressed it, what we really need is more helpful, more forceful, and more attractive presentations of research. This is par¬ ticularly true where further progress is a matter of the support of the teach¬ ing staff or of the general public which must raise the necessary funds. Finally, the value of a research department will depend upon the scope of the service it renders, the importance of the problems it solves, the timeli¬ ness of its solutions, the accuracy of its conclusions, and the conviction which those conclusions are made to carry. THE RESEARCH FUNCTION OF STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENTS J. CAYCE MORRISON, ASSISTANT COMMISSIONER FOR ELEMENTARY EDUCA¬ TION, STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, ALBANY, N. Y. Education functions in an ever changing social structure. New prob¬ lems arise. New forces play upon the educational program. Old prob¬ lems appear in new settings. To cope with these changing conditions a far seeing leadership continuously prosecutes the search for new truth, constantly expresses in its daily activities the vital movements reshaping education. Nowhere does this principle apply more directly than to the leadership of state education departments. It is embodied in their formula¬ tion of policy, in their service to local communities, in their dissemination of knowledge, in their coordination of the diverse agencies contributing to the educational welfare of the state, in their insurance against the unfore¬ seen eventualities of the future. Policy building — Recently a leader of industrial research said, “We are making progress slowly in the school of experience.”1 A leadership that looks backward only in formulating its policies contributes little to the future. Policy growing only out of observation and experience has many limitations. Research broadens the powers of observation, checks the opin¬ ions resulting from experience, fortifies conclusions with objective evidence, supplies the raw materials from which a program looking to the future may be safely formulated. Certain illustrations of the contribution of research to policy building I would draw from the experience of the organi¬ zation with which I am associated. 1 F. B. Jewett. “Fifty Years of Science and Engineering.” American Bar Association Journal, Vol. 14, p. 460-464. Aug.-Sept. 1928. 724 National Education Association The legislature increases the powers of the state education department over the management and control of all state supported teacher-training in¬ stitutions. How should the department develop the new program neces¬ sitated by this change — through a trial and error method, or through search¬ ing deep into the foundations of the educational structure for new materials to guide the development of its policies ? Someone suggests a study of teacher supply and demand. An analysis of the problems involved in this study demonstrates that there are no less than thirty-three distinct problems upon which the department must formulate policies within a ten-year period. Among these problems are: (a) What is a desirable expansion of the sev¬ eral present teacher-training plants? (b) How many new normal schools will be needed? (c) Where should such schools be placed? (d) How soon should the state go to a three year standard for the training of all elementary school teachers? (e) What is the need for training the several types of special teachers and where should such training be offered? (f) What need is there for establishing standards for training and certifica¬ tion of different groups of supervisory officers? These are but six of the thirty odd problems involved in the investigation. This investigation of teacher-training needs involved securing a record of sixty-two items of information from each of more than 70,000 teachers and supervisory officers ; pursuing inquiries into at least a dozen subordinate fields; coordinating the leadership of six divisions of the department; and directing the activity of from two to twenty clerical workers over a period of nearly two years. Obviously, no investigation of such proportions could have been carried through by a unit whose energies were already comman¬ deered by administrative and supervisory responsibilities. A state increases its annual appropriations for education over a ten-year period from $9,000,000 to over $90,000,000 ; and establishes as the basic principle for apportionment of funds to public schools the guarantee of a minimum essential program to every child in the state regardless of the local wealth back of the child. What are the effects of this change of policy? Is there any agency of government other than the state education department that the legislature can hold responsible for the wise expenditure of these funds? Will a legislature continue to pour such vast funds into the treasuries of the public schools unless there is an adequate accounting as to the services rendered therefrom? The least trained man in the public serv¬ ice can sense the obligation resting upon the state education department to continuously prosecute a search for information as to the effects of this financial policy of the state. After years of experience a state education department establishes a policy requiring the inclusion of an auditorium or gymnasium-auditorium in elementary school buildings. An investigating committee challenges the rightness of the policy and submits evidence to support its contention. The policy needs to be reevaluated. Hundreds of buildings have been erected under the control of this policy. To what extent are their auditorium Department of Superintendence 725 rooms being used? If the committee’s charges are justified what shall be the department’s policy — to cancel the regulation under fire? or to revise it? or to guarantee the wise use of such rooms? The foregoing illustrate the need for research as a basis for formulating, evaluating, and revising educational policies. To any given issue, research brings a wealth of data beyond the observation or cumulative experience of any man or group of men. No state education department can hope to have its far reaching policies universally accepted unless they are well fortified with the wealth of objective evidence that only thorough research can give. Solving local problems — There is an evergrowing tendency for local communities to look to their state education department for the utilization of research methods in the solution of local problems. The time is already upon us when no city or other school district can afford to undertake any extensive school building program without having made an exhaustive study of its needs in terms of the prospective growth of the district for at least a quarter of a century ahead. There are innumer¬ able problems of organization arising from time to time which can be solved best only in terms of a careful analysis of the raw materials out of which the problems have arisen. There is also the vast realm of instructional service involving methods and subjectmatter within which local problems abound. In many cases local authority finds it advantageous to invite a non- interested, strictly judicial body to search for the facts, to interpret them, and to recommend a program of action. In other cases the local authority is able to conduct the research under the direction of a capable adviser or leader. There are still other cases where only expert advice as to ways and means will be needed. In all of these possible relationships between the local subdivision and the research service of the state, the chief need is for a judicial attitude that can assemble all the facts, analyze them, and in the light of this analysis render a decision that will stand the test of the courts or the higher test of public opinion. If a state department be properly manned to render these services, no local subdivision will be too large or too small to need or to profit there¬ from. To disseminate knowledge as to research — Since the beginning of the American educational systems, one of the chief functions of government has been to disseminate knowledge. The growth of the application of the scientific movement to education is giving us an ever increasing body of knowledge which is already far beyond the reach of the rank and file of the profession. There is hardly a teacher, an administrative or supervisory officer in the public schools of the state who can keep abreast in his reading and study of all general and technical writings peculiar to his own special field. Therefore, it becomes a function of prime importance for the research division of a state education department to be a source of informa- 7 26 National Education Association tion, a reference department to which the several members of the depart¬ ment staff and the educational workers throughout the state may turn for information as to methods, procedures, and the results of research. To supervise research — Practically every state has, within its borders, city school systems that have established bureaus of educational research. Other local school systems employ individual supervisory officers who give their major efforts to research. The time is already upon us when no progressive city or county school system can afford to be without such re¬ search service for the study of its own needs. These local investigators need the stimulation, the advice, the supervision of the most thoroughly and broadly trained research workers that the state can employ. Even the research bureaus of publicly supported and privately endowed educational institutions should find help and support from the research division of the state education department. This help should include both the finding of raw materials for their investigations and assistance in secur¬ ing an outlet for the results of their research. Altogether, the supervisory leadership of research includes: bringing the problem and the investigator together ; breaking a problem into its com¬ ponent parts and assigning them to different individuals or bureaus, thereby expediting solution ; conserving energy through eliminating duplica¬ tion of effort; helping to analyze and define the problem under considera¬ tion; advising as to technics, methods, and procedures to be used. In brief, a state education department can render no greater service than to supply expert leadership for the research activities of the public schools W'ithin its jurisdiction. To search for new truth — Should a state education department under¬ take pure research ? Perhaps the greater responsibility for conducting pure research should rest with the university laboratory; for the practical needs confronting state educational departments will always be greater than their resources wdll admit of actual investigation. As in industry, so in educa¬ tion, the lay mind must ultimately determine the amount to be expended. But when a great industrial research laboratory can lead its visitors with pride to an exhibit room where there are on display the greatest variety of products of its research for which there is no market value, surely state educational systems can afford to pursue a search for new truth which may have no immediately practical application. Only through such effort may a state be ready to cope successfully with the new problems thrown to the surface from time to time by the under currents of an ever changing civilization. I understand something of the difficulty of defining pure research, but my colleague, Warren W. Coxe, has experimented with a policy that should ultimately achieve all we contemplate by pure research. His plan is to encourage each member of his research staff to give a part of his time to the prosecution of studies entirely of his own choosing. Through such a policy, the initiative, the originality of each worker is most fully de- Department of Superintendence 727 veloped. While there may be some lost motion, the ultimate results are a growth in research ability and a product that ofttimes proves of more practical value than anyone could possibly foresee when the study was undertaken. The recency of organized research — That few of our states are equipped to render in large measure the services herein outlined is not surprising since organized research is a relatively recent development. As late as 1900 the General Electric Company invited a young professor from the Massa¬ chusetts Institute of Technology to establish a research laboratory whose leading scientists are now known around the world. The famous Bell Telephone Laboratories Inc. employing 2000 scientists with as many more assistants had its inception in the employment of another Massachusetts Institute of Technology instructor in 1904. These two are typical of the growth of industrial research. The first bureau of educational research established in any city school system was at Baltimore, Maryland, in 1912. Wisconsin, in 1916, was the first state to establish a position in its education department devoted pri¬ marily to furthering research. In 1915, the Russell Sage Foundation was the only one of the great foundations that had recognized any merit in educational research. And not until well after the close of the World War did our leading colleges of education see fit to relieve some of their outstanding men from teaching duties in order that they might devote their full time to the organized search for truth. The recency of the movement makes it advisable to consider the func¬ tion of state education departments in terms of the organization, the ex¬ penditure, and the personnel devoted to research. Organization — If a state department would render an adequate re¬ search service it is imperative that it develop a unit of its organization entirely free from all administrative and supervisory responsibility other than the promotion, direction, and supervision of research. This unit should be equivalent in rank with the other main subdivisions of the depart¬ ment and one of its chief functions should be to stimulate and coordinate the research activities of the entire department. Its greatest service will be rendered through utilizing all the talent of all the specialized workers of the department. If it really functions it is the yeast that leavens the whole loaf. Investment in research — No state education department has yet succeeded in demonstrating the financial value of educational research. In 1916, the Carnegie Corporation devoted to educational research two tenths of one percent of its gross contributions as compared with more than 14 percent of its gross contributions so expended in 1922. A recent study of industrial research presents the interesting conclusion from the leaders of the field that industry should invest one percent of its gross sales in research. If our state education departments might invest one percent of the total state edu- 728 National Education Association cational appropriation for research, it would enable them to render an educational service as yet scarcely dreamed of in the realm of state ad¬ ministration of education. Personnel — The personal life histories of the men who have contributed to the organized research movement in American education offer ample evidence that they have proved their right to stand in the front ranks of those who lead in administration, supervision, and teaching. No state department can afford to man its research division with men or women who lack adequate professional preparation, who are unacquainted with the public schools, or who are seriously handicapped by personal limitation. Rather, if state education departments would render the re¬ search services herein outlined, they would do well to fill their research positions with men and women well versed in the whole range of public education, broad in philosophical outlook, capable as teachers, supervisors, or administrators, and skilled in the various technics and procedures of re¬ search. How can state education departments through research better serve democracy, increasingly produce a higher type of citizens? My answer would be, to carry both the ideals and the results of research to every supervising officer and classroom teacher in the state, so that they may con¬ tribute generously toward producing future generations who will fully realize the meaning of Santayana’s beautiful sentence, “The desire for truth is a very distinguished passion.” UNIVERSITY RESEARCH AND ITS VALUE TO PUBLIC SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION M. R. TRABUE, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA CHAPEL HILL, N. C. The thesis which I here present may be stated as follows: “Our universities, through the direction and conduct of research in certain fundamental problems of child development, can render to the public schools of America a tremendously important service, of a type which cannot be as effectively rendered by any other agency. I think I can subscribe whole-heartedly to all you have heard this evening about re¬ search work in local school systems and in state departments of education, but the need for university research is, in my judgment, strengthened rather than weakened by the existence of official public school research departments. The need is, I think, for more intelligent articulation and cooperation and for less competition in this field as in many others. How may one measure the values of university research to public school administration ? What things have real value to public school administra¬ tion? To answer these questions it is first necessary to answer another: What are the purposes and objectives of school administration? It is Department of Superintendence 729 obvious that those things which aid administrative officers in achieving their professional objectives may be said to possess value to administra¬ tion. Our question then becomes: Why do we have school administra¬ tion ? As I understand the matter, schools are provided with administrative officers in order that there may be frequent improvements in the char¬ acter, and occasional extensions in the benefits of instruction. Administra¬ tion is not an end in itself — it is merely one of the important aids to in¬ struction. Every administrative provision should be judged in terms of its contribution to the learning that takes place in pupils. Buildings, play¬ grounds, furniture, heating plants, financial records, personnel records, and all the varied activities of the school administrator must find their final justification in their contributions to the instruction of pupils. The one great purpose of every professional superintendent or principal is to facilitate good instruction. It follows that anything which aids the ad¬ ministrator in his attempts to facilitate instruction has value to administra¬ tion. That educational research, therefore, wffiich enables the superintend¬ ent to reduce the cost, to extend the benefits, or to improve the quality of instruction, may honestly be said to have real value to public school administration. We may now raise the question: When does university research facili¬ tate the instruction offered in public schools? Under what circumstances does university research contribute to the learning of public school pupils and therefore have value to public school administration ? I shall mention only a few of the most important conditions which, in my experience, have tended to make university research valuable to the public schools. In the first place, university research is of value to public school ad¬ ministration whenever it results in a better evaluation and a clearer under¬ standing of the programs, practises, methods, materials, or technics em¬ ployed in our public schools. The man who first shows us that we are not using the best materials available for our work is truly a bene¬ factor. His work is of real professional value and should be welcomed heartily, even though for financial or other reasons we cannot adopt immediately the better materials he points out for us. In the second place, university research is of value to public school administration "when it originates or develops more effective materials, methods, programs, or technics than the schools have previously possessed. An improved list of words to be learned, a more reliable writing scale, or a better form for recording the reading abilities of pupils has value to administration in the degree to which it makes better instruction pos¬ sible. Furthermore, research is of value when it makes possible a reduction in the cost of a unit of instruction or of school service, for such a reduc¬ tion in unit-costs makes it possible either to improve the service or to A extend it to larger numbers of people. 730 National Education Association University research is also of value to school administration when it develops in the prospective teacher, or in her university instructor, an in¬ quiring and open-minded attitude toward the problems commonly met in public school teaching. University instructors too often feel that they “know the last word” about teaching their favorite science or language. College students who sit in their classes frequently acquire the same atti¬ tudes, much to the sorrow and despair of the superintendent or principal, who later attempts to show them that it is children wffio are to be de¬ veloped and taught rather than a body of sacred subjectmatter. Any vital contact, which a university instructor can be brought to make with the practical problems of pupil learning in the public schools, is certain to aid ultimately the administrators of our public schools. It would, of course, be foolish to claim that all university research meets these conditions. Much of the research carried on in the graduate schools of our universities makes little, if any, contribution to the work of our public schools. From the annual report of a graduate school with which I happen to be familiar, I have selected at random a few titles of research work recently completed : The Potentiometric Titration of Fluorine Ovid’s Correspondence with His Wife The Jealous Husband in the Plays of Chapman, Jonson, Heywood, and Shake¬ speare from 1597 to 1611 Present Trends in Chinese Family Life The Somatic Chromosomes of the Opossum Whether such studies are “contributions to human knowledge” I cannot say, but I am quite certain that they have relatively little value to school administration. There are, of course, those who believe that any kind of research activity makes one a better teacher. Certain college officials and standardizing agencies estimate the quality of the teaching in an institution by the num¬ ber of advanced degrees held by members of the faculty; and success in research is usually the key which opens the door to graduate degrees. My own observation and interpretation of the available data lead me to believe that much of the so-called research in our universities actually tends to disqualify the investigator for teaching in the public schools or for training teachers for these schools. The public school teacher needs to view the demands of modern life in a broad, comprehensive light, and to recognize clearly the peculiar part which each different subject or discipline can contribute to the unfolding of a pupil’s personality. But graduate research w’ork, as it is usually con¬ ducted in our universities, leads the investigator to see less and less of the great human values of a subject, and more and more of its logical organization and of its less significant details. The public school teacher needs to know those parts of the subjectmatter which have demonstrated their value in children’s development rather than those details about which Department of Superintendence 731 the masters of the subject know little or nothing. One who has been trained in scholarly, academic research of the type most highly valued in the grad¬ uate schools of our universities will scarcely fail to join the popular chorus of complaint about the inadequate preparation students have had for high school or for college work, and in his heart he will probably care infinitely more for his own scholarly reputation than he will for the growing per¬ sonalities of those who sit in his classes. That university research which emphasizes or contributes to our knowl¬ edge of the physical, mental, and spiritual development of children has real value to the public schools, while that research which ignores or blots from view the character of the learning process is a distinct liability to professional school administration. Certain types of research can be conducted by a university bureau with greater efficiency than by local or state department bureaus. In the first place, a university is not limited geographically. It can reach out beyond the limits of any town or state to secure data and cooperation in its investi¬ gations. A local research bureau or a bureau in the state department of education can demand and obtain reports from a certain geographic area, but outside of that area its requests tend to meet with relatively little response. A university research bureau, on the other hand, cannot demand information and help, but its appeals for significant facts tend to be re¬ ceived favorably by public school men, whether they work in the same or in some other state than that in which the university is located. Whether it is justified or not, school officers seem to have a certain degree of confidence in the scientific disinterestedness of university research workers. This makes it quite natural for the university bureau to become a general clearinghouse for educational information and research. Ex¬ cept for specific facts regarding such concrete matters as legal require¬ ments, financial costs, building plans, and official organization, people tend to write to the university research bureau rather than to the local or state bureau for specific educational information. The character of the university itself is another strong factor in giving it a unique power to aid the public schools through research. Almost any institution bearing the title of “university” is likely to have on its staff a large number of specialists in a greater number of different subjects than the local or state education department can possibly provide. If the bureau of educational research has given sympathetic attention to the cur¬ ricula, instructional, and personnel problems of the university itself, it will usually have built up a friendly spirit which will enable it to call upon the departmental specialists for advice and help whenever neces¬ sary. This wide range of subjectmatter specialists available to the uni¬ versity research department, and the inclusion in its research program of problems in higher education as well as those in secondary and elementary education, give the university bureau a wider range of investigations from which to select than any local or state bureau is likely to possess. 732 National Education Association There is another unique advantage possessed by the university. Am¬ bitious young people desiring graduate degrees come to the university and engage there in the most painstaking research, without the expectation of any other remuneration than the professional experience, training, degrees, and recognition, which are traditionally connected with such work. Uni¬ versity research by .graduate students very often suggests new problems and technics, and in some instances it has made extremely valuable con¬ tributions to our knowledge of education. By the very nature of their organization, however, state and local education departments find it im¬ possible to obtain such gratuitous service, but must pay cash or its equivalent for all the research work done for them. The local school system, and to some extent the state school system, is limited in its conduct of research by its administrative relationships. A research worker, directly responsible to a busy superintendent of schools, tends to feel constantly the pressure of administrative routine. There are so many facts to be collected in preparing the annual budget, in keeping the organization working smoothly, in seeing that supplies and equipment are properly distributed, and in all the other activities of administration, that the research worker in the superintendent’s office is in constant danger of becoming a mere administrative or statistical clerk. In selecting prob¬ lems for research, the university man may take a careful and far-sighted view of the situation and choose problems which are fundamental although not immediately pressing ; but the public school research man must be loyal to his chief, must help with the problems that require immediate attention, and must frequently convert his bureau into an agency for the routine tabulation of statistics. The administrative relationships of the public school research bureau may sometimes affect seriously the recommendations made after the facts have been gathered and weighed. If it is known that the superintendent is prejudiced against a certain type of school reorganization, for example, it matters little how definitely the facts and figures indicate that such a reorganization should be made. A research man, who has a family to support, cannot afford to give offense by recommending things which are not acceptable to his “boss.” As a matter of fact, it is doubtful whether a public school research wTorker would ever consider as possibilities some of the administrative changes which an unhampered university worker would recommend without hesitation. It is remarkable how sensitive the mind, even that of a “scientific investigator,” may become to “practical considera¬ tions.” Another advantage possessed by the impractical university research worker is that he does not feel the urgent necessity of gathering his data immediately and publishing his report next month. In a public school position there is a constant demand for visible evidences of results, while many of the most fundamental and far-reaching problems in education are going to require years and perhaps decades of patient experimentation for their solution. The university man is much more interested in the reliability of his conclusions when finally stated than in the mere fact that Department of Superintendence 733 he has published an answer. He is much more concerned with the degree to which his solution may be applied in many different communities than in the perfection with which it meets the practical conditions in some one city or state. In short, the public school research bureau is constantly tempted to choose its problems, its procedures, its data, and its recommenda¬ tions in terms of immediate conditions and administrative expediency, while the university bureau is more nearly free to think in terms of ultimate purposes, the validity and reliability of the data used, the soundness of the logic, and the general application and value of the conclusions. Some excellent research workers differ with me on this matter of ex¬ pediency in reports. Being in a university, I hold that educational research should attack the generalized and fundamental problems rather than those which will yield the quickest results. I believe that school administration is helped more certainly by being told the truth — the whole scientific truth, so far as it can be discovered — than by being supplied with statistics that support preconceived policies and beliefs. If I were administering a school, I should want the reports of my research bureau to be thoroughly accurate, complete, scientific, and fearless. If there were any “statistical lies" to be given to the public, I should want to prepare them myself rather than to receive them ready-made from my research bureau. On the other hand, if I were the research worker in your city school system, and if I knew that you and your board would resent an honest report showing that you were an inefficient superintendent, I suppose I should look earnestly for something harmless to say in the report — unless I had a better job awaiting me in another city. I should be the last person in the world to accuse any of my fellow-research workers of making prej¬ udiced reports, but I am thoroughly convinced that there are many prob¬ lems which university research bureaus can attack with much greater free¬ dom and hope of scientific success than can city or state department bureaus of research. Although university research bureaus have a number of advantages over public school research bureaus, both agencies must obtain their data from the same sources, if the results are to be of value to schools and to their administrators. The amount and value of the growth that is taking place in individual pupils must in both cases be recognized as the most im¬ portant fact to be determined. It is easy to show that the cost per child for buildings, equipment, instruction, and other services is lower in the South than in the North, but it is not so easy to show that pupils in the South are obtaining development that is equal in amount and in value to that being obtained by pupils in the North. As I see the future of educa¬ tion, it is to this problem of measuring the ultimate values in education that our research must address a large part of its effort during the coming years. Early research studies in education were concerned chiefly with sta¬ tistical comparisons of groups or masses of pupils. Educational surveyors 734 National Education Association compared one average with another — one school system’s median score with that of another system. Administrative officers, finding their results com¬ pared writh those obtained elsewffiere, learned the statistical methods and applied them within their school systems to the comparison of the results from one school building with those from another, and to the comparison of this year’s scores wTith those obtained last year. Principals and super¬ visors, in turn, finding that their results were being compared with those obtained by other principals and supervisors, studied statistics and began to compare the results obtained by different teachers and by different methods of instruction. In recent years, the teachers are beginning to take notice and to study statistics, but somehow the statistical methods do not answTer a teacher’s questions about Johnny and Mary. Johnny refuses to be an average, or even a sum. He insists that he is a human being, an integrated individual. You can find his spelling score, his speed in reading, his index of compre¬ hension, his powder in addition, the quality of his handwrriting, and so on for all the standard tests available, but when you have added them all together or averaged them, they do not equal Johnny. Unless you consider him as a human unit, with all his inheritance ; all his experiences in school, at home, and on the street; all his interests, attitudes, capacities, a^d ideals : and all his environment and his opportunities in life, it is impossible to say exactly w7hat ought to be done with or for him. And even after wTe have collected all the available facts about all the various phases of his personality and history, there is no known formula that will tell us wffiat should be done. Here, I believe, is the outstanding problem that educational research must meet. We are as yet by no means agreed upon the specific combinations of characteristics which the graduates of our public schools should possess, and even if we could agree upon the particular human types or patterns we wish our schools to produce, little is known scientifically about how to pro¬ duce these types from the diverse kinds of raw materials found in our schools. We can never honestly claim to have developed a science of educa¬ tion until we are able to say, for at least one kind of child, what type of person he should become, and what experiences he can be given that will produce that type of personality. Educational research must work out the exact specifications of the products to be produced by the schools, and then it must find the most effective sequences of experiences for producing such patterns from the available materials. Thus far, we have done little more than make a beginning in the analysis and measurement of what a given child can do. It is becoming clear, however, that scores on achievement tests represent only one side of a child’s personality. We must know in detail his physical condition, his emotional characteristics, his social reactions under various types of situations, his attitudes, his ideals, his extra-school environment, and his hereditary tendencies. It is also becoming clear that wTe must not only have all these facts about each child recorded accurately, but that we must Department of Superintendence 735 record what happened in the child’s experience from day to day, and what changes occur in the child’s personality after each experience. Not only must our records cover every phase of the child’s life, but they must be accumulative records, for the child’s behavior today is the result not only of his inheritance and what happened yesterday, but of what happened last year and the year before as well. The science of education, when it finally comes into being, will be based upon careful classifications and analyses of tens of thousands of complete, accumulative case records of individual pupils. Teachers in the classroom must aid in the collection of such case histories, even though the kinds of facts to be recorded may be indicated and the record making supervised by research workers. Visiting teachers have already begun the making of such complete case records, but there are too few visiting teachers, and their attention is too largely taken up by children who present unusual or special problems. We need now to have thousands of regular classroom teachers trained in the making of case histories for normal or average pupils. The case-history point of view and technic of the visiting teachers must be mas¬ tered by regular classroom teachers, if the research worker is ever to have available the raw material from which a real science of education may be developed. Mr. Theisen has suggested here that the university research bureau should take the lead in evaluating and developing instructional technics. He may be correct, but I wish to point out that local and state research agencies and administrative officers must cooperate heartily if ever the task I have outlined is to be carried to a successful outcome. The com¬ plete case histories of a sufficient number of individual pupils will never be obtained for research workers to classify and study, unless the rest of you help to make it possible for teachers to keep such records. Cooperation among all the various agencies for the conduct of educational research, and intelligent articulation of the institutions that instruct youth, with the com¬ plete, integrated, developing personality pattern of an individual pupil as the central fact to be studied, is, as I see it, the outstanding challenge that confronts today those who look forward to a day when educational procedures may be based solidly on scientific data and principles. WHAT A SUPERINTENDENT HAS A RIGHT TO EXPECT OF AN INSTITUTION TRAINING TEACHERS FOR THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS ERNEST C. HARTWELL, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BUFFALO, N. Y. In most of our states the law obliges children to attend school for about eight years. This is on the theory that, with a life expectancy of sixty years, the state may compel these young people to spend at least eight of them in preparation for their social, civic, and vocational responsibilities. Of course, it is really not eight years, for the school year in this country will not 736 National Education Association average over 180 actual school days, and from this number must be sub¬ tracted Labor Day, Columbus Day, Election Day, Thanksgiving and the Friday following, Washington’s Birthday, Lincoln’s Birthday, Memorial Day, and a number of other days set apart by official authority whenever occasion seems to warrant it. Actually, each one of these eight years is less than half a year, consisting of anywhere from thirty to forty weeks of five days each. Moreover, a school day, like a school week and a school year, is con¬ siderably shorter than any other kind of day or week or year. It probably averages about five and one-half hours. During that time most of the in¬ struction received by children is provided in individual classrooms with enrolments that average at least thirty-five pupils per classroom teacher. A pupil sitting in a class of thirty-five pupils with a recitation period of thirty- five minutes is rightfully entitled to one minute per recitation as his in¬ dividual portion of the teacher’s time and effort. Summarized, the effect of our compulsory education law may be stated somewhat as follows: We, the state, desiring to be assured that the lives of our citizens shall be worthily lived and that each unit of our society shall be trained for useful service, impregnated with lofty social and civic ideals, and equipped with desirable capacities, tastes and attitudes of mind, do hereby solemnly enact that every child in the commonwealth shall receive one minute of a teacher’s time per recitation five days a week, if nothing interferes, for thirty-eight weeks per year for each of eight separate years. This is a sufficiently ambitious program. Whatever degree of success attends the effort of the state depends chiefly on the quality of the teachers employed and the skill and the efficiency which they develop in the use of this infinitely precious minute per child per recitation. It would seem to be obvious that teacher training, therefore, is of paramount interest to the state. We have done some splendid things in America for public education. No nation, past or present, has approached ours in devotion to the principle of equal educational opportunity. No nation has built such magnificent school buildings. We have done w’ell in America in the matter of com¬ pulsory school attendance, but not so well in assuring ourselves that, once the child arrives in school, he shall receive the competent instruction pre¬ supposed by the theory back of the state program of education. In many of our states our teacher-training institutions annually fight a life-and-death battle for bare existence. Instead of being recognized as the most important institutions of the commonwealth, they rank far down in the list of state responsibilities. The State of New York spends four times as much per student to train horse doctors as it does to train teachers. The whole question of properly equipping and training a teacher efficiently to employ the scanty time which children are required to spend in school has never had in America anything like the consideration which the importance of the task most emphatically justifies. In many of our states, political con- Department of Superintendence 737 siderations have demanded more normal schools than the state ought to sup¬ port, with the result that none of them are supported adequately. Politics, indifference, and low salaries have more than once combined to supply teacher-training institutions with a pathetically inferior administrative and teaching staff. Bureaucracy in the management of these institutions all too frequently has played its part in killing initiative and destroying ambition on the part of the principals and faculties. Superintendents of schools, users of the product of our teacher-training institutions, have too often been contented with grumbling criticism and far less diligent than they should have beeen in providing the constructive help which the situation requires. In the few minutes allowed me this morning, I should like to present a program for teacher training based upon the fixed factor in the problem. We know, for instance, the very limited amount of time in which we are expected to accomplish certain definite and fundamental things. We know that there is no hope for success in achieving these objectives unless the teacher is equipped with an adequate knowledge of the subjects she is going to teach. We know that the personality and character of a teacher are tremendously important factors in her success, that initiative, resource¬ fulness, and enthusiasm are indispensable to the best teaching, and that without vision the people perish. We know, further, that without skil¬ ful questioning, wise lesson assignments, effective drill devices, proper class¬ room organization, and sound teaching technic, a large part of the pupil’s unforgiving recitation minute is bound to be frittered away. Let us, there¬ fore, advocate as the first item of our program the selection for normal- school administrators and faculty only those whose record in the classroom or in the teacher-building field rates high as judged by these standards. A normal school cannot give to its students an equipment and training un¬ possessed by its own faculty. We shall have to modify our present idola¬ trous attitude toward advanced degrees and insist upon the selection of men and women for our teacher-training institutions primarily because of their demonstrated ability either to teach or to train teachers. This policy will require much larger salaries, for it is far easier to find a man w’ho has written a doctor’s thesis than it is to find a man with a high record of ac¬ complishment in teacher training. As a second item I propose the adoption of more effective measures to prevent the certification for teaching of those people whose personality, character, and scholarship will always make them liabilities in a schoolroom. Every year, students enter our normal schools who should never be per¬ mitted to enter, and every year many students are graduated who should never be permitted to teach. As a third item, I propose that the time which students spend in the normal school shall be used in such a way that the graduates of these insti¬ tutions may be guaranteed to possess adequate knowledge of the subjects which they are required to teach. This is a situation which certainly does not exist today. 738 National Education Association A questionnaire sent to a large number of teachers who graduated from three-year courses during the last five years developed the fact that half of those replying admitted they did not know enough arithmetic, enough geography, or enough history to teach these subjects as they would like to teach them. There are state-supported teachers colleges supposed to train elementary teachers which no longer concern themselves with such childish matters. I am in entire agreement with our friends in the teacher-training insti¬ tutions who recognize the importance of giving their students a general background of culture, but we need a better understanding of what is meant by cultural background. It certainly should include a knowledge of literature sufficient to teach with appreciation and inspiration the selec¬ tions found in the grade readers. It should include the ability to do the problems found in the grade arithmetics and a greater familiarity with geography, history, and current events than seems at present to be provided, if the testimony of the teachers themselves is to be accepted. Is a cultural background possible unless it includes those desirable mental attitudes which are the characteristics of a real culture? Let us have a program which puts first things first, and proceed on the assumption that in providing a young man or woman who expects to teach grade children with a genuine enthusiasm for literature, history, geogra¬ phy, and the other subjects in the elementary field, including music and art, we have laid a sound foundation for culture in that teacher. This enthu¬ siasm can be kindled by instructors who have it themselves, if they are given the incentive and the time and the opportunity to do it. Out of the enthusiasm thus generated ought to come adequate knowledge of the sub¬ jects to be taught and a desire to acquire still further knowledge in related fields. Along with this will be acquired a greater facility with oral and written English, the habit of using reference books, current magazines, and the dictionary. It is entirely probable that the student will come out of normal school with very many desirable teaching habits and mental atti¬ tudes unconsciously acquired from the kind of master teachers with whom we propose to provide him. Here is a pretty fair start toward the thing so vaguely described as cultural background. Add to this the necessary instruction in how to adapt his teaching to the individual differences repre¬ sented in a typical classroom, the fundamental principles of wise assign¬ ments and skilful questioning, a rational and uptodate course in school management, the ability to use and interpret at least one kind of standard test, and the acquisition of a variety of important but minor skills easily developed, and there is a strong probability of a good teacher. Given a sound character, an attractive personality, a genuine love of youth, and a sufficient amount of the right kind of practice teaching, and we are likely to have a superior teacher. Attention, therefore, to these fundamental pre¬ requisites of superior teaching cannot well be overemphasized. Probably there is no formula to be written for the successful adminis- Department of Superintendence 739 tration of a teacher-training institution. Each one of them has its own problems, but I am quite certain, as a fourth item on this proposed pro¬ gram, that immense improvement would be effected if all of them would keep more intimately in touch with the problems to be faced by the students whom they graduate. Neither our normal-school faculties, nor graduate schools of education, nor superintendents of schools constitute in their re¬ spective groups a sole repository of wisdom in this matter of teacher train¬ ing. Normal schools cannot claim to be pathfinders in the wilderness or torchbearers on the educational march if they are ignorant of what is going on in the schools in the territory which they serve. Wise leadership in curriculum making, improved classroom procedure, school organization, tests and measurements, and extension work cannot be undertaken under any such handicap. If students in normal schools are required to pursue subjects, make elab¬ orate notebooks, and spend hours in writing the same kind of lesson plans required of their mothers when in attendance at the same institutions, only to find when they go out into actual service that these things have no actual relationship to the work they are required to do, something is radi¬ cally wrong with the procedure of the normal schools. If ten percent of the comment I have heard during the past twenty years, not only from superintendents but from teachers, has any foundation in fact, there is considerable evidence that all of these things have happened, and none of them would have been allowed to continue if those supposed to be respon¬ sible and otherwise competent had known what was going on. There are certain tendencies everywhere evident in the United States today in the matter of teacher training in which our Department of Super¬ intendence should take a more active interest. One is the desire on the part of most of our normal schools to be given the title of “teachers college.” This policy deserves our hearty support if the institutions so designated will continue to recognize the adequate training of elementary teachers as their chief function. This is the purpose for which all normal schools were created by the state and is the basis upon which they chiefly should be judged. There is a tendency to lengthen the required preparation of teachers. New York State now requires three years of preparation beyond the high school, and there is considerable conversation about extending it to four years. The problems of the elementary school are not going to be solved merely by extending the time of training. It is far more a problem of how to make better use of the time already required. Everywhere over the land there is a disposition to measure a teacher’s worth not by her classroom performance, her personality, her love of chil¬ dren, or her actual record of accomplishment, but by how many college credits and advanced degrees she has been able to accumulate. It is so much easier to get a degree than it is to -be a good teacher. It is so much easier to base salaries on some definite thing like a diploma or a statement of 740 National Education Association ci edits from a university than it is to measure what the teacher has actually been able to do for her pupils. There are many cities in the United States in which teachers finding themselves inadequately prepared skilfully to do the work before them in the elementary field, are spending their time and money in taking courses utterly unrelated to their present work and doing it solely because as a pro¬ fession we are permitting the worship of college credits to be substituted for a recognition of successful teaching. In certain cities a tradition seems in a fair way to become established that if a teacher desires an increase in salary, she must acquire certain college credits or work out a thesis for an ad¬ vanced degree. Maybe what the teacher needs is a course in how to teach silent reading. Maybe what she would like to take is a course in one of a dozen fundamental things not adequately cared for in her original training in the normal school ; but unfortunately for her these courses do not pos¬ sess that sacred thing known as “college credit” and so this teacher spends her leisure and her money on a course in Elizabethan Drama, or the appre¬ ciation of Keats, or Egyptology, or Sanskrit, or anything that the college faculties in her immediate neighborhood feel like offering. It ought to be possible for a teacher to earn her college credits and to do her advanced work with courses that definitely improve her service to the children in her charge. As matters stand today, however, a graduate de¬ gree in education is not of itself conclusive evidence that its possessor is a superior teacher. We shall get improved teaching in the elementary schools only as we agree on a defensible program of teacher training. As superintendents, we have an inescapable obligation to do our part in formulating such a pro¬ gram and to give all possible assistance to our normal schools and teachers colleges in their efforts to provide the improved training which the situa¬ tion seems so urgently to require. WHAT A SUPERINTENDENT HAS A RIGHT TO EXPECT OF AN INSTITUTION TRAINING TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS CHARLES S. MEEK, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, TOLEDO, OHIO What is the nature of the task for which they shall be trained? That determines the aims and the skills with which they should be equipped. The adjustment of all children to a rigid traditional curriculum, which President Lowell at Boston last year so emphatically endorsed, was a rule of thumb method of separating the sheep from the goats in the schools, whereby to pass was the reward for being bright and to fail was the penalty for being dull. The teachers in a large high school some years ago studied the causes of failure. As a factor in the investigation the testimony of those who had failed was collected. The pupils were asked to write what they thought Department of Superintendence 741 were the causes of their own failure. I read all of those simple, naive, child-like statements. Many of them were, “I am not so bright as the other pupils,” or “I try hard but I cannot learn,” or “I guess I am just dumb.” The schools had trained those children into a hopeless acceptance of their own incompetence. For them the battle of life was lost before it had really begun. The laws of rtature and the will of God have endowed the human race with a very broad range of abilities of which each individual possesses a narrow and a different span. The old single scholastic standard measur¬ ing the abilities of all children, which President Lowell so heartily ap¬ proved, was a vain attempt to revise the laws of nature and to redirect the will of God. It made of the schools selective rather than educative in¬ stitutions, and established in them a series of sieves through which only higher and higher grades of intelligence might pass. Those pupils, who by a process of such selection finally reached the high school were so for¬ tunately endowed they were able to survive the stupidity of any procedure which might there have been exercised upon them. In one school system now enroling fifty thousand pupils, twenty years ago, in 1908, the ninth grade contained fourteen percent of the average number of pupils in each of the first four grades of the elementary school. Twenty years later, in 1928, there were enroled in the ninth grade eighty-eight percent of the average number in each of the first four grades. This in a general way is typical of the change everywhere. Twenty years of more equitable distribution of wealth, a greater demand for more exten¬ sive training, more effective enforcement of school attendance laws, more humane and intelligent instruction in the elementary schools, have changed completely the job of high school teachers. Where twenty years ago they instructed only the highest fourteen percent of the nation’s intelligence they must now deal sympathetically and intelligently with all but the low¬ est twelve percent of general ability. The changed situation makes the teacher’s task much more exacting and requires a far higher type of profes¬ sional service. The changes in educational objectives and procedures, though consider¬ able, have not kept pace with the changed needs of the enlarged enrolment. The incrustation of tradition still tends to preserve the sanctity of the old exclusive scholarship. Some teachers continue to apply aims and methods fitted only for the instruction of the community’s elect. Inspection agents from college affiliation associations cruise about over¬ head as birds of prey ready to dart down upon all liberalizing tendencies as unforgivable laxity of standards. These protectors of the long established cult divide administrators into the ranks of the sheep and the files of the goats according as they assent to or dissent from the old fetish. How they do love the assenting sheep and how they do hate the smell of a dissenting goat. 742 National Education Association Eighty-eight percent of all the children of this generation who crowd into the first year of the high school must there immediately encounter what for many of them is an unsurmountable difficulty — one year of high school algebra. That eager mass of happy children possesses many illusive possi¬ bilities which the deadly formalism of the algebraic equation destroys. The accrediting institutions mother algebra. High-school teachers are em¬ ployed to mother children. We in the field must find the resources for educating this enormously increased number of pupils. We must provide for all of their varying needs and at the same time build up some' defense against the charge of being sanctified squanderers. But we should not at the same time be compelled to combat these accrediting institutions, the sanctified defenders of the old status quo in high school education. The Public School Messenger, Board of Education, St. Louis, Mo., 1924, reports, “The amount of added typewriting skill produced by the double period of instruction is small, about two words per minute, and the single period of instruction seems to secure a level of proficiency adequate for commercial needs.” Similar investigations have all confirmed the St. Louis findings, but accrediting institutions continue to insist upon double periods of instruction if full credit is to be allotted. Downing, in School Review , Nov. 1925, reports, “The lecture demon¬ stration method of imparting essential information in science is better than the individual laboratory method and is more economical of time and expense. This is true for both bright and dull pupils and for all types of experiments.” Similar investigations have all verified Downing’s conclu¬ sions but the accrediting institutions continue to insist upon the double period of individual laboratory work. Training institutions must first edu¬ cate these accrediting institutions into an intelligent appreciation of the value and significance of recent educational investigations and research. Thus far they have been impervious to enlightenment. But training insti¬ tutions tell us that instruction may be adapted to any level of intelligence. We superintendents hope that the training institutions may develop in high-school teachers not zeal for nurturing a sacred curriculum but rather abilities and skills for adapting instruction to the variable aptitudes and needs of all types of pupils. Most of our high-school teachers are trained in universities having a college of liberal arts and a school of education both upon the same campus and both under the same control. The college of liberal arts primarily should be a place of the mind, a time for thinking, an opportunity for knowing. Here our teachers should learn to think clearly, accurately, objectively, and creatively. Here they should be made sensitive to the joys of appreciation and understanding. But the creation of culture as thus defined should never constitute the full achievement of the liberal arts college. It should also awaken the impulse of inquiry, of experiment, of investigation, of reflection, in order that human desires may be evaluated, and human lives understood as well as they may be understood by those engaged in living them. Department of Superintendence 743 These objectives, which the liberal arts college announced as their own, we desire for our high-school teachers. We teachers more than others should live the life of the mind, love knowledge, and follow after it. We are eager that our teachers should have all this which the liberal arts college says cultured people may not be without. But in the process of realizing his own aims, we expect the college professor to afford our teachers an inspir¬ ing example of excellent instruction. I recently attended a dinner given in honor of a federal judge who at the age of seventy was retiring from the bench. This judge that evening announced that the teaching of Mark Hopkins in Williams College had been the most significant professional influence in his entire life. Dr. Harry Garfield, son of President Garfield, presided at that dinner. President Garfield, as you all know, once said, “Mark Hopkins on one end of a log and I on the other constitute a liberal arts college.’ ’ If excellent college instruction means so much for a judge or for a president, how much more potent it must be in the life of one whose vocation is that of teaching. I submitted this question to three hundred high school teachers, “What has your college done in preparing you to teach?” Of the 250 replies I received, in only eleven of them was there expressed grateful appreciation of inspiring college teaching. Of course, had the questionnaire directly sought evaluation of college instruction, more character witnesses would have testified in behalf of their instructors. But may it not also be assumed that if those two hundred and fifty teachers had been generally impressed by the excellence of the instruction they received in college, more testimony for the defense indirectly might have gotten into the record? No one asked President Garfield or that federal judge to testify for Mark Hopkins. A distinguished college professor with whom I discussed this question frankly admitted that a college teacher can not afford to devote to instruc¬ tion the time and thought necessary to make of his teaching a truly artistic job. His professional ranking, his chance for promotion, and increased pay depend, not upon his skill as a teacher, but rather upon the value of his research and contributions to knowledge in his own specialty. That the microbe of research had in one case developed into the dreaded streptococcus is evidenced by this remark of a professor, “College teaching would be a delightful job if there were no damned students about.” I would not be understood as minimizing the importance of research. But one need not be a profound student of history to know that truth has always been revealed to those endowed with an aptitude for discovery. In this wholesale subsidizing of a lot of blind explorers to search for the world’s enlightenment, probably a few Mark Hopkins and many excellent teachers have been lost to education. The job of a liberal arts professor, as of all teachers, should be that of instruction. His rank and his pay should be determined by the skill with which he does that job. Instruction should be his cause and emphasis on research should be increased or diminished in the degree to which it helps 744 National Education Association or hurts the cause. If in the liberal arts college artistic teaching were thus dignified and made of prime importance, even those instructors not blessed with an aptitude for research would quickly discover that there is an art of teaching. None of them would then believe what one of them has said, “We educate lawyers and doctors, but we train teachers and mon¬ keys.” I am not interested in reforming or even in criticizing college teaching. I would only have college professors believe that there is a profession of education as well as a profession of law or of medicine, and that the pos¬ session of a liberal arts degree is no more complete evidence of equipment to teach in a high school than it is to practice medicine or law. If the liberal arts professor might get this professional evaluation of his own voca¬ tion, he would send his students to the school of education with the same seriousness of purpose with which he now sends them to the schools of medi¬ cine or law. Professional equipment is seriously sought by high-school teachers after service in the field has taught them its importance. Many young students preparing to teach enrol in courses in education merely to comply with the red tape requirements for securing a certificate and begrudge the time divorced from the study of mathematics or science, English or history. What may we expect of the school of education for high-school teachers ? A practicing physician once developed a sure cure for fits and attempted to relieve the suffering of all of his patients by first throwing them into fits. Physicians with similar technics disappeared with the advent and develop¬ ment of the professional school of medicine. We may reasonably hope that devotees to the sacred curriculum to which they attempt to adapt all types of children may not long survive the enlightenment we hope professional schools of education may afford our high-school teachers. One of the satis¬ fying values of the old exclusive scholarship for those who had mastered it was the greater number of those who had attempted to procure it and had failed to acquire it. There is an immense amount of gratification in at¬ taining a position for which many are called and but few are chosen. It is an unusual achievement to rise to higher things on stepping stones of the dead selves of others. But the capable physician does not administer to all of his patients what for many of them he knows is poison merely to try out their relative power of resistance. It is not his business to demonstrate the superior physical vigor of a minority of his patrons by proving they have assimilated what has destroyed the majority of them. The degree of success which some pupils have attained in a given testing project should not be measured by the number of those who have failed in the same test. It is very important for every pupil to have a chance to succeed at something. It is far better for him to have the satisfaction of achievement in some enterprise though that be trivial than for him to fail in Latin or algebra, merely to demonstrate the superiority of those who pass. Department of Superintendence 745 We expect the school of education to do for high-school teachers what the school of medicine has done for physicians — teach them all that is in¬ volved in individual diagnosis and individual treatment. The professional school has provided the physician with the wisdom and the technics to dis¬ cover the different sorts of ailments because of which their patrons suffer and the different sorts of treatments which may afford them relief. We expect the school of education to provide the high-school teacher with the equipment for evaluating and directing the abilities of his pupils with such precision and such accuracy that he shall have for all of them at least a valid expectancy of success and that he shall not foredoom a single one of them to failure. We have been surfeited with the teacher of the English, the teacher of the Latin, the teacher of the Algebra, and the teacher of the history. We hail the appearance of the educator of children, eager to discover and equipped to find the sort of training each child requires, quick to detect and avert what he may not survive. To prepare teachers for this job, training institutions must practice what they preach — revision of the curriculum. The traditional history of education — the tracing of educational influ¬ ences in all the ramifications of their devious meanderings through the centuries down to the present time is just as academic, no more germane to the teacher’s job, and not so interesting as many courses in liberal arts. It may be offered to the few but should not be prescribed for the many. The old model of classroom management is the ideal behavior of a host of imaginary children in a lot of hypothetical situations. To be able to direct the education of a high-school student, the teacher should have valid scientific sanction for what he predicts that student may do in any one of many activities into which he may be guided. The shades of Herbart or of Froebel cast no light on that problem. A physician is not aided in prescribing the proper treatment for a case of diphtheria today by knowing how a monk treated a case of smallpox a thousand years ago. To reread Little Lord Fauntleroy, the ideal child in a multitude of fanciful settings, affords no reliable data for directing a real child in the learning process. The teacher whose job is to direct the education of high-school students into one, two, or three out of many educational activities available must know what similar and different children have done in each and every one of those activities ; must know the sort of work one child may do and another may not; how the training of a particular ability for one child is important and for another immaterial. All this requires knowledge of the measurement movement of the last decade, and judgment in its interpretation and appli¬ cation. Familiarity with recent investigations and reports on curriculum revision is just as imperative. Skill in diagnosing the individual difficul¬ ties of children and wisdom in applying the approved remedial measures are also requisite accomplishments. To establish in the school the complete community life and to provide that all shall participate in its many interests 746 National Education Association requires a knowledge of all recent studies and experiments in extracurricu¬ lum activities. These are but a few of the many fields of investigation, of research, and of experimentation, a working knowledge of which a pro¬ gressive high-school teacher may not be without. This type of training we expect the professional schools to stress, to make concrete, dynamic, and demonstrable. IV HAT THE RURAL SCHOOL HAS A RIGHT TO EXPECT OF AN INSTITUTION TRAINING TEACHERS FOR RURAL SCHOOLS JULIAN E. BUTTER WORTH, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N. Y. Our conception of a “ rural school" — Let us first understand each other as to the meaning of terms. As here used a “rural school” is not a one- room school only. It is not even an elementary school only. It is not merely a school in the open-country, even of the consolidated type ; the rural school may be located in the small village. Nor is it one that trains for the farming occupations only. Since many of the boys will go into farming and many of the girls will be homemakers in rural communities, the progressive rural school will, naturally, offer special curricula in agri¬ culture and homemaking. But it will offer other curricula for those look¬ ing toward law, medicine, business, or engineering wherever there may be need for such services. The rural school of which I shall speak is one that serves those who live in areas having a relatively low density of population. Let us say that, roughly, it is a school found in a community of less than 2500 population. I have not time here today to defend in detail this conception, which is probably broader than that held by many. Some such conception seems nec¬ essary if we are to correlate the various rural agencies in providing a com¬ plete common school education of adequate quality ‘for those living in the non-urban centers. According to this conception a rural school is unique only in that it deals with those who live in a special environment. It attempts to train not for that environment but through that environment for whatever opportunity life may hold out for them. Rural education is thus seen to be related to all education ; all belong to the same family but each has its own per¬ sonality. We in rural education want no different philosophy, no different aim from that held by the progressive ones among you from the largest cities. Rural education is one of the most important of our special-environment types of education. This is partly because of its historical significance in a country that has so recently developed from a pioneer status. It is of particular importance largely because, as here defined, it includes fifty- three percent of all pupils enroled and fiftyeight percent of all teachers employed in the public schools of the United States. Department of Superintendence 747 Why differences between rural and non-rural education are to be ex¬ pected — In order that we may have a common background for a construc¬ tive attack on this problem may I present very briefly a few elementary concepts ? 1. We know that environments differ : slightly in some cases; markedly in others. 2. The environment in which a person lives provides, fails to provide, or provides in an inadequate degree experiences that influence his develop¬ ment. The child in the country has an intimacy of contact with nature that not only gives valuable knowledge if he will observe closely, but may, especially under wise guidance, develop habits, ideas, and attitudes that are profoundly significant throughout life. But intelligent people do not sub¬ mit entirely to environmental influences. They recognize limitations in those influences and seek to rise above them. So for the rural child (as for any child) we see certain lacks in social contacts, in health practises, in breadth of reading during leisure hours and the like, and we seek to pro¬ vide experiences that will overcome the deficiencies observed. 3. To supply these needs a curriculum is first of all planned, and is then taught, supervised, and administered. 4. There is not one rural environment, but many. They shade from the remotest mountain ranch through the fertile farms of the prairie states, the hamlet, and the village to that larger aggregation that falls just short of what we call a city. Consequently there should be not one rural cur¬ riculum only but as many as there are environments that create significant educational needs. 5. Training for the planning, teaching, supervision, and administration of the curriculum is, of course, the problem of the teacher-training institution. So we come to the question: What has the rural school a right to de¬ mand of the institution that trains teachers for its service? SojTie legitimate demands upon the teacher-training institution — The rural school has a right to expect such training as will enable the teacher to meet adequately the specific professional problems found in the rural terri¬ tory. 1. Like many another speaker in Cleveland this week I must say that as yet we do not have all the data desired. We do not know with scientific exactness the problems created by this special environment that affect the work of the teacher. We are in the process of finding out. In a recent study McGuffey 1 compared 550 teachers in one-room schools of 24 states with 200 grade-teachers in the cities of 5 states. One hundred twelve activity items were used as a check list. I quote : “At least 80 of the 112 items in the check list are performed by half or more of the teach¬ ers in the one-teacher school and by few or none of the grade teachers.” For example: 61 percent of teachers in one-room schools must order school supplies as compared with 5 percent in city schools. Five percent of 1 McGuffey, Verne: “Differences in the Activities of Grade Teachers and of Teachers in the One-Room Rural School.” Doctor’s dissertation, Teachers College, Columbia University. 748 National Education Association the one-room teachers receive and audit school supplies compared with 1 percent in city schools. Sixty-one percent of the first group must make final decision in cases of classification and promotion compared with 12 percent in the second group. Forty-eight percent in the small school must provide publicity for the school as compared with 1 percent in the large school. Sixty-two percent of the one-room teachers must plan and execute work with little or no supervision as compared with 6 percent in the city schools. In adjusting the program to accommodate several grades the percentages are 80 and 3; in serving as school librarian, 60 and 4; in keep¬ ing all school records, 71 and 6; in conducting entertainments for the community, 60 and 2. And so we might go on through a long list of ac¬ tivities in which the teacher in the one-room school has problems that the teacher in the city school has to meet with relative infrequency. Two other conclusions by McGuffey are of interest. I quote again : “There are very few differences between the activities of teachers in the one-teacher schools of various states.” If other investigations confirm this finding, then it is evident that facts similar to those here given may be used with considerable reliability in training for the one-teacher situation wherever found. There are still 160,000 of these one-teacher schools in this country. I quote once more: “In the opinion of the county superin¬ tendents, the most important factor in the success of teachers for one-room schools is special training for that type of position.” If other studies agree with this, then it is obvious that the teacher-training institution must find a way to give training on these problems. They should not be left to the costly method of learning through undirected experience. Other data on this subject are available but I do not have time to report them. Espe¬ cially useful is the recent Commonwealth Teacher-Training Study. But, according to our definition, the rural school meets the educational needs in a variety of situations from the one-room school of the open coun¬ try to the secondary school of the village that serves both farm and village youth. In these situations professional problems will differ both in kind and in degree. So also the work of the village principal and the county superintendent differ from that of the principal and the superintendent of the city. The former has problems of combining schools, transporting pupils, supervising teachers, enforcing attendance and the like that differ so in degree from similar problems in the city that they demand special consideration. Take the problem of transportation as an illustration. Both city and country have such problems, but howT different they are ! The one has a public carrier system already established with its own trained staff of managers; it has the wealth to carry out any reasonable project; and the people involved are probably not so tied dowm to habits of thinking that retard progress. In the other situation new means of transportation usually have to be provided, often under road and weather conditions that are dis¬ heartening; the transportation system has to be administered by the school officers; increased funds have to be found where income is already too near Department of Superintendence 749 the margin of existence; and the people have to be persuaded that the pro¬ posals are essential to their welfare. The rural school has a right to ex¬ pect that the wide-awake teacher training institution will so far as possible prepare persons to meet problems such as these as well as those found in the city. Let me say again that we recognize that there are very com¬ mon elements between rural and non-rural education. But whether the differences are few or many we hold that any that are significant should receive attention. 2. One of the most important requirements of the rural school is that the teacher understand the rural environment and know how to utilize and supplement it in getting the maximum of pupil development. While the curriculum, basically, will be similar to the curriculum of any progressive school, certain modifications are to be desired. The demand for voca¬ tional training in agriculture is perhaps the most striking of the needs of the rural areas not ordinarily existing in the urban centers. Nature study is a subject, not perhaps more needed than in the city, but certainly offer¬ ing greater opportunity to children in the country and village districts. It may, therefore, receive reasonable emphasis. The relative isolation in the country creates needs for contacts and for an understanding of the ac¬ tivities and ideals of other groups. Naturally the alert teacher, in making her work more effective, will use problems in arithmetic, projects in geog¬ raphy, themes in English, and the like that are based upon environmental experiences. You may concede the specialized training needed in agriculture, home¬ making, nature study, and the like. “But,” you say, “the others seem to be largely matters of common sense.” Yet, if an investigation recently made of one hundred rural teachers of New York is at all representative, we cannot trust these matters entirely to the individual’s native insight and initiative. In this study Shales 1 used what he calls a “weighted environment score” to measure the degree to which teachers make use of the environment in their instruction. The scores varied from 0 to 35. Thirty-five teachers of the one hundred teachers had a score of 0 ; 1 a score of 35. The median was 3.1. The investigator set up an empirical standard of 20 on his scale as representing reasonably effective use of environmental factors. Ninety- five percent fell below this standard. Among the investigator’s conclusions are these : 1. The group as a whole made relatively little use of the out-of-school environ¬ ment and experience of the children in the teaching covered by these observa¬ tions. Thirty-five percent did nothing of this sort. 2. Such contacts as were made were largely fragmentary and incidental, rather than well planned and fully developed. 3. Only one third of the teachers were following any of the procedures usually considered essential to the effective use of pupils’ out-of-school experiences. 1 Shales, John M. : “A Study of the Use of Out-of-School Environment by the Teachers of Certain Small Rural Schools.” Doctor’s thesis, Cornell University, 1928. 750 National Education Association 4. The project method of dealing with real life problems was receiving practi- cally no application. 5. Since the use of the out-of-school environment appears to be a special ability it must, like all other skills, be acquired through understanding and interested practise. 3. The rural school worker, whether teacher, principal, or superintend¬ ent, needs to understand rural people and their economic and social prob¬ lems. There are questions regarding the nature and the number of social organizations needed ; of health, including the services of doctors, dentists, and hospitals ; of the rural church ; of libraries, lyceums, chautauquas, and other means of supplying information and recreation ; of economic returns ; of cooperative action for meeting social and economic problems. These cannot be ignored if the school officer is to relate the school to the prob¬ lems of living. Furthermore, knowledge of these matters will give him insight that will greatly strengthen him in his leadership activities. These problems involve both knowledge and attitude. The knowledge may be given readily through courses in rural sociology and economics and related practical work. The development of the right attitude toward rural life problems is not so easy. There is involved an understanding of conditions as they are, an appreciation of those things in rural life that are wholesome, and an encouragement of change when change is to be desired. We have had too many going into educational service in our rural areas who have felt, as I heard it recently described, “Well, I guess I’ll have to go out to the ‘sticks’ for a few years, but I hope it won’t be for long.” A teacher who is unwilling to make reasonable sacrifices in elegance of living conditions by boarding in her school district but must instead drive back and forth each day cannot render the service the rural school needs and will some day demand. The principal or superintendent who works only with an eye to what will enable him to get into the coveted city will, I hope, not always be with us. No sensible person will object to his looking for professional advancement whether in country or city, but while in the country he should be willing to render the services needed. Modifications in course offerings to meet these needs — There appears to be rather common agreement that under present conditions the follow¬ ing differentiation will be sufficient for the training of the teacher: 1. A general course in rural education serving as an introduction to the whole field. It will attempt to clear up misconceptions, set forth objectives, and solve professional problems peculiar to rural school service. Curriculum adaptation should be one of the more important problems. 2. Practise teaching in various types of rural schools. 3. A course in rural sociology and economics with some field experience with community problems. 4. A course in nature study and agriculture to give such knowledge of these fields as will enable the teacher to appreciate and use these environmental factors. These differentiations demand not over one fifth of a two-year normal school cur¬ riculum. Besides these special offerings the instructors of general courses in music, arithmetic, geography, and the like should keep in mind the special problems of the rural worker and give suggestions from time to time. Department of Superintendence 751 For principals and superintendents there are other needs, but time for¬ bids consideration of them here. Training for rural service should be correlated with training for general school service — The foregoing suggestions of differentiated offerings will I hope make this point clear, namely, that there should not be separate insti¬ tutions for the training of those who are to go into rural service. This is the prevailing sentiment among those particularly concerned with rural schools. We want to break down barriers between country and city, not build them up ; and the special rural normal school would, so far as we can predict, tend to have that effect. It follows, then, that every normal school having rural areas within its sphere of influence should do something along this line. A teacher-training institution supported by the state owes its services to the rural areas as much as to the cities. It should not plead a lack of responsibility for training rural workers because it cannot supply the demands of the cities. We have no moral right, except when condi¬ tions are temporarily beyond our control, to say that the training of rural teachers should be left to lesser training agencies such as the high school training class. Fortunately there is evidence, in several states at least, that the training class has now served its purpose, and that more adequate pro¬ vision will be made through the normal school and the teachers’ colleges. Regarding the organization of the rural training service opinions differ, but my own belief is that for the present there should be special courses or even a separate department of rural education for those preparing for rural service. However, it is not the name “rural” that matters; what is significant is that the school worker be trained to meet the needs that he is likely to face. Perhaps, when we have made it second nature to give train¬ ing in terms of the problems that confront each group, we can ignore the term “rural.” Personally I believe that time is considerably in the future. We still seem to need a symbol to remind us of the nature of our task and to hold us to it ; to keep us from veering toward those attractive problems of the urban community that now seem to secure the larger share of our thinking. But, let me repeat, whatever organization of the special service for rural school training is made, it should be built upon and correlated with the offerings in general education. Progress in providing this special service has been encouraging. A study made by Bunting and McGuffey 1 in the Spring of 1927 showed that of 149 teacher-training institutions from which data were received 126, or 85 per¬ cent, were engaging in one or more of nine types of activities stressing the needs of rural schools. These data showed a considerable increase in a four year period. Some teacher training officials have not established differen¬ tiated activities for rural workers because they do not believe that the differ¬ ences are significant. Others are only awaiting the time when the demand will be sufficient to justify the effort. Even the colleges and universities are beginning to sense the obligations and the opportunities of this field, 1 Bunting, R. L., and McGuffey, Verne: “Preparation of Rural Teachers,” Teachers Col¬ lege Record, Vol. XXIX, 716-727. 752 National Education Association because as long ago as 1923, 77 of these institutions were offering 124 courses in rural education. But with all good intentions the teacher train¬ ing institution can do only part of the job. If I may venture a prophesy I would say that the time is coming when the salaries of rural teachers will be comparable to the salaries of teachers in the smaller cities. The salaries of village principals will be comparable to the salaries of building principals in the cities and of county superin¬ tendents comparable to those of the superintendents in at least our medium¬ sized cities. New Jersey, by paying each of its county superintendents $5000, has taken a real step forward, and it is worth noting that in other states $5000 or even better is becoming more than a curiosity. If neces¬ sary a bonus should be paid that will hold a fair share of our better work¬ ers in the rural areas. Such salaries can, of course, be justified only when these rural officers have the general and special training that will enable them to do as effective service in the country as that rendered our urban communities by school workers there. Four significant reforms — As I see it, four reforms are imperatively needed if rural children are to have opportunities comparable to those of the city: (1) An elimination of popular election of rural educational leaders now existing in some twenty-five states. This method has given us some leaders of conspicuous ability, but it is not sufficiently certain. (2) State resources must be utilized to a far greater degree for the education of all the children of the state. This means, for one thing, taxation reform so that the farmer pays more nearly in accordance with his ability to pay. It means state equalization funds on a scale that will really meet the situation. New York is one state that has in the past few years made important advances in this direction. Now, a one-room school in that state may receive as much as $925 state aid. A bill has been presented to this year’s legislature and will probably pass that will give the one-teacher district the difference between $1500 and a four-mill local tax on an equalized valua¬ tion. A village district in New York at present receives an equalization quota that will enable it to maintain elementary and secondary schools of reasonable standard at a six-mill local tax. There is more economic justice in the city’s contributing to education in the rural areas than may appear on first thought. Some of the wealth of the city is there because of the purchasing power of the rural districts. A farm machinery corporation, a mail order house, or an automobile factory receives a large share of its patronage from the country but its wealth is credited to the city in which it is located. (3) We must cultivate the attitude that a teacher is not necessarily inferior merely because she works in the rural territory. A rural club for prospective teachers is one means of doing this, but of prob¬ ably greater influence is the belief on the part of everybody that rural serv¬ ice may be as dignified and worth while as service in any other environ¬ ment. (4) There must be special training for rural school needs. Department of Superintendence 753 I have intentionally painted the picture in the large. I have hoped to touch your imagination with the opportunity for service that the rural field presents. If you are interested in the details of the picture I would refer you to our growing body of literature. If you have not recently looked into this literature you will be surprised at how much has been going on both in practise and in research. A recent bibliography covering the researches in certain aspects of rural education for a five-year period lists 233 titles.1 You may be surprised also at the quality of much of this material. To all of you who hold a democratic conception of education may I say: The most acute problem of education in America today affecting large groups is to be found in our rural areas. The solution of this problem calls for an understanding of the educational needs existing there. It calls for special training to meet those needs. It calls for the interest and active cooperation of people in our urban centers. It requires the financial support of the entire state. Inertia surrounds that problem. Overcoming it demands the efforts of us all. I can see no greater opportunity for service on the part of this De¬ partment of Superintendence than to support the Department of Rural Education in making a sympathetic yet aggressive attack upon this rural problem. Something must be done if our conception of equality of educa¬ tional opportunity is to become more than a complacent theory. WHAT A TEACHER SHOULD EXPECT FROM THE SCHOOL ENGAGING HIS SERVICES FRANK PIERREPONT GRAVES, PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK AND STATE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION “No man is so unhappy as one who has had his dreams come true/’ de¬ clared Robert Louis Stevenson. If one may judge by the vast number of unsolved problems and the sad state of teacher training depicted by some of the preceding speakers this morning, we are none of us in imminent danger of being plunged into the depths of woe from such a cause. More¬ over, the list of complaints uttered might have been indefinitely extended, had these Jeremiahs chosen to consult the detailed analysis made in the last chapter of the teacher-training section of the Seventh Yearbook just issued by this Department. It is rather appalling to find that there is so much that is wrong in teacher training and so many things about which we know so little. But Stevenson again tells us that “to travel hopefully is better than to arrive,” and we may well rejoice that there are still so many im¬ perfections in the training of teachers to challenge our best efforts and keep us from falling into smug complacency. To quote van Dyke: “It is re¬ sistance that puts us on our mettle ; it is the conquest of reluctant stuff that educates the worker.” Hence by way of a post mortem, which I have been requested to perform upon the operations of the previous doctors before proceeding to my own bit of diagnosis, let us examine some of the outstanding problems in the 1 “A Bibliography of Certain Aspects of Rural Education,” Bureau of Education, Bulletin 1927, No. 4. 754 National Education Association preparation of teachers — elementary and secondary, rural and urban. In this investigation let us first tackle our difficulties at the source. Selection of the raw material out of which teachers are to be made has never been altogether countenanced or given sufficient attention. We have in the past tended to act as if educational institutions supported by public moneys must of necessity be open to all who desire to enrol. The principle of selection in terms of fitness for the teaching profession has either not dawned upon us or not been widely approved. Possibly the main reason for this is that we have as yet established no thoroughly tested prognosis of fitness. We agree in general that scholastic achievement, mental ability, physical fitness, character, personality, interest, and aptitude are all important factors in making a selection of students, but we widely dissent as to the relative values of these qualifications, and no one can tell with certainty whether each factor plays an equally important part in teaching service of the differ¬ ent types. Happily, many leaders in teacher training are at length making pioneer studies in this field, but such efforts should not be limited to the specialists. The public school people should help, especially as they are more affected than the teacher-training institutions, and they should en¬ deavor to do this not through mere recrimination and guesswork, but fair- minded and constructive cooperation in scientific investigations. After the students have been selected, the next question we have to con¬ sider is the choice of a faculty to train them. This morning we have wit¬ nessed the usual assertions as to the relative importance of university de¬ grees and public school experience. If teacher trainers unduly stress the one and school administrators the other, that is simply because the profes¬ sors are themselves likely to be short in experience and the superintendents in degrees and education, and it is difficult to understand the value of that which you do not yourself possess. It is, of course, easy to find a doctor of philosophy who knows no more about public education than he uncon¬ sciously absorbed as a pupil in the elementary and high schools, but it is also not difficult to discover public school people who have little knowl¬ edge beyond the subjectmatter they are inflicting upon others by means of apprenticeship instruction. Heaven deliver us from both the pure theorist and the pure empiric! We should insist upon an even balance between the two types of qualifications. We need valuable experience and sound scholar¬ ship alike in those who are to become our teachers of teachers. Closely related to this problem of the qualifications necessary for teacher training is one which all the speakers have touched upon in discussing the curriculum. It has reasonably been urged that graduates of teacher-train¬ ing institutions should possess a mastery of the subjectmatter they are re¬ quired to teach in the public schools, but by what token is it to be assumed that because a man has attained the doctorate in philosophy he will be so stupid as not to realize this? On the other hand, control of the materials to be taught should never lead the teacher trainer into a mere review of subjectmatter and similar barrenness or procedure, such as has often oc- Department of Superintendence 755 curred when the training instructor was without college education. The teacher’s knowledge must be far wider than mere attainments in the field of knowledge to be taught his pupils. Teacher training falls far short of its obligations if it stops with the required content and necessary teaching skill. The crying need in our training work today is for the development of judgment and the determination of why this or that should be taught and this or that method be used. Nothing short of a miracle will enable the instructor to develop this power in the embryonic teacher wdien he has not himself been trained beyond the subjectmatter of the course and has not ac¬ quired habits of honest inquiry through university training, even if taking this training should involve him in the pernicious act of receiving an ad¬ vanced degree. Thus far wTe have dealt with the pre-service education of the teacher in the training institution, but the in-service education that he should receive after graduation is of fully as much importance. The teacher-training in¬ stitutions have hitherto concerned themselves almost entirely with the pre¬ service education, and the public systems with that in service, but I have been gratified to note the firm belief expressed in the addresses this morning that the public schools and teacher-training institutions both have direct obligations for pre-service and in-service education alike, and that there must be an increasing amount of coordination in defining these obligations and meeting them honestly and effectively. As the school boy declared in an examination: “Parallel lines are the same distance apart all the way and do not meet unless you bend them.” The obligations of the public school and of the training school certainly are parallel from the point of view of ends sought, and it appears at times as if some bending on either side might be wholesome and welcome. This brings me naturally to the contribution I am personally expected to make to this discussion — What should a teacher expect in help, guid¬ ance, and professional stimulus from the school engaging his services? In other words, what sort of opportunity should be granted him in service? In the first place, it should be recognized that his preparation in the teacher¬ training school was merely the beginning of his education as a teacher. The ordinary course of preparation cannot give sufficient time for a com¬ plete acquaintance with all the problems of any given type of school serv¬ ice. Even if the arrangement and length of the course provide for fairly adequate training in the theory and methods of the field, there still remains the necessity for acquiring skill in understanding children and using mate¬ rials and methods effectively in terms of individual needs. Skill is devel¬ oped by even the most gifted teacher only after long and intelligent appli¬ cation of theory, and the school S5^stem has no right to expect maximum performance from the new graduate of a teacher-training institution. This means that the school authorities should always assume the obligation of providing special instruction for the novitiate. The kind and amount of assistance of this sort through supervisors, principals, or master teachers, 756 National Education Association will vary from one school to another, but in different forms these oppor¬ tunities are now being afforded by many wise superintendents throughout the first year or two of the teacher’s work. I regret to say that many cities answer this need of their teachers by demanding two years of experi¬ ence outside before permitting the graduate to teach in their systems, but such cities have shirked their plain duty in the matter. Moreover, this is clearly a case of the old principle that, if you want a thing well done, you would better do it yourself. A second point to be noted in connection with in-service training is that the new teacher, unless a local resident, is relatively unfamiliar with the character of the community. All American communities would seem to be more or less peculiar ; most of them more. The smaller the place the more likely it is to be set in its ways ; but each local group, large or small, repre¬ sents some distinctive customs and habits to which the new teacher must adjust himself, if he is to succeed with his work there. The metropolis of New York has a score of idiosyncrasies — social, economic, political, racial, and religious — which the State Commissioner of Education fails to appreci¬ ate fully after eight long years of adjusting. The new teacher will always find it difficult for six months or more to keep off the spiritual corns of the community. The earlier he can be acquainted with the sociological, indus¬ trial, commercial, and theological mind-sets of the group, the greater will be his advantage in making his work effective. It should be the business of the school officials to recognize this and help the newcomers in the teach¬ ing force to understand and adapt themselves to the peculiarities of the locality before there is bitter disappointment, if not actual shipwreck. Thirdly, the teacher should be constantly impressed in service with the fact that the idealism with which he has been indoctrinated in the teacher¬ training institution is, after all, the real objective of the public school in which he is working, even when the superintendent seems to be arriving at it in devious ways. A direct effort must be made to keep him from becom¬ ing cynical and distrustful, when things occur that he does not under¬ stand. The beginning teacher will often be unable to appreciate the ulti¬ mate aims of the superintendent and school system because of diverting epi¬ sodes. No practical schoolman would for a moment deny that members of the community or even members of the local boards of education are guilty at times of assuming an attitude not in accord with the best professional standards, and it is those occasional lapses that often force the school lead¬ ers into a false position. But this is very far from justifying the conclu¬ sion that no superintendent can succeed unless he is a truckler and an un¬ mitigated liar, as the new teacher, who does not fully understand the situa¬ tion, is likely to hold. The teacher should be taught better. If such skepticism as to the ideals of the school is allowed to flourish, it may be¬ come an extraordinarily dangerous factor in upsetting the esprit de corps of the entire system. The administrator should make it part of the in- Department of Superintendence 757 service training of teachers to guard against this cynicism in his teachers by explaining his policies and methods to them in season and out. But a point of more importance to training in service than any I have yet mentioned is that the teacher should be given working conditions that will stimulate him to continued and uninterrupted growth. There are many things connected with our systems of certification and our educational standards for teachers that tend to breed complacency and a feeling of con¬ tentment and so seriously retard professional development. We all know many instances of people who hold permanent teachers’ certificates who feel that there is little more to be accomplished. It has been said many times that the most important duty of the school superintendent is the selection of teachers. I think it could be said with equal justification that ranking close to the selection of teachers is the duty of providing a constant stimulus for professional improvement. Altogether too often we find that stimulus coming in the way of a salary increment or a financial bonus. Consequently we find summer sessions enroling many teachers who are pri¬ marily concerned in securing a given number of credits, the record of which they may present the following September to the superintendent of schools. Insofar as this incentive is in operation it is deplorable. The kind of stimu¬ lation which in the long run will constitute a strong and enduring struc¬ ture, is the encouragement in terms of professional idealism which com¬ pels the teacher to struggle everlastingly for that equipment which will enable him to do effectively the important work before him. This will come best through a clear understanding on his part of what that work is, its obligations, its opportunities, and its privileges. In this brief review of the case, one can scarcely do more than deal in general statements. If the points made are substantiated by the everyday experiences of schoolmen, then it is safe to conclude that the thesis earlier stated is entirely sound, namely, that public school people and teacher¬ training people are, after all, carrying in a large measure the same obliga¬ tions. We must recognize that the public school has a right to expect cer¬ tain results from the institutions engaged in teacher training. It is equally true that the teacher-training schools have a right to expect intelligent and therefore sympathetic understanding of their problems ; and it is true that graduates of our teacher-training institutions have a right to expect help, both from the institutions which have given them the initial preparation, and from the school system which they serve. SOME HINTS FROM SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS AS TO CHARACTER TRAINING WILLIAM F. RUSSELL, DEAN, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY NEW YORK CITY This paper is ninety-nine and forty-four hundredths of one percent pure theory, and only a part of the remaining small portion depends upon scien¬ tific investigation. This is not due to lack of study. It is due to the con- 758 National Education Association viction that men of science should report their own investigations ; that famous researchers themselves should detail the progress that has been made ; and it is my firm belief that it would be presumption for me from this platform to announce conclusions as established by science. My purpose in this address is rather to survey the problem of character education as it appears to one who is not a scientist at all, and to comment upon the im¬ plications and hints that come from researchers and scientific investigators who have attacked the problem. To most of us the education of character is the outstanding purpose of education. In general, we agree with the squire who meditated on his last words to young Tom Brown as follows: I won’t tell him to read his Bible, and love and serve God ; if he doesn’t do that for his mother’s sake and teaching, he won’t for mine. Shall I go into the sort of temptations he’ll meet with? No, I can’t do that. Never do for an old fellow to go into such things with a boy. He won’t understand me. Do him more harm than good, ten to one. Shall I tell him to mind his work, and say he’s sent away to school to make him a good scholar? Well, but he wasn’t sent to school for that — at any rate, not mainly. I don’t care a straw for Greek particles, or the digamma ; no more does his mother. What is he sent to school for? Well, partly, because he wanted so to go. If he’ll only turn out a brave, helpful, truth-telling Englishman, and a gentlemen, and a Christian, that’s all I want. Character education is not merely a matter of importance, it is the out¬ standing end of our education. To the degree that we achieve it, we suc¬ ceed ; to the degree that it eludes our grasp, in that measure we fail. Once we learn how to accomplish it, our major problems are solved. What is character? The man of character meeting a new situation de¬ termines the right attitude to take and follows this with corresponding con¬ duct. It is not a matter of conduct alone. A man may act rightly as a result of habit, accident, or force of circumstance. This would not, of neces¬ sity, indicate character. Nor is it a matter of the determination of right attitude alone. A man may have the highest ideals and principles, only to act very differently. Nor is it a necessary indication for a man to deter¬ mine the right attitude and respond correctly if the situation be old and familiar. It may merely be a matter of habit. Only when he has developed within himself something that is sensitive to right and wrong and has accus¬ tomed himself to act accordingly, can he be relied upon to respond to new and trying circumstances as a trustworthy man should. This is character. Responsibilities are heaped upon such a man. People seek his advice. His fellowmen feel safe. He is neither a moral philosopher remote from life, nor an opportunist bending to the varying will of popular opinion. In the deep rocks of right ideals and conduct, his character anchors him fast against the tide of easy acquiescence to customary tradition. This quality in a man, termed character, is difficult to define, perplexing to analyze, and extraordinarily difficult to accomplish. This perplexity and difficulty has led to much confused thinking, and has yielded frequently such a statement as “y°u cannot train character.” Even Woodrow Wilson, Department of Superintendence 759 when he was president of Princeton University, made the statement that character training is impossible on the ground that it is an educational by¬ product. It is the contention of this paper, however, that scientific investi¬ gation reveals that character has specific and definite elements ; that under proper conditions, these can be trained ; and that with more precise methods and clearer knowledge, much can be hoped for and accomplished as a con¬ scious and definite educational process, that now comes only occasionally more or less as a result of accident. The likelihood of unvarying right conduct in the face of difficult and try¬ ing conditions, the keynote of character, implies or rests upon ( 1 ) a knowl¬ edge of right and wrong, (2) a habit or capability of right conduct, and (3) some sort of a drive that brings the knowledge of right and wrong to the front so that conduct is ordered to accord. These are each possible educa¬ tional objectives. The first element of character, a knowledge of right and wrong, presents a teaching problem that is relatively simple ; despite the obvious differences in importance and size of the field, it constitutes an educational problem similar to the teaching of the laws of health, formal English grammar, or the rules of play and games. Psychologists tell us how this is done. In pro¬ portion as the item to be learned is correctly understood at first, has a satis¬ fying result, and is either vivid or frequently repeated, it becomes a part of the knowledge of the pupil. This is the effect of the system of moral educa¬ tion in France, the result of the daily period in the Japanese schools, the old Chinese system, in part, the rules of the early Hebrews, and the formal Bible study and Sunday School work of the old-fashioned sort. The pupils learn what to do and what not to do. Thou shalt and thou shalt not. They become able to quote rules of conduct and discuss such subjects as honesty, purity, filial piety, and temperance. It should be noted that too often the result is merely a knowledge of moral conduct, not moral conduct itself. Nor should this be unexpected. It has been shown that those who know the rules of grammar best do not always speak correctly. Physicians are some¬ times unhygienic in their manner of life. No correspondence school offers a course in swimming. So a course in ethics, moral instruction, or even Bible study of a formal sort, cannot be expected to yield results beyond that of ideas about morality. Moral conduct would be an accidental, not a neces¬ sary, result. To this conclusion, scientific studies have apparently pointed in agreement. Moral conduct, also, is relatively easy to teach, being an educational task no more difficult in principle than teaching golf, automobile driving, or con¬ duct at a dinner table. Here the emphasis is not so much upon what a per¬ son knows as on how he acts. Many a person who has studied the etiquette book is uncomfortable in polite society. We learn to do by doing; the emphasis is not on knowledge but on performance ; the result, not the ability to tell something, or to pass an examination, but to be able to act in a certain way. Furthermore, as a rule, the performance excels in proportion as it is 760 National Education Association a matter of habit. The golf player who considers his elbows, wrists, feet, and eyes at each drive, often finds himself in the sand trap. The automobile driver who thinks of clutch, brake, steering wheel, throttle, spark, horn, lights, and traffic policeman, at each crisis, loses his license. An effective deterrent to polite conversation at dinner is the worry about which fork to use. Is it a finger bowl or a teacup? Is it to look at or to eat? In primi¬ tive societies moral education consisted of the imposition of certain forms of conduct upon the boy or girl. All educational means, imitation, emula¬ tion, coercion were used to the end that each member of the tribe should act like every other. Results of early education were tested by the severe trials of the initiation ceremonies, the emphasis being upon conduct and not at all upon the ideas behind that conduct. “Theirs not to reason why; theirs not to make reply; theirs but to do or die.” In modern education there is a wealth of well-established experience con¬ cerning conduct training. It is a matter of habit formation, now so care¬ fully analyzed and so clearly understood by our investigators and research workers. It depends first upon trial and error, the prompt recognition of the right response when it comes, the rewarding of right action and the penalizing of wrong, and strict effort once a right response is fixed, forever to prevent a relapse. Right conduct, whether in small matters like golf, motoring, or manners, or in important matters like morals, can be taught directly, not as a byproduct ; and there are methods of teaching that are right and ways that are wrong. It is here that association with men and women of character has its great¬ est value. Pupils imitate not only their teachers but older pupils as well, thus laying emphasis upon what is known as the tone or spirit of a school. Right conduct is habituated -and the tendency to relapse diminished if right examples exclusively surround the learner. But neither knowledge of right and wrong, nor proper habits of action, nor both together, are certain to produce the moral trustworthiness that we call character. In some way or other, we must go beyond mere knowledge on the one hand or formal conduct on the other. To knowledge must be added an ability to perceive the principle applicable in a new, hitherto un¬ experienced, situation. To this knowledge must be added the “drive,” as the psychologists term it, that brings corresponding conduct in its wake. The moral actions of the primitive tribe extend only to their traditional environment. The change of situation brought about by the coming of foreign ideas frequently causes the downfall of the tribe. In modern society we find similar results of changed conditions. Staid citizens with high standards in their home surroundings become mightily changed when they enter the army, doffing not only their civilian garb, but the manners, customs, and social controls of home. Traveling men are often different when they are away from home. If it is to be successful, character educa¬ tion must extend the attitude of moral inquiry from the original situations in school to new situations over which the teacher has no control. Department of Superintendence 761 Out of this necessity of preparing one to act rightly in new situations arises the great difficulty in the formation of character. In a formal way, we may teach the knowledge. In a prescribed fashion we may teach and habituate a part of the conduct. But the generalization of the first and the relation of the latter to it requires so large an educational situation and so close an approximation to life that it is too big to be confined within the walls of the school. This educational process must take place under condi¬ tions that are as nearly like life outside the school as it is possible to make them. The character education inquiry, which has been working at Teachers College, during the last five years, in its investigations of deceit, selfcontrol, and persistence, has been looking into the problems of character. Unlike so many former studies, it has not confined itself to either of the first two ele¬ ments or to both, but has boldly looked into the unexplored areas of the third. I recommend careful study of these reports, the first of which, “Studies in Deceit,” has already appeared, and the second and third of which are now in press. The conclusions, as one finds in scientific mono¬ graphs, are cautious and guarded. I shall not give them here — Professors Hartshorne and May will give them themselves — I propose rather to give you my own guesses as to the implications that these studies make. Bear in mind, I speak not for the Character Education Inquiry, not for Professor Hartshorne or Professor May. For all I know, each may entirely disagree. I am trying to answer a hypothetical question like this: What, in your judgment, is the best advice as to character education resulting from scientific investigations? First, I think scientific investigations point to the need of much more continuous and protracted education than is common in our public schools with their five-hour day, five-day week, thirty-six- week year. I should go so far as to say that they almost imply a boarding school, where the pupil’s life is ordered for all twentyfour hours of the day. Tom Brown went to this sort of school. So did the Brushwood Boy. I have no doubt that further scientific investigations will yield clearer understanding of the con¬ tributions of Eton, Rugby, Harrow, and some of our outstanding prepara¬ tory schools. To those of us who believe in the public schools, I think that character education will admit of accomplishment only when we make more serious effort to compensate for our lack of twentyfour-hour con¬ trol. This means not only the longer school day and greater use of extra¬ curriculum activities, but it means bringing into harmony all the educa¬ tional agencies of the community that influence the child — the press, the theater, and the motion picture, the neighborhood, the vocation, children’s organizations, the church, and particularly the home and the school. In the boarding school these are all under the control of one authority, and hence work together. In our public school situation, we must all work together, and this is no easy task. My second guess, from these scientific investigations, points to the need of a consistent and effective attack on character from a very early age. 762 National Education Association Thorndike once said, “You can teach an old dog new tricks, but you can’t make him forget his old ones.” There are several hints in these studies that bad character elements once acquired tend to persist and that teaching what to do is simple compared to teaching something not to do that is already accustomed to be done. This points to the unity of the college with the secondary school, the secondary school with the elementary, the elementary with the preschool, and all of these with the home. Parental education will assume vastly greater importance, it is my guess, when these character investigations become well known. My third guess is that these researches in character education will yield the most powerful arguments against individual instruction that we yet have found ; or, to put it oppositely, there are many hints here and there as to the importance of the group, the pack, the gang, the set. The practice and code of the group apparently is of utmost importance, and I spell out of this, as A1 Smith said, not only the importance of setting the ideals of the group, but the implication that usually only in the group and through the group can these good results be secured. There has been a notion that groups are undemocratic, that lines and stratifications are bad, that all should be alike. My guess is that we act, think, and enjoy life in groups, and that education should adjust itself to this peculiarity which social psychology should explain to us. My fourth guess is that research in character education points to the need of a happy pupil, if much progress is to be made. I do not mean hilarity, gayety, or sensuousness ; I mean an unworried life, a respect for the teacher, a sympathy with the ideals of the school, an enthusiasm or patriotism for the group to which he belongs. This applies not only to the school but to other groups, especially the home. A bad tone or a disloyal attitude seems to stifle progress. I hope that you will make no mistakes about these guesses of mine. They are not the conclusions of scientific investigation. They are, rather, the guesses of a layman who has read part of the reports and who in turn com¬ municates his surmises to you. Possibly the proper title should be, “The Effect of Scientific Investigations of Character Education upon William F. Russell.” I have tried to show that character education is of utmost importance, that it is perplexing and difficult, and that it is possible. Two elements, knowledge and conduct, respond to training, according to well under¬ stood psychological laws. The third element, however, is far more difficult, requiring an educational situation much like life itself. This means that interesting days are ahead, because either the teacher must control the child all the time, or other social agencies and the school must consciously join in a unified educational enterprise. It means that education must start much earlier, with special emphasis upon the home. It means that education must be carried on in groups, groups that are happy, groups that inspire confidence. Department of Superintendence 763 It is only in late years that vitamins were discovered and their impor¬ tance in our diet understood. It is only of relatively recent date that we learned that boiling water would kill the cholera and typhoid germs. Yet for ages Chinese mothers have fed their children bean curd and bean sprouts with a scientifically correct dietary content, and they have always boiled their water for tea. Recent investigations of character education make me think that the schoolmasters of Eton and Rugby in picking chil¬ dren from good homes and giving them schooling inside the building and education outside in the playfields knew what they were about. Here in the United States it has taken us a century to grant this opportunity for schooling to all our pupils. I wonder how long it will take us to extend this opportunity for education . The American people will never rest con¬ tent until this is accomplished. We all of us must enlist to fight the good fight. SOME HANDICAPS OF CHARACTER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES WILLIAM C. BAGLEY, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY Public education in our country can lay just claim to a goodly number of outstanding achievements. Its wide expansion both outward and up¬ ward during the past generation has been unprecedented in history and is unparalleled among contemporary peoples. It has set a new and remark¬ able record both in proportion of the total population enroled in school and in proportion of those enroled who are retained and advanced to the higher levels. Nor are the results of this vast expansion entirely of the intangible sort. They are definitely and measurably reflected in higher levels of health, culture, and economic efficiency among the masses of the people. Those who are responsible for the administration of public education are clearly justified in claiming a fair share of the credit for these advances. Through their specific health programs and through raising the general level of literacy and informed intelligence, the schools have certainly contributed to the striking decrease in the death rate. The rising curves of enrolment in the high schools and colleges have been consistently and definitely fol¬ lowed by rising curves in the circulation and consumption of solid litera¬ ture, both book and periodical, as the reports of publishers and of the public libraries abundantly show. If the consumption of good art and good music could be similarly measured, it would doubtless reveal similar evi¬ dences of an advance to higher levels of culture for which the schools and colleges have been in large part responsible. Following the expansion of education, too, there has been an equally notable and an even more notice¬ able expansion of material prosperity. One may be permitted at least to suggest that our contemporary unprecedented prosperity has been in¬ fluenced by some factors other than, or at least in addition to, the protec- 764 National Education Association tive tariff and the careful nursing of big business, and that the higher levels of trained intelligence made possible by the preceding expansion of public education have had something, if not indeed a very great deal, to do with it. Now that the national elections are over and the dominant political party again safely ensconced in power, one may perhaps make this claim without risking a charge of high treason. When we come, however, to the type of educational effort represented in the general topic of this morning’s program, the picture in many ways is not nearly so pleasant to contemplate. We need not dwell on the much discussed problems often referred to by the phrase, the “revolt of youth.” In all probability the oncoming generation as a whole is not more com¬ mitted to a moral revolt than were its predecessors back through the ages. Indeed, it seems to me as a whole rather more wholesome and clear-eyed than the generation that it will soon replace. But one can admit this general truth without being blind to certain specific conditions which are disquieting, to say the least, and which a responsible educational system must surely regard as part and parcel of its problems. The situation involves something akin to a paradox. Among a civilized and enlightened people, and a people certainly not characterized by exces¬ sive immorality, an excessive amount of lawlessness just as certainly pre¬ vails. By far the most significant problem confronting the American people today lies in the apparent impotence of our institutions of law and justice to curb the wide prevalence of serious crime. There can be no doubt that our crime ratios are much higher than in any other comparable nation, and there is evidence that the ratios of serious crime have been increasing over a period that has witnessed a marked and in some cases a striking decrease in serious crime in every nation with which we would wish to be compared. In other words, the situation that wTe are facing seems quite peculiar to our own country. Nor can it be explained on the theory that other nations have sent their criminal classes to our shores. Insofar as the homicide-rates can be considered as an index of the preva¬ lence of serious crime, the American states that have the largest proportions of foreign-born population are actually among the states that have the lowest crime ratios. We ourselves have sent substantial contingents of emigrants to one country — namely Canada — and on the whole a fairly good sampling of our own population. The Canadian prison records reveal the fact that the Canadian residents who were born in the United States show two and one-half times the proportion of criminality as do the native Canadians and double the proportion of criminality represented by groups emigrating to Canada from Great Britain. The crime situation is not, of course, an isolated phenomenon. It is rather the result of definite causes, and it is obviously symptomatic of certain more fundamental and deep-lying forces in our national life. Six¬ teen years ago, at the Philadelphia meeting, I called the attention of this department to the mounting crime-ratios as indicated by the rapidly in- Department of Superintendence 765 creasing homicide-rates in our cities. This was before the War and long before the advent of national prohibition which is often regarded as the primary cause of the present situation. As a matter of fact, the difficul¬ ties that have been encountered in enforcing prohibition are themselves the product of tendencies that were in evidence long before 1920. I shall attempt to set forth these tendencies as I conceive of them, some¬ what in the inverse order of the difficulties that they oppose to the solu¬ tion of the problem, although it may be said at the outset that there is no one of them that will not challenge the keenest educational statesmanship that our profession can command. 1. A most important handicap to all phases of educational efficiency in our country is the very great and constantly increasing mobility of our population. What this means in terms of retardation in the school progress of individual pupils has been shown by a number of investigations. We are interested just at present, however, in the effect of mobility upon the adult population. There are obvious inhibitions and repressions that go with a settled abode. The powerful social pressures that operate to con¬ trol individual conduct in stable population-groups do not have a chance to operate with anything approaching the same force in mobile groups. With a highly mobile and an increasingly mobile population, the task of education is one of compensating in some way for the controls which population-stability wmuld otherwise provide almost automatically. 2. A second factor of large moment can be traced to the diverse stand¬ ards of conduct represented by our conglomerate population. Here immi¬ gration has, of course, played an all-important role; but even among our native-born population there is a wide diversity of standards, due to racial, sectional, occupational, cultural, and religious differences. What some large groups reject as wrong, other large groups accept as right. Not in¬ frequently the laws of different states point in quite opposite directions. In some states, for example, the provision of separate schools for whites and negroes is prohibited by law; in other states, it is illegal not to make such provisions. In one state the reading of the Bible in the public schools is prescribed by law; in another state, it is proscribed. One state permits no divorces; another state does a thriving business by making the process of divorce simple and easy. Certain states prohibit betting on the races ; other states recognize and license the practise. Obviously the task of in- graining a respect for law under these conditions is a fairly heavy order for education to carry out. It is made no easier by grotesque differences in the administration of the law. A widow in one community is sen¬ tenced to life-imprisonment for bootlegging; in another community a notorious wholesale bootlegger who has brutally slain his wife goes scot- free, his atrocious crime condoned by the sympathetic tears of a jury. Again it will be granted that building up a respect for law in our school children will be no child’s play. 3. A third factor is even more fundamental. It has been recently de¬ fined by the historian, James Truslow Adams, as something akin to a tradi- 766 National Education Association tion of lawlessness. Our nation was founded on the basis of open and heroic resistance to clearly unjust laws imposed by the mother country. Mr. Adams has shown how this spirit persisted when our people came to make their own laws. Even so saintly a soul as Emerson said that too close an observance of the law was not the mark of a good citizen. He doubtless had in mind the fugitive-slave law in which he did not believe. Lincoln was savagely criticized because he held that this same law, which he disliked as much as Emerson, should nevertheless be obeyed. Indi¬ vidual choice of the law’s which we shall obey or disobey as we like, then, is no new thing. Kipling, thirty-five years ago, found it as an ingrained ingredient of the American Spirit — a subtle force That bids him flout the law he makes; That bids him make the law he flouts, ’Til dazed by many doubts he wakes The drumming guns — that have no doubts. We pay due respect to the sturdy individualism that openly rebels against oppression ; but this does not alter the fact that Lincoln was right. A democratic civilization must rest on an ingrained respect for law. To effect this end is one of the primary problems of education. And if Mr. Adams is right, we have before us a task of the first magnitude, for, if he is right, it means nothing less than a transformation of some of the deep- lying mores of our people. 4. A fourth and most important factor is unquestionably the very pros¬ perity that education itself has helped to bring about. Material prosperity is not necessarily a debilitating influence, but no one will deny that it may be. If education would raise the economic level of the people, then it must take steps to counteract the perils that increased wealth involves. Perhaps the chief peril is the sanction that it gives to ease and comfort and the paths of least resistance. Its clear tendency is to increase the spirit of in¬ dividualism, to multiply the opportunities for the gratification of individual desires, and to minimize the significance of sacrifice and renunciation. The increase of leisure means an increased moral hazard. During the past generation the forces that have operated to expand the reach and holding power of education have operated also to weaken the educational fiber, and consequently to prevent education from exerting its full potential influence against the debilitating tendencies that almost cer¬ tainly go with increased material prosperity. It is obvious that the vast upward expansion of American education would have been impossible if the rigorous standards governing secondary and higher schools in other countries had not been very greatly modified here. We have been face to face with two alternatives : ( 1 ) we could limit our high schools and col¬ leges to the few best fitted by nature and nurture to meet rigorous stand¬ ards or (2) we could open the high schools and colleges to the masses at a certain sacrifice of rigor. Consistently with our ideals of democracy we have chosen the latter course, and for one I rejoice that we have. Department of Superintendence 767 But we now face the very serious problem of correcting the tendency to looseness and softness that our policy so easily involves. Here, I believe, is the crucial problem of the next decade in American education. We must justify our democracy by demonstrating that, even with the handicaps of our mobile masses and the diverse standards of conduct represented by our conglomerate population and our tradition of lawlessness, and with an edu¬ cational system that keeps its doors open to all throughout all of its levels, we can make this educational system an effective source of mental and moral discipline for all ; that, even under these handicaps and with this con¬ dition, we can make public education the steadying and stabilizing force that it must be if our dreams of a triumphant democracy are to come true. And our first task, I am sure, is clearly to recognize that the relaxation of standards, while justified in our efforts to realize our democratic ideals, is not in itself a virtue. Quite naturally we have been glad to rationalize our policy, but this tendency has too often been an attempt to justify loose standards per se, rather than to recognize clearly and frankly the situation and its needs. As a result, educational theory has gone far beyond the needs of the situation ; it has sanctioned looseness when, without in the least curtailing educational expansion, it might easily have sanctioned rigor. In short, the net effect of these rationalized justifications of relaxed standards has been to open the paths of least resistance. The influence can even be traced in the changes that have taken place in our educational vo¬ cabulary. Practically every term suggestive of strength and vigor and rigor has been replaced by a weaker term. Certain words are never men¬ tioned in our discussions except as objects of opprobrium — such words, for example, as drill, review, and system. A most striking example of these softening processes has been the com¬ plete and total discrediting of the concept of mental discipline. The impli¬ cations of the experiments on the transfer of training have been carried far beyond the point justified by the experiments themselves and have been made the basis of a sweeping attack upon all school subjects that are in¬ herently difficult in the sense of being exact and exacting. The educational practitioner and the educational administrator, in my judgment, have not been primarily responsible for these weakening tend¬ encies. The spirit of the times has worked increasingly in this direction, and educational theory, in a very emphatic fashion, has compounded this influence. The extent to which these softening influences have gone is most clearly seen in the increasing vogue of what I shall call the freedom-theory of edu¬ cation. In its popular form, which I am sure is very far from what the sincere advocates of the socalled Progressive Movement would indorse, this theory defines individual freedom not only as an end of education, but also as the primary and most effective means to this end. Learning activities must not be imposed ; they must always take their cue from the immediate de¬ sires and purposes of the individual. The continuance of the learning process must be justified at each step by the learner’s own recognition of its value. Imposed tasks and prescribed programs of study not only violate the inher- 768 National Education Association ent right of the learner to make free choices, but are themselves either futile or negative as educational means. It would be unnecessary to refer to these extreme expressions of a theory which, sanely interpreted, has much to commend it, were it not for the fact that they have acquired a popular vogue of very wide dimensions, which makes them especially dangerous at the present time. Even in their extreme form, they might have a salutary influence upon an education regime that was ultra-wooden, ultra-formal, and ultra-rigorous, or in a nation long oppressed by the iron hand of autocratic rulers. At the present juncture in American civilization, however, they constitute about the last word in perilous adventure. They compound the forces that are already operating to weaken the educational fiber at the very time when a stiffening of that fiber is distinctly in order. I have already called attention to the social situation reflected by our heavy and apparently increasing ratios of serious crime. May I call atten¬ tion to another symptom of the Zeitgeist with which education should be even more seriously concerned? I refer to the rapidly increasing ratio of divorces to marriages. This phenomenon is particularly significant because it is hailed by many of our intellectual leaders as a sign of an increasing spirit of liberalism and tolerance among our people. Let us look at the facts. Taking the country as a whole, the divorce rate has doubled within the past generation, starting from an abnormally high initial point. It is still mounting. Today practically one marriage in every six may be expected to end in a divorce. In some of the states the ex¬ pectancy is one in five ; in at least one state, it is as high as one in three. How this compares with other not unprogressive countries is suggested when we find that our national divorce-rate is nearly fifteen times that of Canada. Now I have no prejudice, religious or otherwise, against divorce as such; I hold no brief for the immutability of the marriage contract ; but I do know that broken homes are cruel wrongs to children, and every pertinent investigation shows that from such homes an entirely disproportionate num¬ ber of delinquents, criminals, prostitutes, and other social misfits are re¬ cruited. I do not look upon our scandalous divorce-rates as a gratifying symptom of a growing spirit of liberalism among our people ; I see it rather as further evidence of a growing individualism, of an increasing tendency to place personal comfort, personal pleasure, and personal happiness above the welfare of others, and in this case above the welfare of children. It is an interesting commentary that the identical theory which glorifies freedom as the inalienable right of children in their education can also serve to rational¬ ize a social standard which will inevitably deny to children in ever-increasing numbers the right to a normal home. I ask you which of these two “rights” the children of the coming generations will thank us the more for respecting and preserving. As I see it, public education today is between two powerful pressures. On one side, it is pressed by the soft sentimentalism of the extreme freedom- theory ; on the other side, it is pressed by the hard materialism which stigma¬ tizes the budgets for public education as “sanctified squander.” In a very Department of Superintendence 769 real sense, public education is not only between Scylla and Charybdis, not only between the devil and the deep sea, it is between the upper and the nether millstones. Public attention will solve these problems. It will resist these pressures. But it will take hard thinking and some heroic action to do it. In the meantime, it is facing a task the magnitude of which we are only dimly sensing. This vast expansion of education, which has so greatly complicated our problem, is something more than a mere concomitant of our material prosperity. It is in part a cause of it ; in part, it is an answer to very definite needs which other contributing causes have brought about. It is, in fact, a clear-cut expression of the needs of our industrialized civilization. With increasing acceleration, the routine work, the work that can be done without judgment, is being done by automatic machinery. Fewer and fewer are the opportunities to earn a living in the routine trades; greater and greater are the needs on the stepped-up levels that require in¬ telligent adaptation. There are nearly two million fewer routine workers in agriculture and industry today than in 1920. There are many more workers on the levels represented by the professional and semi-professional callings. The crowding of high schools and colleges is no accident. It is the product of some of the most fundamental forces in social evolution. Even if it is a vogue, it is none the less a definite demand for a type of instruc¬ tion, inspiration, and discipline that will mean for the great masses a real intellectual advance. Even though they may be somewhat inarticulate, they are asking for bread — and we cannot, we must not, give them a stone. And happily the pessimism that beclouded our thinking for so many years as to possibilities of giving them real bread is now disappearing. The in¬ vestigations reported last year at Boston demonstrated that intelligence can be, in some measure, influenced by nurture. Since that time, the newer re¬ ports are even more encouraging. I have every faith that if we put our shoulders to the wheel we can solve the problem. From between these opposing pressures of soft sentimentalism and hard materialism, we can climb to a new plane — the plane of a virile, practical, and dynamic ideal¬ ism. I told you sixteen years ago that we could not build our democratic structure on the shifting sands of soft pedagogy. That statement still holds. There must be iron in the blood of education and lime in the bone. For the motto of an educational theory meet for the needs of democracy in an industrialized civilization, I propose the phrase — “Through discipline to freedom !’ CHARACTER EDUCATION FROM THE STANDPOINT OF THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION JOHN J. TIGERT, PRESIDENT, UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA, GAINESVILLE, FLA. The need of the United States for character education is paramount. The schools can make no larger contribution to democracy than character. These statements are almost selfevident and axiomatic. The appalling in¬ crease in divorces, murders, crimes, felonies, and vice of all kinds has 770 National Education Association stunned thoughtful people everywhere. Reliable statistics have demonstrated that the age level of crime has been rapidly sinking for years. The fact that an increasing proportion of crimes and misdemeanors are committed by boys and girls of school age is a challenge to every teacher in the land. By virtue of the disappearance of the old American home with its evenings of fireside dogma and parental control, and the inability of the church to adequately produce a new interpretation of spiritual life adapted to modern needs, and because of the acknowledged place which the school is coming to occupy in our social order, there has come to those engaged in education an opportunity for unparalleled service. The multiplication of machinery and the advances of science dazzle us from day to day. The catalog of scientific achievements of yesterday is almost unending. No imagination can conceive what tomorrow will bring forth. It is, nevertheless, evident that man’s capacity to apply the principles of science has outrun his ability to develop character and the human relation¬ ships which must inevitably control the adjustments of machinery if civiliza¬ tion is to advance rather than to decline. Whatever miracles may be wrought by science in the annihilation of time, space, and distance, it will never be able to produce a Messiah. The issue is clearly before us, the lines are drawn, the opportunity is ours, and the responsibility cannot be evaded. In his little book on the “Fundamentals of Prosperity,” Roger Babson draws a pathetic picture of the man of wealth depositing his stocks, bonds, securities, and other worldly goods in a great steel vault protected by vari¬ ous electrical and mechanical devices but apparently oblivious of the fact that the poorly paid, humpbacked clerk could thwart all this paraphernalia of protection with a duplicate key to the renter’s box. In the last analysis his risk depends upon the character of the man who controls the machinery. In fact, he well points out that the stocks, bonds, securities, deeds, and mort¬ gages are all valueless minus the element of human integrity — the integrity of lawyers, clerks, and stenographers who draw up the papers, the integrity of the courts and judges who enforce our claims, the integrity of the com¬ munity, which, in the last analysis, determines whether or not the orders of the courts and officials will be executed and respected. The complicated devices provided by railroads whereby safety is- assured the traveler come to naught when the human element fails. A blurred eye, a vicious will, a drunken hand at the throttle, an unreliable man at the switch, and the most elaborate system goes amuck. We boast of the fact that the whole population of the United States can ride simultaneously in automobiles. The mounting total of citizens slain on the highways has now reached nearly 25,000 annually, most of whom are boys and girls of school age. This slaughter of innocents will never be stopped by machinery. Education and the character of the man at the wheel are the fundamental factors in this problem. Department of Superintendence 771 I have neither the time nor the disposition to enter into the long drawn out controversy on the effects of heredity versus environment, or of those who put their faith in nature as against those who believe in nurture. As is usually the case in such arguments there is truth in each of these contentions. There are truths to be applied from the thinking of all of these schools of thought in our attack upon the problem of character educa¬ tion. As to whether nature or nurture plays the major role in the develop¬ ment of character depends, in my opinion, upon the individual cases. The individual strong in his heredity will overcome to a large extent the normal environment. Some environments are so intensive as to make the most posi¬ tive individuals creatures of circumstance. Some day, I believe that more attention will be given to the biological factors which enter into the making of desirable citizens. The law of heredity and the principle that like begets like are relatively irrefutable. Countless scientific experiments pro¬ claim this truth. History and biography echo it. Dr. Winship has told with marvelous skill the story of the Jukes and the Edwards families. Without entering into the controversy concerning the transmission of acquired characters, a casual observer of events notes that there is a tendency for qualities and dispositions which are inherent to pass on from genera¬ tion to generation. Napoleon Bonaparte, perhaps the strongest personality in modern times in terms of will and intellect, could hardly have been trained out of his pas¬ sion for war, nor could the great Bach have been the progenitor of distin¬ guished soldiers and generals. At a family reunion of the Bachs there were present 120 great musicians. The Dictionary of Music names 57 outstand¬ ing musicians in this family. In his great lecture on Sour Grapes, Edward Amherst Ott says: The baby Mozart toddled to the piano and began to play when he was four years old. At six, he was composing his own music. At twelve, the crowned heads of Europe were listening to his concerts. At twenty-three, they crowned him peerless and master in his art. At thirty-five, the harpstrings broke, and the soul of this gentle master joined the Choir Invisible. The lily fingers, running over the ivory keys of the piano, struck from it all the melodies celestial, the harmonies divine. The stern hands of Napoleon were lifted above the keyboard of Europe, and struck from it all the wild, grand music of murderous war; but both men played by the same power of inherent genius, each man from the inside outward, each upon his own keyboard. We can trace the pedigree of certain horses in Kentucky through a long line of ancestry to the plains of Arabia. Through all these ages men have selected animals for propagation which would tend to have certain char¬ acteristics, particularly of speed. The same can be said, in a less degree perhaps, of certain varieties of stock such as hogs and dogs. Some day educators and scientific men will interest themselves as much in the applica¬ tion of the principles of heredity to the propagation ot character in man as they have in the brutes. I do not believe that I am too optimistic in prophesying this. 772 National Education Association The philosophy of character education would involve a statement of objectives. I do not believe that it is necessary for me to take much time in such a statement. The scientific establishment of these objectives and the setting up of an educational technic to accomplish them awaits the progress of psychology and scientific investigation. However, we can proceed on a practical or empirical basis. Various committees have formu¬ lated objectives of character education. From the time of Moses we have had commandments, codes, and catalogs of virtue which are ample for prac¬ tical needs. The Sermon on the Mount with its Beatitudes, the moraliz¬ ing of Socrates wandering penniless through the streets of Athens, the cardi¬ nal virtues set up by innumerable philosophers, not to speak of the programs of a myriad of modern organizations including the Pathfinders, Knighthood of Youth, the Boy Scouts with what President Coolidge has aptly charac¬ terized as a “duo-decalog,” and various junior republics and organizations, have furnished us the principles which will serve our purposes. Anyone desiring to study these latter can find a complete bibliography in the report of the Committee on Character Education of the National Education Asso¬ ciation, of which Milton Bennion was Chairman, and which was published as Bulletin No. 7, 1926, by the United States Bureau of Education. This bulletin has a most exhaustive canvass of the whole situation relative to character education. If we could devise methods and a technic which would accomplish objectives we should not have much difficulty in setting up a program which would transform the character of our citizenship in the coming generations. A philosophy of aims seems to me to be one of the least of our difficulties. Old-fashioned moralists were satisfied with conscience as a guide. Personally, I believe that all the objectives could be reduced to one principle, either of conscience or the Golden Rule, and bring about an immeasurable result if we only knew how to do it. A school teacher who affected more vitally the character of boys than any other man that I have ever known and who made the greatest impres¬ sion upon me of all the instructors with whom I came in contact, had only one commandment, which was “Don’t do anything on the sly.” It was the only “Don’t” in his gospel of “Do.” Times without number I have heard him say: Boys, don’t do things on the sly. A brave man never does things on the sly. Whenever you get the consent of your mind to do in the darkness a thing that you wouldn’t do in the broad daylight, you’re a coward, and you’ll stay a coward until you cultivate a spirit of openness. I despise a coward. Everybody does. I wouldn’t, I wouldn’t, I wouldn’t — for all the world — I wouldn’t do anything on the sly. Let your actions always be such that if the keen sunlight of publicity were turned in, it wouldn’t make you ashamed. Boys, don’t do anything on the sly. These are the words of W. R. Webb, familiarly known throughout the South as “Old Sawney,” a Confederate soldier, a life-long school man, hon¬ ored at the end by a short term in the United States Senate. Department of Superintendence 773 The most fundamental factor in our problem of producing better citizens is a matter of method. Perhaps all of us know more good than we can practice or are able to teach to others. In the effort to apply methods in this field the greatest difference of opinion exists with reference to the rela¬ tive efficacy of direct and indirect methods. Here again I do not desire to enter the arena of controversy. Here again I believe that there is virtue in the contention of both groups. There is no doubt in my mind that to some extent virtue is knowledge and that character can be taught. I am still more convinced that character can be developed and formed indirectly. The direct method of teaching cannot always be successful. Boys and girls may learn ethics in the same way that they learn mathematics. Many of us have been perfect in examinations in algebra, trigonometry, and calculus with¬ out having found occasion to make practical application of any of the truths, and so it may be with learning virtue and studying character. A professor in France, where character instruction has been tried on a national scale, and with more thoroughness than anywhere else, said once, “The best pupil in my class is the biggest knave.” Rousseau gave us one of the finest philosophies of character education of any man of modern time. While writing a philosophy of character education, his own child was neglected and finally became an inmate in a public institution. Rousseau himself, though exposing much of the vileness of his life in his confessions, did not tell the whole story. At the present moment many schools are setting up curricula and pro¬ grams for character instruction. Some of these are establishing separate de¬ partments headed up by directors of character education. I see no objec¬ tion to this. In fact, the whole movement seems to promise well, provided it is not assumed that directors and members of a department of character education can supersede teachers, the regular curriculum, and the various extra-curriculum activities, and assume sole responsibility for character training. All of the subjects in the curriculum can be used for the betterment of character. It is true that some subjects, particularly the social sciences, lend themselves more readily to this, perhaps, than others. In the extra¬ curriculum activities, especially in athletics and games, we find the most convenient and effective agency to accomplish our ends. At no place in our whole educational scheme of things do I believe we can employ with more telling effect our philosophy of education through doing. We have had an historical example in the failure to improve health in our citizen¬ ship through attempts simply to teach physiology and hygiene. Our new methods of health education with special attention to the formation of health habits in children in the primary grades who are as yet unable to understand the principle of health and hygiene indicate clearly that we can accomplish equally significant results in the field of character education. The manifold schemes of pupil government, young republics, and leagues of citizenship, comparable to similar organizations in the field of health education will undoubtedly bring about identical results. In fact, all of 774 National Education Association these plans are worthy of study and most of them will be found valuable. As a normal process, character is largely a matter of growth and in a large measure unconscious growth. This does not apply, of course, to all in¬ dividuals and in all circumstances. I need not linger on this point. In my study of the subject I am convinced that an effective use of all of the agencies of the school, both curriculum and extra-curriculum, as projects for the training of character is an important fact upon which we should place major emphasis. Doing and acting might be mentioned as just as significant in the conduct of teachers as in the educational method. It is my observation that no teacher who is careless of her own health ever becomes very effective in producing health habits in young children. By the same token it can never be hoped or expected that teachers who do not daily practice the best that is in them will accomplish much in training character. There is the oft quoted ex¬ ample of Emerson, who told one of his teachers, “Your actions speak so loud that I cannot hear what you say.” I wish to go on record in expressing the conviction that in the develop¬ ment of character, religion should supplement ethics. We all recognize the impossibility of teaching religion in the public schools. The system employed in Gary, Indiana, Toledo, Ohio, and other places, whereby pupils are excused for religious instruction in the churches of their choice, is the best device which we now have. I know that this plan has been attacked in the courts but in all the cases which I have reviewed, the courts have upheld the practice. This particular function belongs to the church but the school should supplement the efforts of the church as far as possible. Often¬ times, schemes and plans of moral instruction fail to accomplish results. The power of religious emotion will accomplish results that teaching cannot hope to attain. Ethical societies cannot supplant the church. Knowledge and intelligence are helpful but knowledge will not make a good citizen when the heart is malicious. Education sometimes elevates the common thief to the station of a high-powered burglar. Poison, knives, and fire arms have their place in the advancement of civilization, but only when in the hands of scientific men or well intentioned citizens. Placed at the disposal of the ignorant or the malicious they become weapons for social destruction. Those scientists who discovered the process of dissecting the human body with sharp instruments have done much to alleviate pain, propagate life, and advance civilization. The man who discovered that these instru¬ ments should be sterilized made the most important discovery of all. If I were to be operated upon I should far prefer that the instruments should be dull and the surgeon somewhat ignorant of the best practises of his pro¬ fession, than that the instruments should be sharp and infected with germs, or the surgeon wise and unscrupulous, for in both circumstances I believe that my opportunity of survival would be much better. No one has expressed more clearly the place of religion in the program of character development and its relation to ethics than the French philoso¬ pher Amiel : Department of Superintendence 775 Christianity brings and preaches salvation by the conversion of the will, human¬ ism by the emancipation of the mind. One attacks the heart, the other the brain. Both wish to enable man to reach his ideal. But the ideal differs, if not by its con¬ tent, at least by the disposition of its content, by the predominance and sovereignty given to this for that inner power. For one, the mind is an organ of the soul ; for the other, the soul is an inferior state of the mind ; the one wishes to enlighten by making better; the other to make better by enlightening. It is the difference be¬ tween Socrates and Jesus. ADDRESS ON BEING INTRODUCED TO THE DEPART¬ MENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE . UEL W. LAMKIN, PRESIDENT OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION AND PRESIDENT OF THE NORTHWEST MISSOURI STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, MARYVILLE, MO. I feel honored at being presented to you this afternoon in company with the others who are on the program. One of them represents those who fought to maintain the ideals of America on the battlefields of the World War. There is another who is executing the ideals of America and who is the Governor of a great state. There is still another who is instilling into the future citizens of America the ideals which will make America great tomorrow. I am sure I shall be pardoned if I speak to you not only as members of this Department but as brother members of the great National Education Association. When we think about the recent appointment of a United States Commissioner of Education we think of the comment which Will Rogers made when there appeared the first published letter of Mr. Hoover saying that he would stand as a candidate for the presidency of the United States. You will remember that letter -was published and Rogers said, “Now we will see whether qualifications are an asset or a liability in a candidate for President.” I am sure those of us who are engaged in education, and those of us in Cleveland who are interested in education are glad to note that qualifica¬ tions are considered an asset in the appointment of a new Commissioner of Education. I have but one thing more to say. I am sure you have appreciated and enjoyed this great program that you have had here. I am sure it will mean much to education in America. I hope you will not forget that this sum¬ mer the National Education Association will meet in Atlanta. They tell us it is not hot there in the summer time, that it is no hotter there than it is cold in some other parts of the United States in the winter time. Seriously, they tell us that the altitude of Atlanta, situated as it is in that large area east of the Mississippi, is such that it will make a summer session pleasant I hope one of the early tasks of the new president of this Department will be the preparation of a program for this Department that % will cause a large number of you to go to Atlanta for the program. 776 National Education Association There will be a number of you who will go for the Coca Cola. I hope Superintendent Cody will not insist on your going to the town which he says has become a great importing city — the city of Detroit — before next year, or before you get the habit of using Coca Cola in Atlanta. There is to be a great barbecue, and you will there have an opportunity to see and to know something more of the South today. The South needs this Department of Superintendence. You need to know it as the New South, as a part of this great America. As President of the National Education Association, working to get a program that will in a measure compare with the program which Superin¬ tendent Boynton has arranged for you, I join with the Superintendent of Schools of Atlanta, the State Superintendent of Schools, the school people and the citizens, not only of Georgia but of the great Southeast to urge that you and your teachers take a week off beginning June 28, Friday night, up to and including our closing with a great patriotic rally on the morning of the Fourth of July. We want you to spend that time in a convention of the National Education Association this year. While conventions are not the most important part of a professional organization yet they play their part. I hope they will be successful, as will our work for the betterment of teaching in the schools, which after all is the primary object of our professional organization. I wish you Godspeed and good luck in all of your work in future years. ADDRESS ON BEING INTRODUCED TO THE DEPART¬ MENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE WILLIAM JOHN COOPER, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION It is most gracious of Doctor Boynton to invite me to the platform of this great convention and to present me thus formally to my colleagues in education. He displayed toward me a rare quality of mercy, and perhaps toward you also, in suggesting that only a brief address would be expected on this occasion. I know that you do not expect a commissioner who has been in office for less than three weeks and who has had no oppor¬ tunity to master routine and administrative detail to suggest even an outline of policies for the Bureau of Education. You rightly expect that policies will be developed as needs arise, and I am confident that in the develop¬ ment of such policies I shall enjoy the advice and the counsel of many of you who are sitting in this audience today. It is not without significance to me, however, that this first formal introduction to my colleagues is to the Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association and that it occurs in the state of Ohio. For you will consider it in order, I am sure, if I recall to your minds some contributions of Ohio and of this Association to the establishment of the United States Bureau of Edu¬ cation. To do this in the short time allotted me I must pass directly to events immediately following the close of the Civil War and comment Department of Superintendence 777 on those acts which actually accomplished the establishment of the Bureau of Education. This I do without in any way disparaging either the splendid vision of Henry Barnard or the heroic efforts of Barnard and his colleagues for more than 20 years before that time. First, then, may I speak briefly of the contributions of Ohio as repre¬ sented by three of her distinguished sons. The superintendent of schools of this very city in which we are now meeting, Andrew Jackson Rickoff, made an outstanding address before the National Education Association meeting at Harrisburg, Pa., in 1865 when he spoke on the topic “A Na¬ tional Bureau of Education.” 1 In fighting for the endorsement of such a Bureau on the floor of the convention Superintendent Rickoff moved an amendment to Hart’s motion of approval. This amendment provided for a committee which should follow up the endorsement and make the asso¬ ciation’s approval known and felt in the halls of Congress.2 It is worthy of note also that in Superintendent Rickoff’s address are to be found out¬ lined practically all the functions that the Bureau of Education has actually exercised since its establishment. Next, may I remind you that the chairman of the committee which repre¬ sented your organization, then called the National Association of School Superintendents, in its efforts to have a Bureau of Education established was the Honorable E. E. White, Commissioner of Common Schools of the state of Ohio. I would that there were time to read you merely the intro¬ duction to Commissioner White's report since it constitutes an eloquent plea for universal education as a necessary prerequisite to universal liberty. So splendid is the argument that I wi§h to illustrate it by reading from it two brief paragraphs.3 When the exercise of sovereignty by the people is both universal and for the welfare of all , a democracy is the perfection of human government; but to the extent that such right is withheld from the people or is wrongfully exercised by them, just to that extent are democratic institutions imperfect and a failure. Hence the capability of the people to exercise sovereignty for the general welfare is a fundamental and vital condition of republican institutions. When such capability does not exist, the universal exercise of sovereignty is a condition of national weak¬ ness, if not of peril. I am thus led to inquire what this capability" includes, and what are the essential conditions of its existence. It clearly requires the necessary" intelligence to determine what will best sub¬ serve the interests of all ; and the degree of this intelligence must not only be suffi¬ cient for selfgovernment on the part of individuals and individual communities, but the people, as a whole, must be able to weigh and decide upon questions which involve national interests. Hence, the higher the civilization embodied, the wider the extent of territory embraced, and the more various the pursuits and physical conditions of the people, the higher the degree of intelligence required for the right exercise of sovereignty". 1 National Teachers Association: Journal of Proceedings and Lectures of the Annual Meeting held at Harrisburg: 1865: p. 2*99-310. 2 Ibid. p. 223-224. 3 E. E. White: “National Bureau of Education,” a paper read before the National Associa¬ tion of School Superintendents at Washington, D. C., February 7, 1866. Proceedings of the National Education Association, 1901. p. 420. 778 National Education Association But there is a third Ohio citizen whose interest was equally great and whose efforts actually accomplished the results desired. He was a distin¬ guished educator, soldier, and statesman, celebrated in our school histories as a martyred president, James A. Garfield, who introduced the bill “to establish a National Bureau of Education.” He became chairman of the select committee of seven to which the bill was referred. He made an able and brilliant speech in its behalf on June 8, 1866,1 and after an ad¬ verse vote on the measure secured a reconsideration of it and finally a favor¬ able vote. During his speech on this bill Garfield paid splendid tribute not only to the educators of Ohio but to the public spirit of her taxpayers. He said in part: Mr. Speaker, if I were called upon today to point to that in my own state of which I am most proud, I would not point to any of the flaming lines of her military record, to the heroic men and the brilliant officers she gave to the late contest; I would not point to any of her leading men of the past or the present; but I would point to her common schools; I would point to the honorable fact that in the great struggle of five years through which we have just passed she has expended $12,000,000 for the support of her public schools. I do not include in that amount the sums expended upon our higher institutions of learning. I would point to the fact that 52 percent of the taxation of Ohio for the last five years, aside from the war tax and the tax for the payment of her public debt, has been for the support of her schools. I would point to the schools of Cincinnati, Cleveland, Toledo, and other cities of the state, if I desired a stranger to see the glory of Ohio. I would point to the thirteen thousand schoolhouses and the seven hundred thousand pupils in the schools of Ohio. I would point to the $3,000,000 she has paid for schools during the last year alone. This, in my judgment, is the proper gauge by which to measure the progress and glory of states.2 Not only Ohio but also this great association assembled here today may take pride in the accomplishments of the Bureau of Education and a deep interest in its future success, since, according to the official records of the H ouse of Representatives, yours is the immediate responsibility for the establishment of this Bureau. From a report of the House Committee on Labor and Education to which was referred the report of the Commissioner of Education for 1867-68, 3 I read the following extract: The Department of Education was established in pursuance of an act which passed this House on the 19th of June, 1866, by a vote of 80 yeas to 44 nays, and the Senate without a division, February 26, 1867, and approved by the President March 2, 1867. . . . The bill for the foregoing act was reported by a select committee of this House, appointed on a memorial of the National Association of State and City Superin¬ tendents of Public Schools, which met in Washington in February, 1866, and was unanimously of the opinion that the establishment of a national office ‘would greatly promote the interests of education by rendering needed assistance in the establish- 1 James A. Garfield: “Education — A National Interest.” Speech of James A. Garfield of Ohio, in the House of Representatives, June 8, 1866, on a bill “To establish a National Bureau of Education,” etc. Proceedings of the National Education Association, 1901. p. 425-433. 2 Ibid. p. 428. 3 U. S. Congress. House of Representatives: Committee on Labor and Education Report. 1869. Department of Superintendence 779 ment of school systems where they do not now exist, and prove a potent means for improving and vitalizing existing systems.’ The Bureau of Education is operated today under that very act the text of which is omitted above, slightly amended by later appropriation acts. That act as we are specifically told in the record grew directly out of “a memorial of the National Association of State and City Superintendents of Public Schools.” If I may recall hurriedly the events of those few months they are these: The Washington meeting of the superintendents assembled February 7, 1866; Commissioner White’s paper mentioned above was read on the same day. Three members of this body, E. E. White of Ohio, Newton Bateman of Illinois, and J. S. Adams of Vermont, were appointed a committee to memorialize Congress on the subject. The memorial was promptly pre¬ pared dated February 10 and was presented in the House of Representa¬ tives by Congressman Garfield on February 18. And now that you, the school administrators of America who are carrying on the work so well begun by the National Association of Superintendents of Public Schools, have formally received the eighth Commissioner of Edu¬ cation here in this State of Ohio, what more should the Commissioner say? Perhaps it will suffice for him to state that he has the same faith in uni¬ versal education as a prerequisite to universal liberty as did Superintendent Rickoff, that he is as anxious for the Bureau of Education to render service to the schools of America as was Commissioner E. E. White, that he has the same pride in the public school systems of the American States as James A. Garfield had in the public schools of Ohio. In fact your Commis¬ sioner is the product of the public school system, elementary, secondary, and collegiate, of one of the States of this Union. For 22 years he has served public schools as teacher, supervisor, and as administrator. For nearly a decade he has been sitting among you as a fellow city superin¬ tendent or as a fellow state superintendent. He now awaits your advice, your counsel, and your instructions, for it is written: “Whosoever will be chief among you, let him be your servant.”1 ADDRESS ON BEING INTRODUCED TO THE DEPART¬ MENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE FRANK CODY, NEWLY ELECTED PRESIDENT OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE AND SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS DETROIT, MICH. I wish to congratulate Commissioner Cooper of California on the fact that during his speech he didn’t even mention California. I wish to bring you greetings from the city of Detroit, the city of flivvers and schools, the city of the quick and the dead. We are a national city, and possibly the largest importing city on the American continent. 1 Matt. XX :27. 780 National Education Association In honoring me I feel that you have also honored the 7000 splendid as¬ sistants that I have in the public school system of the city of Detroit. I have greatly admired the administration of Frank Boynton. No man has dared say a word against American education and its ideals for it has been written, “Let sleeping dogs lie.” They have been much awake during Frank Boynton’s administration. The slogan of the incoming administra¬ tion will be, “Let lying dogs sleep.” Again, I wish to thank you for this high honor. I know I shall have that splendid loyalty and cooperation that you have always given to my predecessors. I wish to assure you that I will give you my best. OHIO’S EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM JOHN L. CLIFTON, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, COLUMBUS, OHIO. Yesterday morning the Governor of our state called me and asked that I appear before you in his stead today. The Governor of the state of Ohio appoints the Director of Education so I came. He asked me to read to you a letter that he has written to the members of the National Education Association, Department of Superintendence, in convention assembled : I was recently honored by an invitation to appear before your convention on this date. At the time of my acceptance I felt assured that I could keep the ap¬ pointment. However, important matters of state make it imperative that I remain in Columbus at this time. Therefore, I am authorizing and directing the State Superintendent of Schools, Mr. Clifton, to address you representing the administration in its program of education. I am definitely interested in your deliberations and know that a great good will come from such meetings. I have personally a keen interest in the educational advancement of Ohio and of the nation, as I know that quality of its citizenship depends in large part upon a progressive program of public education. I congratulate you as a Department of the National Education Association on your accomplishments of the last several years and know you will go forward to even higher attainments. I am most cordially Myers Y. Cooper, Governor of Ohio. I have been thinking for the past few days of what Ohio has tried to do within the last year because personally I am more interested in the educa¬ tional problems of this state than I am in any other educational problems. I have tried to pick out two of the most important things we have at¬ tempted. I was very happy to note that one of the big problems before this Associa- ciation at this time was the equalization of educational opportunity. Out of Cleveland, within the last year, has come a discussion about the cost of education. We have lived so close to it in our state that we have paid very little attention to it. Department of Superintendence 781 The challenge to me in the cost of education has been great. I could say to some that the cost of education in the state of Ohio in the public schools has gone beyond the $100,000,000 a year mark. I know that if I would say that we would have many people distressed. We are not then talking in figures or in amounts, about the cost of education. But, as far as equalizing that cost — there is the question of who can pay the most easily, and that has been a great problem with us. I believe that within the past two months we have won a victory for education in our state that will possibly make new history in our educa¬ tional ideals and standards. Just a few days ago our present legislature, recognizing the need of equalization of educational opportunity, voted $300,000 for the purpose of rehabilitation of school buildings in those places where school buildings are most needed and where the inhabitants are less able to pay. We expect, and we have assurance, that that fund will go to $1,000,000 this year and $1,000,000 for 1930. That is simply to carry educational opportunity back into the most remote parts of our state and give those boys and girls the physical surroundings they so badly need. I do not believe that Ohio has done a more worthy thing for education at any time in the past than that. That $1,000,000 we expect to spend on rehabilitation this year does not come from direct taxation. It comes from indirect taxation and is given to the schools of our state without any strings or requirements attached to it. Also, from indirect taxation we re¬ ceive, this year, $3,000,000 to equalize the educational opportunity as far as maintenance is concerned. I am glad to note that state legislatures are recognizing the battle that public education has to fight. I am sure that all superintendents here know that the public schools have stood foremost in battling the opponents of public education, as far as direct taxation is concerned. We have given up the idea of a direct taxation as far as road building is concerned, as far as practically any other advancement in our program of citizenship is con¬ cerned, but the battle is still carried on by the public school people as far as direct taxation is concerned. I feel that when the legislature and the executive authority of our state realize the necessity of coming to our aid in promoting public education, we will have won a great battle. I have been thinking of the National Education Association and its in¬ fluence, as far as education is concerned. I believe that the National Edu¬ cation Association can be charged with the tremendous cost of public edu¬ cation today. If you read the history of the National Education Associa¬ tion you will find that back some thirty years ago the big problem before the educators, sponsored by the National Education Association, was the problem of the adolescent youth. Year after year the National Education Association was giving its programs over to the study of the adolescent youth until we, who were young at that time, thoroughly believed it. I 782 National Education Association do not know whether those methods are right or not, but I do know that we practise them. What we know we do. We had it trained into us too definitely that the adolescent youth was suffering on account of the fact that opportunity was not given to that boy or girl between the ages of eleven and fifteen, that should be given to him. So when we took the reins of the schools we were desperately desirous of doing something for the adolescent youth. As quickly as possible, in mushroom growth, came the junior high- school movement over the United States. Every state in the Union has a junior high-school movement, a. new program of education with tremen¬ dous costs. I believe that it is worth the cost. I believe that this junior high-school movement is worth all it is costing the state of Ohio. I am not ashamed of the fact that we are spending a tremendous amount of money for the advantage of those boys and girls between eleven and fifteen. The second most interesting thing that we have done in our state this year is that of radio education. I am sure that some of you know, if you live within a radius of about 500 miles of Ohio, that each afternoon at one-thirty we go on the air for a program of education to the boys and the girls of our state and the central and eastern states of the United States. We broadcast an educational program for the schools from WLW at Cin¬ cinnati, Ohio. It reaches about twenty-four states, and many places in Canada have been reached also. At the present time we have about 200,000 boys and girls as an audience. They have the facilities at hand to hear those programs. WLW is broad¬ casting for them twenty-one different types of programs each week, and these programs last for an hour. You will wonder how we are doing this. I think I should tell you within three or four minutes about radio education in our “School of the Air.” Some of you will say that possibly your program for the day is too full. If it is then stay off the air. One superintendent wrote me and said, “We would like to have a radio, won’t you buy one for us?” I answered back and said, “You do not need a radio.” He wrote the next week and said they had gotten one. I did not want him on the air. I did not care to have him listening in until he was ready. When he found out that it didn’t matter to us he got ready. I think that is education. Sometimes when you feel that somebody wants you to do the thing you do not care to do, or which you think you do not care to do, you do not do it. Therefore, we do not care to have anybody with us on the school of the air until they are ready for it. I think I should take the time to tell you how we secure our talent. We have practically all the talent we can take care of, men and women who are accustomed to large fees for putting on a program. We have asked many of them and they have been willing to give us that service for the serv¬ ice that they can render the boys and the girls in our state and other states. We are educating all of our talent along that line. If you are anticipating a call to go on our school of the air I want you to know that you are going Department of Superintendence 783 to be paid something better than money; you are going to be paid in the appreciation of the boys and girls in the classroom. If you are willing to come and give us your talents with that kind of pay we are glad to have you. We have the Governor of the state of Ohio and the Governor of the state of Kentucky, and other men of that quality. We have the poets of the present day who pass through our state from California to the East. We have all of those people who pass through our state going one way or the other, and they are willing to stop oft and give us that service because they are desirous of doing something for the next generation as far as citi¬ zenship is concerned. Therefore, in Ohio, we are trying to do the best we can for the boys and girls back in the classrooms. We realize too well that the superintendent who is not going to bring something away from the convention of the Department of Superintend¬ ence here this week, something of enthusiasm which is here in this meeting, some opportunity as far as education is concerned, has failed to justify his absence from his city. If you haven’t brought something to the meeting here, possibly it will be hard for you to take something back with you. Since I have known the leaders in the National Education Association I have come to appreciate that they, too, like the classroom teacher, get their greatest joy out of the service that they can render to the boys and the girls towards a better citi¬ zenship. Again, bringing the best wishes of the Governor of the state of Ohio and trying in my weak way to represent him here, I bring you the best good¬ will of our state and am happy to be in charge of the schools of Ohio when the Department of Superintendence saw fit to come to Cleveland. THE RELATION OF EDUCATION TO CITIZENSHIP PAUL V. MCNUTT, DEAN OF THE LAW SCHOOL, INDIANA UNIVERSITY, AND NATIONAL COMMANDER OF THE AMERICAN LEGION BLOOMINGTON, IND. I bring to you the hearty greetings of the American Legion and the American Legion Auxiliary. The American Legion today is composed of 800,000 men and women who are trying to carry the character and ideals of their wartime service into their peacetime service as citizens. I am here today to publicly reaffirm the belief of that organization in public educa¬ tion, and to express our faith that the educators of this country are building for the future and for the preservation of American ideals. I am going to talk to you briefly this afternoon. I had an experience not so many weeks ago in a schoolhouse in the northern part of Indiana. They had imported a speaker there. He got along pretty well for the first thirty minutes and they could have stood him for an hour. At the end of an hour and a half he looked around for the clock but he didn’t see any and so he took a fresh start. There was a voice in the rear of the room that said, “Brother we haven’t any clock in here but there is a calendar over 784 National Education Association there on the wall.” I notice that the designers of this building have taken the double precaution of putting two clocks within view of the speaker. What is the relationship of public education to citizenship? The in¬ tegrity of the nation depends upon public education, and public education must have the support of all of our citizens. The first thing which we must consider today is that the paramount duty of an enlightened government is to give adequate support to public educa¬ tion. We have heard complaints on every hand that we have been spending too much money upon public schools. That is not true. We must bring into this profession the best that America has to offer because the task which is placed in our hands is a task of the highest order and of the greatest importance. We are living in an age to which it is a privilege to belong, in which it is an adventure to live, especially in Chicago. The door of opportunity is opening wider than it has ever opened before and it is necessary for us to start to repay the ages for the accumulated store of knowledge from which we have drawn so liberally. It is our business, first of all, to teach the young of the land how to think; that is education. It is our business next to teach the young of the land to discipline themselves mentally as well as physically. And it is the business of all educators to teach the young of the land not only to know but to understand and to be willing to accept the responsibilities of citizen¬ ship. If public education does not do that then it does not justify the sup¬ port of the state, and then it has failed in one of its most important func¬ tions. Another thing which we must consider today is that educational op¬ portunity must be opened to all. There must be equality of opportunity for the young of the land. Whether they come from a hovel in the city or from a hut in the backwnods of the hills, they must be given the right to travel the path of success just as far as their capacities permit. It is only thus that we prove democracy. If public education means anything at all it means democracy at its best. There are those among us who have said that we must give educational opportunity only to those who have demonstrated the capacity to absorb that which is offered. That is not the spirit of America. We must offer educational opportunity to all alike. Those who reject it will fall by the wayside soon enough but we will find many among the number who can come up from the byroads, the hills, and the wilderness, and who will assume places of leadership in the future. There is another thing which confronts all of us today, and that is the education of the adult foreign-born. We are interested in the operation of this great melting pot of ours, we are interested in seeing to it that the melting pot does not overflow. We are interested in seeing to it that we assimilate those who have come to this land to find a haven and a refuge. We are responsible for making them into responsive and responsible Ameri¬ can citizens. Department of Superintendence 785 There are certain groups of the foreign-born who have become American citizens by naturalization and who openly declare their allegiance to two sovereigns, to the United States of America and to the sovereign of the land from whence they came. There are groups in this country who pay more attention to the words of the Premier of Italy than they do to the words of the President of the United States. It may be that throughout our educational institutions we can bring these people to a realization of their responsibilities to this nation. But we must say to them that if they expect to stay here, earn a livelihood here, rear a family here, under the protection of our institutions, then their al¬ legiance to the United States must be exclusive. There are certain other groups fostered by certain continental societies which claim to hold secretly the allegiance of those persons who have be¬ come American citizens by naturalization. In this insidious fashion these continental societies have sought to build up these groups, openly declaring their allegiance to the United States, secretly owing their allegiance to some alien power. No man can serve two masters; no citizen can serve two sovereigns; no nation can suffer a divided allegiance, but it is possible to win them. It is possible, by education, to bring to them a realization of the responsibility which rests upon them by reason of the opportunities which have been given them by this nation. If they are unwilling to accept that responsibility, if they persist in giving their allegiance to some other sovereign then I think we must say to them that the gate through which they came is open, and that their way is out. Unless they are willing to accept these responsibilities we have no place for them here. The thing which happened from 1917 to 1919 must never happen again. Over 2,000,000 men, or over eight percent of the military manpower of this country, sought exemption from national military sendee by reason of their allegiance to some alien power. As to the next matter which is before us, the basic thing, the relation of education to citizenship, there are only four duties of citizenship, four rec¬ ognized, legal duties of citizenship. As I said a moment ago, one of the purposes of public education is to teach the young of the land to recognize those duties. They fall under four heads: taxation, voting, police and wel¬ fare measures, political and military loyalty. There are only two things in the world which are both certain and un¬ popular: death and taxes. Taxes are the enforced proportional contribu¬ tion levied by the government on persons and property for the support of all necessary functions of government. The average citizen says, ^ es, I pay my taxes. Of course he does because he has to. But, in most of our communities, either through waste or extravagance, or for other reasons, we find high tax rates. The higher the rate the more we hide, and the more we hide the higher the rate. It is a vicious circle and sooner or later it reaches a breaking point. When it does the result is disastrous for all of us. 786 National Education Association Aside from teaching the young of the land that there is this responsibility, they must be led to recognize that the criterion of conduct is this: that every citizen owes his government the same high standard of honesty he owes his fellowman when he deals with him on the street. It is a simple recognition of a duty that the citizen has toward his government. The nation came into being with the cry, “No taxation without repre¬ sentation.” Yet, within the decade less than fifty percent of our people have been exercising the right of suffrage. They have been throwing away this priceless patrimony so dearly won by the blood of our forefathers. Em¬ phasis must be laid upon the second duty of citizenship, namely, the intel¬ ligent exercise of the right of suffrage. It isn’t alone a privilege, it is a duty which rests upon every citizen and it is the business of the public school to arouse, in all of the students, a desire to participate intelligently in this most important function of government. If wTe fail in this, we get away from the notion which we have had, that we are a “government of the people, by the people, for the people” and we lend ourselves to those who wTould destroy the present form of government. The third duty of citizenship has a rather ominous name, police and wel¬ fare measures. I do not mean by that the uniformed officer of the law who stands down here on the street and wears a badge, carries a gun and other things, but I mean something far more fundamental than that. I mean justice, which is the cornerstone on which all civilized society rests. All of us have been lectured of late on disrepect for law and disrespect for the Constitution. The average citizen who is not a criminal has no disrespect for law, and I am using that term in its fundamental sense, which is justice. He loves it. It is his life. He may have some disrespect for the way in which laws have been made, for the way in which they have been taught, for the way in which they have been administered, but he recognizes that the fundamental thing is that which keeps him from step¬ ping into the chasm of chaos. He does respect the Constitution when it actually proves to be the guarantee of life and of liberty and of property. But wffiat is responsible for the situation which we find in many parts of the country today? I was in Alabama just a few days ago. I saw a placard on the wall of an office that seemed to me to express the thing very definitely and clearly. This placard was entitled, “The Three Pass¬ ings. The Passing of the Buffalo; The Passing of the Indian; and The Passing of the Buck.” That is precisely wffiat we have done. We have handed this most important business over to organized minorities; we have seen this organization, and this organization, and this organization — farm, labor, business — many organizations which have no business except some pet legislative measure to put over, and by dint of log rolling, or trading, or the machinery best known to practical politicians they have succeeded in getting them all on the statute books. The Federal Code has 1700 double-column pages. When I left my native state of Indiana thirty days ago our code had 14,000 sections. The Department of Superintendence 78 7 General Assembly has been in session ever since and heaven knows how many there are there now. Half of what is there is utterly useless and befogged. If we are to suc¬ ceed in this great experiment of ours in a government of the people, then all of our people must take an intelligent interest and give careful con¬ sideration to all proposed legislation not only with a view to what is ex¬ pected to be accomplished thereby but likewise with a view to the means of achieving the end. Since this is the open season for general assemblies I should like to men¬ tion the thing which goes hand in hand with that, the welfare measures. No lobby is there for the unfortunates. Yet, the answer to the question, Am I my brother’s keeper? is, Yes. It is that whether we like it or not, and civilized society is responsible for the adequate care and protection of the unfortunate products of modern civilization. The fourth, and last, duty of citizenship is one which deserves the atten¬ tion of all American citizens today — political and military loyalty. The nation is only 153 years old. That isn’t old as you count the age of nations. Representative government is still an experiment but the thing which has marked our people since the very beginning has been a deter¬ mined faith in representative government. If we are to keep the faith then we must so train the youth of the land. Are we keeping it? Are we suc¬ ceeding in the greatest experiment of the ages? There are those among us who are whispering behind their hands — and I do not mean campaign whispers either — that we are failing in the great experiment, that we are following the history of ancient Rome, that we are on our way to a triumvirate, and finally through that to one man. It hasn’t been so many months ago that in the city of Washington, D. C., of all places, the head of one of the great organizations of this country stood up and said that what the nation needed was a dictator. Nonsense! Had he forgotten that the nation entered the World War among other things to destroy an autocracy, and that as a result of that war three au¬ tocracies were destroyed, the Romanoffs in Russia, the Hapsburgs in Aus¬ tria, and the Hohenzollerns in Germany? Had he forgotten that on nearby soils there had grown up three dictators, one in Spain, one in Tur¬ key, and one, who has been called the Lydia Pinkham and Henry Ford of the Old World, in Italy? A dictatorship is just as foreign to representative government as an autocracy ever thought of being. This is the simple doctrine of Amer¬ icanism which we must preach to the young of the land, that nothing is wrong with American institutions. The fault is with our people who must labor tirelessly to protect them and keep this a land where all are kings but no man wears a crown. I want to speak something of the loyalty which goes hand in hand with political loyalty, a loyalty which I may remind you is demanded by the law of the land. I speak now of military loyalty. I know that there are some who disagree with me, and yet, it is necessary for us 788 National Education Association to recognize certain legal obligations, certain constitutional obligations which are upon us. There are some who are going among the youth of the land today seeking to exact an oath never to serve the nation under arms in the event of a national emergency, who are seeking to destroy the army and the navy of the United States piecemeal, and they say that they are carry¬ ing the banner of peace, and they say that they are marching in the vanguard of the pageant which moves toward the millennium. I wish that were true. I wish that it were possible for us, or for any other group, to assure the world that there would never be any more armed conflict. There is no organization in the world, religious or other¬ wise, which is any more deeply interested in the cause of permanent peace than is the organization wdiich I have the honor to represent today. Its members have seen war and a little of it goes a long way. They want no more of it if it can be honorably avoided. That organization started out with that thing in mind when it put in the preamble to its constitution, “To make the right the master of might and to promote peace and goodwill on earth.” It has tried to do it by giving some earnest thought to it, just as you have, through the operation of its Commission on World Peace and Foreign Relations, through its participation in FIDAC, an organization of 9,000,000 men who served in the Allied Armies during the World War, to which every member of the American Legion belongs by reason of his membership, and which works night and day for a better under¬ standing between the nations there represented. You cannot tell me that those men wTho served shoulder to shoulder in a common cause, faced a common danger, are going to allow their nations to go to war over any trivial matter. But, in formulating its program of peace, the American Legion has recognized certain definite principles. I submit them to you, my fellow- teachers who have given thought to this matter, for consideration. I tell you that they are the result of experiences of the past. The scientists among us recognize that we learn of the future from the demonstrated facts of the past. The principles to which I refer are these : First: That a permanent peace must be peace with honor and se¬ curity ; Second: That a permanent peace must be based on justice to all peoples; Third : That a better method than war must be found for settling international disputes ; Fourth: Until such method is found and accepted by all of the na¬ tions, this nation must provide an adequate national defense, and that de¬ fense — mind you — must be based on equal service from all and special profit to none. That has been talked of many times and it is a matter upon which several people have had differing opinions. But the fact of the matter Department of Superintendence 789 is that the burden of war does not belong alone on the back of the man who carries a gun. It belongs on labor, on capital as well. There is an Act pending in the Congress of the United States today known as the Universal Draft Act. There are certain constitutional and other objections to that Act. Therefore, what the American Legion is asking for today in this regard, since it is not arbitrary in the matter, is that the Wainwright Resolution be adopted. That resolution empow¬ ers the President of the United States to appoint a Commission, con¬ sisting of certain members of the Cabinet, of the United States Senate, of the House of Representatives, and of certain representatives of labor, of in¬ dustry, and of the professions, to sit down and consider all of the elements involved in this matter, and finally to formulate an act which will be acceptable to all. The principle is sound. It is simply a question of the machinery which is involved. You have wondered, no doubt, why we have been interested in these things. The problem which has been submitted to you time and again is what we must do in these days to achieve the end we all are working for, namely, the peace of the world. We are looking in that direction. The question is, How does the road run? Are we to take a practical road or are we to take a chance on some other road? The American Legion has tried to give to the country what it considers a practical road. You wondered, when we came back, just what our notion would be. In the fall of 1919 in the city of Minneapolis at the annual convention the thought which was fresh in our minds was embodied in certain reso¬ lutions setting out what the American Legion thought was necessary for the immediate future. The very next year the Congress of the United States passed what was known as the National Defense Act of 1920 which followed paragraph for paragraph the resolution of that 1919 convention. That Act provided for a small, well-trained regular army, for a Na¬ tional Guard capable of assuming firstline duties, for organized reserves, for the Citizens’ Military Training Camps, and for the R. O. T. C., which you are acquainted with. If the policy meant anything at all the Legion thought it must be made something more than a mere “scrap of paper” and it asked that the regular army be built up to the size which would enable it to perform the functions assigned to it. The second thing was that the National Guard be built up to the point where it actually could perform the firstline duties. Also, the Act asked that one-fourth of the organized reserves be trained every year and that there be 40,000 in the C. M. T. C. and that the R. O. T. C. be en¬ larged and strengthened. Why? Because the burden, in the event of a national emergency will fall upon the citizen. If it is to fall upon the citizen he ought to know something about the important business which he is called upon to perform. You may not call it vocational educa¬ tion but it is just that thing. Heretofore we have sent the best in the land and they have paid a price which all of the sentiment in the world and all of the money in 790 National Education Association the world does not equal. Therefore, we ask that we train the youth of the land in this recognized duty of citizenship until we are certain, and the world is certain, that there will never be any more conflict. Why? Because in all of the wars in which the nation has participated since the Revolution, over one-half of our battle casualties have been due to our failure to know about the business which we had at hand. It is a wonderful thing for the nations of the world to build great monuments to the Unknown Soldier after the war is over. It fills you with a profound emotion to stand before those monuments — the monu¬ ments that we have in Arlington ; the simple, dignified tomb that the French have under the Arc de Triomphe and the one which is carved out of the cliff at Nice; the Victor Emanuel Tomb in Rome and the one in Strassburg and in Brussels and the one in the British Empire in West¬ minster Abbey. But it isn’t anything like the emotion that grips you when you stand before row upon row of white crosses which bear this inscription, “Here rests in eternal glory an American soldier known but to God,” and realize that half of those men are there because of the policy which this nation had pursued in the past. Is there a way? We have looked for the millennium for years, we have taken every reasonable step which has been offered, we have ratified a treaty in which we have renounced war as an instrument of national policy, but what does it mean? Is it, or can it be anything more than a friendly gesture? Can w^e afford to pin our faith now in a “piece of paper?” As long as there is hate, and lust, and greed, and murder, and envy in the hearts of individuals those same emotions will be reflected in the acts of nations, and as long as they are so reflected can we afford to pin our faith in agreements which might be broken? Can we afford to take the chance of losing our national institutions by reason of such a thing? It would seem not. Yet, the thing is worthwhile. These multilateral treaties are worth¬ while. We hope they are successful. We hope that they will accomplish the high purpose which has been set for them, and you do too. But, if we are going to make those gestures we ought to have some strength in the arm that makes them. Let me use a homely illustration there. If a puny weakling were to stand up here in front of this gather¬ ing and say, “I renounce fighting as an instrument of settling my diffi¬ culties with you gentlemen,” you wrould laugh behind your hands and tell him he had better renounce fighting; it wouldn’t do him any good to fight anyway. But, if a two-fisted gentleman were to stand up and say, “I renounce fighting as an instrument of settling my difficulties with you gentlemen,” you would applaud him for his moral courage. For the United States of America to stand weak and defenseless and renounce war as an instrument of national policy means little or nothing; for the United States of America to stand strong and able to defend it¬ self and renounce war as an instrument of national policy means that it assumes a place of leadership in the world. Department of Superintendence 791 That is precisely what has happened. You will remember that you were told the world would misunderstand the passage of the Cruiser Bill. It did not misunderstand it. Within ten days after that bill was signed a move for another disarmament conference came from Great Britain. It was necessary to be practical there. It is necessary to be practical now. We can be a practical people and at the same time maintain the spiritual and the material leadership of the world while we work, while we pray for the day when Mars will fade into the darkness of the night and in its stead will shine a star to guide all men, of all nations, the Star of Bethlehem. We face, all of us, great opportunities as do these youngsters whose lives are placed into our hands. May we be given the strength and the wisdom to guide them, may we be given the right and the power to guide them to useful citizenship. It is only thus that we can assure these free institutions of ours for the future. The world needs them, the world needs the leadership of a free people, but a people cannot long remain free if the people refuse to accept their responsibilities and lay their gifts in the lap of luxury. Along with a recognition of our responsibility must come a recogni¬ tion of the fact, because it is a fact, that most of us are the sons of Martha and are confronted with temptation. After all, the greatest joy which comes is in the performance of a worthwhile task. After all, that is what keeps you, that is what keeps me, in this business of ours, a most importance business. We have dedicated our lives to the youth of the land. No purpose is higher than that! SECRETARY'S MINUTES Cleveland, Ohio, February 24-28, 1929 OFFICERS Frank D. Boynton, President, Superintendent of Schools . Ithaca, New York Joseph M. Gwinn, L First Vicepresident, Superintendent of Schools . San Francisco, Calif. Frank G. Pickell, Second Vicepresident, Superintendent of Schools. . .Montclair, New Jersey Sherwood D. Shankland, Executive Secretary . 1201 16th Street N. W., Washington, D. C. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE Norman R. Crozier, Superintendent of Schools (term expires 1929) . Dallas, Texas E. E. Lewis, Professor of School Administration, Ohio State University (term expires 1930) . Columbus, Ohio Frank M. Underwood, District Superintendent of Schools (term expires 1931).. St. Louis Mo. Paul C. Stetson, Superintendent of Schools (term expires 1932) . Dayton, Ohio February 24 The fifty-ninth annual meeting of the Department of Superintendence opened Sunday afternoon, February 24, 1929, with a vesper service in the Music Hall of the Cleveland Public Auditorium. All other general ses¬ sions of the Department were held in the Arena of the Public Auditorium. 792 National Education Association February 25 After the convention had been called to order Monday morning, Presi¬ dent Boynton announced that the boys of the Cleveland public schools had presented to him a gavel to be used during the meeting. It was made from the wood of Admiral Perry’s flagship, the “Niagara.” He stated that the convention thesis was “How Can the Public Schools Better Serve Democ¬ racy; Increasingly Produce a Higher Type of Citizen?” At the close of the session the report of the Committee on Lay Relations was presented by the chairman, Superintendent M. G. Clark of Sioux City, Iowa. The report was referred to the Executive Committee. February 26 Honorary life membership was conferred on Mrs. Susan M. Dorsey, recently resigned superintendent of schools of Los Angeles, in acknowl¬ edgment of the splendid work which she has done. Honorary life membership was also conferred on William McAndrew, former president of the Department of Superintendence, and for many years a leader in its deliberations. Nominations for officers were made as follows: For president, Frank Cody, superintendent of schools, Detroit, Michigan; For second vice-presi¬ dent, Norman R. Crozier, superintendent of schools, Dallas, Texas; Law’- rence W. Mayberry, superintendent of schools, Wichita, Kansas; Frank G. Pickell, superintendent of school, Montclair, New Jersey; and D. E. Wiedman, superintendent of schools, Bellingham, Washington ; For mem¬ ber of the Executive Committee for four years, L. J. Hanifan, superintend¬ ent of schools, Paducah, Kentucky; and David E. Weglein, superintendent of schools, Baltimore, Maryland. February 27 President Boynton announced that the following telegram had been re¬ ceived from the Honorable Payson Smith, in response to a message sent to him by the Executive Committee : I am grateful to you and the Executive Committee for the cheering message received today. Am reading reports of your great meeting from which I am absent only in body. All good wishes. The following telegram from Mrs. Susan M. Dorsey was read to the convention : I accept with deep appreciation the honorary life membership so graciously bestowed by the Executive Committee in the Department of Superintendence. In turn may I wish for you all, continued success and satisfaction in the great work of education. On motion, a vote of appreciation was extended to Russell V. Morgan, Director of Music, and his associates for the fine musical program pre¬ sented by the pupils of the Cleveland public schools. On motion, Floyd A. Rowe, the Director of Physical Education, and his assistants were given a vote of appreciation for the wonderful demonstra- Department of Superintendence 793 tion of physical and health education on Monday night by the Cleveland public schools. February 28 At the close of the morning program Superintendent Randall J. Condon of Cincinnati presented the report of the Committee on Financing Educa¬ tional Research, which was approved and the committee continued. Superintendent John A. DeCamp of Utica, New York, presented the report of the Board of Tellers wThich was as follows: Cleveland, Ohio, February 27, 1929 To Frank D. Boynton, President of the Department of Superintendence, National Education Association We hereby certify that the election of officers of the Department of Superintend¬ ence was held this day in accordance with the provisions of the constitution and bylaws, and that the following persons were elected: President: Frank Cody, Superintendent of Schools, Detroit, Michigan. Second Vice president: Norman R. Crozier, Superintendent of Schools, Dallas, Texas Member of Executive Committee for a term of four years: David E. Weglein, superintendent of schools, Baltimore, Maryland Respectfully submitted, John A. DeCamp, Chairman A. S. Jessup E. E. Oberholtzer J. G. Moore C. C. Bishop Superintendent Willard E. Givens of Oakland, California, presented the report of the Auditing Committee, which was referred to the Executive Committee. Superintendent L. C. Ward of Fort Wayne, Indiana, presented the re¬ port of the Committee on Resolutions, and on motion the report was adopted. Randall J. Condon of Cincinnati, Ohio, proposed the following amend¬ ments to the constitution. They will come up for action at the business meeting of the Department in 1930: 1. Article III , Section 1. Insert after the word “associate" the word “life.” 2. Article III , Section 5. Change Section “5” to Section "6”, and in¬ sert a new Section 5 to read as follows : All members of the National Education Association who are eligible to active membership in the Department of Superintendence, shall become life members of the department upon the payment of a membership fee of $100 which may be made in ten equal annual payments, or upon securing a contribution of $250 to the Educational Research Fund, which may be paid in five equal annual instalments. All such contributions and life membership fees shall become a part of the Permanent Research Fund. Life members shall be exempt from the payment of all other membership fees, and shall have all the rights and privileges of active members. The convention adjourned at four o’clock Thursday afternoon, Febru¬ ary 28. 794 National Education Association RESOLUTIONS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF S UP ERIN TEND EN CE Adopted February 28, 1929 committee on resolutions William McAndrew, Chairman, Editor Educational Review . New York City L. C. Ward, Acting Chairman, Superintendent of Schools . Fort Wayne, Ind. Harvey O. Hutchinson, Superintendent of Schools . Elmira, N. Y. Norman R. Crozier, Superintendent of Schools . Dallas, Texas Leonard Young, Superintendent of Schools . Duluth, Minn. O. B. Strong, Superintendent of Schools . Savannah, Ga. L. W. Mayberry, Superintendent of Schools . Wichita, Kans. Irving W. Small, Superintendent of Schools . Bangor, Maine Leslie A. Butler, Superintendent of Schools . Grand Rapids, Mich. G. O. Swing, Superintendent of Schools . Covington, Ky. J. Harry Winstrom, Superintendent of Schools . Springfield, Ill. 1. The Main Purpose of the Public Schoo-ls Again we remind ourselves that our state systems of education were established in accord with the proposals of Washington, Franklin, Jeffer¬ son, and a long line of farseeing statesmen for the purpose of preserving and improving our political institutions. Again we recall that our wages are paid and our equipment provided by a tax on all the people whether or not they be parents. Thus reminded, we pledge ourselves anew to the direct teaching of the duties of citizenship in all the school grades. Not cul¬ ture, not scholarship, nor selfsupport, nor compliance with the entrance requirements of more advanced schools shall turn us from the duty of teaching our youth the needs of our civic life and from inspiring our citizens with a determination to improve it. 2. Federal Department erf Education Again we commend to the Congress of the United States the estab¬ lishment of a Department of Education not inferior in importance and dignity to the Department of Agriculture, or Commerce, or Labor, or War, or the Navy, and give to this Department the standing and honor ap¬ propriate thereto. To consider that the levying of import duties, the opera¬ tion of banking systems and of the postal service are more national and less local in scope than is education, is to deny to education the recognition which is its due. By national legislation we now seek to protect the republic against a flood of illprepared immigrants. It is no less a national matter to protect the nation as a whole against the ignorant fanaticism of improp¬ erly trained citizens growing up within our borders. The fundamental purposes of this nation, equal rights to life, liberty, and happiness, equal duties to promote justice, domestic tranquillity, common defense, and the general welfare are thwarted as long as the human product of a less for¬ tunate state is free to carry his dangerous ignorance to any other state. We urge that a Department of Education be established as a means to secure a more perfect Union. Department of Superintendence 795 3. A Fair Chance for the Rural Districts We renew our pledges to secure better support for rural schools through the advocacy of larger units of financial support, to the end that the country child and his parents may fully enjoy that equality of educational oppor¬ tunity which is our national boast. 4. Extension of Public Schools Convinced by the amazing increase in enrolments of the colleges and universities that our people are awake to the need of school training beyond the age of childhood, we commend the addition of junior colleges as an integral part of the public school system, and we advocate the establish¬ ment and generous support of one or more state universities in every com¬ monwealth of the Union. 5. Fitness for Educational Service If the nation’s purpose is to be realized, and if the teaching profession is to profit through the improved technics developed by a notable increase of scientific educational research, a higher degree of professional skill than is now common will be required. We pledge ourselves to continued alert¬ ness in professional study; to more effective provision for the training of teachers in service ; to demanding better preparation before the appointment of teachers, and to more drastic dismissals of those who fail to give ade¬ quate attention to improving their usefulness. 6. War We repeat our belief that war is an outworn barbarism which should be rejected by civilized nations. Education is life. It is inherently obligated to secure the use of intelligence and reason in the settlement of disputes. It proposes agreements in advance of difficulties so that settlements may be made without the destruction of life and property. We join with our fellow teachers overseas in devotion to the duty of training mankind to adjust disagreements without the shedding of blood. 7. Child Labor We continue our endorsement of intelligent legislation aiming at the liberation of children from the stunting effects of severe labor. The main and great purpose of public education cannot be realized unless all chil¬ dren are kept out of industry so long as their attendance upon school is more profitable to the nation than is their presence in factory, mine, or store. We insist that adequate provision be made by the schools to assure, through varied curriculums, equal opportunity to all children. 796 National Education Association 8. American Education Week Although every week of the school year is an education week, we believe that to concentrate the attention of the people upon the work and needs of the schools during a common period observed throughout the nation has proved a valuable project. We recommend a continuance of this ob¬ servance as a period of demonstration of the purposes and work of the schools. 9. Boy and Girl Scouts , Camp Fire Girls , Girl Reserves and Similar Organizations We are convinced that the work of Scout and similiar organizations is strongly contributing to the training for character sought by the schools. We do, therefore, in our several communities continue to advocate provi¬ sion for meeting places, aids to the instruction of adult leaders, and other helps which may be given by the school. 10. Parent-Teacher Organizations We compliment and commend the parent-teacher associations for their increasing attention to the problems of public education. We shall encourage reasonable participation in their activities by public school work¬ ers and shall assure them of our cooperation in their efforts for the good of childhood. 11. Other Supplementary Service By sad experience we know that too much dispersion of effort impairs the value of school service. Success in school work depends largely upon plans made well in advance of action. We pledge ourselves once more to persuade our communities to abstain from using, or misusing, the schools for the collection of money from children ; for the celebration of the numerous special wc*eks and special days, and other similar interruptions other than those approved by school boards and superintendents at least a year in advance. We recommend that solicitors for replies to question¬ naires be referred to the Research Department of the National Education Association, an obligation to which superintendents may consider them¬ selves bound by the passage of this resolution. 12. Economics We urge upon every community an honest study of its school budget. We remind those whom we serve that the average emolument of physicians, lawyers, architects, of all those persons in charge of interests no more precious than those in our care, is higher than formerly and is not being reduced. We condemn the attacks made upon school costs by uninformed persons, the intentions of whom are good ; by informed persons whose Department of Superintendence 797 intentions are bad, and by paid objectors who are concerned with their own fine salaries more than with the good of the state. We believe that expen¬ diture for public education is recognized by the best minds of the day as the most generally profitable investment the nation can make. We hold that failure to pay good wages for educational service is failing in securing the best results. 13. Support of the Federal Bureau AVe commend the Congress for its increasingly generous appropriations for the Bureau of Education pending the establishment of a Federal De¬ partment of Education. 14. Propaganda We reiterate our belief that the public schools shall offer no lodgment for literature of the propaganda type, nor any encouragement to speakers who have propaganda to spread through contacts with school children. We pledge ourselves to protect our schools against the insidious wiles of all agencies which seek to serve private ends through misuse of school pub¬ licity. 15. Restricted Immigration We endorse present legislation restricting the flood of unassimilable im¬ migration, whose only effect is to lower American standards of living, American wage rates, and American ideals. We pledge our support to any legislation having for its object the maintenance of a thoroughly re¬ stricted immigration, and a close enforcement of such restrictions. 16. Teachers Retirement Funds AA7e affirm our belief that an equitable and actuarially sound teacher retirement system is essential to the best interests of the nation and we therefore recommend a thorough study of such retirement program by all persons interested in education. 17. Appreciation We desire to express to the good people of Cleveland, to its municipal administration, and especially to Superintendent R. G. Jones and his co¬ workers in the schools of this city our appreciation of their endeavors to make of this convention a successful event and to convey to all of them our heartiest thanks for their assistance. 18. Our Own People We record our satisfaction with the w'ork of our officers, committees, and permanent staff, who have conducted the business of the department with fidelity, intelligence, and efficiency. Especially do we urge and commend 798 National Education Association the continuance of studies having for their object the elimination of waste in school procedure, the introduction of more successful methods of teach¬ ing and the realization of the important aims embodied in these resolutions. 19. Conclusion Continuing in the public employ with intent to serve our country to the best of our ability, convinced that no line of national activity is of more importance, we pledge ourselves to the support of these resolutions and to a fearless, energetic conduct and defense of the public school system to the end that it may approach to the peerless consummation visioned by its founders. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON LAY RELATIONS M. G. CLARK, CHAIRMAN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SIOUX CITY, IOWA The report of your Committee on Lay Relations is the baby report of the standing committees of the Department. It is a committee which was created at the last meeting of the Department, looking toward certain definite problems that needed to be solved. The story is told of a young physician just out of his interneship, who was called upon to treat a boil. He had never had experience in treating boils. He had had quite a lot of experience in treating burns; consequently, he burned the boil, in order that he might treat it scientifically. Your Committee on Lay Relations is attempting to solve the problems that have been placed before them in such a way that they will neither burn the boil nor boil the burn. They have had no glorious history of the past to maintain. They have had no precedents toward which they could look. Consequently, they have approached their work with an open mind feeling that the most necessary thing, perhaps, that they could do this year was to study the situation and make a report which would look toward more scientific reports in the future. The instructions which were given to this Committee a year ago at this convention were that: First: They were to examine into the purposes and merits of various lay groups, seeking recognition of the Department, and to report such of these organizations as they approved to the Executive Committee for their consideration. Second : They were to establish a working basis of understanding and cooperation between the Department and approved and accepted lay organi¬ zations. Before this Committee met the chairman of the Committee received a letter from the President of the Association in which there was a paragraph which read as follows: Department of Superintendence 799 It is the responsibility of the Committee on Lay Relations to take under con¬ sideration, and make definite recommendations, to the Executive Committee of the Department, of which the President is ex-officio chairman. Without a definite recommendation from the Committee on Lay Relations the Executive Committee will simply refer the same back again to the Committee on Lay Relations for further consideration. It is understood, therefore, by the Department that the work of the Committee on Lay Relations is to be reported to the Executive Commit¬ tee as the recommendations of the Lay Relations Committee but that the legality of their report is not established until it is acted upon by the Executive Committee and passed on through their channels. Some of the work that has come up to the committee has embraced consideration of the following organizations that have asked for certain recognitions, or certain recommendations concerning their work : The Junior Red Cross Aeronautics Radio Broadcasting Visual Education Short-Wave Broadcasting Calendar Simplification All of these requests have been very carefully studied by the committee, and I might say most of them have been sympathetically studied by the committee, but because of the ignorance of the committee, or the lack of information up to the present time, the committee has felt that it was not justified in making definite recommendations concerning the requests of any of these organizations. As a result, they have said to the Executive Committee: “We recommend that these matters shall be reserved for further study, further investigation, and further report.” Other problems that were brought to this committee were problems with which you are all conversant and which most of you spend quite a bit of time talking about in the lobbies. There were problems on the conduct of this meeting. The committee spent much time upon these problems. They have made certain definite recommendations to the Execu¬ tive Committee and through the Executive Committee, when it makes its report, you will find in the printed proceedings of the Department the results of the recommendations of this committee along those lines. There were also requests brought before the Committee on Lay Relations for affiliation of the following organizations: National Council of Supervisors of Nature Study and Gardening National Association for the Study of the Platoon or Work-Study Plan of School Organization A Department of Classroom Teachers National Academy of Visual Instruction All these matters have been carefully studied, reports have been made to the Executive Committee and their action will be taken upon the report of the Committee on Lay Relations. Finally, I may say that it has seemed to be the consensus of opinion of the committee during its two full days of conference that much care needs 800 National Education Association to be exercised that the purposes of the Department itself be not defeated by the extraneous and multitudinous interests and activities with which the Department meeting is becoming surrounded. The committee has made definite recommendations, therefore, so that the Department shall seek to avoid further complications of organiza¬ tion, that it very carefully study its present affiliated groups and seek possible simplifications and eliminations to the end that the Department itself may be assured of its own place in the annual convention week. REPORT OF AUDITING COMMITTEE W. E. GIVENS, CHAIRMAN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, OAKLAND, CAL. Your Auditing Committee for the Department of Superintendence, for the year 1928, respectfully reports as follows: All the usual books, vouch¬ ers, bank deposits, records and statements kept by Mr. S. D. Shankland were checked. Total receipts for 1928, $53,283.23. This includes $9374.68 from 1927. Disbursements for 1928, $40,050.84. Balance on hand as of January 15, 1929, $13,232.37. Your committee learned that all the business of the National Education Association is audited each year in June by a New York City firm of well- known auditors and because of the fact that the accounts of the Department of Superintendence are covered by that audit the Committee respectfully recommends that in the future the Department accept that audit and do away with the Auditing Committee and its report as now given. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON MILLION DOLLAR RESEARCH FUND RANDALL J. CONDON, CHAIRMAN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CINCINNATI, OHIO We, the committee appointed to consider a plan and propose a method for creating a fund that should yield an annual income sufficient to enable the department to carry forward its great studies in education upon a nation-wide basis for the benefit of the schools of the nation, make this recommendation : That the plans proposed, if approved by the depart¬ ment, be given to the Executive Committee and they be authorized to work out the necessary details to carry it into effect. I thought that the work of this committee was done when we had turned it over to the Executive Committee, but their comeback was that they insisted the committee should remain to carry out, and to carry into effect, whatever plans might be devised. When a letter was sent out to all members of the department, by Mr. Shankland, under date of January 12, we had in it this sentence: “We hope to be able to report at the Cleveland meeting that the $1,000,000 fund is in sight.” Department of Superintendence 801 I am ready today to make that report. The $1,000,000 fund is in sight but not to such a large extent that it needs to obscure our vision to the fact that there is a great deal more to be done. Those of you who received that letter didn’t suppose that the committee was so simple as to expect that 3648 members would sign pledge cards to the extent of $250, to be paid in $50 annual installments and that all we- would have to do would be to say that the committee now had only $75,000 to raise and the job would be over. I take great satisfaction in reporting that today there is on hand in this fund $10,000 as the result of that appeal. The pledges are still coming in. Since this meeting assembled the Kappa Phi Kappa, educational fra¬ ternity, has pledged $250. I have received the report only yesterday that the Yonkers Parent-Teacher Federation has agreed to underwrite the amount of the fund that should come from Yonkers. Just before I came to this meeting this morning a confidential and ad¬ vance report was placed in my hand. I am at liberty to refer to it but I cannot give out the information in any sense for publication. It refers to a plan by which the great engineering societies of this country are to raise an endowment of $7,000,000, $5,000,000 of which is to be used for research and $2,000,000 for their libraries. They set forth as one of their objectives this, “for the furtherance of research in science and in engineering, or for the advancement in any other manner of the profession of engineering, and the good of mankind.” If it is necessary for the engineering societies of this country to raise $5,000,000 to advance the welfare of mankind through engineering, it cer¬ tainly is even more incumbent on this department, representing the millions of children and the millions of teachers, to raise the modest sum of $1,000,- 000 that shall produce an income enabling us to make those studies which shall make for the welfare of mankind. We have embarked on this undertaking and we propose to see it through. There is to be no letup in our plans or our efforts until the fund has been accomplished. It may take one year, or it may take ten, but in the end there shall be $1,000,000 to the credit of this department that shall pro¬ duce an income to enable us for all time to come to carry forward those great studies in administration of education that shall redound to the wel¬ fare of the schools of this country. This great engineering society sent a representative to me this morning who said, “We are glad to have you know of our plans, and we will be glad to assist you in any way we can by advice or otherwise, to bring this to pass. We believe it is of the greatest importance that the educational forces of this country should have at their disposal a fund for the study of the problems of education as we are proposing to study the problems of engineering.” We closed our report last year by saying, after paying our tribute to the classroom teachers and to the principals and their association, for carrying on their studies: “We join with them in this great movement, in this study 802 National Education Association of our common and special problems, a study that shall make a pioneer pro¬ fession of education and that shall make of every teacher, principal and superintendent, a workman that needeth not to be ashamed.” This is a task that we have undertaken and we shall stay by it until it is realized. The Executive Committee and the committee appointed by the • Executive Committee for this task are now considering plans and have been considering them. Parent-teachers associations, friends of education, super¬ intendents themselves, and other school people are to be the sources of small subscriptions. We assume that it would not be a great task to go out to some of the great foundations or the great sources of wealth and secure the funds. We do not believe it should be done in that way. We want to be entirely independent of even any implied obligation to any source or influence outside of our own profession for the production of the funds that shall enable us to do this democratic piece of educational work. A proposal has been made and so that it may become effective, if it shall seem wise, I give notice this morning of an- amendment to the constitution to create an additional class of members called “life members” and with the thought that the payment of $100 for life membership in this department no other annual contributions shall be made. This may be paid in five or even in ten instalments. A payment by any superintendent of $100 over a series of annual payments constitutes life membership, and that sum should go into this endowment fund, or research foundation, and any superintend¬ ent who, through his local parent-teacher association, or other association of friends, is enabled to contribute $250, even though it may not be given by himself, shall also be constituted a life member of this association. These are the forms of the amendment that I propose today so that they may be considered for one year and so that they may be taken up at the business meeting next year for consideration. I will put the amendments into the written form provided by the constitution so that they may come up legally for consideration at that time. One man said to me yesterday, “I believe heart and soul in what you are doing. I haven’t a great amount of funds at my disposal but I do believe that I could get one commencement address a year at $50 and I would make that contribution to this research fund.” If any of you men know of high schools or colleges that need commence¬ ment addresses, go out and give those addresses and charge $100, keep $50 for yourselves and put $50 into the pot to carry on the study of research in education. Any form by which we can make the contribution through the years to build up this great fund is all right. When this task is completed you and I will know that in the years ahead there will be a fund, a sure fund, avail¬ able to enable the Department of Superintendence to study its own job, to study the problems of public school administration and annually make those contributions that shall redound to the welfare of the public schools of America. The Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction The department of supervisors and directors of instruction was created by the Board of Directors at its meeting in Minneapolis, July 4, 1928. The Board of Directors took the following action as shown by its minutes : President Adair in¬ formed the Board of Directors that requests had been made for a Department of Supervisors and Di¬ rectors of Instruction ; that the necessity for such a department had been substantiated by much data and that the department had complied with all the necessary rules for its creation. Mr. Rogers moved that a Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction be created. The motion was seconded and carried. It was then declared that the new de¬ partment had been duly created. The officers for the year 1929-30 are: President , Frank M. Under¬ wood, District Superintendent of Schools, St. Louis, Mo. ; First Vicepresident, Elizabeth Hall, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Minneapolis, Minn. ; Sec¬ ond Vicepresident, Jessie McLean, Teacher, Central State Teachers College, Mt. Pleasant, Mich. ; Secre¬ tary-Treasurer, James F. Hosic, Professor of Edu¬ cation, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City; Executive Committee, the officers named above, and William H. Burton, Associate Professor of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill.; Worth McClure, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Seattle, Wash.; Mabel E. Simpson, Director of Elementary Grades and Kindergartens, Roch¬ ester, N. Y. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of its meeting may be found in the 1928 volume of Proceedings, p 831- 832. [ 804] AIMS AND PURPOSES OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SUPER¬ VISORS AND DIRECTORS OF INSTRUCTION MARY A. S. MUGANj ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, FALL RIVER, MASS. Eight years ago, during the session of the Department of Superintend¬ ence at Atlantic City, Dr. James F. Hosic, the inspired founder of this organization, called a meeting of educators who had an especial interest in supervision. At this first meeting Dr. Hosic emphasized the fact that there was a dearth of literature on the subject of supervision. If one consulted catalogs of educational publications, many books and articles on administration would be found ; but with the exception of Dr. William Burton’s pioneer volume and a few other noteworthy treatises, there was very little published material on this important phase of educational activi¬ ties. We are aware, of course, that in the last six years, several important studies in the field of supervision have been published. Moreover, it was pointed out, there was no national organization, no association of comprehensive scope which had for its purpose the study of the problems of supervision and of supervisors. Thus out of a recognized need, this organization known, at first, as “The National Conference of Educational Method” had its inception and later development. From the beginning the voice of the organization was the magazine called The Journal of Educational Method which had on its cover, directly under the title, the phrase, “Devoted to the Improve¬ ment of Teaching and Supervision.” This Journal has kept up a high standard and has contained each month articles by successful and progres¬ sive educators — articles that are among the most vitally valuable and help¬ ful contributions that are available. There has been ample proof that the organization filled an important place in the educational world : 1. It attracted to its membership many supervisors who are most able and most progressive in the various fields of school work. 2. Educators of recognized standing and influence have been glad to serve on the board of directors. 3. At the sessions of the Department of Superintendence meetings were held which were well attended because there were always live addresses on outstanding problems of supervision and supervisors. Many of these addresses, as well as other articles published in The Journal of Educational Method , are in constant use in the classes of schools of education and in other centers for the professional improvement of teachers. 4. Its growth was healthy and steady. It has at present 1000 members and 3000 paid subscriptions to its magazine. 5. Finally, in July, 1928, it became a department of the National Education Asso¬ ciation, which action gives it, of course, increased prestige and scope. The name was changed from “The National Conference of Educational Method” to “The Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruc- [ 805 ] 806 National Education Association tion.” The title of the magazine was changed from The Journal of Edu¬ cational Method to Educational Metho-d. As this association progressed, certain aims and purposes developed of which the following have been the most noteworthy: 1. Efforts should be made to include in its membership as many educators as possible who are actively engaged in supervisory activities or who are students of supervision. 2. The meetings planned to be held at the summer and winter meeting of the National Education Association should be addressed by speakers of recognized ability and success who would have real and memorable contributions to give to the members of this organization. 3. The magazine, the voice of this organization, should be one of the mediums through which inspiration and practical help, in accord with the genuinely progres¬ sive educational ideas on teaching and supervision might be disseminated. 4. Committees should be appointed who would devote themselves to research on significant phases of supervision and on the activities of supervisors, — the results of these researches to be published in yearbooks. Two important yearbooks have already been published. 5. Supervisors of special subjects, such as music, drawing, penmanship, and the like, should be encouraged to join the organization with the expectation of getting worthwhile assistance and the opportunity for exchange of ideas. One session of the semi-annual meetings should include addresses by supervisors of special subjects. 6. In general, this department aims to devote all its energies to finding solu¬ tions for the problems of supervision, so that supervisors may be increasingly influential and expert in bringing about the improvement of teaching procedures. Naturally the final goal is the reaping of better schools for the children, whose growth and development are the joy, as well as the responsibility of this far- reaching work of supervision. PROBLEMS OF SUPERVISORS FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF THE DIRECTOR OF RESEARCH— ABSTRACT HAROLD H. BIXLER, DIRECTOR, TESTING AND GUIDANCE, ATLANTA, GA. If one looks at the outstanding problems of supervisors from any point of view, he is apt to discover that adequate preparation for the job is para¬ mount. Let us consider some of the phases of specialized preparation that the supervisor should have. Reorganization of the curriculum is such a pressing problem that every supervisor must give many hours of study to it. The supervisor will wish to promote the concept of an activity program. The curriculum will be centered more on the child than on subjectmatter. What else, then, shall be included in his preparation? From the point of view of the director of research, measurement is the next big problem that the supervisor faces. Perhaps he may have expert assistance in the form of a research department or psychological clinic. Nevertheless, the super¬ visor must also have thorough preparation in the field of measurement, if he is to use tests to the fullest extent. What, then, is the place of measurement in a progressive supervisory program? Let us first say that we are using the term, measurement , in a broad sense. Such a measurement program may include the following: Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 807 1. Standard tests are widely used. If these results are to be of greatest value, the scores must be in terms of a comparable unit. We believe that the grade score is the best unit. The grade or G score expresses the ability or achievement of a pupil in terms of the ability or achievement of the average pupil of a given grade throughout the nation. Grade scores are readily interpreted, both for purposes of classification and diagnosis. A grade score of 2.6 means that the achievement of the pupil is equivalent to that of the average second-grade pupil after six months of instruction. The grade score, therefore, is more meaningful to the average teacher than crude scores or age scores. 2. The second phase of a well-rounded measurement program is practise mate¬ rial or instructional tests. As Rugg and Shumaker point out in “The Child Cen¬ tered School,” many of the progressive schools neglect this phase of measurement. It seems certain that typical children cannot acquire skills, such as arithmetic, incidentally. When the need for number skill becomes evident, practise exercises should be introduced. Admitting the need and place of practise material, an im¬ portant consideration is the keeping of records. Individual record cards in the form of graphs are a valuable stimulus. Class graphs on the bulletin board are useful incentives. The one moot question has to do with the kind of scores. Here again, for comparative value, we strongly recommend G scores. The McCall- Crabbs Standard Test Lessons in Reading are typical of this kind of practise material, from which G scores are obtainable. 3. This phase of an integrated measurement program is the informal or un¬ standardized test. This is the ordinary examination which the teacher prepares. As teachers become acquainted with the technic of building and refining objective tests, this phase of measurement will assume a larger place in our thinking. It seems only reasonable that the supervisor and the director of research should assume joint responsibility for the construction of such informal tests as are needed for the supervisory program. But in addition to the use of informal tests for supervisory purposes, there is a definite place for the use of objective tests for teaching purposes. The multiple- choice, completion, and matching types of questions are excellent for the stimula¬ tion of thinking and discussion. One word of caution is in order. The teacher untrained in test technic is apt to build questions that test fact knowledge only. We therefore must face the problem of educating teachers in the technic of con¬ structing new-type examinations. 4. In an integrated measurement program we list ratings. Modern schools are giving more attention to the development of personality, health habits, and social attitudes. We note a tendency to rate pupils on these traits and to report these ratings on the report cards. By the same technic oulined above, ratings may be transmuted into grade scores, if desired. PROBLEMS IN SUPERVISION— ABSTRACT DANYLU BELSER, DIRECTOR, SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION, STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, MONTGOMERY, ALA. This discussion of problems of supervision is from the point of view of an official cooperator or consultant interested in the promotion of a pro¬ gram of education which includes parents and other citizens as well as children and teachers. No program is sound which does not include all of these. Throughout this country lay people are asking, “Why super¬ vision? What is its purpose? What are its results?” This constitutes the first and the age-old problem in any publicly sup¬ ported enterprise : The problem of interpreting the values of an institution 808 National Education Association or a practise to the people who pay for it. If you believe that any program of education should concern itself with its effect upon all of the people whom it is designed to serve, you will not question the people’s duty and right to be informed. The concept of education as the continuous development of the whole child has strengthened in practise the relationship between home, school, and community which for too long a time was a grudgingly accepted theory. We may say that supervision is concerned with supplying leadership in the development of a program of instruction which shall be able to measure its results, interpret its values, and continuously improve its technics. It exists in a service relationship to teaching, and its plan of work must con¬ sider the most effective coordination and direction of forces for the im¬ provement of teaching. How often we have agreed that it is necessary to begin with children and teachers where they are; that any purposeful program of supervision must arise out of the situation ; that knowledge of the resources and diffi¬ culties are basic to successful planning and yet how often have we narrowed our thinking to the four walls of the schoolroom without seeing them in relation to the whole group of forces at work. The supervisor and the teacher must together analyze the situation, dis¬ cover the interests and activities which furnish promising leads in child development, consider them in relation to educational principles and values, and aid in realizing a finer cooperation of all forces. But how can they acquire this fund of information when they are already overburdened with many and varied demands? Since this is a problem vital to the provision of good teaching, it is a problem in supervision. Just now the most feasible solution is the use of the visiting teacher movement, the parent-teacher, or school and community organization plan, the preschool movement, and the teacher-participation plan for curriculum development. These four forces offer contacts and cumulative records which if properly used will supply the needed information to the teacher and will provide an opportunity to interpret school progress and needs to the people. The visiting-teacher is a social adjuster. She helps to bring home and community into the school and to take the school more effectively to the home and the community. The parent-teacher movement brings to¬ gether the human forces most vitally influencing child growth. The pre¬ school service focuses attention upon child-development in the most for¬ mative period of his life and sends to the school records which make possible continuous growth toward integrated personality. The teacher-participation phase for curriculum development demands research and experimentation which discover better ways of doing old things and reveal new values for the program of education. Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 809 PROBLEMS OF SUPERVISORS AS SEEN BY THE COUNTY SUPERVISOR OF RURAL SCHOOLS— ABSTRACT HATTIE S. PARROTT, STATE SUPERVISOR OF RURAL SCHOOLS, RALEIGH, N. C. The real problems of the county supervisor are involved in the attain¬ ment of success or failure of the program on lines of work discussed below: 1. In order to effectively plan to improve the work of a countywide system of schools, the supervisor must have clearly in mind three important things. First, she must have definite detailed information as to the present status of the school system. Second, she must have in mind clear-cut and definite ideas as to the objectives these schools should ultimately attain. Third, she should know the means by which she can gradually lead the schools in the attainment of these objectives. 2. The next problem which claims the attention of the county supervisor is that of building up and keeping in the county an efficient teaching staff. The major objectives in building up and keeping a good corps of teachers in the system are: first, building up and setting standards; second, the proper selection and replacement of teachers; and third, retaining the efficient teachers. In building up and setting standards, it is necessary to raise the standards of efficiency through raising the standard of teacher training. In the matter of selection and replace¬ ment the poor teachers should be replaced as rapidly as seems best for the good of the cause with teachers who are better trained. It is not believed to be a good policy to demand experienced teachers only in any county system. The inexpe¬ rienced well-trained teacher will give good service under proper guidance from the supervisor. 3. Quoting from a report made by Miss Nettie E. Brogdon, County School Super¬ visor in Guilford County, N. C., “If the county supervisor is successful in keeping teachers up to their best she must keep herself up to maximum efficiency, physi¬ cally, mentally, emotionally, socially, and professionally. Other important factors entering into the solution of the problem are (a) arranging the sort of supervisory program which gives the principals and teachers freedom and responsibility to develop initiative and encourages them to find and solve their own problems; (b) a flexible program to the extent that provision is made for the individual needs of each school and teacher; (c) the organization of the program embodying agencies through which the supervisor’s work will stimulate the professional growth of teachers.” 4. There is no supervisory activity that does not have its source, its incentive in the problem of promoting pupil growth. A study of the problem in a restricted sense necessitates considering it in two parts: (a) What should be done to promote pupil growth (b) Measurement of achievement. 5. If the program of supervision is to be far-reaching there should be coopera¬ tion between the supervisor and the following forces: The state department of education, the superintendent of schools, the principals, the teachers, and the com¬ munity forces. 6. In coordinating all separate schools into one unified county school system the child must be kept as the center of interest — the preeminent integrating factor, and in so doing the individuality of each teacher and school must be considered. In order that the whole school system may be a unit, all those who have to do with the schools must be working toward the same objectives, mutually agreed upon. 7. The problem of keeping on file adequate records of work done and results accomplished is regarded as one of the most important of all problems if provision 810 National Education Association for steady and continuous progress is to be made. The materials in the files should be those which will be of use to supervisors and superintendents in directing the educational program in the county. The materials will naturally fall into specific groups. The main heads suggested are: (a) special county supervisory mate¬ rials, (b) materials from sources outside of county. The best forms for records are those which are most quickly used and most easily interpreted. 8. As an integral part of the year’s program the supervisor is working con¬ sistently on the problem of keeping the people properly and adequately informed of work undertaken and results accomplished. The solution of this problem may entail work along three lines: (a) what people wrish to know, (b) what people need to know, and (c) means of getting information to the public. These eight distinctive lines along which our county supervisors are work¬ ing are each and all essential elements in an adequate supervisory program for county schools. In a state, largely rural, and with a progressive, de¬ veloping program of school consolidation, building up the large type rural school in large rural centers, the supervisory activities must be planned in close relationship to the administrative program for school improvement. The preparation of the supervisor, her attitude toward rural life and rural education the scope of her vision in regard to meeting the needs of the countywide situation, her ability, not only to recognize the relatively more important problems, but her power and ability to organize the detailed ac¬ tivities of her work around these main problems, determine, more or less, her success in the field of county supervision. THE PROBLEMS OF THE SUPERVISOR OF HANDWRIT¬ ING-ABSTRACT LUELLA CHAPMAN, DIRECTOR OF PENMANSHIP, STATE TEACHERS COL¬ LEGE, BUFFALO, N. Y. Let us consider the duties of the writing supervisor in the average public school system. In an address before the National Association of Penman¬ ship Teachers and Supervisors convening at Chicago in 1928, Dr. Frank¬ lin Bobbitt, of Chicago University, said: The special supervisor will provide illumination to whoever in the system needs it. It matters not whether it is superintendent or teachers, principal or school board members who are suffering from a darkened mind. The super¬ visor’s job is equally to turn the light into all darkened places whether high or low, as we usually phrase it, and thus provide vision all along the line which will get the things rightly done. The special supervisor is not to give orders to anybody. He is to see that large doses of his science are distributed in understandable form to everybody and then to have this science give the orders. He stands back and watches the science do its duty. When it does not, he sees that the doses are increased, and then still further increased until in the end it comes to function in the desired ways. To proceed according to Dr. Bobbitt’s plan of supervision, the writing supervisor must carefully and thoughtfully prepare a program for himself providing for the following activities: Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 811 1. Stimulation of the interest and cooperation on the part of children, teachers, supervisors, principals, administrators, and any others connected in any way with the handwriting. 2. Preparation of a course of study to meet the writing needs of the children of his school. 3. Establishment of standards of achievement for the grades or groups of his school. 4. Improvement in classroom instruction. 5. General improvement for all through investigation, research, observation, experimentation, etc. The writing supervisor must make ample provision for teachers’ meet¬ ings and conferences. Great care and best thought must be exercised in their organization and administration to secure the cooperation and helpful attitude of the teachers. There must be a definite time and place set aside by the writing supervisor for office work. During these hours his duties are many and varied — meeting with committees working upon such prob¬ lems as course of study, writing scale, selection of material, etc. A new text on The Psychology of the Elementary School Subjects by Reed, has a lengthy chapter on Handwriting. In the list of twenty refer¬ ences there are the names of many well known persons, but not one of them is a writing teacher or supervisor of writing. While the chapter is very good, it could carry more truth had the contributions of some writing supervisors been included. Why weren’t they? Is it because the writing supervisors have not given time and study to the scientific tabulation of the findings of their investigation and experimentation? Or, is it because the writers ignore those in the field of handwriting? Surely, there should be cooperation between the research workers and the writing supervisors if the results are to be far-reaching and effective. During the coming year the National Association of Penmanship Teach¬ ers and Supervisors plans to more extensively investigate the problems of the handwriting field. A committee has recently been appointed to study the principles of curriculum construction now in use in the public schools. It appears that many schools are building their courses around the subject- matter, such as drills, rather than around the child and his need for a writing process — a process consisting of a relaxed easy position ; and a movement of speed and rhythm to apply to accurately visualized letter forms. The different committees of the Association have already accom¬ plished considerable in the way of investigation. All available handwriting bibliography has been listed and published. A survey of the normal schools shows that the majority of them give some kind of a course in muscular movement writing. Since so many supervisors say that the matter of com¬ petent teachers is their greatest problem, it will be well to investigate these courses in regard to objectives, standards, content, and time; as well as the preparation, experience, and purpose of the instructors. From the infor¬ mation secured a report should be accurately prepared in which results are shown, comparisons made, conclusions drawn, and recommendations given for improvement. The writing supervisors have the responsibility of pre- 812 National Education Association senting this report in a manner that will attract, interest, and instruct those in charge of the teacher-training institutions as well as the superintendents of public schools. THE PROBLEMS OF THE MUSIC SUPERVISOR— ABSTRACT W. P. TWADDELL, SUPERVISOR OF MUSIC, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, DURHAM, N. C. Taking for granted an efficient teaching force and adequate equipment, I wish that your attention may be centered for a few minutes upon : (1) The problems of time allotment in the elementary years; (2) The problem of individual differences in pupils of the grammar grades and the junior high- school years who follow required music courses; (3) The problem of schedules for elective courses in junior and senior high-school years. Let us take the Public School Music situation in Durham for instance: The North Carolina law requires a minimum of seventy-five minutes per week. Music is called a half-time subject. In our schools it shares with art the half hour daily alloted to a fulltime subject. As our schools are operated upon a modified platoon basis, this means that at a certain time during the day the class goes to either the music or art room. This results in five music periods — of thirty minutes duration each — every two weeks. Durham is an industrial center ; many of the children from the less privi¬ leged sections have had very limited musical experiences at home. Up to very recent years it was a common experience with the teachers in at least two of our elementary schools to find among the first year children several who had never even heard a phonographic reproduction of music. At best the musical experience of our children is extremely limited. It is the tendency of the administration to recognize the condition of impoverished experience in English and other subjects, but rarely is music seriously con¬ sidered when the need for a more generous time allotment is suggested. What would we expect of a child if during the first years of school but one-half hour every day was alloted to reading, writing, spelling, literature, and other language experiences? Second, may I ask you to consider the matter of individual differences and the lack of musically homogeneous grouping, especially in the fifth, sixth, and seventh grades where socalled fifth, sixth, and seventh grade music is required to be taught. Dr. Kwalwasser pertinently states: Our present method of administering music on a grade basis is an absurdity, and the grade designation an illusion. . . . To teach a socalled eighth grade socalled eighth-grade music is to ignore individual differences, waste time, dis¬ courage the inferior, retard the superior, and to contribute generally to more and more maladjustment. We must strive to find a way to make provision for the vast range of individual differences, especially in the upper grades and junior high school where a more or less definite course of material to be covered is required. Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 813 The problem of homogeneous groups largely disappears in the elective courses of the junior and senior high school. But another arises: The adjustment of schedule that the talented and interested pupil may have the opportunity to grow in musical experience and skill. Where, especially in the small and medium sized high school, the required courses take so large a part of the student’s time and where, even though he may have open periods for the desired music courses, the schedule brings the elected course into conflict with the required course, it is practically impossible for him to take advantage of the course so much desired. We can never estimate what the world has lost in undiscovered talent be¬ cause of just this; nor can we know how much of future satisfaction and joy and fullness of living this condition is now costing thousands in our high schools. NEXT STEPS IN SUPERVISION — FROM THE STANDPOINT OF THE ELEMENTARY SUPERVISOR— ABSTRACT JULIA LETHELD HAHN, DIRECTOR OF KINDERGARTEN AND PRIMARY GRADES, SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF. The steps in a modern supervisory program are : 1. Presentation of the point of view of modern education. 2. Demonstrations of changed procedures followed by discussion. 3. Provision for furniture, equipment, and supplies to meet changed needs. 4. Stimulating leadership — objective professional criticism, broad and not de¬ tailed or petty. 5. Appreciation of initiative and individual thinking in teachers as well as children. Supervision can go no faster than the teachers can understand and appre¬ ciate, but supervision must: 1. Set up right procedures for teachers to see. 2. Make them conscious of problems they may help to solve. The steps ahead in elementary supervision are: 1. Continuity of progress throughout the elementary school based upon the same principles with procedures varied to meet the needs of ability levels. 2. Constant classroom studies growing out of the needs of a modern program. 3. Unity of supervision which provides unity in the educational development of little children. We must be willing to admit that modern education is different in some ways and do something about it. We must realize that a different kind of evaluation has to be made of the results of a program of work which has as its ideals initiative, independent thinking, and cooperation ; and, most important of all, teachers must be inspired to help solve the problems of modern education and to grow even as much as the children. 814 National Education Association NEXT STEPS IN SUPERVISION— FROM THE STANDPOINT OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPAL— ABSTRACT ARTHUR S. GIST, PRINCIPAL, TRAINING SCHOOL, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF. From the standpoint of the elementary school principal, there seem to be several important tendencies in supervision. The most important are as follows: 1. Clear-cut conceptions of the aims, technics, and ultimate results of super¬ vision. 2. Adequate allocation of functions among the various officials having super¬ visory duties. 3. Thorough training for supervision, both the preservice type and the inservice type. 4. Intelligent and sympathetic recognition of the major human problems involved in such undertakings. 5. The coordination of all plans, purposes, and functions in one administrative department, that each official may render the highest type of service possible in his field. I shall treat only the last-mentioned phase of this question, that of coordina¬ tion. To secure some idea of the attitude of the principals of the country to¬ ward their functions in supervision, and in administration, and their relation¬ ships toward the supervisors in such duties, a questionnaire study was sent to 142 principals in various parts of the country. This study seems to indicate several tendencies in the organization and administration of supervision. 1. The tendency to lessen if not eliminate all the administrative duties of the special supervisor in the schools, and for the principal to assume the major respon¬ sibilities in his own school. 2. A tendency to increase the responsibility of the principal in supervision. 3. A tendency to regard the supervisor as a consulting expert to assist the teacher and the principal in the solution of the problems. 4. A tendency to study local problems in advance of the visit of the super¬ visor that she might function to the best advantage. 5. A very decided tendency to lessen the questioning of authority, shirking of responsibilities, and of indications of petty jealousies. 6. A tendency to recognize common aims and purposes in securing higher standards of attainment. NEXT STEPS IN SUPERVISION— FROM THE STANDPOINT OF THE SUPERVISOR OF RURAL SCHOOLS— ABSTRACT I. JEWELL SIMPSON, ASSISTANT STATE SUPERINTENDENT IN CHARGE OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION, BALTIMORE, MD. Supervision has already made several important advances from the point of view expressed by the much quoted superintendent of 1917 who declared that “the business of a supervisor is to cast a genial influence over his schools but otherwise not to interfere with the work.” From that Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 815 point the ideal of supervision has advanced through the stages of mere inspection, petty dictation, a more or less casual rating of teachers, to that of progressive leadership. What are the steps which will make this leader¬ ship effective? I have six suggestions which, in my opinion, will make the professional leadership of the supervisor more potent: 1. We need to work toward a type of supervision that is more truly scientific in thought and in practise. 2. We need to work toward a. type of supervision that is more truly cooperative in thought and in practise. 3. We need to continue our efforts to measure objectively the outcomes of supervision and to determine what constitutes real evidence as to the value of supervision. 4. In order to acquire a better understanding of the relationships of the child, the curriculum, and society, those supervisors who are termed “general super¬ visors” need a more thorough knowledge and appreciation of the rich content of the social studies. 5. A coherent organization with strict definition of function and careful alloca¬ tion of duty is necessary if supervision is to operate without undue waste. 6. There is need for further recognition of the fact that the basic principles and procedures of supervision are the same whether in the rural school or the urban school ; in kindergarten, grade school, high school, or college. A BALANCED PROGRAM IN SUPERVISION JAMES F. HOSIC, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY The creation by the directors of the National Education Association of a department for supervisors and directors of instruction is an important event. It rounds out the plan of the parent organization for a series of major divisions, representing the chief functions provided for in our scheme of public education. Something, moreover, of what the departments for principals have done for those officers this new department may do for the members of the superintendent’s staff who are concerned primarily with the development of a successful program of educative activities rather than with business management. As a matter of fact, the group that forms the department of super¬ visors was organized in Atlantic City in February, 1921. Bearing first the name, “National Conference on Educational Method,” this group adopted a new name and a new constitution in Cambridge at the annual meeting about a year ago, and it required little adjustment to make organic union with the National Education Association possible. This group has behind it, therefore, eight years of achievement; it has maintained from the first a magazine of national circulation ; it has published two year¬ books; and it has an active membership of about a thousand, with members in every state, belonging to state, county, and city educational offices. The department of supervisors, therefore, begins full-fledged. It already exerts wide influence and is in a position to attain to much more. With the opportunity comes obviously a commensurate responsibility. What 816 National Education Association sort of program shall this organization map out for itself? First of all, the department should recognize that it has a definite field and remain within it. Several other groups are at present wandering about, over¬ lapping the territory legitimately belonging to others, because of an initial failure to limit their aims. Our group need fall into no such difficulty. We are interested in the problems of supervisors — all the problems of supervisors — and our meetings and studies should have to do with these problems. In the second place, in order to cultivate our field properly, this depart¬ ment should plan and carry out a balanced program and should urge on our members the importance of balance and eclecticism in their own work. There is even* reason for doing so at this time. Devotees of new depar¬ tures in education were never so numerous as now. Each has a different, all-inclusive solution; all are partly right. The Department of Super¬ visors and Directors of Instruction will perform its highest service in providing opportunity for a sympathetic hearing and for frank criticism of new proposals of interest to supervisors. It will do well to avoid allying itself with any single aspect of reform as well as coming to represent the views of any single reformer. Among the factors that we shall need to keep in balance, four may be singled out for special mention: (1) the theory of functions, (2) organi¬ zation, (3) technic, and (4) preparation for the work. We will consider each of these factors in turn. 1. So much has been said of late about democracy in management and participation of everybody in all that goes on that a certain confusion of ideas has resulted. Being considerate and tactful and acting as a leader of a democratic group are not synonymous. Supervisors should always respect the personalities of the teachers and principals with whom they deal ; but they should not give the impression that decisions as to what is to be done in the schools rest wholly with the rank and file. The com¬ munity establishes schools and selects boards of education to maintain them. Boards choose superintendents and superintendents choose super¬ visors, principals, and teachers, subject to the approval of said boards. Those who accept appointment thereby become the servants of the public and in the last analysis are under obligation to give the public what it wants. Within limits the groups with which supervisors have to deal may decide for themselves what they will do and how they will do it. Beyond those limits they must simply obey instructions. No good can come from pre¬ tending otherwise. This means that the supervisor is both a director and a leader. In part his task is really a sort of salesmanship ; he must try to make people want to do what he knows they ought to do. In part he is a sort of chairman of a deliberative body and an expert consultant and adviser. In every¬ thing he should exemplify the modern conception of cooperation. Direction and leadership — these are two aspects of the function of supervision that must be kept in balance. Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 817 A second aspect is that of proper relative emphasis on individual and group aims. Supervision, like teaching, in this country was in the first stages purely individual. With the growth of interest in social psycholog}’ and its applications to education, however, has come the conception of group development, of building up not merely individuals as individuals hut also groups as groups. This has brought about in turn a decided change in technic, to which we shall presently refer. Even more important is the matter of methods of teaching versus the program of pupil activities in the school. Up to a comparatively recent period supervision was conceived of as having to do almost entirely with the former. The Herbartian Formula, our standard pedagogical pro¬ cedure, was devised as a means of teaching subjects like history and geog¬ raphy, with a “logical” content, fitted to develop “concepts” or “general notions,” the “goals of instruction.” The Herbartian thought of teaching as conducting a “recitation,” and all recitations were supposed to conform to one general pattern. Hence “method” could be taught as something “general,” a technic to be brought to bear whenever the teacher found himself face to face with a class. All this is changed. The school program often includes few formal recitations. Habits, skills, and attitudes are now considered important — often the most important — goals of instruction. Individual differences of both pupils and teachers must always be provided for. Above all, method — the activities of teacher and children — is thought of as an integral part of the total experience. Pupils learn by doing, hence activities are the curriculum. From this point of view, to attempt to separate method and curriculum and assign responsibility for one to a certain person and responsibility for the other to a second person appears unwarranted. Supervision is con¬ cerned with both curriculum and method, and a given supervisor should generally be concerned with both. There is the additional consideration in the case of supervisors that the week by week and day by day “followup” type of helping teachers which alone has much effect upon their technic is primarily the task of the prin¬ cipal or some one else who is a member of the staff of the school itself. It cannot be accomplished by persons who make merely occasional visits. In the matter of specific aspects of teaching procedure, the supervisor must inevitably concentrate upon problems of particular difficulty or pressing character. He will be actually on call to serve as needed rather than engaged in traveling systematically from school to school on tours of in¬ spection. He will, however, be called upon to take the lead in mapping out some one or more of the school courses and in interpreting it or them. Separate bureaus of curriculum as now set up in a few places are illogical. Curriculum and method belong together — as well as choice of materials, setting up standards, and applying measures of progress. These are all really parts of one process and should be harmonious. 818 National Education Association 2. Organization also appears to have three phases. First, we notice that division into staff and line is becoming the accepted mode. Staff officers, general and special supervisors, will work with and through the principals in this set-up. The principals will undertake responsibility for the work of their schools; supervisors will be experts on subjectmatter and method, ready to cooperate as need arises. They will represent also the superintendent in directing and coordinating activities insofar as he dele¬ gates these functions to them. Obviously principals must have far more preparation for their tasks than they now have; they must enter upon the work earlier, and they must come to it by a different process of selection. New certification re¬ quirements are being formulated in several states with these ends in view. Supervisors, too, will have to face new demands. Meeting principals either singly or in groups is different from demonstrating to young girls not long out of normal school a better way to teach long division. There is, besides, the vexed question of the “special subjects.” Once these included only a few newer fields, such as the arts, and music, with the addition of handwriting — new in the sense that commercial systems were introduced, requiring persons specially trained to keep them going. Now, however, every subject is a special subject somewhere. In a few cities all subjects have special supervisors assigned to them. But they need not set up separate and independent kingdoms as so many of them do now. The spectacle of two or more subject supervisors drop¬ ping in at the same school unannounced, going systematically through the building from room to room, checking up on the work in particular fields, giving advice and directions, teaching a bit, mayhap, and then going away again as cavalierly as they came, is not reassuring. The independence and initiative of these individuals must somehow be harmonized with unity of effort and a proper integration of the school program as a whole. Atten¬ tion to one subject or phase of the program, moreover, is just as important as another. The term “special subject” no longer has any real signifi¬ cance. Reading, for example, is a very special subject indeed when it comes to the need of supervision. Proper guidance and training in the normal school and the Cooperative Group Plan of organization in the public school will together give the final blow to the much abused term ‘ special subject.” “Special supervisor” will then take on a new and better meaning. 3. Much might be said about maintaining the balance in the use of technic as the supervisor employs it. Reference has already been made to the individual method, formerly the only method, and the newer group methods. The changing character of pupil activity in the schools is ren¬ dering many of the “plans” of observation of teaching obsolete. Provision for organization in a large unit of work may have been emphasized yester¬ day or will be tomorrow. Today drill is in order. One must know the whole movement, not merely a “lesson.” This fact casts doubt upon even the new scientific devices for counting and recording. Some of the Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 819 exponents of ^scientific procedures in education” should occasionally visit modern progressive public schools. Supervision may be described as the work of discovering what teachers need and of organizing ways and means to supply the needs that are found. Some needs will appear general, some individual. Some needs can best be met by dealing directly with individuals, others by dealing with groups. Skilful supervision consists in making the best possible application of means to ends. The more mechanical means are just now much talked about. A few enthusiasts would do nothing but test and measure. Having tested the children in arithmetic today, they prescribe treatment until the next visit and then either change the medicine or double the dose. This is of a part with “diagnosis,” “remedy,” and the other concepts of the hospital that have crept into our educational speech. Such ideas seem to have little in common with the improvement of teaching; they appear to foreshadow the day when teachers as such can be dispensed with altogether and clerks take their place. Teaching and supervision are both social in their nature. Nothing can ever compensate for loss of the sympathetic personal contact of coworkers. Scientific procedures have their place in supervision, but the mechanical must not crowd out the human element. 4. The supervisor must have preparation for his work, too, that involves much more than the purely professional. Without saying too much for the conventional academic courses of the traditional colleges, one may call attention to the tendency in schools of education to occupy the entire time of the student in the consideration of educational matters as such. Unfortunately the student fails to catch the spirit of the modern program of schooling unless he has himself had the varied and rich experiences that it implies. How few school officers, for example, have a broad background in the arts. Many of them, indeed, have no broad background in any¬ thing cultural, only command of certain educational technics. Supervisors should first of all be persons. They should be able also to keep the balance between theory and prac¬ tise. Here again the training school is liable to fall short. The library is near, but schools, alas, are far away — therefore the tendency to take it out in talking about what one would or should do in such and such a situation if it ever arise. With increased demands for degrees and col¬ legiate standing, this sort of thing is likely to grow worse instead of better. Yet practise there must be. Perhaps a system of apprenticeship for super¬ visors will be worked out. Proper preparation for supervision, moreover, must result in faith as well as facts. James J. Hill built the Great Northern Railroad, not merely because he was a man whom not the smallest detail of railroading ever escaped — and assuredly he was that — but because he had vision. To do great things in a human world, one must indeed have boundless capacity for painstaking labor. He must care for the facts, for details, but he must at the same time have the imagination to picture a new whole. 820 National Education Association DESCRIPTIONS OF INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTISES IN THE EARLIER SURVEYS OF SCHOOLS AND PRESENTATION OF THE SECOND YEARBOOK1— ABSTRACT LEO J. BRUECKNER, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. From the beginning of the survey movement attempts have been made in most surveys to give some sort of picture of the actual teaching observed in the classroom. It is very difficult to give an adequate picture of the teaching in school. An activity rather than a static situation must be described, a process rather than a product — a process that is constantly changing, difficult to control, and subject to the influence of many variables. The most important of these are the native equipment of the child, his environment, and the teacher, whose task it is to create as effective a total learning situation for each child in the class as possible. The evaluation of the work in any classroom under present conditions is largely determined by the personal prejudices of the observer. There is little agreement among educators as to what constitute the most effective methods of instruction. This is evi¬ denced by the great variations in the rating of a lesson by a group of supervisors. The differences in the judgments are due in large part to the lack of definite standards which have the same meaning to all observers of the work of the teacher in a particular lesson. The survey movement has struggled with this problem from the begin¬ ning by attempting to give some evaluation of the teaching .in the class¬ rooms. In the e'arly surveys the statements concerning the teaching are practically meaningless. The main purpose of the Second Yearbook is to make available for supervisors in a compact form descriptions of various technics that have been devised by means of which the supervisor can analyze the educational situation from various angles in a much more definite way than is possible by the use of conventional methods as a first step in the planning of a supervisory program. One of the chief merits of these objective procedures is that they supply the supervisor with tools by means of which he can secure factual data concerning activities in the classroom to supplement the valuable informa¬ tion secured by means' of standardized tests of achievement in academic subjects. The technics also assist the teacher to analyze his work and to compare his procedures with those of others. Present standards for evaluating the quality of the instruction are almost wholly subjective, and there is little agreement among supervisors as to the merit of teaching observed. Experiments have shown the possibility of securing greater reliability and validity of teacher rating by ( 1 ) defining what good teach¬ ing is as established by the discovered principles of education; (2) stating 1 Scientific Method in Supervision. Second Yearbook of the National Conference of Super¬ visors and Directors of Instruction. Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1929. Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 821 the elements of good teaching in terms of definite, observable, objective teacher and pupil activities that are understood by all who must evaluate the teaching in the classroom. The procedures discussed in this book assist in the diagnosis of the difficulties of the teacher, aid in the locating of excellence in the teaching, and facilitate the formulation of the training program that must be carried on by the supervisor after existing conditions have been made clear. An important reason for the development of these objective studies of classroom practises is the necessity of making more complete and definite descriptions of procedures which are being evaluated experimentally so that variables which have invalidated many of our educational experiments may be better controled than is usually the case. Finally, these technics supply the supervisor with the means by which he can appraise the results of his own activities. He can make fairly accurate comparisons between conditions as they exist before and after a supervisory program. It is believed that the use of these devices will greatly increase the effi¬ ciency of the work of the supervisor, since it will be placed on a much more definite basis than before. The more accurate and complete the available information concerning the status of teaching in a school or in a city is, the more adequately can the supervisory program be adapted to the needs of the teachers and pupils. Certainly the work of the supervisor will be more satisfying, since it will be based on tangible, definite information, and will not be a “thrust in the dark,” as has too often been the case. TEACHERS' DIFFICULTIES AS A BASIS FOR S UPER VI SI O N—ABS TRACT DOUGLAS WAPLES, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL METHOD, GRADUATE LIBRARY SCHOOL, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL. The questions are, first, how to anticipate the teachers’ difficulties, and, second, how to help teachers solve them. There is abundant evidence to show that these questions are important to all engaged in the practise of supervision. We know for one thing that casual supervision, like incidental teaching, is less efficient in the teach¬ ing of skills than instruction organized systematically in advance. We know also from a wide variety of time studies that opportunities for training teachers on the job are severely limited. Hence it is necessary to evaluate the needs so that the most important can be treated first. We also know with some definiteness that teachers do not benefit by the study of abstract principles until they attain a certain degree of ma¬ turity and professional intelligence. If concreteness and vividness are essential qualities of the situations upon which supervision should bear, the case is strong in favor of organ¬ izing supervision largely on the basis of teachers’ recognized difficulties. It must be assumed, however, that such difficulties can be identified and 822 National Education Association that when identified the teacher can be shown how to overcome them. This brings us back to the two original questions: how to anticipate and how to solve the teachers’ difficulties. In the judgments of five professional groups — intermediate teachers, city elementary school principals, general supervisors for elementary grades in city schools, supervisors of student teaching in elementary grades, and college instructors in elementary education — the following twenty classroom operations are most difficult for intermediate grade teachers to learn: 1. Planning, selection, and organization of subject-matter 2. Planning methods of providing sufficient opportunity for pupils’ activities 3. Planning facilities for individual study 4. Planning methods of evaluating pupils’ needs, abilities, and achievements 5. Planning methods of developing teachers’ personal traits 6. Defining specific objectives in harmony with general objectives 7. Evaluating objectives 8. Adapting materials to time limit 9. Selecting types of instruction adapted to needs of class 10. Suggesting methods 'of overcoming difficulties 11. Economizing time 12. Avoiding unnecessary participation by teacher in classwork 13. Diagnosing pupils’ difficulties and needs 14. Teaching pupils to make practical use of time 15. Teaching pupils to plan methods of work 16. Teaching pupils to obtain a proper perspective of the course 17. Teaching pupils to locate specific problems 18. Teaching pupils to analyze problems 19. Teaching pupils to organize material in proper form 20. Teaching pupils to discuss implications of material studied -^3 Turning somewhat abruptly to the second question, there are in general three means of providing such help, namely, telling the teacher what the solution is, directing the teacher to books wherein solutions are described in more or less specific terms, and suggesting a procedure whereby the teacher may work out a solution. Because the first two of these methods are entirely familiar, I shall mention only the third. It is not to be supposed that any magical virtue attaches to the method whereby teachers work out their own solutions to problems when the supervisor knows the answer from the start. In the case of highly specific and somewhat trivial difficulties, to let the teacher work out the answer by investigation would be a colossal waste of time. Furthermore, this method would naturally be ruled out in any sort of emergency. The condition that justifies the service study procedure is largely a pervasive difficulty like “adapting subjectmatter to the needs of the class.’’ In such a problem, the teacher’s experience in studying out a solution by means of a direct investigation is almost certain to clear up other related difficulties. The direction of such service studies is necessarily a restricted type of supervisory assistance. Yet it seems to me to offer the best escape from the mechanical direction of which teachers so justly complain. It is also Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 823 a final answer to the criticism that teachers are not affected by the re¬ search point of view except as the findings of research appear in textbooks. Any competent observer of teaching knows perfectly well that many of our most significant classroom problems will never be solved until they are studied by teachers themselves by service study technics. The labora¬ tory is no place for the study of these problems, and few professional research workers are interested in the type of problem that causes most grief to the teacher. The technics that apply to the problems are obtainable from research publications and are being adapted to teachers' use. It would therefore seem that supervision would profit greatly by making the classroom teacher a more careful student of his job. THE TECHNIC OF THE LARGE SCALE EXPERIMENT- ABSTRACT PAUL T. RANKIN, SUPERVISING DIRECTOR OF RESEARCH AND ADJUSTMENT, DETROIT PUBLIC SCHOOLS, DETROIT, MICH. The reason for the rarity of conclusive evidence, in those cases where experimental studies have been made, are several. First, the experimental factors are often too vaguely defined. It is not always clear just what is the difference between the two technics being compared. The absence of a description of the procedure to which the “control” group is sub¬ jected is particularly common. Second, the other conditions are inade¬ quately controled. Sufficient care is not taken to insure that differences in the final product are due only to differences in the experimental factors. Third, the bases for judgment, the criteria for appraising the effects of the experimental factors, are usually incomplete. Probably the objection most frequently raised to educational experiments is, “But you did not study changes in attitudes and ideals ; you observed only the changes in knowledges and skills.” Fourth, the measurement itself is imperfect; the tests are not sufficiently valid or reliable. Finally, significant experiments are all too rarely repeated. So much emphasis has been placed on “original” contributions in educational research that men hesitate to repeat the wrork of others in order to verify earlier conclusions. How^ can the situation be improved? One way, I am confident, is by more frequent use of large-scale experiments. Other things being equal, it is selfevident that 5000 first-graders are more likely to be typical of first-graders generally than are fifty. Also, the large-scale study stimulates a more careful definition of the experimental factors. In such an experi¬ ment the complete plans cannot be kept in one person’s mind, but must be written out in great detail for the guidance of the many people who share in the experiment. Most important of all, the large-scale investigation really is a number of studies made at one time, and yields reliable conclusions for various groupings of subjects, such as bright, average, and dull pupils, as v*ell as for the entire group. 824 National Education Association The steps in a carefully conducted control experiment may be cited as follows: First, select and define the problem. Second, plan the solution. This should include the steps of choosing the criteria and selecting the experimental groups. Third, execute the plan. Under this head it is needful to secure records of initial and final status, to define exactly the experimental factors whose effects are to be compared, and to control or allow for the effects of other significant factors. Fourth, generalize. Organize and interpret the results; check by repetition of the experiment; at the end arrive at a general statement which expresses the facts truth¬ fully. TEACHER PARTICIPATION IN CURRICULUM CONS TR UCTION—ABS TRA C T PRUDENCE CUTRIGHT, DIRECTOR OF INSTRUCTIONAL RESEARCH, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. It seems to be the practise, in some cities where curriculum revision is in progress, to withdraw from the teaching group some ten or twelve progressive teachers of the subject under revision and to have this small group of teachers work in cooperation with curriculum and subjectmatter experts in developing a course of study. The training of the remainder of the teachers , who will some day be called upon to use the course of study , seems to receive but little definite attention at least until the course is ready for publication. The acitivities of the small committee may leave the major teaching group untouched and relatively uninformed. When the course appears, the majority of the teaching group will be lacking in the intelligent and sympathetic understanding which should attend the adoption of any course. Because of this misunderstanding or the lack of understanding, the course may fail in its major purpose however well it may appear to the outside reader. There are disadvantages for the curriculum expert in that he is relatively unaware, at least until the course is adopted, of the difficulties which the average teacher will encounter in the use of the course. The work of curriculum revision is strategically situated to bridge, at least in part, the chasm which has long existed between theory and practise. In order to lessen the gap, it must proceed on a more compre¬ hensive basis than is frequently the practise. The curriculum expert and his chosen assistants cannot develop courses of study in a handful of selected classrooms and then in turn expect the supervisory group to superimpose this product on a group of teachers who have at no time been taken into the confidence of the small curriculum group. Comprehensive curriculum revision demands that supervision with its teacher-training activities get into the advance guard rather than the rear guard of curriculum revision programs. Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction 825 SECRETARY'S MINUTES The winter program was carried out at Cleveland as planned. There were two morning sessions and a luncheon meeting. At the Wednesday meeting the Second Yearbook of the society was presented and discussed by members of the committee in charge. The luncheon meeting on Wednesday was open to members only and devoted to discussion of the future of the Department. Secretary Crabtree of the National Education Association appeared and expressed the satisfaction of the parent organization in welcoming the new department, which he said completes the plan of major departments. Brief remarks were made by Miss Mugan, the president, Mr. Hosic, the secretary, and other members. Business Meeting — At the close of the program on Tuesday the annual business meeting of the society was held. Five members of the board of directors were elected for a term of three years to fill the vacancies caused by the expiration of the terms of office of directors Barr, Burton, Gray, McClure, and Mabel Simp¬ son. Miss Simpson and Messrs. Burton and McClure wrere reelected. In place of Doctor Gray was chosen Mildred English, assistant superintendent in charge of elementary education in Raleigh, North Carolina; and in place of Doctor Barr, Miss Julia Hahn, director of kindergarten-primary education in San Francisco. A formal vote was taken on the question of membership as a department of the National Education Association, and the action of the executive board of the N. E. A. in establishing the Conference of Supervisors as a department of the N. E. A. was confirmed without a dissenting vote. This action included approval of the constitution of the department as printed in Educational Method for Jan¬ uary, 1929. Board of Directors — The annual meeting of the board of directors wras held at the Statler Hotel on Sunday, February 24. The Committee on Yearbooks reported through its chairman, Doctor Brueckner, that in accordance wdth the instructions of the executive committee he had organ¬ ized a group to prepare a yearbook on technics for making surveys of instructional ' practises. The topic, “Functions of the Elementary School,” which had previously been urged, was dropped in view of the fact that a forthcoming yearbook of the Department of Superintendence was said to deal wdth that subject. The com¬ mittee voted not to recommend a series of yearbooks but rather that topics be selected from year to year. The plans of other organizations should be ascer¬ tained in advance so as to prevent duplications. Suggestions for new yearbooks might be obtained by public announcement of the fact that such suggestions would be welcome. The report of the committee was accepted and the committee discharged. The report of the treasurer for the twelve months from March 1, 1928, through February 28, 1929, was presented and approved. ■ K . The Department of Teachers Colleges The department of teachers colleges takes the place of the Department of Normal Schools, which was formed at the Cleveland meeting, August 19, 1870, by a reorganization of the Amer¬ ican Normal School Association, which had been organized in 1858. See Proceedings , 1870:176; 1906:524. In 1924 it was voted to appoint a com¬ mittee to discuss the possibility of combining with the American Association of Teachers Colleges. See Proceedings , 1924:614. In 1925 the combina¬ tion was effected. It was arranged that the Na¬ tional Education Association take over the publica¬ tions of the American Association of Teachers Col¬ leges, including its yearbook, in 1926. The officers of this Department for the year 1928- 29 are: President , H. W. Rockwell, Buffalo, New York; First Vicepresident , E. L. Hardy, San Diego, Calif.; Second Vicepresident , V. L. Roy, Natchi¬ toches, La. ; Third Vicepresident , R. I. Elliott, Chad- ron, Nebr. ; Secretary-Treasurer , Charles W. Hunt, Cleveland, Ohio. 1870: 1- 88 1873:164-199 1874:214-254 1875:138-153 1876:157-211 1877:139-174 1879:113-135 1880:176-193 1881 :199-218 1882:173-181 1884:236-258 1885 :223-248 1886 :389-423 1887:467-604 1888:465-515 1889:557-613 1890:717-759 1891 :709-741 1892:407-435 1894:819-871 1895:672-718 1896:642-666 1897:709-736 1898:728-757 1899 :835-904 1900:480-491 1901 :635-646 1902:529-649 1903 :539-595 1904:567-593 1905:517-557 1906:707-711 1907:739-759 1908:703-739 1909:547-597 1910:563-595 1911:695-709 1912:809-897 1913:523-553 1914:497-565 1915:763-815 1917:383-417 1918:209-235 1919:221-259 1920: 237-263 1921: 515 1922:1063-1085 1923: 737-744 1924: 613-637 1925: 863 1926: 838-947 1927: 873-950 1928: 833-948 [ 828 ] STANDARDS FOR ACCREDITING TEACHERS COLLEGES ADOPTED AT WASHINGTON, D. C., FEBRUARY 26, 1926. REVISED AT DALLAS, TEXAS, FEBRUARY 26, 1927; AT BOSTON, MASS., FEBRUARY 25, 1928; AND AT CLEVELAND, OHIO, FEBRUARY 23, 1929. I. Definition of a Teachers College A. Teachers College (Four-Year Institution Granting Degrees). A teachers college, within the meaning of these standards, is a state, municipal, or incorporated private institution, or an independent unit of a recognized college or university, which has at least one four-year unified curriculum ; which is devoted exclusively to the preparation of teachers; which has legal authority to grant a standard bachelor’s degree ; which has granted and continues to grant such degree ; and which requires for admission the completion of a standard four-year secondary school curriculum, or equivalent training approved by this Association. B. Normal School or Junior Teachers College. A similar institution de¬ voted exclusively to the preparation of teachers, which requires for ad¬ mission the completion of a standard four-year secondary school curric¬ ulum, or equivalent training approved by this Association ; which has a curriculum less than four years in length and does not have legal author¬ ity to grant a standard bachelor’s degree ; or which has a curriculum four years in length but has not granted and does not grant a bachelor’s degree, shall be designated as a normal school or a junior teachers college. Normal schools and junior teachers colleges shall conform to the same standards as teachers colleges except as hereinafter specifically indicated. C. No teachers college shall maintain a secondary school, or a department in which strictly secondary-school academic work is offered, as a part of its college organization, except for training school purposes. II. Requirements for Admission A. The quantitative requirements of admission to a teachers college ac¬ credited by this Association shall be at least 15 units of secondary school work, or the equivalent. These units must represent work done in a secondary school approved by the state department of public in¬ struction of the state in which the college is located, and must conform to the definitions of the various units as recommended by the state de¬ partment of public instruction, or must be evidenced by the result of examinations. Experienced teachers over 21 years of age may be admitted to a teachers college for such work as they are qualified to take, but before receiving a diploma or a degree, they shall meet the full entrance requirement. [ 829 ] 830 National Education Association If the state department of public instruction maintains no accredited list of secondary schools or publishes no definitions of secondary school units, those of a regularly recognized accrediting agency shall be used. B. Equivalence for entrance or secondary school work shall be determined only by regularly scheduled written examinations, which shall be of such character as to satisfy the Committee on Admissions of the college that the applicant is fully prepared to do college work as hereinafter defined. C. Experience in teaching shall in no case be accepted for entrance, or credit toward graduation, except supervised teaching in the training school. III. Standards for Graduation A. The quantitative requirement for graduation shall be the completion of at least 120 semester hours of credit, or the equivalent in term hours, quarter hours, points, majors, or courses. B. The requirement for graduation for a normal school or junior teachers college with a two-year curriculum shall be at least 60 semester hours or the equivalent; and for a normal school or junior teachers college with a three-year curriculum, at least 90 semester hours or the equiva¬ lent. • C. Not more than one-fourth (*4) of any curriculum leading to a degree or a certificate or a diploma in a teachers college or normal school shall be taken in extension classes or by correspondence. (Not more than one-half {]/i) of this shall be done by correspondence.) These classes shall be conducted by regularly appointed teachers who meet all the qualifications of standard V, Preparation of the Faculty. No courses shall be offered for credit either in extension or by correspondence which are not also offered as part of the regular residence work. These courses should likewise meet the standards of sequence, prerequisites, etc., set forth in Standard VIII, Organization of the Curriculum. Note. — It is understood that this shall not be retroactively applied to any student who has (or is now registered for) credits in excess of the one-fourth presented in this standard. D. That no degree or certificate or diploma shall be issued by a teachers college or normal school to a student who has not spent a minimum of one year in regular residence work in the institution issuing the degree, certificate, or diploma. One year of residence work shall be understood to mean one year of fulltime study, or two half years or its equivalent in summer sessions. IV. Size of Faculty A. There shall be a reasonable ratio of students to faculty in the college department, which shall be subjected to investigation to determine the proper ratio. Department of Teachers Colleges 831 B. In the training school there shall be at least one training-school teacher for every7 18 college students, each of whom does 90 clock hours of student teaching. If more than 90 hours of student teaching is required the number of student teachers should be decreased so as not to increase the supervisory load. C. No teacher in the training school, who is also responsible for a regular amount of supervision of student teaching, shall be required to have charge of more than 40 children at any one time. D. In the case of affiliated urban or rural schools for student-teaching pur¬ poses, when the degree of affiliation and control is restricted to such an extent that a teaching force of more limited training than is contem¬ plated by these standards must be used, and which is not capable of effective supervision of student teaching, or which by the terms of the affiliation is not expected to do supervision of student teaching, there shall be one fulltime supervisor of student teaching for every 50 student teachers, each of w7hom does 90 hours of student teaching. Such super¬ visors must possess the scholastic qualifications required of members of the faculty7 of the college department. If more than 90 hours of student teaching is given the number of student teachers should be decreased, so as not to increase the supervisory load. V. Preparation of Faculty A. The minimum scholastic requirement for teachers in the training school shall be graduation from a college of recognized standing, presumably evidenced by possession of a bachelor’s degree or equivalent training. Six years after the date on which these standards take effect, the mini¬ mum scholastic requirement for all new training-school teachers shall be the same as for teachers in the college department. Teachers who have been members of the faculty of the training school for not less than five yrears, and whose training is not equivalent to this requirement, may be considered to have equivalent training for six years after the date on which these standards take effect, provided that the president of the college submits a statement of their training and experi¬ ence and files with the Committee on Accrediting and Classification a declaration that such members of the faculty are rendering service in their own teaching and in the supervision of student teaching which is of a superior quality as judged by the standards of the best public school systems in the state in which the teachers college is located. During this period of six years this declaration must be made annually and shall be based upon actual inspection of the teacher’s work. B. The minimum scholastic requirement for members of the faculty who give instruction in the college department shall be graduation from a college of recognized standing and additional training which shall in¬ clude at least one y'ear of study in their respective fields of teaching in a 832 National Education Association recognized graduate school, or equivalent, and presumably possession of the master’s degree. Members of the faculty who have served in their respective positions for not less than five years, and who do not meet this requirement, may be regarded as having done so for six years after the date on which these standards take effect, provided that the presi¬ dent of the college submits a statement of their training and experience and files a declaration that such members of the faculty are giving satisfactory instruction of college grade. During this period of six years this declaration must be made annually until each such member of the faculty has secured the required training, and shall be based upon actual inspection of the w^ork of such members of the faculty. C. Up to and including the school year 1932-33 a teachers college or normal school may be considered to have met the requirements of this Standard if not over ten percent (10%) of the regularly appointed members of the faculty (college and training school) shall fail to meet the standards set forth in V, A and B. After 1932-33 this percent shall be reduced to five (5% ) . D. It is desirable that members of the faculty of the teachers college should possess training of a distinctly professional quality, which represents at least three years of study beyond the bachelor’s degree, in a recognized graduate school, or corresponding professional or technological training. The effort of a teachers college to maintain a faculty of higher scholarly equipment than is required by the minimum standard, shall be held to constitute a strong presumption that superior work is being done. The proportion of members of the faculty which should be on the different levels of training above the first degree shall be subjected to immediate investigation. VI. Teaching Load of Faculty The following teaching loads shall be the maximum for a teachers college faculty: 16 clock hours per week, or the equivalent. Equiva¬ lence shall be based upon the ratio of one class period to one and one- half class periods in shop and laboratory work, one to one and one- quarter in physical education, and one to three-quarters in English com¬ position. VII. Training School and Student Teaching A. Each teachers college shall maintain a training school under its own con¬ trol as a part of its organization, as a laboratory school, for purposes of observation, demonstration, and supervised teaching on the part of stu¬ dents. The use of an urban or rural school system, under sufficient control and supervision of the college to permit carrying out the educa¬ tional policy of the college to a sufficient degree for the conduct of effec¬ tive student teaching, will satisfy this requirement. Department of Teachers Colleges 833 B. Student teaching shall be so organized as to lead to a proper initial mastery of the technic of teaching and, at the same time, protect the interests of the children in the training school. C. The minimum amount of student teaching required of every graduate of a teachers college shall be 90 hours of supervised teaching. D. For every 18 college students to be given 90 hours of student teaching, there shall be a minimum group of 30 children, either in the campus training school or in affiliated urban or rural schools under the super¬ vision of the teaching college. E. It is recommended that at least two-fifths of the teaching in the train¬ ing school should be done by regular teachers of the training school or by other members of the faculty. VIII. Organization of the Curriculum A. The curriculum of the teachers college must recognize definite require¬ ments as regards sequence of courses. Senior college courses must not be open to freshmen who have not taken the prerequisites for these courses. Programs consisting mainly of freshmen and sophomore courses carrying full credit shall not be available for students in the junior and senior years. Coherent and progressive lines of study, lead¬ ing to specific achievement within definite fields, must be a character¬ istic of the college curriculum. Every teachers college must, therefore, adopt an organization of its cur- riculums which will provide in its junior and senior years courses which require prerequisite courses in the freshman and sophomore years or courses which are open only to juniors or seniors. The number of such courses taken by a student in the junior and senior years must total at least one-third of the requirements for the completion of a four-year college curriculum. It is recommended that teachers colleges adopt a system of numbering courses or of catalog description which will in¬ dicate the year in which the course should be taken. B. In a normal school or junior teachers college with a three-year curric¬ ulum, two-thirds of the work of students in the last year shall consist of advanced courses to which freshmen are not admitted. IX. Living Conditions of Students A. Each teachers college shall make definite provisions to insure for its students living conditions which provide proper safeguards for health, morals, and mental efficiency and shall promote a responsible type of citizenship and leadership on the part of individuals. B. When dormitories are maintained these shall be of safe construction, shall be kept in wholesome, sanitary condition, and shall be under re¬ sponsible supervision. 834 National Education Association X. Library, Laboratory, and Shop Equipment A. Each teachers college shall have a live, well-distributed, and profession¬ ally administered library bearing specifically upon the subjects taught. At least 15,000 volumes, exclusive of public documents, are recom¬ mended as a minimum. B. Each teachers college with less than 500 students should have a definite annual appropriation for the purchase of new reference books and cur¬ rent periodicals, amounting to at least $2500. Teachers colleges with 500 to 1000 students should have a definite annual appropriation amounting to at least five dollars per student registered. Teachers colleges with larger enrolments should have an amount equal to at least four dollars per student. The foregoing is to be regarded as a recom¬ mendation rather than a requirement. C. Each teachers college shall be provided with laboratory equipment suffi¬ cient for instructional purposes for each course offered. D. Each teachers college must be provided with suitable shops and shop equipment for instructional purposes for each course offered, including gymnasiums for physical education ; commercial equipment for courses in commerce ; suitable kitchens, dining-rooms, and laboratories for house¬ hold arts, and adequate farm buildings and demonstration farms for work in agriculture. XI. Location, Construction, and Sanitary Condition of Buildings The location and construction of buildings, the lighting, heating, and ventilation of the rooms, the nature of the lavatories, corridors, closets, water supply, school furniture, apparatus, and method of cleaning, shall be such as to insure hygienic conditions for students and teachers. XII. Limits of Registration of Students A. No teachers college shall be placed on the accredited list, or continued on such list for more than one year, unless it has a regular registration of at least 200 students of college grade. B. A notably small proportion of students of college grade registered in the third and fourth years, continued over a period of several years, shall constitute ground for dropping a teachers college from the accredited list. Fifteen percent of the enrolment of a teachers college should be in the junior and senior years. C. A normal school or junior teachers college with a two-year curriculum must have an enrolment of at least 150 students of college grade, one- third of whom must be in the second year. Department of Teachers Colleges 835 XIII. Financial Support A. Each state or municipal teachers college must have an annual appropria¬ tion sufficient to provide a faculty of the size, quality, and attainments hereinbefore prescribed ; the required library, laboratory, and shop equipment with proper repairs and replacements ; sufficient supplies and material in all departments for educational and instructional purposes; repairs and replacements in the physical plant adequate to maintain the plant in good working condition ; and suitable staffs, supplies, and mate¬ rial for the effective operation of the physical plant. A marked inferior¬ ity or insufficiency in material resources shall be accepted as a strong presumption of unsatisfactory educational conditions. B. If the teachers college is a private incorporated institution, it must have a minimum annual income of $50,000 for its teachers college program, one-half of which shall be from sources other than payments by stu¬ dents; and an additional annual income of $10,000 for each 100 students above 200, one-half of which shall be from sources other than payments by students. If such teachers college is not tax-supported, it shall possess a productive endowment of $500,000, and an additional endow¬ ment of $50,000 for each additional 100 students above 200. XIV. Classification of Colleges A. Teachers Colleges. ( 1 ) Any teachers college which completely meets these requirements shall be designated as a Class A College, provided that until September 1929 it may fail to meet three of these standards; until September 1930 it may fail to meet two of them; and until September 1931 it may fail to meet one of them, and nevertheless be given the rating of a Class A College ; provided however that it shall always meet the definitions set up for a teachers college in I of these standards. (2) Any teachers college which fails to conform to not more than two of these standards shall be designated as a Class B College, provided that until September 1929 it may fail to meet five of these standards; until September 1930 it may fail to meet four of them; and until Sep¬ tember 1931 it may fail to meet three of them, and nevertheless be given the rating of a Class B College. (3) Any teachers college which fails to conform to more than two of these standards shall be designated as a Class C dollege, provided that until September 1929 it shall not be classed as a Class C college unless it fails to meet more than five of these standards, until 1930 more than four, and until 1931 more than three. B. Normal Schools and Junior Teachers Colleges. The same standards shall apply to normal schools or junior teachers colleges as listed in Section A, thereby providing for Class A normal schools, Class B normal schools, and Class C normal schools. 836 National Education Association XV. Accrediting and Classification of Teachers Colleges A. For the purpose of administering these standards, a committee of five members, known as the Committee on Accrediting and Classification, is hereby created, one member of which shall be elected annually by the Association for a term of five years. (In 1926 five members shall be elected for terms of one, two, three, four, and five years respectively.) B. The character of the curriculum, the efficiency of the instruction, the scholarly spirit and the professional atmosphere of the institution, the standard for granting degrees, and the general tone of the teachers college, shall be factors in determining eligibility for accrediting. C. The secretary of the Association, or the executive secretary, whenever authorized and appointed by the Association, shall be the secretary and the executive officer of the Committee on Accrediting and Classification. D. Each teachers college accredited under these standards shall file an¬ nually with the Committee on Accrediting and Classification a report on a blank provided for that purpose by the Committee. E. These standards shall go into effect on September 1, 1927. Not later than the date of the annual meeting of the Association in 1928, the Committee on Accrediting and Classification shall prepare an accredited and classified list of teachers colleges on the basis of information con¬ tained in the reports submitted to the committee by the colleges. F. The Committee on Accrediting and Classification may inspect or cause to be inspected any teachers college when it deems such inspection necessary. G. The Committee on Standards and Surveys shall have power to appoint any commissions for investigation of any problems concerning standards which it deems necessary and desirable. AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF TEACHERS COLLEGES ACCREDITED LIST Class A Teachers Colleges Arizona Flagstaff Tempe Arkansas Conway California San Diego Santa Barbara Colorado Greeley Gunnison Georgia Athens Malledgeville Illinois Carbondale Charleston DeKalb Macomb Normal Indiana ' Muncie Terre Haute Iowa Cedar Falls Kansas Emporia Hays Pittsburg Kentucky Bowling Green Murray Richmond Louisiana Natchitoches Department of Teachers Colleges 837 Michigan Detroit Kalamazoo Marquette Mt. Pleasant Ypsilanti Minnesota Bemidji Duluth Mankato Moorhead St. Cloud Winona Mississippi Cleveland Hattiesburg Missouri Cape Girardeau Kansas City Kirksville Maryville St. Louis Springfield Warrensburg Nebraska Chadron Kearney Peru Wayne New Hampshire Keene Plymouth New York Albany Buffalo North Carolina Greenville North Dakota Mayville Minot Valley City Ohio Athens Bowling Green Cleveland Oxford Oklahoma Ada Alva Durant Edmond Tahlequah Weatherford Pennsylvania Bloomsburg East Stroudsburg Indiana Mansfield Shippensburg Slippery Rock West Chester South Dakota Aberdeen Madison Spearfish Tennessee Johnson City Memphis Nashville Texas Canyon Commerce Denton Huntsville Nacogdoches San Marcos Utah Salt Lake City Virginia East Radford Farmville Fredericksburg Harrisonburg West Virginia Fairmont Huntington Wisconsin Eau Claire La Crosse Menominee Milwaukee Oshkosh Platteville River Falls Stevens Point Superior Whitewater Class B Teachers Colleges Ohio Kent Alabama Florence Livingston Troy Georgia Statesboro Junior Colleges Class A Maine Ohio Gorham Dayton North Carolina Cullowhee North Dakota West Virginia Dickinson Shepherdstown Ellendale Junior Colleges Class B South Dakota Springfield Texas Alpine 838 National Education Association THE COLLEGE FACULTY IN 1950— ITS TYPE , PREPARA¬ TION , BACKGROUND , RELATIONS , AND DUTIES SHELDON E. DAVIS, PRESIDENT, MONTANA STATE NORMAL COLLEGE, DILLON, MONTANA The maker of this program chose his future — 1950 — most shrewdly. He has given us time to make some changes, but ethereal dreams are placed at a discount. I might idealize wildly for the year 1990; at that time I shall be absent and in no sense responsible to the Association, but in 1950 we hope to be active or lingering near. It is our present faculty in part which we are talking about. There is that promising, energetic young fellow whom we hope to keep, and there is the other one who will find a place better than we would offer him if we could. Both active and passive selection we shall keep on using. That fine young man we are going to give the most favorable leaves of absence as often as possible until he achieves the degree which marks his ambition and our standard. He will be worth a lot to us in 1950 and before and after. In 1950 this now young man will be a Ph. D. among a faculty very largely possessing the doctor’s degree. Our institutions have been wise enough not to choose indifferent holders of the doctorate when far more useful unlettered faculty members could be had, but the option will not long be between over-educated mediocrity and under-educated superior talent. The final choice in filling every important position will be be¬ tween two thoroughly trained candidates, nor will the standardizing in¬ fluence of higher academic training deprive us of the initiative or originality which we justly prize so highly. At present, the doctor’s degree standard means the Ph. D. I am some¬ what in sympathy with President Higbie’s suggestion that the Ph. D. degree needs protection, as distinctly the badge of research. To accomplish this protection he proposes creation of another degree, more likely to represent usefulness in the teaching capacity. Incidentally, he thinks that this measure might protect us from some of the Ph. D.’s which at present we might afford financially if we could risk them educationally. If such a degree becomes the vogue, it should certainly be held upon as high a plane as the Ph. D. Otherwise, I think that it will command no respect from doctors by research and not much honor among its holders. The pioneering now being done at Leland Stanford indicates that high standards will be maintained in awarding the degree of “Doctor of Educa¬ tion.” In predicting practically universal Ph. D. standards there is indicated nothing revolutionary, nor any break with the historical continuity of tendencies already clearly in evidence. With five millions in our secondary schools and a million in higher institutions, the academic level is pushing up faster than we can visualize it, and every college position will soon be sought by a waiting line or even a small army of applicants. The causes which have long operated in European countries to produce an oversupply Department of Teachers Colleges 839 of the highly trained are with us, and our problem is selection of the best out of many well qualified candidates. If a plan may be devised to train super-teachers and if labeling them by other than the Ph. D. research tag becomes fashionable, it will be because the new standard loses nothing when compared with the Ph. D. Even during the past several years, financially poor as we in Montana are, I could have filled every important teaching position with a possessor of the doctor’s degree, but I did not, for reasons quite familiar to all of you. With rising academic standards, a smaller percent of our faculties will earn advanced degrees late in life. Universities usually award their scholarships to those below a given age because it is held that beyond some chronological dead-line students are somewhat immune to acquisition of new viewpoints. Assuming that all present are below that dead-line or that we are exceptions, we have all seen the occasional faculty member who has waited too long to do his final graduate work. He is so far from vital educational currents that he is an isolated figure in the graduate school and he will be no whit more useful when his sabbatical year is over. A fifty-five year old teacher — one of the best — came to me with this query, “Would you rather I wTould spend the summer in graduate work or in un¬ supervised travel abroad?” She went abroad. Such alternatives present themselves to many who ought to travel but whom degree standard pressure drives into yet another summer or year of graduate study. With the degree safely achieved earlier in life, extended educative travel will be possible for a much greater percent of our faculties than is now the case. It will no longer be travel or study but both. So far as teaching experience is concerned, our 1950 ideal will hardly be different from that of present practise. We shall not be employing to train teachers those who have not themselves demonstrated ability by several years of highly successful experience. In no graduate school of education has any training or technic developed which can compensate for the lack of mature professional experience. With the stronger faculty of 1950 will come more liberal compensation and of course permanent tenure. Annual election of all college teachers will by that date appear in its true historical perspective — originally a necessity perhaps, then a mere form, and last a vanished or vanishing tradition. Those of us whose faculties are on permanent tenure hope that few will have to wait until the mid-century to achieve the same status. How will the proportion of men and women look in the faculty of 1950? After studying a shelf-full of your catalogs, I hazard no guess. Outside of training schools, there are now very sharp variations among institutions, but striking a grand total would show about equal numbers. I can see no reason for supposing that we shall note much change in the sex balance. Shall we be employing on our staffs more or not so many of our own graduates? Present practise differs from almost no home products on some faculties to nearly half on others. Ten percent is too many if they are not the right ones, and twenty-five percent is not enough if it has dis- 840 National Education Association criminated against the best at home in order to secure the less competent from elsewhere. The higher standard of training will to some extent answer this question. Will the faculty of tomorrow be more highbrow or more plebeian, more academic or more professional, more practical or more theoretical? It will be all of these. Perhaps we shall by that time have less of the fear of being correct and entirely decent which just now so often leads the high¬ brow to his “mucker pose,” and of course plebeians do not honestly scorn patrician or genuine highbrow qualities. Highbrow really means straight¬ thinking and intelligent. Even precise, correct modes of expression need neither make us ashamed of our manners nor keep us aloof from those we serve. More adequate background in training and time to get inflated values out of some education courses now taking more curriculum space than they merit will bring more intelligent professional interest. Academic solidity need not suffer if the hostility between academic and professional departments ends. Professional solidity will be increased when it has become evident to all that we who belong in departments of education are not teaching much which is already perfectly obvious, or is mere personal opinion or is not true. Education courses have no monopoly of such errors, but our pro¬ fessional departments will surely travel far in the direction of merited con¬ fidence before 1950. In 1950 w~e shall have fewer faculty members who either fear or dislike children. The nice classroom logic which hates to be disturbed by life’s realities is still occasionally with us. Once I even knew a kindergarten theorist who despised children. Educational theories always work unless there are children about for them to be tried upon. The detached theorist is useful in proportion to the value of his analysis of what has been or needs to be done. The traffic engineer is more effective working out a system for us than he is if mixed up in a street jam, but the mere fact that one stays out of a street jam does not prove him a traffic engineer. He may be a hermit or a timid recluse. Yet I have heard a vicious logic which runs approximately, “That faculty member is so im¬ practical that he could not possibly make things go in a real school. He must therefore be an expounder of very great principles. He is deep, very deep.” Truly great theorizing doubtless excuses impracticability, but mere inaptness to do or to get along with associates is not proof of useful theorizing ability. We shall suffer no loss of real theory and principle by an increase in the proportion of our staffs who can deal successfully with that most illogically contrived creature, the modern child. I once asked the head of a teacher-training school in Europe, “How do you get so many men with the doctorate who, with all their specialized training, are skilful in firsthand work with children?” His answer was “There are plenty of pretty fair candidates for each position. Those who cannot work with children do not seek nor would they receive appointment.” Department of Teachers Colleges 841 Fortunately teachers colleges employ largely those who get acquainted with children in the public service. If we can send all of these back into such schools more or less regularly, theory will not depart unreasonably from practise. A term now and then spent in active public school service would greatly help some of our staffs. Even a week of public school visiting each year is amazingly productive of results. If these faculty visitors are not capable of helping the public schools by their visits and at the same time helping themselves to interpret future jobs to students in training, I wonder whether they will be good enough to belong in the teachers college faculty of 1950. When some of us in 1950 limp across the campus and lugubriously shake our heads with the pessimism of old age, we shall nevertheless have enough mathematical sense to be fairminded observers of the procession. We shall see the superior training, adequate professional and travel experience, per¬ sonality achieving much which we have struggled for, and accomplishing some results which we have not yet imagined and might not be ready to ap¬ prove even if we had thought of them. THE TRAINING SCHOOL FACULTY IN 1950— ITS TYPE, PREPARATION, BACKGROUND, RELATIONS, AND DUTIES O. R. LATHAM, PRESIDENT, IOWA STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, CEDAR FALLS, IOWA From a minor adjunct of the normal school of yesterday, the training school of tomorrow will undoubtedly become the hub about which the activity of the teachers college will most certainly revolve. Already ad¬ ministrators have come to a realization that the best observable measure of the efficiency of any teachers college is the character of its training school. Fully conscious of the truth of these assertions, the administrators of the teachers colleges of 1950 will have made such strides in the improvement of these schools that they will have become a Mecca for superintendents, super¬ visors, and teachers from all of the territory ministered to by the teacher¬ training institution. A day spent within its walls will be a profitable one for any individual engaged in educational work no matter from whence he comes. As I try to visualize the training school of 1950, it looms in two units — one on the campus of the teachers college itself, the other a few miles distant, but, with our ever-increasing facilities for rapid transportation, within five minutes accessible to any member of the faculty, administrative staff, or student body. This more distant unit houses a training school no less efficient, no less modern and wellequipped, no less excellently staffed than the one which appears on the campus. Only in these respects does it differ, that it draws its patronage from the surrounding farms and that it is especially equipped to meet the peculiar problems of a rural community, just as the other unit is equipped to meet the problems and to train the teachers of our city schools. 842 National Education Association The tentative selection of the staff for these units will be made several years in advance of their employment. Rigid standards for admission to the teachers college will have insured the matriculation of a very superior group of young men and women. .For them will be employed instructors of the foremost rank in academic knowledge, in ability to instruct, and in proclivity for molding character, for by that time full cognizance will be taken of the fact that the student tends ever to ape his own instructors. From these superior students there will be chosen, in part by observation, in part by a battery of tests of personality, special aptitude, moral character, health, and intellect, the most promising who, already in their junior year of college, will begin the intensive training for the positions of master teachers which they are ultimately to fill. Graduation from the college will be followed by two or three years of graduate work, not in a liberal arts college or university hostile to the aims and ideals of the teachers college but in the graduate departments of two or three teachers colleges. This training, interspersed with close observation of, and much participation in, the various phases of teaching will then be followed by two years of actual experience in teaching. Such pre¬ paration enables him to assume the responsibilities of a critic teacher in his chosen field, whenever the opportunity arises. In this position, what are the duties which confront him? His teaching schedule is reduced to such an extent that the present training school staff would look at him with envy could they but see. His is not a life of ease, however, for each period of teaching is one which serves as an inspiration to many observers and each day finds him spending many hours with student teachers, giving help, suggestions, and encouragement. E^tra- curriculum activities will be reduced to a minimum, most of them cared for by specialists in the various fields of activity. When he does engage in these it will be with the freedom of one in perfect physical and mental health, unhampered by thoughts of multitudinous unfinished and incumbent burdens. Methods of drill will be so superior to those at present in vogue, presentation of content materials so much more effective that much of the teacher’s time will be devoted to inculcating by ever subtler yet more effective methods, the all-essential ideals and attitudes of the desirable mem¬ ber of society. Among the items which will receive more attention are the hygienic conditions, the health of the pupils, and his own physical condition. To this end he will give merited attention to the hygienic arrangement of the daily program. The professional status of the training school faculty will, of course, be in no way inferior to that of the other members of the teachers college staff. The same type of rating as instructors, assistant and associate professors, and professors, will apply to them as to the college faculty. No longer will the opportunity for advancement in this type of service be limited so that real advance is made only by leaving the field for another, but the teacher will feel that here lies his opportunity for a life of valuable, appreciated, and rewarded service. Neither will it be considered as professional advancement for such a Department of Teachers Colleges 843 teacher to take a place on the faculty of a university or liberal arts college. Needless to say, his salary will be such as will put him on a parity with the members of other professions with like training and personal qualifications. Sabbatical leaves for study or travel will have become usual, especially for these teachers. As further encouragement to professional advancement, these teachers will be engaged in research — not in researches of a minor or individual character, the results of which would be applicable to only a given situation, but as members of a large group of colleges banded together to ascertain the truth about some of the more intricate problems of method and curriculum. Constant cooperation with the members of the college faculty will serve to keep him in touch with new developments in technics while their demon¬ strations in his schoolroom of their theories and devices will serve to keep the two groups constantly striving for a common goal. This coordination with the college courses will be one of the most wholesome influences in furthering the common cause for which all will strive. I regard this as one of the principal means of bringing about a mutual understanding between the two groups which we are now accustomed to calling the “academically- minded” and the “professionally-minded” and which the present day ad¬ ministrator fears to bring into the same room for discussion of courses and curriculums lest ere they emerge some blood be shed. By that time I trust that there will be little question as to the merit of instruction in methods, each subjectmatter course having had worked out in its field an adequate type of methods. And now, lest my dream for the training school faculty of 1950 may appear too Utopian and lest some of my hearers regard me as a prospective suc¬ cessor to the role of Medusa — one who would make a few modifications in our present condition and then have those improvements ossify — perhaps I had best indicate some of the matters in which improvement will still be sought. First, I do not have such rank optimism as to suppose that even at this future date all parents will be willing to send their children to a training school, there to be “practised upon” by incapable and inexpert neophytes. Studies may reveal, as studies have done, that this instruction is in no wise inferior and in many ways superior to that received in the public school system, yet for many parents the Made publication of such findings will in no way alter their preconceived notions. That teachers will even then have come to the realization that it is just as true that we are bundles of sentiment as it is true that we are bundles of habit, is another thing which I am not sufficiently optimistic to predict. Some cognizance will be taken of the fact, however, that the personal ap¬ pearance of a teacher, his personality and his presentation may make a child a crusader in the realm of science or an arch-enemy of particular or general erudition. The following quotation indicates that the authors of the recent volume which reports the Commonwealth Teacher-Training Study, are mindful of the part which personality plays in the activities of the school. 844 National Education Association Personal traits must be systematically provided for in building any professional curriculum. Every teacher is expected, for instance, to learn the names of his pupils, but the learning will differ according to the traits possessed by the teacher. If one of his qualities is accuracy, he will learn the names so that he can pro¬ nounce them without error. But if he does not possess this trait, he will only half learn them. The instructor performing the activity “evaluating pupils’ work” will modify to a marked degree his methods of evaluation according to the qualities which he possesses. With a given task before him he will think and act in cer¬ tain ways if he is disposed to be highly critical ; he will perform the task somewhat differently if he is highly enthusiastic, and still somewhat differently if he is decisive. The performance will be affected by his good judgment, and an open- minded person will perform the task differently from one who is prejudiced. If he is prompt the process will be carried on at a different time and in a different way from that of the dilatory teacher. In a very pronounced and essential degree the qualities possessed by a teacher influence the performance of his instructional ac¬ tivities. To control such performances by giving direct attention to the traits in¬ volved, one must either select teachers who possess the desired traits to begin with or develop the traits in the training school and during the first few years of service. That problems of the curriculum will then cease to bother training school or teachers college faculties is likewise too much to expect. Much headway will have been made in analyzing the various skills and knowledges which are useful in the everyday tasks and much will have been accomplished in modifying instruction to meet these needs. In the matter of the essential types of instruction to prepare one to lead the “good life,” however, much will remain to be learned and done. New problems, inherent in the then existing society, problems of which we are now dimly conscious or quite unaware, will continually arise to confront the teacher of all successive ages. Finally let us remember that our ideals are not static, for what today looks to us as the acme of perfection and as the very best that any one could desire, will, on the morrow when it is attained, appear simply as a stepping stone to greater progress. PREDICTED CHANGES IN FACULTY STANDARDS BY 1950 AS SHOWN BY THE EXPERIENCES OF THE COMMITTEE ON ACCREDITING AND CLASSIFICATION CHARLES MCKENNY, PRESIDENT, MICHIGAN STATE NORMAL COLLEGE, YPSILANTI, MICHIGAN When I received the invitation to forecast to this Association the changes in teachers college faculties by 1950 my inclination was to decline the task politely but firmly. A fairly long life has convinced me that among the many gifts that my fairy godmother failed to give me was the one of divination. All my life I have found it difficult to tell what would happen twelve months hence, and I have not the slightest confidence in myself when it comes to making a prediction twenty years in advance. On reflection, however, I concluded that the very remoteness of the period concerning Department of Teachers Colleges 845 which I was to make a prophecy was the redeeming fact. To quote a cele¬ brated sentence, “Few will note nor long remember what is said here,” and if perchance a student of 1950 delving for material for his doctor’s degree should unearth the proceedings of this meeting and find conditions at that time not as herein predicted and should be disposed to hold the prophet up to scorn, I should not be present to experience humiliation. Consequently I go joyously to my task. It seems safe to predict that 1950 will record a decided change upward in the academic qualifications of presidents who will be administering the teachers colleges. The older men now at the head of these institutions, who began their work at a time when a college degree was an achievement and a master’s degree a scholastic distinction will have retired to that luxurious and affluent ease which awaits the educator in this world or will have re¬ ceived their golden crowns and harps in more delectable regions, and a race of more scientifically trained men will be guiding the destiny of teachers col¬ leges. In all probability they will be no better qualified for their day than were their predecessors for their particular era. When some of these ancients and honorables entered the profession a five-foot shelf could con¬ tain all the significant books on education and most of the bound volumes of periodicals and proceedings that had to do with that subject. Today a five-foot shelf would not contain the annual output of educational books alone, to say nothing of bound periodicals. The president of 1950 with his Ph. D. very likely will know less of the entire field of education, despite his added training, than did his predecessor of a generation before, for the scope of education, already vastly extended, is becoming yearly more com¬ prehensive as well as diversified, and the day of the Aristotelian educator who summed up in himself the wisdom of the entire field is already gone. The movement for academic training will of course register itself in the teaching staff of the colleges of 1950. When the normal schools were first established and for fifty years afterward, their function was almost entirely the preparation of teachers for the elementary schools, and moreover, the ele¬ mentary field of that day was limited in content. Naturally, therefore, in the selection of a faculty the first choice fell upon the men and women who had had special training and long experience in this particular department of public school work. Human qualities, an intimate knowledge of public school conditions, skill in presenting and in teaching the common school sub¬ jects, were by far more necessary qualities than academic scholarship. In addition the normal schools had no prestige and were not an attractive field of service to the ambitious scholar. Times have changed. The normal schools have become colleges, ‘abbreviated curriculums have lengthened to four years and degrees are conferred. In short, teachers colleges have be¬ come respectable institutions and men and women of scholarship are not only increasingly available but are glad to join their faculties. By 1950 the relentless scythe of time will have harvested the ripened grain on the faculties of teachers colleges and that too large percent of teachers who are with us today with limited academic training and who have 846 National Education Association arrived at that time of life which does not warrant the spending of time and money to gain advanced degrees will have retired and their places will be taken by a new generation more adequately prepared. The upward trend in scholastic preparation of teachers college faculties is well set forth by President Hendricks 1 in a paper read before this associa¬ tion last year. His report on forty-eight institutions shows that the per¬ cent of members of the faculty having no degrees had in ten years been reduced from thirty-three to ten ; the number having the A. B. degree had not changed in ten years, but the number holding the master's degree had increased from twenty-two percent to forty-three percent ; and the num¬ ber holding the doctor’s degree from four percent to seven percent. Albany State College for Teachers, and the Chicago Teachers College led the aca¬ demic procession in 1926-27: 33.3 percent of the teachers at Albany and 66.6 percent at Chicago held the doctor’s degree. It should be noted how¬ ever that as far back as 1890 Albany gave up the training of elementary teachers and has since that date given exclusive attention to the secondary field. The movement for greater scholarship on teachers college faculties was speeded up during the past year owing to the standards adopted by this organization and the work of accrediting which w’as undertaken. Un¬ fortunately, the data for 1928-29 came to hand too late to be analyzed and classified for this paper. It is interesting to note, however, as an indication of what is taking place, that two institutions which reported five doctor’s degrees on their faculties a year ago for the present year reported seventeen. It seems likely that by 1950 the general policy of institutions will be to give no man a permanent position on the faculty unless he has a doctor’s degree or is near enough to the goal so that he may be expected to reach it within a few years. This policy has not been possible in the past and is scarcely possible today if in addition to the scholarship supposedly represented by the Ph. D. degree there are demanded force of character, experience, and teach¬ ing skill, not to mention those more subtle and pervasive, but so desirable qualities called personality and culture. I have said that by 1950 the men taken upon the faculties of teachers colleges will have achieved the doctor’s degree or will be in sight of that goal. What of the women ? Now it is universally conceded that the rashest of all rash undertakings is to predict what women will do tomorrow and it borders on imbecility to attempt to forecast what they will be doing twenty years from now, but I am compelled to recognize them in this discussion since they constitute the majority of our teaching staffs. What I shall ven¬ ture to say is based on experience and on the biological factor. Judging from the past there seems to be little likelihood that during the next twenty years women will in large numbers be pursuing graduate study so far as the doctorate. Not that women are intellectually incapable of that attainment. 1 Hendricks, E. L. “Twenty years of progress in the qualifications and the salaries of teachers of normal schools and teachers colleges.” Proceedings 66:920-931; 1928. National Edu¬ cation Association, Washington, D. C. Department of Teachers Colleges 847 All suspicions of their mental capabilities were dissipated long ago. But the fact is their fundamental interests lie in another direction. At the outset a woman does not look upon a profession or business as a permanent vocation. As devoted as she is to her duties, whatever they may be, the eye of her imagination is scanning the sky line looking for the sail of that ship which shall bring her a husband and a home. This is as it should be. And by the time she is ready to admit that the ship is likely not to come she has become settled in some fairly satisfactory position. More than that, education in its choicest positions is largely a man’s world. The executive positions are usually held by men, as are most teaching positions in colleges and uni¬ versities with the exception of teachers colleges, and women do not see the advancement in position and salary which would warrant the expenditure in time and money which a doctor’s degree demands. In a study of a group of teacher-training institutions made about five years ago McMullen found that 26.6 percent of the women and eleven percent of the men held no degree ; forty-six percent of the women and 32.9 percent of the men held the bachelor’s degree; 26.6 percent of the women and 43.9 percent of the men held the master’s degree; and 7.6 percent of the women and 12.3 percent of the men held the doctor’s degree. If the doctor’s degree should become a prerequisite for a position on a teachers college faculty or even the norm, one of two results will follow: either women who are now in the majority on teachers college faculties will become the minority, or more women will seek and achieve the doctor’s degree. Today there is discernible a relative increase in the number of men on teachers college faculties. Two years of academic and professional graduate study seem likely to be the norm set up by 1950 for women on teachers college faculties. Should this norm be established, there would re¬ main the question as to whether the first year should be spent in securing the traditional M. A. and the second year be given to shopping around among the universities taking the courses that seem to be helpful, or whether it should be given to earning another M. A. in a different university than the one in which the first master’s degree was taken. The shopping-around plan would not show up in catalogs and probably would not yield as good financial returns as the other plan. It may be that more universities will follow the lead of Harvard’s School of Education and require two years of graduate study for the M. A. Certain it seems to be that the colleges of 1950 will expect more than one year of graduate study on the part of the women members of the faculty. It has been .the custom in rating teachers college faculties academically to compare them with liberal arts colleges. This comparison has never been quite fair to the teachers colleges. In the first place, in the liberal arts list of colleges have been included the universities and larger endowed institu¬ tions. The comparison would have been much more just if these types had been excluded and the teachers colleges had been compared with the smaller liberal arts colleges. The universities and larger endowed colleges are graduate institutions and stress productive scholarship, and naturally this 848 National Education Association type of institution would demand a higher grade of scholarship than would those institutions which do not do graduate work nor as a rule expect very great productivity on the part of their faculties. Teachers colleges are essentially teaching institutions. The comparison is unfair in another re¬ spect. The curriculum of study in teachers colleges includes much of art, music, manual arts, industrial arts, and physical education. In these par¬ ticular fields it has been difficult and is today difficult to get teachers with extended academic preparation. Our teachers of music and art and draw¬ ing have to a great extent been educated in non-degree-granting institutions and by private instructors, due to the fact that until recently the number of colleges and universities offering work in these fields has been limited in number, and especially has this been true in the graduate field. The time and money spent by teachers of these special branches on their training are frequently in excess of the amounts necessary to win a bachelor’s and in some instances a master’s degree, but cold statistics do not take account of this fact. It is worthy of note that the North Central Association in grad¬ ing faculties of high schools considers only teachers of accepted academic subjects and does not undertake to rate the teachers of music, drawing, physical education, and industrial arts, and I am disposed to think that the accrediting policy of this association should be also broad and liberal toward teachers in these departments. There are tendencies today in our graduate schools which warrant the opinion that by 1950 there will be available for teachers colleges men and women better prepared in the professional aspect of their subjects. In the past it has been difficult to find academic scholarship and professional insight and background in the same individual. Good tidings have been coming to us of late that more graduate schools are undertaking in a serious and wholehearted fashion the education of teachers as well as research scholars. The nature of the learning process and the consequent nature of the teach¬ ing process, the relations and the organization of subjectmatter, and the ele¬ ments of class procedure have found recognition in high places. Never before in American education has poor teaching been so generally and eloquently damned and good teaching so exalted. And this too in liberal arts circles. The situation is full of cheer for the year 1950. So far this paper has discussed the academic and professional qualities of the faculties of 1950. It would be lopsided if it did not touch upon the even more important qualities which are essential in a desirable member of a teachers college faculty, such as human interest, moral earnestness, in¬ spiring personalities, refined social bearing, and leadership. It is to be ex¬ pected, and I venture to predict that these qualities will not be lost sight of in building up teachers college faculties. Teaching is a human business, whether in the elementary grades of the public schools or in the college classroom. A teacher who cannot touch the emotions, who cannot awaken the ambitions and aspirations, who cannot quicken the love of humanity and stir the zeal to serve, is not a teacher though his academic degrees would reach across a page. And sometimes there is just a little anxiety on the Department of Teachers Colleges 849 part of the writer lest in our eagerness to build up our faculties academically we shall lose sight of these qualities or at least sacrifice them somewhat for scholarship. I should consider that president most fortunate, or to put it differently, miraculously lucky, who could bring seven Ph. D.’s to his faculty in one year and harvest no regrets. My own experience would not make me hopeful of such an experiment. In my judgment that president is wise who makes the basic qualities that I have referred to the acid test by which teachers are selected rather than to make the academic standard the domi¬ nant consideration. To sum up, the outlook for teachers colleges is full of hope. Their progress during the last decade is one of the notable achieve¬ ments in American education and there is reason for predicting that the rate of progress will not be retarded between this date and 1950. WHITHER THE TEACHERS COLLEGES IN THE ACADEMIC WORLD ? M. E. HAGGERTY, DEAN, COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. In beginning this discussion the speaker wishes to disclaim any qualifica¬ tions to utter exact prophesies in terms of the specific topic which he has been invited to consider, namely, “The Academic Phase of the Curriculum in 1950: Its Length, Content, Nature, and Relation and Proportional Part to the Whole Curriculum.” All that we may do is to suggest in very general terms certain needed developments in the training of teachers for American schools. By terms of the subject we are limited to the academic training which definitely excludes all thought of the professional aspects of a teacher’s education. The method indicated is to set forth as clearly as possible some facts about present conditions that may be useful in trjring to forecast the future. It is proposed to offer at the close of this paper certain principles as guides to investigation to which consideration must be given in any solu¬ tion of the problem of the academic curriculum of the teachers colleges. It will not be possible within the scope of the present discussion to do more than state these in a dogmatic style. Each of them, however, sets a problem for study rather than enunciates a principle for action, and they should be so understood. As a preliminary to the affirmation of these principles let me call atten¬ tion to three matters, which, though some may look upon them as having only a remote bearing upon the issue, have, in the judgment of the writer, a crucial relation to it. Reference is to certain changing conditions in the economic outlook for teachers, the rapidly altering content of the world’s knowledge, and the present academic quality of teachers college faculties. Of none of these can our consideration be more than suggestive. 850 National Education Association Changing Conditions of Teacher Employment Let us, first of all, pass in quick review some aspects of the teaching job since nothing is more determinative of the possibilities of training than the likelihood of prompt employment in a position economically and otherwise desirable. The first matter to consider is that the elementary school en¬ rolment in American schools has been stabilized. Frank M. Phillips, Chief of the Division of Statistics of the United States Bureau of Education, points out in the Statistical Survey of Education for 1925-26 that “the increases in enrolment in the elementary school have not kept pace with the increase in the general population” over the last thirty-five years. He says, “It is quite evident that the number of six-year-old children is not increasing very rapidly from year to year. The 1930 census may show little, if any, increase in the number of children ready to enter school over the number shown in the 1920 census. If these same conditions exist for a number of years, school enrolment will reach a stationary period, espe¬ cially in the lower grades. High-school enrolments have been on the upgrade since 1890, and at a highly accelerated rate from 1910 to 1922.” Mr. Phillips notes that “the indication is that the rate of growth from now on will constantly decrease, provided social and economic factors re¬ main relatively as at present.” He says further that, “rates of promotion, and the length of time pupils remain in school, will determine whether or not upper grades will continue to grow in size. Factors which influence pupils to enter into and remain in high-school work will continue to determine whether or not high-school enrolments will continue on the upgrade. The breaking point in the rate of increase in high-school enrolments may have been passed, but there are indications that material increases may continue for a number of years.” We may complete these facts with the figures of enrolment in teacher¬ training schools also reported by Phillips. Here, also, there has been a great increase in recent years — vastly greater than in the enrolment in elementary schools. The figures are 67.6 percent as against sixty-two percent. For the period 1920 to 1924 it appears that the enrolment in teachers colleges has increased approximately at the rate of the high-school enrolment, and that the enrolment in arts colleges, which also train secondary school teachers, has gone up 240 percent. The import of all these facts is that competition for teaching positions will rapidly intensify and, in fact, has already begun. If we could assume that the present body of elementary teachers is satisfactorily trained, it would then appear that we shall need new elementary teachers only for replacement, and it would seem perfectly clear that we are graduating students from teachers colleges in larger numbers than can be absorbed in the lower schools. This situation is fraught with grave perils to the teaching profession, and to the colleges which train teachers. It will require great wisdom and generous cooperation to prevent a decided lower¬ ing of teachers’ salaries, with a consequent degradation of the business of teaching and all that is related to it. Department of Teachers Colleges 851 To be sure, some outlet for the surplus of teachers may be found in the secondary schools. We should not blind ourselves to the fact, however, that this solution is but a temporary one. It is in the nature of things that the situation now prevailing in the elementary field is only a few years distant in the high-school field. Let the teachers colleges shift their interest to the training of high-school teachers and they, along with the colleges and universities, w’ill quickly create the same situation that now confronts them in regard to elementary teachers. Perils of competition — One outcome that will inevitably ensue from this situation is an increased competition among the teachers colleges themselves and between them and the colleges and universities, competition for funds, competition for students, and competition for the teachers’ market. Plenti¬ ful evidence is at hand to show that this competition is already well ad¬ vanced. Only great wisdom and generous vision can prevent it from be¬ coming a bitter struggle that will engulf some of our most cherished ideals, if not our institutions themselves. Some useful results will be forthcoming because institutions will be under the wholesome necessity of improving the quality of their work. A grave danger impends, however, that the struggle for survival among colleges will become greater than it has been — so in¬ tense, in fact, that some of them will be seriously crippled as institutions of higher learning — and that the whole program of teacher training will be warped and its highest purposes defeated. The New World of Knowledge Let us now turn to the second matter for our preliminary consideration. The prevailing situation may, if rightly handled, have in it the possibilities of expanding and enriching our teacher-training curriculum — and that they need such expansion and enrichment in order to meet demands that are immediate and in the near future none of us entertains the slightest doubt. Let me parade before you certain facts that must be admitted into any genuine effort to render the training of teachers adequate. Outcome of scientific study — The past hundred years have been unique in all the history of mankind in their contribution to knowledge and in increased possibilities of comfortable, happy living. The dynamics back of this achievement have been discoveries in the field of the natural sciences. So rapid and so profound have been the changes wrought in twentieth century civilization through the subtle influences of scientific discovery, we are all but lost in our attempts at intellectual and practical adjustment. Two mighty allies of science have been the passion for scholarship extend¬ ing in myriad directions to enlarge to fabulous proportions the realm of human knowledge, and the American genius for mechanical and electrical invention shooting forward in herculean strides the industrial and com¬ mercial life of our people. Nothing but the most extreme terms suffice to picture the range and depth of the influences arising from the resistless energy with which the forces liberated by these movements, which are at bottom intellectual movements, have penetrated to the minutest recesses of 852 National Education Association our ideational life and altered the details of our living. It is but a faint picture of what has happened to say that it is like the creviced frost that cleaves the compact granite of the hillside into crumbling sand. In part, this figure is descriptive because the fabric of our ideational life has in recent years been repeatedly unsettled. But, also, we have experienced something akin to the terrific onslaught of the constructive engineer upon nature’s geography in his building of canals and skyscrapers and airships, since our world of thinking has not merely suffered disintegration; it has also been wrought into new forms to create a genuinely new intellectual world in which we move about, even though we may fall short of com¬ prehending it. The new physics — How modern is this new intellectual world is sug¬ gested by the names of men whose work has made the science of modern physics. Are not these the ones: Galileo, Newton, Carnot, Faraday, Clerk Maxwell, Hertz, Lodge, Thomson, Roentgen, Curie, Gibbs, Row¬ land, Michaelson, Einstein, Pupin, and the scores of practical physicists who have turned theories into useful tools? Two of these lived before the nineteenth century. All but four have lived in the last quarter of that century, and most of them belong to the first quarter of the twentieth. The progress of science is the story of theories arising out of experience, submitted to careful observation and experimentation, and restated in more comprehensive and accurate form. The perceptual picture of science is, however, revealed to most of us in tangible changes in the conditions of our living. A glance at such changes reveals at once the marvelous impact of physical science upon civilization, and the promptness with which society has responded to modern discovery. It was but little more than thirty years ago that Roentgen discovered the X-rays, yet what conse¬ quences have flowed from that capture of one of nature’s secrets, and of others which followed in rapid succession. “It is a remarkable fact,” writes Professor William F. G. Swann, “that practically all of those achievements in the physics of the past twenty years which might be classed as utilitarian, have arisen directly from, or in relation to investigations pursued with no utilitarian motive directly in view. X-rays revealed themselves first in the light of their importance in surgery. The study of their properties shed a new light upon the structure of the atom and this light was reflected back with enhanced intensity to clarify the properties of the X-rays themselves.” On the practical side we have, on the one hand, the improvement of surgery, the treatment of cancer and the like, and on the other the modern radio tube, a variety of appliances used in radio transmission, greatly improved X-ray tubes, and the brilliant electric bulbs used in artificial lighting. The recency of new knowledge — Quite as remarkable as the greatly enlarged and enriched world in which we live is the striking recency of the development of the new elements in it. If we liken the five thousand years of recorded history to a single day, then the last hundred years is equal to the last thirty minutes of time — a vivid reminder of how lately the Department of Teachers Colleges 853 world’s knowledge of science and of other matters which we owe to the methods of science has been achieved. Fifty years means fifteen minutes, and all that has passed of the present century would be but the final seven and one-half minutes of our historic day. The evidence that these latest minutes have transformed the basic conditions of human living is compelling. Modern medical science — When we thus look upon the ancient science of physics reclothed and revitalized by the last ten minutes of our historic day, what shall we say of medicine? It was in 1860, when throughout the world the dread of human putrefaction stalked every wound or surgical operation, the French Academy of Science honored Louis Pasteur for his demonstration that fermentations are of bacterial origin ; it was in the seventies that Robert Koch proved that a particular disease may be due to a particular microbe and that a particularly small microscopic bacillus wreaks the deadly havoc of tuberculosis among mankind ; later still came the doctrine of immunity and the practise of vaccinations; it was in 1891 that Metchnikoff finally proved that the phagocytes in our blood are our real defense against certain bacterial diseases. Later, in the nineties, the cause of malaria was discovered to lie in the bite of the mosquito, and the first year of the twentieth century saw the terror of yellow fever wiped forever from the earth in the dramatic experiments of Walter Reed. Before our own eyes the miracle comes to pass — not one lonely searcher without equipment inventing his own way forward into the mysteries of life and death, but a regimented army of trained scientists, with fully equipped laboratories in universities and research institutes, in medical schools and hospitals driving relentlessly forward with a thousand devices against the diseases that infest the human frame, pushing back, back, by months and years the dreaded day of death, within a quarter century adding to the average life about ten years, and to our hundred twenty million people more than a billion years of time. The jniracle of new power — The temptation is great to follow into other fields of knowledge the evidences of growth. The point is clear from the illustrations already given, and we should turn to another body of facts which are in large part a consequence of our growing knowledge. In¬ creasingly man is gaining control over his material environment and is becoming emancipated from grinding toil. An illuminating exposition of this matter has recently been given by Walter Dill Scott in his address as President of the American Council on Education.1 In vivid compari¬ sons President Scott set forth the accumulating power available for the use of the human family in the United States. As a criterion of compari¬ son he used the engineer’s unit of horsepower and its equivalent of twenty- five slaves. With this “common unit of measurement” he traced the growth of power from about 4000 B. C. to the present time. “At the 1 Walter Dill Scott. “The Rapid Development of Mechanical Power and Its Influence on Education in America.” The Educational Record, Vol. IX, No. 3, July, 1928, p. 136. 854 National Education Association peak of prosperity in Babylon, Egypt, Greece, and Rome the average freeman possessed power possibly the equivalent of two slaves available for his use.” The meagerness of this surplus power will be apparent in the facts of later growth. In the census of 1869 the records reveal that from this equivalent of two-slave power in the pre-Christian Era, the accumula¬ tion had amounted to about twelve-slave power for ‘‘every man, woman, and child in the United States.” There was “a total of 20,000,000 horse¬ power distributed among the 40,000,000 of the population.” What is the corresponding figure for 1928? The average power avail¬ able to each of us now is the equivalent of 175 slaves, and more than three-fourths of this power resides in forms unknown prior to very recent times. Ninety-seven and one half percent of it is mechanical. It is also true that “this rapid accumulation of power is a phenomenon peculiarly American,” and that the rate of increase is rapidly accelerating. We cannot here follow the implications of these facts concerning the increase of power into all the issues resulting from them. Nothing, not even the cataclysm of the World War, has so shaken our civilization to its very heart as has the expanding and enriched economic life of our people resulting from this miracle of new power in the world. It has created widely distributed wealth ; it has shortened the hours of necessary labor, and enormously increased the return from it ; it has created leisure on a fabulous scale ; it has reduced poverty ; facilitated travel ; elevated standards of living; and set us a thousand educational problems of which our parents had not the faintest dream. But already the new day has given us finer things than these : beautiful pictures in our homes, books in great libraries, schools for all our children, genuine music in the concert hall, in the home, and upon the air — even as I write these words in my study in Minneapolis I hear the Overture to Rienzi played for America’s high-school and college students with the matchless artistry of Walter Damrosch and his orchestra in New York City. More than all, these new riches have unshackled our need for human intercourse and cooperation in the great enterprises of the human spirit. Never before could men and women arise from toil with such radiant hope, lifting eager hands to cooperate in the improvement of governmental and social machinery, still refreshed to cultivate in leisure hours the highest arts of peaceful living — science, philosophy, music, painting, literature, conversation, travel, and politics. The new literature — Much reason exists to believe that the first quarter of our century has achieved a new richness also in literary interpretation. In poetry we have Edwin Arlington Robinson, Robert Frost, Carl Sand¬ burg, and Vachel Lindsay; in literary prose Theodore Dreiser, Sherwood Anderson, Sinclair Lewis, and Willa Cather; in drama Eugene O’Neil; and in criticism Van Wyck Brooks, Henry Adams, Henry L. Mencken, and Stuart Sherman. These, with scores of other men and women, have created for us a new literary world, have given us refreshing glimpses of our own lives, new understandings of the world in which we ourselves Department of Teachers Colleges 855 have grown up, and have gone far to emancipate us from literary standards that, if they were ever pertinent to American life, have been long outgrown. The challenge of the new world — Lack of time forbids us to follow this exciting tale of the creation of new knowledge into other fields. We have new history, new" politics, new art, and even new religion. Possibly enough illustration has been given to make clear the fact that living men and women, and increasingly young people, are at grips with an intellectual W"orld that is laden wfith newT ideas, complicated beyond former imagina¬ tions, pregnant with possibilities of growth, and fraught wfith issues alluring and perilous. The New World and the Teachers Colleges If w7e have succeeded in suggesting the mass and richness of a rapidly altering ideational w7orld, it will now be pertinent to inquire how- far this new world of knowfiedge has alreadv penetrated the teachers colleges. This might be determined by a study of teachers college curriculums, by an examination of college libraries, or, perchance, by an evaluation of the productivity of the academic members of teachers college faculties in scholarly matters. Such methods have not been possible to the speaker. It may be safely assumed, how-ever, that knowfiedge is not effectively in the curriculum to any greater degree than it resides in the faculties of the colleges, and upon this matter w-e have some data. The effective agencies of knowfiedge are the* individuals w-ho possess it, and the frontiers of knowledge are best represented by the activities of national organizations devoted to the specialized fields. It is pertinent to ask, therefore, to w-hat degree the teachers college faculties are in touch with national bodies of learned men. I have sought to secure information on this matter in two w-ays. As a first source of information I asked all the teachers college presi¬ dents in the states of Califoria, Illinois, Minnesota, and Pennsylvania to provide data concerning their own faculties. This they have done in generous fashion. To make the report easy and uniform a list of national associations covering the academic fields represented in teachers colleges w-as provided in tabular form. Information w-as asked on the followfing points : 1. The number of teachers now on the staff of the institution in the field or fields represented by the several associations. 2. The number who are at this time members of such associations. 3. The number who have been present at the meetings of the several associations within the ten-year period 1919-28. 4. The number who have participated in the program of the meetings of such associations within the ten-year period 1919-28. We shall confine the discussion of results to the following national societies : 856 National Education Association Botanical Society of America American Chemical Society Modern Language Association American Historical Association American Philological Association American Physical Society American Political Science Association American Sociological Society American Society of Zoologists American Society of Naturalists Considering these ten societies only, the eighteen colleges reporting in¬ dicate a total of 220 instructors in the indicated fields. Sixty-three of these are in the sciences, eighty-nine are in the languages, and sixty-eight in history and the social studies. Of the sixty-three science teachers, twenty-nine belong to their respective organizations ; twenty-four of them have attended at least one meeting of their organization within a ten-year period ; and five, or almost eight percent, have appeared on the programs within this period. This is an average of seven-tenths of one percent for each year of the decade. These figures are slightly higher than are those for the history group, and much higher than those for English and the other languages. Among the eighty-nine in the latter group only eight have attended such a meeting within a ten-year period, and only one, an in¬ structor in Latin, has participated upon a program. We are at a loss to give an accurate interpretation to these data because we do not have comparable information for other collegiate institutions. Is it not clear, however, that the teachers college faculties are but slightly touched by whatever influences emanate from the national societies of aca¬ demic men ? That we might come to closer grips with this issue we have attempted to secure the membership lists of learned societies in the academic fields represented in the teachers colleges. In this we have been only partially successful since some of these lists have not been accessible within the time which we have devoted to this study. Such data as we have are given in the accompanying table (page 857) which shows numbers and percents for the entire membership of the organizations studied insofar as this can be determined from the published lists. The summary of figures at the bottom of the table indicate that of the 10,528 members of the eight organizations listed, 1.64 percent of them reside in teachers colleges, 21.87 percent in the smaller arts colleges, 25.99 percent in state and municipal universities, 12.85 percent in large endowed institutions, and of the remaining 37.65 percent, 8.74 percent are to be found in public schools, research institutions, industrial and commercial establishments. The location of 28.08 percent is indeterminable from the lists. Certainly I have no desire to overinterpret the significance of the facts derived in this study. Admittedly we do not have sufficient data at hand to render inferences either accurate or final. Yet one thing seems perfectly clear. As conditions now prevail a profound change must transpire before the teachers colleges will have any intimate or effective relations to the frontiers of knowledge, or be able to represent it to their students. DATA SHOWING RELATIVE DEGREE TO WHICH TEACHERS COLLEGE FACULTIES HOLD MEMBERSHIP IN NATIONAL ACADEMIC SOCIETIES1 Department of Teachers Colleges 857 1 See author’s interpretation of these data in the accompanying text. 858 National Education Association Teachers and the new world — It would be of some interest to determine also how far the colleges which train teachers have succeeded in firing their students with permanent intellectual alertness. It occurred to us to find out, if possible, the degree to which teachers maintain such alertness over the range of modern culture. With this in view, and with the aid of a num¬ ber of teachers and librarians, a list of recent books was compiled — books that have been published almost wholly within the decade 1919-28. One hundred titles were selected and grouped as follows: Art and Music Other essays Biography Poetry Drama Religion and Philosophy Fiction Science History and Related Subjects Travel Columns were provided for checking and the following directions were provided : In Column I after each title place a check mark to indicate that you have read the book. In case of Drama mark if you have' seen or read the play. In case of more than one volume check if you have read at least one volume. II. If, in your judgment, educated people should read this book, or a similar book in the same field, place a check in Column II. Omit the titles which you have not read. III. If, in your judgment, this book is a distinctive contribution to its field, place a check in Column III. If you do not feel qualified to make this judg¬ ment, place a zero in Column III. Otherwise leave a blank. The list of titles as thus arranged has thus far been submitted to more than 500 individuals in five cities, and returns have been received from 202 elementary and high-school teachers and principals of schools. The returns are from three large cities, each widely reputed for an excellent system of schools. The returns have been tabulated by teaching position now held. The groups are administrators, teachers in grades nine to twelve, teachers in grades seven and eight, and teachers in grades one to six. In the returns thus far received there are 20,200 chances that one book would have been read by one person. Four thousand five hundred fifty of these chances, or twenty-two percent, have been accepted by the teachers reporting. We shall only report here the details for the books in science, since, as we have indicated earlier, the dynamics of modern social change springs from this source. There are ten titles in this group, and 2020 chances that one of them would be read by our respondents. Eleven and five-tenths percent of these chances were reported as accepted. For the elementary teachers the figure is nine percent, and for the administrative group fifteen percent. These figures would have been much lower except for one book, Why We Behave Like Human Beings, which had been read by 105 persons among the 202. Only twenty persons in all reported having read Microbe Hunters, twenty-eight Creative Chemistry , and fourteen Men of the Old Stone Age . Department of Teachers Colleges 859 Yet these three books are not merely good science; they are good literature, in part dramatically written. If we could accept these figures as indicative of the alertness of teachers to the new world of science, a generalization which our meagerness of data admittedly forbids as actual, but which they certainly suggest as probable, we might well feel hopeless of adequately representing this new world in the curriculum of the schools, except by a tour de force from the outside. I do not generalize — I only suggest that the program of the teachers colleges cannot blink such facts as are here set forth. Principles for Guidance in Prognosis In proceeding to a statement of principles may I forestall misunderstand¬ ing by saying that I intend them to cover all our institutions, the teachers colleges, the colleges of liberal arts, and the larger universities. As the edu¬ cation of teachers has developed in America we are all concerned with a com¬ mon problem, and whatever may be looked upon as fundamental in one type of institution must find its place in all the others. With this reservation may I offer with little argument to support them a group of propositions that must have attention in any adequate examination of the future of the academic curriculum of the teachers colleges. 1. The first of such principles is that a teacher may claim by personal right the privilege of being an educated person. Increasingly as American life improves, the teacher’s life is to be spent among educated people. The best of these have themselves been trained in four-year colleges, and some have had added years in professional schools. American society is further in the midst of an enormously increased adult education, with libraries, museums, lectures, and courses of instruc¬ tion for grown up people on every hand. It is only the merest justice that the teacher shall be so trained as to be at home in the ever-advancing culture of our time, alert to the widely growing world of knowledge, and the fit companion of cultivated" men and women. 2. More than this, society has the right to expect a teacher to be, if not the best, at least a dependable) representative of modern culture in the community in which he lives and works. He is society’s agent for transmitting this culture in the form of organized knowledge to children and youth. It is his business to direct and quicken the interests of young people, and to make them sensitive to the world of ideas, not the dead' forms of knowledge to be found in books, but the living world of ideas and action throbbing all about them, growing and changing in a thousand ways, and issuing in works of science, history, poetry, pictures, music, and thrilling tales. It is the business of our colleges to equip for this very exacting mission. 3. Teacher-training institutions must become habitable by academic scholars. Let me hasten to say that by this I do not mean merely persons holding the degree of Master of Arts. Nor would I accept the doctorate as a guarantee of the thing I mean. All our institutions are inhabited, afflicted I almost said, by the holders of such laudatory titles who are intellectually dead, and, as graduate work has de¬ veloped in America, it has become possible for many persons to achieve the socalled higher degrees without ever acquiring genuine intellectual alertness — in some cases without ever feeling the thrill of intellectual discovery. I would not deny that such persons have a function to perform in colleges, and that a highly useful one. I am arguing here for a different type of individual for the colleges which educate teach- 860 National Education Association ers, for the, man who, quite regardless of the possession of collegiate degrees, still lives on the frontiers of the intellectual world, the man who is not merely a teacher of history, but who is a historian, who does not merely teach science, but who makes science. All of us know such men. Their habitat is not confined to any particular type of institution. I have known some in the smaller colleges and some in teachers colleges. Their name is not legion, but they are priceless in any institution. Their value exceeds that of libraries, laboratories, and all our specialized technics of instruction; their possession far outweighs the very difficult task of their discovery, as well as the frequent discomfort involved in keeping them happy and in the service of the institution. 4. The prospective teacher is entitled to an introduction to the world of knowl¬ edge as' such, quite apart from any specific uses to which this knowledge may be put in teaching. Every important academic field has its own body of ideas, its own logic of organization, its own springs of human interest, and, if a living field, its own processes of growth and expansion. As a tangible achievement of the human mind over a long period of time — many centuries in some cases — it is a great challenge to the growing intellects of youth, and particularly, to the aspirations of prospective teachers. A young man or a young woman who is to become a teacher of youth should have such contact with, the chief fields of knowledge as will make him at home in the world of ideas and sensitive to the changing frontiers of human information and ideals. 5. The kind of familiarity with the world of knowledge which the student teacher needs cannot be acquired from elementary courses as these are usually given in colleges. Particularly can they not do this if, from the beginning of college study, the shadow of little children hovers over everything they learn. The student in the background of whose mind is forever the question, “How can I use this informa¬ tion in teaching children?” is in no fit attitude to master a body of knowledge that is the ripened product of the best minds of all the world over centuries of time. It follows that, in some fields, the pursuit of knowledge must be pushed out to its frontiers, the student must see it in the process of its making, feel something of the glow of intellectual discovery and creation, and be put in the way of a continued intellectual alertness throughout life. 6. The kind of academic training to which a prospective teacher is entitled is hardly possible within a two-year period above the secondary school if the needed training in professional subjects is also to be included in this time. The necessary time for the combined training may be three years, or four years, or five, or even more years. It certainly exceeds two years. 7. The necessity for adapting knowledge to the capacities and needs of children must not transgress the prior right of the teacher-student to acquire knowledge as his own possession. There is a place for the business of making school curriculums and for learning the technic of instruction, but it is a silly notion that one can “professionalize” knowledge which he does not possess. 8. The kind of academic training here advocated means greatly improved libraries for our colleges. One of the insistent problems of our changing college life is the increased demands everywhere made upon libraries, demands for content and demands for service. Nowhere does the problem appear to stand in the way of adequate solution. The most promising aspect of the matter is that colleges have been made aware of the urgency of new provisions. 9. Attention must be further given to the teaching load of college faculties. But few of our institutions have as yet had either the wisdom or the courage to face this question on its merits. They follow the safe and easy method of a uniform schedule of teaching hours, giving little or no recognition to the fact that the teach¬ er’s load is the totality of what he does and not merely the hours he spends in a Department of Teachers Colleges 861 classroom. The academic life of an institution demands a more discriminating administrative policy. 10. Finally, need we say that the colleges which provide the teachers of our schools need greatly enhanced budgets, not the meager increases grudgingly given from time to time by state legislatures, but the substantial support that will enable us to build educational institutions worthy of the America which owns us and which we serve? It is the sheerest folly to blink this issue, and to assume that colleges can perform miracles — the miracle, for instance, of providing a four-year college on a budget inadequate for a high grade two-year curriculum. May I conclude this discussion with a suggestion for cooperation that transcends in its importance any of the particular matters which we have thus far advanced. I do not believe that the time is ripe for any great amount of extra-institutional administrative control, which would, at best, be largely arbitrary. We do need institutional self-restraint and a willing¬ ness to face the whole situation as a matter that transcends both institu¬ tional and state interests. An adequate supply of well educated teachers sufficient to meet, but not greatly exceed, the requirements of the entire country, is a problem of national significance. The business of creating this supply in the most effective manner is enshrouded with many ignorances that can be relieved only by thorough and pervasive investigations of many mat¬ ters about which there now prevail only the most hazy notions. My sug¬ gestion is that we all get together — teachers colleges, liberal arts colleges, universities, state departments of education, superintendents of schools, the National Education Association, and the Federal Bureau of Education — upon a comprehensive study of the whole problem involved in supplying our schools with good teachers. Such an inquiry is of so great importance that the Federal Bureau of Education should undertake to sponsor it and the Federal Government should provide it with adequate financial support. If this can be brought about, we may well suspend our judgment upon con¬ troversial details and may anticipate a day when we can consider funda¬ mental issues in the light of adequate knowledge concerning them. THE PROFESSIONAL PHASE OF THE TEACHERS COLLEGE CURRICULUM IN 1950 ROBERT CLARK, STATE SUPERVISOR OF TEACHER TRAINING, CHARLESTON, W. VA. According to my assignment for this program, I am to make predictions pertaining to the professional courses in the curriculums of teachers colleges in 1950. Without taking the trouble to make inquiry I have assumed that it was the intention of our chairman and program committee that we present the most modern tendencies in curriculum development and that on the basis of these tendencies and our present knowledge we predict, as best we can, the character of the professional curriculum of the teachers college for the next fifteen or twenty years. 862 National Education Association Since the science of teaching is chiefly concerned with the human mind, and since the human mind has reacted to its environment very much in the same way at least since the beginning of history, our task is not entirely one of prophecy or conjecture. It is the opinion of the writer that we might reasonably predict the nature and content of the professional phase of the curriculum twenty years hence if we knew exactly what it should be today. No phase of the curriculum program of collegiate institutions has ever been subjected to more criticism than has that group of courses usually listed as education or sometimes as professional. In the past quarter of a century the defenders of these courses have endured a barrage of epithets such as “easy,” “hash,” “duplication,” “theoretical” and “about something of which neither instructor nor student knows the fundamentals.” The shortcomings and insufficiency of the professional curriculum of former years are well established. They are admitted by its strongest sup¬ porters and fully appreciated by most of the school people responsible for the instruction and organization of these courses in teachers colleges. Permit me to say, however — and I am speaking, too, as one who is not a member of any college faculty— that it is my conviction that all of the indictments that have been made of the professional part of the teacher¬ training curriculum, may also with substantial evidence be made of aca¬ demic fields or could have been made when these fields were in a corre¬ sponding age of maturity and degree of development. The professor in the liberal arts college and too frequently the professor of the socalled content courses in the teachers college, do not seem to know that schools of education have made great progress in recent years. Their jokes about the normal schools are out-of-date. Their oft-repeated ex¬ amples have not been revised since the Armistice was signed. In the past ten years no group of institutions designed for the higher education of men and women has been more progressive and aggressive, more alert and more responsive to the demands of scientific research than have been the teachers colleges of this country. In this splendid development the curriculum has received its due share of consideration and as a result we have today in most teachers colleges and departments of education a curriculum program that is far superior to that of a decade ago. I am proud to say that the men and women representing these institutions in my own state of West Virginia, have, I believe, made some contribution to this forward movement. Before we proceed further with the subject assigned me permit me to define my position. In treating this subject we are not concerned with the academic phase of the curriculum. Even though we may agree with Dr. Bagley and others that subjectmatter courses in teachers colleges should be professionalized, liberalized, or at least vitalized in a way that has not always been done in the traditional liberal arts college, still there is a phase of the curriculum represented by certain courses in education that is distinct and that represents the specific professional training of prospec¬ tive teachers. These courses have to do with the objectives of organized Department of Teachers Colleges 863 educational procedures, the application of human psychology in teaching, and the acquisition of a certain degree of teaching skill. The demand for such training on the part of the teacher is not affected by his culture and general scholarship as is sometimes assumed. The aim of these professional courses is the same and their place is as indispensable whether we complete teachers’ formal training at two years beyond graduation from high school or after one or two years in a graduate school. In this discussion of the professional phase of the curriculum, we are assuming that the student has acquired or will acquire before he is certified for teaching, adequate general education, or at least as much as practical conditions will permit. Also in reference to professional courses, we shall consider only under¬ graduate school work and work that is in preparation for classroom teaching and not for administrative positions. Before we presume to make predictions on this subject let us get a point of departure by a brief review of some current opinions on the professional phase of the teachers college curriculum. In 1926, by the authorization of the State Board of Education in West Virginia, and under the direction of the State Division of Teacher Training, the teachers colleges in this state undertook an intensive study of the curriculums for teacher-training institutions. By the organization of a central committee and a number of subcommittees this study was carried on through a period of two years. The result of that study was embodied in a report approved by the State Board of Education and published by the State Department of Education of West Virginia as Teacher Training Bulletin No. 7. It is not my purpose here either to present or defend the West Virginia program. However, in order that we may be specific I desire to refer occasionally to the conclusions of that study. In further preparation for a discussion of this subject at this time, I sent out a questionnaire to a select group of educators in several states, including superintendents, principals, and members of college faculties. Sixty-five questionnaires were sent out and fifty-two, or eighty percent, were returned in time for use in preparation for this paper. In the follow¬ ing discussion I shall have occasion to refer also to the report of this study. Amount of professional work recommended — In the West Virginia study the following requirements and limitations were made as to the amount of professional work. In the two-year curriculum for elementary teachers the minimum and the maximum are twenty semester hours. In the four-year curriculum for high-school teachers the minimum is twenty and the maximum is twenty- four. The four-year curriculum for elementary teachers requires thirty semester hours. In the questionnaire study the amount of professional work recom¬ mended varied from twelve to thirty semester hours. The median for the two-year curriculum was sixteen semester hours and for the four-year curriculum, twenty-two semester hours. 864 National Education Association It is true that the amount of professional work required will vary to some extent according to the character of the instruction in academic sub¬ jects. It will be maintained, I suspect, that we should not attempt to make a distinction between professional and academic work in a teachers college. However, the content and activities of certain courses in educa¬ tion are rather clearly defined, regardless of how it is designated. The amount of such work that should be required at this time as preservice, undergraduate work for teachers, is, I believe, approximately 20 semester hours. The proportion of professional work that may be required in the cur¬ riculum in the next fifteen or twenty years will depend upon certain important factors. By that time we certainly shall have greatly increased the amount of general academic training required of all teachers. I think we may safely predict that no teacher training will be undertaken until at least the completion of a two-year junior college course and an increasing amount of professional training will be graduate work. A reorganization of the curriculum on the basis of an extension of the period of preparation for teachers may demand an increase in the amount and length of courses in education. I doubt, however, that this will be true, except when pre¬ service training extends beyond four years of time. Twenty hours in education properly organized and as effectively presented as is becoming a teachers college doubtless will for a long time be considered adequate. In the meantime additional professional work will be given as inservice training. What is more likely to affect the amount of professional work in the teacher-training curriculum, I believe, is the possibility of greatly improved standards of teaching academic subjects in collegiate institutions. This may result in reducing somewhat the total amount of work in edu¬ cation courses. The professional core curriculum — Educators seem to be pretty well agreed upon a certain core of the professional curriculum. The name and approximate value of such courses in credit hours may be indicated as follows: 1. Educational Psychology . 4 to 6 semester hours. 2. Materials and Methods in Special Subjects and differentiated for specific grade groups . 5 to 8 semester hours. 3. Observation, Directed Teaching, School Man¬ agement and Organization . 6 to 10 semester hours. Nearly all other socalled professional courses are in question as to having an essential and specific value in the preservice training of teachers. We shall discuss briefly some of these courses. General principles and general methods — There is a rather persistent demand for an integrating course in general principles of teaching. In the West Virginia study such a course is included in the four-year curriculum, but not in the two-year curriculum. In the questionnaire study twentv- seven persons express themselves in favor of a course in general principles Department of Teachers Colleges 865 of education and sixteen vote “no.” In the four-year curriculum it does seem highly desirable to give a course in education that attempts to inte¬ grate, review, and summarize the content of other courses in education. Such a course, if offered, should be given near the end of the period of preservice training. An orientation or introductory course in education — Another education course in which there is no general agreement is Introduction to Educa¬ tion. In the West Virginia program this is made one of two elective courses. Some institutions in the state give it and some do not. In the questionnaire study this question was asked : “What professional courses or related activity should the prospective teacher first take or perform as a part of his preservice preparation?” In reply, fifteen persons say Edu¬ cational Psychology, and fourteen favor Introduction to Education. A few would favor such courses as General Psychology7, Philosophy of Edu¬ cation, or Practise Teaching for orientation courses. There is no question as to the value of a good orientation course if carefully organized and wisely taught. It may be so presented that it would not only have a value for prospective teachers but also be made profitable for all citizens and especially for prospective parents, whom we should expect perhaps to know something of the general history and ob¬ jectives of the great public school system of this nation. Before 1950, we may expect to see such an orientation course made an important and vital part of the professional curriculum. Such a course will doubtless be given a vocational slant, and be incorporated with a more extensive program in vocational guidance. It should for one thing result in a better selection of teachers. Such a program, however, demands an extended period of preservice training. So long as any group of teachers is limited to two years of work in preparation for actual teaching, 1 doubt very seriously whether there is a place in the curriculum for a course that is so general and that has so little immediate practical value. Tests and measurements — The demand for some training in the methods of the examination of pupils to determine mental development and educa¬ tional progress and achievement is hardly questioned. In the questionnaire study referred to above this question was asked: "Should Tests and Measurements be given as an undergraduate professional course? Of the forty-three replies to this question, thirty-seven said "yes,” and six replied “no.” In the West Virginia study Tests and Measurements is made an elective subject. In most of the schools at the present time it is offered as a separate course for two semester hours of credit. It is be¬ lieved, however, that the content of this course could be given as well and perhaps more effectively in connection with related material in other courses such as Psychology, Materials and Methods, and Directed Teach¬ ing. Certainly with the proper integration of the professional program of any school this plan would be desirable. To predict the place and value of a course in Tests and Measurements in 1950 is difficult. Perhaps more than any other course in education will 866 National Education Association - i - it depend upon the product of experimental education and research. I shall expect to see its value increase. On the other hand, it may be that as a separate course it will have disappeared, having proved to be merely one of our transient educational hobbies. History and philosophy of education and educational sociology — Other courses in question that are frequently listed as professional are History of Education, Sociology, and Philosophy of Education. In the West Virginia study History of Education is not given undergraduate credit as a course in education. Philosophy of Education and Educational Sociology are made elective in the four-year curriculum. In the questionnaire study a small majority favor giving History of Education and Educational Sociology. However, there was an almost equal division of opinion among this group as to the demand for any of these three courses in undergraduate curriculums. Much of the content of these courses undoubtedly has a place in the professional preparation of teachers. The teachers college instructor should have intensive training in all these subjects. He will have almost constant use for such material. We do not, however, always distinguish between the education that should be expected of a teachers college instructor and the most desirable preservice training of a classroom teacher. That the teachers college instructor has had, with material profit, separate and special courses in History and Philosophy of Education and Educational Sociology is no reason why an inexperienced teacher should be expected to pursue the same courses with equal profit. In fact, he will not. Such courses should be reserved for the graduate school. I do not see any trend in education that in the next twenty years would give them a place in the undergraduate curriculum of the teachers college for the ordinary classroom teacher. The training school — If we develop a more effective program for train¬ ing teachers in the next ten or twenty years, I am convinced that it will be done by a more extensive use of the training school. In general practise the value and standards of the training school are not uniform. Some teachers colleges have demonstrated the great possibilities of making the training school the laboratory for all education courses. Others have conducted it in a way that has given the student a fair degree of teaching skill. In a great many institutions the training school is a mere appendage that serves no higher purpose than an opportunity for apprenticeship teaching. But few teachers colleges have yet, I believe, realized the full all-round possibilities of the training school including all feasible plans for student contact with typical teaching situations. In the questionnaire study referred to above the following question was asked : ‘‘In the field of the professional training of teachers what may we expect to appear for special emphasis in the next ten or fifteen years?'’ It is interesting to note how many of the replies refer to some phase of the training school. Permit me to quote a few of these replies by men who are looking ahead in the field of teacher training: “Integration of Department of Teachers Colleges 867 practise teaching with other activities” ; “Better facilities for directed teaching”; “More demonstration of good teaching followed by clinical discussion” ; “Attainment of a minimum teaching skill as prerequisite to certification”; “Reform of practise teaching”; “More actual practise teach¬ ing with responsibility for the class under expert supervision.” These predictions represent the trend of thought on this subject by alert educators in a half dozen states. I am in agreement with the general idea as presented in these expressions. I anticipate with much interest the development of this phase of teacher training within the next few years. Inservice training of teachers — Another possibility for the future in the development of the teachers college and which might affect the preservice curriculum is the extension of inservice training and a “followup” program with the students after graduation. In the questionnaire study referred to above ninety percent of those replying expressed the opinion that we should have more inservice training for teachers. In this connection, the following question was asked : “Assuming that it had the resources should the teacher-training institution undertake a definite ‘followup’ program of work with its students after they begin teaching?” Of the fifty-two replies to this question only five were in the negative. The affirmative replies were frequently made emphatic by such expressions as “by all means,” “yes, decidedly.” So far as this group of educators is concerned there is a predominant demand for experimentation in this field. There were, however, some stout negatives on this question by thoughtful school men, some stating forcefully that this is the business of the public school superintendent. In conclusion let me again express my faith and confidence in the men and women engaged in that flourishing field of higher education rep¬ resented by the teachers colleges of this nation. Their task is truly a difficult one but the possibilities of achievements are great. There is much evidence to indicate that they will not only keep abreast with any forward movement in curriculum reorganization which we may experience before 1950, but that in any forward movement this group of educators will occupy a really salient position. PREDICTED CHANGES IN THE CURRICULUMS OF TEACH¬ ERS COLLEGES BY 1950 AS SHOWN BY THE EXPERIENCES OF THE COMMITTEE ON STANDARDS AND SURVEYS E. S. EVENDEN, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY Reading the topic for this paper on the first tentative program aroused immediate interest and expectations. These feelings changed to despair when the chairman of this Committee, Dr. Clyde M. Hill, requested me to represent the Committee on Standards and Surveys at this time. It is difficult to pretend to predict what the mode will be in 1950. There are at least two ever-present difficulties in posing as a prophet in such 868 National Education Association matters. The first is that one is not sure whether any given thing is going to happen at all and the second is whether, if it does happen, it will arrive at a given date. If some of the predictions for 1950 do happen, they may be educational discards by 1940, while others may not arrive until 1960, or 1980. But in spite of the difficulties in the wTay, an attempt will be made to mix convictions, best guesses, hopes, and pet hobbies with a limited amount of actual knowledge of this field and thereby make some 1950 pronouncements. The burden placed upon this paper is to predict, in the light of the experiences of the Committee on Standards and Surveys, what the cur¬ riculum will be in 1950. This committee has been in existence under one name or another almost since this group was organized. The writer’s connection with it, however, has been only during the past five years and even though they happen to have been the years during which our present set of standards has been in the making, he hesitates to speak for the committee’s earlier experience when some of the most important pioneering steps were taken. Upon starting to think over the material for this paper it seemed that to restrict it to curriculums placed a decided limitation upon it, since most of the studies made by this committee have been concerned with the more tangible elements, such as buildings, credits for entrance, number of years in the courses, preparation of the faculty and other such items and very little has been done with curriculums as such. A little further thought revealed the fact that all of these items directly or indirectly affect the curriculum in a very vital way. The result of this comforting discovery was to leave us free to discuss almost any topic related to the development of the teachers colleges since virtually all of them have been before our committee in one form or another. The attempt will be made, however, to confine the discussion as nearly as possible to the general topic assigned. Standards in such a field as ours usually represent the best judgments of the standardizing body at any time as determined by the results of suc¬ cessful practise and experimental studies. Surveys are then made in the light of these standards with the resulting evaluations and prescriptions or recommendations. The best chance which we have had to check our progress in the ac¬ complishment of certain standards has been in Missouri. The extensive survey of the teacher-training agencies in that state made by Dr. William S. Learned and Dr. William C. Bagley in 1917 and the followup study made of the same schools by Dr. C. M. Hill1 ten years later show us how quickly changes can be made in our field if we want to make them. Dr. Hill found that nearly all of the recommendations made in the 1917 study had been met or exceeded by 1927. The exceptions were the recommenda¬ tions with respect to the curriculums of the teachers colleges. These had 1 Hill, Clyde M. A Decade of Progress in Teacher Training. Contributions to Education, No. 233. Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University. New York City. 1927. 219 pages. Department of Teachers Colleges 869 not been met, because of differences of opinion concerning their validity or because first attention was given to other recommendations, or for va¬ rious other reasons. Other surveys have shown that the curriculums of teachers colleges have been little changed in content or spirit in recent years. Further evidence of this is given by last year’s action of the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools in abandoning its separate classifications for teachers colleges and by the fact that a con¬ siderable number of the teachers colleges have qualified for admission under the same standards as are applied to liberal arts colleges. It may be possible that the schools which are admitted on this basis are doing all that standard colleges are expected to do and then giving in addition to that the professional elements which teachers should secure in their pre¬ service training. If this is the case no objection can be made to standard¬ ization by the North Central Association but it would seem necessary to assume that the students in the teachers colleges will work harder or stay longer than the students in liberal arts colleges in order to get the “addi¬ tional” material. If, on the other hand, the “additional” material is ob¬ tained by increasing the number of hours carried by the students with its resulting decrease in mastery and its lowering of scholarship standards or if the “additional” material is taken in place of college electives and thereby becomes substitutional instead of additional, the effect of this change will be detrimental in that it will confuse purposes and retard the pro¬ fessional growth of the teachers colleges. It may have a very important indirect effect for professional upgrading of the teachers colleges if (as was hoped by some of the sponsors of the change) it stimulates this asso¬ ciation to make its own standards more definite and more rigid so that in time standardization of a teachers college by the American Association of Teachers Colleges will be so highly prized that acceptance by other agencies will not be sought. It is, therefore, with the firm conviction that the curriculums of the normal schools and teachers colleges are the weakest elements in the professional preparation of teachers in 1929 that the follow¬ ing predictions for 1950 are made. 1. Curriculums above high school — academic and professional — for the teachers colleges will be longer, making the preparation for teaching more comparable with the preparation for other learned professions. This increase in the length of the period of training will be made possible by such changes as: better public school salaries with teaching merit and preparation the controlling factors in the payment of teachers; fewer transient teachers because of longer tenure; greater leniency toward em¬ ploying and retaining married women as teachers ; and increased social and economic respectability of teaching. It is probable that by 1950 all teaching positions will require of new teachers at least four years of preservice preparation. When the progress in this respect which has been made since the World War is considered, and also the fact that several states are now over-supplied with teachers at the present standard, it is not improbable that this standard will be reached 870 National Education Association before 1950 by enough states to make it the accepted standard for the entire country. There will also be many more teachers in the public schools who have master’s and doctor’s degrees. Some of our larger cities are already paying to teachers with these degrees salaries that are equal to and better than would be paid them in many colleges. A salary schedule for the teachers colleges of one of our states was formulated recently and the salaries paid to the better trained teachers in high schools of the same state was one of the determining factors in setting the salary limits for the teachers colleges. Furthermore, with the rapid increase of graduate work in our colleges and universities the number of graduates with advanced degrees who desire to teach has already increased to a point where the colleges can no longer absorb them as teachers. The presence of teachers with graduate degrees in the public school will certainly tend to increase the amount of training desired for all teachers. Many of the teachers colleges in 1950 will be offering work for the master’s degree with emphasis upon additional professional training instead of research. 2. As the curriculums of the teachers colleges become longer they will also become more definitely and distinguishably professional in content and method of presentation. There will be, in 1950, as much difference be¬ tween the curriculum offerings of a teachers college and a liberal arts college as' there now is between the curriculum of a school of mines or a theological seminary and those of a liberal arts college. The professional nature of the work in the teachers colleges will be manifested in several ways and as a result will be much more evident than at present. In the first place there will be a more definite assumption by all of the states of their responsibility for the professional preparation of their teach¬ ers. The resulting state programs will be planned to meet the specific needs of each state. The present wasteful competition which exists be¬ tween the state-supported institutions within states and between the in¬ stitutions of neighboring states will be eliminated. Each state will prepare enough teachers to meet its own carefully determined needs. Such pro¬ grams will probably mean that some of the present schools will be either abandoned or continued as part of the state-supported system of junior and senior colleges. Such programs will undoubtedly mean the concentration of special courses in selected schools instead of the uniform curriculums for all the teachers colleges of a state. It may even mean a combination of concentration and interstate reciprocity which would make it possible for teachers of a limited group, e. g., special teachers of music, to be trained in only one school in a group of states — each state, of course, paying its pro-rated part of the cost. There will be a more general acceptance of the principle of differen¬ tiated courses for each type of teaching position such as primary teachers or teachers of intermediate grades and systems of certification will restrict teachers to the positions for which they are specially prepared. Such re- Department of Teachers Colleges 871 stricted certification is essential if differentiation of curriculums is to be effective. The practise of differentiated training within a profession is already accepted as desirable by the professions of engineering, law, and medicine. A civil engineer is not expected to be prepared to accept a position as a mining engineer, nor is the X-ray diagnostician necessarily qualified as a surgeon. Putting this principle into practise in our field will mean that the teacher who prepares for work in a kindergarten and finds no vacancies in that work will not be permitted to accept a position to teach English and Latin in a high school. He will not be permitted to take even a “stop-gap” position in a rural school as at present. Another wTay in which the curriculums will be more professional will be in their increased emphasis upon the subjectmatter content of the courses offered. To be sure, the instructors in these schools will have in mind constantly the professional needs of the students but they will also be held responsible for presenting as much accurate and uptodate material in the subject being taught as would be given the superior college student in other colleges. This material will be different, however, even though it does not differ in amount, or quality. It will differ primarily in the facts selected. From the wide range of available material for any such course those facts will be selected which, in the judgment of the instructor, will be of greatest use to the students when they become teachers. The professional treatment of the subjectmatter in these courses will place upon the instructor the responsibility of knowing the grade in which the material can be profitably used (either directly or for supplementation) ; the teaching and learning difficulties involved and the laws of psychology which apply; the most successful methods of presentation; the most effective sequence of topics; the relationship of the material to the work in other subjects; and other such educational interpretations as may occur in con¬ nection with each course. This professional treatment will be more a permeating attitude of instructor and students than a time-consuming formally organized body of “professional content” consisting largely of teaching devices and methods. The prediction just given will be strengthened by another change in the curriculums of teachers colleges which is in a way its corollary, namely, the reduction in the amount of w^ork in separate courses in education and psychology for all teachers except specialists in these fields. If the ap¬ plications of the basic principles of education and law7s of psychology are to be made by the instructors of each subject instead of by those in the education and psychology departments it wrould justify a reduction in the amount of a student’s time given to separate courses in these fields. There is also at present a tendency in the better public school systems to employ specialists — psychologists, psychiatrists, vocational counselors, visiting teach¬ ers, and others. As these special services become better recognized and better adapted to public school needs smaller educational units will combine in securing their services. In this way these special services will be avail¬ able to practically all teachers and will relieve the classroom teachers of 872 National Education Association responsibility for the specialized information in these subjects which some educators would now include in the professional equipment of all teachers. 3. The rapid development of the junior college in the decade just past has already brought the problem of the teachers college curriculum before this Association. Other professions, which have been able to raise their standards of preservice preparation to a higher level than has teaching, are adjusting their programs to the junior college and making the com¬ pletion of the first two years of college the starting point for pre-profes¬ sional or professional work. If teachers’ salaries by 1950 warrant an appreciable lengthening of the preservice training period it seems probable that teachers colleges will become senior colleges offering two-year and three-year courses leading to bachelor’s and master’s degrees, with the three-year course the more common of the two. In the event that this becomes general practise teachers colleges will probably set up certain entrance credit restrictions covering the work in the junior college, much as we now have “college preparatory courses” in the secondary schools. If, on the other hand, the level of preservice training cannot be raised to the fourth and fifth year of college w^ork, it is the opinion of the w’riter that it would be better for the teachers colleges to give all four years of the collegiate work. This would enable them to treat the subjectmatter of the junior college years as well as that of the senior college in the professional manner just described. It would also make possible certain sequences of courses which are now thought to be highly desirable and which require a period of from three to four years to complete. 4. The movement for a greater recognition of the individual in college work has been so safely launched and is being supported by such convincing evidence that it is a safe prediction that the curriculums of teachers colleges in 1950 will be adjusted to meet this need. As any profession becomes increasingly able to absorb the work of larger numbers of specialists it also becomes peculiarly interested in recruiting those specialists from persons wTith the requisite abilities and interests. Manifestly the recognition and utilization of the individual tastes and aptitudes of teachers college students is desirable from the standpoint of the individual as well as that of the teaching profession. When the opportunities are given for concentrated study by individuals, especially in the senior college years there will be several concomitant changes: (a) the library facilities of these schools will have to be in¬ creased to a point now considered desirable for graduate work in universi¬ ties; (b) more conference and seminar rooms will be needed in which students and faculty may work cooperatively or at least simultaneously on the topics under consideration; (c) there will be a more rigorous selection of students both for admission to the teachers colleges and for permission to do the individual concentrated study in special fields; and (d) the periodically given comprehensive examination will be more widely used as a measure of accomplishment than the present method of accumulating credits for small independent units of subjectmatter. Department of Teachers Colleges 873 5. The place of the laboratory school in teachers colleges will probably be as significant in 1950 as it is at this time although, judging from sug¬ gestions which the committee on Standards and Surveys has received, it will show a different emphasis. The laboratory school of 1950 will be used more largely for demonstration purposes, for setting higher standards of what constitutes good teaching, and will be used less as a practise school. Induction into teaching will probably be done under regular classroom conditions directed by specially trained supervisor-teachers in cooperating schools adjacent to the teachers colleges. The “campus schools” will also be used for occasional experiments in educational procedure, since these can be used also for occasional demonstrations without serious injury to the experiment. There will certainly be a much closer relationship between the laboratory school and the wTork of the college classes. The relative effectiveness of varying proportions of practise teaching and observation should be submitted to extensive experimentation over a period of eight or ten years under controlled conditions before the recommended adapta¬ tions of curriculums can be made ■with any assurance. The writer recom¬ mended such studies before the American Council on Education in Wash¬ ington in 1926 but does not know of any school which has yet cared to submit this question to experimentation. Regardless of the outcome of these needed studies on the work of the laboratory schools it is a conserva¬ tive prediction and in line with present findings of our committee, that the teachers in the laboratory school will soon (before 1950) be on an equal footing with the other teachers in the teachers colleges in amount of professional training, salary, teaching load, “academic prestige,” and all the other tangible and intangible perquisites which are associated with the work of the college teacher. When this happens there is a probability that the laboratory schools will attract many of the best trained and most capable men and women of the teachers college faculties. It will then be relatively easy to have the work of demonstration schools and practise schools assume their important place in the professional work of the entire teachers college. Neither the work of the laboratory schools nor the staffs of such schools are now taken seriously enough by the typical teachers college instructor. 6. At the meeting last year in Boston the Association referred back to the Committee on Standards and Surveys their recommendation that at least two-thirds of the work of the senior college years (junior and senior) should be of senior college grade. This action was undoubtedly motivated by the realization that at the present time there exists a very difficult problem in providing for the graduates of two-year courses who return for advanced work and may need some of the work offered in the junior college years to regular four-year students. This transitional period will last as long as the double standard of training for elementary and second¬ ary teachers exists. The criticisms have often been made that students can earn degrees from many American colleges by taking four years of freshman and sophomore 874 National Education Association work and in some instances even four years of freshman work. The same thing has been true of some of our newly organized teachers colleges where normal schools became teachers colleges by increasing the number of normal school courses sufficiently to extend over a four-year period. As soon as this condition was called to the attention of colleges a number of the most progressive of them took immediate steps to correct the situa¬ tion. Graduating with four years of freshman work is a situation not quite comparable to considering a pupil who spends eight years in the first grade as having completed the elementary school. In the latter case the same work is repeated year after year whereas in the former the work is presumably in different subjects even though it is of no greater difficulty and offers no increased intellectual challenge. Certainly by 1950 there will be more evidence to prove the obvious advantages of having each year’s work in school, and college should be no exception, represent a definite advance in the amount of information and intellectual maturity required for its mastery. When these advantages are proved the curriculum will be changed so that each additional year will represent an accomplishment which cannot be described accurately as “having spent another year in college.” 7. Previous mention has been made of several curriculum changes which may be considered general in the sense that they apply more or less equally to all curriculums offered in professional schools for the preparation of teachers. This last prediction will be an exception in that it pertains to one curriculum instead of all and to what will happen to that curriculum before 1950. The exception is the curriculum for the preparation of rural school teachers. It is unnecessary at this time to present any statistical data to convince you that the rural schools and the training of rural school teachers are two of our most pressing problems today — so pressing that it is unthinkable that they should wait until 1950 or even 1940 for solution. Rural communities have been satisfied, and satisfied is used deliberately, to take the teaching services of untrained incompetents, educational “left¬ overs” unable to secure the more remunerative positions in the city and the semi-interested, city-bred, city-trained transients sentenced to get one or two years “experience” before they can be appointed to positions in the city schools. These conditions have held down the standards for the preparation of many teachers to a secondary level and this fact alone has affected many other standards for the preparation of teachers in this coun¬ try. The extent to which the rural problem will be a curriculum problem will depend upon the extent to which rural teachers will need differentiated training after other remedies have been applied, such as the use of larger units of support, special equalization funds, higher salaries, better roads, more consolidated schools, higher standards of teacher preparation, more special teachers for groups of rural schools, and the other more tangible advantages which now secure for the cities a longer tenure of the better teachers. If after these reforms have been introduced there still remains Department of Teachers Colleges 875 any appreciable amount of the rural teacher’s work which should be differ¬ entiated, separate curriculums should be established for rural teachers and the graduates of these curriculums should then be restricted by certifica¬ tion to teaching in rural schools. Before any number of the more capable students can be expected to enter a course with such restrictions many of the improvements just mentioned will have to be made. Normal schools and teachers colleges cannot continue to ignore this large and vital prob¬ lem. Neither can they solve it by internal curriculum changes. They must assume a certain leadership in securing the other needed changes and then study the special needs which the rural teachers have and the most effective way of supplying those needs without continuing to lower standards for a group which needs higher standards than those of the cities instead of lower. In conclusion let me remind you, if it is not now apparent, that my predictive imagination has been effectively restricted by your committee’s knowledge of the practical problems which press you for immediate solu¬ tion and by our desire to keep our feet upon the ground of practical ac¬ complishments. The Committee on Standards and Surve37s is expected to be a service committee for this organization — helping to secure needed information upon pressing problems. Any predictions which grow out of its work would naturally tend to be practical and attainable rather than idealistically desirable and only remotely probable. With this ex¬ planation for the lack of the sensational in these predictions when the assigned title would encourage “bigger and better” flights of fancy, we recommend that you give your serious consideration to : 1. The increased length of preservice preparation 2. The professional treatment of the curriculum content 3. The recognition of the junior college and its attendant problems 4. The greater provision for individual abilities in college 5. The maximum results from laboratory schools 6. The more accurate grading of instructional material 7. The solution of the teacher-training needs for rural communities. These have been projected against a 1950 background but they are all here in 1929. There is no excuse for any one to settle back in his pro¬ fessional easy chair and decide to wait twenty-one years in order to see wdiether or not what has been predicted will happen. It will happen or not largely as a result of what is done about it now. TEACHERS COLLEGES AS CENTERS OF PROGRESSIVE EDUCATION CHARLES H. JUDD, DIRECTOR, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS Some months ago I had an opportunity to visit the normal school at West- field, Massachusetts. I found that the head of that institution, Charles Russell, has devised a plan for keeping in contact with the graduates of the 876 National Education Association school which impressed me as one of the most ingenious administrative inven¬ tions that I had ever found in a normal school. Each spring the Westfield Normal School spends a week in conference with its graduates, especially the graduates of the preceding June. These graduates have had the experi¬ ence of their first year of teaching. They have encountered problems with which they have not been able to deal to their complete satisfaction. For some time before the spring conference these unsolved problems are reported to the head of the normal school. The problems are recorded, multigraphed, and distributed to the faculty. The spring conference is thus provided with real problems. The Westfield Normal faculty can answer some of the questions. Other questions can perhaps be better answered by someone invited in for the special occasion. A staff is secured for the conference including a number of importations from other institutions. The graduates must be released from their regular duties and brought to Westfield in order that they may enjoy the advantages of the conference. In order to secure attendance, Mr. Russell has arranged a plan which serves a double purpose. He sends out the members of his senior class to substitute for the graduates. The seniors go out for a week. On the first days of the week they are introduced to the schools wduch the graduates are serving by the graduates themselves. After this introduction, the graduates leave their schools and go to Westfield. At Westfield, they occupy the rooms of the seniors and attend the conference where the problems which they submitted earlier are discussed. In the schools throughout the territory where the graduates serve, the seniors occupy the boarding quarters left vacant by the graduates and secure the best kind of experience by conducting schools independently for a week. The Westfield program for its spring conference is not of the date assigned to my discussion by the president of this association. I was in¬ structed to look into the future some quarter of a century and prophesy what would be going on in teacher-training institutions at that time. The only kind of prophesying that I feel competent to undertake is that which looks at what is going on now and finding good and bad tendencies optimisti¬ cally projects into the future all that is good. The Westfield conference will, I venture to prophesy, be in full operation in 1950. I also feel confident that it will not at that date be peculiar to the institution in which it origi¬ nated. Let me turn to another concrete case. The teachers college at Kala¬ mazoo, Michigan, organized a month ago a conference of superintendents and other school officers for the purpose of discussing problems of school organization and administration with special reference to the needs of south¬ western Michigan. Such conferences are known in other parts of the coun¬ try. They have frequently been held in state universities and in a few in¬ stances in teacher-training institutions. They are the results of a growing realization of the fact that the duty of teacher-training institutions is not fully discharged when they treat of classroom problems. The United States Department of Teachers Colleges 877 has until very recently been satisfied to let the supervisors of schools prepare themselves by the expensive method of trial and error. A principal was until very recently a senior teacher ; a superintendent was a purchasing agent and often a superannuated teacher. The early normal schools never attempted to train supervisors of any grade. Slowly but surely the tendency begins to show itself for teachers colleges to broaden the scope of their undertakings. Teachers colleges no longer limit their efforts to training immature young people to enter the profession of teaching. Teachers colleges do a great deal for teachers in service. They are beginning to draw in people who have had some contact with schools and are offering these experienced people the training necessary to make them principals and supervisors. Such confer¬ ences as that held at Kalamazoo are signs of a wholesome extension of the interests of teachers colleges. The third point which I wish to make can be stated in concrete terms by describing an experience which I had in our educational library during the preparation of this paper. I went to the catalog of the library of the School of Education and took at random one of the draw*ers containing references to authors whose names begin with letters in the middle of the alphabet. I looked through this series of names until I had canvassed 50. The refer¬ ences were to books and pamphlets on general and special educational topics. There were some books on special methods, some on school administration, some on psychology, and some on special subjects which are taught in the elementary schools and high schools. The authors were from various in¬ stitutions, universities, colleges, and a few from public schools. The im¬ pressive fact to which I call special attention was that the name of one and of only one member of a teachers college faculty appeared in the list. When I make inquiry as to the productivity of members of the faculties of teacher-training institutions I often hear the statement that there is no leisure for production in these institutions. I hear the complaint that teach¬ ing programs are very heavy requiring sometimes twenty or more classes a week. I am sure that teacher-training institutions have been guilty of im¬ posing excessively heavy teaching programs on their staffs. I do not believe that it is possible for a teacher of teachers to keep himself acquainted with educational literature and teach as many hours as are often prescribed even in the better teachers colleges. I have no hesitation in predicting that the teaching program of teachers colleges will be reduced by 1950 to twelve or less hours a week. While I am duly impressed by the explanation that members of faculties are required to carry excessive programs, I am frank to say that I do not feel convinced that this is the chief reason for the slight contribution which teacher-training institutions make to educational literature. There are two other reasons which, according to my observation, weigh more than does the excessive teaching requirement. I find that in the past there has been a wide¬ spread disposition in teacher-training institutions to comment disparagingly on scientific productivity. There has been little or no hospitality for re¬ search. In many instances there has been cynical scoffing at research and all 878 National Education Association that is connected with it. The second fact closely related to the disrespect for scientific production is that the training of the faculties of teachers colleges has been of a relatively low grade and very little standardized. In general, there has been a disposition to demand of teachers in these institutions that they have had much practical contact with schools. Not infrequently devotion to experience has gone so far that superintendents who have grown weary of battling boards of education have had little difficulty in inducing their friends in normal schools to find a place for their declining years. The appointment of schoolmen of long and varied experience may be defended on the ground that they have seen many teachers and know the problems that confront teachers. There is quite as much evidence to prove that many a schoolman who has had long experience has failed utterly to make the kind of analysis of teaching which will make him a safe guide for those who are entering on the profession. As I observe the trend of the times, I am sure that I see a change coming in the attitude of members of faculties of teachers colleges. There is a new attitude toward the scientific study of teaching problems. This new attitude is sure to become more and more common. By 1950 I venture to prophesy there will be no intelligent member of the teaching profession who will be disposed to discredit scientific work and scientific production. I feel confident that there is great gain in a frank discussion of this whole matter of research. I recognize that what I have to say will be discounted somewhat in view of my professional relation to this phase of educational work. I recognize too that it is entirely possible to find examples of socalled research which are formal and of very little service in guiding or improving school procedures. I have known doctors of philosophy who were poor teachers and intellectual snobs. It has always seemed to me that when one discusses one of the poorest doctors of philosophy one ought to be just enough to compare him with the poorest retired superintendent to be found in the ranks of instructors in teachers colleges. It is the best doctors of philosophy who ought to be thought of when one is discussing educational research and its true value. When we think of the transformations which the last two decades have effected in teaching, there can certainly be nothing but respect for educa¬ tional science. We measure the results of school vcork today with a pre¬ cision far beyond anything that was hoped for twTo decades ago when the measurement movement was in its infancy. The distinction between silent reading and oral reading, which is one of the most impressive outcomes of laboratory investigation, is a contribution of such importance that it alone would justify a decade of scientific work. The abandonment of the spelling lists prepared by lexicographers and the preparation of a scientific list such as Ayres gave to the schools is a conspicuous achievement of research. I find no hesitation in the most conservative institutions in the acceptance of these outcomes of research and in the acceptance of many other innova¬ tions which might be listed with those which I have cited. Is it not fair to Department of Teachers Colleges 879 T demand that teacher-training institutions join sympathetically in the labor of developing educational science? If there is formal and useless hair¬ splitting in some of our research laboratories, the remedy is to be found not in boycotting research but in a more general and more discriminating cultiva¬ tion of research. I hold that the teachers colleges of this country have it as a major duty to study educational problems critically and scientifically and to make available for the whole teaching profession the best results of such study. Teachers colleges have suffered perhaps more than any other group of American educational institutions from isolation. When they were first organized there was no thought of relating them closely to the other higher institutions. The early normal schools were intimately connected only with the lowTer schools. The colleges of the country were uninterested in these lower schools. The normal schools of the first years were institutions of secondary grade. As these schools evolved and became increasingly influen¬ tial, they suffered from a lack of contact with the higher forms of scholar¬ ship. Furthermore, they had no competition in their own fields. Normal schools as public institutions have had a type of support and an assigned territory which differ from those which all other higher institutions have had. Most colleges have been forced to make contacts with one another and to improve because they were in competition for support and for students. Even the state universities have had rivals. Nothing is more wholesome for a state university than the competition of a neighboring strong private uni¬ versity. The history of teachers colleges as distinguished from that of other higher institutions is a history of a public monopoly. There is another fact about teacher-training institutions which has power¬ fully influenced their development. They have fallen into the habit of using as the textbooks for their courses the books which are employed in the schools for children. The typical course in arithmetic in teacher-training institutions reviews in detail a book which was prepared for the elementary school. The justification offered for this practise is that the normal school students have forgotten the arithmetic which they studied years before and are in need of a review and that, furthermore, the methods of teaching can be most vividly and effectively taught by using the material with which the young teacher will have to deal as soon as he leaves the training institution. Far be it from me to deny that teachers-in-training are in need of review. Of course, they have lost much that they once possessed of skill in arithmetic and in the other elementary subjects. It is of the nature of the human mind to lose skills when these are not exercised. There is a way of reviving lost skills, however, which is more productive than mere repetition of rudimen¬ tary performances. A group of teachers-in-training will make more progress toward a complete understanding and mastery of multiplication by the study of the fundamental contrast between addition and multiplication than by mere drill in reciting tables. More insight can be cultivated in mature minds into the nature of number comparisons by the use of the graph than by mere solving of a few problems in addition and subtraction. In short, 880 National Education Association the best review of arithmetic is through the use of number in higher forms of mathematical reasoning. What is true of arithmetic is eminently true of the other subjects taken up in teacher-training institutions. One who has made a start in reading gains further training in the fundamental art by reading much. One who has learned a little geography can extend knowledge in this field most ad¬ vantageously by looking up supplementary information. In nature-study one must extend one’s information if one is to keep abreast of the times and if one is even remotely to meet the questions which children are sure to raise. After this long digression which has attempted to amplify the statement which I made some time ago when I said that normal schools have not done their share in the production of scholarly materials, I come back to the thesis that progressive teacher-training institutions must exert themselves in the future as they have not in the past in the creation of intellectual mate¬ rials. I think of the teachers colleges of the future as great centers of pro¬ duction of new teaching materials. From the faculties of these institutions should come books and bulletins on local geography and local history. From these institutions should come surveys of the successes and failures of surrounding schools. From these institutions should come suggestions in regard to new units of the curriculum which surrounding schools need in order that they may do their full duty to the new generation. Let me illustrate what I mean. The teacher-training institutions of this country are very backward in the preparation which they give their students in social science. Many of the graduates of American teachers colleges are immature girls who have had no contact with the great industrial machinery of modern life. They are ignorant of government in all except its most formal aspects. They may know that there is a president in Washington and that he has a cabinet. It is safe to venture the statement that not one- tenth of one percent of them know anything about the Bureau of Standards or about the markets information service of the Department of Agriculture. So long as this condition persists, the elementary schools of this country are going to continue to omit civics of the most vital type from the curric¬ ulum. The teachers colleges cannot hide behind the defense that they do not teach social science because that subject is not demanded by the schools. The teachers colleges have a responsibility which cannot be long evaded namely, the responsibility of guiding the schools and of introducing new materials into the school curriculum. The present school curriculum is in¬ adequate because the teacher-training institutions have been places of mere review, places where conservatism has reigned supreme, places where experi¬ ence with existing practises has been esteemed more highly than initiative and productivity. If my criticisms of teachers colleges are valid, it is easy to prophesy with regard to the future. The future will see a vast enlargement of the pro¬ ductive activities of these institutions. I look forward with confidence to the time when a great deal of energy will be devoted in teachers colleges to the Department of Teachers Colleges 881 creation of new reading materials for use in the lower schools. I think the public, including state legislatures, should be convinced by able leaders among the presidents of teachers colleges that money spent in production is money spent to the very great advantage of the public schools. I look forward to the time when publications on educational subjects will emanate from teacher-training institutions, not in the ratio of one to fifty, but in some such ratio as one to one. There is very little use of prophesying or of launching criticisms against current practises if one cannot suggest a program which will help to realize one’s prophesies. The best kind of hopefulness for the future is that which sets men at work in the present. I have a suggestion to offer to this associa¬ tion. The suggestion grows out of the recent experience of the North Cen¬ tral Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools. That association at its meeting last March voted to inaugurate a campaign for a national study on a comprehensive scale of secondary education and its relation to higher educa¬ tion. Within less than a year the North Central Association has persuaded the Congress of the United States to make a liberal appropriation for such a national study. The Bureau of Education is provided with a fund of $225,000 with which to pursue this inquiry during the next three years. I can think of nothing which is more likely to shake the teachers colleges of this country out of their isolation and conservatism than a broadly con¬ ceived inquiry into their past successes and their past shortcomings and their relations to the other educational institutions and activities of the nation. If the teachers colleges can be compared with one another and can be measured with respect to the efficiency of their training of students and with respect to the leadership which they exercise in the regions in which they are located, there will follow an awakening which will be of great importance to the future of American education. A national inquiry of the kind here suggested can be initiated by this asso¬ ciation. Congress can, I believe, be made to see the wisdom of supporting such an inquiry on a liberal scale. The scope of the inquiry should be defined in the broadest possible terms. The nation’s supply of teachers should be studied from every possible point of view. The trends which it has been the purpose of this paper to sketch should be examined and the lines of most advantageous future development should be pointed out, so that state legis¬ latures and individual institutions may be governed by the broad principles which such a national view will yield. If such an inquiry can be inaugurated, then prophesying will be safer than it is now because prophesying will be based on cooperative and substantial judgments rather than on mere individ¬ ual observation and conviction. 882 National Education Association THE COOPERATION OF A TEACHERS COLLEGE WITH ITS GRADUATES AND ITS RESPONSIBILITY FOR THEIR SUCCESS IN 1950 L. O. MCAFEE, DIRECTOR OF RESEARCH AND EXTENSION SUPERVISION, LOUISIANA STATE NORMAL COLLEGE, NATCHITOCHES, LOUISIANA This study was undertaken because of the writer’s direct interest in the problem. Having been asked by the president to take up the task of estab¬ lishing helpful relations with the graduates of Louisiana State Normal Col¬ lege, having read all that seemed to be available on what other teachers colleges were doing in this connection, and having followed up such reading by direct correspondence with those who had been reported to be doing some¬ thing significant in cooperation with and in assistance to their graduates, he was referred to the president of this body as one who might put him in touch with the more recent developments. A letter addressed to President Morgan brought the suggestion that this problem fitted admirably into the general topic of the convention. It was then that the idea occurred to the writer that a survey of the expectations of leaders of teacher training might be more profitable at this stage of development than another survey of what had actually been undertaken. Dr. Whitney had published his report 1 on how the teachers colleges were contributing to the growth of teachers in service only two years ago. President Higbie, I believe, will give a report on recent developments in this direction at the meeting of the Department of Rural Education next week. Having determined to make the study a survey of expectations in line with the central topic of this meeting, the writer prepared a questionnaire embodying the different phases of cooperation of teachers colleges with their graduates. This questionnaire was sent to President Morgan for approval, and then to the presidents of all the teachers colleges and normal schools listed in the Educational Directory prepared by the United States Bureau of Education. Approximately two-thirds of the questionnaires were filled out and returned. In the majority of cases they were filled out by the presi¬ dents ; in other cases by other members of the faculties designated by the presidents. In several cases a group of answers were given by different members of the same teachers college. In two cases they were filled out by presidents emeritus, and in both of these cases the direct answers were sup¬ plemented by comments that gave evidence of the ripeness of judgment of those who made them. In a very large number of cases such valuable com¬ ments were given. The analysis of these comments will be about as valuable a part of this report as the summary of the direct answers to the questions found in Table I. While a majority of the answers were either a direct yes or no or other statement that left no doubt as to the writer’s expectations, many others were qualified in various ways. Many hoped that such a followup program would 1 Whitney, Frederick Lamson. The Growth of Teachers In Service. The Century Co., New Department of Teachers Colleges 883 take place, but did not feel so confident that it would during the next twenty years. Many believed that certain phases of the program would be de¬ veloped under certain conditions— in places well supplied with funds, in places without strong local supervisory organization, in places where the necessary cooperation could be secured with the local supervisory organiza¬ tion— these three were the most frequently mentioned qualifications. As a supplement to the survey of expectations, the presidents were asked to indicate which phases of the followup program were already in operation in their colleges, and which were being planned for the immediate future. This part of the questionnaire brought to light some interesting develop¬ ments. Again, the statements that given things were being done were qualified in various ways. Others indicated by number the items in their present and contemplated program, and it seems probable that the qualifica¬ tions given by some were applicable to other cases as well. The main conclusion to be drawn from this study is that the leaders in teacher training in the United States do expect the development of a pro¬ gram of cooperation with graduates and the acceptance of responsibility for and to those whom it certifies by graduation. The affirmative answers are from two to twenty times the negative answers to the several questions. Even if it were assumed that all who did not reply at all would have replied in the negative, the total negative answers would still have been fewer than the total affirmative answers. The phase of followup work on which there is the most nearly perfect accord is the keeping of records of the success of graduates. Only five of the 135 who replied to this question did not believe that it would be done. The twenty-seven qualified answers emphasized the problems of having an adequate measure of success to record, of getting public school supervisors to make the reports, and of determining the number of years in which such TABLE I.— SUMMARY OF REPLIES TO QUESTIONNAIRE Questions Yes No Answers Qualified Now Doing Now Planning 1. Will the teachers college of the future keep record of the success of its graduates? . 103 5 27 56 7 2. Will it cooperate with its graduates in educational research? . 87 13 31 8 5 3. Will the summer session connect more definitely with the teachers' problems of the past year? . 86 10 38 25 3 4. Will the curriculum be modified from the findings of supervision in the field? . 86 11 35 23 9 5. Will the teachers college employ exclusive super¬ visors for the field?, . 85 ‘ 18 31 25 23 6. Will it provide a year or two of field supervision?. . 76 20 4Q 32 20 7. Will it accept responsibility to the young teachers for placement and assistance? . 70 14 49 49 6 8. Will it establish a bureau of correspondence for its graduates in the field? . 61 28 41 31 5 9. Will training-school supervisors visit those they have supervised in preparation? . 57 21 S3 23 5 10. Will there be a systematic plan for the return of graduates at stated intervals for further training?. . 57 34 38 15 16 11. Will the teachers college accept responsibility for its graduates after they begin to teach? . 57 27 47 26 4 12. Will it issue a final certificate of qualification based on success found in extension supervision? . 54 25 48 12 5 884 National Education Association reports would be requested. Fifty-six testified that they were already doing this in some form. The type of cooperation in which there is the second highest degree of ac¬ cord is that in cooperative research. We have just heard Dr. Judd’s address on the teachers colleges’ part in educational research. While almost all believe that this will develop as a phase of followup work, only eight re¬ ported that they were already doing it. The difficulty most often pointed out was that teachers colleges were not adequately prepared either to do or to coordinate significant projects in research. Chapman discovered ten bu¬ reaus of research in teachers colleges; a bulletin of the National Education Association lists eight additional bureaus. It seems probable that the num¬ ber of these will increase so rapidly that this difficulty will be overcome in a score of years. Of course, not all bureaus of research in teachers colleges are enlisting their alumni as cooperators. There is about the same degree of expectation that the summer sessions will have a more direct relation to the problems met by teachers during the year. When Avent analyzed the reasons teachers attended summer school, he did not find a case reported in which the attendance was to find solutions for the problems the teachers had not been able to solve satisfactorily. Fifty- six replies to our questionnaire indicated that the summer sessions were now connecting with the teacher’s problems of the past year. In most of these cases, however, it was clear that the practise referred to selections of problems for discussion by individual instructors of courses. There is but little evidence that the summer school curriculum as a whole is being planned for each teacher according to the needs revealed in the past year’s experience. About the same number believe that the course of training for future teachers will be largely affected by the observation of those already sent out. A great many comments on several of the questions indicated that this, rather than direct help to those visited, would be the major function of visitation in the field. Almost as many believe that people will be employed as representatives of the training schools, whose exclusive duty will be to visit and help teachers in the field. A much smaller number believe that the supervisors who trained the young teachers will do this visiting. A smaller number seem to believe that a year or two of supervision from the college will be provided than believe that exclusive supervisors will be appointed for the purpose. This seeming contradiction is explainable in that some believe that the training schools will employ people to visit their graduates, without accepting responsibility for any definite length of super¬ vision. More seem to believe that the teachers college will accept responsibility to its graduates than believe it will accept responsibility for them. Probably even now we feel more obligation to the young people whom we have trained than to the schools that engage their services. Not quite so many believe that the training colleges will help their graduates solve their problems through a bureau of correspondence. Department of Teachers Colleges 885 The writer does not believe many understood the question regarding the systematic return of graduates for further training in the way he intended it. He had in mind coming back for a short period for specific correction of mistakes made in the beginning of experience, or specific help in the solu¬ tion of problems. The concrete example in mind was the conference at Westfield, Massachusetts, an account of which has been published twice, and which Dr. Judd described in his paper. The matter on wdiich there is least agreement is on the issuance of certifi¬ cates by the training institutions after their work has been approved by supervisors representing the colleges. There is first the question whether certificates shall be issued by training schools or state departments. The part of the state department in certifying teachers just after the completion of their courses has already become a mere formal one in many states. If the certificate is to be issued after field experience, the state department will probably continue to be a significant agent in certification. No doubt re¬ ports from public school supervisors will have at least as much weight in determining these certificates as those from the visitors from the training colleges, whether actually issued by the colleges or the state departments. The comments gave information of several plans of followup service not represented in the questionnaire. Two mentioned having conferences with superintendents and school board members on the relation between preservice and inservice training. At least two places are offering extension courses that are based on actual classroom visitation and supervision by the in¬ structor. Several places place cadet teachers in surrounding school systems. One mention was made of demonstration lessons on Saturdays for the benefit of teachers in nearby schools. Some issue bulletins on the problems of teachers from time to time. One teachers college has its graduates return to tell undergraduates about their teaching experiences. To the writer one of the most valuable parts of the study came in the pointing out of the difficulties involved in attempting anything like the proposed program. Those who do not approve of the program may help us most of all in carrying out the program ; for they help us to analyze in advance the problems that must be solved. Table II comprises a list of the difficulties most often mentioned and the items in the program to which they are most often applied. Many of these were given as reasons why such a program would be impossible of realization ; of course they are that only to the extent that the problems are insoluble. The difficulty most often met is that of securing local and state coopera¬ tion. Closely related to this, and mentioned twenty times, is the problem of avoiding the waste of duplicate supervision. Twenty others pointed out a still more serious phase of relationship with other supervisors, that of actual conflict with them. Certainly all relations between the college and its teaching graduates must be adjusted to the employing and supervisory au¬ thorities ; otherwise the colleges would become troublesome mothers-in-law. There is much testimony, however, that such cooperation can be secured, and 886 National Education Association that the visitation by college representatives can be made a welcome assistance to other supervisors. Next to the problems of cooperation and harmony with other agencies came the problem of funds. That is always a question of relative values. There can be little question that the appropriations for teacher training will continue to increase in all of our states ; whether we want to use some of this to extend our relations to the field where our product works, depends on how much we want other things and how much we want this. In conclusion, the writer believes that all of these problems are soluble and that the teachers college will cooperate more and more with its graduates. No one can prophesy how far this development will progress by 1950, nor exactly which line of cooperation will be developed. As we try out the several lines now contemplated, and tried in a number of places, we shall find that our experiences with them will suggest others. TABLE II.— DIFFICULTIES SEEN BY THOSE WHO ANSWERED THE QUES¬ TIONNAIRE ON “THE COOPERATION OF A TEACHERS COLLEGE WITH ITS GRADUATES AND ITS RESPONSIBILITY FOR THEIR SUC¬ CESS IN 1950”. Difficulty Frequency of mention Types of cooperation in connection with which it was most often mentioned 1. To secure local and state coopera¬ tion. 50 Assuming responsibility for and to graduates. Active supervision in the field. Certification after field visitation. 2. To secure the funds . 40 Active supervision in the field. 3. To avoid duplication of effort . 20 Active supervision in the field. Certification after field visitation. 4. To avoid conflict with other agencies . 20 Active supervision in the field. 5. General statement of impossibility or impracticability. 18 Visitation by training school super¬ visors. Keeping record of success. 6. To offer work worthy of further attendance of graduates. 16 Systematic plan for return of graduates. 7. To bring about necessary changes in state laws and regulations. 15 Certification after field visitation. 8. To avoid slackening of preservice training. 12 Responsibility to graduates. Visitation by training school super¬ visors. 9. Wide distribution of graduates . 11 Active supervision in the field. Visitation by training school super¬ visors. 10. To avoid interference with the teachers themselves. 9 Visitation by training school super¬ visors. Systematic plan for return of graduates. 11. Lack of facilities for research in teachers colleges. 9 Cooperation with graduates in educa¬ tional research. 12. To select students for training for whom it is possible to assume re¬ sponsibility. 7 Assuming responsibilities for and to graduates. 13, Faculty too small . 7 Active supervision in the field. All other . 37 Total . 271 Department of Teachers Colleges 887 ATHLETICS AND FORENSICS ; THEIR TYPE , SCOPE, PUR¬ POSE, VALUE, AND ADMINISTRATION IN 1950 R. B. COUSINS, PRESIDENT, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, KINGSVILLE, TEXAS In arranging this program of visions and dreams you gave me two sub¬ jects quite antipodal in popular favor, about which you invite me to dream — forensics, the most neglected, and athletics, the most colorful, in college curriculums! We are taught that dreams are instantaneous, the longest last¬ ing for a moment only. I am sure you had this fact in mind when you wrote me, even the second time, “to watch the step” and stay within the time allowed. I shall not spoil the program by disobedience to the president’s will. Forensics Forensics once constituted a popular department and occupied a prominent place in catalogs and college activities. When the different forms were in flower, debating societies and contests in oratory were of first importance in colleges for men. Literary and debating halls preceded fraternity houses, and they were well built and neatly kept structures. The anniversary of the founding of each literary society was celebrated yearly. To be “society anniversarian” was the highest honor that students could confer on a fellow student, while the honor of representing the literary society on the champion debates among the societies was the vaulting am¬ bition of the brightest men on the campus. In those days football was an infant sport, a lowly college game. But times have changed since then. Forensics, debates, logic, and formal disputation dealt largely with the forms of correct thinking. The syllogism with its forms and laws was of great interest to intellectual students, but the masses were not in college then. In this terrific age in which we live, men have no time for the forms of things. But college, mart, and market deal only with living things. Youth is in charge. Act first and think later! The philosophy of the age is that instincts and emotions are right. Act on these and let correct forms and conventions wait on a new verification. The question by students, “What good will this course do me?” is asked with increasing frequency. The question is typical of the age in which we are living. Every subject or course found in the curriculum must appear to produce an immediate assignable value, now! Has the power of the orator and debater passed away in republics? I think not, but the uses have changed in America. Now the orator is em¬ ployed in expounding conclusions arrived at by party leaders behind heavy walls and closed doors, and debaters present to a listless public the platitudes furnished by party leaders. But when all colleges taught forensics in the years long gone, orators and debaters spoke as individuals to a loosely organ¬ ized democracy, giving first impressions and information, and forming the public mind in the open forum. 888 National Education Association It is true now, I think, that oratory is at a low ebb in public esteem, and public debate has a poor place in settling public questions. America does not seem to be “politically minded” any more. The college has responded to a changed condition of the public mind, by substituting “readings” and “one act plays” for the more heroic study of forensics. No thrills — Our age demands entertainment with thrills that fill the stadium, chapel, and theater, while a lecture, sermon, oration, or debate on a serious theme would not draw a sizable crowd, but, as Henry Watterson once said, would disperse a mob, like cold water from a hydrant. Three difficulties in collegiate debating have been suggested i1 1. Indifferent, uninteresting, or badly selected subjects 2. An audience without interest, sympathy, or intelligence concerning the subject 3. Nothing for the audience to do but to sit and think — an impossible requirement at this time 4. Difficulties in financing as a result. My dream is that forensics do not belong alone to the dead years of Greece and Rome and early America, or any other early civilization in its kilts and young imagination, but they will return when the fires of flaming youth shall have burned out and a spendthrift age shall have spent its patrimony and shall have come “to itself.” When sober seriousness broods quietly over a once restless world, forensics and their highly respectable correlatives will be reestablished in the curriculum of every institution of sound learning. Speech arts will doubtless still flourish, but the year 1950 will be more rational and less emotional than 1929 — and a more serious age will require profounder thought. The power to lead men by public persuasion is too great in republics like ours to become permanently neglected by free men. Athletics To come from a neglected subject to the most colorful one in the catalog or on the campus is quite a long stride. College athletics is not one big problem but it is Pandora’s Box of troublesome ones. Upon this occasion we must content ourselves with a glance at football and its problems. Other college sports and athletics are easily handled and managed when they can be adequately financed. There is a great abundance of materials in books, athletic and cosmopolitan journals, the daily papers, and reports without number that should satisfy the demands of the most patient student of the subject. One can prove almost any proposition that he might care to sub¬ mit, for or against football, by the most reputable authority. Football is claimed to be the greatest American college game, and possibly the greatest college sport in the world. The money, time, and toil spent to produce match games, and results obtained, show it to be really “big business.” It covers a continent, extensively and intensively, as no other sport has ever covered it. Men travel thousands of miles, by air, sea, and 1 Withington, Robert. “On College Debating.” School and Society. June, 1920. Department of Teachers Colleges 889 land, in planes, Pullman trains and rattling flivvers, to reach the time and place of the Big Game , just as if the fate of the nation depended on their presence. A hundred thousand men, women, and children weep, shout, em¬ brace each other, toss away hats, canes, umbrellas — everything — in thrilling ecstasy, while the question of win or lose is in the balance! Tremendous crowds of college and non-college people follow this marvelous entertain¬ ment. It is not strange that money should play a large part in so great a matter — and money is the root of many difficulties in administering the sport. Education, college advertising, and entertainment make the three¬ fold cord that is not easily broken. Out of this combination have come com¬ mercial problems of great difficulty. A few weeks ago Knott, the cartoonist for the Dallas News (Texas), graphically pictured the relation of football to other college sports. He drew a picture of a husky young man, clad in football togs, with arms ex¬ tended straight from his body. Other college sports were represented by smaller figures, properly clad. Some of these stood up on his arms, or swung beneath them, while others formed ladders about his heavy head and stiff neck. He was standing astride the picture of a bag of gold, marked 25 mil¬ lion dollars — the cost per year of sports in the United States. The group of men about this table doubtless can agree with the proponents and enthusiastic supporters of football that as a part of our educational pro¬ gram of physical development it has a ranking place, also that it has educa¬ tional values peculiarly its own — a long list of them. We could agree that enthusiastic supporters are at times extravagant in their claims for its values as a college influence for good. There is a debate, warm and strong, by those who believe that football takes too much time from lectures, library, and laboratory for the good it gives in return, while athletic committees and coaches contend that spirit is lacking when professors exact too high academic standing for football men. On this point is the greatest need of constructive thinking and acting to¬ gether. The strands that make the cable are education, advertising, entertainment, and money. If the most efficient advertising is the best, possibly advertising through the winning football team is very high class. It certainly keeps the college name before the public in box car letters during the football season, with telling results, but colleges and universities are supposed to represent the best in ethics as well as in athletics. Certain questions seem pertinent to this form of advertising. First, does it honestly advertise the work of the college upon which its usefulness rests? What may be legiti¬ mately inferred about the work of the college from its winning team? What is intended to be advertised ? Is it fair to use or exploit a small group of young men for college advantage of this kind for four months each year for four years? These and similar questions are about ready for serious study by those who administer college affairs. That a big game of football draws a crowd of spectators, or fans, that nothing else does, with the possible exception of the prize fight for the 890 National Education Association championship of the world, proves its supremacy as a college sport. Games between teams that drew crowds of ten, twelve, and twenty thousand ten years ago now draw crowds of fifty, seventy- five and 100 thousand persons, while the enormous crowd of 120 thousand is not above the maxi¬ mum attendance. The game in progress pleases, entertains, grips, delights, thrills, enf renzies, and maddens the mass of seething humanity. Great ! In one of the greatest games of the year, twenty-seven Pullman cars from sixteen railroad systems were parked in the yards, while automobiles and Fords enough to cover a country block jammed traffic between cities! Money — this is the point where the greatest difficulties begin. It is the “big thicket” of confusion and debate. The perplexing influence of money neither begins nor ends at “the gate,” but the question of legitimate “help” to freshmen begins when colleges send out scouts to the high schools to find promising athletes and provide a way for them to attend a certain college. How to attract and contract desirable football men is still a living question, “Football Players Wanted” speaks honestly a prevalent demand, not fre¬ quently stated so bluntly. “If you are interested in playing football or know of a good football player who is interested in playing, we would like to hear from you by return mail.” 1 To the Coach: “Get yourself a winning football team. We can’t get money out of alumni without a winning team.” Coach: “How much cooperation do I get? . . . “To start, I want every available scholarship put at my disposal.” 2 The season’s income runs from embarrassing deficits in small colleges with magnificent distances and ambitions, to great surpluses for the greater universities. A western university shows earnings of $193,000. One hun¬ dred thousand pays expenses, fifty thousand to the stadium, balance to coach and press agents — and why not to the players who produced this wealth ? Hear the coach’s lament : “Seven regulars in the infirmary. My God! I’ll have to play some of the students.” And the advice of the dying alumnus: “There’s money in football, pard,” he gasped. “There’s gold in them stadia.” 3 It should not be surprising that these tremendous forces combined— thrill¬ ing entertainment, efficient college advertising, and money-making — should overshadow educational objectives, and should confuse and embarrass college administrators. It is remarkable that these masterful and selfsufficient ob¬ jectives still dwell together in uxorial peace in the same house ! It is sur¬ prising that the entertainment, the master objective, advertising, and “big business” have not combined to go into business for themselves, on a purely professional basis, like unto baseball. 1 See Athletic Journal, Nov. 19 27, p. 16. -See North American Review. “Games for the Gate’s Sake/’ Feb. 1929, p. 167. 3 See North American Review, Feb. 1929, p. 172. Department of Teachers Colleges 891 The conservative supporters assert that the evil practises that injure foot¬ ball as a college sport are : subsidizing players, commercializing and pro¬ fessionalizing in games in “The Three-Headed Monster,” according to the language of General Palmer E. Pierce, Conference President. Dr. D. A. Penick, of the University of Texas, says: “Football . . . is detrimental to college work . . . and tends to make college require¬ ments on athletics less and less effective.” “Under present conditions a winning team has a high commercial value to the college. If college football is becoming more professional it is becom¬ ing so with the consent of the authorities and not by the wish of the players themselves.” A journal of athletics points out that “the great majority of the college athletic departments do not favor subsidizing athletes. In the meantime there are still a few institutions where athletes are directly or indirectly paid “The practise of outlawing colleges in the United States becomes less and less each year, and it is safe to predict that in a few years no self- respecting institution of higher learning in this country will be guilty of allowing hired men to represent it on football field, basketball court, run¬ ning track, or the baseball diamond.” 1 The Dream : 1950 — 1. The program of health education will be worked out, and athletics and sports will be classified and offered with clearly marked objectves. Football will be purged of the charge of commercialism and will always draw and thrill because of its innate greatness as a game suited for strong men. 2. Football will be debunked of many of its myths, and of its present assumed, asserted, and accepted values. It will be studied dispassionately and assigned its proper place among other worthy college activities. It will be given a prominent place on campus and college programs. Each sport will be assigned a fair share of credits, properly evaluated. Apparent lack of interest in the football games will be no greater college reproach than will be the same neglectful attitude toward any other college sports or in¬ tellectual contests, as contests in forensics , or in arts. Subsidizing a favorite sport will be regulated fairly and honestly by a cen¬ tral authority. It will be just as disreputable to hire men to help win foot¬ ball games as to hire lawyers or other expert speakers to help in inter¬ collegiate debates. By 1950 colleges and universities will be classified in reference to their uses of athletics, especially in reference to the program of football and its games. 1. Some schools will have a schedule or a curriculum of health activities. Games and sports will be used in view of conserving the health of the students and teaching health to others. Athletics will be the laboratory. 2. In other institutions athletics and sports will be taught for their own sake. Courses with minimum academic requirements, leading to degrees 1 The Athletic Journal, Nov. 1927, p. 18. 892 National Education Association indicating four years in athletics, preparing men for professional sports courses. Uses of money that are decried and forbidden will then be sub¬ ject to the laws of commerce. 3. Football, baseball, basket ball, and other athletic sports will be syndicated and organized to furnish seasonal games to furnish a perennial round of thrills! The type of athletics will conform to a health program. The scope will cover all forms of athletics that minister to the promotion of health for every student and group of students in the college. The purpose will be to promote personal vigor of body, mind, and heart , with all the social con¬ notations that follow such a program. The value will be educational rather than advertising the college, entertaining and thrilling non-participants! They will be administered as all other college courses and activities are administered, by well established boards of directors, through regular col¬ lege channels, even including the president, not embarrassed or advised by well-meaning and interested friends. They will be financed by the regular sources of revenue as the college may have the funds, or as they see proper to budget their allowance. Mr. President, let me call your attention to the fact that a man is not responsible for what he says in a dream. This is the open season for novitiates who dare express opinions against football or its worshipers. You may remember also that forensics are somewhat decadent and there can be no rejoinder! STANDARDS IN 1950 FOR SELECTION AND GRADUATION OF STUDENTS IN THE TEACHERS COLLEGES AND FOR THE SUCCESS AND PROFESSIONAL GROWTH OF THE GRADUATES WHO ARE TO CONTINUE TEACHING JOHN L. DUNKLE, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, FROSTBURG, MARYLAND Standards for admission to the teachers colleges in 1950 must depend in part upon the supply and demand. At present, not more than 60 percent, possibly less, of the beginning teachers for the elementary and secondary schools are adequately trained. Adequately trained connotes a two-year preparation for the elementary certified teacher and a four-year prepara¬ tion for the certification of the secondary teacher. These are mini- mums, and the leaders in teacher training know that, at best, a satisfactory professional equipment cannot be built in two years. Already a number of our city training schools are giving three, some four, and one, at least, five years of training beyond the secondary level for elementary teaching. Some of the states are requiring four years. The standards being evolved for professional preparation for teacher certification by the institutions of this association presage a four-year professional preparation for all teachers. I take it that the real job of the teachers colleges is to train all the teachers Department of Teachers Colleges 893 for all the public schools. The county normal schools will have gone by 1950. Teacher-training work as a part of a high-school course will have gone. The offering of teacher-training courses in many private institutions will be much more directly under the directing educational leadership of the state than at present or will have been discontinued within the next two decades. The state supported and state directed, and equally so the municipal supported and controled teachers college, will have come into its own in opportunity and must be held responsible for staffing the schools of the commonwealth of which it is a part. To quote State Commissioner Mc¬ Connell of Minnesota, “The training of teachers for the public schools is clearly a function of the state. Teacher-training institutions are maintained for a specific purpose, that of training teachers for the public schools. It is poor economy for the state and not fair to the teachers to train more than are needed or to train along such general lines so as not to qualify for the actual work to be done.” On the other hand, a sufficient number of teachers must be trained to staff all the schools. The deplorable state of professional equipment at present and of the standards accepted at present makes it necessary to consider the present professional status. A few educational leaders believe that standards can be set up and achieved without reference to the present situation. Possibly they are correct. Dean Arps at Dallas two years ago at our meeting swept away all obstacles. Yet, the problems seem just as gigantic today as ever. Let us view the vastness of the job. There are more than 800,000 public school teachers in the nation. From seven to ten percent of this number begin new each year. To train annually 60,000 to 70,000 teachers is a stupendous job. The recent study in Ohio revealed an annual short¬ age of forty percent and many of those supplied were inadequately trained — the product of county normals. The situation in Ohio is typical of that in many of the states of the nation. Another closely allied problem that must be considered before we can talk standards of admission to the teachers colleges is that revealed in the Ohio study of Dr. Buckingham, i. e., that the drawing power of the teachers college decreases rapidly as the .distance from the college increases. Most of the teachers colleges in the larger states may correctly be viewed as local institutions. Keeping in mind the low standard of professional equipment of many of those in service, the inadequate training of the majority of the present annual supply of teachers, the isolation of the teachers college to a large number of the potential teacher material, any real solution must equate standards of admission against supply and demand. Granting a reasonable mortality among those admitted to the teachers colleges in order that 60,000 to 70,000 new teachers may be trained ade¬ quately, the recruiting for teacher training is a task of the first order. Annually, our four-year secondary schools graduate about 500,000. Thus it wdll be seen that at least one in every eight must be trained for teaching, 894 National Education Association so long as teaching continues to be such an ephemeral job, and nearly one in every six must seek admission to the teachers college when the training mortality is accounted for. Then, who should teach? The answer to this question, if we could answer it philosophically, quantitatively, and qualita¬ tively, would clear up our standards of admission to the teachers colleges and graduation therefrom. We must recognize that the problem of staffing the public schools ade¬ quately and effectively looks brighter than ever before. The elementary teacher is no longer pitied. His job has taken on new dignity. The in¬ crease of teachers’ salaries, the growing importance of teacher-training institutions, the prestige of the National Education Association, the in¬ creased tenure of teachers, the longer periods of preparation of the teacher, lessening the likelihood of teaching being used as a stepping-stone job, and possibly still more important, the decrease of employment agriculturally and industrially gives a surplus in our larger centers of those from whom reacher prospects may be selected. Dr. Suhrie has pictured the teacher thus: “A leader of children, a fore¬ man who can create worthy ideals, right attitudes, and permanent life in¬ terests, who can help children to find worthwhile work to do, who knows how to promote cooperation and to develop the team spirit, and who as an expert workman himself is able to direct the efforts of others to success¬ ful achievement.” Further, he is expected to so atune himself to the com¬ munity that it is richer for his presence and work among its people. Some such array of skills, knowledge, attitudes, and ideals are the measuring sticks applied by teachers colleges and administrators in rating and em¬ ploying teachers. Little or no pretense is made or claimed for real measures of the quantity or degrees of quality of the many elements involved in the teacher’s equip¬ ment. Score cards for teacher rating help, yet how frequently judgments must be made that frequently neglect significant factors or determinants. Standards of admission to our teachers colleges then must first of all consider the supply and demand as well as the personal, professional, and social equipment of the successful teacher. Very recently, one of our teachers colleges sent its standards of admission to the secondary schools from which it draws. These standards are the result of four years of study of entrance students and a four-phase measure is made — a good high-school record, good moral character, good health, and ability to do college work. These new standards grew up out of this situation. About 600 new students entered yearly since 1926, twenty-five percent of whom dropped out the first year. Possibly another ten percent (my estimate) failed or quit the second year; and if they elect the four years of work, another five percent will fail to finish, then there will be a three to five percent maladjustment in the first year of teaching. To summarize, forty percent of those admitted were in reality not good material for teacher training. Department of Teachers Colleges 895 Some of the liberal arts colleges of the east are taking the secondary school record and basing admission totally upon it. The secondary schools of Maryland will not recommend to college students sixty percent of whose work in the last two years was not of a “B” quality or better. Ned H. Dearborn proposes six points for the selecting of teacher train¬ ing prospects — mental capacity, scholastic achievement, personal conduct, professional attitudes, school habits, physical fitness; and by way of inter¬ pretation adds, “That a high degree of cooperation and understanding between the people engaged in teacher training and the superintendents, principals, and teachers of public schools such as has never prevailed except in rare instances is needed.” Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island have attacked the problems of selection on a state-wide basis and more thoroughly than selection on mere scholastic records. Some measure of the social equipment and attitudes will be necessary in addition to the data available from the secondary school. Many of the maladjustments of beginning teachers are due to a meager social equipment that the home and society alone can give the embryonic teacher. I am aware that most teachers colleges are carrying advisory officials and boast¬ ing of social programs for leavening the crude and limited cultural horizon of their students. Rome was not built in a day, nor can the bashful, back¬ ward, non-social, diffident book-worm student in two or three short years be made a community leader and a desirable stimulating director of child growth. The economic background of the teacher prospect is another element that may not necessarily play a part in selecting desirable teacher aptitudes. Yet it does bring into adulthood some who have read so sparingly as to have little feeling for the vast vicarious experiences of many of their pupils who have had large library contacts. Extensive reading comparable to that of the well-read child is an essential component of the expectancy of the young man or woman desiring training and certificating to the teaching profession. To summarize : 1. The admission requirements that will be operative by 1950 to the teachers college will consider the secondary school record to the extent of splendid achieve¬ ment, scholastically, in personal social habits, character, and health. Vocational choice will have been directed by both the secondary school and the teachers college as a cooperative job. 2. The length of the period of training and the standards of the teachers colleges will tend to attract the best, as has happened in our best medical colleges. 3. Entrance requirements must not dictate units of work but require understand¬ ings and applications measurable by tests for minimal amounts of skills and knowl¬ edges necessary as- a foundation for teacher training. 4. The secondary school and the teachers college will jointly rate the applicants’ personal characteristics on a scale somewhat like part one of the forty-one point rating scale given by Tieg in his “Technics of Teacher Selection.” Qualities of “C,” “B,” or better will be required in these several characteristics of appearance- speech, personality, disposition, force, character, mentality, tact. 896 National Education Association 5. Character will be more accurately rated than irreproachable, conforms, or un¬ stable. The honesty, the loyalty, and the cooperativeness of the trainees must be known. To know quite quantitatively and somewhat qualitatively the students before making the selection from among those who knock at the doors of our teachers college will be a vast undertaking, but it is believed it will select teachers who will develop into more real scholarship, more real leadership, and more inspiring personalities. The teachers colleges until recently pursued the policies of the colleges of liberal arts and graduated their students when the required number of credits had been earned or when the curriculum had been completed. At present, only occasionally here and there are slight departures being made from this policy. The placement bureaus in the teachers colleges and the administrators follow a different policy in evaluating these graduates. Their attack seems worthy of very serious consideration. Many rating scales have been evolved for evaluating the teacher and his teaching. It is true that most of these have had several purposes — improvement of the teacher through selfrating, supervisory rating, as well as the selection of teachers and the recommendation of teachers for positions. More than a score of such rating cards have been tried, and many school systems use some such method to determine merit in teaching. If teachers are to be so evaluated in service, teachers colleges will do well to measure and build their products along like lines. The standards for graduation from the teachers colleges must be largely determined by skill in teaching. The job of the teacher is to teach, using teaching in its very widest implication. Apparently, there is no agreement today as to all the factors necessary in the equipment of a teacher. Boyce lists the following five large factors and under these forty-five subtopics: Personal equipment ; social and professional equipment ; school manage¬ ment; technic of teaching; results. More recently, H. O. Rugg gave five large factors, somewhat differently named ; and under these there are sixty-two subtopics: skill in teaching; team work qualities; qualities of growth and keeping uptodate; personal and social qualities. Most, if not all, of the recent books on teaching could easily be organized under either of the above group of factors. Granting that the standard equipment of a teacher exists in certain qualities of these large factors, we have no measuring sticks to determine presence or absence of these functions except personal judgments. The personal judgments of experts are almost always in agreement on merits or failure in teaching in cases such as these : unable to control her class ; makes little or no preparation ; finds discouragement everywhere. Out¬ standing merit would be equally recognized. Unfortunately, the border line cases bring no such agreement. On the other hand, there are possibly some other influential factors little affected by training, as Dr. Whitney in his study “The Prediction of Teaching Success” finds that “in the group of three factors which at Department of Teachers Colleges 897 matriculation determine the probable score in teaching success, physique is nearly twice as important as secondary record, and intelligence has prac¬ tically no weight at all.” As a basis for determining the standard equipment of the graduates of the teachers colleges, rating cards such as those of H. O. Rugg and E. W. Tieg’s Graphic Rating Method point the way. These have been chosen as typical.1 The graphic method has five large divisions: personal charac¬ teristics, teaching ability, professional ideals and attitudes, routine, con¬ ditioning factors. These rating sheets w'ere not prepared for evaluating quantity and quality of merit in teacher training. A number of years’ use of the Rugg sheet in a modified form has shown that it is a very definitive attack. To use either of these analysis sheets effectively as a basis for graduation of students from our teachers colleges will be extremely difficult. Any standards that are used must be applied by the entire staff. The suggested standards focus the attention more largely upon the directed teaching. The amount of directed teaching varies from ten to twenty-five percent of the teacher-training curriculum. To make graduation depend upon less than one-fifth of the student’s work in the teachers college seems absurd ; again, when the fulltime staff of the college is considered, possibly not more than half of the staff will be able to contribute definitely to the rating of the student on these standards. Many of the staff are subjectmatter specialists and are not expected to share in the eventuating of their subjectmatter in the teaching of children. It would seem in present practise and organiza¬ tion that the directors of training and the critic staff will be held responsible for applying standards such as are proposed. Teacher training lends itself to the job analysis attack. No phase of the curriculum of the teachers college curriculum can be justified that does not fructuate in a changed behavior on the part of the teacher in the actual job of teaching or as directly contributing to the actual job of teaching. All the recent discus¬ sions on professionalized subjectmatter are efforts to realize this end. Little has been accomplished so far. Little will be accomplished until the organ¬ ization of the colleges makes it possible and necessary for those who teach professionalized subjectmatter to know that their courses do equip teachers to teach children in their subjectmatter fields. The modus operandi of such an organization is simple in the small teachers college. In the larger colleges, it becomes increasingly difficult. It is vitally necessary; and since it is, it can be done. To recapitulate, the teacher rating blanks of Rugg and Tieg’s Scale were not drafted for standards for graduation from our teachers colleges. On the other hand, they were drafted for selfimprovement through self¬ rating of the teacher in service and for use by administrators. Some of the subdivisions wTill need to be eliminated, possibly additions should be made. Some of the items may be measured more accurately than judg- 1 For others and the use of an improvement card by student teachers, see Trow and Me- Lowth. Educational Administration and Supervision, February, 1929. 898 National Education Association ment will determine. Possibly, the quantity and quality of fifty percent of the judgments included in these scale blanks can be measured more or less scientifically. Much research will be needed to achieve these ends. Each subjectmatter field will be enlisted in determining the student teacher’s success in the several subjects of the elementary or secondary curriculum for which the student is training. When students are selected as carefully as proposed by the admission standards and are graduated only when satisfactory achievements have been sufficiently demonstrated to show that the personal and the social qualities are possessed, that teaching insight has been gained and that teaching knowledge and teaching skill have been acquired in reasonable degrees of proficiency — all measurable by group judgments and tests to be standardized on a job analysis basis, the teachers colleges will have met their opportunity and their obligation — that is, supplying the professional leadership to the ninety-seven percent of our population who never enter college. It is axiomatic to say that the teachers college should be interested in the success and professional growth of its graduates. By such followup, both the college and the teacher will be helped. From the east and the west come glowing reports of intervisitation and close followup work amounting to supervision. Such is not the job of the teachers colleges. The admin¬ istrator of town, city, or county cannot shift the responsibility of educa¬ tional leadership. No institution can assume it or part of it for widely different units. Supervision is not different from administration insofar as it is a technical and local job. The teachers colleges can and should continue to advise, to encourage, and to inspire. STUDENT AND ALUMNI PARTICIPATION IN THE OR¬ GANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF TEACHERS COLLEGES IN 1950 EUGENE FAIR, PRESIDENT, STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, KIRKSVILLE, MISSOURI Two decades is a long way to see into the future. Our president, how¬ ever, permits all of us to do a number of things. We may try to envisage what the present participation and organization elements will develop into. Due to fundamental changes which may take place in our colleges and our social environments, one might picture participation in organization and administration as almost entirely divorced from the present. It seems preferable to take the elements as they are and try to predict wffiat they will develop into by 1950. There should be something in it all of the idea of seeing the end from the beginning and the beginning from the end. 'There should be a belief that the present student bodies in our teachers colleges and those who come after them for some time to come will desire an increasing amount of participation in the organization and administration of our colleges. Department of Teachers Colleges 899 There are a number of reasons to think this will be true. In the first place, creative students of today, as in the past, are curious to know the why and the wherefore of our organization and administration. They wish to take nothing as obvious which they deem important. Each is a part of an institution, the organization and administration of which should help to make him free. Creative students are bound to seek an under¬ standing of their environment. How better can they get this than to be participants? Most of such students desire increasing power and influence among their fellows. They hope to be teachers and leaders of men. It is but natural that as they emerge as leaders among the students they should be the representatives of all the students in their relations to the administra¬ tion of the college. During the next two decades these students will be coming from high schools where student participation in government will be more and more practised and the college which fails to heed this develop¬ ment in the high schools may retard its own advancement. Though desirous of power and perferment, these students have, as a whole, generous impulses and would make their college the one to stand out as a selfgoverning body. Their faith, enthusiasm, belief in a real democracy in and out of college halls and their dreams of a better day for all will be recognized iu 1950 as a much greater asset than at the present time. Less and less as the decades slip by will our college students be awed by those in authority, just because it is authority. The man who comes crashing through, disregarding the rights of others, will receive their open condemnation, for they will believe in openness. They will make life miserable, and they should, for their teachers who try to lead and direct them through any other means than merit. The students of 1950 will, it is hoped, wish to participate in all matters having to do with the welfare of our colleges. That means a student council on the campus which represents all the students, a group which has final determination in many matters now handled in other ways, such as fixing the amount of the student activity fees and determining finally the expenditure of the same. It means responsible student control of the school paper, and the leading part to the council in carrying on the student social affairs on the campus. It means student courts backed by the ad¬ ministration and with power to act, and student membership on all the standing committees of the college. It means, from the standpoint of the administration and faculty, a faith in student participation in government and a belief that one of the finest results of such participation is selfgovernment. It means that the students should be encouraged to contribute their ideas, give opinions and judgments, seek information and be strictly re¬ spected and upheld in the responsible decisions they render through their organs of government. It means, too, that the administration should never exploit the student organization or be exploited by it. Just as now any administration may expect to be accused of making use of the student 900 National Education Association organization as a buffer, especially should such organization thwart a “pet scheme” of some individual or group. The value and extent of student participation in the organization and administration of our colleges twenty years hence will depend largely upon the attitude and actions of the faculty and administration. Students are quick to discern faith, sympathy, understanding, cooperation, patience, or the lack of these characteristics. They really want guidance and direction, but they resent arbitrary dictation and ipse dixit methods. Once the administration and faculty members show they have the charac¬ teristics mentioned above, there will be few if any disputes as to where student authority begins and ends and the extent to which student par¬ ticipation may go will become almost unlimited. Such is a desired goal by 1950. Taking our colleges as a whole, the amount of participation of our alumni in organization and administration is negligible in comparison with that of the student participation. Twenty years from now we should have much better means of giving the alumni information about our col¬ leges. There will be better roads, greater use will be made of flying ma¬ chines, the radio will play a more important part. Information coming from the college every few days will do much to keep an abiding interest in and enthusiasm for the alma mater. With uptodate information the alumni can do much more than they are now to give correct information about the college and at the same time encourage certain young people to enter the teaching profession. These alumni will also be wellprepared in many instances to give good advice to our students who are just beginning their teaching work. They will be in a position to note with considerable accuracy just how the college is serving its constituency. What they note should be transmitted to the administration and used to take stock of new bearings in the future. The different kinds of participation just mentioned will become all the more effective as representatives from the college make personal contacts with the alumni in the field. These contacts should be friendly, leisurely, and in the attitude that the alumni can be of great help in the organization and administration of the college. By 1950 this will without much question apply especially to the par¬ ticipation in what we are now calling the “followup” work. Each college should have by that time a number of helping teachers who are studying its own products and being studied by them. While this help from the college should be specific on the part of the representative, it should be so carried on that the alumni will be making a constant stream of suggestions about the organization and administration of the college. It is rather safe to assume that most of these suggestions will pertain to the way the college work done on the campus is functioning in the work of the graduate. And what is more important than this very thing in the administration of the college? Properly done, this kind of cooperation will see by 1950 many a faculty member in the college so drawn out of his selfcomplacency Department of Teachers Colleges 901 and egotism that his courses will not only be reorganized, but will be taught with a power and a joy not known before. Such cooperation will also keep many an alumnus out of the same ruts just mentioned and at the same time make the graduate feel that he is a very essential part in the operation of the college, that he is still served by the college, although a graduate. If, through such means as have been mentioned above, the college is keeping in close contact with its graduates in 1950, alumni membership on the Board of Control should be welcomed. Such a member could speak from the standpoint of the official family and at the same time bring valu¬ able suggestions from the field. There would be an unselfish desire for the college to “carry on” as would hardly be possible with a non-graduate. Having known the college intimately as a former student, having no doubt thought and dreamed about making it better, there would be great satis¬ faction in joining officially the active administration in working out pressing problems. Should it be the will and the determination of the administration to have a greater degree of participation by students and alumni in 1950 than at the present, it will not necessarily come about unless there is on the part of the administration close acquaintanceship, rare and sympathetic understanding, fine fellowship and friendliness, adroit and honest leader¬ ship, and carefully laid plans, for more participation by the students and alumni does not mean a lessening of participation on the part of the administration. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON STANDARDS AND SURVEYS E. S. EVENDEN, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK CITY1 It is gratifying to the Committee on Standards and Surveys that it can begin its report by saying that more problems have been referred to it during the past year than in any one year since the adoption of the present set of standards. This we consider a most promising condition, since it shows clearly that the presidents and faculties of our normal schools and teachers colleges realize that they are dealing with rapidly growing institu¬ tions with constantly changing problems. Once this is realized it is obvious that any set of guiding standards for such institutions must also change and change rapidly during this formative period of rapid development. It is the hope of the members of this committee that it will be possible to submit one or more proposals to the Association each year which will correct some inaccurate standard, supplement some inadequate standard, or raise some outgrown standard. It is also hoped that these recommenda- 1 Because of the unavoidable absence of Dr. Clyde M. Hill, Professor of Education at Yale University and this year’s Chairman of the Committee on Standards and Surveys, the writer, at his request, has prepared and presented the report of this Committee. 902 National Education Association tions will be made only after careful and extensive studies or investigations. It is considered preferable to allow present unsatisfactory standards to remain until the data needed to revise them are obtained, than to recom¬ mend changes upon unsupported opinions, especially when so many and such divergent opinions exist. This belief, and the fact (previously lamented) that this committee must depend entirely upon volunteered labor for all of its studies are the reasons why some statements in the standards, which were purposely left indefinite when the standards were adopted, are as yet unchanged. One of the most important of these is the question of the desired professional preparation of the faculties of normal schools and teachers colleges. It will be recalled that a comprehensive study of this question was started immediately by Dr. Shelton Phelps but was not completed because of the limited number of teachers who could furnish the complete transcripts of grades which were desired. Last year it was voted to ask Dr. Phelps to submit a report on the returns he had re¬ ceived even though the number was limited. Mr. Harris Cook of Canyon, Texas, has been working on these data with Dr. Phelps during the year and a report would probably have been made at this meeting had it not been for Dr. Phelps’ absence in Europe at the present time. It is prac¬ tically certain that we can have this report next year and that the Com¬ mittee on Standards and Surveys wdll be able to submit a proposed change in this standard as a result of the investigation. Tentative results from Dr. Rosenlof’s study1 of library facilities in nor¬ mal schools and teachers colleges were presented at the Boston meeting last year. This study has been completed and some definite recommenda¬ tions for standards for teachers college libraries have been developed from it. These are included at the conclusion of Dr. Rosenlof’s report to the Association and are recommended for adoption. (They were considered and laid upon the table for one year). At last year’s meeting a study of methods of promoting inservice growth of teachers college faculty members was authorized. Dr. Adolph Linscheid of Ada, Oklahoma, made such a study 2 and has been asked to report the most significant results to this meeting. As a result of his findings the following resolution is proposed with the approval of the Committee on Standards and Surveys: Since the experience of the teachers colleges tends strongly to prove that the sab¬ batical leave of absence is one of the best means for promoting the inservice im¬ provement of the faculty, it is hereby resolved that the American Association of Teachers Colleges recommends the principle of the sabbatical leave and urges that all institutions belonging to this Association secure this privilege for the members of their faculties. . 1 Rqsenlof, G. W. Library Facilities of Teacher-Training Institutions. Bureau of Publica¬ tions, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, 1929. 2 Linscheid, A. The In-Service Improvement of State Teachers College Faculty, Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, 1928. Department of Teachers Colleges 903 The third study which has been made during the past year with the approval of and under the direction of this committee was concerned with the very important question of the effect of practise teaching upon the children in the practise school. This study was made by W. H. Moody, principal of Dwight School — one of the three practise schools of the New Haven Normal School — who is submitting his principal findings to the Association. This is a valuable type of study and should be made in a number of schools and under a variety of conditions in order to throw more light upon the training-school standards. The next proposal submitted for consideration grows out of a very com¬ prehensive study of “Curriculum Patterns for Teachers Colleges and Normal Schools, ” made by President H. A. Sprague, State Teachers Col¬ lege, Montclair, N. J. This was undertaken at the suggestion of this committee in order that this Association might have more evidence upon the recommendation concerning the amount of senior college work which was made last year and which was tabled for one year. President Sprague will present some of his findings upon the two problems of “core curric- ulums for teachers colleges” and “the amount of senior college work done by students in the third and fourth years.”1 In the light of this investiga¬ tion and after consultation with officers of the Association, a rewording of the second paragraph of Standard VIII, Section A, is suggested. This will appear in the revised standards for the year and will greatly facilitate the work of the Committee on Accrediting and Classification in its in¬ terpretation of this standard. The sixth recommendation has to do with the organization of the standards. The Committee on Accrediting and Classification has discov¬ ered in its use of the standards that there are instances of partial duplication and misplacement of items and some slight inconsistencies. At President Morgan’s suggestion the Committee has considered a rearrangement of some of the standards which will make their arrangement more logical and easier to use in accrediting and classifying normal schools and teachers colleges. The changes suggested are as follows: Proposed Reorganization in Standards 2 Standard I Section A: same Section B : same Section C: Insert here Standard XIV, Section B Standard II Section A: same except 25 years in second paragraph to be changed to 21 years to correct printer’s error. Section B : same Section C: same 1 Sprague. If, A. “Curriculum Requirements for the Training of Secondary School Teachers ill State Teachers’ Colleges and Colleges of Education in State and Private Universities.” Eighth Yearbook, American Association of Teachers Colleges. 1929, p. 92-108. 2 Primarily for purposes of simplification and easier use by accrediting committee. 904 National Education Association Standard III Section A: same Section B : same Section C: same Section D : same Standard IV Section A: same Section B: to read: “In the training school there shall be at least one training-school teacher for every 18 college students each of whom does 90 clock hours of student teaching. If more than 90 hours of student teaching is required the number of student teachers should be de¬ creased so as not to increase the supervisory load.” Section C: Insert here Standard VII, Section C Section D : Insert here Standard VII, Section G. Add to Section VII-G the sentence, “If more than 90 hours of student teaching is given the number of student teachers should be de¬ creased, so as not to increase the supervisory load.” Standard V Section A: same Section B : same Section C: same Section D : same Standard VI same Standard VII Section A: same Section B : same Section C: Insert here Standard VII, Section D Section D : Insert here Standard VII, Section E Section E: Insert here Standard VII, Section H Standard VIII Section A: first paragraph to remain the same. For sec¬ ond paragraph substitute the following: “Every teachers college must, therefore, adopt an organization of its curricula which will provide in its junior and senior years, courses which require prerequisite courses in the freshman and sophomore years or courses which are open only to juniors or seniors. The number of such courses taken by a stu¬ dent in the junior and senior years must total at least one-third of the requirements for the completion of a four-year college curriculum. It is recommended that teachers Department of Teachers Colleges 905 Standard IX Standard X Standard XI Standard XII Standard XIII Standard XIV Standard XV colleges adopt a system of numbering courses or of catalog description which will indicate the year in which the course should be taken and the prerequisites.” Section B : same, except J4 changed to ^3 Section A: same Section B : same Section A & B : This standard to be changed to fit the standards recommended by Rosenlof if adopted by the Association, otherwise to re¬ main the same. Section C: same Section D : same same Section A: same Section B : same Section C: same, except change 60 students to 150 stu¬ dents Section A: same Section B : same Section A: teachers colleges (1) Insert here Standard XV, Section A, omitting parenthetical expression at end of paragraph. (2) Insert here Standard XV, Section B (3) “Any teachers college which fails to con¬ form to more than two of these stand¬ ards shall be designated as a Class C college provided that until September, 1929 it shall not be classed as a Class C college unless it fails to meet more than five of these standards, until 1930 more than four and until 1931 more than three.” Section B : normal schools and junior teachers colleges. The same standards shall apply to normal schools or junior teachers colleges as listed in Section A, thereby providing for Class A normal schools, Class B normal schools, and Class C normal schools. Section A: Insert here Standard XVI, Section A Section B : Insert here Standard XIV, Section A Section C: Insert here Standard XVI, Section B Section D: Insert here Standard XVI, Section C 906 National Education Association Section E: Insert here Standard XVI, Section D Section F : Insert here Standard XVI, Section E Section G: Insert here Standard XVI, Section F It is the recommendation of the Committee that the general plan of the revision be approved and that all changes which involve only changes in position and numbering be approved. (Passed) The changes, aside from rearrangement, involved in these proposals are in the following items and should be considered and acted upon separately : Standard II, Section A: 25 years in the second paragraph changed to 21 years to correct printer’s error. (Passed) The change has been suggested that “experienced teacher” be changed to “any student.” This was received too late to be presented this year. (No action taken) Standard III, Section C: The amendments were made to change “one fourth (/4)” in first line to “one third (J^)” and also to strike out the parenthetical part in the second and third lines. The Committee on Standards and Surveys not having any additional information from that upon which this item was based last year sees no reason for recom¬ mending any change in these items. (Amendments not carried) Standard IV, Section B: the additional clause is added: “If more than 90 hours of student teaching is required the number of student teachers should be decreased so as not to increase the supervisory load.” This is included to care for schools which require more than the minimum number of 90 hours. The same provision is added to Standard VII, Section G, of the old standards which is recommended to become Standard IV, Section D. (Passed) Standard V, Section C: the amendment to allow special teachers to qualify without holding degrees which was suggested for this item was not recommended by the Committee since it was believed that the present provisions would care for all such teachers who had been in the insti¬ tutions five or more years and that the ten percent provision would care for all necessary new appointments until 1933. (No action taken) The following proposal was submitted by President Conn of Wayne, Nebraska, as an addition to Standard VI on Teaching Load. “It is pro¬ vided, however, that in event a teacher’s classes are especially small and the total student hours making up his load are less than half the recognized standard, his load may be increased beyond sixteen clock hours per week.” The Committee recommends that no action be taken on this amendment at this meeting for the three following reasons : ( 1 ) there is no definition of the “recognized standard” load; (2) there is no limit placed upon the number of clock hours “beyond sixteen” to which the teacher’s load may be increased; and (3) the question has arisen concerning the interpretation of the term “clock hour” in Standard VI. It is reported that some in- Department of Teachers Colleges 907 stitutions divide sixteen times sixty minutes by forty-five and on the basis of the result assign instructors twenty such recitation periods while other institutions have interpreted it as sixteen class periods. It is recommended that a restatement of this standard be submitted for consideration at next year’s meeting. (Passed) Standard VIII, Section A: second paragraph to be changed as suggested above in the light of President Sprague’s investigation. (Passed) Standard VIII, Section B: to have changed to % in order to make it consistent with the ratio in Section A of the same standard. (Passed) Standard XII, Section C: sixty students to be changed to 150 students to make this school more consistent in size with the lower division of minimum sized teachers colleges recommended in Sections A and B of the same standard. (Passed) Standard XIV, General Requirements. Because the two provisions in this standard are to be placed under other standards it is recommended that this classification be abandoned and that Standard XV become Standard XIV and also Standard XVI become Standard XV. (Passed) Standard XV, Section A: Recommended to become Section A, part (1) of Standard XIV omitting the parenthetical expression at the end of the paragraph which was set aside last year by the Accrediting Committee whose action was approved by the Association. (Passed) Section B of revised Standard XIV is added to make clearer the interpreta¬ tions given in Boston of the classification of normal schools and junior teachers colleges providing for the same classes in these schools as are provided for in Section A for teachers colleges. (Passed) Through the efforts of Dr. N. H. Dearborn the Committee on Standards of the American Association of College Physicians has been interested in the standardizing work of the American Association of Teachers Colleges. Members of the Physicians Committee have expressed a willingness to cooperate with this Association upon the development of standards for the health services in normal schools and teachers colleges. The following recommendation is therefore submitted for your consideration: It is recommended that the Committee on Standards and Surveys of this Asso¬ ciation be authorized to confer with and cooperate with the Committee on Standards of the Association of College Physicians in developing, for consideration at next year’s meeting, one or more standards for health service in normal schools and teachers colleges. The next and last recommendation has to do with the work of a volun¬ tary group of school admissions officers and others interested in admissions, which has been working for the past three years on problems that have to do with the admission of graduates of normal schools and teachers colleges to graduate schools of education. This group — composed of 908 National Education Association President A. R. Brubacher, New York State College for Teachers, Albany; Dr. Ned H. Dearborn, Director of Division of Teacher Training, State Department of Education, Albany, Secretary of the Conference ; Dr. A. L. Jones, Director of Admissions, Columbia University; Dr. Clarence Linton, Secretary of Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, Chair¬ man of the Conference; Dean J. H. Minnick, Dean of School of Educa¬ tion, University of Pennsylvania; Dr. A. L. Suhrie, Professor of Teachers College and Normal School Education, New York University; Dean A. H. Wilde, School of Education, Boston University; and the writer — has worked out a tentative list of suggestions for handling the problem of admissions. The results of these meetings are being sent to all presidents of normal schools and teachers colleges with a request that they return them with suggestions and criticisms. The work of this voluntary group is intended solely for the purpose of bettering the admissions practises of graduate schools of education. It is clearly stated in the preliminary report that there is no thought of creating new standards or a new stand¬ ardizing agency. However, your Committee on Standards and Surveys thought that some of the elements considered in this report might with profit be considered and discussed by this Association with a view to in¬ corporating them into our standards. It is therefore recommended that they be discussed at our meeting next year. Since not all of the items are pertinent to our standards, we would suggest that a notation be prepared by this committee or a special committee indicating which items are most directly connected with our present standards. (Passed) In conclusion it should again be stated that your Committee on Stand¬ ards and Surveys considers itself the service committee of this organization and its members welcome suggestions from the Association or from repre¬ sentatives of member institutions with regard to problems which concern any of the present standards or items to which our attention should be directed and for which additional data are needed. We cannot always furnish these needed facts within the year but the questions are on file and will be studied whenever possible. LIBRARY FACILITIES FOR TEACHER-TRAINING INSTITUTIONS 1 GEORGE W. ROSENLOF, DIRECTOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION AND TEACHER TRAINING, UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA, LINCOLN, NEBRASKA 1. The problem stated: 1. Discover the present status of teachers colleges and normal school libraries as to the number and classification of books and periodicals and their administration. 2. The extent to which the needs of the libraries are recognized in the college budgets. 1 Rosenlof, George W. Library Facilities for Teacher-Training Institutions. Bureau of Pub¬ lications Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. Department of Teachers Colleges 909 3. Propose standards governing the development of libraries, and 4. Suggest means whereby these standards might be attained. No event in the past twenty- five years in the development of the nation’s teacher-training program has been and is so significant as the evolution of the four-year degree-granting teachers college. No event, in my judgment, is so fraught with possibilities for the future. It is timely. It is inevitable. It is absolutely tantamount to the welfare of the nation’s public school system. If our schools are to meet the challenge of tomorrow of fitting our rising generation to assume the tasks of the future and make for the satisfactory solution of its many problems, it will be necessary that the teacher, who is eighty-five percent if not ninety-nine percent of the school, be adequately trained physically, mentally, and spiritually to care for youth now enroled in the public schools. The time is at hand when our teachers colleges and normal schools must step out and assert themselves as institutions of higher learning enjoying all of the privileges and emoluments that come with “academic respect¬ ability.” The state is entitled to have for its teachers colleges this recogni¬ tion of merit. It is obligated to provide for this recognition. And, ob¬ viously, those charged with responsibility of properly administering and controling the teachers colleges must set up the standards that will insure the desired results. Complete justification for “academic respectability” can only be recog¬ nized when these schools set up standards that in all particulars conform to those now in force governing the status of colleges and universities. One of the standards now in force respecting the proper accrediting of teacher-training institutions is Standard X, which reads as follows: “Each teachers college shall have a live, well-distributed, and professionally ad¬ ministered library bearing specifically upon the subjects taught. At least fifteen thousand volumes, exclusive of public documents, are recommended as a minimum. “Each teachers college with less than five hundred students should have a definite annual appropriation for the purchase of new reference books and current literature amounting to at least $2500. Colleges with five hundred to one thousand students should have a definite annual appropriation amounting to at least $5 per student registered. Colleges with larger enrolments should have an amount equal to at least $4 per student. The foregoing is to be regarded as a recommendation rather than a requirement.” It is assumed that this standard was the best that could be hoped for until such time as the problem had been made the subject of an exhaustive study.1 In the spring of 1927 I presented to Dr. Evenden, your chairman of the Committee on Standards and Surveys, a number of problems for study, among them being the problem of the “Library Facilities of Teachers Col¬ leges.” In April, following the meeting of the American Association of 1 See Revised Standard X, page 834. 910 National Education Association Teachers Colleges at Dallas, I was given such encouragement from your Chairman that I took up this problem and am this morning presenting to you in the material you have in your hands some of the results of my in¬ vestigation. I want to take this occasion to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to all those librarians and chief executives who so kindly cooperated with me in gathering together the data that I now have, much of which was used in the particular phase of the problem with which I am dealing this morning.1 II. Conclusion: A. Books and Periodicals 1. The present library facilities of the teachers colleges do not measure up to the present standards as recommended by the American Association of Teachers Colleges. 2. Each teachers college should adopt a definite policy governing duplication, such a policy to be determined only after a careful survey has been made of the local situation and the local needs. 3. Student enrolments should not necessarily determine the number of volumes to be found in a library. Teacher-training institutions offering the same curric- ulums and preparing students for more or less the same type of positions should provide approximately the same library facilities, regardless of student enrol¬ ments. Student enrolments should be a factor in determining duplication only. +. The importance of periodical literature in the teachers college and normal school libraries has been altogether too seriously neglected in most of the institutions. The number of magazines now found as reported by the librarians is neither adequate to nor representative of the needs of the faculty and student body. 5. There is a need for a more careful evaluation of periodicals for use in teacher¬ training institutions with a view to preparing a list of not less than 150 periodicals to be recommended for the libraries of teacher-training institutions. B. Library Staff 1. Persons seeking appointment as librarians, associate or assistant librarians, should have a four-year college course of a general academic and cultural nature plus one year and preferably two years of technical training. They should have special training in professional education and perhaps some experi¬ ence as teachers in the public schools. For the library fulltime positions, clerical and routine in their nature, persons to be employed should have had a four-year high school course plus technical training. 2. No library will efficiently function which employs less than two fulltime persons in addition to the training school librarian. For schools of more than 500 stu¬ dents there should be employed additional professionally trained workers, at least one additional person being employed for each increment of 300 students. Fulltime assistants beyond the second and third might well be in the majority of cases of the sub-professional or clerical type. 3. It is desirable to appoint partime assistants as clerical and routine helpers. These should be appointed for not less than eight hours of service per week 1 Note.-— Instead of giving the complete report as presented at the meeting of the Association, there is included herein an outline of the problem and the general conclusions and recom¬ mended standards. Attention is called to the fact that the complete study is available and a copy should be secured from the Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia Uni¬ versity, in order to fully understand and appreciate the conclusions and recommendations made. Department of Teachers Colleges 911 and should be persons who are registered in the upper classes of the institution and those who have completed the socalled teacher-librarian course. 4. All appointments to the staff should be made upon the recommendations of the librarian who should be responsible for the organization, administration, and supervision of staff members. Such administration would recognize two essen¬ tial types of library service, that is, professional and clerical. The positions to be specifically provided for in any well-staffed library should include a head librarian, a skilled cataloguer, and a reference librarian. Additional persons for clerical and routine activities should be provided. There should be em¬ ployed a training-school librarian in all schools where there is a separate, distinct training school library. 5. The professional librarian should be recognized as a bona fide member of the faculty and accorded all the privileges obtaining thereto. He should be ex- officio chairman of the library committee. 6. The librarian should not be held responsible for the teaching of courses in the college other than those pertaining to library science and technic. C. The Library Budget 1. Neither the administrative heads of the library nor the administrative execu¬ tives of teachers colleges have given to the library budget the thought and con¬ sideration that it should receive. The claims of the library for better support must be recognized and made in the formulation of a sound and scientifically prepared library budget. 2. There is no general uniformity among schools as to the ratio that the library budget bears to the college budget as a whole. 3. There is no general uniform agreement as to items now included in the budget¬ ary statement. Neither is there any agreement as to the relative importance of these several items. 4. The facts as to per student expenditures show that schools have fallen far short of measuring up to accepted minimums as suggested by the various accrediting agencies throughout the United States. 5. While it may be contended that the library of any institution is an auxiliary agency, it would seem that it has been receiving too little consideration as such. It is our belief that the library should receive the same consideration in the budget as other primary items, such as administration, instruction, opera¬ tion of buildings, and maintenance. 6. The budget of the library should be more than a financial statement. It should reflect the fundamental philosophy underlying its purposes, function, or even existence. 7. Any budgetary statement for the library must contain requests for legitimate amounts and should represent actual needs of the institution in the light of the administrator’s conception of its place and function. 8. Budget figures based upon student expenditures for the library are unsound and fall short of attaining the desired ends. 9. It is highly advisable that each teachers college and normal school give special attention to the needs of its library in the immediate future, making such analyses of conditions as are warranted and taking such steps as are necessary for bringing library facilities to a higher level of efficiency. D. Proposal of Standards for the Library 1. The teachers college shall provide a library of live, well distributed and pro¬ fessionally administered books and periodicals bearing specifically upon the subjects taught. Not less than 15,000 volumes exclusive of public documents is 912 National Education Association recommended as the minimum. The following distribution of books is sug¬ gested : Class Subject Percent 000-099.9 General, Library Economy Bound Periodicals . 7.5 100-199.9 Philosophy and Psychology . 5.0 200-299.9 Religion and Bible Stories . 2.5 300-399.9 Sociology and Education . 20.0 +00-499.9 Language and Philology . 2.5 500-599.9 Sciences . 7.5 600-699.9 Useful Arts . 7.5 700-799.9 Fine Arts . 5.0 S00-S99.9 Literature . 20.0 900-999.9 History and Geography . 20.0 It is recommended that there be received and placed in the library at regular and stated intervals not less than 150 periodicals of different titles of generally recognized worth, satisfying the academic, professional, and cultural needs of the student body and faculty. It is further recommended that duplication in excess of 15 percent of the total number of volumes of the library be discour¬ aged. 2. Each teachers college shall provide for a separate and distinct training-school library, separately housed as a unit in the training school to serve the needs of elementary or secondary students as well as student-teachers in training. It is recommended that, while it shall be administered by a training-school librarian, it shall be likewise under the authority and direction of the head librarian. It shall be catalogued both in the central catalog and in a separate training- school catalog. 3. Each teachers college shall employ such library personnel as will insure a proper and adequate degree of library service. Not less than two fulltime per¬ sons in addition to the training-school librarian are recommended as a mini¬ mum. These shall be persons of the same degree of academic and professional training as that of fulltime professors in the college, having, in addition tech¬ nical training equivalent to that required for the Bachelor of Library Science degree. They shall be accorded the same privileges as any other member of the instructional faculty. Partime assistants shall be employed as occasion de¬ mands to care for the necessary clerical and routine duties in the library. 4. Each teachers college of less than 1000 students shall apportion to the library not less than seven percent of the entire college budget exclusive of capital out¬ lay. Each teachers college of more than 1000 students and less than 1500 students shall apportion to the library not less than six percent of its total college budget exclusive of capital outlay. Each teachers college of more than 1500 students shall apportion to the library not less than five percent of its total college budget exclusive of capital outlay. 5. The library budget shall be apportioned in such a manner as to recognize the various types of service to be rendered by the institution and the administrative personnel. The following is recommended as being a desirable distribution and shall be suggestive only: Item Percent 1. Salaries and wages . 55 2. Library supplies . 2 3. Travel . 1 4. Printing and publications . 2 5. Binding and repairs . 5 Department of Teachers Colleges 913 Item Percent 6. Books . 25 7. Periodicals . 5 8. New equipment . 3 9. All other . 2 In concluding this discussion and presentation of what in my judgment are significant and extremely important data concerning the library facilities of teacher-training institutions, may I be pardoned if I say that in my judg¬ ment the library of the teachers college, wherever it is located, has, like Topsy, “just growed up.” The facilities of these institutions at the present time or at the time the investigation was being carried forward reveal a con¬ dition that is little short of being tragic. The library has in far too many cases been an accident. I would not say that this is any more true of the non-degree-granting than of the degree-granting institutions. While there were some schools that stood out singularly in that they had made ample provision for their library facilities, the large majority of the schools fell con¬ siderably below the standards, which, in my judgment, are already too low. At no time did I in my investigation nor do I at the present time feel that it is necessary to raise any question as to the importance of the library, its place and function or its relation to the task of training teachers. I have assumed that it was without the province of my study to challenge the place of the library in its relation to the newer theories and conceptions of educa¬ tional philosophy or of the educative process. The newer methods of teach¬ ing and learning, the passing of the textbook as the only source of informa¬ tion, and the coming of the new approaches to learning through the avenues of many supplementary reference materials have been accepted as prima facie evidence of a new day and a new responsibility in the field of library service. Thayer was truly right when he entitled his recent book “The Passing of the Recitation.” For the recitation in the old sense is coming to be looked upon as passe and in its place there is coming a new procedure which demands that teacher-training institutions set up library facilities that are fully commensurate to the needs of the new day in educa¬ tional practice. I am fully convinced that the standards of the past which have been built upon the basis of so many books per student are decidedly wrong. In my judgment, barring the duplication of titles, it is just as necessary that a school of five hundred students, offering the same courses of study and the same types of work, is entitled to as many books in its library as the school of 1000 students or 1500 students. There is no justification, in my opinion, for basing the size of the library upon student enrolments, and there is no justification for a standard which makes student enrolments its starting point in setting up a reasonable minimum as to the number of books to be found in the library. It is for this reason that I have proposed a new policy which, in my judgment, will come nearer to securing the desired results than any other. In this discussion and presentation of data I have left out of considera¬ tion altogether the library facilities of the training school, the textbook 914 National Education Association exhibit library facilities and the question of departmentalization of library facilities. These are matters that I have discussed at some length in my study. Without presuming too much, I would suggest that you secure a copy of the complete study in order that you may further acquaint yourself with my findings respecting these three matters. Finally, let me say that it is my judgment that each administrative head of our teacher-training institutions should immediately take steps to further evaluate the facilities of his own institution to ascertain what are the im¬ mediate demands respecting the bringing of his library up to a desirable level of efficiency. Neither will my own data nor the data of any other person be of any value whatever unless teachers colleges through their adminis¬ trative officers proceed at once to measure their own institutions as to their libraries and to place before their controling boards new and increased de¬ mands for greater financial support. There can be no doubt that the conditions as revealed are in very many cases the result of a lack of scientific knowledge of what constitutes or should constitute adequate library facilities. An administrator, once in possession of the true facts and conscious of the true needs and being mentally and spiritually awake to the functions of the library, will put forth every effort to build the library into an institution that will express in its service its highest ideals for and concepts of the library. THE BEST TYPE OF GOVERNING BODY FOR A TEACHERS COLLEGE IN 1950: OFFICIAL , FACULTY AND STUDENT ' OR ALUMNI RALPH NOYER, BALL TEACHERS COLLEGE, MUNCIE, INDIANA The first fundamental assumption is that the best type of governing board must be the most adequate, considering the purposes that the in¬ stitution is designed to serve. The governing body — that is to say, the machinery of administration — of an orphanage, prison, university, or teachers college should all not be cast in the same mold, because their purposes are not similar’. The machinery of control should be adapted to the purpose of the institution and should be adjusted and constantly adjustable by the fundamental philosophy responsible for the institution’s ideals. The second fundamental assumption is that the machinery of adminis¬ tration tends to lag behind current educational and institutional practises. Just as, for the same reason, W. W. Charters long ago pointed out the twenty-year lag in practise in the rear of the best educational theories, so our present machinery of control is usually the result of legislation from twenty-five to fifty years ago. In some states the machinery of control of normal schools was thought out and incorporated into statute law while the electric telegraph was still new, railroads were undeveloped, card files and the vast equipment of modern offices unknown, while student populations Department of Teachers Colleges 915 and centers of learning were small, faculties unspecialized, recruitment of staff members from the ranks of the clergy and other professions was the regular and expected practise. The best type of governing body for the normal schools from 1870 to 1900 cannot be called the best for today or for 1950 any more than the processes of social control, adequate for communities in 1860, are pro'ving satisfactory for the second quarter of the present cen¬ tury. This lag has been pointed out through much brilliant writing and speak¬ ing by Dean Roscoe Pound. The same condition applies to the control of teacher-training institutions. A third fundamental assumption is that the type of governing body most adequate to a teachers college takes into account the ideals of the pro¬ fession as growing out of the current educational philosophy. The most adequate governing body will be the one most expressive in practise of the ideals and basic philosophies then current. As restrictive control based upon passivity of the learner is no longer practised in schools, so boards of control of the future will tend to put premiums on initiative and resourcefulness in their estimates of faculty mem¬ bers, administrative staff, and student bodies. Nineteen hundred fifty, there¬ fore, will certainly see the fruition of many of our present dreams of a progressive education. To that end administrative machinery will be set up. There is sufficient reason to believe that with the increasing centralization of organization of our public life, teachers college governing bodies will be composed of but few members. The complexities of private life, which seem to be on the increase, will make it harder and harder to assemble at one time and place a large number of persons of experience and judgment for consultation. Today such boards vary in size from three to twenty-eight persons. Tradition calls for uncompensated service on boards. Besides, the larger the board, the greater the likelihood of the play of political and per¬ sonal forces, the more difficulty experienced in arriving at decisions, and the greater the difficulty in bringing issues to head. Also, on a large governing body there is always a feeling on the part of the members that their absence from a meeting is not likely to be significant since their places will be taken by other members. On a small board no one feels that his absence from a meeting can be overlooked. The smaller the body, therefore, the greater the feeling of responsibility in the individual members. Today these governing bodies tend to a composition of laymen in numbers of five, seven, and nine. Public-spirited bankers, lawyers, manufacturers, and businessmen seem to be in the majority on these boards. For professional leadership it is customary to make the state superintendent of public instruction or an equivalent official an ex officio member of the board. The financial, business, and legal aspects of control, therefore, are given first-rate consideration. When the busi¬ ness affairs of the board have been taken care of there has been little left of vital concern to the regular board members. There has been little chance to check on the way the institution has performed its allotted function. 916 National Education Association In at least one state, an examination of the minutes of the board of con¬ trol of teachers colleges for a period of ten years did not reveal the serious consideration of a single major educational issue. Careful attention was given by the board on one occasion to the precise details of the arrangement between the board and the janitor of one of the colleges, who was to pasture his cow upon the campus. Upon one occasion this same board passed resolu¬ tions objecting to faculty members of the colleges going on leaves of absence to pursue graduate study at graduate institutions where the faculty of those institutions used tobacco. It is predicted that in the controlling body of teachers colleges in 1950 this “urge to do” will be given a proper outlet. High-grade professional leadership will be provided by having at all times at least one professional member on the board possessed of full voting power. The best type of governing body in the long run will not be the one mak¬ ing for the greatest show of immediate efficiency ; it will look forward even a generation or two, shaping its policies prudently and with wise statesman¬ ship. At the same time it will enlist public interest and support, will be responsive to popular welfare but too steady and rigid to be affected by sudden popular clamors. It is the problem of getting and keeping efficient and socially-minded leaders in positions of authority and responsibility. Those types of control which keep the people conscious of and concerned with their institutions but which at the same time remove their institutions sufficiently far from the danger of a people misled by demagogues or by fanatical minorities will give the institutions the greatest opportunity to grow and serve their purposes. Great state teachers colleges will therefore be founded in popular confidence, somewhat accessible to the popular will, but so far removed from the danger of political interference that their purposes can be served with ease and directness. The present swing toward centralization of control now so noticeable in industrial organizations will affect our institutional life in the next twenty years and more especially will it affect education. Management of a sys¬ tem of education will, of a necessity, be affected by the prevailing patterns of management of other successful institutions. Whether we like it or not, the demands made on education in 1950 will compel us to adopt an organiza¬ tion which can satisfy the complex demands of the time. It is obvious that it will take twenty to thirty years for an institution to readjust itself. Men of middle age who have worked up to a position of control in an institution, who have learned the old folk ways, must reach their retirement within twenty or twenty-five years. There must be time for the cautious trying out of new ideas. Capital tied up in equipment that must be scrapped when a new method comes into vogue, must be protected. The full effect of the present tendency toward centralization will be seen, therefore, within the next twenty to thirty years. A somewhat centralized system of educational control will best meet the needs of teachers colleges in 1950. A commissioner of education, whose term of service is indeterminate, whose accomplishments are outstanding in Department of Teachers Colleges 917 the profession, will be selected by a state board of education appointed by the governor. This board will entrust to the commissioner of education much of the detail of the problem of teacher training. To approve plans and policies, and to supervise the business concerns of the colleges will be the board s chief function. The commissioner of education will be the executive secretary of the board. His post will be one demanding the best intelligence anywhere available. Also, he will have a position of natural leadership in shaping popular thought in educational matters. The governing body of the teachers colleges in 1950, then, will be responsi¬ ble to the electorate not by election, but only indirectly through appoint¬ ment. Approval by some branch of the legislature, for example, the senate, may be required. Members will be appointed for a period long enough to enable them to become acquainted with the educational and professional problems facing the institutions. Their terms will be from four to six years and so arranged that in each biennium one member’s term will expire. Modern means of communication will render unnecessary the device of a local board member — at least one state has already found that evils arising from such an arrangement are greater than the advantages of it and has pro¬ vided against local board members by statute. It is significant that in the more advanced state organizations where the more recent changes have been made in respect to the boards of control of teachers colleges, there has been some such arrangement concentrating responsibility in appointed officials with the supporting board. This, then, seems the logical development in the next two decades. If it can be free from the curse of bureaucracy, be made socially-minded, potentially wise and statesmanlike it will be the best for teachers colleges in 1950. If it can be flexible and admit of flexibility, be adaptable and admit of adaptability, be human and admit of personality, it will be the best for teachers colleges in 1950. To the governing bodies of these colleges must be entrusted the responsi¬ bility of the wise use of much larger amounts of money than heretofore. Professional training will not continue to be the relatively simple classroom and recitation pouring-in, fact-finding, examination process of the last half century. It bids fair to rival medicine in its reliance on scientific attitudes and training. It will require seasoned judgment and professional acumen in the handling of the business phases of the enterprise. More and more comes also the realization that the remaking of society, the averting of social collapse and catastrophe is possible only through the vision of school ad¬ ministrators. In a very real sense the possibility of wise, forward movement depends upon the type of leadership and personality recruited for service on a teachers college board. Teachers colleges are responsible for the vast majority of grade teachers; grade teachers have more influence on the character of future citizens than all other teachers. The citizenry of to¬ morrow is now being made at the mother’s knee and in the first grades of our schools. 918 National Education Association The best form of governing body for teachers colleges, therefore, so far as its official body is concerned, will be efficient in its use of energy, it will be somewhat remotely responsible to the electorate for results, it will be simple and direct in its action, it will permit free play of personality, and it will admit of professional leadership. What part will the faculty play in the management and control of teacher-training institutions in 1950? I venture the prediction that the faculty will be a more and more im¬ portant and useful factor in such control. The one-man college, like the one- man bank or the one-man government, is already an anachronism. The danger of our recent system of college control is that it has tempted a man to play for his own hand and to select for academic work men lacking in character, individuality, and genius. The result has been that faculties have ceased to be free, deliberative bodies. The president has not always be¬ lieved in his own leadership. Often he has been a mere boss. I do not be¬ lieve that the president of a teachers college in 1950 will be a weakling in any sense of the word. I believe that he will be a man to whom can be entrusted a wide range of authority over his college. I think he will be big enough to accept responsibilities for results in his school. I believe that he will possess enough dynamic to initiate and carry through new policies. His especial strength will be seen in his ability to select his staff members and to organize their fields of responsibility and to see that they perform their allotted functions. The president of 1950 will be wise enough to realize that only the faculty member who participates actively in building educa¬ tional policies and in the solution of educational problems is worth keeping on the force. He will excuse no faculty member, therefore, no matter how humble his rank, from some committee service. These committees will not be large — they will be small (at least in subcommittee organization), compact, with definite tasks to perform. They will keep minutes with meticulous care, and make annual and possibly semi-annual reports of their contributions to the solutions of educational problems of the institution. The work of faculty committees will, for the most part, be the formulation of policies, which in turn will, upon occasion, be ratified or rejected by the faculty. These policies then will form the basis of action for the administrative officers. Surely in 1950 we shall have progressed far enough so that faculty members on committee service will not fritter away their energies which should better be devoted to the work of teaching and investigation. This is to say that there is a vast difference between committee administration and committee investigation leading to institution policy formation. The one is wasteful and inefficient; the other seems justified on every ground. Once a policy is established, administrative officers and clerks can be en¬ trusted to put the policies into force. The point of view here is that the most important work done in a teachers college is teaching. To this end every administrative officer and clerk is subordinated. Administration is not con¬ ceived, therefore, as an end in itself, but rather as a means to an end. It is Department of Teachers Colleges 919 the one part of the organization that exists solely for the purpose of making the other parts function most effectively. Fundamental to all of these forecasts is the belief that the faculty mem¬ ber selected for service in the teachers college in 1950 will be a thoroughly trained technician. The doctorate, or its equivalent, if a measurable equivalent can be invented within the next twenty years, will be the sine qua non. The faculty member will be professionally independent. His judgments will be listened to with respect and he will be held strictly responsible for his professional opinions. There is no reason to believe that the type of faculty member to be found on the campuses of teachers colleges in 1950 will present less contrast to the faculty member of 1929 than the general practitioner in medicine in 1880 presents when compared with the high-grade specialist of today. To such faculty members as these, combined in proper committees held strictly responsible for their con¬ tributions to the welfare of the college in the form of progressive policies and of studies of the problems of the institution, larger and larger responsibilities can be entrusted. The best type of governing body for a teachers college twenty years hence certainly should take into account prospective changes in the type of faculty member. More than one president of a teachers college has already learned to his sorrow that energy cannot be bottled up — that the attempt to confine intellectual dynamic in a faculty is a sure formula for explosion. Teachers college presidents cannot afford to use the device of the ship captain, who, in the old days, kept his sailors busy while becalmed in mid-ocean by assigning them to the task of polishing the anchor. An ex¬ amination of the committee arrangement of teachers colleges as set forth in teachers college catalogs today would seem to indicate that there is a great deal of polishing of anchors going on. Faculty members who are willing to fritter away their academic lives on flower committees, Christmas greeting committees, care of the tea room committees, are not the kind who will galvanize a student’s enthusiasm into incandescence in the classroom. I feel confident that within another twenty years their places will be taken by a more vigorous type and that the machinery for the direction of their energies will sorely tax the ingenuity of presidents and deans. Will there be student cooperative control in teachers colleges in 1950? The answer is affirmative. In the first place, candidates for teaching will be more highly selected and therefore more competent of selfdirection. In the second place, they will be more definitely set in their purposes, having come up through a long and more difficult selective process. In the third place, they may reasonably be expected to be more intellectually mature and there¬ fore more capable of selfdirection. In the fourth place, they will have less time to lose on extraneous matters, for the training will be more rigorous, more rich in content, and more highly professionalized than it is today. Students under such an environment can reasonably be entrusted with more and more selfdirection. In the fifth place, there will be a still greater de¬ mand that teachers be trained and experienced in civic and political life of some sort, inasmuch as they are to guide children in civic and political ex- 920 National Education Association periences in the public schools. A teachers college graduate of 1950 dare not be a political deficient. No one can read the proceedings of the 1926 spring conference conducted by the normal school and teachers college sec¬ tion of the New York Society for the Experimental Study of Education with¬ out feeling that here in the student is a reservoir of power almost as yet untapped. It is admitted that there have been many serious mistakes in the direction of the use of this power. These mistakes have found their sources in just two spots. First, in a misconception by faculty members and ad¬ ministration of the proper field for student activity, and second in the fact that the system of government was superimposed on the student body before the students were eager and ready for it. These are administrative problems and while not simple are by no means beyond solution. The wise adminis¬ trator will entrust to the control of student representatives those concerns that are primarily of student interests as separate and distinct from those concerns of faculty and institution interests. The field of students responsi¬ bility will be carefully delimited — it will take the form of some written state¬ ment, document, or constitution. Students will not be required to take their valuable time in trivial disciplinary adjustments, nor will they be asked to take the responsibility for disciplinary crises involving the futures of their fellow students. The management and control of many of the socalled extracurriculum activities may safely be entrusted more and more to the student’s judgment. The teachers college of 1950 will see a far larger pro¬ portion of the extracurriculum affairs of the college in the hands and more and more immediately under the control of the student body than we see today. There is effective point to the quip by a popular columnist today when he says that athletics is the only thing about a college that is done right because the students do it themselves. What part will the alumni play in the control of teachers colleges in 1950? Alumni control of colleges has not proved fortunate, despite the high hopes with which it was first proposed. At one time the presence of one or more members of alumni on boards of control seemed an excellent method of capitalizing the filial devotion of foster sons to Alma Mater. Dr. Pritchett, of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Learning, has crystalized what seems to be sound judgment in this matter when he says: “So far as the general influence of alumni upon their institutions has been made manifest, it may fairly be said that alumni influence has been exerted rather in the exploitation side of their universities than in the development of their steady and serious work. . . . The tendency to place institu¬ tions of learning more and more in the hands of their graduates is one that ought to be examined with great care. It is a distinct obligation upon the graduates themselves to make clear to the public that they hold their trustee¬ ships, not because they are alumni but because they are preeminently fit to serve on a governing board.” Alumni on boards of control are an asset only in so far as they prove useful and potent in advancing the college’s interests in the direction of its greatest service. Alumni interests in a spectacular athletic program may, therefore, be a liability. An alumnus politically Department of Teachers Colleges / 921 powerful, but professionally wise, who can combine political acumen with educational statesmanship is an unquestioned asset. My forecast is, therefore, that the alumni will be represented on boards perhaps, but not by virtue of the fact alone that they are alumni, but be¬ cause the training and ideals acquired in the college most fit them to assist in guiding its destinies intelligently. To train up a body of such alumni may well be accounted a byproduct of a wise college administration. In 1950 we shall have come to general agreement, it is believed, that a teachers college has a distinctive genius of its own, that it is the best known device for the training of teachers, that it presupposes a foundation of liberal education, that there is a science and art of teaching which can be learned, practised, and perfected, under guidance of masters of the craft. Teacher training will then be important enough to justify the state’s exclusive claim to its direction, especially on the undergraduate level. By 1950, then, we shall have selected and secured and trained faculty members competent to staff teachers colleges, where the foregoing philosophy is dominant, students mature and purposeful will be admitted on the basis of objective evidence of their capacity for teacher training on an expert level. Their lacks and deficiences of previous training and personality will be clearly discerned and straightway met. By 1950 the head of the teachers college will be an acknowledged specialist in his particular field of administration, one who conceives his function to be to make the machinery of the college run smoothly and economically toward the production of technicians trained for professional service. To him the board will delegate large responsibilities. He will delegate certain duties and responsibilities to members of his staff without, however, escaping his own ultimate responsibility. He will be the only avenue of communication between the faculty and the board. When either body loses confidence in his honesty and fairness as a medium of communication, the time will have arrived to make a major readjustment. In 1950 there will be a clear-cut distinction between administration as a service and as an office. Continuous and systematic instruction will not be confused with the management of the business and physical aspects of the plant. As occasion seems to warrant, a body of faculty members, preferably de¬ partmental heads, whose services and judgment have been outstanding, will be formed into an executive council. The purpose of this council will be to assist the president and his staff in getting all aspects of complex situations and problems arising in the college. Its function will be advisory — not executive. Behind the president and responsible for him will be a small board of control with at least one member of the profession represented on it. The executive secretary of this board will be the permanent head of the state school system. This board will be directly responsible to the State or to the interests maintaining the college. It will be conservative, and of all control¬ ling elements the least affected by educational movements. At the same time 922 National Education Association it will be sufficiently responsive to the development of educational thought to enable the college to keep its head in the clouds and its feet on solid ground. Subordinate to the president will be the faculty as a deliberative body. Com¬ mittees of the faculty will serve to build up a body of policy, rather than to act as administrative office boys. Subordinate to the faculty will be the student organizations. To them will be delegated (with full responsi¬ bility) that which is chiefly of student concern. Outside the walls, but nevertheless of considerable potentiality, will be the alumni organization. Its relation will be strictly advisory. The judg¬ ment of alumni will be severely scrutinized by professional administrators. But it will be listened to with patience and respect. As an element of con¬ trol in the college of 1950, the alumni organization will be the least signifi¬ cant of all. THE RELATION WHICH THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE TEACHERS COLLEGES SHALL HATE TO THE AD¬ MINISTRATION OF OTHER UNITS OF PUBLIC EDUCATION AND TO THE WHOLE AD¬ MIN 1ST RA TION OF PUBLIC ED U CA¬ TION IN 1950 ALBERT BARRETT MEREDITH, COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, HARTFORD, CONNECTICUT In a recent report President Butler of Columbia University made a sharp distinction between those educational activities which belong respectively in the field of government and those institutions which operate in the realm of Liberty. Among the organizations of the former type are our tax-supported schools of whatever variety, grade, or level, while included in the latter are the privately owned institutions, endowed universities, colleges, technical schools, eleemosynary and literary corporations, and of course the group includes cer¬ tain colleges or university departments of education. Over the first of these groups, representing the governmental aspects of education, the state, through its representative body, the legislature, by what¬ ever name it is locally known, very properly exercises a controlling influence through officers whose method of selection, duties, and powers it determines. For their complete functioning there is being increasingly effected coordina¬ tion, articulation, and centralized control. Thus, waste of money and energy is being gradually diminished, to say nothing of the positive results accruing from an integrated program of educational and social advance. That government recognizes that institutions in the realm of liberty have a place of value and service in our social and economic system may be seen by the fact that in most states, colleges, universities, churches, and philan¬ thropic institutions of all sorts enjoy partial, if not complete, exemption from taxation, and are protected in the exercise of those rights and privileges which Department of Teachers Colleges 923 have been accorded to them. Such control as exists is indirect and remote. Furthermore, this protection extends to the safeguarding of the means used in the realization of the objects of the trust which these organizations assume, and in the proper application of their funds. So long as the institution does its work lawfully, government is not warranted in interfering. The Dart¬ mouth College case of 113 years ago is a specific illustration of this generalization. The exclusion from this brief discussion of privately endowed colleges or university departments of education, or of non-tax-supported institutions, whether a part of a larger unit or as independent corporations, is not to be understood as minimizing their importance or as failing to appreciate what they are doing and have done, in the preparation of teachers and school ad¬ ministrators. Nor am I overlooking their contributions through research and demonstration in matters touching technics, fundamental educational sciences, and through administrative organization. It is to these sources of light and pioneering endeavor that those of us representing governmental relations must continue to look for some of the new developments in educa¬ tional science and for more refined applications in the arts of administration and of teaching. We realize that those operating in the realm of liberty have not the same limitations and inhibitions as control our public and tax- supported educational workers. By 1950, however, the gap between the two groups that have been thus logically distinguished will have been narrowed and more facilities for a mutual interchange of educational commodities will exist. Moreover, twenty years hence closer cooperation and decreased overlapping in work and function will be realized by mutual agreement rather than by govern¬ mental decree. I regret that time is not now available for a complete ap¬ praisal of values in this field or for even a brief discussion of existing and desired relations with the public school system. The topic assigned me is limited to units of public education and par¬ ticularly to teachers colleges or normal schools in their relation to the whole administration of Dublic education. I propose, therefore, to present my prophecy for 1950 in theses or con¬ clusions with but little supporting argumentation. Such arguments as are stated or implied are in the nature of deductions from recognized principles, rather than conclusions built up inductively from a study of statistical trends or widely distributed practise. Statistical or historical deductions may in¬ dicate the direction in which we are going, but not necessarily the goals we ought to reach. The specific predictions offered will be grouped about such major topics as : 1. Control 2. Teacher demand 3. Certification 4. Practise teaching 5. Curriculums 6. Experimental activity 7. Placement 8. Growth in service 924 National Education Association Each of these interests will be represented in 1950 in either administrative divisions or bureaus of a state department of education. 1 The administration of the professional preparation of teachers will be centered in the state department of education in 1950 because 1. Education is today recognized as a function of the state, by which is meant the people acting collectively through their representatives. 2. In various forms, in the individual states of the nation, the general administra¬ tion and professional leadership of education is to a greater or less degree coming to be vested in state departments of education. 3. The business of educational administration and leadership is to make it pos¬ sible for teachers to more easily make the most of their capabilities. 4. If teachers and administrators are to do this, their professional preparation must be such that it will enable them to more easily follow in a constructive and creative way the professional leadership of education, provided through the state. 5. Hence it follows that the professional preparation of teachers and administra¬ tors for the public schools is an obligation of the state. o As to the administration of other types of higher education and professional preparation by the state, these may or may not be combined with that of public education including teacher preparation. 1. Whether or not they are will depend upon the ultimate responsibility for these other types of higher education. This obligation will be determined by a. The role of the private colleges and universities, and b. The emphasis placed on centralization of governmental services in the future. 2. In any event teacher preparation must remain an integral part of the public school system of the state. 3 Normal schools and teachers colleges of each state, therefore, will be under the control of a single authority with the principals or presidents, as the case may be, reporting immediately to a director of teacher preparation and he to the commissioner of education, or superintendent of public instruction, if he is alone responsible, or the commission in turn will report to a state board of education. In this same administrative division will be included the bureau of teacher certification, the bureau of academic credentials, the bureau of teacher placement, as well as any summer schools, extension courses and institutes that may be conducted under the same authority. 4 Since the state is under legal obligation to provide for the preparation of all the teachers needed in its schools, either by tax-supported schools or other¬ wise, there will be needed a factual knowledge of the number of new teachers needed each year in the different kinds of school positions ; i. e., kindergarten, Department of Teachers Colleges 925 kindergarten-primary, elementary, intermediate (junior high), senior high, teachers of special subjects, principals, superintendents, and supervisors. This means a knowledge of the actual turnover covering a period of years for the state as a whole, and as far as possible for each administrative unit. Included in the turnover data there will be the number of changes taking place within the state, through the interchange of teachers, as well as the number of teachers coming from without the state. In addition com¬ plete information concerning the academic and professional preparation of all teachers in service will be essential. 5 With a knowledge of the demand for teachers and other school officials, provision will be made in tax-supported schools, under some quota plan, or in schools approved by the state, for the preparation of all the teachers, prin¬ cipals, and superintendents needed. It will be ever kept in mind that teacher preparation institutions of a given state have no other immediate responsi¬ bility than to meet adequately the demands of that state. Such institutions will be regarded as professional schools, at whatever level they exist, and not as institutions for general or liberal education. 6 The number admitted each year to normal schools or teachers colleges will bear a known relation to the demands of the state at the period of graduation, two, three, or four years later. Accurate information concerning the length of service of teachers of different levels of school responsibility will be regarded as an indispensable element in a complete understanding of the prospective demand for teachers. As the potential supply of teachers increases without a corresponding de¬ mand, the standards of admission will be raised and selection within the school become more refined. In some states that may mean the increase from a two-year course to one of three and ultimately of four years. The fact will be generally accepted in 1950 that attendance at a state teacher-preparation institution is a privilege, and that the state has a right and an obligation to select those whom it will train for later service in the schools of the state. Selection and preparation will be regarded as two phases of the function of normal schools and of teachers colleges. 7 The certification plan of a state twenty years hence will be regarded solely as a means of validating, for the purpose of legalizing employment, only in the fields covered by the certificate, the academic and professional work of a teacher. That “the standard of certification is the best possible indication of the conscious concern of a state administration for the vital elements of its business,” will not be questioned. It will follow, therefore, that through the issuance of teachers’ certificates, the state, while not guaran- 926 National Education Association teeing the professional success of the certificate holder, does assure the public and the profession that the presumption of success is with such a teacher. 8 Since the preparation of teachers, as the preparation for the practise of any art, requires specific training in the technics of that art, there will be provided adequate practise or training-school facilities for the development of skill in teaching and managing classes, preferably in schools which are integral parts of town or city systems. It is under these conditions that the prospective teacher most nearly faces situations similar to those he will find while in service. 9 Campus schools, the alternative, will exist and be of two types : ( 1 ) those enroling selected pupils in small classes to be used for observation only, and (2) schools, while a part of a town system and located on the campus, to be used only for purposes of demonstration in the normal school or teachers college, but not to give active practise and classroom experience to teachers in training. The practise schools in all instances will be under the sole control of the normal school or teachers college head. Only thus can the proper integration between the theoretical and practical phases of teacher preparation be effected. The curriculums of the teacher-preparation institutions will be thoroughly professionalized, that is, the subjectmatter and activities will be taught with a view to the use to which they are to be put in the schools, and not with a view to the general education of the teacher. Furthermore, the curriculums for the elementary schools will be differ¬ entiated so as to provide for kindergarten and primary positions as well as for the upper elementary grades. Equally obvious will be the necessity for specific preparation for the junior high school and senior high school subjects and activities. 10 In the curriculums of the teachers college and normal school the subject- matter of the professionalized subjectmatter courses will be essentially that which appears in the suggested or prescribed courses of study for the elemen¬ tary or secondary schools of the state. These latter courses, as for example arithmetic, will be prepared jointly by representatives from the field, over which the centralized authority will have general control, and from the normal school or teachers college, and under the general supervision of the director of the division of teacher preparation. It is only thus that the pro¬ fessionalized subjectmatter courses of the normal school may be organized and administered to avoid gaps between the preservice and the inservice work. 11 The state in 1950 will be regarded as having an obligation to provide experimental classes or schools of elementary and secondary grade wherein Department of Teachers Colleges 927 there will be developed new adaptations of material to differing pupil needs, new methods of teaching, as well as providing for the discovery of pertinent facts in relation to the processes of learning and of teaching. Furthermore, such classes or special schools will afford an opportunity for trying out methods that may have been developed in the other schools of the state. Through the publication of results of experimental work, through visita¬ tion, and by other means of publicity, the experimental schools will become effective agencies for raising the general level of teaching throughout the state. 12 The state will accept the obligation to at least provide information as to available candidates for educational positions, both for beginners and for teachers of experience. Hence the bureau of teacher placement will be a part of the division of teacher preparation. Such a bureau will function both as a bureau of information, as well as in actively engaging in placing teachers. 13 For the effective functioning of the preservice preparation in teachers colleges and normal schools and inservice growth of teachers, the courses of study in the practise schools will exemplify for the state the practicability of the courses in the various subjects. In other words, teachers and superin¬ tendents wTill find that the state courses of study have been given thorough trial in the practise schools before being required in the field. Visits to these schools for observation and for conference will be the accepted practise. 14 That the undertakings of all teacher preparation institutions may work effectively in a common cause, the education department will provide for periodic conferences to be attended by the faculties of all normal schools and teachers colleges. Teachers in practise schools will, of course, be included. One of the purposes of these conferences will be to discuss the reports of committees who have been at work on various phases of the problem. It will be through such conferences that the professional morale of a state will be created and maintained. 15 Since the work of the teacher preparation institutions is essentially to pre¬ pare teachers to begin to teach, the state will make further provision for their continued growth by 1. Summer schools and extension classes which shall in effect be graduate schools, and 2. By developing through the superintendents and principals such technics of supervision that, with the beginning teachers at least, the fact of employment may carry with it continued professional growth. 928 National Education Association 1950 will see state departments of education more professionally staffed, more generously financed and more popularly understood. Their leadership will be both legal and professional. They will have an administrative or¬ ganization commensurate in size and in differentiation with their obligations of administration, instruction, supervision, research, and publicity. The times indicate that we are now on our way. HOW SHALL A SCIENTIFIC AND ADEQUATE BUDGET FOR A TEACHERS COLLEGE BE DETERMINED AND SECURED IN 1950 ? RAINEY T. WELLS, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, MURRAY, KENTUCKY After hearing the very comprehensive discussions and prophetic accom¬ plishments of teachers colleges respecting faculty standards, the length, con¬ tent and scope of the curriculum, and their direct responsibility for the suc¬ cess of their graduates, it is perfectly apparent that to secure an adequate budget for a teachers college in 1950 based upon the conclusions reached in the foregoing discussions you will have to extend the revenue activities sug¬ gested in this paper beyond its original conception. This subject logically divides itself into two main questions for deter¬ mination: (1) How shall the budget be determined, and (2) how shall the budget be secured ? It is presumed that if it is adequate the administration will admit that it is scientific, and vice versa. Therefore, no time will be consumed in differentiating a scientific budget; but will be utilized in undertaking to determine an adequate budget. In determining an adequate budget certain things must receive our first consideration as representing the essentials, the cost of which must be ascer¬ tained. In the construction, maintenance, and operation of an educational institu¬ tion ample funds should be available to provide well equipped administrative offices so as to aid the executive officials in having a thorough, comprehensive, and accurate knowledge of the needs of the institution. To the extent that such provisions are made will there be a conservation of the time, energy, and ability of such officials in an economical administration of the assets and income of the institution so as to accomplish the greatest results. Every academic activity of an institution is dependent upon the business acumen and practical modern methods made possible in the administrative offices. The prime object in view is the training of students to think, the develop¬ ment of their intellectualities and native abilities, and prepare them for the greatest service. To reach these desired aims a sufficient number of comfort¬ able, convenient, and scientifically equipped classrooms must be provided to meet the needs of the student body. In determining the classrooms neces¬ sary there should be taken into consideration not only the present enrolment ; but the future growth and the courses to be offered for thorough instruction in the differentiated curriculums necessary for the training of teachers to Department of Teachers Colleges 929 meet the requirements of the then educational system to be served. In con¬ sidering the physical equipment for beneficial instruction the classrooms are only made useful when provided with the most practical equipment available for actual demonstration, the visualization of the subject under considera¬ tion, and a complete mental assimilation of the knowledge obtained. In de¬ termining the funds necessary for the securing and installing of laboratory equipment we must not only take into consideration the lecture rooms and laboratories for instruction in the sciences; but must extend this consideration to every department and every classroom in the college and to that equip¬ ment which is and will be so necessary for practical use in the subject being taught. We are just beginning to realize the needs of a teachers college library, and this realization must be extended twenty years in the future. I might say that instead of beginning to realize the needs, we are just beginning to anticipate some hope of securing the library needs of teachers colleges. It is my idea that our present teachers college libraries will barely meet the needs of an accredited city high school in 1950. What then must we assume will be an adequate college library that will contain the needed reference works, journals, magazines, and all books necessary for reference and supplemen¬ tary study in the prescribed and elective courses offered? No other equip¬ ment of the teachers college is more valuable than its library of carefully selected books, covering every field of study embraced in its curriculum. In making provisions for capital investments and maintenance, we must realize that its usefulness all depends upon the securing and retention of a scholarly, sympathetic, happy, growing, and earnest faculty. We can no longer expect to secure and retain the services of specially trained educa¬ tional experts with that necessary respect for the profession as instructors in teachers colleges, without adequate compensation which must meet the com¬ petition of the industrial world inviting trained men and women into the various fields of commercial activity. The student body is no longer satisfied to enter the classroom of an untrained instructor, and the public is demand¬ ing the highest class of service from the teaching staff of the colleges of this country. There is something else in addition to scholarship required for success in teaching. There are other qualities and talents essential for a good teacher. There is a distinct difference between scholarship and teach¬ ing ability. The possession of knowledge does not guarantee teaching ability, although the possession of the latter necessarily implies a large degree of the former. Every avocation is securing the individual having the native ability as well as the special training for the specific duty devolving upon the posi¬ tion. This discriminating choice in the selection of a teachers college faculty must be exercised and funds must be provided for the securing of those teachers with teaching ability. We were particularly impressed with the public statement made by President Frank before a legislative committee a few days since, when presenting his budget to that body for a great univer¬ sity. 930 National Education Association In determining the budget, adequate to meet all of the needs of an educa¬ tional institution, the construction, maintenance, and operation as briefly outlined before must be given the most careful consideration. We now approach a much more difficult task in undertaking to devise methods of securing an adequate budget. It is comparatively easy to deter¬ mine the needs and the necessary equipment of an educational institution for its successful maintenance and operation, but quite difficult to definitely undertake in a practical way to secure the adequate funds to meet these requirements. Private colleges, dependent upon student financial support and individual gifts for endowments, may look with envy upon state supported institutions, under the mistaken belief that no special thought and effort are necessary to secure ample means for the needful capital investments and maintenance fund. It will be observed from the last statement that consideration is given to state maintained institutions when considered for the purpose of this dis¬ cussion — the securing of adequate funds for teachers colleges. The fact that state teachers colleges must rely upon the commonwealth for adequate funds for capital investments and maintenance makes it inevitable that the public, in a representative government, must realize their needs and that a public service is being rendered. State teachers colleges must have the confidence of the citizens of the state, and they have the advantage in obtaining this con¬ fidence by supplying the teachers in the public school system. By reason of the fact that teachers colleges are of a comparatively recent realization, it is necessary that a state educational institution fund be provided in addition to the support which heretofore and in the future must be given to state uni¬ versities. Teachers colleges must assume the responsibility of selling their services to the public. Having the legal right to rely upon the public treas¬ ury for maintenance funds practically eliminates teachers colleges from soliciting private support. This necessitates the continuing of our considera¬ tion to the securing of an adequate support from the public treasury. All public revenue is derived by some method of taxation. State sup¬ ported institutions must either derive revenue from a direct tax, levied for that specific purpose, or by appropriations from the general fund or both. In the past, teachers colleges have depended in the main upon the uncertainties of periodical appropriations. This theory is wrong, in my judgment, from every viewpoint. It necessitates making of the president and other adminis¬ trative officers common lobbyists, regularly appearing before legislative bodies for the past and immediate needs of an educational institution. On account of the uncertainty in the amount of the appropriation that may be made, it necessarily impedes the progress of an institution and the careful planning and economic administration of its affairs. No business can be successfully and economically maintained when its sole support is dependent upon such periodical uncertainties. The state budgeting officers and the legislative bodies are always confronted with a treasury that cannot meet the public demands and it is a common scramble as to the proper and equitable dis¬ tribution to be made to meet the public needs. The method is wrong in its Department of Teachers Colleges 931 conception. The revenue has been raised by a common levy without any specific purpose in view. It is a constitutional requirement that all tax levies must be specific and the revenue derived therefrom may not be used for any other purpose than that for which the levy is made. This is a wise provision and rests upon the very foundation of a representative government. Taxpayers are entitled to know the purpose for which the revenues derived from tax levies are to be expended. The unrest and dissatisfaction among taxpayers emanates principally from the uncertainty in the distribution of public funds and the expenditure thereof for purposes not within the knowledge of the taxpayers. It is unscientific, wrong in principle, unpopular in administration, and un¬ democratic to undertake to make large state levies for general purposes and rely upon political influence, legislative chance, and an uncertain hazard in securing the needful support of a state educational institution in the distribu¬ tion of a legislative budget. No businesslike planning in the development and operation of an educational institution can be made so long as the method of periodical legislative appropriations is depended upon. To successfully plan, maintain, and administer a teachers college, its income must be certain, continuing, and free from political influences and economic depressions. Reliance upon legislative appropriations for capital investments, and espe¬ cially for maintenance, must be abandoned and a definite revenue program based upon a millage tax substituted in lieu thereof. In reaching this conclusion, we have not yet solved all of our problems. In many states this method has been adopted and is now in effect. Diffi¬ culties are being experienced, but most of these may be solved by making a complete separation of the levies for the purpose of raising public revenues. Experience has taught us that when the total state revenue is distributed upon a percentage basis, frequent difficulties are experienced by reason of the close affiliation and dependent connection with the needs of every other state institution and obligation. When placed upon this basis and increased revenues are desired, it becomes necessary to increase the general levy and thereby augment the funds for every other state activity as well as for the educational needs. If the general budget should be decreased for any reason, the educational budget would necessarily receive its proportionate decrease. In enacting revenue legislation for educational purposes, there should be a complete separation of the levies and not a distribution of the general reve¬ nue upon a percentage basis. A certain tax levy should be provided and the revenue derived therefrom should be kept sacred and apart from all other public revenues. If this method should be followed, then the levies for other purposes may be increased or decreased without in any way disturbing the levy for educational purposes. This same principle should be followed in the segregation of the educational funds. When specific state levies are made and the funds derived therefrom are expended for the purposes for which they are levied, public confidence will be restored in state finances. The question now confronts us as to whether or not state levies for the raising of revenue for state teachers colleges should be based upon every 932 National Education Association source of state revenue. To avoid material uncertainty in the amount to be derived, to be relieved from a certain element of public clamor and political activities and frequent changes in the levies, it is advisable to make the state levy upon the basic properties subject to state taxation. Occupational and nuisance taxes of every character should be avoided. Fluctuations in the values of basic properties are not frequent nor material. When levies for the support of state teachers colleges are based upon these properties, a certain, continuous revenue may be reasonably anticipated. This method of securing adequate revenue for state teachers colleges may be uniformly adopted in the states of the Union. So far as I am advised, the basic properties are uniformly subject to state taxation. This will cause every patriotic citizen to contribute proportionately to his wealth to the sup¬ port of public education. The privilege of assisting in the education of the youth upon an equitable basis will be afforded every citizen of the state. The preparation of teachers for service in the public school system is a duty devolving upon the commonwealth. This duty is shared by every citizen of the commonwealth. It makes an opportunity for every contributor to be definitely informed as to the purpose of his contribution. When the services rendered by teachers colleges are satisfactory and meet the demand of the commonwealth, you have a definite question to submit for the approbation of those supporting the institution. It can be reasonably presumed that the values of the basic properties will continue to increase and without question will not decrease. The difficulties experienced by state officials administer¬ ing the revenue laws in reference to equalization in the assessment of prop¬ erties will not materially affect the revenues to the detriment of the sup¬ ported institutions. As the property values become more firmly fixed and more nearly equalized in assessment, will the amount of revenue become more certain. In enacting revenue legislation to meet the theory herein sug¬ gested, special attention should be given to legislative provisions to make certain the assessment of properties subject to taxation. Every precaution should be used to insure making subject to taxation those properties intended to be included in the levy. With a clear understanding and a definite program supported by the teachers colleges of this Association, we may expect our ideal in the financing and support of these institutions before we reach the half century mark. Note. — The following remarks were made by President Wells in addition to the prepared paper. The great difficulty in the collection upon an equitable basis for state revenue for any purpose is an equalization in the assessments of the prop¬ erties of the state. Every citizen in the state will be willing to contribute his proportionate part for state revenues and especially for state educational purposes if he is convinced that every other citizen is contributing upon a proportional basis to his wealth. Difficulties arise by people believing that they are unfairly assessed and paying an unjust proportion of the taxes for the purposes for which they are levied. This equalization in the assessment Department of Teachers Colleges 933 of the properties can be secured by imposing full plenary powers in the state administrative body having charge of revenue matters — the powers to equal¬ ize the assessment of properties. That power should extend to the extent of giving the state body the power to make individual assessments, to raise or lower individual assessments. The difficulties being experienced in the dif¬ ferent commonwealths by local assessments and local equalizations is that certain interests control local influences and when that power is vested in the state governing authorities — state administrative authorities — then you remove them from the influence of local conditions which sometimes extend even to the courts of a commonwealth. That question has been litigated on, a new law passed upon that subject, and has been approved by the Supreme Court of the United States in an opinion handed down Wednesday of this week. , The state equalizing authority should have the last word, not an advisory word, not a suggestion, but have the last final and sole authority in the equalization of the assessment on the property from individuals to districts, to counties, and to the commonwealth as a whole. Special care should be taken to insert into the revenue laws in providing for a tax to see that all properties subject to the levy or intended to be subject to the levy will meet their obligations. This experience happened once, that a lady who owned seven and one-half million dollars worth of intangible personal property was caught by accident and forced to place that property upon the assessment roll. Before the assessing day for the coming year arrived she gave the state officials notice that she had moved her residence to a certain community in Florida. She had overlooked the fact, I might say, that if you assess the same amount of property in Florida you will pay three times as much as you will pay in the average states of the Union, that is, before you die, and she was not dead. The authorities in Florida were notified of her coming and were asked to give her a glad hand of welcome. She gave notice to the authorities in Florida that she was coming. She physically never went there. She did send a schedule of her property and upon advice it was assessed, and when she paid her tax bill in Florida the authorities of her home state got notice before the next year that she was coming back to her first love. Cooperation between state officials should be indulged in to the fullest extent. One of the properties that, in my judgment, should be included in the edu¬ cational fund, which may meet with some different opinions here, is this matter. The most convincing and unanswerable argument to an inheritance tax is that you take the corpus of an estate and place it in the general fund of a commonwealth and distribute it in the general expenditure of a state. That can be answered and when you do it is an unanswerable argument that they have against doing it. Take all of the state inheritance tax and place it in the educational fund for building purposes, and then you will build out of the inheritance taxes educational institutions that will meet all of the objections against an inheritance tax levied by the various states. 934 National Education Association If you will follow these suggestions without elaborating further, you will have sufficient funds to support state educational institutions as well as state teachers colleges and you will relieve us from the nuisance of constantly appearing before legislative committees and administrative officials now, and in 1950 we will be able to plan the economic management of state educa¬ tional institutions as business institutions. AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF TEACHERS COLLEGES Membership List, 1928-1929 Location Institution Alabama Florence . State Normal School . Jacksonville . State Normal School . Livingston . State Normal School . Troy . State Normal School . Arizona Flagstaff . State Teachers College . Tempe . Tempe State Teachers College . Arkansas Conway . Arkansas State Teachers College . California Areata . Humboldt State Teachers College . . Fresno . State Teachers College . San Diego . State Teachers College . San Francisco ....State Teachers College . San Jose . San Jose State Teachers College . Santa Barbara ....State Teachers College . Colorado Alamosa . Adams State Normal School . Greeley . Colorado State Teachers College . Gunnison . Western State College of Colorado.... Connecticut Danbury . State Normal School . New Haven . State Normal School . ( . Willimantic . State Normal School . Georgia Athens . Georgia State Teachers College . Milledgeville . Georgia State College for Women . Statesboro . Georgia Normal School . Valdosta . Georgia State Womens College . Hawaii Honolulu . Territorial Normal and Training School President . H. J. Willingham . C. W. Daugette . G. W. Brock . E. M. Shackelford . Grady Gammage . A. J. Matthews . B. W. Torreyson . Ralph W. Swetman . Frank W. Thomas . Edward L. Hardy . A. C. Roberts . T. W. MacQuarrie . C. L. Phelps . Ira Richardson . G. W. Frasier . Richard Aspinall . ...L. D. Higgins, Principal ...Lester K. Ade, Principal George H. Shafer, Principal . Jere M. Pound . J. L. Beeson . G. H. Wells . R. H. Powell . B. O. Wist Idaho Lewiston . Lewiston State Normal School . J. E. Turner Illinois Carbondale Charleston . Chicago . . . DeKalb .... Macomb . . . Normal . . . Indiana Indianapolis Muncie . . . Terre Haute Iowa Cedar Falls . Iowa State Teachers College . O. R. Latham Kansas Emporia . Kansas State Teachers College . Thomas W. Butcher Hays . Kansas State Teachers College . W. A. Lewis Pittsburg . Kansas State Teachers College . W. A. Brandenburg Kentucky Bowling Green ....Teachers College and Western Ky. State Normal School.... H. H. Cherry Louisville . Louisville Normal School . Elizabeth Breckenridge, Principal Morehead . Morehead State Normal School and Teachers College. .Frank C. Button Murray . Murray State Normal School and Teachers College . Rainey T. Wells Richmond . Eastern Kentucky State Teachers College and Normal School H. L. Donovan, Dean Southern Illinois State Normal University . H. W. Shryock .Eastern Illinois State Teachers College . L. C. Lord College of Education, University of Chicago . W. S. Gray .Northern Illinois State Teachers College . J. C. Brown .Western Illinois State Teachers College . W. P. Morgan Illinois State Normal University . David Felmley Teachers College of Indianapolis . Alice C. Sies Ball State Teachers College . L. A. Pittenger .Indiana State Normal School . L. N. Hines 935 Department of Teachers Colleges Louisana Lafayette . College of Education, Southwestern Louisiana Institute J. M. Smith, Dean Natchitoches . Louisiana State Normal College . V. L. Roy Maine Farmington . State Normal School . W. G. Mallett, Principal Gorham . State Normal School . Walter E. Russell, Principal Maryland Frostburg . . Towson . . . Massachusetts Boston . Bridgewater Salem . Michigan Detroit Kalamazoo Marquette . Mt. Pleasant Ypsilanti . . Minnesota Bemidji . . . Duluth .... Mankato . . Moorhead . . St. Cloud . . Winona Mississippi Cleveland . . Hattiesburg Maryland State Normal School . J. L. Dunkle Maryland State Normal School . Lida Lee Tall, Principal Teachers College of the City of Boston . Wallace C. Boyden, Principal State Normal School . Arthur Boyden, Principal State Normal School . J. A. Pitman, Principal Teachers College . Warren E. Bow, Dean Western State Teachers College . D. B. Waldo Northern State Teachers College . J. M. Munson Central State Teachers College . E. C. Warriner Michigan State Normal College . Charles McKenny State Teachers College . M. W. Deputy State Teachers College . E. W. Bohannon State Teachers College . C. H. Cooper State Teachers College . R. B. MacLean State Teachers College . Geo. A. Selke State Teachers College . G. E. Maxwell Mississippi Delta State Teachers College . W. M. Kethley State Teachers College . Joe Cook Missouri Cape Girardeau . . Southeast Missouri State Teachers College . Joseph A. Serena Kansas City . Teachers College of Kansas City . G. W. Diemer Kirksville . Northern Missouri State Teachers College . Eugene Fair Maryville . Northwest Missouri State Teachers College . Uel W. Lamkin St. Louis . Harris Teachers College . J. L. Purdom, Principal Springfield . Southwest State Teachers College . Roy Ellis Warrensburg . Central Missouri State Teachers College . E. L. Hendricks Nebraska Chadron Kearney Peru Wayne New Hampshire Keene . State Normal School . Wallace E. Mason Plymouth . State Normal School . . . .Ernest L. Silver Nebraska State Normal College . Robert I. Elliott Nebraska State Normal School and Teachers College . George Martin State Normal School and Teachers College . W. R. Pate State Teachers College . U. S. Conn New Jersey Trenton . New Jersey State Normal School . Don C. Bliss Upper Montclair ..State Teachers College . H. A. Sprague New Mexico East Las Vegas ..New Mexico Normal University . Silver City . New Mexico State Teachers College. .. New York Albany . State Normal School . Brockport . State Normal School . Buffalo . State Teachers College . New Paltz . State Teachers College . New York City ..Teachers College, Columbia University Oswego . State Normal School . North Carolina Boone . Appalachian State Normal School.... Cullowhee . Western Carolina Teachers College.... Greenville . East Carolina State Teachers College. North Dakota Dickinson . State Nof'mal School . Ellendale . State Normal and Industrial School.. Mayville . State Teachers College . Minot . State Teachers College . \ alley City . State Teachers College . Ohio . Frank Carroon . A. O. Bowden . A. R. Brubacher A. C. Thompson, Principal . Harry W. Rockwell . L. van der Berg . . . .Wm, F. Russell, Dean ....J. G. Riggs, Principal . B. B. Daugherty . H. T. Hunter . Robert H. Wright Samuel T. May ...R. M. Black . . . C. C. Swain Geo. McFarland . . . . C. E. Allen Ada . College of Education, Ohio Northern University .... Frank L. Loy, Dean Akron . Teachers College. LTniversity of Akron . W. T. Bankes, Dean Athens . . College of Education, Ohio University . Thomas C. McCracken, Dean Bowling Green ....State Normal College . H. B. Williams 936 National Education Association Cincinnati . College of Education, University of Cincinnati. . L. A. Pechstein, Dean Cleveland . School of Education, Western Reserve University Charles W. Hunt, Dean Dayton . Grace A. Greene, Normal School . Maude J. Slaght, Principal Kent . Kent State Normal College . J. O. Engleman Oberlin . Oberlin Kindergarten-Primary Training School . Clara May, Principal Oxford . Teachers College, Miami University . H. C. Minnich, Dean Oklahoma Ada . East Central State Teachers College . A. Linscheid Alva . Northwestern State Teachers College . J. P. Battenberg Durant . Southeastern State Teachers College . Eugene S. Brings Edmond . Central State Teachers College . John G. Mitchell Tahlequah . Northeastern State Teachers College . M. P. Hammond Weatherford . Southwestern State Teachers College . E. E. Brown Oregon Monmouth . Oregon Normal School . J. S. Landers Pennsylvania Bloomsburg . State Teachers College . Clarion . Clarion State Normal School . East Stroudsburg. .State Teachers College . Indiana . State Teachers College . Kutztown . State Teachers College . Mansfield . State Teachers Lollege . Shippensburg . State Teachers College . Slippery Rock ....State Teachers College . West Chester ....State Teachers College . Rhode Island Providence . Rhode Island College of Education . South Carolina Rock Hill . Winthrop College . South Dakota Aberdeen . Northern Normal and Industrial School Madison . Eastern State Normal School . Spearfish . Spearfish Normal School . Springfield . Southern State Normal School . . Francis B. Haas, Principal ....G. C. L. Riemer, Principal . T. T. Allen, Principal . C. R. Foster, Principal ....A. C. Rothermel, Principal . W. R. Straughn, Principal . Ezra Lehman, Principal . J. L. Eisenberg, Principal Norman W. Cameron, Principal . J. L. Alger . James P. Kinard . David Allen Anderson . E. C. Higbie . E. C. Woodburn . C. G. Lawrence Tennessee Johnson City . East Tennessee State Teachers College.... Memphis . West Tennessee State Teachers College. . . . Nashville . George Peabody College for Teachers.... Texas Alpine . Sul Ross State Teachers College . Canyon . West Texas State Teachers College . Commerce . East Texas State Teachers College . Denton . North Texas State Teachers College . Huntsville . Sam Houston State Teachers College . Kingsville . South State Teachers College . Nacogdoches . Stephen F. Austin State Teachers College. San Marcos . Southwest lexas State Teachers College... Utah Salt Lake City . . . School of Education, University of Utah Virginia East Radford ....State Teachers College . Farmville . State Teachers College . Fredericksburg .... State Teachers College . Harrisonburg . State Teachers College . Washington Bellingham . Washington State Normal School . Cheney . Washington State Normal School . Ellensburg . Washington State Normal School . West Virginia Athens . State Normal School . Fairmont . Fairmont State Normal School . Huntington . Marshall College . Shepherdstown .... Shepherd College State Normal School. . . . West Liberty . West Liberty State Normal School . Wisconsin Eau Claire . State Teachers College . La Crosse . State Teachers College . Menominee . The Stout Institute . Milwaukee . State Teachers College . Oshkosh . State Teachers College . Platteville . State Teachers College . River Falls . State Teachers College . Stevens Point . Central State Teachers College . Superior . Superior State Teachers College . Whitewater . State Teachers College . . C. C. Sherrod . J. W. Brister . Bruce Payne . H. W. Morelock . J. A. Hill . S. W. Whitley . R. L. Marquis . H. F. Estill . R. B. Cousins . A. W. Birdwell . C. E. Evans Milton Bennion, Dean . J. P. McConnell . J. L. Jarman . M. L. Combs . Samuel Duke . C. H. Fisher . . . . R. T. Hargreaves . George H. Black . G. W. Diehl . Joseph Rosier . M. P. Shawkey . W. H. S. Wrhite . J. S. Bonar . H. A. Schofield . G. M. Snodgrass . B. E. Nelson . Frank E. Baker . . H. A. Brown . A. M. Royce . J. H. Ames . R. D. Baldwin . A. D. S. Gillett . F. S. Hyer The Department of Visual Instruction The department of visual instruction was organized at the Oakland-San Francisco meet¬ ing in July, 1923. See Proceedings , 1923:85-A. The officers of this Department for the year 1929- 30 are: President , John A. Hollinger, Director of Nature Study and Visualization, Public Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa.; Vice-president, F. Dean McClusky, Assistant Director, Scarborough School, Scar¬ borough, N. Y. ; Secretary-Treasurer , W. W. Whitt- inghill, Director of Visual Instruction, Public Schools, Detroit, Mich. ; Executive Committee , B. A. Aughinbaugh, State Director of Visual Instruction, Columbus, Ohio; Dudley Grant Hays, Director of Visual Instruction, Public Schools, Chicago, Ill.; Mrs. Anna V. Dorris, Director of Visual Instruction, State Teachers College, San Francisco, Calif. This Department meets once each year, in July. Facts relating to the establishment of this Depart¬ ment and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of Proceedings as follows: 1923 :85-A 1925 :864-871 1927 :951-970 1924 :963-985 1926 :947-963 1928 :949-970 [ 938 J VISUAL COMMUNICATION— ABSTRACT B. A. AUGHINBAUGH, STATE SUPERVISOR OF VISUAL INSTRUCTION OF OHIO, DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, COLUMBUS, OHIO WE are beginning to realize that the motion picture is not merely a form of entertainment or a novel method of projecting pictures. Neither may we limit it by terming it a visual aid. It is more than an aid — it is a visual form of communication as opposed to aural communica¬ tion. Aural communication embraces both the spoken word and the printed page. It is convenient and for ages has been the only form of communication which could express the present tense. For these reasons it came into wide usage and the early pictorial forms were abandoned except as aids to the aural forms. But the motion picture has imbued pictures with the power to express present tense. No longer need pictures only say was for they can now say is just as do the aural forms. The aural forms are pictorially weak, so much so that many figures of speech had to be devised to help them along in their lameness. The motion picture needs no figures of speech, although it can command such usage where desired. They can express in full authenticity what aural forms can only suggest, with such suggestions depending solely upon the experiences of the recipient of the message. The motion picture is the form of com¬ munication which man set out in the beginning to make, but which had to be sidetracked throughout the ages until mechanical inventions made its use possible. This form of communication has had such a sudden development because it has scratched certain cosmic itches in man’s make-up. It is the answer to the longings of perhaps billions of years. It has not attained the ready convenience of the printed or written page with which it directly compares, but it is doing this more every day. But this lack of convenience is offset even at present by its ability to say more in a shorter time and in less space than the printed or written page. It can express anything which the aural forms can express. It can give vicarious impressions in all the senses and it has the magic power to turn many abstractions into concrete form. It is a qualitative gain to communication since it brings with it certain inherent devices totally unknown before its existence. These are the close-up, the flash-back, the stop-and-substitute and interval photography. The first is the greatest commander of attention ever devised ; the second is the best of memory joggers; the third knows no impossibility; and the fourth makes even the flowers grow before our eyes. Now that the spoken word has been given to it, it becomes the most powerful form of communication that man can possibly devise. [ 939 ] 940 National Education Association THE USE OF STEREOGRAPHS AND STEREOPTICON SLIDES IN CLASSROOM TEACHING— ABSTRACT JOHN A. HOLLINGER, DIRECTOR, DEPARTMENT OF NATURE STUDY AND VISUALIZATION, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, PITTSBURGH, PA. There is evidence of increasing interest in the use of visual aids in the classroom. Good teachers have discovered that visual aids ( 1 ) challenge attention and stimulate interest in learning; (2) economize time and energy in learning; (3) aid in forming correct concepts; (4) cultivate observation and extend the vision; (5) aid in forming sympathetic contacts with the environment; (6) stimulate imagination, yet help to control it; (7) stim¬ ulate constructive and creative thinking; (8) aid in developing appreciation of ethical, aesthetic, and technical values; (9) aid in developing appreciation of what progress has cost the human race. Photography is a major invention and a wonderfully effective means of communicating ideas. This discussion is limited to stereographs and lantern slides in the classroom. Most of the stereographs and lantern slides avail¬ able for school use are photographs of actual objects or scenes. Only first class photography should be accepted. This is so essential that for our school system we have prepared a score sheet by which we score the pictures that are selected for use in the schools. (A copy of this score may be secured by writing to the Director of Visual Instruction, Pittsburgh, Pa.) The best pictures, while very, very helpful in the teach¬ ing process, have their limitations. On pictures men’s voices are not heard, their emotions are not displayed, much must be left to the imagination. In the camera we have one of the greatest instruments for the education of all the people ever devised. All the rich mines, the fields of golden grain, the famous cities and historic shrines ; inventive and manufacturing processes ; manners, customs, and occupations of all the people of the earth ; and leading personalities and events of our time may be brought to the humblest class¬ room. Nelson L. Greene emphasizes the use of the stereograph in an article which appeared in The Educational Screen: “Did you ever see a stereograph? There is no other picture like it in all the world. It is made with a twm-eyed camera, and it can show me any corner of the world exactly as my twTo eyes w’ould see it if I were there. And so, though I cannot go to all the corners of the world, you can bring all of them to me with stereographs. “Perhaps to you the stereograph is just another picture. But you have looked at the world so long with two eyes that you have learned to put the “third dimension” — that is what they call the life and air and space in a stereograph — into the ordinary one-eyed picture. When the stereoscope is over my eyes, it is like a window through which I am looking out on the real world. It is a magical thing that whisks me out of the classroom to any spot on earth that you wish me to see — and I like to stay there until I have seen every detail and the scene is really mine. I will never dismiss the stereograph with a glance. I could not.” Department of Visual Instruction 941 The stereograph is primarily an individual aid — one of the most valuable visual aids when used in individual study or preparation. With a few stereographs and stereoscopes on a table in the classroom pupils may pass quietly to the table and look at the stereographs at such times as the teacher may indicate. During the study period definite stereographs may be assigned to individual pupils for study and, later, report. A correspond¬ ing lantern slide may be used in making the report. Lantern slides are decidedly advantageous in organized group procedure. The picture is pro¬ jected on the screen where it challenges the attention and stimulates the inter¬ est of every member of the group. It aids in concentrating thought on the center of interest. The main idea stands out and the subordinate ideas fall into their respective places. Discussion and questions by the pupils are stimulated. Ideas are cleared up and information is fixed. There are many distinct uses for lantern slides. We are familiar with their use in conducting reviews when pupils do nearly all the talking; in previous subjectmatter where teachers do most of the talking and pupils ask occasional questions ; in developmental work where there is an exchange of ideas between teacher and pupils and between pupils and pupils. These are not fads. Progressive schools and teachers on the superior level have shown the value of these materials in the educative process. Cer¬ tain guiding principles are recognized : 1. Illustrative materials shown to pupils should be of good quality. 2. Visual aids for a specific purpose should be grouped around one central theme. Too much illustrative material may cloud rather than clarify. 3. Visual aids should furnish otherwise inaccessible materials of instruction. Organization of materials and their incorporation into teaching units should be left to the discretion of the teacher. 4. Teachers should be familiar with visual aids before presenting them. 5. Pupils should be held responsible for material presented. Children need guidance and directed practise in observation. 6. Learners should have proper preparation, by experiences or immediate mental set, before visual aids are used. 7. Visual aids, when used for teaching purposes, must fit in with the course of study. 8. Too frequent use of visual aids tends to weaken their influence upon a class. Pupils must have time for further development of the ideas conveyed by these aids. 9. No one class of visual aids can be used to the exclusion of others. This principle applies to observational trips, demonstrations, experiments, pictures, objects, and other types of visual aids. 10. Motion pictures are desirable when understanding requires motion. 11. Visual aids are valuable in the development of language. The richer the words are in meaning for the individual, the more proficient is that individual in the use of words. 12. Caution should be observed to encourage initiative and an intellectually active attitude and not allow the use of motion pictures or other visual material to overdevelop the attitude of passive receptivity. 942 National Education Association VISUAL INSTRUCTION SERVICE IN A CITY SYSTEM — ABSTRACT CHARLES ROACH, DIRECTOR, VISUAL EDUCATION, LOS ANGELES PUBLIC SCHOOLS, LOS ANGELES, CALIF. Before the term, visual instruction, had become a part of the vocabulary of Los Angeles teachers, the activity was conducted through the elementary school library. Visual aids, including pictures, homemade charts, stereo¬ graphs, and lantern slides, have been used quite generally since 1913. In 1920 a motion picture service was added. In 1913 the visual education department, as it was then called, was separated from the elementary school library. Within three years, the largest proportion of the schools had purchased and paid for their own motion picture projectors, without any help from the board of educa¬ tion. How many paper drives, candy sales and ten-cent picture shows were held to raise the money, no one will ever know. It was neither possible, desirable, nor expedient to make visual educa¬ tion a subjectmatter department, but rather its functions should be likened to those of a service bureau, a place where teachers, principals, supervisors, and superintendents would feel free to come for special help in things visual, the same as they had always gone to a library for supplementary reading material. Lantern slides, motion picture films, still films, photographs, charts, exhibits, stereographs, posters, and pictures of miscellaneous description were offered instead of books. Just a word here to acquaint you with our plan of organization. The director of the division is subordinate to one of the eleven assistant super¬ intendents. There are three assistant directors, and two teacher assist¬ ants, all of whom are professionally trained, certificated, and hold teachers’ credentials. The general administrative duties are fairly distributed among them. The non-professional group consists of the usual clerical staff and six persons in specialized work, such as photography, art, and research. The division is divided into several sections, each one of which is in charge of a head responsible to the director or to an assistant director. The photographic section prepares photographs and slides. In addition to a specially trained teacher assistant, there are three photographers who work in the field or in the laboratory, a catalog clerk who prepares explanatory data to accompany and identify each illustration, and a file clerk who keeps the negatives, file prints, and card index in shape. The head of this section is designated as the official photographer for the board of education. The assembly section accepts the responsibility for all the details of binding slides, mounting pictures; labeling, boxing, and packing material prior to circulation. Repairs, renovation, and replacement of missing, broken, or damaged pieces are done by the assembly section. Department of Visual Instruction 943 The art section tints pictures and slides. The artist designs special posters or charts where commercial sources cannot supply materials needed. The editorial and research section checks all printed and mimeographed data which accompanies illustrative materials. The circulation section is the point where the division meets the teachers most intimately and most frequently. Everything other than motion pictures are stored, distributed, and returned in or through the circulation section. The volume of business has increased to such a large extent that individual clerks are now assigned to handle all materials for an individual grade. The motion picture section is kept separate and distinct from the cir¬ culation section because of particular problems involved. The motion picture library consists of over 2200 reels of thirty-five m. m. stock. The films were purchased from public funds, or were lent to the division, or have been given without reserve. If we were to make any recommendations to other directors of visual education divisions as the result of our own experiences, we would say: 1. Provide a means whereby teachers may be given an opportunity to learn methods of visual presentation before making any great expenditure for pro¬ jectors or equipment. 2. If at all possible, establish a photographic section with the best equipment for making slides and photographic enlargements. 3. Analyze the motion picture problem very minutely. If it bears scrutiny, then purchase rather than rent film. 4. Provide a delivery service on a definite schedule to all schools in the city. 5. Tie all work positively and definitely to the course of study rather than permit a hit and miss or rambling pedagogy. * ' . ■ * The Department of Vocational Education The department of vocational education was organized as the industrial section at Minneap¬ olis, Minn., 1875. See Proceedings , 1875:100. The name was changed in 1890 to the Department of Industrial and Manual Training. See Proceed¬ ings, 1890:758. In 1899 the name was changed to the Department of Manual Training. See Proceed¬ ings, 1899:556. In 1914 the name was changed to the Department of Vocational Training and Practi¬ cal Arts. See Proceedings, 1914:565. This Depart¬ ment cooperates with the National Vocational Guid¬ ance Association and with the National Society for Vocational Education. The officers of this Department for the year 1929- 30 are : President, Paul W. Chapman, State Director of Vocational Education, Athens, Ga. ; Vicepresi¬ dent, Mrs. Anna L. Burdick, Special Agent for Girls and Women, Trade and Industrial Education Serv¬ ice, Federal Board for Vocational Education, Wash¬ ington, D. C. ; Secretary, Ray Fife, State Supervisor of Vocational Agriculture, Columbus, Ohio. Facts relating to the establishment of this Department and the record of meetings are to be found in earlier vol¬ umes of Pi'oceedings as follows : 1914:565-625 1917:431-473 1920:269 1923:1025-1043 1926:963-996 1915:815-847 1918:249-271 1921:851-858 1924:987-1015 1927:971-1006 1916:461-517 1919:271-281 1922:1465-1483 1925:872-913 1928:971-1003 [ 946 ] NEW PROBLEMS IN HOMEMAKING EDUCATION- ABSTRACT ADELAIDE S. BAYLOR, CHIEF, HOME ECONOMICS EDUCATION SERVICE, FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. Vocations are dynamic — not static. They change with the social order. The vocation of homemaking is no exception. Homes and family life are changing with the new social, economic, and industrial movements. Consumption is a more pronounced need in the home today than skill in pro¬ duction. The homemaker has not ceased to produce, however, for the number of those entering industrial fields for wage is constantly increas¬ ing. The home no longer furnishes the chores and jobs that at one time kept youth employed and, in the opinion of the public, gave such valuable train¬ ing in habits of industry, and today the leisure time hangs heavy or the idle hands find mischief to do. The members of the family seek their individual and separate places in the world of affairs and no longer do father and son, mother and daughter, work side by side in a common occupation or with a common interest. The girls of the household are in school or in paid service of some kind in their early teens before the responsibilities of the household have become familiar occupations. The women of the household are voters and office holders, and are found in the professions, in agricultural pursuits, and in commercial pursuits where they share with the men of the household the responsibility of earn¬ ing incomes for family support. Such changing conditions in the home bring to those responsible for a homemaking training program many new and unsolved problems. How shall we train, under present school conditions, for wise selection and purchase ? How shall we develop ability to evaluate home needs and wTage earning needs so that schedules of work may so be arranged that neither the homemaking nor the wage-earning occupation will suffer when the home¬ maker is engaged in both? How shall we train for homemaking so that children may be given a larger share in the responsibilities of the new order of homes in the small apartment? How can we federate the members of the family in a common interest and undertaking that will preserve good human relationships in the home without the old time unity? These are a few of the many problems confronting school administrators and instructors who are attempting to develop a functioning program in home economics under the new regime. Will they have the courage to meet the situation squarely and allow the school routine to be somewhat interrupted, plant and equipment modified, and new plans of work intro¬ duced? Will they frankly become a part of the movement with their own homes and own situations to the end that improved instruction may come ? [ 947 ] 948 National Education Association It is only through such means that the training for homemaking in the coun¬ try today can serve the home and society to an extent comparable with the amount of money and effort expended on the program. NEW FEATURES IN TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION PROGRAMS— ABSTRACT BEN E. HARRIS, PROFESSOR OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA, TUSCALOOSA, ALA. The confusion in the minds of the school administrators between voca¬ tional education for the trades and industries, and manual training or indus¬ trial arts is now largely dissipated. The junior high-school movement, which is to a great extent due to the desire, on the part of school officials, to serve the large majority of school children who wish to find out what they can do, is resulting in a better functioning industrial arts program, for definite prevocational objectives resulting in vocational trades and industrial courses are being placed in the senior high school for definite trade pre¬ paratory purposes. The junior high school and the vocational guidance movement have done much to focus attention upon the tremendous social service which can be rendered by trade and industrial education programs. This should spur us on to render all the aid we can to promote successful junior high school and vocational guidance programs. All of this indicates a willingness on the part of school authorities to whom we must look for support to accept the vocational work as a vital part of any school program. Perhaps the newest and most significant feature with regard to industrial education is Thorndike’s study of the educative value of different kinds of subjectmatter which has gone a long way toward satisfying the school ad¬ ministrators that vocational education has as much value as traditional sub¬ jects; and also, his studies of the learning abilities of adults show that, con¬ trary to common opinion people can continue to learn successfully through the entire allotted “three score years and ten” and possibly beyond. When our friends talk of the lower levels of intelligence, make them analyze their statement. See if that is what they really mean. We get worn out hearing about the boys and girls who are called “dumb” simply because they will not follow blindly the courses we offer them. Sometimes I think that I was the one who was dumb ; I apparently did not have sense enough to realize that the boy was a real genius if I would only meet him on his ground. It is our job, as I see it, to meet these boys and girls on their grounds. Some of them are making miserable failures of preparing to play the game of life on the ground selected for them. Before we say that they do not have the ability to grasp things, would it not be more fair to play their game on their grounds, or at least play their game on our grounds. We may find some Edisons, Fords, or Lindberghs in the crowd, and then watch the scramble to lay claim to being among their first teachers. Department of Vocational Education 949 The theme of the National Education Association for this year is “Edu¬ cation for a New World.” I am going back to the Old World for my closing remarks. All of you remember the parable of the talents — to one he gave five, to another two, and to another one talent, and the master of the house went on a long journey. Upon his return the one with the five talents returned the five with five other talents, the second returned the two with two other talents. Now notice that the master’s commenda¬ tion did not take account of the number of talents. His commendation was the same in each case : “Thou hast been faithful over a few things, I will make thee ruler over many.” Also notice that there was no condemnation over the care that the third man took of the one talent, he had been scrupu¬ lous in his care of it, but he was severely condemned for not developing his one talent. My friends, I am afraid that some of us may become that “Wicked and slothful servant” if we do not do all in our power to develop even the one talent boys and girls with whose education we are intrusted. NEW ASPECTS OF FARMER TRAINING— ABSTRACT JOHN T. WHEELER, PROFESSOR OF RURAL EDUCATION, GEORGIA STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA, ATHENS, GA. You will recall that more than twenty years ago, Mr. Rufus W. Stim- son, at the Smith School of Agriculture at Northampton, Massachusetts, developed and put forth the “home project plan” of agricultural teaching, which was the outstanding contribution of the generation to agricultural instruction. This plan was simple, workable, easily explained and appeal¬ ing; and therefore it was readily accepted. It had four factors in its structural makeup, the instructor, the home farm, the boy, and the state supervisor. When the vocational program under the Smith-Hughes Act was being formulated (1917-18), the Federal Board for Vocational Edu¬ cation definitely fostered, developed, and extended this plan of vocational education. It has stood the test of time and has never been challenged as to its factors, its form, or its efficiency, and I am not now challenging it. I am, however, going to present a new pattern from the facts as I see them developing all about us; a pattern that is being developed to meet the in¬ adequacies of the old. In the new pattern I see all four of Stimson’s factors, but they have a new arrangement and additional elements standing out prominently. In addition to the school boy, the instructor, and the supervisor, two new ele¬ ments are added, the farmer, and the “unidentified farm youth” who is not reached by the present plan, because he is not in school. As the center of this new pattern of vocational education in agriculture we have, then, the farmer, the boy, and the production unit that the farmer and the boy or boys operate. This is a normal home farm situation as old as the industry in which it is found. It does not exclude the boy who is not in attendance at the traditional high school, nor does it eliminate him if he is continuing his “in school” education. 950 National Education Association The father is a learner together with the boy or boys; he initiates and inaugurates improvements in the production unit. He helps create a situa¬ tion where boys can learn improved methods of farming. In the new pat¬ tern the boy is not used as a means of improving farming and farming conditions, but the farm is used as a means of improving the boy’s abilities in dealing with farming problems. Now with the farming unit at the center of this pattern and the farmer and the boy as co-learners and doers, we have the beginnings of what I think might be appropriately termed “apprenticeship farmer training.” The vocational teacher comes next in this pattern makeup, and through appro¬ priate instructional classes and devices, builds the training program which may be made up of as many units as there are farming units represented in the community he serves. The vocational teacher is not alone in dealing with the boy and his instructional problems. The father, as a learner, and as an experienced operator, becomes also an understanding helper and the master-farmer in training his sons in the farming business. His is the co-responsibility of creating and maintaining suitable learning situations for himself and his apprentices. The vocational teacher organizes the learners of his com¬ munity into appropriate groups for economical instruction. The project is still found in the new pattern not as an end, but as a method of teaching certain aspects of the situation involved. The project is a part of and not apart from the economic unit as a whole; it may be the development of a specialized enterprise ; it may be the boy’s very own, but it is still a part of the normal economic home management plan. This evolutionary development will doubtless overcome some of the inherent weakness of the home project plan apart from the total economic home farm situation. THE FUTURE OF FARTIME EDUCATION— ABSTRACT ANNA LALOR BURDICK, FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. The partime school is instituted at the crossroads where the paths to learning and earning divide and where the youth shifts from the compara¬ tively simple life of school activities to the complex and baffling adjustments attendant upon entrance to that all-absorbing experience of work. To as¬ sist the youth in making this transition is the object of the partime school. One of the greatest contributions of modern psychology has been the establishment of the principle of individual differences. As man differs so must his place in the world of work differ, in the demands it makes on his mental ability, his physical endurance, or the opportunity it offers for his training and skill, or the appeal it holds for his interest and ambitions, in order that his adjustment may be effective and satisfying. The out-of-school group between the ages of fourteen and eighteen is estimated at about five million young persons. A rough survey of girls be- Department of Vocational Education 951 tween fourteen and fifteen in the out-of-school group indicates that over eighty percent of the girls are employed and practically all of the boys. So far as employment records are available at the present time, the group of gainfully employed youth between fourteen and sixteen is divided into ap¬ proximately two-thirds boys and one-third girls. About one-third of the enrolment in public and private high schools is in practical courses and the girls predominate in these courses to the degree to which they outnumber the boys. W e find that children of laborers have about one-twentieth the chance of attending a high school that the children of professional men have, and that there is a pronounced tendency among girls of labor parentage to choose a curriculum which stands as a terminal point in education. Thus we see that the junior high-school movement and the partime school are aimed at the equalization of educational opportunity which has only just begun. The partime school providing a program of instruction for the young workers cannot be established without cooperation of the parent, the em¬ ployer, the young worker, the school, and all of the other social agencies organized to serve the youth during the formative years. There is no better ally in this enterprise than a public-spirited employer who may serve as a peacemaker in his community. Every effort should be made to enlist his interest and support and to utilize every assistance he offers. It frequently means interviews and conferences relative to determin¬ ing policies and programs ; it means reorganizations of departments in which young people are employed and readjustment of their work to their school program. In other words, the educational program should be related to the work in the store, office, shop, factory, and home. The imminent prob¬ lem vital to this program is one of recruiting teachers with a decided voca¬ tional point of view and training for a new type of service. Some of the gains which are reported and argue for the future continu¬ ance and success of partime education are as follows : 1. It helps boys and girls carry over, interpret, and apply in their employment what they have learned in the regular day school. 2. It helps young workers to adjust themselves to industrial and business life. 3. It establishes the fact that education does not end when work begins, and that adulthood is not attained on receipt of a pay envelop. 4. It develops habits of selfdirected and selfcontroled effort; cooperation, in¬ dustry, thrift, loyalty to group, obligation to task, and justice. 5. It interprets the fundamental principles of economic and industrial organiza¬ tion thus saving him alike from unreasoning radicalism and unreasoning conserva¬ tism. 6. It increases the technical efficiency of young workers. 7. It involves vocational guidance, selection, training, placement, and followup, as essential elements of a program of partime education. Organized effort to secure a better adjustment between the jobs there are to be done and what an individual man or woman wants to do and can do is a contribution to education, to industry, and to the sum total of human happiness. 952 National Education Association THE PLACE OF THE FUTURE FARMERS OF AMERICA IN TRAINING FARMERS OF TOMORROW— ABSTRACT D. M. CLEMENTS, STATE SUPERVISOR OF VOCATIONAL AGRICULTURE FOR TENNESSEE For more than ten years men everywhere in this nation have been seek¬ ing a tie that would bind into permanent solidarity the vocational agricul¬ ture boys of the, nation. They have it in the Future Farmers of America. This organization has welded the loyalty of the American farm youth and the result has been the almost immediate amalgamation of the vocational agriculture boys of all the states of the Union. What is expected of the farmer of tomorrow? 1. He must know the laws of health and obey them 2. He should be a man of good morals and sterling character 3. He should be a man who can plan his work and work his plan 4. He should have the necessary technical information to be a success 5. His ideas and plans must be practical 6. He must be skilful in the operations of the jobs that are demanded of him 7. He must possess the qualities of a leader 8. He must be trained to be able to appreciate those finer things in life such as music, literature, and art 9. He must be a man who takes pride in everything of his own and the things where his community is concerned 10. He should possess a spirit of cooperation 11. He must be thrifty in its true sense 12. He must be a good business man. The Future Farmers of America know what is expected of them and in perfecting their organization at its first official meeting in Kansas City, Missouri, in 1928, they set forth the following objectives and purposes as guideposts to lead them into the realization of what is expected of them: 1. To promote vocational education in agriculture in the public schools of the United States 2. To create more interest in the intelligent choice of farming occupations 3. To create and nurture a love of country life 4. To encourage recreational and educational activities for students in voca¬ tional agriculture 5. To promote thrift 6. To strengthen the confidence of the farm boy in himself and his work 7. To encourage cooperative effort among students of vocational agriculture 8. To promote scholarship among students of vocational agriculture 9. To develop rural leadership. The world has set up its expectations of the farmers of tomorrow. The Future Farmers of America as an organization has set up its code of life on which it expects each member to build his life to be able to meet the ex¬ pectations. Department of Vocational Education 953 A STATE PROGRAM IN VOCATIONAL EDUCATION- ABSTRACT T. E. BROWNE, STATE DIRECTOR OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION, RALEIGH, N. C. The philosophy of vocational education is based upon the fundamental fact that it is the duty of the state to provide educational facilities for all its people regardless of age, color, or creed; and that these educational provisions should be made to meet the varying needs of the entire group. Moreover we now know that any person learns a thing with the greatest readiness and facility at the time there is a felt need. Based upon this philosophy and these tenets of education I hold that the program for vocational education comes more nearly rounding out our edu¬ cational offerings than anything yet inaugurated. Last year I took twenty rural high schools in North Carolina without any vocational work, and twenty with vocational courses and checked the attendance and graduation records over a period of ten years. I selected schools of as near the same size and identical environmental conditions as possible. I found that the enrolment and the attendance in those with vocational courses had increased by a much larger percentage than the others and that the percentage graduating had increased tremendously. The getting power and the holding power of the schools had been increased enormously by the introduction of vocational courses. From the standpoint of sound educational philosophy as well as from the standpoint of educa¬ tional efficiency we have proved the case of vocational education. President Hoover has said in substance that vocational education must justify itself on the basis of the increased earning power of those it serves. I believe it is the duty of the state to provide in its public school system vocational training for every man, woman, and child who is ambitious to improve his earning power. Increased earning power is the means, and in most cases of the working classes, almost the only means of attaining that larger, fuller life, higher social status, and that enriched spiritual existence to which our people are entitled. Our southland is fast becoming an industrial section. We have so many natural advantages that this is inevitable. This change may be utilized to a tremendous advantage if we seize the opportunity. The bringing of these large industries into the south will absorb this surplus farm labor provided we train these people through vocational classes in trades and industries to man these positions. Modern industry requires -skilled labor. Our south¬ ern stock, largely Anglo-Saxon, has the native ability, they only require vocational training. Any state which fails to recognize this obligation may find itself with industry bringing into the south the labor to supply this need, crowding out the southern labor for which we so much need em¬ ployment, and bringing about labor conditions which may not be so peaceful. May I take just a few minutes to speak of that phase of a state program which is so near to my heart, that of homemaking. Every girl, no matter 954 National Education Association what her station in life, should be given a course in home economics. If all were going to college, perhaps it would be best for it to be deferred, but so small a percent go that we cannot wait. If vocational training in order to produce a skilled worker is desirable for the physically sound, it is even more necessary for the physically handi¬ capped. The purpose of this department is to find, train, and satisfactorily place in remunerative employment the state’s handicapped civilians, who are of employable age. George West came to us with both legs off, a wife, and four little children, a pauper. We bought him legs, a Sunday School class took care of his family. Then we trained him in shoe repairing, and today he is operating the only electric shoe shop in Farmville, N. C., earn¬ ing a good living for self and family, a happy independent member of society. A state program in vocational education should be so organized that training facilities for all it!fe citizens desiring to increase their earning ability may be given the opportunity. Care must be taken that no one de¬ partment, even with the human appeal of civilian rehabilitation, be pro¬ moted to the detriment of another. THE SUPERVISION IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION AS COMPARED TO THE SUPERVISION IN GENERAL ED UCA TI ON— ABSTRACT H. C. FETTEROLF, DIRECTOR OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION OF THE DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, HARRISBURG, PA. Until a decade and a half ago our rural high schools offered to the farm boys and girls of this country only an academic or college preparatory course. Many of the subjects taught to the farm boys and girls were un¬ interesting and contributed little in preparation for the occupation the majority of the class would follow. The subjectmatter in vocational agriculture is new. The teacher who confines his instruction to the question and answer plan is soon doomed to failure. The supervisor must get tangible results. His instruction by many in the community is looked upon as an experiment. Instruction in vocational agricultural education requires the close cooperation of parents. Where the parents are progressive and believe in the modern methods of farming, the finest kind of relationships are established between the school and the home. # On the other hand, general education is standardized. The subject- matter in general education has accumulated for many years. It has been improved upon from time to time and vitalized by different methods of approach and presentation. The content of instruction in history and geography would be practically the same in New York as in San Francisco, with the exception of the local history and local geography. The same is true of other academic subjects. Department of Vocational Education 955 Because of the large amount of state and federal aid involved and the coordination of the instruction in the classroom with the work on the home farm, vocational agricultural education needs closer supervision than other types of education. INFLUENCE OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION UPON STANDARDS AND METHODS OF GENERAL EDUCA TION— ABSTRACT W. H. LANCELOT, HEAD, DEPARTMENT VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IOWA STATE COLLEGE, AMES, IOWA I suspect the implication of my subject may not be quite clear. I mean by it that agricultural education, particularly of the vocational type, seems to me actually to be exerting a considerable influence upon general educa¬ tion, and further that this influence will in my belief wax still greater in the future. Those who have taught vocational agriculture have from the beginning faced the hard necessity of making their teachings function visibly and immediately in the lives of their boys — and presently in the lives of their respective communities. It is true of agriculture teachers as of few others that they traffic not in information but in thought. To them the learning process is not a process of memorization but of thinking. Their normal product is not a mass of stored information but an active, thinking mind equipped with the facts that it needs and able to find others when wanted. In this respect, agri¬ cultural education occupies a position nearly unique in the educational field. Teachers of vocational agriculture see to it that their students are con¬ stantly brought face to face with worthwhile, true-to-life problems coming either out of their own projects or out of the life and work of actual farm¬ ers. It follows that the boys are constantly kept getting the facts, putting them in logical order, and deducing the reasonable conclusions therefrom. If we examine the problems which are used we find that they are of three kinds or classes. There are some which lead, and are meant to lead to the discovery of principles or general truths previously unknown to the students and therefore new to them. There are others which require choices or decisions between two or more alternatives. And finally there is still another group which requires the making of plans for the attainment of a desired purpose or end. All represent socalled purposeful thinking; yet it is apparent that the purposes or ends are entirely different in the three cases. These are the precise things that vocational agriculture is doing. Out of agricultural education has come the project method ; in agricultural edu¬ cation the procedure is from the concrete to the abstract; it places proper emphasis upon the external as distinguished from the internal relation¬ ships of the subject ; it refuses to employ methods of the elementary grades in teaching high-school boys ; it seriously endeavors to make the learning 956 National Education Association process a thinking process; it seems to have revealed a threefold aspect of human thinking that cannot fail to render future training for this process far more effective and fruitful than it has been in the past ; and it has ap¬ parently shown us what should be the nature of such training if it is to function as it should in the lives of the men and women of the future. What shall be the sum of these influences upon general education in America I am not prepared to say. To me it seems destined to be very great. At any rate, one thing is clear. The influence in any given school system of a department devoted to the principles, standards, and methods which have here been discussed can hardly fail to be of constant and lasting benefit to the system as a whole. AN AGGRESSIVE PROGRAM IN ITINERANT TEACHER TRAINING— A BS TRA C T H. G. KENESTRICK, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, COLUMBUS, OHIO The program of itinerant teacher training in vocational agriculture in Ohio was originally planned to include service to beginning teachers and to teachers of more experience who, for various reasons, seemed to need special help. Since the services of only one fulltime itinerant teacher trainer have been available, it has been impossible during the past few years to give help to many teachers other than those who are in the first year of their work. It has been the policy of the supervisory staff to depend almost entirely upon the itinerant teacher trainer for work with the beginning teachers during their first year although wherever possible one supervisory visit to the beginning teacher is made late in the year. In connection with the placing of this responsibility for assisting the first year teacher, has come the companion policy of permitting the itinerant teacher trainer great free¬ dom in working out his own visitation schedules to meet the most urgent needs of the members of the group with whom he is working. Under this system it has been possible to plan a visitation schedule several weeks in advance and to adhere to it quite regularly with the exception of occasional emergency calls. Prior to each visit the itinerant teacher trainer secures from the super¬ visory staff any information that may have bearing on the needs of the teacher and the situation in which he is working. The records and reports filed in the state supervisor’s office are, of course, available and these to¬ gether with personal conferences, give a great deal of information concern¬ ing the situation which will be met in the field. Very soon after the beginning teacher is located in his new position he receives a letter explaining the interest of the supervisory and teacher train¬ ing staffs in helping him, and his attention is called specifically to the serv¬ ice available through the itinerant teacher trainer. As soon as possible after the teacher begins work, and practically always before the opening of Department of Vocational Education 957 school, he is visited. At this time the new teacher usually feels quite keenly the need for specific advice on the job of teaching vocational agri¬ culture as it applies to the particular situation in which he is working. The ability of the itinerant teacher training service to furnish these sug¬ gestions helps to develop the feeling that there is a strong interest in the new teacher’s success and a desire to help him in every way possible. This early visit makes possible the avoidance of many mistakes on the part of the beginner and enables timely suggestions to be made on the best direc¬ tion of energy in the development of a program which is ordinarily so large that a careful selection of the activities to be emphasized must be made. It is customary to notify the teacher in advance of visits to be made. It is felt that more good can be done by observing the work of a teacher at its best and trying to help in its improvement than by taking him by surprise. Above all the teacher feels that he is not being inspected but is being visited for the purpose of actual assistance. It is highly important that each visit in the itinerant teacher training service have a specific purpose. By careful attention to the correspondence and to reports filed it is possible to time these visits in many cases accord¬ ing to special interests or special needs of the teacher. It is somewhat more difficult for the itinerant teacher training service to be of actual help to the teacher in the organization and presentation of the parttime and evening class courses for the older boys and for adults. Since the meetings of these two groups are more infrequent than those of the high school groups it is rather difficult to time visits so that actual class teaching can be observed. On the other hand it is frequently possible to offer helpful suggestions on the organization of courses and the set-up of desirable supervised farm practise to be undertaken by students enroled in the short course work. To balance the program of help to the beginning teacher just as his whole program must be balanced, it is necessary for the itinerant teacher trainer to discuss with him the community service phase of his activities. With each beginning teacher is discussed his proposed program of work in terms of the goals set up by the group as a whole. This lends definiteness to the discussion which might otherwise be rather unorganized. Following each visit the itinerant teacher trainer files with the state supervisor a written report of the conditions found and the work done with the teacher. This makes possible a careful coordination of the activ¬ ities of all agencies which are interested in helping the beginning teacher to get a successful start. It is, of course, a practise in itinerant teacher¬ training work to confer with the local superintendent of schools concern¬ ing the points in which the teacher needs help. In addition to the personal visits some service is given by the itinerant teacher trainer by personal correspondence where teachers desire it. Back of the whole plan is the idea that the beginning teacher should look upon the itinerant teacher trainer chiefly as a helping teacher who is interested in bridging the gap between the teacher’s training in college and 958 National Education Association the actual responsibility of a job which is so varied in its demands that it taxes his ability to the utmost. Through this service it is possible to de¬ velop the idea in the minds of teachers that even after they become part of the public school system, under its direction and supervision, the institu¬ tion which trained them still has an interest in their success and is anxious to assist in the continued growth which must take place in teachers as well as students. THE CASS TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOL OF DETROIT- ABSTRACT BENJAMIN F. COMFORT, PRINCIPAL, CASS TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOL DETROIT, MICH. The Cass Technical High School was started in January, 1907, by re¬ modeling the third floor of the old Cass Primary School Building, erected in 1860 and named after General Lewis Cass, Michigan’s foremost citizen and statesman. Year by year new and attractive courses were added — commercial, mechanic arts, and science — so that in 1910 we had 1000 stu¬ dents and a new building, which cost, without the land, $275,000. The land had been donated by General Cass in 1860 for educational purposes. We, then, for the first time, called it “The Cass Technical High School.” Contemporaneously with this inception of technical education came De¬ troit’s wonderful growth in the automotive industry. The technical high school had an ambitious program set before it, namely, to train our boys and girls in the day and the adults at night to fit into the jobs which a throbbing industry demanded. We correlated the demands of industry and commerce with work taught in the school. For five years, 1912 to 1917, we employed three men, graduates in engineering and experienced in teaching, who interviewed the presidents, managers, superintendents, fore¬ men, and men on the machines to learn what they wished to be taught, in order to advance men on the job. These teachers made elaborate notes, gathered around a table and outlined to the school authorities the necessary classroom work. These experts taught in the afternoon and evening in order to develop what the workers demanded. The experience of the teachers of the men at night was adapted and applied to the boys and girls in the day courses. Along with the advent of mechanical and commercial training in Detroit public schools, we established partime courses in the Cass Technical High School in 1913 when the state law advanced the compulsory school age to sixteen and seventeen years and by 1918 we had classes attending eight hours per week. The work undertaken was in great demand among young and old; and in 1917 we had 2200 day students and 500 in the evening. The building was planned for 1200 and we showed conclusively that an adequate new building was imperative. From 1915 to 1919 we launched six campaigns for funds to carry out our building program which resulted in the completion in 1922 of our Department of Vocational Education 959 present new layout costing for land, building, and equipment approximately $5,000,000. In 1918 the High School of Commerce became independent, and in 1920 the Boys and Girls Continuation was launched on its own basis and now has two independent buildings. Each of these former divisions of the Cass Technical High School has its own principal and its own corps of teachers. These facts have been recited to show that the Cass Technical High School, besides maintaining its own solidarity, has nurtured and developed two other institutions, which serve Detroit’s industries and business interests. THE APPRENTICE SCHOOL OF THE LAKESIDE PRESS- ABSTRACT LOGAN M. ANDERSON, SUPERVISOR OF TRAINING, APPRENTICE SCHOOL OF THE LAKESIDE PRESS, CHICAGO, ILL. For administrative reasons, the training program is divided into two parts: a pre-apprentice school where typesetting, elementary presswork, and the related subjects are taught, and the apprentice school proper, the latter a decentralized program of training on the job under the joint super¬ vision of line executives and training department staff. During the pre¬ apprentice period the boy is assigned to light factory and office work for one-half of his time and attends the pre-apprentice school the other half. Here he learns the fundamentals of printing, develops the skill necessary to successful productive work, and gets basic training in printer’s English, printer’s arithmetic, and design. The pre-apprentice course takes from six to twelve months to complete, depending upon the age and ability of the boy, at the end of which time he has a good foundation in printing skill and printing knowledge. It has been found inadvisable to shorten the period of apprenticeship on account of high-school work, except in the pre-apprentice school where the work is on an individual basis. The high-school graduate however earns $400 a year more during his apprenticeship than the eighth-grade graduate. The apprenticeship proper begins when the boy is transferred from the pre-apprentice school to fulltime factory work under the supervision of foreman and shop instructors. Every precaution is taken to give the ap¬ prentice complete training within the department to which he is assigned. The apprentice period is five years in all departments. Apprenticeships are offered in fourteen trades, including twenty-one subtrades. Basic for all trades is the pre-apprentice course in typesetting and related work. It is thought that no boy can have a very broad under¬ standing of printing without the foundation of typesetting. Moreover, the work in composition affords an opportunity to discover in a comparatively short time the boy’s attitude and aptitude for the work. Those incom¬ petent or inept are eliminated in the pre-apprentice period. 960 National Education Association The department is staffed by three professional educators, a librarian, two fulltime trade teachers, and fifteen shop instructors and foremen devoting all or partime to apprentice instruction. All shop teachers are selected be¬ cause of special ability in their trade and because of their ability to teach it. Most of our present shop instructors are themselves graduates of the school. The three professional supervisors are graduates of departments of education at Chicago and Wisconsin. All have had special training and experience in research and in industrial education. The greatest single factor in successful trade training is selection. Hence, we exercise great care in this function. Above all, we want intelligence. We cooperate with every agency of the public schools in getting into con¬ tact with the able, stable pupil. The vocational advisors of the Chicago schools usually recommend a lad to us. He then files an application blank which gives complete information as to family history. A transcript of his grades is sent us from his high school. We give the applicant the Otis selfadministering test of mental ability and the Stillings color vision test. We hire no boy whose IQ is less than 95, or who misses more than six numbers in the color vision test. In 1926, before tests were used as part of hiring routine, we hired three boys for our pre-apprentice school to each one that was placed in permanent factory apprenticeship. Last year we hired only one and one-half boys for each one placed in permanent appren¬ ticeship. As we get more confidence and experience in testing we shall probably better even that mark. Not all this improvement is due to test¬ ing but we feel that a good share of it is. The first class of boys, fourteen years of age, who began in 1908, gradu¬ ated in 1915. Since then a total of 200 young men have completed the course and have attained journeyman rank. Of these eighty percent are still employed with us. Thirty-five have been promoted to executive posi¬ tions either in the production departments or the offices. These rank from assistant to the. general manager and head of the estimating department, through the various positions of salesmen, planners, foremen, and shop in¬ structors. Inasmuch as no graduate has reached his thirty-fifth birthday, the value of his training to the boy and to the company is apparent. THE WILLIAM HOOD DUNWOODY INDUSTRIAL INSTITUTE OF MINNEAPOLIS— ABSTRACT R. T. CRAIGO, ASSISTANT DIRECTOR, THE WILLIAM HOOD DUNWOODY INDUSTRIAL INSTITUTE, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. Dunwoodv Institute is a privately endowed industrial and trade school which was founded in 1914 by the man whose name it bears. In invested funds, buildings, and equipment, it has an endowment of about $7,000,000.' Generally speaking, the aim of Dunwoodv Institute is to help persons over sixteen years of age to earn and to learn. Two distinct groups are served. On the one hand, the youth or man dropping out of grade school, Department of Vocational Education 961 high school, or college is given the occupational knowledge and skill which are necessary in order that he may enter some wage-earning job to advan¬ tage. On the other hand, experienced workers are given additional skill and knowledge in the occupations they are already following, so that they may meet the demands of their present jobs and fit themselves for pro¬ motion and better wage. The first of these two groups is served by the all-day or preparatory school, while the needs of the second are met through partime, cooperative, dull season, and evening extension classes. In the teaching of habit psychology the school firmly believes. Further¬ more, it also believes that it is the business of the Institute to give learners habits of thinking and doing which they can use in their respective lines of employment. As a result, the whole policy, procedure, and methods of the institution are based on the idea that students learn best to do by do¬ ing; they learn best to think by thinking of real shop problems; the best time for them to learn anything is when they need it, and the best way to understand and retain knowledge is by using it. Among other policies and devices which have been set up for carrying out this learning by doing scheme, the following are used : In every way possible, lecture method of instruction is avoided. In its place there have been substituted the class discussion, the conference, the demonstration, the project, and the job methods of training in habits of thinking and doing. Since one habit must be built on top of another, the experiences through which the learner goes are arranged in sequential order to secure the best educative results. All effective vocational education requires a combination of theory and practise, of doing and thinking about the doing, of real experience plus its interpretation. In the day school this real experience is secured through shops operated on a commercial basis. In the evening school the learner brings this experience with him as an extension student who has been em¬ ployed in the kind of work for which he seeks extension training. No attempt is made to teach general or abstract knowledge as such but only applied knowledge in connection with its use to get something done. The test of a student’s ability and progress is his ability to use the skill and knowledge he has been taught. THE GIRLS' TRADES AND TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOL OF MILWAUKEE— ABSTRACT ORA A. BLANCHARD, PRINCIPAL, THE GIRLS’’ TRADES AND TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOL, MILWAUKEE, WIS. The Girls’ Trades and Technical High School of Milwaukee is an all¬ city school organized in 1909 in response to a demand on the part of parents and employers for special training in productive occupations and industries to take the place of the old apprenticeship system. The present organization is a junior and senior high school with the two-year trades course and two-year commercial course for girls who have 9b2 National Education Association completed the eighth grade. Every girl who comes to this school must take English for four semesters and a minimum of twenty-four weeks, two periods a day, of homekeeping. She must also take a minimum of twenty- four weeks, two periods a day, of needlework in some form. She must have a minimum of twenty-four weeks of drawing, and twenty-four weeks of physical training in alternation with music for appreciation. The junior high-school organization follows the standard subjects re¬ quired in the seventh and eighth grades of the grammar schools or other junior high schools. In addition a girl may have three periods of sewing or millinery and one period of gymnasium and music ; or she may have two periods of homekeeping and two periods of sewing. Not having room, we have not taken the average seventh grade girl, but have given the oppor¬ tunity to the girl who does not fit into the regular standard grade because of retardation due to various reasons. We can do something for that girl which the grade school cannot do. With these girls we have to spend con¬ siderable time in adapting programs to meet individual differences. An increasing number go on into the ninth grade to work for their junior high school diploma. Two thirds of last semester's class are remaining in school this semester. This shows the value of adapting the work to the needs and interests of the individual. The two-year trades course is trade sewing or millinery four periods a day ; one period a day of English ; twenty-four weeks each of textiles, busi¬ ness arithmetic, penmanship, spelling, applied art, and design ; twenty-four weeks of homekeeping, devoted to home management, food preparation and serving, and home nursing. A diploma is given for the completion of this course. The difference between the technical high school and two-year trades courses is two periods a day of needlework for four years and the required amount of academic subjects, rather than the four periods a day of needle¬ work and the minimum amount of academic work for two years. We cannot see why a girl who completes four years of high-school work with a major industrial program, and academic subjects covering the prob¬ lems of the community of which she is a member, is not entitled to a diploma earning as much prestige as a diploma in a course in medieval, English, and modern history. Will not a girl finishing such a course be as well fitted to solve her problems as the girl completing the history course? The four-year vocational music course is planned to give pupils who have had musical training previous to entering the school the opportunity to continue that training. Instruction is given in orchestra, band, vocal, and glee club work ; in harmony, history, and appreciation. The four-year commercial arts course includes lettering for showcards, posters, illumina¬ tion, design used in different crafts, stenciling, block printing, batik, jesso, pottery, bookbinding, poster making, costume design, and interior decora¬ tion. The four-year science course is definitely planned for girls who wish to become technicians and laboratory workers. 7 his course or subjects in it may be elected by girls in any other course. Department of Vocational Education 963 In June, 1926, so many parents inquired whether their daughters could have the opportunity to meet college entrance requirements at the Girls’ Trades and Technical High School that we added electives in mathe¬ matics, history, and foreign languages. In the seventeen years in which we have been placing girls in positions, trying to fit the personality of the girl desiring to work to the require¬ ments of the employer desiring an employee, no employer ever has asked for a girl’s scholarship. Employers have invariably said, “I want someone who is reliable.” In trying to meet the seven cardinal aims of education we have tried to develop the four demands of the business world — -reliabil¬ ity, initiative, resourcefulness, and accuracy. THE MILWAUKEE VOCATIONAL SCHOOL— ABSTRACT ROBERT L. COOLEY, DIRECTOR, MILWAUKEE VOCATIONAL SCHOOL MILWAUKEE, WIS. The Milwaukee Vocational School is an outgrowth of the compulsory partime school law of Wisconsin. In all of our cities there are a certain number of people in the elementary schools and in the high schools and in the colleges on fulltime school atttendance. The three groups mentioned range in age from 6 to 14 years for the grammar group, 14 to 18 for the high school group, and 18 to 22 or 23 for the college group. Therefore, if one were to subtract from the total population under 24 years of age (bar¬ ring the infants wTho have not yet entered school) the number who are actually in school attendance in these respective groups we would find a great out-of-school population employed or seeking employment over the age of 14 and under 24. In view of that situation Wisconsin passed what was known as an act establishing the continuation school. The continuation school might be divided into two parts. The group under 18 years of age who are on a program of compulsory partime school attendance ; those under sixteen who are on a program of half school and half work; and those over sixteen and under eighteen on a program of at least one day school attendance each week. The second group consists of those over eighteen who are in volun¬ tary school attendance, largely at night, but also admitted to voluntary . day attendance. Our law plans for school attendance for this entire group without age limit for voluntary attendance except that they must be over fourteen ; but there is a further provision in the law which makes the partime school attendance under eighteen compulsory, but in no wise restricting the amount of voluntary attendance. The compulsory feature of the law is calculated to obtain for these young folks the privilege of school attendance. Without this law they would be under the compulsion to go to work fulltime. The whole thing was called “Continuation” school. This name con¬ tinued until 1917 when by act of the legislature the name was changed to 964 National Education Association “Vocational” school. There is nothing in the law which limits these schools in their administration to the purely vocational. The greatest liberty is admitted to administrators and it was obviously the intention of the framers of the law that the young people of the groups which we have mentioned should have their situation studied and analyzed and the school authorities should be free to do what the result of this study indicated as necessary. ' In order to assure the financial support necessary to carry out this work and to gain for it that segregation which would assure the careful analysis and study of its objectives and necessary methods, there was established for this institution a separate administration. The board under which it oper¬ ates consists of two employees of less than foreman rank, two bona fide employers of labor, and the superintendent of schools. It is provided that this board shall have the freedom to act so far as the financial support is concerned within the limits of 1)4 mills upon the assessed valuation of the entire city. We are committed to the ideal of the promotion of cooperative arrange¬ ments with industry for both the boys and the girls. In the case of the girls we emphasize the homemaking courses, although we do, to the extent to which there is a demand for it, meet the problem of training girls for specific duties in industry. Likewise attention is given to the homemak¬ ing training for boys, although the bulk of their work consists of their training for the problem of earning a living. HOW CAN HOME ECONOMICS EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES SERVE DEMOCRACY ?— ABSTRACT ADELAIDE S. BAYLOR, CHIEF, HOME ECONOMICS EDUCATION SERVICE FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. “The State is being made daily and hourly by the activities of its citi¬ zens.” This statement is profoundly true in a democracy where every individual counts. It therefore behooves democracy to provide for the de¬ velopment of high types of citizens. To this end it has organized and is supporting public schools, with training for citizenship as a major objec¬ tive. An outstanding agency, however, whose influence is unsurpassed in fashioning the behavior patterns of the citizens, has been given entirely too little consideration by the State. In the United States this agency is the American home, in which attitudes, points of view, standards of living, habits of conduct, cooperation, and ideals formed in early childhood persist throughout life. President Hoover has declared that “The greatness of any nation, its freedom from poverty and crime, its aspirations and ideals, are the direct quotient of the care of its children.” This care rests with the American home, which not only protects, guides, and trains the children, but keeps the adult fit to serve his nation as a producer, consumer, and all¬ round citizen. Department of Vocational Education 965 The objective of home economics education is to train children and adults for better participation in home life. Its function is to educate people how to properly feed, clothe, and shelter themselves, how to spend incomes effec¬ tively, how to establish good standards of family life, how to care for and train children in the home, and how to live in wholesome family relation¬ ships. A democracy needs citizens with health and mental vigor, who are selfsupporting and socially adjusted. No group of subjects in the schools can make a more effective contribution to the development of just that type of democratic citizenship than home economics. To best serve democracy, the content of home economics education should be based on an analysis of responsibilities, the discharge of which are essen¬ tial to effective family life in a home which is conceived of as a dynamic and not a static institution ; the selection of content determined by the actual rather than theoretical needs of individuals and groups to be instructed ; the methods adapted to the background of training and experience in the group ; and an evaluation of the instruction determined by its effect upon the individual and upon home and family life. Have those instructed ac¬ quired better food and clothing habits? Are their homes healthier and happier? Do they realize more fully the relation of individual and home standards to those of the democracy? If so, home economics is rendering a timely and greatly needed service to the cause of democracy. A VIEW OF THE PROGRAM OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN AGRICULTURE— ABSTRACT W. F. STEWART, PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, COLUMBUS, OHIO Before we observe the work of a teacher of agriculture in a department in any given high school, it is worth a moment’s time to learn where this teacher has been trained and how the department in the high school has been created. The responsibility of training teachers of agriculture has been quite universally assigned to the college of agriculture of the respec¬ tive states. Here students interested in the field of agriculture are en- roled. In practically all institutions a field of specialization is chosen by each student at least early in the junior year. At this time those desiring to teach upon graduation establish their major in the department of agri¬ cultural education. Their training includes professional courses, technical courses, and two or more years of farm experience as a basis for the prac¬ tical point of view in agriculture. The teacher now on the job has de¬ veloped in his training a view of his job which centers around four major activities. The first activity, teaching high school classes, centers around certain underlying principles which have been found to be effective. The content of any particular unit or course is determined first of all by the agricultural practises of the community and by the potential practises or needs which are ascertained by farm surveys or at least representative samplings. Within 966 National Education Association any particular enterprise which is found to be of importance, job analysis is applied extensively and within each job functioning subjectmatter is con¬ sidered from the standpoint of managerial problems or decisions which the farmer must make preparatory to doing the job and the manipulative or operative steps, involving skill in varying degrees. The second phase of the teacher’s job is teaching through supervised practise. We recognize the justification of this procedure in terms of the trite saying, “We learn to do by doing.” Here again the factor of interest dominates the selection of the enterprise which each boy carries on under the supervision of the teacher and with the cooperation of the parents. After the enterprise, more commonly referred to as the home project, has been selected its success in any educational way seems to involve three fac¬ tors, the managerial relationship of the boy to the project, his financial participation, and his participation in the necessary labor. It is within the possibilities of a program of supervised farm practise that each boy shall find himself agriculturally during the period of his high- school career and establish himself in those farm enterprises in which his interests prompt him to specialize. A consideration of the third responsibility, teaching the partime and eve¬ ning groups, involves a view of the now common program of continuing education in its application to farm folks. The groups are roughly classified as the sixteen to twenty-five year group and the adult group beyond twenty- five years of age. Instruction for these farm folks is usually given in the high-school agricultural rooms, extends through a series of meetings vary¬ ing from ten to twenty-five sessions and centering around discussions of problems of immediate concern to the group. In community work, the last of the prescribed duties of the teacher of vocational agriculture, it should be noted that emphasis is placed not upon the mere performance of the task but upon the educational opportunity which it offers. In other words the teacher is asked to promote these serv¬ ices not from the standpoint of being a community chore boy, but rather a teacher in the community who should make every culling demonstration an occasion where several people learn how to cull poultry ; every parasite treatment, an occasion wherein one or more farmers learn how to treat their livestock for parasites. Likewise in the group work of planning in¬ stitutes and activities or arranging for corn and grain shows and commu¬ nity tours, the educational features are to be stressed and leadership pro¬ moted at every opportunity. SOME SELECTED MANUAL ARTS PROGRAMS— THE JOHNSTOWN PROGRAM— ABSTRACT JAMES KILLIUS, DIRECTOR OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION, JOHNSTOWN, PA. A good manual arts program rests upon more significant educational ob¬ jectives than the limited trade tryouts and experiencing necessary for further training in specific occupations. Although the skilled trades suggest certain Department of Vocational Education 967 organized units or classes within the school the purpose of manual arts is to afford an opportunity to live through the handicraft experiences of civili¬ zation, down to and including the modern machine and electrical age. Man¬ ual arts is therefore an appreciation, a cultural, and a utilization training course based upon a natural pedagogy that fits into the progressive educa¬ tion theories of today. In fact, manual arts teachers can take great satis¬ faction in presentday tendencies to emphasize creative learning, pupil ac¬ tivities, and individual technics. Such has been the methodology of the shop since manual training began. The most noticeable change in manual arts in this decade has been the widening scope and the natural development by individual projects. In the rather artificial situation of a brick school in the heart of a crowded city, the pupils go through the learning processes that once came about naturally by participation in the crafts and arts experiences of a less rapidly changing civilization. Such is the philosophy back of the Johnstown program. We have several shops in each of our three junior high schools. These typify the electric, metal, automotive, printing and building construction trades. Our pupils rotate on an arbitrary basis from shop to shop for two years. Then they are permitted a tentative choice for one year. Manual arts are not com¬ pulsory after the ninth year. Our manual arts are closely tied up with guidance. We realize certain limitations. We are unable to touch many arts and crafts that have made civilization possible. But, after all, who knows what is most worthwhile in education ? We at least put out pupils in situations where they do things, and we believe the outcome is learning. The only danger is that the teacher imposes esoteric opinion, an error common to the teaching craft. The boys in our shops must unfold, de¬ velop, learn of themselves and the situations in which they find themselves. If they can but learn to discover problems as well as solve them; if they, themselves, learn to sense relationships, then indeed has the teaching-learn¬ ing situation been commendable. It is not a criticism to suggest that education is an inexact science. If society could ever become stable ; if the economic foundation, the scientific outlook, the mechanical achievement, the cultural development of civiliza¬ tion could stop, the educator would then catch up with his task and evolve a program with a degree of permanence. We have attempted to put into the school life of today the opportunities that in other days lay right at hand. Xo doubt our boys are more fortunate than those undirected boys of a former time and generation, if the proper sympathy and understanding can be applied. If the teachers in our shops can work with the boys, as the boys used to work with each other; then instead of the continual telling, explaining, ordering, can come a cooperative discovery of the problem, analysis of its needs, and attempt at solution wherein the boys do the creative thinking. As Dr. John Dewey says, “The method of the teacher becomes a matter of 968 National Education Association finding the conditions which call out selfeducative activity, or learning, and of cooperating with the activities of the pupils so that they will have learn¬ ing as their consequence.” THE MANUAL ARTS PROGRAM IN THE JOLIET TOWN¬ SHIP HIGH SCHOOL AND JUNIOR COLLEGE— ABSTRACT DREW W. CASTLE, VOCATIONAL DIRECTOR, JOLIET, ILL. I wish to explain that the Joliet Township High School and Junior Col¬ lege is entirely separate from the grade schools of the community. Under the laws of Illinois, a high school may be organized with a separate board of education. The township high-school board has separate taxing powers from the one that administers the grade schools. The Township High School and Junior College serves the whole township of Joliet as contrasted with the grade school district which is confined to a small portion of the township. All of the vocational wrnrk is administered according to the provisions of the Smith-Hughes Act. Three hours per day is spent in the specialized shop instruction, and three hours per day is spent in related English, mathe¬ matics, science, or drawing. Subsidy is received for all of this instruction except English. Two courses, running parallel in each shop are offered. One provides for four years of training and the other provides for two years of training. The enrolments in the various shops are divided approximately half and half between these two groups. Nobody has made a comprehensive survey to determine all of the char¬ acteristics and qualities of the boys selecting shop courses as contrasted with the boys who have selected the more academic and professional preparatory courses. The only information we have available relates to native intelli¬ gence. As might be expected, the level of intelligence of the shop group as a whole is lower than that of the other groups. However, it is comforting to know that the intelligence of the group pursuing the four-year curriculum is slightly above the average of the school. That of the two year group, however, is not very high. This fact is creating many problems for which we are hunting a solution. The system of instruction used in the vocational shops is that usually en¬ countered in any school teaching trades. Practically all of the shops have instruction sheets, information sheets, job sheets, assignment sheets, etc. Perhaps one thing characterizes our instruction as different from many, and that is the absence of exercises. Very little exercise work can be found in any of our shops. Practically all of our instruction is centered around actual jobs. In the wood shops, for example, in a school year, I do not believe a half dozen boys will make projects for themselves or will take home an exercise. This is possible, of course, because vocational training should need little motivation. In other words, it is a case of “take the Department of Vocational Education 969 responsibility or leave it.” We are exercising a policy in which is contained this principle. If, in learning the trade, a boy is not interested enough to work on a job or project which belongs to someone else, then he is not in¬ terested enough or motivated enough in that trade to be permitted to stay in the class. Our problem in Joliet is not concerned with securing boys to take trade training. If anything, it is in the selection of fewer and better boys. THE MANUAL ARTS PROGRAM IN DULUTH— ABSTRACT GEORGE GREGORY, SUPERVISOR OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION, DULUTH, MINN. During the year 1922-23 the problem of working out courses of study for the junior and senior high schools was undertaken with the idea of de¬ termining standards. At this time the manual arts courses of study that are now in use were worked out. The work was done by committees of teachers of various subjects working out what they agreed upon as the best course of study. They were standardized as to form under the direction of the assistant superintendent and supervisor and were finally printed. Since that time a senior high school and a junior high school have been built on the basis of the standards worked out. To be more specific, the new Denfeld senior high school was built with a special wing to take care of shopwork. The first floor of this wing provided for machine shop, foundry, and auto¬ mobile shop. The second floor provided a pattern shop, an electricity shop, a mechanical room and a lecture room which is used by all shop teachers. The East junior high school has seven shops, all on the first floor. They are as follows : A woodworking shop which consists of two rooms, one for bench work and one for machines ; a woodturning room ; a sheet metal shop ; an electricity shop ; a printing shop ; a force shop ; and a mechanical draw¬ ing room. Two of the older junior high schools were remodeled to con¬ form with the same standards except due to lack of room, provision was made for only twenty students in each class. A separate booklet is printed for each course. They are all in the same general form. First, is the preface which is a general statement as to what the course covers and by whom it was written. Next, is the statement of aims and objectives of industrial education, both ultimate and immediate. There is a page devoted to the immediate objectives of the course. The outline is divided into five columns: projects, tools and materials, processes, shop knowledge, and correlation. The projects may be varied, the ideal being to choose such projects as will bring into use the tools, materials, and processes listed. The projects mentioned are suggestive only. The methods of teaching these courses are varied and depend on the sub¬ ject taught. In some cases textbooks are used, in some courses use is made of instruction sheets, and in others devices are left entirely with the teacher. We have tried using detailed instruction sheets in connection with our work in the ninth grade mechanical drawing, but we have given up the idea as 970 National Education Association not being as good as the plan we now use. Our present plan is to present the work by preparing large drawings in perspective or isometric of the subject to be drawn with such dimensions as are necessary. These are re¬ produced in orthographic projection after the teacher has made his presen¬ tation. This does away with the copying and promotes visualization on the part of the students. This course is introductory and deals with draw¬ ings for simple machine parts. The chief objective of our manual arts work is general education. In the junior high school the emphasis is placed on guidance to the extent of hav¬ ing the students find out in their early years whether they are mechanically inclined or not. In the high-school work, considerable attention is paid to trade practises. The courses given are all of the trade type, and are taught by tradesmen. These courses are taught with the ideal of covering the principles involved in the various kinds of work and conforming to trade practise, except that we do not stress quantity production or production processes. Three aims are kept in mind for senior high-school work — general edu¬ cation, preparation for trade entrance, preparation for college. I would say that these objectives are fairly well realized. The only records available that would give an indication of this were kept for one of our senior high schools. The record as it stands shows where graduated students are two years after graduation. One-third are still in college ; one-third are engaged in mechanical lines in which they benefit from their school shopwork ; one- third are at work in which no direct benefit would be derived from shop- work. MANUAL ARTS IN INDIANAPOLIS— ABSTRACT HARRY E. WOOD, DIRECTOR OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND MANUAL TRAINING, INDIANAPOLIS, IND. It is a common error for people to speak of “vocational work” when in reality they mean manual arts. Vocational work is that which definitely fits one for profitable employment, in other words, it is trade training, while manual arts work is given for general education purposes. Manual arts work is no more vocational training than the study of arithmetic is neces¬ sarily bookkeeping or accounting. Any subject given in such a way as to acquaint the student with that subject is considered general education; whereas if the specific aim of the teaching is toward trade training, it is vocational, providing, of course, a sufficient amount is spent on the subject. In Indianapolis we begin the manual arts work in the seventh grade. In this and in the eighth grade the boys go to shop twice a week for a period of ninety minutes. This shop work consists of woodworking and mechani¬ cal drawing and in some centers other crafts. While the boys are thus engaged, the girls in these grades spend one period in cooking and another in sewing. Department of Vocational Education 971 In all forty-three manual arts teachers are employed for the boys’ work in the seventh and eighth grades and their teaching reaches 6820 pupils. Their teaching is distributed over 50 woodworking shops, 20 print shops, 6 shoe repairing shops, and 2 pressing and repairing shops. In addition to the various kinds of work indicated by the shop name, some of the wood¬ working shops are equipped for teaching sheet metal, concrete work, and electrical wiring. Each of the six high schools in Indianapolis is different from the other with the possible exception of two. In the Emmerich Manual Training High School a shop course is offered in which pupils take the work once each day for a one and a half hour period. Shops are fully equipped to ac¬ commodate from twenty to twenty-four boys at a time in each kind of shop. Once a pupil elects the manual arts course he must take all of it in sequence. The Washington High School has a general wood shop with twenty-four working benches; a general metal shop where work is carried on in sheet metal and forging; a print shop where they print many of the blanks, re¬ ports, tickets, etc. ; and a drafting room in which general mechanical draw¬ ing and architectural drafting are taught. If a pupil wants a more inten¬ sive shop course, he is transferred either to Manual Training High School or.to Technical High School. Classes are organized on an eight period a day basis at the Washington High School. This means that four double period classes can be accommo¬ dated. The teacher load is three double periods. In order to keep an en¬ tire class busy with each pupil doing something different, teachers are fast developing individual lesson sheets to assist them in their work. These in¬ dividual sheets are used to supplement the demonstration given by the teacher. If after the demonstration is over the pupil forgets the sequence of operations, he can aid his memory by the use of the lesson sheets. In Indianapolis we require all seventh grade pupils to make one project by the factory method. Instead of each pupil making a project complete from uncut material through to the assembling and finishing, each pupil does a part of a number of projects. In this way some boys are cutting out the stock, a few boys are dressing all the edges, others, all the faces, boring the holes, sandpapering, assembling, or finishing. In the end a standard¬ ized project is the result and each boy has one, but it has been produced by an organization which is typical of that found in industry today. The chief aim of all of the work in the grade schools is to develop the boy rather than to stress a project. THE MANUAL ARTS PROGRAM IN CLEVELAND- ABSTRACT WILLIAM E. ROBERTS, SUPERVISOR OF MANUAL ARTS, CLEVELAND, OHIO Educationally, manual arts renders an important service to school work by providing an added means of expression so essential to most pupils, by providing innumerable experiences, problems, and illustrative material in 972 National Education Association connection with other school subjects, as well as a large amount of infor¬ mation about industry that has a distinct educational and social value. Assuming as the two major objectives of our work, general education and vocational guidance, rather than vocational preparation, we may devise a new basis for selection of our subjectmatter. The usual procedure has been that of selecting typical trades or trade units, analyzing these into funda¬ mental processes, and devising methods of presenting to classes. This method is a tradition inherited from the early days of manual training, strengthened by the wave of vocational education which later submerged the manual training work, and which is still a prevailing influence. W hile it is probably the best procedure in the selection of subjectmatter for special and trade instruction, it fails to meet the requirements of manual arts. A broader conception of manual arts work is presented in what might be termed the grouping of related activities within certain of the larger units of industry. A study of industrial occupations reveals the fact that a very large number of these are included in or closely related to activities that have to do in some form with wood, metal, and the materials of the typographic arts. It would seem logical, therefore, that activities adapted to manual arts, with a major objective of general education, should find their best expression through related work in the three fundamental occu¬ pational fields of woodworking, metalworking, and printing. These sub¬ jects should be broadened to include the general field suggested by their titles, as well as related work which local conditions may demand. For ex¬ ample, woodwork may touch upon many of the phases of handwork in¬ cluded in that field. Printing may deal with a variety of related trades, and metal work may include elements of sheet metal work, art metal, bench metal, machine work, forging and foundry work. Simple electricity may be related to either woodwork or metal work. Within these fields, including drawing, will be found latitude for the broadest possible interpretation or expression of the manual arts. This basis of organization is further justi¬ fied on grounds of economy of equipment, room, and size of classes. Methods must be broad and inclusive, dealing not only with problems of individual craftsmanship but also with the methods of industry in quantity production, insofar as they may be simulated under school conditions. Pro¬ cedure must recognize the importance of all those devices that multiply contacts between teacher and pupil, such as demonstrations by the teacher and pupil, brief talks, conferences, and discussions upon the work and re¬ lated subjects, assignments of problems for investigating and report, indi¬ vidual help and advice, the use of references, drawings, specifications, in¬ struction sheets, the collection and uses of illustrative material, and the utilization of special interest of the pupil, all of which lead to personal relationships. Perhaps the most important factor of all in this conception of the organization of manual arts is the teacher. Inter-American Conference on Education EN nations definitely agreed to participate in the first Inter- American Conference on Educa¬ tion, called at the invitation of President Uel W. Lamkin of the National Education Association, to be held in Atlanta, Ga., the first three days in July, 1929. Four other nations were expected to send official word of their acceptance. The nations which agreed, through their min¬ isters of education, to send delegates to the confer¬ ence, were Mexico, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Venezuela, Panama, Guatemala, Peru, Chile, Ecua¬ dor, and the United States. At the concluding session of the three day confer¬ ence, plans for the preliminary organization of the Inter-American Federation of Education Associa¬ tions were discussed. The program of the Confer¬ ence centered around two major themes: Character Education, and Elementary Vocational Education, including preparation for farm, home, office, fac¬ tory, store, and home industry. The conference was called to order on the morn¬ ing of Monday, July 1, by Uel W. Lamkin. The dis¬ cussion topic at the opening session was Character Education and the discussion leaders were Ramiro Guerra y Sanchez, general superintendent of schools of Havana; Jose D. Crespo, inspector general of edu¬ cation of Panama; and P. P. Claxton, superintend¬ ent of schools at Tulsa, Oklahoma, and former United States Commissioner of Education. Leaders of the Tuesday morning discussion on Vo¬ cational Education were Manuel Barranco, director of the Higher Normal School of Mexico; Francisco Vizcarrondo, assistant commissioner of education of Porto Rico; and William F. Russell, dean of Teach¬ ers College, Columbia University, New York City, and chairman of the committee on international re¬ lations of the National Education Association. At the closing session on Wednesday morning Dr. Glen Levin Swiggett, organizing secretary of the conference, of Washington, D. C., presented the ten¬ tative plans for forming the Inter- American Federa¬ tion of Education Associations. [ 974 ] The World Federation of Education Associations The world federation of education associa¬ tions was the outgrowth of a World Conference on Education which was called by the Commit¬ tee on Foreign Relations of the National Education Association to meet at San Francisco, in July, 1923, in connection with the National Education Associa¬ tion Convention there. The first biennial meeting of the World Federation of Education Associations was held in Edinburgh, Scotland, in July, 1925. The Second Biennial Conference was held in Toronto, Canada, in August, 1927. The third conference was held in Geneva, Switzerland, August, 1929. The of¬ ficers of the World Federation of Education Associa¬ tions for the years 1927-29 were: President , A. 0. Thomas, Augusta, Maine; Vicepresidents , Harry Charlesworth, Vancouver, B. C. ; P. W. Kuo, Shang¬ hai, China; Fred Mander, Hamilton House, London, W. C. 1, England; Secretamy , Charles Williams, Co¬ lumbia, Missouri ; Treasurer , E. A. Hardy, Toronto, Canada; Financial Agent , Walter R. Siders, 73 Grove St., Montclair, N. J. ; Board of Directors , two- year term, Frank W. Goldstone, Hamilton House, London, W. C. 1, England; P. Ling, Peking, China; D. D. MacDonald, Toronto, Canada; P. Seshadri, Benares, India; Walter R. Siders, 73 Grove St., Montclair, N. J. ; Mary Tweedie, Edinburgh, Scot¬ land; Selma Borchardt, Washington, D. C. ; Rao B. P. A. Inamdar, Aundh, India; G. R. Parker, Cat- • ford, London, S. E. 6, England; Board of Directors , four-year term, Harry Charlesworth, Vancouver, B. C. ; Thomas Henderson, Edinburgh, Scotland; P. W. Kuo, Shanghai, China; Fred Mander, Hamilton House, London, W. C. 1, England; Thomas J. O’Con¬ nell, Dublin, Ireland; M. Sawayanagi, Tokio, Japan; Annie C. Woodward, Somerville, Massachusetts; Otto Tacke, Stettin, Germany. Facts relating to the establishment of the World Federation of Education Associations and the record of meetings are found in earlier volumes of Proceedings , as follows : 1921:176-182 1923:106, 402-424 1925:913-927 1927:1007-1016 1922:312-317 1924:272-274 1926:996-1003 1928:1005-1012 [ 976 ] THE GENEVA CONFERENCE OF THE WORLD FEDERA¬ TION OF EDUCATION ASSOCIATIONS 1 W. CARSON RYAN, JR., SWARTHMORE COLLEGE, SWARTHMORE, PA. IF the success of an international gathering is to be judged by the represen¬ tative character of its attendance and the sincerity and effectiveness of its labors rather than by the test of mere numbers, as would seem reason¬ able, then the Third Biennial Conference of the World Federation of Edu¬ cation Associations at Geneva from July 25 to August 3 was probably the most important meeting of this organization that has yet been held. Any comparison with the organization meeting at San Francisco in 1923 with the meeting at Edinburgh in 1925 or with that at Toronto two years ago would be manifestly unfair — there are too many details to be weighed, too many distinct purposes to be considered, too many different steps to be evalu¬ ated and understood. It is only right to point out, however, that the representative quality of the meetings has been progressively improving. There were some doubtless who were disappointed that the attendance at Geneva was not greater than it was; there were those who expected four or five thousand instead of the probably less than two thousand who were present. On the other hand, this meeting was much less dominated by English-speaking persons than have been those that have gone before, and to that extent it came nearer to fulfill¬ ing requirements for an international educational meeting. The American delegation was apparently the largest single group, but every European nation seems to have been represented, and some of the European delega¬ tions were notably strong in both numbers and quality. China, Japan and India were conspicuous for the quality of the people who spoke for them. Nearly all the countries of the world were represented in some fashion ; after ten nations had had their say on one of the meeting nights, there were still forty-five whose representatives were available for President Thomas’s call the next evening, and this distribution of the national representatives was much more marked in the various sections and committees than hereto¬ fore. Language difficulties naturally multiplied in a meeting more nearly repre¬ sentative than those that have preceded. The three official languages were English, French and German, with Esperanto used experimentally (and with obvious success) in one of the sections. Usually all three languages were used, sometimes only two, and naturally this tended to slow up the proceedings. In the sections on home and school, for example, which were exceptionally well attended and where the discussion was vigorous and profitable, it proved difficult to get through all that had been planned. The situation in many of the sections showed clearly that whereas in the begin¬ ning of the organization representation had necessarily been more or less haphazard, at Geneva many of those who sat patiently or participated ac¬ tively had been sent for a very definite purpose and were expected to take 1 Reprinted from School and Society, Sept. 7, 1929. [ 977 I 978 National Education Association hack to their association or their government specific help. To what extent the conditions stimulated interest in a common auxiliary language, such as Esperanto, one can not tell, but that some of the nations outside of Europe may eventually have something to say about the language question in such international meetings was indicated in the amusing but pointed remarks of President Liew, of Shanghai University, before the illiteracy section. Of course the Swiss were invaluable in the language matter; they were every¬ where, not only translating and interpreting, but giving the kind of real assistance made possible by their strategic position and actual achievements in such agencies as the International Bureau of Education. The section meetings, as indeed the whole program, were also materially strengthened by the accessibility of staff members of the Secretariat of the League of Na¬ tions, particularly the International Labor Office. In behalf of the American delegation at Geneva it should be said that a certain amount of continuity in office is having its effect ; there is now a con¬ siderable group of delegates from the United States who have attended these meetings for a number of years, who know many of the representatives from other nations and for whom each new conference therefore means substan¬ tial gains over those that preceded. Lack of ability to handle a foreign lan¬ guage still remains a handicap — a handicap, however, that some of the American chairmen are overcoming. Moreover, the patience and considera¬ tion of the delegation from the United States in this matter were much more in evidence at Geneva than they have been at other meetings ; the average respect for the other man’s language at Geneva would certainly rank higher than that of even the best American tourists in Europe. In a few cases American representatives doing committee and section work have been so thorough and careful that a permanent body of material of the greatest possible use seems to be in process. There were certain realities at Geneva, too. It was frankly recognized that the present organization might not be the final answer to the problem of organizing the world’s educational forces in behalf of better understand¬ ing. Representatives of the International Teachers’ Federation, with Eu¬ ropean rather than American roots, were on hand. Apparently agreement has been reached whereby in the next two years the European organization and the world federation will each seek to develop in the field that seems most appropriate for it, coming together at the end of the biennium to see if the two sets of forces may not be successfully combined in this task of work¬ ing together in education. Willingness on the part of the American group to cooperate in any reasonable plan for world-wide organization was re¬ peatedly expressed by former President Uel W. Lamkin, of the National Education Association, Dr. A. O. Thomas, president of the federation since its inception, and others. The Main Addresses No previous conference has had as brilliant a series of educational ad¬ dresses as that which Dr. Pierre Bovet and others arranged for the 5 oclock World Federation of Education Associations 979 sessions each day. Any series that begins with Professor Gilbert Murray and closes with Dr. Paul Monroe is noteworthy, and when it is added that the three between were the director of the International Labor Office, a dis¬ tinguished Italian scholar and one of the best known European women in work for women and children, it is clear that the delegates at Geneva were more than ordinarily fortunate. Professor Murray’s address was an analysis of what education is and how it can be used in developing a better international spirit. Dismissing some of the commoner aims of education, he held the real purpose to be to get “truer beliefs” and “better or higher desires”; “to see and comprehend that which is above one’s self.” Most modern systems of education, he held, were vitiated by one fundamental flaw: In wishing to remove the element of compulsion or authority which was excessive in some older systems, they have come perilously near accepting the individual’s momentary desire as the standard by which all values are to be judged. This is Chaos, both moral and intellectual. It is the worst of all systems — worse even than the antiquated system of learning some sacred books by heart — the Bible, the Koran, or the works of Confucius — because in these systems the pupil did at least learn to subordinate himself to something higher. He cautioned against the kind of teaching of the League of Nations ma¬ terial that sought to indoctrinate; he warned against mere learning of foreign language, mere travel, as a means of international understanding, and suggested rather the desirability of common memories, common associa¬ tions, common learning. In art, in literature, in philosophy, as well as in politics, I think the chief need of our times is the recreation of a Cosmos, both inward and outward, as opposed to Chaos. And I strongly suspect that the surest way both to a good education and to international citizenship is to have one’s studies grouped around some central inter¬ est, one’s efforts devoted to some central purpose. That peace in the modern world is dependent directly upon development of democracy, but that democracy itself can not exist “apart from the highest possible level of education for all individuals” was the contention of M. Albert Thomas, director of the International Labor Office. Every day, M. Thomas said, those who labored for the cause of peace came to realize “how the need for education becomes greater in proportion as social life calls upon each of us for a more personal contribution to the common task,” and he pointed out that when Part XIII of the Treaty of Versailles asserted that “labor must not be considered merely as a commodity or an article of com¬ merce,” it was not merely laying down a principle of morals or economics; it was voicing the fact that “our modern social organization can not continue to exist without the intelligent and conscious cooperation of all its members.” Answering the question: Does the organization of labor in modern indus¬ trial society make possible this necessary education ? he said : Too rarely, there can be no doubt, and only in so far as it respects the leisure of the workers. No education is possible where the workers are crushed beneath a burden of labor which leaves them no hope for deliverance. No individual culture is possible for the worker under the industrial system, except in his hours of leisure. The necessity for such leisure may perhaps seem less urgent under the system of 980 National Education Association crafts and guilds, where the worker was able to make use of his intelligence, and where he acquired authority and dignity by the exercise of his trade. But in an industrialized society it can not be dispensed with. It constitutes, together with suitable conditions of work, the basis of that elementary freedom which is indis¬ pensable for all striving for culture. In virtue of leisure it should be possible once more to place before the modern man the old ideal of humanism — in the factory, in the office, on the land. In his address on ‘‘Dante as Schoolmaster,’’ Professor Palo Arcari, a bril¬ liant literary historian of Italian birth, who has the distinction of being the first Italian to be the head of a Swiss university, showed how closely Dante was identified with the scholarly life of his age and what vivid reproductions of its ideal searching after truth he gave in the “Divine Comedy.” The relation of vocational to general education was the theme of Frau Gertrude Baumer's address on Tuesday. From the vantage-point of her work with welfare associations in Germany and activity in behalf of women and children in the League of Nations, Frau Baumer emphasized the con¬ stant conflict between economic welfare and human welfare in a modern, industrially organized society. While recognizing the claims of specific vo¬ cational training, she felt that it was important not to confine the worker’s education too closely to his economic needs, but rather to follow England’s example and “humanize vocational training.” As means for bringing about this “spiritualization" or “humanization," she suggested: 1. Transform the ordinary public school into an “activity school,” where the greatest possible scope is given to creative abilities. 2. Create a type of vocational guidance which will not only meet the require¬ ments of political economy, but also those of educational inspiration, taking into account at least as much the welfare of children as the law of supply and demand. It is especially important not to consider the temporary needs of the market more than the personality of the youth who seeks your counsel. 3. Organize apprenticeship and the protection of young workers, even when they are not regular apprentices. 4. In the continuation school, in the vocational courses which necessarily tie up with the occupation, be careful to broaden the education to include the civic approach. 5. Give youth the possibility of expanding according to his nature outside of his daily task, especially giving him leisure and the peace necessary to find in one of the youth organizations a compensation for the monotony and narrowness of his work. 6. Develop the vocational school in the direction of general culture, preserving, however, its vocational basis. This implies: (a) a very careful general and voca¬ tional preparation of the teaching staff, who must be on the same level of training as the staff of the secondary schools; (b) putting the vocational school and the gen¬ eral school on an equal footing and integrating the vocational schools into the whole educational program; (c) the coordination of vocational and general schools under the same common direction in such a way as to insure unity in educational guidance. A somewdiat similar problem was described by Count Hayashi in his account of the reorganization of the middle schools of Japan as proposed last fall by the government. Pointing out that the Japanese system comprises periods of six, five and three years — primary and middle, six years; second¬ ary school, three years ; higher school, three years, followed by three or four years of university — Count Hayashi discussed the new plan in its applica- World Federation of Education Associations 981 tion to secondary schools. The most important part of the new plan, he said, has to do with .the division of the children into two groups in the same school. “Japan is the only country in the world where a system of this kind exists,” said Count Hayashi. The second point in the scheme is the use of the “activity” principle: “We hope that the secondary schools of Japan will develop in the same way as the new schools of England or the Landerzie- hungsheime of Germany.” In the third place, the aim of education is to be not “intellectualism” or “emotionalism,” but “personality” on the part of these future citizens of the state, and moral instruction is to be insisted upon. Count Hayashi concluded : The theory of education is not simple. Consequently, we must treat it as a whole which suggests unity in variety. We can not start from a single principle. It is more than “reason”; it is what we try to express in modern psychology as “Gestalt psychology,” “Understanding psychology,” and the like. In the final address of this afternoon series Dr. Paul Monroe, of the In¬ ternational Institute, Teachers College, Columbia University, compared educational developments in the East and West. He said: Educators of the West are directing their attention to technical problems, to ques¬ tions that have to do with the details of instruction, to transitory problems arising in the course of instruction, while the Far East and the Near East are experiment¬ ing with the application of significant principles through changes in the social and educational field. Reviewing the recent developments in China, the Philippines, Japan, Turkey and Russia, he called attention to the swdftness of change that seemed to be taking place in countries and in situations where we have been in the habit of prophesying only slow and painful alteration — Turkey, for example, making fundamental changes almost overnight, “makes one wonder whether such a regime in six or eight years may not be bringing about more changes than a conventional educational system could accomplish in a cen¬ tury.” Similarly with Russia, on an even grander scale, making every con¬ ceivable institution contribute to education, bringing into the purview of educational betterment not merely hundreds, as in the West, but the whole mass of the population, and utilizing activities in the school for purposes of social helpfulness and understanding. Whatever one might think about the economic and social experiment in Russia, Dr. Monroe concluded, what was being done there educationally was one of the most significant things now going on in the world. The Section Meetings Opinions of the value of the numerous sections, committee meetings and groups at the Geneva gathering will vary widely according to the point of view of each particular observer and the groups he happened to attend. Some, as has been earlier intimated, were exceedingly effective ; a few were very poor indeed. In the type of meeting organized under the present plan nearly everything depends upon the section chairman or secretary. Meeting 982 National Education Association chairmen like Mrs. Reeve, of the home and school section, Dr. Turner, for health education, and one or two others who have beep working for many months on their sections and have come to know the main currents and the personalities in the different countries, had no trouble whatever; but where the committee chairman had been appointed late or had made little advance preparation, as in too many cases, the results were necessarily very un¬ satisfying. The official list of sections as printed in the final program was as follows : (1) Parent, teacher, home and school; (2) health education; (3) educa¬ tional crafts; (4) teachers’ associations and the international aspects of school administration; (5) international cooperation and good-will; (6) prepara¬ tion of teachers for international good-will; (7) how’ the spirit of interna¬ tional cooperation and good-will may be introduced into the school; (8) behavior — the problem child; (9) rural life and rural education; (10) the preschool child; (11) social adjustment through education; (12) educa¬ tion, the press and publicity; (13) the international aspect of library service; (14) from school to labor; (15) elementary education ; (16) secondary edu¬ cation ; (17) colleges and universities; (18) adult education; (19) illiter¬ acy; (20) the international aspect of geography; (21) handicapped and gifted children. In addition there were, of course, meetings of the various Herman Jordan committees, of which there are five: (1) Education for peace; (2) teaching of history and patriotism; (3) international athletic sports and international relations of youth; (4) military education and pre¬ paredness; (5) general machinery for international cooperation. No detailed account of the sessions of these sections and committees can be given in a running account of this length, but it is possible to give some indi¬ cation of what points were considered. The parent-teacher section, for ex¬ ample, began by considering the condition of the normal child at three stages of his development. Speakers like Dr. Paul de Vuyst, of Belgium ; Miss Pennethorne, of England, and Mr. Newell W. Edson, of America, dis¬ cussed personality development at the different age levels ; Edna White, of the Merrill Palmer School, Detroit, discussed the parent-teacher relation¬ ship in the nursery school and kindergarten ; Dr. Paul Dengler showed how’ intimately he brings his parents into the work and atmosphere of his school, and in a joint session with the health education section the parent-teacher group, led by Lady Leslie Mackenzie, considered specific cooperation of home and school for the purposes of education in health. In other sessions the health group attempted to answer certain questions concerning the pres¬ ent health education situation, organizing on the basis of topics to be in¬ vestigated for future study. In section 6, .Dean H. L. Smith, of Indiana University, set forth the series of theses he has found to embody the thought of “American teachers and other leading personalities on a program of education for wrorld friend¬ ship and understanding”: 1. An important task before the world today is the creation of a new state of mind, a state of mind which will permit an understanding and appreciation of the World Federation of Education Associations 983 character, attainments and traditions of other people, and which will transcend national boundaries without seeking to destroy them. 2. Loyalty to both the nation and to mankind is a concept similar to that of loyalty to both city and nation, and while it may be somewhat more difficult to grasp and hold, it is equally desirable and not unattainable. 3. It is, therefore, possible to develop in the individual world understanding and good-will without loss of any quality really essential to a desirable national citizen¬ ship. 4. Such world understanding and good-will on the part of individuals is an ob¬ jective worthy the best efforts of all institutions of modern society that are by their nature fitted to share in the undertaking. 5. This world-mindedness is largely intellectual, and must be based on knowl¬ edge and energized by emotion and sentiment. 6. To be effective in the promotion of peace among nations, this knowledge and sentiment must be translated into new modes of conduct on the part of all individuals composing these nations, including those who are to determine international policies and relationships. 7. It follows that treaties, agreements and organizations for the promotion of peace can best succeed only when formulated or established on a basis of thorough and sympathetic understanding among the peoples represented. 8. Internationalism, properly interpreted, implies an extended conception of citi¬ zenship rather than a super-government with its consequent minimizing of national importance. 9. It follows that there should be no real conflict between sane love of country and internationalism as defined in the preceding thesis. 10. Racial and national prejudices probably have their origin in part deep down in the early life of the individual, and can therefore to some extent be avoided or mitigated by a program of guidance which begins early and continues throughout the formative period of the individual. 11. An understanding of the religions of the peoples of the earth should in some measure overcome the obstacles of sectarianism, intolerance and bigotry. 12. Education, as provided by the schools and supplemented by all such cooperating agencies as the church, press, government, home, etc., may be a slow process by which to produce socially desirable changes in civilization, but it is probably the most sure and permanent one. 13. It is possible for the schools of the nations, working with such other agencies as the church, the press, the home and governmental institutions, to go far toward producing a friendly world if they will do so. 14. If children are to receive such instruction as will make them a part of a generation possessed of an international conscience and an international morality, they must be guided by teachers as ably trained in the command of these concepts as the best efforts of our teacher-training institutions can produce. 15. If we accept the above theses, we assign to teacher-training institutions the task of developing courses and methods of instruction which will enable prospective teachers to meet properly the demands made of them in the training of children in international understanding. 16. On the basis of world understanding developed through the schools, we can ultimately create a machinery which in time of crisis should go far in mobilizing the world’s opinion for peace. In section 11, the chairman, Miss Selma Borchardt, placed before the group a series of social, political and economic movements in which the school is concerned — relation of human beings to one another, educational standards and the question of conformity, industry and its mechanization of human actions and reactions, the rights of national and racial minorities, the feminist 984 National Education Association movement, place and function of the teacher and teacher organization. The press group (section 12), under the presidency of Don Antonio Michavila y Vila, of Spain, was asked to give consideration to the following principles: That education is a social task which a nation must regard as a necessity of the spirit as fundamental as are the ordinary means of existence ; that the school must be independent of all political or sectarian whims ; that a mini¬ mum international standard of schooling should be adopted ; that correspond¬ ingly a world-wide federation of teachers should be established ; that the press should give its weight to an active campaign in behalf of the school. Giving considerable active discussion to the question of prolongation of schooling in the different countries, section 14, under the chairmanship of Mr. von Xostitz, of Germany, finally evolved the following memorandum, which eventually found its way into the report of the resolutions committee of the delegate assembly: 1. That compulsory education should under no circumstances cover less than a period of eight years or end before the completion of the child’s fourteenth year, and should be followed by some kind of continued education. 2. That the school-leaving age should be raised to fifteen years as soon as possible in all countries which have not already adopted such a measure. 3. That in countries which have a higher standard than that laid down, that standard should on no account be lowered. 4. That the question of the reorganization of the school (primary and secondary periods) should be carefully considered. The section further urged the board of directors of the world federation to consider the desirability of setting up a standing committee to investigate the question of the school-leaving age before the next biennial congress. The Exposition and Other Features Beginning on the day the conference opened, but continuing for several weeks after its close, was the educational exposition. The official name for this unusual display was the “Education-Era Exposition.” The exposition was conceived with the idea that the delegates should see modern educational methods and materials in so far as these can be shown, and especially in order that those attending the conference might understand the activities of the many organizations throughout the world that are organized inter¬ nationally and whose purpose is to promote world-understanding and good¬ will. “We are all but parts of a stupendous whole,” was the quotation from Pope that one read across the Andrae exhibit, dealing with the evolution of human society and the interdependence of the nations, and this was the sentiment characteristic of many of the booths. Among the exhibitors were the Junior Red Cross, with its more than eleven million children in forty- one countries; the Women’s International League of Peace and Freedom; the Lnion Mondiale de la Femme pour la Concorde Internationale; the “Save the Children League”; the League of Nations; the Institute of In¬ tellectual Cooperation; the Carnegie Foundation for International Peace; the World Peace Foundation; the International Labor Office; the Young Men’s Christian Association; the Bureau International d’Education; the World Federation of Education Associations 985 Institut des Sciences d’Education (Institut J.-J. Rousseau). A collection from the Palais Mondial at Brussels was shown as typical of what might be developed toward an "Atlas of Civilization.’’ Besides school exhibits from Geneva, Tessin and Zurich, there were national education exhibits from many of the countries of the world, that of Germany being especially well prepared and effective. There were, of course, demonstrations, films, receptions, luncheons, ex¬ cursions and various social features. One of the demonstrations which drew a large and interested crowd was that of the work of Jacques Dalcroze. Mr. Dalcroze himself explained his work in rhythmics at this demonstration. “I believe that philosophers and artists are right,’’ he said, “in saying that the power of instinctive reaction and expression is an inward desire, if not a necessity of perfect development for every sentient being, whether he is con¬ scious of it or not.” RESOLUTIONS OF THE W. F. E. A. Objects of the Federation The W. F. E. A. reaffirms its allegiance to the ideals and program of service developed at the World Conference at San Francisco in 1923, and at subsequent biennial conferences. It recognizes that the teachers of the world have it in their hands to pro¬ mote the cause of international understanding and world peace by bringing their influence to bear upon the children and youth entrusted to their charge in the direction of ideals of mutual good will and service in the common interest. Further, it holds that every child ought to receive an education which not merely aims at the training of the intellectual faculties and the effective use of the instruments of learning and culture, but also seeks to develop physical health, vocational efficiency, the spirit of good citizenship, and all that goes to the building up of the character. Teachers’ Associations and Tenure 1. The W. F. E. A. recommends that the formation and strengthening of associations of teachers, both local and national, should be encouraged to the end that they may ultimately control entry to the profession, and set up standards of professional attainment, aptitude, and character which will be recognized by appointing bodies. 2. (a) That the Report of the Teacher Tenure Committee, presented by the British Columbia Teachers’ Federation, be received, and that the Federa¬ tion be thanked for its valuable work. (b) That a committee be appointed consisting of one official representa¬ tive of each teacher association represented at Geneva, to prepare a further report upon teacher tenure throughout the world, and in addition, to investi¬ gate the nature and circumstances of the various teachers’ associations, and to present a report on both subjects to the next conference. 986 National Education Association School Libraries The W. F. E. A. recommends the appointment of a small committee on “Education for School Library Work" to confer with the appropriate com¬ mittees of the International Federation of Library Associations and to re- • port at the next Congress. Cinema Films That the W. F. E. A. offer to the Motion Picture industry its fullest co-operation in the attempt to prevent the display of such cinema films as would jeopardize the promotion of international friendship. Educational Opportunity The W. F. E. A. recommends the recognition of the absolute equality of opportunity^ of all children in the schools, irrespective of race, creed, colour, or social position, that their individual endowments may have the fullest possible opportunity for development. Calendar Reform That the W. F. E. A. believes that our present calendar has become a defective instrument for modern requirements, and recommends the call¬ ing, at an early date, of an International Conference, at which religious, commercial, scientific, and educational authorities are represented to pro¬ vide for the improvement of the calendar. Library Service ( 1 ) That the W. F. E. A. approves the preparation and publication of an International Year-Book of Education on the plan outlined by the Inter¬ national Bureau of Education. ( This resolution was referred to the Board of Directors.) (2) That the W. F. E. A. approves of a further study of the problem of the classification of Pedagogical Science with a view to the preparation of a revised form of the Decimal Classification on this subject. International Understanding 1. The W. F. E. A. recommends that educational authorities throughout the world provide means for bringing Eastern and Western cultures into closer contact with a view to the removal of ultra-nationalistic bias. The means might include e. g., (a) The foundation of additional chairs on Eastern culture in Western Universities, and vice versa ; (b) More extensive exchange of professors between Eastern and Western Universities; (c) The exchange of educational visits and publications between the East and the West; (d) The holding of cultural conferences at regular intervals between the East and West, etc. World Federation of Education Associations 98 7 _ • • 2. The W. F. E. A. recommends that the study of the efforts made throughout the world for inculcating in the youth in schools the spirit of world understanding and friendship should be continued and pursued methodically with a view to completing and keeping uptodate the different studies and investigations which have been instituted on the subject. Health Section The W. F. E. A. recommends : — ( 1 ) That in view of the fact that health is one of the aims of education, and that school programs which sacrifice the health of the pupil for the acquisition of knowledge cannot be justified, it is desirable that (a) frequent brief rest or relaxation periods during school hours should be provided for in arranging class schedules in schools ; (b) the study should be further developed of the continuity and cessation of growth in school children as an indication of health status, more par¬ ticularly in the direction of instituting other tests than those of weighing and measuring; (c) a greater continuity should be maintained in the health records of children between the pre-school and school periods. (2) . (a) That physiology and hygiene should form part of the instruc¬ tion in the schools of every country; and that in particular, this should be made universal for girls of adolescent age in respect to home hygiene and infant and child care. (b) That school medical and nursing service has so clearly proved its value that such service should be provided for schools throughout the world. (c) That there is need for further training of teachers in active service in methods of health education, especially in rural and village communities, and that more extensive use of travelling instructors for this purpose is worthy of further consideration and development. 3. That publishers .be encouraged, where this is not done, to print our textbooks for children in large types in the interest of the eyesight of the pupils, and that the size of the type be considered by educational authorities in accepting or rejecting the books. 4. That each University and teacher training institution provide an ade¬ quate health service. Compulsory Education 1. The W. F. E. A. recommends that early steps be taken to make educa¬ tion free and compulsory in schools of those countries which have no system of compulsory education at present. Officers to have authority to change. 2. That compulsory education should cover a period of not less than eight years, and should be followed by some kind of continued education. 3. That the school-leaving age should be raised to fifteen as soon as possible in all countries which have not already adopted such a measure. 4. That in countries which have a higher standard than that laid down, that standard should on no account be lowered. 988 National Education Association 5. That the question of the reorganization of the school (primary and secondary periods) should be carefully considered. International Educational Exchange The W. F. E. A. recommends that the fullest possible support be given to all schemes for the interchange of scholars, students, and teachers in schools and Universities throughout the world, in which there exists proper safeguards for effective working. International Language The W. F. E. A. recognizing the need for a common linguistic medium to facilitate the direct exchange of ideas among the different peoples of the world, records its interest in the work of the I. A. L. A. (International Auxiliary Languages Association of the U. S. A., Inc.), and especially in its research activities in the educational values of an auxiliary language. Illiteracy The W. F. E. A. asserts that inability to read or write is a barrier to national and international goodwill among nations, and urges all govern¬ ments to take immediate steps to eradicate illiteracy. International Phonetic Alphabet The W. F. E. A. is of opinion that it is desirable to use the alphabet of the International Phonetic Association where possible or necessary as an auxiliary in the elementary schools of the world. Associational Records and Information . Associational Records and Information 1857—1870 The National Teachers Association Organized August 26, 1857, at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Purpose — To elevate the character and advance the interests of the Profes¬ sion of teaching and to promote the cause of popular education in the L nited States. The name of the Association was changed at Cleveland, Ohio, on August 15, 1870, to the “National Educational Association. 1870—1907 National Educational Association Incorporated under the laws of the District of Columbia, February 24, 1886, under the name, “National Education Association,'' which was changed to “National Educational Association,” by certificate filed November 6, 1886. 1907- National Education Association of the United States Incorporated under a special act of Congress, approved June 30, 1906, to succeed the “National Educational Association/' The charter was accepted and bylaws were adopted at the Fiftieth Anniversary Conven¬ tion held July 10, 1907, at Los Angeles, California. ACT OF INCORPORATION AN ACT TO INCORPORATE THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled: Section 1. That the following-named persons, who are now officers and direc¬ tors and trustees of the National Educational Association, a corporation organized in the year eighteen hundred and eighty-six, under the Act of General Incorpora¬ tion of the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, viz: ^Nathan C. Schaeffer, *Eliphalet Oram Lyte, *John W. Lan- t List of singer, of Pennsylvania; Isaac W. Hill, of Alabama; Arthur xncorporators J. Matthews, of Arizona; John H. Hinemon, *George B. Cook, of Arkansas; ^Joseph O'Connor, *Josiah L. Pickard, Arthur H. Chamberlain, of California; *Aaron Gove, ^Ezekiel H. Cook. Lewis C. Greenlee, of Colorado; ^Charles H. Keyes, of Connecticut; *George W. Twitmyer, of Delaware; *J. Or¬ mond Wilson, *William T. Harris, ^Alexander T. Stuart, of the District of Colum¬ bia; Clem Hampton, of Florida; *William M. Slaton, of Georgia; *Frances Mann, of Idaho; J. Stanley Brown, *Albert G. Lane, ^Charles I. Parker, *John W. Cook, *Joshua Pike, Albert R. Taylor, ^Joseph A. Mercer, of Illinois; ^Nebraska Cropsey, Thomas A. Mott, of Indiana; John D. Benedict, of Indian Territory ; John F. Riggs, Ashley V. Storm, of Iowa; John W. Spindler, Jasper X. Wilkinson, *A. V. Jewett, *Luther D. Whittemore, of Kansas; William Henry Bartholomew, of Kentucky; *Warren Easton, of Louisiana; »John S. Locke, of Maine; *M. Bates Stephens, of * Deceased. [ 991 ] 992 National Education Association Maryland; ^Charles W. Eliot, *Mary H. Hunt, Henry T. Bailey, of Massachusetts, Hugh A. Graham, Charles G. White, William H. Elson, of Michigan; ^William F. Phelps, *Irwin Shepard, John A. Cranston, of Minnesota; Robert B. Fulton, oi Mississippi; *F. Louis Soldan, *James M. Greenwood, William J. Hawkins, of Missouri; *Oscar J. Craig, of Montana; George L. Towne, of Nebraska ; *Joseph E. Stubbs, of Nevada; James E. Klock, of New Hampshire; *James M. Green, John Enright, of New Jersey; ^Charles M. Light, of New Mexico; *James H. Canfield, Nicholas Murray Butler, *William H. Maxwell, ^Charles R. Skinner, ^Albert P. Marble, James C. Byrnes, of New York; James Y. Joyner, Julius Isaac Foust, of North Carolina; *Pitt Gordon Knowlton, of North Dakota; *Oscar T. Corson, Jacob A. Shawan, Wells L. Griswold, of Ohio; Edgar S. Vaught, Andrew R. Hick- ham, of Oklahoma; ^Charles Carroll Stratton, Edwin D. Ressler, of Oregon; *Thomas W. Bicknell, Walter Ballou Jacobs, of Rhode Island; *David B. Johnson, Robert P. Pell, of South Carolina; Moritz Adelbert Langer, of South Dakota; Eugene F. Turner, of Tennessee; Lloyd E. Wolf, of Texas; David H. Christensen, of Utah; *Henry O. Wheeler, Isaac Thomas, of Vermont; Joseph L. Jarman, of Virginia; Edward T. Mathes, of Washington; *T. Marcellus Marshall, Lucy Robin¬ son, of West Virginia; *Lorenzo D. Harvey, of Wisconsin; *Thomas T. Tynan, of Wyoming; Cassia Patton, of Alaska; Frank H. Ball, of Porto Rico; Arthur F. Griffiths, of Hawaii; C. H. Maxson, of the Philippine Islands; and such other persons as now are or may hereafter be associated with them as officers or members of said Association, are hereby incorporated and declared to be a body corporate of the District of Columbia by the name of the “National Education Association of the United States,” and by that name shall be known and have perpetual succes¬ sion with the powers, limitations, and restrictions herein contained. Sec. 2. That the purpose and object of the said corporation shall be to elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession of teaching and to pro¬ mote the cause of education in the United States. This corporation shall include the National Council of Education and the following depart- Purpose and rnents, and such others as may hereafter be created by organi- Departments zation or consolidation, to-wit: The Departments, first, of Superintendence; second, of Normal Schools; third, of Elemen¬ tary Education; fourth, of Higher Education; fifth, of Manual Training; sixth, of Art Education; seventh, of Kindergarten Education; eighth, of Music Education; ninth, of Secondary Education; tenth, of Business Education; eleventh, of Child Study; twelfth, of Physical Education; thirteenth, of Natural Science Instruction; fourteenth of School Administration; fifteenth, the Library Department; sixteenth, of Special Education; seventeenth, of Indian Education; the powers and duties and the numbers and names of these departments and of the National Council of Education may be changed or abolished at the pleasure of the corporation, as provided in its bylaws. Sec. 3. That the said corporation shall further have power to have and to use a common seal, and to alter and change the same at its pleasure; to sue or to be sued in any court of the United States, or other court of competent jurisdiction, to make bylaws not inconsistent with the provisions of this Powers of act or 0f the Constitution of the United States; to take or re- Corporation ceive, whether by gift, grant, devise, bequest, or purchase, any real or personal estate, and to hold, grant, convey, hire or lease the same for the purpose of its incorporation; and to accept and admin¬ ister any trust of real or personal estate for any educational purpose within the objects of the corporation. * Deceased. Associational Records and Information 993 Sec. 4. That all real property of the corporation within the District of Columbia which shall be used by the corporation for the educational or other purposes of the corporation as aforesaid other than the purposes of producing income, and all per¬ sonal property and funds of the corporation held, used, or invested for educational purposes aforesaid, or to produce Property to be income to be used for such purposes, shall be exempt from Tax-Exempt taxation; provided., however, that this exemption shall not apply to any property of the corporation which shall not be used for, or the income of which shall not be applied to, the educational purposes of the corpora¬ tion; and, provided further, That the corporation shall annually file, with the Commissioner of Education of the United States, a report in writing, stating in detail the property, real and personal, held by the corporation, and the expenditure or other use or disposition of the same, or the income thereof, during the preceding year. Sec. 5. That the membership of the said corporation shall consist of three classes of members — viz, active, associate, and Members corresponding — whose qualifications, terms of membership, rights, and obligations shall be prescribed by the bylaws of the corporation. Sec. 6. That the officers of the said corporation shall be a President, twelve Vice-Presidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, ___ a Board of Directors, an Executive Committee, and a Board of Trustees. The Board of Directors shall consist of the President, the First Vice-President, the Secretary, the Treasurer, the Chairman of the Board of Trustees, and one additional member from each state, territory, or district, to be elected by the active members for the term of one year, or until their successors are chosen, and of all life directors of the National Educational Association. Board of The United States Commissioner of Education, and all former Directors presidents of the said Association now living, and all future Presidents of the Association hereby incorporated, at the close of their respec¬ tive terms of office, shall be members of the Board of Directors for life. The Board of Directors shall have power to fill all vacancies in their own body; shall have in charge the general interests of the corporation, excepting those herein intrusted to the Board of Trustees; and shall possess such other powers as shall be conferred upon them by the bylaws of the corporation. The Executive Committee shall consist of five members, as follows: the President of the Association, the First Vice-President, the Treasurer, the Chairman of the Board of Trustees, and a member of the Association, to be chosen annually by the Board of Directors, to serve one year. Executive The said committee shall have authority to represent, and to Committee act for the Board of Directors in the intervals between the meetings of that body, to the extent of carrying out the legislation adopted by the Board of Directors under general directions as may be given by said board. The Board of Trustees shall consist of four members elected by the Board of Directors for the term of four years, and the President of the Association, who shall be a member ex officio during his term of office. At the first meeting of the Board of Directors, held during the annual meeting of the Association, at which they were elected, they shall elect one Board of trustee for the term of four years. All vacancies occurring in Trustees said Board of Trustees, whether by resignation or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unexpired term; and the absence of a trustee from two successive annual meetings of the board shall forfeit his membership. 994 National Education Association Sec. 7. That the invested fund now known as the “Permanent Fund of the National Educational Association,” when transferred to the corporation hereby created, shall be held by such corporation as a Permanent Fund and shall be in charge of the Board of Trustees, who shall provide for the Permanent safekeeping and investment of such fund, and of all other Fund funds which the corporation may receive by donation, bequest, or devise. No part of the principal of such Permanent Fund or its accretions shall be expended, except by a two thirds vote of the active members of the Association present at any annual meeting, upon the recommenda¬ tion of the Board of Trustees, after such recommendation has been approved by vote of the Board of Directors, and after printed notice of the proposed expendi¬ ture has been mailed to all active members of the Association. The income of the Permanent Fund shall be used only to meet the cost of maintaining the organi¬ zation of the Association and of publishing its annual volume of Proceedings, unless the terms of the donation, bequest, or devise shall otherwise specify, or the Board of Directors shall otherwise order. It shall also be the duty of the Board of Trustees to issue orders on the Treasurer for the payment Duties of cf all bills approved by the Board of Directors, or by the Trustees President and Secretary of the Association acting under the authority of the Board of Directors. When practicable, the Board of Trustees shall invest, as part of the Permanent Fund, all surplus funds exceeding $500 that shall remain in the hands of the Treasurer after paying the expenses of the Association for the previous year, and providing for the fixed expenses and for all appropriations made by the Board of Directors for the ensuing year. Election of The Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the Asso- ~ ciation, who shall be Secretary of the Executive Committee, y and shall fix the compensation and the term of his office for a period not to exceed four years. Sec. 8. That the principal office of the said corporation shall be in the city of Washington, D. C. ; provided, That the meeting of the corpora- Location of tion, its officers, committees, and departments, may be held, and Office that its business may be transacted, and an office or offices may be maintained, elsewhere, within the United States, as may be determined by the Board of Directors, or otherwise in accordance with the bylaws. Sec. 9. That the charter, constitution, and bylaws of the National Educational Association shall continue in full force and effect until the charter granted by this act shall be accepted by such Association at the next annual meeting of the Association, and until new bylaws shall be adopted; and Acceptance of that the present officers, directors, and trustees of said Associa- This Charter tion shall continue to hold office and perform their respective duties as such until the expiration of terms for which they were severally elected or appointed, and until their successors are elected. That at such annual meeting the active members of the National Educational Association, then present, may organize and proceed to accept the charter granted by this act and adopt bylaws, to elect officers to succeed those whose terms have expired or are about to expire, and generally to organize the “National Education Associa¬ tion of the United States”; and that the Board of Trustees of the corporation hereby incorporated shall thereupon, if the charter granted by this act be accepted, receive, take over, and enter into possession, custody, and management of all property, real and personal, of the corporation heretofore known as the National Educational Association incorporated as aforesaid, under the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia, and all its rights, contracts, claims, and property of every kind and nature whatsoever, and the several officers, directors, and trustees of such last-named Association, or any other person having charge of any of the securities, Associational Records and Information 995 funds, books or property thereof, real or personal, shall on demand deliver the same to the proper officers, directors, or trustees of the corporation hereby created. Pro¬ vided, That a verified certificate executed by the presiding officer and secretary of such annual meeting, showing the acceptance of the charter granted by this act by the National Educational Association, shall be legal evidence of the fact, when filed with the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia; and, provided further, That in the event of the failure of the Association to accept the charter granted by this act at said annual meeting then the charter of the National Educational Asso¬ ciation and its incorporate existence shall be and are hereby extended until the thirty-first day of July, nineteen hundred and eight, and at any time before said date its charter may be extended in the manner and form provided by the general corporation of the District of Columbia. Sec. 10. That the rights of creditors of the said existing corporation, known as the National Educational Association, shall not in any manner be impaired by the passage of this act, or the transfer of the property heretofore mentioned, nor shall any liability or obligation, or payment of any sum due or to become due, or any claim or demand, in any manner, or for Rights of any cause existing against the said existing corporation, be Creditors released or impaired; and the corporation hereby incorporated is declared to succeed to the obligations and liabilities, and to be held liable to pay and discharge all of its debts, liabilities and contracts of the said corporation so existing, to the same effect as if such new corporation had itself incurred the obligation or liability to pay such debts or damages, and no action or proceeding before any court or tribunal shall be deemed to have abated or been discontinued by reason of this act. Sec. 11. The Congress may from time to time alter, repeal, Amendments or modify this act of incorporation, but no contract or individual /pQ Charter right made or acquired shall thereby be divested or impaired. Sec. 12. That said corporation may provide, by amendment to its bylaws, that the powers of the active members exercised at the annual meet¬ ing in the election of officers and the transaction of business shall be vested in and exercised by a representative assembly composed of delegates apportioned, elected, and governed in accordance with the provisions of the bylaws adopted by said corporation. Creation of Representative Assembly Sections 1-11 were passed by Congress and approved by the President, June 30, 1906. They were accepted and adopted as the constitution of the National Educa¬ tion Association of the United States by the active members of the National Educa¬ tional Association in annual session at Los Angeles, California, July 10, 1907. Section 12 was passed by Congress and approved by the President of the United States, May 13, 1920, as an amendment to the original act of incorporation. It was accepted and adopted as an amendment to the constitution of the National Education Association of the United States by the active members thereof in annual session at Salt Lake City, Utah, July 9, 1920. 996 National Education Association BYLAWS AS AMENDED AT THE ANNUAL BUSINESS MEET¬ ING OF THE REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY , MINNE¬ APOLIS , MINNESOTA, JULY 6, 1928 1 ARTICLE I— MEMBERSHIP Wherever the word “State” appears in the proposed amendments to these by¬ laws it will be understood that State, Territory, or District of the United States is meant. Section 1. The membership of the National Education Asso- Membership ciation of the United States shall consist of three classes Active, Defined Associate, and Corresponding, whose qualifications, rights, and obligations shall be as hereinafter prescribed. Sec. 2. Active members of the Association shall be those actively engaged in the profession of teaching or other educational work. Sec. 3. The annual dues of an active member shall be $2, which shall entitle him to attend all meetings of the Association and its several Departments; to receive The Journal free and on application, to secure all publications of the As¬ sociation at a price fixed by the Executive Committee, which Obligations shall be the approximate cost. By the payment of annual dues and of $5 an active member shall receive in addition to The Jour- Privileges nal, without application or other condition, the volume of Pro¬ ceedings and all other regular publications of the Association, including reports of Committees and all special bulletins and announcements when issued. Life Members and Life Directors Sec. 4. All life members and life directors shall have all the rights and privileges of active members without the pay¬ ment of annual dues, and shall receive free without applica¬ tion or condition the publications of the Association. Sec. 5. Associate members of the Association shall be persons who are not ac¬ tively engaged in the profession of teaching or other educa- Associate tional work, but who are otherwise interested in the promotion Members of education. The annual dues of an associate member shall be the same as the dues of an active member and he shall have the same rights and privileges, except the right to vote, to serve as a delegate in the Representative Assembly, and to hold office. Sec. 6. Eminent educators not residing in America may bp Corresponding elected by the Board of Directors as corresponding members. Members The number of corresponding members shall not at any time exceed fifty. They shall pay no dues and may receive free the publications of the Association. # Sec. 7. The membership year shall be from September 1 Membership to August 31. All membership dues paid during the mem- Year bership year shall be credited to that year unless otherwise requested. Associational Records and Information 997 Sec. 8. The annual dues of members shall be sent to the Secretary on or before November 1. An active member fail¬ ing to pay his dues as herein provided shall forfeit the privi¬ leges of membership and after being in arrears one half year be dropped from the list of members. Sec. 9. The Secretary of the Association shall furnish each member of the Association a Membership Card, declaring him to be a member of the National Education Association for the year for which his dues are paid, and as such entitled to all the rights and privileges granted by the charter and bylaws of the Association. Sec. 10. The right to vote, to serve as a delegate in the Representative As¬ sembly and to hold office in the Association or in any depart¬ ment thereof, shall be limited to active members whose dues are paid. The right to vote and to hold office in the Council * *° Vote shall be limited to members of the Council whose dues are paid. ARTICLE II— ELECTION OF OFFICERS, REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY, AND AFFILIATED ASSOCIATIONS Section 1. The election of officers and transaction of business at the annual business meeting shall be by a Representative Election of Assembly composed of delegates apportioned, elected, and gov- Officers erned as hereinafter provided. Sec. 2. At the first Business meeting of the Representative Assembly on the second day of the annual meeting of the Association nominations for the follow¬ ing offices shall be made: President, Vicepresident, and Treasurer. Candidates for said offices shall be nominated from the floor upon roll call of the states. On the first day of the annual meeting of the Association the delegates of each state, territory, and district of the United States shall nominate one person for member of the Board of Directors and the name of such person shall be reported to the Representative Assembly at the first business meeting upon roll call of the states. On the fourth day of the annual meeting officers shall be elected from the candi¬ dates by the delegates to the Representative Assembly by ballot. Said ballots shall be printed and shall contain the names of all nominees as provided above. Polls for voting shall be open from 8 A. M. to 6 P. M., at such place or places as the President of the Association shall designate. The candidates for Ptesident, Treasurer, member of Board of Directors from each state, territory, or district, respectively, and the eleven candidates for the office of Vicepresident receiving the highest number of votes shall be declared elected. The President of the Association shall appoint tellers and complete all arrangements for carrying out the election. The results of the election herein provided shall be announced at the final business session of the Representative Assmbly. The officers thus chosen shall continue in office until the close of the annual meeting subsequent to their election, and until their successors are chosen, except as herein provided. The Secretary and the Treasurer shall enter upon their duties at a date which shall be determined by the Board of Trustees and which shall not be later than the first of October and shall continue in office during the term for which they are separately chosen and until their successors are duly elected. Sec. 3. The State Teachers Association or Educational Association of a state, territory, or district, may become affiliated with the National Education Associa¬ tion and shall be designated an Affiliated State Association. Each affiliated State Association shall be a state unit in the organization of the National Education Association and as such shall be entitled Affiliated State to representation in the Representative Assembly as herein- Associations after provided. The annual dues of an Affiliated State Asso¬ ciation shall be $10 for each delegate to which said state shall be entitled, with a Payment of Dues Membership Card 998 National Education Association maximum of $100. Said Association shall receive without application, or other condition, all regular, publications of the National Education Association, includ¬ ing the volume of Proceedings, reports of committees, and all special bulletins and announcements when issued. Sec. 4. A local educational association or teachers organization within a state, territory, or district, may affiliate with the National Education Association and shall be designated an Affiliated Local Association. Each Affiliated Local Asso¬ ciation shall be a local unit in the organization of the National Affiliated Local Education Association and as such shall be entitled to rep- Associations resentation in the Representative Assembly as hereinafter pro¬ vided. The annual dues of an Affiliated Local Association shall be $5, which shall entitle said Association to receive without application, or other condition, all regular publications of the National Education Association, in¬ cluding the volume of Proceedings, reports of committees, and all bulletins and announcements when issued. Sec. 5. Each Affiliated Association, both state and local, shall be furnished a certificate of membership and shall be entitled to the active assistance and sup¬ port of the National Education Association in promoting the interest of such Affiliated Association and its members insofar as such interest Relationship: comes within the purpose and object of the National Educa- National, State, tion Association as set forth in its charter. The Secretary of and Local the National Education Association shall, with the advice and approval of the Executive Committee, make such arrangements for mutual cooperation between the National Education Association and the State and Local Affiliated Associations as will promote the welfare of all and advance the interests of the teaching profession. Sec. 6. Each Affiliated State Association shall be entitled to elect one delegate and one alternate to the Representative Assembly for each one hundred of its members, or major fraction thereof, who are active members of the National Edu¬ cation Association, up to five hundred such active members, anc State Delegates thereafter one delegate and one alternate for each five hundred of its members, or major fraction thereof, who are active mem¬ bers of the National Education Association. Such delegates shall be designated State Delegates. Sec. 7. Each Affiliated Local Association shall be entitled to elect one dele¬ gate and one alternate to the Representative Assembly for Local each one hundred of its members, or major fraction thereof, Delegates who are active members of the National Education Association. Such delegates shall be designated Local Delegates. Sec. 8. Only active members of the National Education Association shall be eligible to be delegates to the Representative Assembly, and to vote in the elec¬ tion of delegates in a State or Local Affiliated Association. An active member shall be permitted to vote for the election of delegates in but Selection of one affiliated Local Association. For determining the appor- Delegates tionment of delegates, an active member may be counted in two Affiliated Associations, and no more; and that one of these shall be the State Association. Sec. 9. The officers of the National Education Association as named in the charter and the State Superintendent or Commisisoner of Education of each state, territory, and district, shall be ex officio delegates to the Rep- Ex Officio resentative Assembly. The President of the Association shall Delegates preside at the annual meeting of the Representative Assembly, and the Secretary of the Association shall keep the records thereof. In case of a tie the President shall cast the deciding vote. Associational Records and Information 999 Sec. 10. Delegates shall file their credentials with the Secretary of the Asso¬ ciation on blanks furnished by him for that purpose not later than ten days be¬ fore the beginning of the annual meeting. The Secretary shall turn over such credentials to the Credential Committee, when appointed, with such information thereon as may be obtained from the records of the Association. The Representative Assembly shall be the final judge of the qualifications of delegates. The delegates shall have equal rights and each shall have one vote. Meet¬ ings of the Representative Assembly shall be open to the active members of the Association who shall be privileged to address the Assembly on subjects pertaining to the Association. The Representative As¬ sembly shall adopt rules of procedure which shall not conflict with the charter and bylaws of the Association. It shall recommend an equitable plan for pay¬ ing the expenses of delegates to the annual business meeting of the Association. Sec. 11. The officers shall be permitted to hold meetings other than for busi¬ ness purposes and expenses therefor shall be provided. Delegates ; Credentials ; Voting ; Freedom of Floor ARTICLE III— DUTIES OF OFFICERS Section 1. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association and shall perform the duties prescribed by the Act of Incorporation and these Bvlaws, and in addition such duties as usually devolve upon the Chief Executive of such an Association. In the absence of the President, the ranking Vicepresident, who is present, shall preside and in the absence Duties of the of the President and all Vicepresidents a Chairman pro tempore President shall be elected under the direction of the Secretary of the Association. The President shall prepare the program for the general sessions of the annual meeting of the Association and shall have power to confer with the President of the Council and the heads of the several departments and to make such recommendations in regard to the program of the Council and the several Departments as will, in his opinion, promote the interest of the annual meeting. The President shall be a member ex officio of the Board of Trustees and Chairman of the Board of Directors, and the Executive Committee. He shall sign all bills approved for payment by the Board of Directors and all bills ap¬ proved or authorized by the Executive Committee acting for and under the in¬ struction of the Board of Directors. On the expiration of his term of office as President, he shall become first Vicepresident for the ensuing year. Sec. 2. The Secretary shall keep a full and accurate record of the proceedings of the general meetings of the Association and all meetings of the Board of Directors and of the Executive Committee, shall conduct the business of the As¬ sociation as provided in the Act of Incorporation and these Bylaws and, in all matters not definitely prescribed therein, Duties of the shall be under the direction of the Board of Directors or of the Secretary Executive Committee acting for the Board of Directors, and, in the absence of instructions from the Board of Directors or the Executive Com¬ mittee, shall be under the direction of the President. He shall receive or collect all moneys due the Association and pay the same each month to the Treasurer. He shall countersign all bills approved for payment by the Board of Directors, or by the Executive Committee acting under the authority of the Board of Directors or by the President acting under authority of the Board of Directors or of the Executive Committee. The Secretary shall have his records present at all meet¬ ings of the Association, of the Board of Directors, and of the Executive Commit¬ tee. He shall keep a list of members and shall revise said list annually. He shall be Secretary of the Board of Directors. He shall be the custodian of all the property of the Association not in charge of the Treasurer and the Board of Trustees. He shall give such bond for the faithful performance of his duties 1000 National Education Association as may be required by the Board of Trustees. He shall submit his annual report to the Executive Committee not later than fifteen days before the annual meeting of the Association, which report shall be transmitted to the Board of Directors at its annual meeting. At the expiration of his term of office, he shall transfer to his successor all money, books, and other property in his possession belonging to the Association. The Secretary shall not print, publish or distribute any official report or other document without the approval of the Board of Directors or of the Executive Committee acting under the general instruction of the Board of Direc¬ tors. Sec. 3. The Treasurer shall perform the duties prescribed by the Act of In¬ corporation and these Bylaws. He shall receive from the Secretary and, under the direction of the Board of Trustees, shall hold in safe-keeping all moneys paid to the Association; shall pay the same only upon the order of Duties of the the Board of Trustees, shall notify the President of the Asso- Treasurer ciation and the Chairman of the Board of Trustees whenever the surplus funds in his possession exceed $500; shall keep an exact account of his receipts and expenditures with vouchers for the latter; and said accounts, ending on the thirty-first day of May each year, he shall render to the Executive Committee not later than ten days before the annual meeting of the Association, and when approved by said Committee, these ac¬ counts shall be transmitted by this Committee to the Board of Directors at its meeting held in connection with the annual meeting of the Association and a copy of the report shall be transmitted to the Representative Assembly for its informa¬ tion. The Treasurer shall give such bond for the faithful performance of his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees. At the expiration of his term of office, he shall transfer to his successor all moneys, books, and other property in his possession belonging to the Association. Sec. 4. The Board of Directors shall have such powers and perform such duties as are prescribed by the Act of Incorporation and by these Bylaws, shall elect corresponding members as prescribed in Section 6 of Article I of these Bylaws; shall elect members of the National Council of Education as Duties of the provided in Section 3 of Article IV of these Bylaws; shall Board of fill all vacancies in its own body and in the Board of Trustees. Directors The Board of Directors shall approve all bills incurred by itself or by the Executive Committee, or the President or the Secretary acting under the authority of the Board of Directors; shall appropriate from the current funds of the year the amounts of money ordered by the Representative Assembly at the annual business meeting of the same for the work of all special committees of research and investigation authorized and provided for at the annual business meeting, and for all other needs of the Association; shall make a full report of the financial condition of the Association including the reports of the Secretary, the Treasurer and the Board of Trustees to the Representative Assembly at its annual business meeting, and shall do all in its power to make the Association a useful and honorable institution. The Board of Directors shall appoint at its annual meeting a budget committee for the ensuing year, whose duty it shall be to prepare and present a budget to the Board of Directors at its next meeting. The budget committee shall have authority to secure the support of the auditing committee in preparing this budget. The Board of Directors shall meet in connection with the annual meeting of the Representative Assembly, and may meet in connection with the annual meet¬ ing of the Department of Superintendence and at such other times and places as may be determined by the President or requested in writing by a majority of the elective members of the Board of Directors. Sec. 5. The Executive Committee may recommend to the Representative As¬ sembly at the annual business meeting the appointment of special committees for Associational Records and Information 1001 investigation or research, the subjects for which may have been suggested by the National Council or by the active members of the National Education Association or by any of its Departments; it shall Duties of recommend the amount of money to be appropriated for such Executive investigations. When such special committees are provided Committee for and duly authorized by the Representative Assembly and appropriations for them have been authorized by the Board of Directors, the Executive Committee shall, under the instructions of the Board of Directors, have general supervision of them. The Executive Committee shall receive and con¬ sider all reports made by the special committees and shall print these reports and present them, together with the reports of the Secretary, the Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees, and the recommendations of the Executive Committee thereon, to the Board of Directors, which shall transmit the same with recommendations to the Representative Assembly at its annual business meeting. All such special committees shall be appointed by the President of the Association. The Executive Committee shall fill all vacancies occurring in the body of officers of the Association, except as otherwise provided for in the Act of Incorporation or in these Bylaws. Sec. 6. The Board of Trustees shall have such powers and perform such duties as are prescribed by the Act of Incorporation, shall require of the Secretary and Treasurer bonds in such amounts as may be determined by said Board for the faithful performance of their duties; shall make a full report of the finances of the Association to the Executive Committee Further Duties not later than ten days prior to the annual meeting of the of Trustees Association, which report shall be transmitted by the Executive Committee to the Board of Directors at the first regular meeting of the Board held in connection with the annual meeting of the Association. It shall annually choose its own chairman and secretary. ARTICLE IV— THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION Section 1. The* National Council of Education shall discuss educational ques¬ tions of public and professional interest; propose to the Executive Committee, from time to time, suitable subjects for investigation and re¬ search; have a report made at its annual meeting on “Edu- Function of cational Progress During the Past Year”; and in other ways National use its best efforts to further the objects of the Association and Council to promote the cause of education in general. Sec. 2. The National Council of Education shall consist of one hundred twenty regular members, selected from the active membership of the National Education Association. Any active member of the Association is eligible to membership in the Council and each member shall be elected for six years and until his successor is elected. In addition to the 120 mem- Membership bers thus selected from the active membership the National in Council Council may in its bylaws provide for the admission to mem¬ bership of representatives from the several departments of the Association on the basis of equal representation from each department. Sec. 3. The annual election of members of the Council shall be held at the time of the annual meeting of the Association. The Board of Directors of the Association shall annually elect ten members and the Council ten members, and each body shall fill all vacancies in its quota of members. No state, territory, nor district in the United States shall have at one time more than seven regular members in the Council. Sec. 4. The annual meeting of the Council shall be held dur¬ ing the week of the annual meeting of the Association. Election of Committee Members Time of Meeting 1002 National Education Association absence of a regular member from two successive annual meetings shall be considered equivalent to his resignation of membership, regular membership in the Council has expired shall be denomi¬ nated honorary members of the Council during the time of their active membership in the Association with the privilege of attending the regular sessions of the Council and partici¬ pating in its discussions. A member who discontinues or for- e membership in the Association forfeits his membership in the Sec. 5. The of the Council Persons whose Loss of Membership feits his activ Council. Sec. 6. The officers of the Council shall consist of a President, a Vicepresident, a Secretary, and such standing committees as may be prescribed by its bylaws, all of whom shall be regular members of the Council. The Secre- Council tary of the Council shall, in addition to performing the duties Officers pertaining to his office, furnish the Secretary of the Association a copy of the proceedings of the Council for publication. Sec. 7. The National Council of Education is hereby authorized to adopt by- Bvlaws and laws for its government not inconsistent with the act of incor- Powers of poration or the bylaws of the Association; provided, That such Council bylaws be submitted to, and approved by, the Board of directors of the Association before they shall become operative. Sec. 8. The powers and duties of the Council may be changed or the Council abolished upon a two thirds vote of the Representative Assembly taken at the annual meeting of the Association; provided, That notice of the proposed action has been given at the preceding annual business meeting of the Association. ARTICLE V— DEPARTMENTS Section 1. The following departments are now (1927) in existence, to wit: The departments, first, of Adult Education; second, of American Association of Teach¬ ers Colleges; third, of Business Education; fourth, of Classroom Teachers; fifth, of Deans of Women; sixth, of Elementary School Principals; seventh, of Kinder¬ garten-Primary Education; eighth, of Lip Reading; ninth, of Rural Education; tenth, of School Health and Physical Education; eleventh, of Science Instruction; twelfth, of Secondary School Principals; thirteenth, of Social Studies; fourteenth, of Superintendence; fifteenth, of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction; sixteenth, of Visual Instruction; seventeenth, of Vocational Education. There is also the Na¬ tional Council of Education. Sec. 2. Each department shall have the right to fix the qualifications of its members for the purpose of electing officers and transacting the other business of the department; provided, Active members of the Associa¬ tion, and no others, shall be eligible to such department mem¬ bership, and provided also that all active members of the Association shall be permitted to attend the professional pro¬ grams and discussions of any department. Sec. 3. Each department shall hold an annual meeting at the time and place of the meeting of the Association except as otherwise provided Department in these bylaws or as directed by the Board of Directors, or Meetings bv the Executive Committee acting under the general instruc¬ tions of the Board of Directors. Sf.c. 4. The object of the meetings of the departments shall be the discussion of questions pertaining to their respective fields of educational work. The pro¬ grams of these meetings shall be prepared by the respective presidents in conference with, and under the general direction of, the President of the Association. Each department shall be limited to two sessions, with formal programs, unless otherwise ordered by the President of the Association, except that a third session of business or informal round-table conference may be held at the discretion of the department officers. Members of Departments Object of Department Meetings Associational Records and Information 1003 Sec. 5. The officers of each Department shall consist of a President, a Vice- president, a Secretary, and such other officers as may be deemed necessary by the Department, who shall be elected at the last formal session of the Department to serve one year and until their successors are duly elected; and who shall, at the time of their election, be active mem- Officers of bers of the Association. Each department shall provide for Departments the creation of an Executive Committee, and assign to it any duties consistent with the purposes of the Department and the Act of Incorpora¬ tion and Bylaws of the Association. In case there is a vacancy in the office of President of any Department, it shall be filled by appointment made by the Execu¬ tive Committee of the Department. Any other Departmental vacancy shall be filled by appointment made by the President of the Department. Sec. 6. The Secretary of each Department shall, in addition to performing the duties usually pertaining to his office, furnish the Secretary of the Association a copy of the proceedings of the meetings of the Department for publication. No Department shall establish an office outside of Department the general headquarters of the Association without the con- Headquarters sent of the Board of Directors. Sec. 7. All departments shall have equal rights and privileges, with the ex¬ ception stated in Section 3 of this article. They shall be named in Section 1 of this article in the order of their establishment and shall be dropped from the list when discontinued. Each department Rights of may be governed by its own regulations in so far as they are Departments not inconsistent with the act of incorporation or these bylaws. Sec. 8. Upon the recommendation of the Board of Directors a new department may be established by vote of two thirds of the delegates to the Representative Assembly present at any annual meeting; provided, that a written application for said Department with title and purpose of the same shall have been made at the regular meeting of the Assembly next pre- How ceding the one at which action is taken by at least 250 mem- Established bers engaged or interested in the field in the interest of which the department is proposed to be established; provided, that no group shall be admitted to Departmental status until it shall have held constructive meetings for at least three successive years. A Department already established may be discontinued upon a two-thirds vote of the Representative Assembly at any business meeting provided that announce¬ ment of the purpose to discontinue has been made at the preceding annual busi¬ ness meeting. The Board of Directors may recommend to the Representative As¬ sembly the discontinuance of any Department. Upon the recommendation of the Board of Directors a department which has failed to hold a regular meeting for two successive years may be discontinued by a vote of two thirds of the delegates to the Representative Assembly present at any annual meeting. Sec. 9. Any department, by a two thirds vote of those voting at any regular business meeting, may levy a membership fee to supplement its allowance from the Association. Such membership fees shall be paid to the Secretary of the de¬ partment who shall transmit them monthly to the Secretary of the Association. Such funds shall be added to the department’s allowance from the Association and shall be used for the work of said department only, and shall be disbursed upon the rec¬ ommendation of the executive officers of the department in the same manner as other funds of the Association are disbursed. Fees for Department Members ARTICLE VI— COMMITTEES Section 1. Not later than five months before the end of the fiscal year, the Presi¬ dent shall appoint an auditing committee, consisting of three active members of 1004 National Education Association the Association, no one of whom shall be either a Trustee or a Director; to this Committee shall be referred the report and audit of the expert Auditing accountant or accountants, together with the communication of Committee the President transmitting the same as provided in Section 5 of this Article; and the Committee shall report its findings to the Board of Directors. Sec. 2. On the first day of the annual meeting of the Association, at such time and place as shall be designated on the annual program by the President of the Association, the accredited delegates to the Representative Assembly from each state shall elect one member and one alternate who are active Delegates Meet members of the Association for each of the following commit- by States tees, to serve for the ensuing year: Credentials, Resolutions, and Necrology. The Committee on Credentials shall receive the official list of delegates from the Secretary and report thereon to the Representa¬ tive Assembly. Sec. 3. The Committee on Resolutions shall report at the annual business meeting of Representative Assembly, and except by unanimous consent, all resolutions shall be referred to said committee without discussion. This committee shall receive and consider all resolutions proposed by active members, or referred Resolutions to it by the President; some time during the second day of the annual meeting of the Association the committee shall hold a meeting, at a place and time to be announced in the printed program, for the pur¬ pose of receiving proposed resolutions and hearing those who may wish to advo¬ cate them. Sec. 4. The Committee on Necrology may prepare for the Necrology published Proceedings brief memorial tributes to members who have died during the year. Sec. 5. Within thirty (30) days prior to the time of the annual meeting of the Association, the President shall appoint a competent person, firm or corporation, licensed to do business as expert accountants; the accountant or accountants so appointed shall examine the accounts, papers, and vouchers of Examination the Secretary, the Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees and Of Accounts compare the same, shall also examine the securities of the permanent fund held by the Board of Trustees. The report of said accountant or accountants shall be filed with the President not less than ten days before the opening day of the annual meeting of the Association, and shall be by him submitted to the Auditing Committee with such comments as he may think proper. ARTICLE VII— MEETING Section 1. Stated meeting of the Association, of the Coun- Meetings to be cil of Education, and of all other Departments, except as Other- Held wise provided, shall be held at such time and place as shall be Annually determined by the Board of Directors or by the Executive Com¬ mittee acting under the instructions of the Board of Directors. Sec. 2. The annual business meeting of the Representative Assembly shall begin at 9 oclock a. m., on the second day of the annual meeting of the Association. A regular meeting of the Board of Directors shall be held in connection with the annual meeting of the Association. The time and place of such meeting shall be designated in the program. The Secre¬ tary shall notify the members of the Board of Directors of the time and place of meeting, not less than thirty (30) days before the meeting. The first regular meeting of the new Board of Directors shall be held as soon as practicable and within twenty-four hours after the close of Meetings of Assembly Directors, and Trustees Associational Records and Information 1005 the last session of the annual meeting. The place and time of this meeting shall be announced in the printed program. The Board of Trustees shall hold its annual meeting at some convenient time and immediately following the meeting of the new Board of Directors. Special meetings of the Trustees may be called by the Chairman and shall be called on request of a majority of the Board of Trustees. Due notice of all meetings of the Board of Trustees shall be given to every member of the Board by the Secretary thereof. ARTICLE VIII— PROCEEDINGS Section 1. The proceedings of the Association, of the Council, of the Depart¬ ments, and of all commissions and committees, shall be published at the discretion of and under the direction of the Executive Publication of Committee provided that such publication has been approved Proceedings and the money therefor appropriated by the Board of Directors. Sec. 2. No paper, lecture or address shall be read before the Association or any of the Departments in the absence of the author, without the approval of the President of the Association, or of the President of the Depart¬ ment interested; nor shall any such paper, lecture or address be published in the Proceedings without the approval of the Execu¬ tive Committee. ARTICLE IX Section 1. Elected directors from twenty-five states shall con¬ stitute a quorum of the Board of Directors. A majority of all the accredited delegates, representatives of not less than twenty- five states, shall constitute a quorum of the Representative Assembly. ARTICLE X— AMENDMENTS Section 1. These bylaws may be altered or amended at the annual meeting of the Representative Assembly by unanimous vote, or by a two thirds vote of the Rep¬ resentative Assembly if the alteration or amendment shall have been proposed in writing at the annual business meeting next Amendments preceding the one at which action is taken, and due announce- to Bylaws ment of the proposed action shall have been made in the official publication of the Association. Absence of Author Quorum 1006 National Education Association NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION NOW KNOWN AS THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES CERTIFICATE of Acceptance of Charter and Adoption of Bylaws under the Act of Congress approved June 30, 1906. We, the undersigned, Nathan C. Schaeffer, the presiding officer, and Irwin Shepard, the Secretary of the meeting of the National Educational Association held at Los Angeles, California, on the 10th day of July, 1907, said meeting being the annual meeting of the Association held next after the passage of an act of Congress entitled “An Act to Incorporate the National Education Association of the United States,” Do hereby certify, that at said meeting held pursuant to due notice, a quorum being present, the said Association adopted resolutions of which true copies are hereto attached, and accepted the charter of the National Education Association of the United States, granted by said act of Congress, and adopted bylaws as provided in said act and elected officers; and the undersigned pursuant to said resolutions, Do hereby certify that the National Education Association of the United States has duly accepted said charter granted by said act of Congress, and adopted by¬ laws, and is the lawful successor to the National Educational Association. In witness whereof, we have hereunto signed our names this 20th day of August, 1907. Nathan C. Schaeffer, Presiding Officer. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. VERIFICATION RESOLUTIONS ADOPTED BY THE ACTIVE MEMBERS, JULY 10, 1907 1. Resolved, That the National Educational Association hereby accepts the char¬ ter granted by an act of Congress entitled “An Act to Incorporate the National Education Association of the United States,” passed June 30, 1906, and that the President and Secretary of this meeting be authorized and directed to execute and file with the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia a verified certifi¬ cate showing the acceptance by the Association of the charter granted by said act. 2. Resolved, That the proposed bylaws of which notice was given at the annual meeting of the Association held on July 6, 1905, which are printed in full in the Journal of said meeting, be and the same are hereby adopted to take effect im¬ mediately. 3. Resolved, That the Association adopt as its corporate seal a circle containing the title “National Education Association of the United States,” and the dates “1857-1907.” 4. Resolved, That the Association do now proceed to elect officers, and to or¬ ganize under the charter granted by the act of Congress. Filed in the office of the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia, Septem¬ ber 4, 1907. Associational Records and Information 1007 CALENDAR OF MEETINGS NATIONAL TEACHERS ASSOCIATION, 1857-1870 1857— PHILADELPHIA, PA. (Organized) James L. Enos, Chairman. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. 1858— CINCINNATI, OHIO Z. Richards, President. J. W. Buckley, Secretary. A. J. Rickofe, Treasurer. 1859 — WASHINGTON, D. C. A. J. Rickoff, President. J. W. Buckley, Secretary. C. S. Pennell, Treasurer. 1860— BUFFALO, N. Y. J. W. Buckley, President. Z. Richards, Secretary. O. C. Wight, Treasurer. 1861, 1862 — No session. 1863— CHICAGO, ILL. John D. Philbrick, President. James Cruickshank, Secretary. *0. C. Wight, Treasurer. 1864— ODGENSBURG, N. Y. W. H. Wells, President. David N. Camp, Secretary. Z. Richards, Treasurer. 1865— HARRISBURG, PA. S. S. Greene, President. W. E. Shelton, Secretary. Z. Richards, Treasurer. 1866— INDIANAPOLIS, IND. J. P. Wickersham, President. S. H. White, Secretary. S. P. Bates, Treasurer. 1S67- — No session. 1868— NASHVILLE, TENN. J. M. Gregory, President. L. Van Bokkelen, Treasurer. James Cruickshank, Treasurer. 1869— TRENTON, N. J. L. Van Bokkelen, President. W. E. Crosby, Secretary. A. L. Barber, Treasurer. 1870— CLEVELAND, OHIO Daniel B. Hagar, President. A. P. Marble, Secretary. W. E. Crosby, Treasurer. NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, 1871-1907 1871— ST. LOUIS, MO. J. L. Pickard, President. W. E. Crosby, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1872— BOSTON, MASS. E. E. White, President. S. II. White, Secretary. Tohn Hancock, Treasurer. 1873— ELMIRA, N. Y. B. G. Northrup, President. S. H. White, Secretary. Tohn Hancock, Treasurer. 1874— DETROIT, MICH. S. H. White, President. A. P. Marble, Secretary. Tohn Hancock, Treasurer. 1875— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. W. T. Harris, President. M. R. Abbott, Secretary. A. P. Marble, Treasurer. 1876— BALTIMORE, MD. W. F. Phelps, President. W. D. HenklE, Secretary. A. P. Marble, Treasurer. 1877— LOUISVILLE, KY. M. A. Newall, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. J. Ormond Wilson, Treasurer. 1878 — No session. 1879— PHILADELPHIA, PA. John Hancock, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. J. Ormond Wilson, Treasurer. 1880— CHAUTAUQUA, N. Y. J. Ormond Wilson, President. W. D. Henkle. Secretary. E. T. Tappan, Treasurer. 1881— ATLANTA, GA. James H. Smart, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. E. T. Tappan, Treasurer. 1882— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. G. J. Orr, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. H. S. Tarbell, Treasurer. 1883— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. E. T. Tappan, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. N. A. Calkins, Treasurer. 1884— MADISON, WIS. Thomas W. Bicknell, President. H. S. Tarbell, Secretary. N. A. Calkins, Treasurer. 1885— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. F. Louis Soldan, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. N. A. Calkins, Treasurer. 18S6— TOPEKA. KANS. N. A. Calkins, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1887— CHICAGO, ILL. W. E. Sheldon, President. L. H. Canfield, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1888— SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF. Aaron Gove, President. J. H. Canfield, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1889— NASHVILLE, TENN. Albert P. Marble, President. J. H. Canfield, Secretarj\ E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1890— ST. PAUL, MINN. J. H. Canfield, President. W. R. Garrett, Secretary. E. C. Hewett, Treasurer. 1891— TORONTO, ONT. W. R. Garrett, President. E. H. Cook, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 1892— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N. Y. E. H. Cook, President. R. W. Stevenson, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 1893— CHICAGO, ILL. (International Congress of Education.) Albert G. Lane, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 1008 National Education Association 1S94— ASBURY PARK, N. J. Albert G. Lane, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 1895— DENVER, COLO. Nicholas Murray Butler, Pres. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeil, Treasurer. 1896— BUFFALO, N. Y. Newton C. Dougherty, President. Irwin C. Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNei,l, Treasurer. 1897— MILWAUKEE, WIS. Charles R. Skinner, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. 1899— LOS ANGELES, CALIF. E. Oram Lyte, President. Irwin Separd, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. 1900— CHARLESTON, S. C. Oscar T. Corson, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Carroll G. Pearse, Treasurer. 1901— DETROIT, MICH. James M. Green, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. L. C. Greenlee, Treasurer. 1902— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. William M. Beardshear, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Charles H. Keyes, Treasurer. 1903— BOSTON, MASS. Charles W. Eliot, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. W. M. Davidson, Treasurer. 1904— ST. LOUIS, MO. John W. Cook, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. McHenry, Rhodes, Treasurer. 1905— ASBURY PARK and OCEAN GROVE, N. J. William H. Maxwell, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. James. W. Crabtree, Treasurer. 1906 — No session. 1907— LOS ANGELES, CALIF. Nathan C. Schaeffer, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. J. N. Wilkinson, Treasurer. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES, 1908 — 1908 — CLEVELAND, OHIO Edwin G. Cooley, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Arthur H. Chamberlain, Treas. 1909— DENVER, COLO. Lorenzo D. Harvey, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Arthur H. Chamberlain, Treas. 1910— BOSTON, MASS. James Y. Joyner, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Arthur H. Chamberlain, Treas. 1911— SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF. Ella Flagg Young, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Durand W. Springer, Treasurer. 1912— CHICAGO, ILL. Carroll G. Pearse, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Katherine D. Blake, Treasurer. 1913— SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH. Edward T. Fairchild, President. Durand W. Springer, Secretary. Grace M. Shepherd, Treasurer. 1914— ST. PAUL, MINN. Joseph Swain, President. Durand W. Springer, Secretary. Grace M. Shepherd,, Treasurer. 1915— OAKLAND, CALIF. (International Congress of Education.) David Starr Jordan, President, Durand W. Springer, Secretary. Grace M. Shepherd, Treasurer. 1916— NEW YORK, N. Y. David B. Johnson, President. Durand YV. Springer, Secretary. Grace M. Shepherd, Treasurer. 1917— PORTLAND, ORE. Robert J. AlEY, President. Durand W. Springer, Secretary. Thomas E. FinEGan, Treasurer. 1929— ATLANTA, 1918— PITTSBURGH, PA. Mary C. C. Bradford, President. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. A. J. Matthews, Treasurer. 1919— MILWAUKEE, WIS. George D. Strayer, President. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. A. J. Matthews, Treasurer. 1920— SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH. Josephine Corliss Preston, Pres. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. A. J. Matthews, Treasurer. 1921— DES MOINES, IOWA. Fred M. Hunter, President. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. Cornelia S. Adair, Treasurer. 1922— BOSTON, MASS. Charl Ormond Williams, Pres. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. Cornelia S. Adair, Treasurer. 1923— OAKLAND-SAN FRANCISCO. William B. Owen, President. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. Cornelia S. Adair, Treasurer. 1924— WASHINGTON, D. C. Olive M. Jones, President. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. Cornelia S. Adair, Treasurer. 1925— INDIANAPOLIS, IND. Jesse H. Newlon. President. J W. Crabtree, Secretary. Cornelia S. Adair, Treasurer. 1926— PHILADELPHIA, PA. Mary McSkimmon, President. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer. 1927— SEATTLE, WASH. Francis G. Blair, President. J. YV. Crabtree, Secretary. Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer. 1928— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. Cornelia S. Adair, President. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer. GA. Uel W. Lamkin, President. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary. Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer. Associational Records and Information 1009 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OFFICERS FOR 1928-29 Uel W. Lamkin . . President, State Teachers College . Maryville, Mo. J. W. Crabtree . Secretary, 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W . Washington, D. C. Henry Lester Smith . Treasurer, Dean, School of Education, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. Executive Committee Uel W. Lamkin . President . Maryville, Mo. Cornelia S. Adair . \ icepresident, Teacher, Bainbridge Junior High School 2121 Park Avenue . Richmond, Va. Walter R. Siders . Chairman, Board of Trustees . State House Augusta, Me. Henry Lester Smith . Treasurer . Bloomington, Ind. Frank E. Reynolds . Member by Election, Secretary, Ohio State Teachers As¬ sociation, 428 Chamber of Commerce . Columbus, Ohio Board of Trustees Walter R. Siders . Chairman . Augusta, Me. Uel W. Lamkin . President . Maryville, Mo. J. M. Gwinn . Superintendent of Schools . San Francisco, Calif. Kate V. Wofford . Superintendent of Laurens County Schools . Laurens, S. C. Toseph H. Saunders . Superintendent of Schools . Newport News, Va. Vicepresidents George A. Allen, Jr., State Superintendent of Public Instruction . Topeka, Kans. Ira T. Chapman, Superintendent of Schools . Elizabeth, N. J. James P. Coates, Secretary, South Carolina Teachers Association, 314 State Office Bldg . Columbia, S. C. J. J. Early, Superintendent of Schools . Sheridan, Wyo. Charles R. Foster, President, State Teachers College . Indiana, Pa. Anna Gr.Eme Fraser, Viceprincipal, Oakland High School . Oakland, Calif. Florence M. Hale, State Agent for Rural Education . Augusta, Me. Elizabeth R. McCormick, Principal, Timothy O. Howe School . Superior, Wis. G. H. Madden, Superintendent of Schools . Winslow, Ariz. C. B. Turner, Supervisor of Schools . Baton Rouge, La. Caroline S. Woodruff, Principal, State Normal Training School . Castleton, Vt. Board of Directors Directors exofficio The president, first vicenresident, treasurer, chairman of the Board of Trustees, and the secretary are directors exofficio. , ' J Life Directors Cornelia S. Adair . Richmond, Va. Robert J. Aley, President, Butler University . Indianapolis. Ind. Francis G. Blair, State Superintendent of Public Instruction . Springfield, Ill. Board of Education . Nashville, Tenn. Mary C. C. Bradford, 1735 Bellaire Street . Denver. Colo. Elmer Ellsworth Brown, Chancellor, New York University . New York City Nicholas Murray Butler, President, Columbia University . New York City P. P. Claxton, Superintendent of Schools . Tulsa, Okla. H. A. Graham, East Broadway . Mt. Pleasant, Mich. Frederick M. Hunter, Chancellor, University of Denver . Denver, Colo. Olive M. Jones, Principal, Public School No. 120 . New York City David Starr Jordan, Chancellor Emeritus, Stanford University . Stanford, Calif. James Y. Joyner, Assistant Manager, Prudential Insurance Co. of America, 1304 E. Jones St . Raleigh, N. C. Mary McSkimmon, Principal, Pierce School . Brookline, Mass. Jesse H. Newlon, Director, Lincoln School, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City Carroll G. Pearse, Representative of F. E. Compton Co., 4315 Lisbon Ave. . .Milwaukee, Wis Josephine C. Preston, State Superintendent of Public Instruction . Olympia, Wash. State Teachers Association of Illinois, Robert C. Moore, Secretary . Carlinville, Ill. George D. Strayer, Professor of Education and Director, Institute of Educational Re¬ search, Teachers College, Columbia University . New York City A. R. Taylor, 225 N. Fairview St . Decatur, Ill. Teachers Institute . Philadelphia, Pa. 1010 National Education Association Alabama . Alaska .. . Arizona . . Arkansas . California Colorado . Connecticut . Delaware . District of Columbia . . . Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho . Illinois Indiana Iowa . . Kansas . Kentucky Louisiana . Maine . Maryland . Massachusetts Michigan . . . John J. Tigert, President, University of Florida . Gainesville, Fla. Charles G. White, President, Isbell Missionary College . Martin, Tenn. Charl O. Williams, Director, Field and Legislative Division, National Education As¬ sociation . .....Washington, D. C. State Directors J. D. Williams, Principal, Avondale School . Birmingham William K. Keller, Superintendent of Schools . Juneau Herman E. Hendrix, Superintendent of Schools . Mesa J. P. Womack, State Superintendent of Public Instruction . Little Rock A. R. Clieton, Superintendent of Schools, . Monrovia W. B. Mooney, Secretary, Colorado Education Association, 530 Commonwealth Bldg . Denver Gordon C. Swiet, Superintendent of Schools . Watertown David A. Ward, Superintendent of Schools.... . Wilmington Harry English, Secretary, Board of Examiners, Franklin School Bldg . Washington W. S. Cawthon, State Superintendent of Public Instruction . Tallahassee M. L. Duggan, State Superintendent of Schools, State Capitol . Atlanta F. E. Howard, Principal, Public Schools. .Hamakuapoko, Maui, T. H. Charles F. Dienst, Superintendent of Schools . Boise A. L. Whittenberg, Secretary, State Examining Board for Teachers’ Certificates . Springfield Charles F. Miller, Superintendent of Schools . Indianapolis Mary A. Lord, Teacher, Woodrow Wilson Junior High School . Sioux City M. E. Pearson, Superintendent of Schools . Kansas City R. E. Williams, Secretary, Kentucky Education , Association, 1122 Starks Bldg . ..Louisville C. B. Turner. Supervisor of Schools . Baton Rouge William B. Jack, Superintendent of Schools . Portland William Burdick, State Supervisor of Physical Education . Baltimore Annie C. Woodward, Teacher, High School . Somerville Webster H. Pearce, State Superintendent of Public Instruction . Lansing Eefie MacGregor, Principal, John Burroughs School .. Minneapolis H. V. Cooper, Superintendent of Schools . Kosciusko I'homas J. Walker, Editor, School and Community . Columbia K. J. Cunningham, Secretary, Montana Edu¬ cation Association, Room 9, Kohrs Block . Helena M. C. LEFLER, Superintendent of Schools . Lincoln Jennie A. Curieux . Tonopah Perley L. Horne, Principal, Pinkerton Academy . Derry Alexander J. Glennie, Principal, Miller Street School . Newark Mrs. H .F. Brock, Superintendent of McKinley County Schools Gallup William H. Holmes, Superintendent of Schools . Mount Vernon T. W. Andrews, Superintendent of Schools, Box 5 17.... High Point Minnie J. Nielson, 901 5th Avenue . Valley City A. C. Eldredge, Assistant Superintendent of Schools . Cleveland John G. Mitchell, President, Central State Teachers College . ..Edmond Nettie Mae Rankin, Teacher, High School of Commerce. .Portland J. Herbert Kelley, Secretary, Pennsylvania State Education Association, 400 N. 3d St . Harrisburg Francisco Vizcarrondo, Assistant Commissioner of Education . . . •_ . San Juan Agnes M. Bacon, State Supervisor of Americanization. .. .Providence George W. Wannamaker, Superintendent of Schools ... St. Matthews N. E. Steele, Secretary, South Dakota Education Associa¬ tion, Room 3, Perry Bldg . Sioux Falls P. L. Harned, State Commissioner of Education . Nashville L. W. Rogers, First Assistant Superintendent of Public Instruction . Austin B. A. Fowler, Superintendent of Schools, Weber County, 2324 Adams Ave . Ogden Clarence H. Dempsey, State Commissioner of Education . Montpelier C. J. Heatwole, Secretary, Virginia Education Association, 202-203 Goddin Hall, . Richmond Arthur E. Lindborg, Director of Education . St. Thomas Arthur L. Marsh, Secretary, Washington Edu¬ cation Association, 707 Lowman Bldg . Seattle TosEph Rosier, President, State Normal School . Fairmont E. G. Doudna, Secretary, Board of Regents of Normal Schools, 2017 E. Monroe St . Madison A. A. Slade. Superintendent of Schools . Laramie Minnesota Mississippi Missouri . Montana ., Nebraska . Nevada . New Hampshire New Jersey . . . . New Mexico . . . New York . . . North Carolina North Dakota . Ohio . Oklahoma .... Oregon . . . . . Pennsylvania Porto Rico Rhode Island . . South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee T exas . . . . Utah ... Vermont Virginia Virgin Islands Washington .. West Virginia Wisconsin . . . Wyoming . j Associational Records and Information 1011 HEADQUARTERS STAFF 1201 Sixteenth Street Northwest, Washington, D. C. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary Directors of Divisions Helen T. Hixson, Director of Accounts John K. Norton, Research. and Assistant Treasurer. Harold A. Allan, Business. Joy Elmer Morgan, Publications. Chare O. Williams, Field and Legislative. Agnes Winn, Classroom Service. T. D. Martin, Records and Membership. S. D. Shankland Administrative Service, and Secretary of the Department of Superintendence NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION President . Henry Lester Smith, Dean, School of Education, Indi¬ ana University . Bloomington, Ind. Vicepresident . Mrs. Susan M. Dorsey, 1506 Arapahoe Street. .. .Los Angeles, Calif. Secretary . Adelaide S. Baylor, Chief, Home Economics Education Service, Federal Board for Vocational Education.... Washington, D. C. Executive .Committee ... .A .J. Matthews, President, Tempe Normal School (Term expires 1929) . Tempe, Ariz. Anna Laura Force, Principal, Lake Junior High School, Denver, Colo. (Term expires 1930) M. G. Clark, Superintendent of Schools (Term expires 1931) . Sioux City, Iowa OFFICERS OF DEPARTMENTS Department of Adult Education President . A. W. Castle, Director of Extension Education, State De¬ partment of Public Instruction . Harrisburg, Pa. Vicepresident . Mrs. Ethel Richardson Allen, Assistant State Superin¬ tendent of Public Instruction, 1130 Sun Finance Building . . Los Angeles, Calif. Secretary . C. S. Marsh, Dean of the Evening Session, University of Buffalo . Buffalo, N. Y. American Association of Teachers Colleges, Department of N. E. A. President . W. P. Morgan, President, Western Illinois State Teachers College . Macomb, Ill. First Vicepresident . R. L. Marquis, President, North Texas State Teachers College . Denton, Texas Second Vicepresident ... .E. C. Higbie, President, Eastern State Normal School Madison, S. D. Third Vicepresident . Richard Hargreaves, President, State Normal School Cheney, Washington Secretary-Treasurer . Charles W. Hunt, Dean, Cleveland School of Education Cleveland, Ohio Department of Business Education President . Paul A. Carlson, Head of Accounting Department, State Teachers College . Whitewater, Wis. Vicepresident . Frances M. Butts, Director of Placement, Business High School . Washington, D. C. Secretary . ....A. B. Opfer, Head of Commercial Department, West High School . Minneapolis, Minn. Department of Classroom Teachers President . Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, 410 W. 14th St . Norfolk, Va. Vicepresident . R. Ross Smith, 5719 So. Francisco Ave . Chicago, Ill. Secretary . Charles E. Scott, Grant High School . Portland, Ore. Executive Committee. ... Middle Section, Eula F. Hunter, 1324 E. Morphy St. (Term expires 1929) . Fort Worth, Texas Western Section, Miriam D. Eisner, 3098 California St. (Term expires 1930) . San Francisco, Calif. Eastern Section, Sara FI. Fahey, 191 Lincoln Place (Term expires 1931).... . Brooklyn, N. Y. 1012 National Education Association Department of Deans of Women President . Dorothy Stimson, Dean of Women, Goucher College Baltimore, Md. First Vicepresident . Helen M. Smith, Dean of Women, Western Reserve University . Cleveland, Ohio Second Vicepresidcnt. ... Florence Purington, Dean of Women, Mt. Holyoke Col¬ lege . South Hadley, Mass. Secretary . Mary W. Sawyer, Dean of Girls, High School. ... Brookline, Mass. Treasurer . Estella G. Hefley, Dean of Women, Texas State College for Women . Denton, Texas Headquarters Secretary . . Gvvladys W. Jones, 1634 I St. N. W . Washington, D. C. Department of Elementary School Principals President . Eva G. Pinkston, Principal, Sam Plouston School .... Dallas, Texas First Vicepresident . Helen B. Shove, Principal, Longfellow School .. Minneapolis, Minn. Second Vicepresident.... Iohn Spargo, Principal, Ashland School . East Orange, N. J. Third Vicepresident . F. H. Duffy, Principal, Harding School . Steubenville, Ohio Fourth Vicepresident ... .CassiE F. Roys, Principal, Walnut Hill School . Omaha, Nebr. Fifth Vicepresident . V. J. Hamilton, Principal, University Elementary School Berkeley, Calif. Secretary . Herbert C. Hansen, 315 Plymouth Court . Chicago, 111. Executive Committee . . . . Mrs. Jessie M. Fink, Principal, Buchanan School (Term expires 1929) . Grand Rapids, Mich. M. E. Peterson, Principal, Twentieth Street School (Term expires 1930) . Eos Angeles, Calif. Elizabeth McCormick, Principal, Howe School (Term expires 1931) . Superior, Wis. John Merrill, Principal, Lingemann School, 567 Mont¬ clair Ave. (Term expires 1932) . Detroit, Mich. Department of Kindergarten-Primary Education . Mary Dabney Davis, Specialist in Nursery-Kindergarten- Primary Education, U. S. Bureau of Education Washington, D. C. . Winifred Bain, Kindergarten-First Grade Department, Teachers College, Columbia University . New York City . Florence Davenport, Deane School . St. Paul, Minn. Department of Lip Reading President . Caroline F. Kimball, 39 Jackson St . East Lynn, Mass. Vicepresident . Coralie N. Kenfield, 617 Shreve Building. ... San Francisco, Calif. Secretary-Treasurer . Alice I. Putnam, 3610 Milam St . Houston, Texas Department of Music Education (Officers for 1927-28; no election held at Minneapolis) President . Thaddeus P. Giddings, Supervisor of Music, Public Schools Minneapolis, Minn. Vicepresident . Estelle Carpenter, Supervisor of Music, Public Schools San Francisco, Calif. Secretary . Esther Sathf.r, Supervisor of Music, Public Schools Everett, Wash. President . . , Vicepresident Secretary . . Department of Rural Education President . William McKinley Robinson, Western State Teachers College . Kalamazoo, Mich. Vicepresidcnt . Ada York, County Superintendent of Schools . San Diego, Calif. Secretary . Mrs. Katherine M. Cook, Specialist in Rural Education, U. S. Bureau of Education . Washington, D. C. Executive Committee ... .A. F. Harman, County Superintendent of Schools (Term expires 1929) . Montgomery, Ala. Fannie W. Dunn, Teachers College, Columbia University (Term expires 1930) . New York City Agnes Samuelson, State Superintendent of Public Instruc¬ tion (Term expires 1931) . Des Moines, Iowa J. C. Muerman, Southeastern State Teachers College (Term expires 1932) . Durant, Okla. C. H. Barnes, County Superintendent of Schools (Term expires 1933) . Duluth, Minn. Associational Records and Information 1013 Department of School Health and Physical Education President . James E. Rogers, Director, National Physical Education Service, 315 Fourth Ave . New York City Vicepresident . Jay B. Nash, Professor of Physical Education, New York University . New York City Secretary-Treasurer . Mrs. Winifred A. Hart, Director, Health Education and School Nursing, Board of Education . Bridgeport, Conn. Executive Commit tee . . . . Elma Rood, George Peabody College for Teachers (Term expires 1929) . Nashville, Tenn. N. P. Neilson, State Supervisor of Physical Education (Term expires 1930) . Sacramento, Calif. William Burdick, State Director of Physical Education, 7 E. Mulberry St. (Term expires 1931) . Baltimore, Md. Ethel Perrin, American Child Health Association, 370 Seventh Ave. (Term expires 1932) . New York City Department of Science Instruction President . Francis D. Curtis, Associate Professor of Secondary Edu¬ cation, University of Michigan . Ann Arbor, Mich. Secretary . E. Lawrence Palmer, Professor of Natural Science, Cornell University . Ithaca, N. Y. Department of Secondary School Principals President . J. Stevens Kadesch, Headmaster, Senior High School Medford, Mass First Vicepresident . Truman G. Reed, Principal, Central Intermediate High School . Wichita, Kan Second Vicepresident. .. . William Ferdinand Ewing, Assistant Superintendent of Schools . Oakland, Calif. Secretary-Treasurer ... ...H. V. Church, 3129 Wenonah Ave . Berwyn, Ill. (Or Superintendent of Morton Secondary Schools, Cicero, Ill.) Executive Committee ... .Galen Jones, Principal, High School . Port Arthur, Texas E. H. Kemper McComb, Principal, Emmerich Manual Train¬ ing High School . Indianapolis, Ind. Department of Social Studies President . A. C. Krey, Professor of History, University of Minnesota Minneapolis, Minn. First Vicepresident . Edgar Dawson, Professor of Political Science, Hunter College . New York City Second Vicepresident ... .R. N. Tryon, Professor of History, School of Education, University of Chicago . Chicago, Ill. Secretary-Treasurer . Bessie L. PiERCE, Associate Professor of History, Univer¬ sity of Iowa . Iowa City, Iowa Board of Directors . Edna Stone, Director, Teacher Training in History, Univer¬ sity High School . Oakland, Calif. DeWitt S. Morgan, Arsenal Technical High School Indianapolis, Ind. Department of Superintendence President . Frank D. Boynton, Superintendent of Schools . Ithaca, N. Y. First Vicepresident . Joseph M. Gwinn, Superintendent of Schools.. San Francisco, Calif. Second Vicepresident ... .Frank G. Pickell, Superintendent of Schools . Montclair, N. J. Executive Secretary . S. D. Shankland, 1201 16th St. N. W . Washington, D. C. Executive Committee ... .Norman R. Crozier, Superintendent of Schools (Term ex¬ pires 1929) . Dallas, Texas E. E. Lewis, Professor of School Administration, Ohio State University (Term expires 1930) . Columbus, Ohio Frank M. Underwood, District Superintendent of Schools (Term expires 1931) . St. Louis, Mo. Paul C. Stetson, Superintendent of Schools (Term ex¬ pires 1932) . Dayton, Ohio 1014 National Education Association Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction President . Mary A. S'. Mugan, Assistant Superintendent of Schools Fall River, Mass. First Vicepresident . A. S. Barr, Associate Professor of Education, University of Wisconsin . Madison, Wis. Second Vicepresident ... . I. Jewell Simpson, Associate State Superintendent of Schools Baltimore, Md. Secretary-Treasurer .....James F. Hosic, Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University . New York City Executive Committee ... . W. H. Burton, Associate Professor of Education, University of Chicago . Chicago, Ill. J. Cayce Morrison, Assistant Commissioner for Elementary Education, State Department of Education . Albany, N. Y. Mabel E. Simpson, Director of Elementary Education, Public Schools . Rochester, N. Y. Department of Visual Instruction President . Mrs. Anna V. Dorris, Director of Visual Instruction, State Teachers College . San Francisco, Calif. Vicepresident . W. M. Gregory, Director of Educational Museum, Cleve¬ land School of Education . Cleveland, Ohio Secretary -Treasurer . Elda L. Merton, Assistant Superintendent of Schools Waukesha, Wis. Executive Committee. _ C. G. Rathmann, Assistant Superintendent of Schools St. Louis, Mo. John A. Hollinger, Director, Department of Nature and Visualization, Public Schools . Pittsburgh, Pa. W. W. Whittinghill, Supervisor of Visual Instruction, Public Schools . Detroit, Mich. Department of Vocational Education President . Homer J. Smith, Associate Professor of Industrial Educa¬ tion, University of Minnesota . Minneapolis, Minn. i'icepresident . Paul Chapman, State Director of Vocational Education, State House . Atlanta, Ga. Secretary . Enid Lunn, State Supervisor of Home Economics. State House . Columbus, Ohio national education association officers 1929-30 E. Ruth Pyrtle . President, Principal, Bancroft School . Lincoln, Nebraska J. W. Crabtree . Secretary, 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W . Washington, D. C. Henry Lester Smith . Treasurer, Dean, School of Education, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana Executive Committee E. Ruth Pyrtle . President, Principal, Bancroft School . Lincoln, Nebraska Uel W. Lamkin . Vice President, President, State Teachers College Maryville, Missouri Walter R. Siders . Chairman, Board of Trustees, 1201 Sixteenth Street N. \V., Washington, D. C. Henry Lester Smith . Treasurer, Dean, School of Education, Indiana University Bloomington, Indiana Frank E. Reynolds . Member by Election, Secretary, Ohio Education Association 428 Chamber of Commerce . Columbus, Ohio Board of Trustees Walter K. Siders . Chairman, 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W . Washington, D. C. E. Ruth Pyrtle . President, Principal, Bancroft School . Lincoln, Nebraska J. M. Gwinn . Member by Election, Superintendent of Schools, San Francisco, California Kate Wofford . County Superintendent of Schools . Laurens, South Carolina Joseph H. Saunders . Superintendent of Schools . Newport News, Virginia Associational Records and Information 1015 Vicepresidents W. F. Bond, State Superintendent of Education . John E. Bryan, Superintendent of Schools . Florence M. Hale, State Agent for Rural Education . W. H. Holmes, Superintendent of Schools . . . William Alonzo James, Principal, 2327 Avenue M . Eugenia West Jones, 318 South Benton Way . Elizabeth McCormick, Principal, Timothy O. Howe School S. E. Ragsdale, 659 North Manassas Street . Jean E. Soules, South 109 Wall Street . Willis A. Sutton, Superintendent of Schools . E. H. Whitney, Assistant Superintendent of Schools . ....Jackson, Mississippi .... Bessemer, Alabama . Augusta, Maine Mt. Vernon, New York . Galveston, Texas Eos Angeles, California . . . . Superior, Wisconsin ...Memphis, Tennessee . . Spokane, Washington . . Atlanta, Georgia . Portland, Oregon Board of Directors E. Ruth Pyrtle . President, Principal, Bancroft School . Eincoln, Nebraska Ue,l W. Eamkin... . Yicepresident, President, State Teachers College Maryville, Missouri Henry Elster Smith . Treasurer, Dean, School of Education, Indiana University Bloomington, Indiana Walter R. SiDERS . Chairman, Board of Trustees, 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W. Washington, D. C. J. W. Crabtree . Secretary, 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W . Washington, D. C. Life Directors Cornelia S. Adair . Richmond, Va. Robert J. Aley, President, Butler University . Indianapolis, Ind. Francis G. Blair, State Superintendent of Public Instruction . Springfield, Ill. Board op Education . Nashville, Tenn. Mary C. C. Bradford, 1481 So. Grant Street . Denver, Colo. Elmer Ellsworth Brown, Chancellor, New York University . New York City Nicholas Murray Butler, President, Columbia University . New York City P. P. Claxton, Superintendent of Schools . Tulsa, Okla. IE A. Graham, East Broadway . Mt. Pleasant, Mish. Frederick M. Hunter, Chancellor, University of Denver . Denver, Colo. Olive M. Jones, Director, Calvary House, 61 Grammercy Park . New York City David Starr Jordan, Chancellor Emeritus, Stanford University . Stanford, Calif. James Y. Joyner, Assistant Manager, Prudential Insurance Co. of America, 304 E. Jones St . . . Raleigh, N. C. Uel W. Eamkin, President, Northwest Missouri State Teachers College . Maryville, Mo. Mary McSkimmon, Principal, Pierce School . Brookline, Mass. JESSE H. Newlon, Director, Eincoln School, Teachers College, Columbia University New York City Carroll G. Pearse, Representative of F. E. Compton Co., 4315 Lisbon Ave. . .Milwaukee, Wis. Josephine C. Preston, Burton, Vashon Island, King County . Washington State Teachers Association of Illinois, Robert C. Moore, Secretary . Canlinville, Ill. George D. Strayer, Teachers College, Columbia University . New York City A. R. Taylor, 225 N. Fairview St . Decatur, Ill. John J. Tigert, President, University of Florida . Gainesville, Fla. Charles G. White, President, Isbell Missionary College . Martin, Tenn. Charl O. Williams, Director, Field and Legislative Division, National Education As¬ sociation . Washington, D. C. State Directors Alabama Alaska • . • Arizona . . Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Florida Georgia . . Hawaii Idaho . . . . Illinois . Zebulon Judd, Alabama Polytechnic Institute . Auburn . . William K. Keller, Superintendent of Schools . Juneau . E. W. Montgomery, President, Junior College . Phoenix . J. P. Womack, State Superintendent of Public Instruction . Little Rock . W. E. Givens, Superintendent of Schools . Oakland . . W. B. Mooney, Secretary, Colorado Education Association, 530 Commonwealth Building . Denver . Gordon C. Swift, Superintendent of Schools . Watertown . Harry V. Holloway, State Superintendent of Public Instruction . Dover Columbia. ... Harry English, Secretary, Board of Examiners, Franklin School . Washington . James S. Rickards, Secretary, Florida Education Association . Tallahassee . M. E. Duggan, State Superintendent of Schools . Atlanta . Frank E. Howard, Principal, High School . Hilo . C. F. Dienst, Superintendent of Schools . Boise . A. E. Whittenberg, Secretary, State Examining Board for Teachers Certificates . Springfield 1016 National Education Association Indiana . Iowa . Kansas . Kentucky . Louisiana . Maine . Maryland . Massachusetts Michigan . Minnesota . Mississippi . Missouri . Montana . Nebraska . Nevada . .Vew Hampshire . New Jersey . New Mexico . . . . New York . North Carolina . North Dakota . . . Ohio . Oklahoma . Oregon . . Pennsylvania .... Philippine Islands Porto Rico . Rhode Island . . . South Carolina . . South Dakota . . . Tennessee . Texas . Utah . Vermont . . Virgin Islands . . Virginia . Washington . West Virginia . . . Wisconsin . Wyoming . ....Charles F. Miller, Superintendent of Schools . Indianapolis ....Mary A. Lord, Woodrow Wilson Junior High School ... .^Sioux City . . . . M. E. Pearson, Superintendent of Schools... . Kansas City . . . . R. E. Williams, Secretary, Kentucky Education Association, 1317 Heyburn Building . . Louisville ....Annie T. Bell, Louisiana State University . Baton Rouge ....William B. Jack, Superintendent of Schools.. . ..Portland ....William Burdick, State Supervisor of Physical Education, 7 East Mulberry Street . Baltimore _ Annie C. Woodward, 144 School Street.. . ....Somerville ....Webster H. Pearce, State Director of Public Instruction. . .Lansing ....Alice Sullivan, 208 East 6th Street . ^.Duluth . . . . H. V. Cooper, Superintendent of Schools . • . Kosciusko .... Thomas J. Walker, Editor, School and Community . . Columbia . . . . R. J. Cunningham, Executive Secretary, Montana Education Association, 7 Kohrs Block . Helena . M. C. Lefler, Superintendent of Schools . .Lincoln . Jennie A. Curieux . Tonopah . . . . Perley L. Horne, Principal, Pinkerton Academy . Derry .... Alexander J. Glennie, Principal, Miller Street School. .. .Newark .... Mrs. H. F. Brock, Superintendent, McKinley County Schools . Gallup .....Harry W. Lang worthy. Superintendent of Schools. .. . Gloversville . . . . T. Wingate Andrews, Superintendent of Schools . High Point . Minnie J. Nielson, 901 Fifth Avenue . . Valley City . A. C. Eldredge, Assistant Superintendent of Schools. .. .Cleveland ....John G. Mitchell, President, Central Teachers College. . Edmond . F. C. Fitzpatrick, Superintendent of Schools . Echo — . J. Herbert Kelley, Executive Secretary, Pennsylvania State Education Association, 400 North Third Street . Harrisburg . Abdon Javier, Academic Supervisor, Pasig . Rizal . Francisco Vizcarrondo, Assistant Commissioner of Education . Providence - Agnes M. Bacon, 121 State House . Providence .... George W. Wannamaker, Superintendent of Schools.. St. Matthews . N. E. Steele, Secretary, South Dakota Education Association, Room 3, Perry Building . Sioux Falls . . . . P. L. Harned, Commissioner of Education . Nashville . L. W. Rogers, First Assistant State Superintendent of Schools . Austin . Arch M Thurman, President, Utah Education Association, 1042 Ramona Avenue . Salt Lake City . Clarence H. Dempsey, State Commissioner of Education, Montpelier . Arthur E. Lindborg, Director of Education . St. Thomas . Robert W. House, President, Virginia State Education Association . Prospect . Arthur L. Marsh. Executive Secretary Washington Education Association, 707 Lowman Building . Seattle .....Joseph Rosier, President, State Normal School . Fairmont .... Edgar G. Doudna, Secretary, Board of Normal School Regents . Madison . F. J. Early, Superintendent of Schools . Sheridan National Council of Education President . Henry Lester Smith, Dean, School of Education, Indiana University . Bloomington, Ind. 1 t ceprestdent . Mrs. Susan M. Dorsey, 1506 Arapahoe St . Los Angeles, Calif. Secretary . Adelaide Steele Baylor, Chief, Home Economics Education Service, Federal Board for Vocational Edu- . . cation . Washington, D. C. Executive Committee ...Anna Laura Force, Principal, Lake Junior High School (Term expires 1910) . Denver, Colo. M. G. Clark, Superintendent of Schools (Term expires 1931) Sioux City,' Iowa David A. Ward. Superintendent of Schools (Term expires 1932) Chester, Pa. OFFICERS OF DEPARTMENTS 1929-1930 Department of Adult Education President . L. R. Alderman, Specialist in Adult Education, U. S. Bureau of Education . Washington, D. C. Secretary . Alonzo G. Grace, Director, Division of Adult Education, Public Schools . Cleveland, Ohio Associational Records and Information 1017 Department of Business Education President . J. E. Harman, President, Bowling Green Business University Bowling Green, Ky: Vicepresident . E. A. Rice, Assistant in Secondary Education, State Department of Public Instruction . Trenton, N. J. Secretary . Pattie L. Sinclair, Commercial High School . Atlanta, Ga. Department of Classroom Teachers President . Eula F. Hunter, 1324 E. Morphy St . Fort Worth, Texas Vicepresident . James P. Barron, 973 Eos Angeles Ave. N. E . Atlanta, Ga Secretary . Faye Read, 1425 Vernon Ave . Pueblo, Colo. Regional Directors . Western Section, Miriam D. Eisner, 3098 California St. (Term expires 1930) . San Francisco, Calif. Eastern Section, Sara FI. Fahey, 191 Eincoln Place, (Term expires 1931) . Brooklyn, N. Y. Middle Section, Frances E. Harden, 1543 Sherwin Ave. (Term expires 1932) . Chicago, Ill. Department of Deans of Women President . Thyrsa W. Amos, Dean of Women, University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, Pa. First Vicepresidcnt . FJklen M. Smith, Dean, College for Women, Western Reserve University . Cleveland, Ohio Second Vicepresident ...Dorothy Stimson, Dean, Goucher College . Baltimore, Md. Secretary . Mary W. Sawyer, Dean of Girls, High School . Brookline, Mass. Treasurer . Eydia I. Jones, Dean of Women, Michigan State Normal College Ypsilanti, Mich. Headquarters Secretary . . Gwladys W. Jones, 1634 Eye St . Washington, D. C. Department of Elementary School Principals President . Herbert C. Hansen (Principal, Talcott School), 315 Plymouth Court . Chicago, Ill. First Vicepresident . Eva G. Pinkston, 5652 Belmont Ave . Dallas, Texas Second Vicepresident ...James R. Floyd, 717 Garden St . Plainfield, N. J. Third Vicepresident ....Mrs. Genevieve E. Stone, Principal, Whittier School, Minneapolis, Minn. Fourth Vicepresident ...N. H. Price, Principal, Hemphill School . Birmingham, Ala. Fifth Vicepresident ....Mrs. Margaret M. Smith, Principal, Mitchell School. . .Denver, Colo. Secretary . Miss Cassie F. Roys, 2609 Bristol St . Omaha, Nebr. Executive Committee . . . M. E. Peterson, Principal, Twentieth Street School (Term expires 1930) . Eos Angeles, Calif. Elizabeth McCormick, Principal, Howe School (Term expires 1931) . Superior, Wis. John Merrill, Principal, Eingemann School (Term expires 1932) . Detroit, Mich. M. Emma Brookes, Principal, Miles School (Term expires 1933) . Cleveland, Ohio Department of Kindergarten-Primary Education President . , . Mary Reed, Assistant Professor of Kindergarten-First Grade Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City Vicepresident . Clara Wilson, Chairman, Department of Kindergarten- Primary Education, School of Education, University of Nebraska . . . . . ..Eincoln, Nebr. Secretary -Treasurer . Eleanor Bogan. Director, New Orleans Nursery School, 1308 Audubon St . New Orleans, Ea. Department of Lip Reading President . Caroline F. Kimball, 39 Jackson St . East Eynn, Mass. Vicepresident . Coralie N. Kenfield, 617 Shreve Building . San Francisco, Calif. Secretary-Treasurer . Alice I. Putnam, 3610 Milam St . Houston, Texas Department of Rural Education President . Mabel Carney, Professor of Education, Teachers College, Colum¬ bia University . New York City Vicepresidcnt . E. N. Ferriss, Professor of Rural Education, Cornell University Ttliaca. N. Y. 1018 National Education Association Secretary . Mrs. Katherine M. Cook, Chief, Division of Rural Education, U. S. Bureau of Education . Washington, D. C. Executive Committee ...Fannie W. Dunn, Teachers College, Columbia University (Term expires 1930) . New York City Agnes Samuelson, State Superintendent of Public Instruction (Term expires 1931) . Des Moines, Iowa J. C. Muerman, Southeastern State Teachers College (Term (expires 1932) . Durant, Okla. C. H. Barnes, County Superintendent of Schools (Term expires 1933) . Duluth, Minn. M. S. Pittman, Director of Rural Education, State Normal Col¬ lege (Term expires 1934) . Ypsilanti, Midi. Department of School Health and Physical Education President . James E. Rogers, Director, National Physical Education Service, 315 Fourth Ave . New York City Vicepresidcnt . Jay B. Nash, Professor of Physical Education, School of Educa¬ tion, New York University . New York City Secretary-Treasurer . Mary E. Murphy, Director, Elizabeth McCormick Memorial Fund, 848 N. Dearborn St . Chicago, Ill. Executive Committee ... X. P. Neilson. State Supervisor of Physical Education (Term expires 1930) . Sacramento, Calif. William E. Burdick, State Director of Physical Education, 7 E- Mulberry St. (Term expires 1931) . Baltimore, Md. Ethel Perrin, American Child Health Association, 370 Seventh Ave. (Term expires 1932) . New York City F. W. Maroney, Director, Department of Health Education (Term expires 1933) . Atlantic City, N. J. President Secretary Department of Science Instruction . E. Lawrence Palmer, Professor of Natural Science, Cornell Uni¬ versity . . . Ithaca, N. Y. .Ralph K. Watkins, Associate Professor of Education, University of Missouri . Columbia, Mo. Department of Secondary School Principals President . Milo H. Stuart, Principal, Arsenal Technical High School Indianapolis, Ind. First Vicepresident . M. Channing Wagner, Principal, Wilmington High School Wilmington, Del. Second Vicepresident ...W. F. Warren, Principal, High School . Durham, N. C. Secretary-Treasurer . H. V. Church, Superintendent of Morton Secondary Schools, Cicero, Ill. Executive Committee ...Arthur M. Seybold, Principal, Thomas Jefferson Junior High School, Chairman of Junior High School Section. .Cleveland, Ohio John W. Harbeson. Principal, Pasadena Junior College, Chair¬ man of Junior College Section . Pasadena, Calif. Department of Social Studies President . \. C. Krey, Professor of History, University of Minnesota Minneapolis, Minn. First Vicepresident . Edgar Dawson, Professor of Political Science and History, Hun¬ ter College . New York City Second Vicepresident . . . K. M. Tryon, Professor of Teaching of History, University of Chicago . Chicago, Ill. Secretary-Treasurer . Bessie L. Pierce, Associate Professor of History, University of Chicago . Chicago, Ill. Board of Directors . A. E. McKinley, Professor of History, University of Pennsyl¬ vania, . Philadelphia, Pa. J. M. Gambrill, Professor of History, Teachers College, Colum¬ bia University . New York City Department of Superintendence President . Frank Cody. Superintendent of Schools, . Detroit, Mich. First Vicepresident . Frank D. Boynton, Superintendent of Schools . Ithaca, N. Y. Second Vicepresident ...Norman R. Crozier, Superintendent of Schools . Dallas, Texas Executive Secretary ...Sherwood D. Shankland, 1201 Sixteenth St. X. W., Washington, D. C. Executive Committee . . . E. F. Lewis. Professor of School Administration, Ohio State University (Term expires 1930) . Columbus, Ohio Associatioxal Records and Information 1019 Frank M. Underwood, District Superintendent of Schools (Term expires 1931) . St, Louis, Mo. Paul C. Stetson, Superintendent of Schools (Term expires 1932) . Dayton, Ohio David E. Weglein, Superintendent of Schools (Term expires 1933) . Baltimore, Md. Department of Supervisors and Directors of Instruction President . Frank M. Underwood, District Superintendent of Schools, St. Louis, Mo. First Vicepresident . Elizabeth Hall, Assistant Superintendent of Schools Minneapolis, Minn. Second Vicepresident ...Tessie McLean, Teacher, Central State Teachers College Mt. Pleasant, Mich. Secretory-Treasurer . Tames F. Hosic, Professor of Education. Teachers College, Colum¬ bia University . New York City Executive Committee ...William H. Burton, Associate Professor of Education, University of Chicago . Chicago, Ill. Worth McClure, Professor of Elementary School Admin¬ istration, State Teachers College . Buffalo, N. Y. Mabel E. Simpson, Director of Elementary Grades and Kinder¬ gartens . Rochester, N. Y. Department of Teachers Colleges President . Harry W. Rockwell, President, State Teachers College, Buffalo, N. Y. First Vicepresident . Edward L. Hardy, President, State Teachers College. San Diego, Calif. Second Vicepresident . . . V. L. Roy. President, State Normal College . Natchitoches. La. Third Vicepresident ....Robert I. Elliott, President. State Normal College. . Chadron, Xebr. Secretary-Treasurer . Charles W. Hunt, Dean, School of Education, Western Reserve University . Cleveland. Ohio Department of Visual Instruction President . John A. Hollinger, Director of Nature Study and Visualization, Public Schools . Pittsburgh, Pa. Vicepresident . F. Dean McClusey, Assistant Director, Scarborough School Scarborough, N. Y. Secretary-Treasurer . W. W. Whittinghill. Director of Visual Instruction. Public Schools . Detroit, Mich Executive Committee ...B. A. Auginbavgh, State Director of Visual Instruction Columbus, Ohio Dudley Grant Hays, Director of Visual Instruction, Public Schools . Chicago, Ill. Mrs. Anna V. Dorris, Director of Visual Instruction, State Teachers College . San Francisco, Calif. Department of Vocational Education • President . Paul W. Chapman, State Director of Vocational Education. Athens, Ga i'icepresident . Mrs. Anna L. Burdick. Special Agent for Girls and Women, Trade and Industrial Education Service. Federal Board for Vocational Education . Washington, D. C. Secretary . Ray Fife. State Supervisor of Vocational Agriculture, Columbus, Ohio 1020 National Education Association COMMITTEES OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, 1928-29 COMMITTEE ON APPOINTMENT OF DELEGATES AND KINDRED QUESTIONS (Authorized by Representative Assembly) A. L. Threlkeld, Chairman, Superintendent of Schools, Denver, Colo. P. P. Claxton, Superintendent of Schools, Tulsa, Okla. Albert S. Cook, State Superintendent of Schools, Baltimore, Md. Florence Deneen, 457 West 61st Place, Chi¬ cago, Ill. Anna Graeme Fraser, Woodrow Wilson Junior High School, Oakland, Calif. Ethel M. Gardner, 356 16th Avenue, Mil¬ waukee, Wis. Herbert C. Hansen, 1045 Lockwood Avenue, Chicago, Ill. Eula F. Hunter, 1324 East Morphy Street, Fort Worth, Texas. Mrs. Edith B. Joynes, 410 West 14th Street, Norfolk, Va. M. C. Lefler, Superintendent of Schools, Lincoln, Nebr. Jesse H. Newlon, 21 Claremont Avenue, Apt. 71, New York City. Joseph F. Noonan, Superintendent of Schools, Mahanoy City, Pa. Helen B. Shove, 3116 Clifton Avenue, Min¬ neapolis, Minn. Thomas J. Walker, Editor, School and Community, Columbia, Mo. Annie C. Woodward, 144 School Street, Somerville, Mass. THE BUDGET COMMITTEE (A Convention Committee) L. W. Rogers, Chairman, State Department of Education, Austin, Texas. W. B. Mooney, Secretary, Colorado Educa¬ tion Association, 530 Commonwealth Building, Denver, Colo. Joseph Rosier, President, State Normal School, Fairmont, W. Va. George W. Wannamaker, Superintendent of Schools, St. Matthews, S. C. A. L. Whittenberg, Secretary, State Exam¬ ining Board for Teachers Certificates, Springfield, Ill. COMMITTEE TO COOPERATE WITH THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF TEACHERS IN COLORED SCHOOLS (Authorized by Representative Assembly) N. C. Newbold, Chairman, State Director of Negro Education, State Department of Education, Raleigh, N. C. Francis G. Blair, Superintendent of Public Instruction, Springfield, Ill. Mabel Carney, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. Jackson Davis, General Field Agent, Gen¬ eral Education Board, 804 Grace-American Building, Richmond, Va. Leo M. Favrot, Field Agent, General Edu¬ cation Board, 910 Louisiana Bank Build¬ ing, Baton Rouge, La. R. S. Grossley, President, State College, Dover, Del. W. J. Hale, President, Agricultural and Industrial State Normal School, Nash¬ ville, Tenn. James H. Hope, State Superintendent of Education, Columbia, S. C. Arthur J. Klein, Chief, Division of Higher Education, U. S. Bureau of Education, Department of Interior, Washington, D. C. W. W. Sanders, State Supervisor of Negro Schools, State Department of Education, Charleston. W. Va. Fannie C. Williams, 1922 Louisiana Avenue, New Orleans, La. W. T. B. Williams, Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, Tuskegee Institute, Ala. J. P. Womack, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Little Rock, Ark. Arthur Wright, Dartmouth College, Han¬ over, N. H. COMMITTEE ON ECONOMIC STATUS OF THE TEACHER (Authorized by Representative Assembly) B. R. Buckingham, Chairman, Ginn and Company, 15 Ashburton Place, Boston, Mass. Florence Barnard, 1651 Beacon Street, Brookline, Mass. W. W. Coxe, Chief, Education Measure¬ ments Bureau, State Department of Edu¬ cation, Albany, N. Y. Mrs. Susan M. Dorsey, 1506 Arapahoe Street. Los Angeles, Calif. E. C. Hartwell, Superintendent of Schools, Buffalo, N. Y. J. R. McGaughy, Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. Frederick L. Whitney, Director, Depart¬ ment of Educational Research, Colorado State Teachers College, Greeley, Colo. Associational Records and Information 1021 MEMBERS OF THE COMMITTEE ON ETHICS OF THE PROFESSION Sarah T. Muir, Chairman, Lincoln High School, Lincoln, Nebraska. Ward R. Reeder, Secretary, Ohio State Uni¬ versity, Columbus, Ohio. Minnie B. Addleman, 2140 E. 14th Avenue. Denver, Colo. Denton M. Albright. Superintendent of Schools, Rochester, Pa. A. G. Alexander, Louisiana State Normal College, Natchitoches, La. T. W. Andrews, Superintendent of Schools, High Point, N. C. Agnes M. Bacon, State Supervisor of Ameri¬ canization, 119 State House, Providence, R. I. Catherine L. Baird. 958 Ridgewood Drive, Highland Park, Chicago, Ill. Harry M. Barrett, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo. George A. Bassford, Principal, High School, Ashland, Wisconsin. Frank A. Bauman, Principal, Orosi Union High School, Orosi, Calif. L. P. Benezet, 5 Victoria Street, Man¬ chester, N. H. T. G. Bennett, County Superintendent of Schools, Centerville, Md. Mrs. Alma Durant Bixby, Fairbanks, Alaska. Mary S. Black, Principal, Battle Mountain Public Schools, Battle Mountain, Nev. Grace Bridges, 360 E. 23rd Street, Port¬ land, Ore. A. B. Bristow, Sweetbrier Apartment, Nor¬ folk, Va. M. L. Brittain, President, Georgia School of Technology, Atlanta, Ga. Fowler D. Brooks, Johns Hopkins Univer¬ sity, Baltimore, Md. Dollie B. Burgess, Public Schools, Council Bluffs, Iowa. A. S. Burroughs, Superintendent of King County Schools, Court House, Seattle, Wash. Miles E. Carey, Principal, McKinley School, Honolulu, Hawaii. Ethel Case, 403 S. Jay Street, Aberdeen, S. Dak. S. A. Challman, Director of Division of School Buildings, State Dept, of Educa¬ tion, St. Paul, Minn. George Gailey Chambers, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. W. O. Chase, Superintendent of Schools, Old Town, Maine. Ruth L. Cheney, 403 North James Street, Rome, N. Y. Natalie K. Clark, 1 Winding Way, Bing¬ hamton, N. Y. Edward Clarke, Superintendent of Schools, Winthrop, Mass. J. R. Coniff, 811 Cherokee Street, New Or¬ leans, La. Arthur G. Crane, President, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyo. Anna Crook, 1819 Irving Street, N. W., Washington, D. C. Mrs. Mildred Starrett Daly, Sprague River, Ore. Mrs. Annie Daniels, Superintendent, Pima County Schools, Tucson, Ariz. Courtland V. Davis, Principal, Franklin School, Plainfield, N. J. Mrs. Isabel V. Davis, West Hopkinton, N. H. Pearle Davis, Deputy State Superintendent, Little Rock, Ark. Elizabeth Dice, North Dallas High School. Dallas, Texas. Anna M. Dobbin, Superintendent, Laramie County Schools, Cheyenne, Wyo. Ella Victoria Dobbs, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. J. J. Doyne, Superintendent of Schools, Lonoke, Ark. W. I. Early, Principal, Washington High School, Sioux Falls, S. Dak. Mary H. Eckels, Hurley Public Schools, Hurley, N. M. John M. Eddv. 1004 Eighth Avenue North, Columbus, Miss. J. B. Edmonson, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. E. G. Elcan, Superintendent of Schools. Bainbridge, Ga. C. E. Fair, Box 352, Sulphur, Okla. Mrs. Margaret C. Fairlie, 1035 E. Bay Street, Jacksonville, Fla. Katherine R. Farrell, 347 S. Winooshi Avenue, Burlington, Vt. L. W. Fast, Superintendent of Schools, Mt. Clemens. Mich. C. A. Fetterly, Supervising Principal, Rutherford, N. J. Elizabeth Fitzgerald, Assistant Principal, Salt Lake City, Utah. E. E. Franklin, Deputy State Superintend¬ ent, Elko, Nev. Mattie Fry, 1316 Ohio Avenue, Anderson. Ind. Lucy Gage, George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn. C. Ray Gates. Superintendent of Schools. Grand Island, Nebr. Mrs. Edith Geek, Flathead County High School, Kalispell, Mont. Arthur S. Gist. State Teachers College, San Francisco, Calif. Roy Good. Superintendent of Schools, Fort Bragg, Calif. B. Clifford Goode, Superintendent, Henry County Schools, Martinsville, Va. T. V. Goodrich, Director, Department of Measurements and Research, Lincoln. Nebr. M. Florence Gore, Principal, Force-Adams School, Washington, D. C. James W. Gowans, Superintendent of Schools, Hutchinson, Kans. C. W. Grandy, Superintendent of Schools, Terry, Mont. Erna Grassmuck, 5618 Ellis Avenue, Chi¬ cago, Ill. Lillian ‘M. Green, Public School No. 5, Elizabeth, N. J. C. A. Greene. Superintendent of Schools, St. Joseph, Mo. Marie Gugle. Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Columbus, Ohio. Florence Hale, State Agent for Rural Edu¬ cation, State House, Augusta, Maine. G. S. Hansen, Superintendent of Schools, Safford, Ariz. Agnes F. Hatch, Supervisor of Elementary Grades, Chisholm, Minn. May S. Hawkins, County Superintendent of Schools, Mound City, Ill. C. C. Haworth, Superintendent of Schools, Burlington, N. C. E. K. Hillhrand, University of Wichita, Wichita, Kans. 1022 National Education Association Louis B. Hobson. 116 Wentworth Avenue, Edgewood. R. I. H. V. Holloway. State Superintendent of Public Instruction. Dover. Del. Lucy Mason Holt. Principal. 121-23th Street. Norfolk. Va. Walter D. Hood. Principal. Gilbert High School. Winsted. Conn. C. M. Howe. Principal. High School, Nor¬ wood. Ohio. Beth E. Johnson. 4366 Maryland Street, San Diego. Calif. Marcia K. Johnson, 232 Broadway. Eau Claire. Wis. R. L. Jones. Superintendent of Schools. Memphis. Tenn. Mrs. Viola S. Kelly. President. San Fran¬ cisco Grade Teachers Association. 465 Post Street. San Francisco, Calif. Margaret V. Kielv. Principal, City Normal School. Bridgeport, Conn. Edna Kincaid. 1534 West Euclid Street. Topeka. Kans. Charles A. Kittrell. Superintendent of Schools. Waterloo. Iowa. Oren E. Long. Deputy Superintendent of Schools. Honolulu. Hawaii. W. W. McConnell. Superintendent of Schools. Winfield. Kans. Lillian F. McCormick. Eastern High School, Superior. Wis. Emma McCoy. 230 Livingston Avenue. New Brunswick. N. J. John R. McClure. Uni%’ersity of Alabama. University. Ala. Agnes R. McMaster. 1429 Laurel Street, Columbia. S. C. Mary McSkimmon. Principal. Pierce School, Brookline. Mass. W. G. Mallett. Principal. Normal School. Farmington. Maine. Joseph G. Masters. Principal. Central High School. Omaha. Nebr. A. O. Mathias. Withrow High School. Cin¬ cinnati, Ohio. Maude Mattley. Roosevelt High School. Portland. Ore. Lucy H. Meacham. 400 North Walnut Street. Oklahoma City. Okla. J. T. Miracle. Superintendent of Schools, Catlettsburg. Ky. Oscar D. Moore, County Superintendent of Schools. Raton, N. M. Paul M. Munro, 18}/2 Broad Street. Selma. Alabama. Elsie C. Murray. 84 Bowman Street. Laconia. N. H. Captola Neal, Terrace Court, Birmingham. Ala. Nicholas Orem. County Superintendent of Schools. Upper Marlboro. Md. Winifred O'Rourke. 126 North Oak Street, Burley. Idaho. Wellington Pegg, Canyon No. 2. Wenatchee. Wash. Nathan Peyser, Principal, Public School No. 181. Brooklyn. N. Y. Lillian Pierce. Model School. West Chester. Pa. P. D. Pointer, Principal, Central Junior High School, South Bend, Ind. Mary L. Quigley, 628 South Montana Street. Butte, Mont. Paul R. RatclifFe. Superintendent of Schools, Nutley, N. J. P. Byron Reid. Principal. Cohannet School. Taunton. Mass. L. C. Rhoads. High School Supervisor. Mount Vernon, N. Y. Pearl Richards. 736 Murray Avenue. Mil¬ waukee, Wis. M. Moss Richardson, West Texas State Teachers College. Canyon. Tex. H. D. Rinsland. University of Oklahoma. Norman, Okla. J. H. Risley. Superintendent of District No. 1. Pueblo. Colo. E. E. Roderick, Superintendent of Schools, Belfast. Maine. Edwin L. Rouse, 211 Bordeaux, Chadron, Nebr. Annie Scollard, 11 Bowditch Street, East Braintree. Mass. Elizabeth K. Shannon, 13 Chapman Street, Binghamton, N. Y. Mary M. Sheppard, Principal, High School, Ocala. Fla. Oliver Shurtliff. Fairmont State Teachers College, Fairmont, W. Va. Catherine Sproull. Principal, 1545 Hubbard Street. Jacksonville, Fla. James A. Starkweather, 226 North First Ave.. E.. Duluth. Minn. Zack Stephenson, Principal, Travis School, Houston, Tex. Bessie Stevenson, 1726 Gaines Street, Little Rock. Ark. Mamie Stoecker. 3900 E. Pine Street, Seattle, Wash. J. W. Studebaker. Superintendent of Schools. Des Moines, Iowa. Carl Frederick Taeusch. Graduate School. Business Administration, Harvard Univ., Cambridge. Mass. Annie Kate Taylor, 914 Martinique, Dallas, Texas. Florence Teagarden. University of Pitts¬ burgh. Pittsburgh, Pa. R. P. Thiel, Lawrence College, Appleton, Wis. Mrs. Bessie K. Thomas. Supervising Princi¬ pal, Public Schools. Woodstock, Vt. L. C. Tidball, State Commissioner of Edu¬ cation, Cheyenne, Wyo. Grace Toomey, 2242 East 70th Street, Kansas City, Mo. Lois Troumbley, 701 Second Ave., N., Great Falls, Mont. L. W. Turnbull. Superintendent of Schools, North Bend, Ore. C. B. Turner, 2000 Oliver Street, Baton Rouge. La. Edwin C. Wade. Superintendent of Schools, Bluefield, W. Va. Arland D. Weeks, Dean, School of Educa¬ tion, North Dakota Agricultural College, Agricultural College, N. Dak. Florence Wilkinson. 148 East Bluemont Street. Grafton, W, Va. D. S. Williams, Superintendent of Schools, Bozeman, Mont. Eva M. Wilson, The Carl Curtis School, 8008 Beverly Boulevard, Los Angeles, Calif. May Mary Wyman. Louisville Normal School. Louisville, Ky. A. M. Waller, Superintendent of Ward County Schools, Minot, N. Dak. W. H. Ward. Superintendent of Schools, Waterboro, S. C. Patterson Wardlow, Chairman, Teachers Re¬ tirement Committee of the South Carolina Teachers Association, Columbia, S. C. Elizabeth Warning, Rural School Super¬ visor, State Department of Education, Topeka, Kans. D. M. Webb, 2909 East 28th St., Kansas City, Mo. Associational Records and Information 1023 MEMBERS OF COMMITTEE ON CREDENTIALS William J. Sanders, Chairman, 80 Chestnut Street, Haverhill, Mass. M. F. Abbett, Superintendent of Schools, Bedford, Ind. O. D. Ballard, Jordan High School, Sandy, Utah. E. E. Bass, Superintendent of Schools, Greenville, Miss. Mamie Bastian, 812 Bell Avenue, Houston, Tex. Martha Boyer, Principal, Ferguson School, Philadelphia, Pa. Kate B. Brown, Superintendent, Henry County Public Schools, McDonough, Ga. J. M. Burnett, Superintendent of Schools, Tuscaloosa, Ala. Marguerite H. Burnett, Director of Adult Education, Wilmington, Del. John H. Manning Butler, Division Super¬ intendent of Schools, Ilagan, Isabela, ,P. I. Mrs. R. B. Butts, West High School, Musko¬ gee, Okla. Alice Carter, Principal, Waipahu School, Oahu, T. H. H. E. Chittenden, Superintendent of Schools, Naugatuck, Conn. Beulah Coward, 607 Mound Avenue, S., Pasadena, Calif. Minnie F. Dean, Business High School, Washington, D. C. N. A. Early, Principal, High School, Sioux Falls, S. D. Marie Falb, 672 E. 60th Street, Portland, Ore. Elizabeth H. Geneau, 3514 N. 45th Street, Omaha, Nebr. Miriam Grau, County Superintendent of Schools, Phoenix, Ariz. Caroline M. Griswold, Vice-Principal, High School, Montpelier, Vt. Frances E. Harden, 1543 Sherwin Avenue, Chicago, Ill. Elizabeth Harris, 1476 Montclair Avenue, Detroit, Mich. Lester D. Henderson, Commissioner of Edu¬ cation, Juneau, Alaska. Amy H. Hinrich, 7336 Hurst Street, New Orleans, La. Myrtle Hooper, 4038 Linden Hills Boule¬ vard, Minneapolis, Minn. H. N. Hunt, Superintendent of Schools, Sedalia, Mo. H. R. Huston, Superintendent of Schools, Brewer, Maine. Dana S. Jordan, Superintendent of Schools, Lisbon, N. H. Rae Kemp, 3621 Virginia Avenue, Kansas City, Kans. U. L. Light, Superintendent of Schools, Barberton, Ohio. Claude O. Markoe, 19 Kings Street, Fred- eriksted, St. Crois, Virgin Islands. L. E. McFadden, Principal, Humboldt County High School, Winnemucca, Nev. Oscar D. Moore, Superintendent Colfax County Schools, Raton, N. M. Elsie Norelius, Cultra Apartments, Sheridan, Wyo. M. C. Palmer, Principal, County Rural Normal School, Columbus, Wis. Anne V. Parker, 2215 Oak Avenue, Newport News, Va. J. C. Peel, 518 Main Street, Sarasota, Fla. J. W. Ramsey, Superintendent of Schools, Fort Smith, Ark. Faye Read, 1425 Vernon Street, Pueblo, Colo. C. E. Rogers, Superintendent of Schools, Johnson City, Tenn. E. F. Rothrock, Principal, Junior High School, Deer Lodge, Mont. Eda M. Round, 139 Superior Street, Provi¬ dence, R. I. Arthur O. Smith, Superintendent of Schools, Union City, N. J. Charles Sylvester, 2811 Mt. Holly Street, Baltimore, Md. Margaret J. Thomas, 2036 23rd Street, N., Seattle, Wash. Burr D. Vail, Principal, Public School No. 20, Yonkers, N. Y. H. L. Van Camp, Superintendent, Fayette¬ ville District Schools, Glen Jean, W. Va. Francisco Vizcarrondo, Assistant Commis¬ sioner of Education, San Juan, P. R. Marjorie Walters, 1557 C Avenue E., Cedar Rapids, Iowa. Patterson Wardlow, Dean, School of Educa¬ tion, University of South Carolina, Co¬ lumbia, S. C. Jule B. Warren, Secretary, North Carolina Education Association, Raleigh, N. C. Minta Witteman, Caldwell High School, Caldwell, Idaho. L. A. White, Superintendent of Schools, Minot, N. D. Arkley Wright, Superintendent of Schools, Hopkinsville, Ky. 1024 National Education Association COMMITTEE ON INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS (Authorized by Representative Assembly) William F. Russell. Chairman, Dean, Teach¬ ers College, Columbia University, New York City. T. A. Abbot, Main Avenue High School, San Antonio, Tex, John W. Abercrombie, Assistant State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Montgomery, Ala. Katie Belle Abney. 1422 Kanawha Street, Charleston, W. Va. Cornelia S. Adair, 2121 Park Avenue, Rich¬ mond, Va. Jennie B. Adams, 1407 O Street, Lincoln, Nebr. Georgia W. Aiken, 3000 Reading Road, Cin¬ cinnati, Ohio. Edward A. Alderman, President. University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. Lewis R. Alderman, Service Division, Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. Thomas Alexander, Teachers College, Co¬ lumbia University. New York City. J. Edward Allen, Superintendent of Schools, Warrenton, N. C. Fannie Fern Andrews, 405 Marlborough Street, Boston. Mass. Myra Angus, Pohukaina School, Honolulu, Hawaii. Bertha S. Armbruster, 214 Gale Avenue, River Forest, Ill. Walter S. Athearn, School of Religious Education, Boston University, 675 Boyls- ton Street, Boston, Mass. William Chandler Bagley, Teachers Col¬ lege, Columbia University, New York City. Mrs. Marv G. Barnum, 21 Rue Washington, Paris. France. J. R. Barton. Superintendent of Schools, Oklahoma City. Okla. Millicent Baum. 12 East 86th Street, New York City. Anna J. Beiswenger. Washington State Normal School, Bellingham, Wash. J. H. Binford. Assistant Superintendent of Schools. Richmond, Va. Francis G. Blair. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Springfield, Ill. Katherine D. Blake, 101 West 85th Street. New York City. Dorothy M. Blatter, Principal, Kensington School. Grand Rapids, Mich. Charles H. Boehm, Supervising Principal, Northampton Township School, Richboro, Pa. A O. Bowden. State Teachers College. Sil¬ ver City, N. M. Frank D. Boynton. Superintendent of Schools. Ithaca. N. Y. Mrs. Frank E. Boynton, 819 Oakland Street N. E., Grand Rapids, Mich. Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford, 1735 Bellaire Street, Denver, Colo. H. D. Brasefield. Fremont High School, Oakland, Calif. Edwin C. Broome, Superintendent of Schools, Philadelphia, Pa. Emma M. Brown. Principal. Skinner Junior High School. Denver, Colo. Elizabeth Buchanan, District Superintend¬ ent of Schools, Kansas City, Mo. William Burdick, State Supervisor of Phys¬ ical Education, 7 East Mulberry Street, Baltimore, Md. Nicholas Murray Butler, President, Colum¬ bia University, New York City. William V. Casey, 820 Pine Street, Boulder, Colo. Arthur H. Chamberlain, Chairman. Cali¬ fornia Association for Education on Thrift and Conservation, 354 Pacific Building, San Francisco, Calif. J. A. C. Chandler, President, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. Mrs. Frances E. Clark, Educational Direc¬ tor, Victor Talking Machine Company, Camden, N. J. M. G. Clark, Superintendent of Schools, Sioux City, Iowa. P. P. Claxton, former Superintendent of Schools, Tulsa, Okla. J. P. Coates, Secretary South Carolina Teachers Association, Columbia, S. C. Frank Cody. Superintendent of City Schools, Detroit, Mich. Jessie B. Colburn, 61 Gramercy Park, North, New York City. Helen W. Cole, Rollins College, Winter Park. Fla. Randall J. Condon. Friendship, Maine. Albert S. Cook, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 2014 Lexington Build¬ ing. Baltimore, Md. H. V. Cooper, Superintendent of City Schools. Kosciusko. Miss. William J. Cooper, U. S. Commissioner of Education, Bureau of Education, Wash¬ ington,, D. C. J. W. Crabtree, 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W., Washington, D. C. Clara E. Craig, Rhode Island College of Education, Providence, R. I. Winifred G. Crowell, Georgia State College for Women, Milledgeville, Ga. R. B. Daniel, Superintendent of Schools, Columbus, Ga. Helen M. Davidson. 6814 Thomas Boule¬ vard, Pittsburgh, Pa. William M. Davidson. Superintendent of Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. Jessie B. Davis, Boston University, Bos¬ ton, Mass. Elizabeth R. Dessez, Education Department, Pathe Exchange, 35 West 45th Street, New York City. Mary Dever, The Women’s Club, 3535 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, Ohio. W. G. Dillon. Department of Public Schools, Jefferson City, Mo. Zoe Dobbs. Dean of Women, Alabama Poly technic Institute, Auburn, Ala. Mrs. Susan M. Dorsey. 1506 Arapahoe Street, Los Angeles, Calif. E. G. Doudna, 2017 Monroe Street, Madison, Wis. E. Estelle Downing, State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich. Mrs. Evaline Dowling, 224 South Alex¬ andria, Los Angeles, Calif. William J. Drew, Principal, Mission High School, San Francisco. Calif. Mildred A. F. Dunn, Washington Irving High School, Clarksburg. W. Va. I. Newton Earle. Principal, Roosevelt Jun¬ ior High School, New Brunswick. N. J. Mrs. Anna Egan. Principal, Franklin School. Kansas City, Mo. Association al Records and Information 1025 Miriam D. Eisner, 3098 California Street. San Francisco, Calif. J. D. Elliff, University of Missouri, Co¬ lumbia, Mo. E. W. Emery, President, University of Omaha. Omaha, Nebr. Eva L. Erickson, 1423 G Street, Lincoln, Nebr, Sara H. Fahey, 191 Lincoln Place, Brook¬ lyn, N. Y. Jessie F. Fair, Board of Education, Day- ton, Ohio. Mariana Farseth, 4024 Eliot Avenue, Min¬ neapolis, Minn. Pauline Farseth, 4024 Eliot Avenue, Minne¬ apolis, Minn. Ralph E. Files, Principal, East Orange High School, East Orange, N. J. Mrs. Jessie M. Fink, Principal, Buchanan School, Grand Rapids, Mich. John H. Finley, Editor, New York Times, New York City. Clara B. Fishbaugh, West Virginia Wes¬ leyan College, Buchannon, W. Va. Charles M. Fisher, Superintendent, Dade County Schools. Miami, Fla. E. C. Folsom, Teachers Casualty Under¬ writers, Lincoln, Nebr. L. S. Fowler. Georgia State College for Women. Milledgeville, Ga. Anna G. Fraser, 822 Alma Avenue, Oakland, Calif. George D. Full, President, Dudley Lock Corporation, 26 North Franklin Street, Chicago, Ill. Ethel M. Gardner, 356 16th Avenue, Mil¬ waukee, Wis. Clay F. Gaumer, Superintendent of Schools, Howard, Ohio. Mrs. Sarah R. Gill, 2030 East 115, Suite 32, Cleveland, Ohio. C. B. Glenn. Superintendent of Schools, Birmingham, Ala. Bessie Bacon Goodrich, 2410 Terrace Road, Des Moines, Iowa. Harry R. Gorrell, Superintendent of Schools, Massillon. Ohio. Thomas W. Gosling, Superintendent of Schools, Akron, Ohio. Erna Grassmuck, 5618 Ellis Ave, Chicago. IH. Clifton D. Grav, President, Bates College, Lewistown, Me. Cora Gray, Catawba College, Salisbury, N. C. J. M. Gwinn, Superintendent of Schools, San Francisco, Calif. John. T. Gyger, R. F. D. 4, Portland, Me. Nellie G. Hanlon, 728 West Main Street, Monongahela, Pa. Frances Harden, 1543 Sherwin Avenue. Chicago, Ill. C. J. Heatwole, Room 1, State Capital, Richmond, Va. J. L. Henderson, University of Texas, Aus¬ tin, Texas. Ida M. Higley, Towers School, Clarksburg. W. Va. Mary L. Hinsdale, Grand Rapids Junior College, Grand Rapids. Mich. Louise B. Hobson, 116 Wenworth Avenue, Edgewood Station, Providence, R. I. George E. Hoffman, University of Alabama, University, Alabama. Mrs. Florence Holbrook. Phillips Junior High School, Chicago, Ill. Edna E. Hood, Administration Building, Kenosha. Wis. Elizabeth Hood, 1715 Park Avenue, Racine. Wis. Daniel Howard, Superintendent of Schools, Windsor, Conn. Adele Humphrey, Principal, Polytechnic High School, 400 West Washington Street, Los Angeles, Calif. Fred M. Hunter, Chancellor, University of Denver, Denver, Colo. Margarette E. Howard. Principal, Lincoln School, Summit, N. J. Christine A. Jacobsen, 1320 West 41st Place, Los Angeles, Calif. William Alonzo James, Principal, Ball High School, Galveston, Texas. Sally Lucas Jean, 200 Fifth Avenue, rJew York City. M. Irene Johnson, School of Education. Manchester College. Manchester, Ind. Olive M. Jones, 61 Gramercy Park, North, New York City. R. G. Jones, Superintendent of City Schools. Cleveland, Ohio. David Starr Jordon, President Emeritus. Leland Stanford University, Stanford University, Calif. Edith B. Joynes, 410 West 14th Street, Norfolk, Va. Alice Keith, Radio Corporation of America. New York City. J. H. Kelley, 400 North Third Street, Har¬ risburg. Pa. W. F. Kennedy, Administration Building, Pittsburgh, Pa. Bertha C. Knemeyer, Principal, Elko County High School. Elko, Nev. Albert Kuhn, University of Omaha, Omaha, Nebr. Earl R. Laing, Principal, Burt School, De¬ troit, Mich. Uel W. Lamkin, President, Northwest Mis¬ souri State Teachers College, Maryville, Mo. C. H. Lane, 200 New Jersey Avenue, Wash¬ ington, D. C. Elizabeth Lee, 400 Shady Avenue, Pitts¬ burgh. Pa. Mrs. Inez Johnson Lewis, Superintendent. El Paso County Schools, Colorado Springs, Colo. W. A. Lewis, Kansas State Teachers Col¬ lege, Hays, Kan. Mrs. Ueal Stevents Lewis, Jamestown Col¬ lege, Jamestown, N. D. Georgina Lommen, Director, Training School. State Teachers College, Moor¬ head, Minn. W. T. Longshore, Greenwood School, Kan¬ sas City, Mo. Rosamond Losh. Secretary, Children's Bu¬ reau, Kansas City, Mo. E. G. Lvle, 709 West 32nd Street, Kansas City, Mo. Effie MacGregor, Principal, John Burroughs School. Minneapolis. Minn. George E. MacLean, 1721 P Street N. W Washington, D. C. Elizabeth McCormick, Principal, Timothy O. Howe School, Superior, Wis. Mrs. J. H. McCoy, President, Athens Col¬ lege. Athens, Ala. John H. McCracken, 15 East 83rd Street. New V^rk Oit^. Miss Wylee B. McNeal, University of Min¬ nesota, St. Paul, Minn. W. G. Mallett. Principal, State Normal School, Farmington. Me. Kathryn Mansfield, Principal, Cedar School, Canton, Ohio. Daniel L. Marsh. President, Boston Univer¬ sity, 675 Boylston Street, Boston. Mass. A. J. Matthews, President, State Teachers College. Tempe, Ariz. 1026 National Education Association Albert B. Meredith, State Commissioner of Education, Hartford, Conn. Sophia C. Meyer, Lewis and Clark High School, Spokane, Wash. Charles F. Miller, Superintendent of Schools, Indianapolis, Ind. R. B. Miller. Ohio Wesleyan University, Delaware, Ohio. John G. Mitchell, President, State Teachers College, Edmond, Okla. Paul Monroe, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. E. W. Montgomery, Principal, Phoenix Union High School and Junior College, Phoenix, Ariz. H. A. Morgan, President, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tenn. Cora E. Mull, 4151 Berkeley Avenue, Chi¬ cago, Ill. Mrs. Jessie Ward Nance, Westmoreland College, San Antonio, Texas. Mary Leila Nisbett, 821 Melba Street, Dal¬ las, Texas. Mary E. O’Connor, Supervisor of Elemen¬ tary Schools, Natick, Mass. Emma B. Page, Central High School, Evansville, Ind. Mrs. Edith McClure Patterson, Saw Mill Road, Dayton, Ohio. John Barton Payne. American Red Cross, 1601 Eye Street, Washington, D. C. E. M. Phillips, 2172 Juliet Street, St. Paul, Minn. J. Ashbury Pitman, Principal, Salem Nor¬ mal School. Salem, Mass. Caroline J. Porter, % Brown, Shiplev & Co., 123 Pall Mall, London, S. W., Eng¬ land. Birde Posthuma, 116 South Spring Avenue, Sioux Falls, S. D. Sue M. Powers, Superintendent, Shelby County Schools, Memphis, Tenn. J. E. Purks, Superintendent of Schools, Cedartown, Ga. E. Ruth Pyrtle, Principal, Bancroft School, Lincoln, Nebr. Mary Ralls, President, Teachers Club, Kan¬ sas City, Mo. Helen Reed. Manual Training High School, Denver, Colo. Fannie Reeder, 2340 West Monroe Street, Chicago, Ill. Mrs. A. H. Reeve, 5517 Germantown Ave¬ nue, Philadelphia, Pa. Aurelia Henry Reinhardt, President, Mills College, Mills College, Calif. Mrs. Charles H. Remington, East Provi¬ dence, R. I. McHenry Rhoads, State University, Lex¬ ington, Ky. Anna E. Richardson, 617 Mills Building, Washington, D. C. Leila Richter, Breckenridge High School, San Antonio. Texas. Anna Riddle, 219% North 12th Street, St. Joseph. Mo. William McKinley Robinson, Western State Teachers College, Kalamazoo, Mich. Ida O. Rudy, Primary Supervisor of Pub¬ lic Schools, 517 Adams Street, Dayton, Ohio. W. Carson Ryan, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore. Pa. Joseph H. Saunders, Superintendent of Schools, Newport News, Va. Joseph A. Serena, President, State Teach¬ ers College, Cape Girardeau, Mo. J. W. Sexton, Superintendent of Schools* Lansing. Mich. Albert Shaw, President, High School Teachers Association, 304 Trinity Build¬ ing, Los Angeles, Calif. Grace M. Shepherd, State Teachers Col¬ lege, Maryville, Mo. Helen B. Shove, 3116 Clifton Avenue, Min¬ neapolis, Minn. Walter R. Siders, 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W., Washington, D. C. Henry Lester Smith, Dean, School of Edu¬ cation, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. Payson Smith, State Commissioner of Edu¬ cation, Boston, Mass. F. H. Spaulding, Millsboro High School, Tampa, Fla. B. F. Stanton, Superintendent of Schools, Alliance, Ohio. N. E. Steele, Secretary, South Dakota Edu¬ cation Association, Room 3, Perry Build¬ ing, Sioux Falls, S. D. E. L. Stephen, President, Southwestern Louisiana Institute, Lafayette, La. M iss Willie Stephens, City Schools, Austin, Texas, Mrs. Rene E. Hamilton Stevens, Univer¬ sity of Omaha, Omaha, Nebr. Mrs. Cora Wilson Stewart, American Red Cross Building, Washington, D. C. George D. Strayer, Teachers College, Co¬ lumbia University, New York, N. Y. Augustus O. Thomas, President, World Fed¬ eration of Education Associations, Au¬ gusta, Me. Anna M. Thompson, Berkshire Arms, 1017 Linwood, Kansas City, Mo. Edna E. Thompson, 1038 South 14th Street, Lincoln, Nebr. John J. Tigert, President, University of Florida, Gainesville, Fla. Caroline E. Toner, 1814 Ingleside Terrace, Washington, D. C. Adelaide R. Trent, Ferrum Training School, Ferrum, Va. Genevieve Turk, Scarritt School, Kansas City, Mo. C. E. Turner, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass. Chester C. Tuttle, Superintendent of Schools, Kennebunk, Me. M. B. Vaughn, Montgomery City, Mo. Sarah Vickery, Central High School, Evans¬ ville, Ind. Francisco Vizcarrondo, Assistant Commis¬ sioner of Education, San Juan, Porto Rico. Rufus B. von Klein Smid, President, Uni¬ versity of Southern California, Los An¬ geles, Calif. Thomas J. Walker, Editor, School and Community, Columbia, Mo. George A. Walton. George School, George School, Pa. David A. Ward, Superintendent of City Schools, Wilmington, Del. George Harris Webber, Georgia State Col¬ lege for Women. Milledgeville, Ga. C. C. Weideman. Teachers College, Univer¬ sity of Nebraska, Nebr. J. F. Wellemeyer, Principal, Wyandotte High School, Kansas City, Kan. Anna M. Willnitz. 90 Elwood Place, West New Brighton, Staten Island, N. Y. E. B. Wetherow, Superintendent of City Schools, Laporte. Ind. Zada White, Principal, Lake Harriet School, 170 West 52nd Street, Minneapolis, Minn. Lucy Whitney, Principal, Gladstone School, Kansas City, Mo. Irma C. Wieand, Chatham Court, Sec. 1, 241 South 49th Street, Philadelphia. Pa. George Wiley, State Department of Educa¬ tion, Albany, N. Y. Associational Records and Information 1027 Charles H. Williams. University of Mis¬ souri, Columbia, Mo. Charles O. Williams, Secretary, State Teachers Association, Room 205, Hotel Lincoln, Indianapolis, Ind. Jane Williams, 178 Elmwood Avenue, Oak Park, Ill.. Mrs. Alice Wilson, Room 529, Phelan Building, San Francisco, Calif.. H. B. Wilson, American Red Cross, Wash¬ ington, D. C. Agnes Winn, 1201 Sixteenth Street N. W., Washington, D. C. A. E. Winship, 6 Beacon Street, Boston, Mass. Lula Wirt, State Teachers College, Kear¬ ney, Nebr. John W. Withers, Dean, School of Educa¬ tion, New York University, New York City. Kate V. Wofford, Superintendent of Laurens County Schools, Laurens, S. C. Stella Wood, Principal, Minnesota Kinder¬ garten Training School, Hampshire Ave¬ nue, Minneapolis, Minn. Caroline S. Woodruff, President, State Nor¬ mal Training School, Castleton, Vt. Annie Carlton Woodward, 144 School Street, Somerville, Mass. Olive Woodward, Shaw High School, East Cleveland, Ohio (now at 6 Haymarket Square, American Express Company, Lon¬ don, England). Robert H. Wright. President, East Caro¬ lina Teachers College, Greenville, N. C. W. T. Wynn, Georgia State College for Women, Milledgeville, Ga. JOINT COMMITTEE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Thomas D. Wood, Chairman, Teachers Col¬ lege, Columbia University, New York City. A. K. Aldinger, Director of Health Educa¬ tion, Board of Education, New York City, Edna W. Bailey. University of California, Berkeley, Calif. Mabel C. Bragg, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Newton, Mass. William D. Burdick, State Supervisor of Physical Education, 7 East Mulberry Street, Baltimore, Md. William H. Burnham, Clark University, Worcester, Mass. L. W. Childs, Supervisor of Health Serv¬ ice, Board of Education, Cleveland, 'Ohio. Randall J. Condon, Friendship, Me. F. B. Dresslar, George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn. John F. Keating, 1627 Carteret Avenue, Pueblo, Colo. Marion O. Lerrigo, 17 Addison, Avenue, Apartment 5F, Larchmont, N. Y. Mrs. S. M. N. Marrs, President, National Congress Parents and Teachers, Austin, Texas. A. B. Meredith, State Commissioner of Education, Hartford, Conn. Mary E. Murphy, Director, Elizabeth Mc¬ Cormick Memorial Fund, 848 North Dear¬ born Street, Chicago, Ill. Frederick Rand Rogers, University of the State of New York, Albany, N. Y. John R. Sharman, State Director of Health and Physical. Education, Montgomery, Ala. Lida Lee Tall, Principal, State Normal School, Towson, Md. Anne Whitney, American Child Health As¬ sociation, 370 Seventh Avenue, New York City. Albert E. Winship, Editor, Journal of Education, 6 Beacon Street, Boston, Mass. JOINT COMMITTEE ON RELATIONS BETWWEN STATE ASSOCIATIONS AND THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (A Special Committee) Robert C. Moore, Chairman, Secretary, Illinois State Teachers Association, Car- linville, Ill. Cornelia S. Adair, 2121 Park Avenue, Rich¬ mond, Va. E. M. Carter, Secretary. Missouri State Teachers Association, Columbia, Mo. P. H. Griffith, Secretary, Louisiana Teach¬ ers Association, Box 541, Baton Rouge, La. Walter R. Siders, 1201 Sixteenth St. N. W., Washington, D. C. Henry Lester Smith. Treasurer, National Education Association, Indiana Univer¬ sity, Bloomington, Ind. LEGISLATIVE COMMISSION (Authorized by Representative Assembly) William M. Davidson, Chairman, Superin¬ tendent of Schools, Pittsburgh. Pa. A. T. Allen, State Superintendent of Pub¬ lic Instruction, Raleigh, N. C. George A. Allen, Jr.. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Topeka, Kan. H. B. Allman, Superintendent of Schools, Rushville, Ind. Mrs. Bertha Armbruster, 214 Gale Avenue, River Forest, Ill, Walter S. Athearn, Dean, School of Re¬ ligious Education and Social Service, Boston University. Boston, Mass. Caroline Barbour, President, International Kindergarten Union, Superior State Teachers College, Superior, Wis. R. W. Bardwell, Superintendent of Schools, Madison, Wis. C. H. Barnes, Superintendent, St. Louis County Schools, Duluth, Minn. 1028 National Education Association Carrye Barnhart, Shanghai, W. Va. Nora M. Barron, 847 Plymouth Building, Minneapolis, Minn. W. F. Bond, State Superintendent of Edu¬ cation, Jackson, Miss. F. D. Boynton, Superintendent of Schools, Ithaca, N. Y. Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford, 1735 Bellaire Street, Denver, Colo. J. W. Brister, President, West Tennessee State Teachers College, Memphis, Tenn. L. W. Brooks, Principal, High School, Wichita, Kan. D. S. Burleson, Dean, State Teachers Col¬ lege. Johnson City, Tenn. John C. Callahan, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Madison, Wis. Samuel P. Capen, Chancellor, University of Buffalo, N. Y. J. A. C. Chandler, President, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. M. G. Clark, Superintendent of Schools, Sioux City, Iowa. Maude Compton, 204 S. 25th Avenue, Omaha, Nebr. Randall J. Condon. Friendship, Me. Wm. L. Connor, Chief. Bureau of Educa¬ tional Research, Public Schools, Cleve¬ land, Ohio. J. H. Cook, Dean, School of Education, North Carolina College for Women, Greensboro, N. S. Fred D. Cram. Iowa State Teachers Col¬ lege, Cedar Falls, Iowa. C. W. Crandall, Superintendent of Schools, Monroe, Mich. H. D. Crowell, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Stamford, Conn. Cora Darling, Superintendent. Powers County Schools, American Falls. Idaho. Charles S. Davis. Superintendent of Schools, Steelton, Pa. Pearle Davis, Deputy State Superintendent. Little Rock, Ark. Clarence H. Dempsey. State Commissioner of Education, Montpelier, Vt. Florence Deneen, 457 West 61st Place, Chi¬ cago, Ill. L. H. Dennis, Deputv Superintendent of Public Instruction, State Department of Education, Harrisburg, Pa. Charles F. Dienst. Superintendent of Schools, Boise. Idaho. J. T. Doster, Dean, School of Education, University of Alabama, University. Ala. Isabel L. Eckles. Superintendent of Schools, Sante Fe. N. M. Harriett W. Elliott. North Carolina Col- leee for Women. Greensboro, N. C. Selden M. Ely. Supervising Principal, Gales School, Washington, D. C. Lawton B. Evans. Superintendent of Schools. Augusta, Ga. H. G. Faust. Superintendent of Schools, Shawnee. Okla. Thomas E. Finegan, President, Eastman Teaching Films. Inc., 343 State Street, Rochester, N. Y. Charles M. Fisher, Superintendent of Dade County Schools, Miami, Fla. Anna La”ra Force. Principal, Lake Junior High Schools, Denver, Colo. Anna G. Fraser, 822 Alma Avenue, Oak¬ land, Calif. J. D. Fulp, Superintendent, Bailey Mili¬ tary Institute, Greenwood, S. C. Lloyd Galpin, 2354 Addison Way, Los An¬ geles, Calif. A. D. S. Gillett, President, State Normal School, Superior, Wis. Judith Greguson, 4720 6th Avenue N. E., Seattle, Wash. Annie G. Griffey, 2110 Battery, Little Rock, Ark. J. J. Hagan, Superintendent of Schools, Rock Island, Ill. John B. Heffelfinger, Superintendent of Schools, Newton, Kan. A. B. Hill. President, Ouachita College, Arkadelphia, Ark. Carl A. Hoffman, 5830 North Artesian Av¬ enue, Chicago, Ill. C. M. Howell, Secretary, Oklahoma Educa¬ tion Association, Oklahoma City, Okla. George W. Hugg, Superintendent of Schools, Salem, Ore. H. M. Ivy, Superintendent of Schools, Meridian, Miss. Clara !L. Jahnke, 1930 8th Street, Spokane, Wash. D. C. Jensen, Superintendent, Jordan Dis¬ trict Schools, R. F. D. 2, Sandy, Utah. Olive M. Jones, 61 Gramercy Park, North, New York City. R. G. Jones, Superintendent of Schools. Cleveland, Ohio. Mrs. Edith B. loynes, President, Depart¬ ment of Classroom Teachers of the N. E. A., 410 West 14th Street, Norfolk, Va. Charles H. Judd, Director, School of Edu¬ cation, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. J. F. Keating, Superintendent, School Dis¬ trict Number 20, Pueblo, Colo. John A. H. Keith, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa. M. R. Keyworth. Superintendent of Schools, Hamtramck. Mich. P. H. Kimball, Principal, Washington State Normal School, Machias, Me. Lee Kirkpatrick, Superintendent of Schools, Paris, Ky. Uel W. Lamkin, President, Northwest Mis¬ souri State Teachers College, Maryville, Mo. John C. Lindsey, Superintendent of Schools, Mitchell, S. D. W. T. Longshore. Principal, Greenwood School, Kansas City, Mo. John D. Loper, Superintendent of Schools, Phoenix, Ariz. A. E. MacArthur, Director Vocational Edu¬ cation. Carson City. Nev. Effie MacGregor, Principal, John Bur¬ roughs School. Minneapolis, Minn. Hugh S. Magill, General Secretarv, Inter¬ national Council of Religious Education, 5 South Wabash Avenue, Chicago, Ill. C. R. Mann, Director, American Council on Education, 26 Jackson Place, Washing¬ ton, D. C. A. A. McDonald, Superintendent of Schools, Sioux Falls, S. D. J. M. McDonald. Superintendent of Schools, Pocatello. Idaho. B. H. McIntosh, Secretary, Wyoming State Teachers’ Association, Cheyenne. Wyo. Ury McKenzie, Superintendent of Schools, Hot Springs, Ark. John Milne, Secretary, New Mexico Edu¬ cational Association, Albuquercme N. M. J. G. Moore, Superintendent of Schools. Fargo, N. D. Frank F. Nalder, State College of Washing¬ ton, Pullman. Wash. M. A. Nash, President, Oklahoma College for Women, Chickasha. Okla. Harlan B. Peabody, 7 Villa Avenue, Provi¬ dence, R. I. Webster H. Pearce, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Lansing, Mich. Association al Records and Information 1029 Mrs. B. C. Peixotto, Principal. Public School Number 108, Queens, New York City. Rose Pesta, Windemere Hotel, Chicago, Ill. Caroline S. Pfaff, District Superintendent of Schools, 4868 Constance Street, New Orleans, La. D. Walter Potts, Superintendent of Schools, East St. Louis, Ill. Sue Powers, Superintendent, Shelby County Schools, Memphis, Tenn. Charles H. Priest, Superintendent of Schools, Carson City, Nev. Merle Prnnty, Superintendent of Schools, Tulsa, Okla. John J. Rae, Superintendent of Schools, Couer D’Alene. Idaho. Lois Randolph, Santa Fe, N. M. Helen M. Rathbun, Rowan Trees Hotel, 500 Englewood Avenue, Chicago, Ill. Anne E. Riddle, 219)4 North 12th Street, St. Joseph, Mo. E. E. Roderick, Superintendent of Schools, Belfast, Me. Joseph Rosier, President, Fairmont State Normal School, Fairmont, W. Va. E. L. Rouse, Nebraska State Normal School, Chadron, Neb. Joseph H. Saunders, Superintendent of Schools, Newport News, Va. John F. Scully, Superintendent of Schools, Brockton, Mass. W. E. Sealock, Dean, School of Education, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr. George E. Shattuck, Vice-principal, High School, Darien, Conn. W. P. Shawkey, President, Marshall Col¬ lege, Huntington, W. Va. Fred Sickles, Superintendent of Schools, New Brunswick, N. J. Jessie Skinner, 984 Thurman St., Portland, Ore. Harry P. Smith, Professor of Education, Syracuse University, Syracuse, N. Y. J. W. Smith, T. C. Station, Denton, Texas. Jean L. Soules, Women’s Athletic Club, Spokane, Wash. H. E. Stahl. Superintendent of Schools, Claymont, Del. B. F. Stanton. Superintendent of Schools. Alliance, Ohio. George D. Strayer, Teachers College, Co¬ lumbia University, New York City. W. A. Sutton, Superintendent of Schools, Atlanta, Ga. Annie Kate Taylor, 914 Martinique Street, Dallas, Texas. W. S. Taylor, University of Kentucky, Lex¬ ington, Ky. May Trumper, 523 W. 121st Street, New York City. L. A. Tuggle, Superintendent, Vermilion County Schools, Danville, Ill. M. M. Van Patten, Superintendent of Schools, Buhl, Idaho. Wilbur D. Vincent, State Commissioner of Education, Boise, Idaho. D. B. Waldo, President, Western State Normal School. Kalamazoo, Mich. David A. Ward. Superintendent of Schools, Wilmington, Del. Frank Weld, 1126 Q Street, Lincoln, Neb. F. L. West, Utah Agricultural College, Logan. Utah. L. A. White, Superintendent of Schools, Minot, N. D. Pearl Williamson, Superintendent of Schools, DeQueen, Ark. S. C. Wilson, Sam Houston State Teach¬ ers College, Huntsville, Texas. Benjamin Wist, President, Normal School, Honolulu, T. H. John W. Withers, Dean, School of Educa¬ tion, New York University, New York City. Kate Wofford. Superintendent. Laurens County Schools, Laurens, S. C. Annie C. Woodward, 144 School Street, Somerville, Mass. Robert H. Wright, President, East Carolina Teachers College, Greenville, N. C. Ada York, County Superintendent of Schools, Room 2, Court House, San Diego, Calif. COMMITTEE ON NECROLOGY (Authorized by Bylaws) Francis G. Blair, Chairman, State Superin¬ tendent of Public Instruction, Springfield, Ill. C. A. Arganbright, County Superintendent of Schools, Lima, Ohio. Beatrice Arnold, Rural School Supervisor, Spartanburg, S. C. Jessie L. Baker, Principal, Garfield School, Box 2237, Bisbee, Ariz. Olive Bennison, Buena Vista Apartment, Spokane, Wash. George E. Berry, Principal, High School, Biggs, Calif. Marion F. Breck, State Supervisor of Home Economics, Dover, Del. Mrs. P. S. Burkholder, Elementary Teacher, Oak Hill, W. Va. L. A. Butler, Superintendent of City Schools, Grand Rapids, Mich. Phillip Carlson, Principal, Roosevelt Senior High School, 5157 17th Avenue, South Minneapolis, Minn. Maude M. Chaffee, Principal, High School, Morrisville, Vt. Jo Anna Connell, Central High School, Erie, Pa. V. C. Coulter, Head of English Depart¬ ment, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyo. Ernest L. Crandall, Department of Visual Instruction, 500 Park Avenue, New York City. Jennie Crawford, Principal, East Side School, Maryville, Tenn. Mattie Dalton. Superintendent, Fayette County Schools, Lexington, Ky. Madelaine Drovbay, Longfellow School, Salt Lake City, Utah. I. Newton Earle, Principal, Roosevelt Junior High School, New Brunswick, N. J. Florence Earles. Principal, Grade Schools, Wewoka, Okla. Selden M. Ely, Supervising Principal, Gales School, Washington, D. C. Clara J. Emerson, Principal. Dawson County High School, Glendive. Mont. Edna Gibbs, Superintendent of County Schools, Greenfield, Iowa. L. R. Goodrich, Superintendent of City Public Schools, Fond du Lac, Wis. W. T. Harrison, Superintendent of Schools, Shawmut, Ala. 1030 National Education Association Sam R. Hill. Principal, Smiley Junior High School, 1450 Humboldt Street. Denver. Colo. Perley L. Horne. Principal. Pinkerton Academy. Derry Village, N. H. W. A. James. Principal. Ball High School. 2327 Avenue N., Galveston, Texas. Fred Keller. Superintendent City Public Schools, Jonesboro. Ark. Francisco Redriquez Lopez. General Super¬ intendent of Schools, San Juan. Porto Rico. Daisy Lord. 1027 West Main Street, Water- bury. Conn. M iss Maeanos, Primary Teacher. Vicks¬ burg, Miss. Aimee E. Moake, Departmental Teacher of History, 1119 Delachaise Street, New Or¬ leans, La. R. C. Moore. Secretary. Illinois State Teachers Association, Carlinville. Ill. W. E. Morgan. Superintendent, City Pub¬ lic Schools, Montpelier, Idaho. S. B. Nissen, Editor, S. D. Education As¬ sociation Journal. Room 3. Perry Block, Sioux Falls, S. D. Lloyd Palmer, County Superintendent of Schools. Frederick, Md. Helen Robinson, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Portland. Me. Ida Salter, 3315 West Franklin Street. Richmond, Va. Annie G. Scollard. 11 Bowditch, East Braintree, Mass. Charles M. Snelling, Chancellor, Univer¬ sity of Georgia. Athens, Ga. C. C. Swain. President, Mayville Teachers College. Mayville. N. D. Charles W. Taylor. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, State Capitol, Lin¬ coln, Nebr. A. M. Thoroman, Superintendent of City Schools, Iola, Kan. Genevieve M. Turk. Principal, Scarritt School, Lexington Street, N. W., corner Askew. Kansas City, Mo. Arta Verity, 216 Fir Apartment 6, La- grande, Ore. Bettie F. West, Primary Teacher, Mt. Dora, Fla. Charles O. Williams, Secretary, Ind. State Teachers Association, Indianapolis, Ind. M. L. Wright, Professor of Education, East Carolina Teachers College, Greenville, N. C. J. Young. Principal, Salvation Army School for Boys, Honolulu, T. H. COMMITTEE ON PROPAGANDA IN THE SCHOOLS (Authorized by Representative Assembly) E. C. Broome. Chairman, Superintendent of Schools, Philadelphia, Pa. Cornelia Adair, 2121 Park Avenue. Rich¬ mond, Va. A. T. Allen. State Superintendent of Pub¬ lic Instruction, Raleigh, N. C. Frank W. Ballou, Superintendent of Schools. Washington, D. C. J. Stevens Kadesch. Head Master, Senior High School, Medford, Mass. C. E. Partch. Dean, School of Education. Rutgers College. New Brunswick, N. J. Eva Pinkston. President, Department of Elementary School Principals, Sam Hous¬ ton School, Dallas, Texas. L. A. Pittenger. President, Ball Teachers College, Muncie, Ind. Paul Stetson. Superintendent of Schools, Dayton, Ohio. David A. Ward. Superintendent of Schools, Wilmington, Del. COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS (Authorized by Bylaws) Elizabeth McCormick. Chairman, Principal, Timothy O. Howe School. Superior, Wis. John W. Abercrombie, Assistant State Su¬ perintendent of Education, Montgomery, Ala. A. T. Allen. State Superintendent of Pub¬ lic Instruction, Raleigh. N. C. George A. Allen, State Superintendent of Instruction, Topeka, Kan. Mrs. L. O. Anderson. Superintendent of City Schools, Waterville. Wash. W. W. Anderson. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Carson City, Nev. M. S. Bentz, Superintendent. Cambria County Schools. Ebensburg, Pa. S. J. A. Boyd, County Superintendent of Schools. Langdon, N. D. R. M. Caldwell. 2527 Ross Avenue, Dallas, Texas. Kathryn E. C. Carrigan. Instructor High School, Atlantic City. N. J. M. G. Clark, Superintendent of City Schools. Sioux City, Iowa. , P. P. Claxton, Superintendent of City Schools, Tulsa. Okla. James P. Coates, Secretary, South Caro¬ lina Teachers Association, State Office Building. Columbia, S. C. Frank Cody. Superintendent of City Schools, Detroit. Mich. John W. Condon, Pinkerton Academy, Derry Village, N. H. Desiree Delcroix, High School, Teacher of Science, 1231 South Carrollton Avenue, New Orleans, La. C. E. Dudley. Superintendent of City Schools. Henderson, Ky. U. S. Earls. Superintendent of City Schools, Dell Rapids. S. D. Henry J. Gerling, Assistant Superintendent, Board of Education Building, St. Louis, Mo. Edith Louise Grosvenor, Apt. 73, The Iowa, Washington. D. C. D. T. Henderson, County Superintendent of Schools, Little Rock, Ark. R. S. Hicks, Superintendent of Schools, Casper. Wyo. C. E. Hinshaw, Principal, High School, Kokomo, Ind. Harry V. Holloway. State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Dover, Del. Lucy Mason Holt, Principal. Ocean View School, First Street, Norfolk, Va. Richard J. Ilse, Superintendent of Schools. Yuma, Colo. Christine Jacobsen, 202 Trinity Auditorium Building, Los Angeles, Calif. John Lund. Superintendent of Schools, 21 Newtown Terrace, Norwalk, Conn. Margaret B. Martin, 212 State House, Phoenix, Ariz. Frank N. Mitchell, Superintendent of Schools, Poplar, Mont. Associational Records and Information 1031 Kristin Nilsson, Supervisor of Elementary Graded Schools, Rockville, Md. Matilda Peterson, State Supervisor of Pri¬ mary Grade Instruction, The Capital, Salt Lake City, Utah. Sue M. Powers, Superintendent, Shelby County Schools, Memphis, Tenn. Mrs. F. Blanche Preble, 10855 Vernon Ave¬ nue, Chicago, Ill. Palmyra Reis, Elementary Teacher, Kaahu- manu School, Honolulu, T. H. Irene Rippey, 101 East 22nd Street, North, Portland, Ore. Joseph Rosier, President, Fairmont Teach¬ ers College, Fairmont, W. Va. R. B. Rutherford, 717 Laura Street, Jack¬ sonville, Fla. Charles L. Smith, Principal, High School, Belfast, Me. George M. Strong, 75 Glenmont Avenue, Columbus, Ohio. George Taylor, Principal, Public School Number 27, Rochester, N. Y. W. N. Taylor, Executive Secretary. Mis¬ sissippi Education Association, 425 Ed¬ wards Hotel Building, Jackson, Miss. W. D. Vincent, State Commissioner of Edu¬ cation, Boise, Idaho. Francisco Vizcarrondo, Assistant Commis¬ sioner of Education, San Juan, Porto Rico. J. B. Voorhees, Superintendent of City Schools. Eveleth, Minn. George Harris Webber, Dean of Students, • Georgia State College for Women, Mil- ledgeville. Ga. Albert E. Winship, Editor, Journal of Edu¬ cation, 6 Beacon Street, Boston, Mass. Caroline S. Woodruff, Principal, State Nor¬ mal School, Castleton, Vt. W. A. Yoder, Technical High School, 8724 North 31st Street, Omaha, Neb. COMMITTEE ON RETIREMENT ALLOWANCES (Authorized by Representative Assembly) E. Ruth Pyrtle. Chairman, Principal, Ban¬ croft School, Lincoln, Nebr. Mary M. Abbe, 6619 Lafayette Avenue, Chicago, Ill. Fred M. Alexander, Principal, High School, Newport News. Va. Mabel Lee Alvarez, 15 North Reed Ave¬ nue, Mobile, Ala. H. H. Baish, Secretary, School Employees Retirement Board, South Office Building, 711 West 2nd Street, Harrisburg, Pa. Mary R. Barnette, Hughes High School, Cincinnati, Ohio. Mamie Bastian, Principal, Crockett School, Houston, Texas. W. J. Bickett, Superintendent of Schools, Trenton, N. J. C. Louise Boehringer, Editor, Arizona Teacher, Phoenix, Ariz. Ira J. Bright, Superintendent of Schools, Leavenworth, Kan. Pauline E. Brooker, 1429 Laurel Street, Co¬ lumbia, S. C. E. W. Butterfield, State Commissioner of Education, Concord, N. H. Philip E. Carlson, Minnesota Teachers Re¬ tirement Fund Association. 742 Metro¬ politan Bank Building, Minneapolis, Minn. Charles Carroll. Deputy Director. Rhode Island State Board for Vocational Educa¬ tion, 119 State House, Providence, R. I. E. M. Carter, Secretary, Missouri State Teachers Association, Columbia, Mo. S. M. Chaney. Manager, Division of Place¬ ment, California Teachers Association, 2163 Center Street, Berkeley, Calif. Charles H. Cheney. SuDerintendent of Schools. White Plains, N. Y. Harold E. Chittenden, Superintendent of Schools, Naugatuck, Conn. H. V. Church, Superintendent, Morton Secondary Schools, Cicero, Ill. R. O. Clarida, Secretary. Teachers Pension and Retirement Fund, 405 Centennial Building, Springfield, Ill. F. E. Converse, Superintendent of Schools, Beloit, Wis. Oliver P. Cornman. Associate Superintend¬ ent of Schools, Philadelphia, Pa. Ora V. Cowan, 204 Dexter Avenue, Mo¬ bile, Ala. A. G. Crane, University of Wyoming, Lara¬ mie, Wyo. Clarence H. Dempsey, State Commissioner of Education, Montpelier, Vt. A. H. . Dixon, Superintendent, Centralized Public Schools, District Number 3, Tor- rington. Wyo. Donald DuShane, 1741 North Washington Street, Columbus, Ind. Isabel L. Eckels. Superintendent of Schools, Santa Fe, N. M. J. B. Edmonson, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Armand J. Gerson, Associate Superintend¬ ent of Schools. Philadelphia. Pa. Bessie Evans, 1005 McGowan Street, Little Rock, Ark. Carrie B. Gilmore, Keokuk. Iowa. Wilson Greer, Superintendent of Schools, Wethersfield, Conn. P. H. Griffith, Secretary, Louisiana Teach¬ ers Association, Baton Rouge, La. Edith L. Grosvenor. The Iowa, Apartment 73, Washington, D. C. Harvey S. Gruver, Superintendent of Schools. Lynn, Mass. Mrs. C. H. Hamill, 104 Henry Avenue, El¬ kins, W. Va. Merle K Henry, Deputy Superintendent, Department of Education, Carson City, Nev. Lucy Hobbs, Central High School, Sioux City, Iowa. Ida E. Housman, A. J. Demarest High School. Hoboken, N. J. T. C. Howe, 1512 North Meridian Street, Indianapolis, Ind. H. Reid Hunter, Superintendent in Charge of High Schools, Atlanta, Ga. H. M. Ivy. Superintendent of Schools. Meridian, Miss. William B. Jack, Superintendent of Schools. Portland, Me. G. B. Jeffers, Deputy Superintendent. De¬ partment of Public Instruction, Schenec¬ tady, N. Y. John C. Johnson. State Teachers College, West Chester, Pa. D. J. Kelly, Superintendent of Schools, Binghamton, N. Y. Marion H. Ketcham, Box 615, Sacramento, Calif. 1032 National Education Association Mrs. Irene Kirkpatrick, 217 K. C. Street. Rapid City, S. D. K. J. Knutson, 843 Central Building. Seattle, Wash. Flora Krueger, College of Education, Uni¬ versity of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyo. Alma Krusen, 1345 South Lafayette Street, Denver, Colo. Edgar G. Lantman, Secretary, Teachers Retirement Board, Home Savings Bank Building, Albany, N. Y. Josephine D. Lockard, 635 Rio Grande Ave¬ nue. Raton, N. M. R. J. Longstreet, Florida Education Associ-* ation, Tallahassee, Fla. Homer Lucas, Principal, High School, Clay- pool. Ind. Effie MacGregor, Principal, John Burroughs School, Minneapolis, Minn. Mary McAndrew, 6 Wayne Street, Carbon- dale, Pa. Elizabeth McCormick, Principal, Timothy O. Howe School, Superior, Wis. A. A. McDonald, Superintendent of Schools, Sioux Falls, S. D. George A. McFarland, President, State Teachers College, Minot, N. D. Jennie McGown, Principal, Union School, Wheeling. W. Va. A. C. Matheson, Assistant Superintendent of Public Instruction, Salt Lake City, Utah. Zillah May Meighan, 324 North Eye Street, Tacoma. Wash. Caroline E. Miller, 106 Oglethorpe Avenue, West Savanah, Ga. Mary F. Mooney, Director, Texts and Libraries, City Hall, San Francisco, Calif. Gertrude E. Morgan, Centerville, Md. Mary O’Rourke, 421 East Main Street, Weiser, Idaho. M. Marian Park, 1805 Spruce Street, Boulder, Colo. Mabel G. Peirce, 301 Fourth Street, Fair- bault, Minn. George M. Pogue, Superintendent, Belmont County Schools, St. Clairsville. Ohio. Margaret I. Poore, Principal, McChesney School. Oakland, Calif. Edith Post, 1548 15th Avenue. North. Seattle, Wash. Sue M. Powers, County Superintendent of Schools, Memphis, Tenn. E. D. Price, Superintendent of Schools, Enid, Okla. N. H. Price, Principal, Hemphill School, Birmingham, Ala. George T. Ragsdale, 200 Third Street, Louisville, Ky. Joseph J. Rappel, 928 South 22nd Street. Manitowoc, Wis. A, A. Reed, University of Nebraska, Lin¬ coln, Neb. Mrs. Harriett Reiter. 524 Franklin Street. Piqua, Ohio. Jennie Roch. Secretary-Treasurer, Board of Trustees, Teachers Retirement Fund, Mu¬ nicipal Bldg., New Orleans, La. P. C. Rogers, Jr., Principal, High School. Homer, La. F. L. Schlagle, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Kansas City, Kan. C. G. Schulz, Secretary, Minnesota Educa¬ tion Association, 162 N. College Ave., St. Paul, Minn. William E. Sealock, Dean, Teachers Col¬ lege, University of Nebraska, Lincoln. Neb. H. A. Senter, Dean of the Faculty, Central High School, Omaha, Neb. Dorothy M. Shanley, Secretary. State Teachers Retirement Board, Hartford. Conn. John S. Shilling, Assistant Superintendent of Public Instruction, Dover, Del. Harry Smalley, Principal, John H. McDon¬ ough School, 611 June Street, Fall River. Mass. Leon O. Smith, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Omaha. Neb. Melville Stewart. State Department of Education, Charleston, W. Va. Ormond B. Strong, Superintendent of Schools, Savannah, Ga. Grace G. Swan, Director, Primary Instruc¬ tion and Elementary Practice Teaching. Administration Building, Bellefield at Forbes, Pittsburgh, Pa. Payne Templeton, Principal. Flathead County High School, Kalispell. Mont. John A. Thackston, Dean, School of Edu¬ cation. University of Tennessee, Knox¬ ville, Tenn. Miss Burke Thompson, 915 West Grace Street, Richmond. Va. R. E. Tidwell, State Superintendent of Education, Montgomery, Ala. Clifton A. Towle, Superintendent of Schools, Exeter, N. H. Genevieve Turk, Scarritt School, Kansas City, Mo. Neva Kinnon Vance, Box 568. Ponca City. Okla. M. Channing Wagner. Principal. Wilming¬ ton High School, Wilmington. Del. Mary A. Walby. 119 East Maxwell. Lex¬ ington, Ky. William R. Ward, Director, Industrial Fine and Home Arts, Administration Building. 9 South Stockton Street, Trenton, N. J. G. H. Webling. 541 South Hotel Street. Honolulu, T. H. J. D. Williams, Principal, Avondale School, Birmingham, Ala. L. A. Williams, Principal. High School. Caldwell, Idaho. M. E. Williams, Principal. Chambers School, East Cleveland, Ohio. H. D. Wolff, Principal, Petersburg High School, Petersburg, Va. Blanche Young, Bryant Junior High School. Salt Lake City, Utah. F. M. Young, Principal, Benson School. Logan, Utah. COMMITTEE ON PROBLEM OF TENURE (Authorized by Representative Assembly) Albert Lindsay Rowland, Chairman, Super¬ intendent of Schools, Elkins Park, Pa. Alice F. Anderson, Morris Plains, N. J. Ruby Bacon. 380 West Works Street, Sheridan, Wyo. Mary H. Bailey, Principal, Public School, North Craftsbury, Vt. Caroline W. Barbour, State Teachers Col¬ lege, Superior, Wis. Minnie D. Bean. Director, Elementary Grades, Central School, Tacoma, Wash. J. M. Bennett, Superintendent of County Schools. Salisbury, Md. W. D. Blaine, Superintendent of City Schools, Glenwood Springs, Colo. 1033 Associational Records and Information Nettie Rankin Bolland, High School of Commerce, Portland, Ore. A. O. Bowden, President, State Teachers College, Silver City, N. M. John E. Bryan, City Superintendent of Schools, Bessemer, Ala. Sallie Burns, Grant High School, Portland. Ore. E. T. Cameron, Secretary, Michigan Teachers Association, 935 No. Washing¬ ton Avenue, Lansing, Mich. Norman W. Cameron, Superintendent of Schools, Chester, Pa. A. T. Carr, Principal, Wilson Junior High School, Cleveland, Ohio. Susanne H. Carter, Superintendent, Jackson County School^, Medford, Ore. Frank Cody, Superintendent of City Schools, Detroit, Mich. Helen Louise Cohen, Head, English Depart¬ ment, Washington Irving High School, New York City. H. R. Cornish, School Number 4, Paterson, N. J. John Dieterich, Helena, Mont. Mrs. George Dixon, Principal, Truchas School, Truchas, N. M. Ida Doff, 508 South Third Street, Missoula, Mont. Flora Drake, Assistant Superintendent of City Schools, Indianapolis, Ind. Donald DuShane, 1741 North Washington Street, Columbus, Ind. Stephen Dwan, Broadway High School, Seattle, Wash. J. J. Early, Sheridan, Wyo. R. E. Eckert, Superintendent of County Schools, Jasper. Ind. O. D. Enfield, Principal, Eastman Ltreet School, Los Angeles. Calif. C. Ray Evans, Principal. North Summit High School, Coalville, Utah. A. L. Eyler, 4311 Franklin Avenue, Nor¬ wood, Ohio. H. H. J. Fling, East Texas State Normal College, Box 405, Commerce, Texas. H. W. Foght, President, University of Wichita. Wichita, Kan. Maude Frazier, Superintendent, District Number 5, Las Vegas, Nev. Jessie Gray, 1301 Spring Garden Street, Philadelphia, Pa. Francis B. Haas, President, State Teachers College, Bloomsburg. Pa. Frances E. Harden, 1543 Sherwin Avenue. Chicago, Ill. Mildred M. Hartwell, 50 Union Street, Greenfield, Mass. Dora Herron, Montlake School, 22nd Ave¬ nue, N.. and East McGrant Street, Seattle, Wash. J. H. Hickman, Secretary, West Virginia State Education Association. Charleston, W. Va. Harriett L. Hinman, Board of Education, Toledo, Ohio. Hemena Hoffman, 524 West Gould Street, Pocatello, Idaho. Myrtle U. Hooper, Nicollet Hotel, Min¬ neapolis, Minn. Bernice E. L. Hundley, Kapoa School, Kealia, Kauai, T. H. Fred M. Hunter, Chancellor, University of Denver, Denver, Colo. H. T. Hunter, President, State Normal School, Cullowhee. N. C. Clara Jacobs, 129 West 9th Street, Pueblo, Colo. W. L. Jayne, Head, Rural Department. Morehead Normal School, Morehead. Ky. A. S. Jessup, Superintendent of Schools. Cheyenne, Wyo. Nell E. Lain, 4518 Montgall Street, Kansas City, Mo. F. M. Longanecker. Superintendent of Schools, Racine, Wis. Mary A. Lord, Woodrow Wilson Junior High School, Sioux City, Iowa. A. J. Lovett, Superintendent of Schools, Blackwell. Okla. Herbert W. Lull, Superintendent of Schools, Newport, R. I. M. E. McCurdy, Secretary, North Dakota Education Association, Fargo, N. D. C. W. Maddocks, Superintendent of Schools, Milford, Conn. C. J. Manning. Superintendent of Schools. Lewistown, Mont. H. G. Masters, Principal, Allen School, 1420 Beachview Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pa. Caroline E. Miller, 106 Oglethorpe Ave¬ nue, W. Savannah, Ga. Gladys Moorehead. 202 Trinity Building, Los Angeles, Calif. Margaret Murphy, Principal. High School. 823 South Locust Street, Carlinville. Ill. E. Moore Neave, Park Street School, Hood River, Ore. Mrs. Alice R. Norton, Hampton Court. Apartment 378. Golden Gate Avenue, San Francisco, Calif. Anna L. Peterson, 49 Haddon Hall, Cincin¬ nati, Ohio. Shelton Phelps, Professor School Admini¬ stration, Peabody College, Nashville, Tenn. Eva Pinkston. Principal, 5652 Belmont Avenue, Dallas, Texas. Gertrude Pitts, 915 Cumberland Street, Little Rock, Ark. J. V. Pogue, Principal, Gibson School, Birmingham, Ala. Mary Postell, 41 Walker Street, Atlanta, Ga. Sue M. Powers, Superintendent. Shelby County Schools, Court House, Memphis, Tenn. O. W. Robinson, Kahului, Maui, T. H. Warren A. Roe, Principal, Belmont Ave¬ nue School. Newark. N. J. George St. Thomas, Director, Junior Vo¬ cational Guidance Continuation School, Hackensack, N. J. Edward B. Sellew, Superintendent of Schools, Middletown, Conn. Sallie Reid Shaw. 812 West 9th Street, Wilmington, Del. C. O. Smith, Superintendent of Schools, Beloit, Kan. A. H. Staley. Superintendent of Schools. Hastings, Nebr. Fred G. Stevenson. Dubuaue, Iowa. George D. Taylor. Principal, Public School, Number 27, Rochester, N. Y. Joseph Thalman. 227 Keystone Avenue, River Forest, Ill. Mrs. Julia M. White, Principal, Steele School, Denver, Colo. Florence Wolaver, 1734 Orrington Avenue. Evanston, Ill. R. B. Woodworth, Principal, Roosevelt Junior High School, Fond du Lac, Wis. Arthur D. Wright, Dartmouth College, Hanover, N. H. O. R. Zoll. Superintendent of District Schools, Matoaka, W. Va. 1034 National Education Association MINUTES OF THE NINTH REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY Atlanta, Georgia, July 1-4, 1929 First Business Session, Monday, July 1, 1929 The assembly gathered at 9 a. m. A half hour of music was given by the Boys High School Concert Orchestra of Atlanta, led by Director R. J. Martin. The meet¬ ing was called to order by President Uel W. Lamkin at 9:30 a. m. following the musical program. The President: There is a feud of long standing between Missouri and Kansas and the Jayhawk and the Tiger meet in many battles on the football field, in the forum and elsewhere, but in a National Education Association meeting there is always harmony and it gives me great pleasure to announce the first state song for the Convention by the Jayhawks of Kansas. [Thereupon a group of teachers from Kansas, with gay paper sunflowers for hats, and one of their number garbed like a brightly colored Jayhawk, gave the Kansas State Song.] The President : I will ask all the persons who are going to take part in the pro¬ gram to come up on the platform. It will do you good to look into the faces of this audience made up of the best people from all parts of the United States. I see Miss McSkimmon and Miss Adair. They are to come to the platform. The Sixty-Seventh Representative Assembly of the National Education Associa¬ tion is in session. It will be opened by an invocation, delivered by Rabbi David Marx, of the Jewish Temple, Atlanta. Rabbi Marx. After the invocation the President spoke as follows: Before proceeding with the business of the Association, I would like to announce the appointment of the Com¬ mittee on Elections: The Chairman, Mr. Donald DuShane of Indiana; the other members, Miss Jean Soules, of the State of Washington, and Dr. J. F. Noonan, of the State of Pennsylvania. If they will come to the platform, they will find Mr. Allan here at the right who is at their service in preparing for the election, which will be held Wednesday. We will ask them to make an announcement before the adjournment of the Representative Assembly this morning. I am very glad to present to you at this time to bring greetings to the N. E. A. Representative Assembly, a man who does not know and will not know for many, many days how hard he has worked to make our welcome here the warm, fine welcome that it has been. I am glad to present to you Willis A. Sutton, Superin¬ tendent of Schools of Atlanta. Dr. Sutton. Dr. Willis A. Sutton: I am sure if I had anything to say, I couldn’t say it now. We are delighted to have you here. I want to express this feeling not only for Atlanta, but for Georgia, and all the states of this eastern and southern territory. It may be that we are poor in some things, but we are rich in loving you and in being glad to have you here this morning. This is the first time, I believe, in forty-one years that either the Department of Superintendence or the National Education Association has met within our gates. We promised you last year if you would come we would do our best to give you the best we had. We have tried to make an educational experiment or project out of the N. E. A. and tried to bring to you the very best of the south. We are glad you are here and what I say for myself I say for Atlanta, for Georgia, and the entire southeast. Everybody has done practically everything we have asked them to do for you. We don’t know much to do. We haven’t much to give. But all that we know and all that we have is yours. The President : The first order of business is the report of the Committee on Credentials by the Chairman, Mr. Sanders, of Massachusetts. Mr. Sanders: Mr. President, the Credentials Committee of the National Educa¬ tion Association of the United States held a meeting at the Atlanta Chamber of Associational Records and Information 1035 Commerce at 9 a. m. Sunday, June 30, 1929. A chairman and secretary were elected. Roll call showed 29 states represented. It was reported from headquarters that 871 delegates had registered. At 9:30 the headquarters staff were so busy with the registrations they could not make a further count. It was voted that a subcom¬ mittee consisting of the chairman and five others appointed by him be constituted with full power to consider any contest that may arise. The subcommittee held a meeting at 8 p. m. June 30. It is recommended that the 870 delegates who had already registered, together with any who may register later, be seated in their Representative Assembly. Mr. President, I move the adoption of the report. The President: You have heard the motion. Is there a second? Voice (Alabama): Second the motion. - There being no discussion, the motion was voted upon and carried. The President: The next order of business is the adoption of rules for governing the meetings of the Representative Assembly. Heretofore you have adopted the rules as they are printed on page two of the Official Manual. If you care to do that again we will entertain a motion to that effect. Mr. Richie (Georgia) : Mr. Chairman, I move the adoption of the rules as printed. Mr. E. M. Carter (Missouri) : Second the motion. There being no discussion, the motion was put and carried. The President: The question comes on the adoption of the order of business. I will ask the Secretary to make a statement. Secretary Crabtree: The plan of procedure has been for the Association to adopt as the order of business the program which has been prepared by the President. I suggest that we follow that same plan this year and suggest that someone make a motion to that effect. Mr. Saunders (Virginia) : Mr. Chairman, I move you that the order of business be that as shown in the printed program. Miss Samuelson (Iowa) : Second the motion. There being no discussion, the motion was put and carried. The President: The next order of business is the reading of the minutes of the Minneapolis meeting. You have them in printed form in your Delegates’ Manual. They are also printed in the Volume. I will recognize anyone who wishes to make suggestions as to the correction of the minutes. If there are none, I will recognize someone who will move to approve the minutes without being read. Do I hear such a motion? If not, we will order the Secretary to read the minutes. Every¬ body moves to adopt the minutes as read ; everybody seconds it. All in favor of that signify by saying “aye,” those opposed “no” — they are adopted. Before beginning to hear the reports of any other committees, I think we should pause a moment to hear the report of the Committee on Necrology, and instead of putting it last we are putting it first on this program of the Representative Assem¬ bly. I am calling on the Chairman of that Committee, an ex-president of this Association, the present State Superintendent of Public Instruction of the State of Illinois, the Hon. Francis G. Blair, to present the report of the Committee on Necrology. Mr. Blair: Mr. President, Fellow Teachers: You have often heard the state¬ ment, “Work is for the worker.” I presume that that statement in the last analysis means that the true worth of every job, of every vocation, calling, or profession must be measured in the terms of the gift that it makes to the worker, in a sense of increased power, in increased enthusiasm, in enlarged vision, and in a sounder and broader sense of comfort and happiness. 1 take it that that is the meaning of the great saying, “Work is for the worker.” I think the old classification of mental and menial work into the respectable and disrespectable has broken down. The faith of the worker in the worthwhileness 1036 National Education Association of what he is doing, the artistic, creative temperament which he brings to it, refines, exalts, and makes responsible any work that may be done. The only true classifica¬ tion of work is the artistic temperament of the worker towards his work and the action of that work upon him. In our old physical laboratories we speak of action and reaction as being equal and in opposite directions but in things spiritual, in things social, action and reaction may be very unequal, and they may be both in the same direction. I believe that the best classification of work is on the basis of the quality of the subjectmatter on which we work. We say that what a boy does to his arithmetic, what he does to his Latin does not count. It is what the arithmetic and Latin do to him that determine the value of these great subjects. It is not w'hat the girl does to the piano in her long and labored practising that really counts; it is not what she does in mastering the instrument, but what it and the lessons do in giving her a new mastery of herself, an enlargement and enrichment of her emotions and appreciations, and their co¬ ordination with nerves and muscles for a more perfect expression that measures what has really been done. In our physical laboratories we learn that action and reaction are equal and in opposite directions, but wfith the true artist the action of the worker upon his work and its reaction upon him may be very unequal and both in the same direction. But both the quantity and the quality of the gift made by the work to the worker depends upon the materials involved. Since I was a boy every florist that I have looked upon has appeared to me as a most favored and fortunate workman. As he worked with sun and air and earth and water to bring a seed or a bulb into new life, into bud and blossom, it has seemed to me that I could see something of that freshness of growth, of that newness of life, of that eternal springtime of these growing things present in the strength and gentleness of his body and the beauty and the fragrance of the flowers in his face and manners. Much of his annual income is not measured in dollars and cents. But I am persuaded that the teacher of children has a great advantage over the florist in the character of the living materials with which he works. I am con¬ vinced that his returns outside of his pay envelope are greater than come to any other worker in the world. The best teacher receives more than she gives in her contacts with the children. Her children are in a sense her fountain of youth; each morning brings its new enthusiasm, its new life. The Bible says, “In the beginning God Created the Heaven and the Earth,” but with our children a new heaven and a new earth are being recreated each day. Our enthusiasm, our appreciations, our backward and forward vision, our real sense of satisfaction, are deepened and broadened and lengthened by each day’s contact. Browning caught the spirit of this contact with youth in his lines — The year’s at the spring, • The day’s at the morn, The morning’s at seven, The hill is dew-pearled ; The bird’s on the wing, The snail’s on the thorn, God’s in His heaven, All’s well with the world. Oh, I know there are gray dawns and disappointing moments. I know there are passing shadows and clouds, but these do not measure the real essence, the real merit, the real joy of our work. Parents sometimes complain of how much sacrifice they make for their children; how much of their energy and time and thought they give to their children, but they know, if they consider it in any true light, that they receive more from their children than they give. There is no material measure ever conceived that can estimate the gHt that a child makes to a parent. There will Associational Records and Information 1037 be disappointments, to be sure, but it is the mountain top of real joy and soul exaltation which comes to those whose lives have been touched by the gentle hands their own children, by their daily and yearly enthusiasms and developments. Next to the parent the real teacher has the best opportunity in her intimate rela¬ tions with her pupils to receive this spiritual uplift which emanates from the lives, the activities, the enthusiasms of children. I have never found this thought better expressed than in some lines which I recently read in the American Poetry Maga¬ zine written by Helen Frazee-Bower. I do not know for a certainty that she was a teacher. I do not know that she was a mother, but I do know that her lines breathe the spirit of that rare composite, the heart, the imagination of mother and teacher. In looking upon her children she says: These are the windows where my soul looks out On larger fields of ripe experience. There is drudgery men talk about, But I have found it of small consequence ; The many tasks that bind the eager feet No more oppress me with their weight of care, For I have learned a secret that is sweet — These are my wings to try the morning air. All that I might have been may be in these ; This one may launch the song I did not sing. And that one hold the dream I could not seize. Through all the twilight of remembering These are my windows that let in the light, At every dawn, these are my wings for flight. As we think of those, our fellow workers, throughout the states and territories, who during this year, after this long and glorious day of labor have lain down to sleep and have opened their eyes upon that last great dawning, I can see in my imagination the host of children whose hearts they have touched with the upward impulse gathered around them to be their wings as they mount the shining slopes of the eternal morning. In my faith I can believe that through the everlasting twilight of their absence, their pupils will be the windows through which will stream the golden light of a never ending noonday, I can also believe that through¬ out the eternity their children will be the portals through which they will con¬ tinually look out upon larger and broader elysian fields of riper and richer experience. It is this view which takes out of the report of this Necrology Committee the funeral note. As I think of these, our comrades, who have fallen from our ranks, I cannot associate my thought with the sound of the funeral dirge. Rather would I think of them in the glorious notes of a triumphal march. As I think of these sol¬ diers of peace, not only those whose names are here recorded, but that vast number of teachers unnamed and unknown who have fought the good fight and have finished the course, I look upon them as a great procession of victors accompanied by a vast host of children’s voices, singing hosannas, as this army of our comrades trium¬ phantly enter the gates of the Eternal City. Mr. Chairman, on behalf of the Necrology Committee I present these names for record in the proceedings of this meeting. .(The list is printed on p. 1142-47.) The President: Superintendent Blair moves the adoption of this report. Do I hear a second ? Voice: Second the motion. The motion was thereupon put and carried. The President: As a further tribute to these persons, whose names are recorded, I am going to ask the Representative Assembly to stand silently for ol|e moment. (The Assembly arose to its feet and stood for a moment with bowed heads.) 1038 National Education Association The President: I am going to confer upon you an unusual pleasure. Mr. Crabtree wrote me when I asked a person to preside at the General Sessions, stating that I had not listed the first Vicepresident of this Association to preside at any meet¬ ing. I told him I did so purposely because when I was absent from the platform of the National Association, or rather the Representative Assembly, I was sure it would give you a great deal of pleasure to have me call to the chair the First Vicepresident of the Association, Miss Cornelia Adair, to whom I relinquish at this time the gavel of the Association. Miss Adair. Miss Cornelia Adair — The Chair: Ladies and Gentlemen: It gives me great pleasure to be able to stand before you again while Mr. Lamkin leaves to welcome our guests from South America. The first report is to be that of the Committee on Ethics. Miss Muir, the Chair¬ man for many years, was unable to come so she has asked the secretary of the Committee, Mr. Ward G. Reeder, of the Ohio State University, to present the report. Mr. Reeder. Mr. Ward G. Reeder: Miss Vicepresident, Ladies and Gentlemen: Five years ago the Representative Assembly of this Association authorized and instructed the Presi¬ dent of the Association to appoint a Committee on Ethics of the Profession whose duty it would be to “formulate and adopt an official body of ethical principles.” That Committee has now finished its task and is hereby making its final report. In¬ asmuch as the complete report of the Committee has been published and a copy given to each member of the Representative Assembly, I shall make my remarks brief. You may be interested in knowing that more than three hundred professions and trades in the United States now have a national code of ethics and that teachers are the only large group without a national code. A national code of ethics for the teaching profession would have the following large advantages: First, it would serve as a guide for the ignorant, that is, those who desire to do, and will do, the professional thing when they know it. Many teachers engage in unprofessional practises because they do not know any better; that is particularly true of those who are entering the profession. Second, it would deter those who know the difference between right and wrong from doing the wrong, because they would be reminded in definite terms that un¬ professional practise was discountenanced by the whole profession. Third, it would beget dignity for the profession, since it would have the endorse¬ ment of the whole body of teachers, numbering now almost one million members. Having such endorsement, it would more likely be respected both by the public and by the members of the profession. Since many of you have not yet had the opportunity of reading the recommended code, I beg your indulgence while I read it to you. I think I can do it in about six minutes. The Preamble of the Code reads as follows: (He then read the articles, section by section, explaining the purpose of each.) (The report is printed on p. 179-190.) The first recommendation of the Committee is, therefore, that the code just read be adopted as the Code of Ethics of the National Education Association. The second recommendation is that the national, the state, and the local education associations take steps to make all members of the profession acquainted with the code and to secure their cooperation in its enforcement. The third and final recommendation is that the Committee on Ethics of the Pro¬ fession be discharged and that this report be accepted as its final report. Madam President, I move the adoption of this report. The Chair: You have heard the report of the Committee on Ethics of the Pro¬ fession. Mr. Reeder has moved its adoption. Do I hear a second? Nebraskq: Second the motion. There being no discussion, the motion was voted upon and carried. 4 Associational Records and Information 1039 The Chair: There is nothing more important to the life of an Association than the charter and bylaws under which it lives. Last year we had a most interesting report from the Committee on the Election of Delegates and Kindred Questions. Because of the importance of that report you are going to have two opportunities of hearing from its chairman. Mr. Threlkeld will now give you a preliminary report of the Committee on Appointment of Delegates and Kindred Questions. Mr. T hrelkeld of Colorado. Mr. A. L. Threlkeld: Members of the Representative Assembly: Inasmuch as this report was printed in this manual I shall not read it but merely make certain comments concerning it. (The Report is printed on p. 195-204 of this Volume.) After explaining the essential points in the report Mr. Threlkeld said: “That, in brief, Madam President, is the comment I have to make about the report this morn¬ ing. This matter is to come before the Assembly again in a later program. Mr. JF. H. Holmes (New York) : Madam President, I should like to ask the Chairman of the Committee to read the last two paragraphs in Part I of his report and then explain to us why the Committee made the recommendations of the changes in paragraph 2. That is the most complete change in the entire report and we ought to know about it. The Chair: You have heard the request of Mr. Holmes of New York. Mr. Threlkeld will reply. Mr. Holmes: I refer to the last two paragraphs of the first part of your report that has to do with the powers given state associations and methods of choosing dele¬ gates, beginning, “All delegates” — on page 96 and read those last two paragraphs and then explain why the Committee recommended the provision for the second paragraph. Please read it so we can understand. Air. Threlkeld (after reading the part requested): That is practically as it was submitted in the previous report with the exception that it guarantees a minimum of three delegates to a state association. Lender any and all circumstances those three are guaranteed. The remainder of that paragraph is just as it was submitted in the previous reports. It means that after the Secretary of the National Education Association certifies to a State the number of active members of the N. E. A. which that State has, and after the Secretary of the state association has assigned those members to the local associations within that state, the remaining members of the N. E. A., if any, should be used as a basis for computing the apportionment to the N. E. A. Representative Assembly' to which the state association is entitled. Mr. Holmes: It says here: “Provided, that any State upon a vote of the active members of the National Education Association” — I want that explained. Mr. Threlkeld: I haven’t come to that paragraph. I am still talking about the preceding paragraph. I thought that was the one yrou were asking about. Air. Holmes: Yes, yes. Air. Threlkeld (after reading last paragraph): That, too, if I am not in error, is a repetition of the recommendation of the previous Committee and was taken bv the present Committee as simply providing for certain situations in which the mech¬ anism of carrying out the spirit of these bylaws might need some changing. I am not familiar enough with the various conditions throughout the forty-eight States of this Union to offer any7 concrete illustrations of how that might work out, but I know conditions vary greatly over the country7 and to allow for any' departure in procedure for selecting these delegates, provided such departure is approved by the Board of Directors as it is stated, this paragraph was put in. That is about all the interpretation that I can give to it. Miss Frances Harden (Chicago, Illinois) : Madam President. The Chair: Miss Harden will y7ou not come to the platform, please? Miss Harden: Madam Chairman, I think the Committee is to be commended for some most excellent work in this report — the elimination of all duplicate representa¬ tion which has so confused our Representative Assembly up to the present time. 1040 National Education Association The provision by which each delegate may designate the organization through which he or she wishes to be represented is certainly most commendable. There are other features that are also very commendable but there is one paragraph that I wish to refer to. It is Section 9 in the proposed amendments, the first sentence of which reads: “The officers of the National Education Association as named in the charter, and the United States Commissioner of Education shall be ex-officio delegates to the Representative Assembly.” In studying the provisions of the charter I find that there are named as officers of the National Education Association ninety-eight individuals. Twenty-five of these individuals so named are life directors. This provision then would retain in our Representative Assembly ninety-eight ex-officio members, and twTenty-five of those ex-officio members so retained would be life delegates. In another place in this report the estimate is made that if this plan is adopted, the membership of the Representative Assembly will be reduced approximately twenty- five percent. Using the figures of our present membership, reducing it twenty-five percent and taking the ninety-eight ex-officios, I find that twelve percent of the proposed Representative Assembly will be ex-officio representatives. Now while numerically they will represent twelve percent in honor and in influence, in the formulation of policies of the N. E. A. they will represent many times twelve per¬ cent. The Representative Assembly, it seems to me, should be what its name im¬ plies — a representative assembly. One, to represent a group of people, should be selected by that group of people for the express purpose of representing the group. People who occupy a position in this body in an ex-officio way do not represent that group. They are not responsible to any group. They are absolutely inde¬ pendent of any group of people. Now do we want to retain in this Representative Assembly a group of ninety-eight ex-officio representatives? I put that to you to think about. Thank you. The Chair: The Chairman of the Committee will make a statement. Mr. Threlkeld: As far as I am personally concerned I fully appreciate the theory just expressed as the basis of electing delegates to any representative assembly, yet there are other points of view to be considered, such as having in this body those who are vitally interested in the welfare of the N. E. A., and experienced in it, a great background of experience, having some continuity of experience in this body. That, I suppose, makes the main argument for having certain ex-officio representation. The Article submitted by the present committee, however, reduces the number of ex-officio members. If you will read Section 9 of the present bylaws and compare it with Section 9 of the proposed bylaws you will find that one group of forty-eight has been left out of the ex-officio membership, on the theory that the speaker has just expressed, namely, that state superintendents of schools as a rule can be elected delegates by the state association or by some local association and there is no necessity for including such state superintendents in the ex-officio mem¬ bership of this body. In the case of the United States Commissioner of Education, he doesn’t belong to the District of Columbia nor to any local district in the United States but to the entire United States. He never, so far as the committee could see, would ever be a member of this Representative Assembly unless he was given an ex-officio membership. As far as the committee is concerned we have no pride in authorship in that Section or in any of the others. The Chair: The next report that you find on the program is that of the Com¬ mittee on Retirement Allowances, of which Miss E. Ruth Pyrtle, of Lincoln, Ne¬ braska, is chairman. Miss Pyrtle: Madam President, Fellow Workers: I bring to you this morning the report of the Committee on Retirement Allowances. I have listened as you have with great interest to these reports that have to do with the welfare of the schools, the training of the children of our nation. I think one of the very most encouraging Association a l Records and Information 1041 outlooks for education is the very fact that the teachers themselves are here this hot morning studying their problems, trying to find the solution, trying to move forward. I bring to you one of the most important of all, it seems to me, because it has to do with the efficiency of the teachers, and the schools. That is our biggest argument for Teacher Retirement Allowances. ( She explained each item in the report. This report is printed on p. 217-227 of this Volume.) Two years ago this Delegate Assembly authorized the committee, as you recall, to see to it that a plan of retirement was put in operation for our headquarters staff at Washington, D. C. That, as you know, has been done. I am told by people on the staff it has been very satisfactorily done. At the last meeting of the Repre¬ sentative Assembly, or at any rate the question has been discussed of extending that plan, to further putting our own house in order by extending it to every state association. We offer this report for your consideration. I thank you. The Chair: Miss Pyrtle moves the adoption of the report of the Committee on Retirement Allowances. Voice (Virginia) : Second the motion. There being no discussion, the motion was put, carried, and the report of the Committee on Teacher Retirement Allowances declared accepted as filed. The Chair: As you know the official work of the Association -is carried on by three divisions — the headquarters staff in Washington, the committees, and the departments. It is not possible for us to hear from every department every year. This year we are going to have the pleasure of hearing from one of our newest departments. We are going to listen to the report from the Department of Super¬ visors and Directors of Instruction. Miss Mary A. S. Mugan, Assistant Superin¬ tendent of Schools, Fall River, Massachusetts represents the Department. Miss Mugan: Madam Chairman: Eight years ago when the National Conference on Educational Method was organized at the meeting of the Department of Super¬ intendence at Atlantic City, Dr. James F. Hosic, the inspired founder of this organi¬ zation, called attention of that group of charter members there assembled, to the dearth of literature on the subject of supervision. One might search the catalogs of professional books and magazine articles, and find many treatises on administra¬ tion, but at that time writh the exception of Dr. Burton’s pioneer volume on Supervision and the Improvement of Instruction, and a few other noteworthy treatises, there were very few printed studies on the fundamental principles of supervision and the practical working out of these principles in the improvement of teaching and of teachers. You will recall, of course, that in the last six years several important studies on phases of supervision have been published. (After explaining the character of the organization and its work she continued as follows:) As the organization grew it developed the following aims and purposes: (1) The development of a cooperative association of educators actively interested in all phases of supervision and the improvement of instruction. (2) The study of the problems of supervisors with the purposes of finding the solution of these problems. (3) The development for the benefit of teachers and supervisors, of worthy standards of classroom procedures as well as the discussion of practical methods of attaining these standards, by means of the Journal of Educational Method. (4) The work of committees for scientific .research in various phases of supervision and the publi¬ cation of the results of such research in the Yearbooks of the organization. (5) The listing of notable books and articles on subjects of interest to members. (6) The intensive study of the problems of supervisors of special subjects, such as Music, Penmanship, Fine and Practical Arts, Physical Education and in other fields. (7) In general, this Department aims to be a source of genuine inspiration and of vital, active helpfulness to the large and important body of supervisors throughout the country and through them to the children of the land, whose growth and develop- 1042 National Education Association ment are both the joy and the responsibility of all who are engaged in this far reaching work of constructive supervision. The Chair: You have heard the report of this department. I don’t know whether it is in order to move its adoption but just to be cordial, I will say I hear a motion to accept the report of the department. Do 1 hear a second? Voice: Second the motion. There being no discussion, the motion was put and carried. The Chair: You have a very amusing President this year, one who has his own way of doing things. I am enjoying taking his place. I don’t know just when I am going to stop. We have another committee in which you are very much in¬ terested, the Committee on International Relations. We are very fortunate in having Dean William F. Russell of Teachers College, for its chairman. Dean Russell will now present his report. Dean Russell (New York City) : I have no formal report to submit for the Com¬ mittee on International Relations at this time. As you know, of course, this com¬ mittee deals largely with the World Federation of Education Associations, which had its meeting at San Francisco, another meeting at Edinburgh, a meeting two years ago at Toronto, and another meeting coming this summer at Geneva. The work of this committee, which has formed the delegation of this Association to this World Federation, was rather strenuous at Edinburgh. At that time we had the important duty of framing the constitution, in which we could all work, and our committee was obstreperous in the extreme. At that time also we went more to tell the rest of the world how to do it rather than to learn from the rest of the world how to do it ourselves and many of us met with considerable confusion as the result of that. The work of our committee between the Edinburgh and Toronto meetings was to learn humility. We went to the meeting at Toronto desirous of learning rather than teaching and great was our success. You would indeed have been proud of your delegation at Toronto. We think now that we have learned how to represent this Association politically and effectively and that our group will cause you no concern whatever in the meeting at Geneva. We have made many contacts; we have many friends; we understand a good deal of the work that has gone on in the various committees and sections of the World Federation, and we feel it only fair if we go over there to learn, at least you ought to let us come back here and teach. We feel after all that the chief weakness now in the International Relations of the National Education Association is not in its Committee on International Re¬ lations but is in the National Education Association itself and in the state associa¬ tions. This great international enterprise, this great meeting of the teachers of the world will fill a place, in my judgment, if it be merely a place where we talk about peace and goodwill, a place where we merely orate, a place where we put up our prize exhibitions for the view of all the rest. If this Association be not a working organization in which the teachers of the world meet to exchange their ideas and teach each other, then I consider it a failure. I feel that the Committee on International Relations of the National Education Association should be your messengers. We should go to Geneva, and to the next meeting, curious to learn the way in which the rest of the world is meeting its problems. We should come back from that meeting full of information, full of guidance to give to the members of our own profession in this country. I should like to announce that there will be no meeting of the Committee on International Relations at this meeting. Our meeting* will be held in Geneva, Switzerland, on July 27. The Chair: Mr. Russell moves the adoption of the report. Do I hear a second? Voice: Second the motion. There being no discussion, the motion was put and carried and the report of the Committee on International Relations declared adopted as presented. The Chair: Your President is back. He will now take the chair. Uel W. Lamkin, presiding. Associational Records and Information 1043 Mr. Francis G. Blair (Illinois) : Mr. President, I asked the President of this Association the other day for an opportunity to speak at the conclusion of this report of the Committee on International Relations and I wish to offer a motion. In 1933 in the United States of America is to be given, I believe, the greatest international exposition that the world has ever seen, really covering one hundred years of industrial and social development, and it is the expectation to invite to America all nations of the earth to attend that exposition. Therefore, it seems meet and right and proper to make a motion instructing our delegates to the inter¬ national conference at Geneva to extend an invitation, not for the next meeting of World Federation of Education Associations which will be in 1931 — let that go where it will, that is very fine — but to extend to that organization an invitation to meet in America in 1933 ; and, Mr. Chairman, I move that this Representative Assembly instruct our delegates to Geneva to invite that great organization to meet in the United States of America in the year 1933. Voice: Second the motion. The President: The motion has been made and seconded that the delegates be instructed to invite the World Federation to meet at — Chicago? The Secretary : No, not Chicago. America. The President: Well, is not Chicago America? You know from Mr. Blair’s speech I couldn’t tell whether he was talking about Chicago or Los Angeles. Were you talking about Chicago or Los Angeles in America? The greatest city? Mr. Blair: With all apologies to Los Angeles, I did not assume even our Presi¬ dent could have any doubt as to what city was alluded to. Mr. A. R. Clifton (California) : Mr. President, California, too, would like to second that motion. We believe we would rather leave “Chicago” out of the motion, as much as we love it, but we do want that great organization which has constantly grown in the regard of the teachers of the world, to come to the United States in 1933. We are with Dr. Blair and Illinois. The President : Any further discussion? If not, we are ready for the question. Before putting the question I want to say as one of the delegates — you know the President of the Association has the right to appoint delegates and he appointed himself as one of them — we are going to vote to go to Honolulu, Hawaii, in 1931 and then come back in 1933. Thereupon the motion was put and carried and the delegates to the World Federation of Education Associations instructed to invite that organization to the United States of America in 1933. The President: Well that motion has prevailed but that does not bind us not to vote for Honolulu, Hawaii, in 1931, and all of us are going. There will be the greatest delegation of Americans to go to Hawaii that has gone anywhere in the world, I suppose. I am going to recognize at this time the man who spoke to us last Saturday morning in order to allow him to present a resolution which we will refer to the Committee on Resolutions, Walter P. Morgan, President of Teachers College, McComb, Illinois. Mr. Walter P. Morgan (Illinois) : Mr. President, teachers of the Delegate As¬ sembly: I tried to outline to you last Saturday morning some of the problems that confront teacher training in the United States and I urged that this Association should approve the work of the American Association of Teachers Colleges, which is a department of this Association, in sponsoring a request for an appropriation to be made to the Bureau of Education to make a thorough investigation of teacher training in the United States as the basis for further action. I prepared this reso¬ lution: (He read the resolution. It was afterwards incorporated in the report of the Committee on Resolutions, which appears in this volume on page 1135.) 1044 National Education Association The President: We will call on Mr. Donald DuShane, Chairman of Committee on Election, to make an announcement concerning the arrangements for voting. Mr. DuShane: Mr. President and Delegates of this Convention: The bylaws pro¬ vide that an election shall be held on the fourth day of this convention and that the balloting shall be on printed ballots. The committee has had a meeting this morning and has arranged to hold the election at the registration headquarters in the Exposition Hall — the place where you secured your delegate supplies. A ballot box will be placed there and the polls will be open from eight a. m. until six p. m. The procedure of voting has been made as simple as possible. Each of your dele¬ gate certificates has upon it a coupon. You will present yourself to the headquarters desk, sign the coupon, and exchange it for a ballot. The ballot will be filled out simply by marking an “X” opposite the candidates you desire. Then you will place the ballot in the box. Some member of the committee will be present throughout the day and the committee will meet at that place at six p. m. to begin the counting of ballots. The committee desires that all or as many of you as are interested be present when the ballots are counted and that particularly the friends of the candidates, if there are several candidates for each position, be present. The importance of casting your ballot need not be urged upon you and the committee is going to take every precaution that the election may be convenient for you and that your will in the matter may be absolutely carried out. The President : You have heard that announcement. I had intended to make the announcement after the report of the Committee on International Relations. I un¬ derstand the first vicepresident has been talking about the chairman in his absence. Those men that can see this — and I am sure all the ladies can — will notice the red badge on my coat. It is the badge of the Inter-American Conference that is being held today. I have invited the representatives of that Inter-American Conference, approximately twenty men and women, to sit on the platform of this Association at the meeting tomorrow morning before their Conference begins at ten oclock. They are to come at nine and will be here until ten. I shall ask Dr. Swiggett, the organizing secretary, to present them to you. We have come to the point in the prqgram where nominations for president are in order. Nominations will be for president, alphabetically, vicepresidents, and treasurer; then nominations for state directors. I assume that is the plan that has been followed in previous years and should be followed at the present. Namely, the roll of states will be called for nominations for president; then the roll of states called for nominations for vicepresidents; then the roll of states called for nominations for treasurer; then the roll of states called for nominations for state director. Is that jour wish? If not, what do you want to do? Foice (Georgia) : Mr. President, I move you the usual procedure be followed. Voice (Tennessee) : Second the motion. There being no discussion, the motion was put and carried. The President : The Secretary will call the roll of the states for nominations for president. I think it would be well for persons making nominations for president, vicepresident, and treasurer to come to the stage and make their nominations. You can be heard better from here. Do you want to put any limit on the time or shall they have all the time they want? Voices: Yes! Yes! The President: If there is no objection the nominations will be limited to — how many minutes? Three? Voices: One! One! The President: All in favor of two minutes stand up. (No response.) All in favor of having nomination speeches for president stand up. The nominations will be limited to two minutes. I ask you to come to the platform as the states present the candidates. Associational Records and Information 1045 Thereupon the Secretary proceeded to call the roll of states as follows: Mr. J. D. Williams (Birmingham, Ala.) : Mr. President, last year Alabama saw fit to yield to Missouri. The President: That was a good thing to do. Mr. Williams (continuing) : Thus far we have seen no reason to repent. T his year Alabama wishes to yield to Nebraska. The President : Alabama yields to Nebraska. Mr. Elliott (Chadron, Nebraska) : Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen of the Delegate Assembly: I wish to acknowledge on behalf of the Nebraska delegation our appreciation of the splendid and magnanimous attitude on the part of Alabama in yielding to a Nebraska delegate for the presidency of this Association. I wish to place in nomination for president of this Association a member who has the keen intellect, the sterling character, the broad vision, and the efficient leadership so necessary in the one who is to lead this great Association during the coming year. For over twenty years this member has attended each session of the Association at her own expense. During that time she has actively supported every great con¬ structive project which the Association has advocated. For several years she has devoted most of the time during her vacation periods to the business of this Asso¬ ciation. Her activities on behalf of our organization have brought her into contact with many thinkers of our country, prominent in the educational, cultural, social, and Christian organizations. Her support of, and sympathy with the splendid work and efforts of our beloved secretary, the Honorable James W. Crabtree, especially qualify her as an executive for a growing and greater Association. In addition to this devotion to the cause of education in our own country she has several times been our delegate to the International Conference, thus having an international grasp of world affairs which is invaluable in one who is to lead the education association of our nation. She is a delegate to that Conference again this year and will leave soon after the adjournment of this convention in this beautiful Southern city of Atlanta to take part in the deliberations of that body. Her father and mother came from homes broken by the War, young people ac¬ customed to comforts and luxuries, but youth and indomitable courage were with them, so when they were married they went west. Their first home was in a sod house. Just when the prairie was giving way to the cultivation of crops, the father lost his life in an accident. With kindly intent the neighbors said, “It will be necessary to separate the children and divide them among those who can and will provide them with homes.” But the mother gathering to herself all the strength of motherhood of all the ages said, “No. God alone knows how I shall provide for them but my children shall never be separated.” And they never were. In some way these Pyrtle children were fed, in some way clothed, in some way educated. The mother lived to see all her children well established in life. Miss Pyrtle favors the plan and policies adopted for education in this country. Her service as chairman of the national committee on Retirement of Teachers and Teachers Allowances has been outstanding. Few persons in this country have so bold a conception of that movement or know so intimately the plans as does Miss Pyrtle. Coming from Virginia where she renews acquaintances every summer, she was reared in Nebraska on a homestead during the pioneer period, when she developed such sympathy for her fellowman as characterizes the west. Nurtured by that southern state, the great mother of Presidents, she matured under the turquoise skies of the middle west. Miss Pyrtle has strength and decided ability. She is both east and west, and we have now the opportunity to give recognition of her marked leadership in educa- 1046 National Education Association tion by electing her President of this Association. She is a practical idealist, not visionary. In matters of administration she is always dignified, unselfish, and con¬ siderate. She is an untiring worker and devoted to duty. She has proven loyal to every trust in the educational world. Mr. President, I propose the name of E. Ruth Pyrtle of Nebraska as a candidate for the office of President of the National Education Association of our country. Thank you. The President : Mr. Carter of Missouri moves, Mr. Elliott of Virginia seconds the motion, that all seconding speeches shall be limited to as many minutes as the nomination speeches. The motion was thereupon put and carried. The President: The Secretary will continue to call the roll. T hereupon, the Secretary continued with the roll call as follows: The Secretary : Arizona. Mr. W. T. Mac han (Arizona) : Arizona yields only to recognized talent and de¬ voted service. The culture of America is reflected in this Virginian by birth; the refinement of the east by acquirement; the ruggedness of the west by the demands of the pioneer and the recognized devotion to the god of service in the National Education Association. Arizona rejoices with quickened pride in the honor granted her to second the nomination of Miss Ruth Pyrtle of Nebraska. The President : May I ask everyone who expects to make a nominating or a seconding speech to come up on the platform. The Secretary : Arkansas. Arkansas : Mr. Chairman, Arkansas yields to Minnesota. The Secretary : Minnesota. Miss Murphy (Minneapolis) : Mr. President, Fellow Members of the Representa¬ tive Assembly: As one who has worked with the candidate for a number of years, as a teacher in the building in which she is now principal, and predicating her candidacy upon professional ability, experience, and interest in the essential ele¬ ments that concern teachers, teaching, and education; believing that this expanding national body wishes to recognize the ability to interpret and apply the highest standards that should govern an organized profession, inviting your consideration of a service given freely and sincerely to expand and strengthen this Association and to place its policies and principles on a permanent basis; because her heart and mind and aim yield ready service to the best ideals of child training, I ask the official representatives of the American Public School Teachers to recognize and accept the candidacy of a native of my state, born within its borders, trained in its public schools and institutions, with a service of fifteen years as a teacher and now a principal in Minneapolis, Minnesota, a woman of inspiration, sympathy and creative aptness. I place in nomination for the Presidency of the National Education Association the principal of the John Burroughs School of Minneapolis, Miss Effie MacGregor. The President: You have heard the nomination. The Secretary will continue to ca 11 the roll. As the Secretary called the roll the following states seconded nominations: Colorado : Mr. President, Colorado seconds the nomination of Miss Pyrtle of Nebraska. Miss Murphy (Minnesota) : Mr. President. The President : Miss Murphy of Minnesota. Miss Murphy (Minnesota) : Mr. President, my ardent desire to put before you my candidate caused me to forget to thank Arkansas and to express Minnesota’s appre¬ ciation of the favor in yielding to Minnesota. I thank you. The President: The Secretary will continue to call the roll. Associational Records and Information 1047 The President: The chair recognizes the gentleman from Delaware, Mr. JVard of Wilmington, Delaware. Mr. fV ard: The first state to recognize the Constitution, and, therefore, the estab¬ lishment of this country, is always proud to recognize outstanding service in the greatest business of this country, in sustaining the Republic. Delaware, therefore, seconds the nomination of Miss E. Ruth Pyrtle. The President : The Chair recognizes Superintendent M. L. Duggan of Georgia. Mr. Duggan: Our inimitable Sam Jones in one of his revivals had a hard sinner and he went to him and asked him if he wanted to be born again. The old man replied, “I was born in Virginia ; I don’t have to be born again.” Mr. William Jennings Bryan tells of a man who inquired if a certain prominent lady was born in Virginia and the man was reproved for the question and told that if she was it wasn’t necessary to ask it, if he would be in her company awhile he would know it; if she was not, why embarrass her by the question? In the name of all Georgia I have the honor of seconding the nomination of one who is a native Southerner, and you can’t mistake it if you are with her long. She was born in a state in the south, and you will know what state it is if you associate with E. Ruth Pyrtle. I take honor in seconding the nomination of Miss Pyrtle in the name of all of the Georgia teachers. The President: The Chair recognizes Miss Davis, State Superintendent of Public Instruction of Idaho. Miss Davis (Idaho) : Idaho is very happy to second the nomination of Miss Pyrtle for President of this Association. The President: The Chair recognizes Miss Mary Lord, State Director of Iowa. Miss Mary Lord (Iowa) : On behalf of Iowa I wish to second the nomination of Miss E. Ruth Pyrtle. The President: The Chair recognizes Mr. Turner, State Director of Louisiana. Mr. C. B. Turner: Mr. Chairman, Louisiana takes peculiar pleasure in seconding the nomination of Miss Pyrtle of Nebraska. The President : The Chair recognizes the State Director of Maine, Mr. IVilliam B. Jack. Mr. Jack: Maine seconds the nomination of Miss Pyrtle of Nebraska. The President : The Chair recognizes Mr. Graves, President of the Massachu¬ setts Superintendents’ Association. Mr. Graves: Massachusetts has great faith in the west and middle west as well as other parts of the country, and takes great pleasure in seconding the nomination of Miss Pyrtle. The President: The Chair recognizes Mr. H. V. Cooper, State Director of Mississippi. Mr. Cooper: Mississippi seconds the nomination of Miss Pyrtle. The President : The Chair recognizes Mr. Holmes, Director from New York. Mr. Holmes (New York) : New York State unanimously seconds the nomination of Miss Pyrtle, a great woman, a great classroom teacher, a great principal, who will prove to you to be a great leader and a great presiding officer, and withal a great President. The President : The Chair recognizes Mr. Eldredg e , State Director of Ohio. Mr. Eldredge: Ohio wishes to second the nomination of Miss Pyrtle of Nebraska. The President: The Chair recognizes Mr. Francisco Vizcarrondo, Assistant Com¬ missioner of Education of Porto Rico. Mr. Francisco Vizcarrondo : Mr. Chairman, through national and international conventions, Porto Rico has enjoyed the privilege of becoming familiar with the fine educational spirit of the state of Nebraska. Personally I have enjoyed the privilege of being acquainted with Miss Pyrtle for the last ten years. Porto Rico is honored in seconding the nomination of Miss Pyrtle for the office of President. 1048 National Education Association Mr. H. P. Shepard (Tennessee): In recognition of outstanding services of Miss Pyrtlc it is a pleasure for Tennessee to second the nomination of this candidate. The President: The Chair recognizes Miss Griswold, a delegate from Vermont. Miss Griswold : Vermont wishes to second the nomination of Miss E. Ruth Pyrtlc for President. The President : The Chair recognizes Mr. J. Rosier, State Director of West Virginia. Mr. Rosier: West Virginia, having provided the birthplace of E. Ruth Pyrtle, has a sentimental as well as an official pleasure in seconding her nomination for President. The President: The Chair recognizes Mr. E. G. Doudna, State Director of Wisconsin. Mr. Doudna: Wisconsin is very glad to second the nomination of Miss E. Ruth Pyrtle of Nebraska. The President: That completes the call of the roll for candidates for President. Miss Pyrtle of Nebraska and Miss MacGregor of Minnesota are the nominees. The next order of business is the calling of the roll for candidates for Vicepresi¬ dent. Shall we make any limitation as to nominating speeches or seconding speeches ? Mr. L. JV. Rogers (Texas) : Mr., Chairman, I move they be limited to one minute. Voice: Second the motion. The President: What about seconding speeches? Mr. Rogers: They be limited to one-half minute. The motion was thereupon put and carried. The President: The Chair again invites to the platform all persons to make nominating speeches for Vicepresident, and also seconding speeches. Like to have you come so we can transact the business rapidly and the delegates can hear you. The Secretary will call the roll for nominations for Vicepresident. As the Secretary called the roll the following states either made or seconded nominations: The President : The Chair recognizes the State Director of Alabama. Mr. J. D. Williams: Alabama wishes to nominate as Vicepresident of the National Education Association Mr. John E. Bryan, Superintendent of Bessemer School. Arkansas : Arkansas yields to Mississippi. The President: Arkansas yields to Mississippi, Mr. Bass. Mr. Bass: I wish to nominate to this position our splendid Superintendent of Education of the State, Mr. JV. F. Bond. Mr. Bond is not here at this meeting but he is nearly always present at one of the meetings. He is a great man and has done a great thing for Mississippi and for the entire United States as far as that is concerned. I will appreciate it if you will vote for Mr. Bond. The President: The Chair recognize.s Mrs. Florence Hampton of Los Angeles Kindergarten Organization. Miss Hampton: I wish to place before this organization, a Californian by adop¬ tion, an Atlantan by birth, and both extremely glad to claim her — Mrs. Jones, a kindergarten teacher with a vision of education of all groups. She is the most out¬ standing classroom teacher of the state of California. I wish to place before this Assembly the name for Vicepresident of Mrs. Eugenia JVest Jones. Colorado: Colorado desires to yield to Wisconsin. The President: The Chair recognizes Mr. Brassford of Wisconsin. Mr. Brassford: Wisconsin thanks Colorado for so kindly yielding to it. It is Wisconsin’s pleasure to place in nomination one who has been very active in National Association affairs for years. She has been a Vicepresident of the Wis¬ consin State Teachers Association. At present she is a very efficient chairman of Associational Records and Information 1049 the Committee on Resolutions of the National Association. It is a great pleasure to place in nomination Miss Elizabeth McCormick of Wisconsin. The President: The Chair recognizes Mr. Halloway, State Superintendent of Schools of Delaware. Mr. Halloway : Delaware desires to place in nomination for Vicepresident of this Association the name of David A. Ward. The President: I want to call your attention to the fact that twice the District of Columbia has stated they have no candidate. The Chair recognizes Mr. Lynch, Superintendent of Schools, St. Petersburg, Florida. Mr. Lynch: I wish to place in nomination for Vicepresident of the National Edu¬ cation Association one who has made a very definite and constructive contribution to education in the Southland, the Honorable W. S. Cawthon, the State Superin¬ tendent of Public Instruction of Florida. The President: The Chair recognizes Air. H. B. Richie, Past President of the Georgia State Teachers Association. Mr. Richie: Georgia wishes to do two things: First, we wish as a unit to second the nomination of Airs. Jones of California. Second, we wish as a unit to present the name of a gentleman for Vicepresident who has contributed possibly as no other Georgian to the success of this convention. I wish to nominate Superintendent Willis A. Sutton of Atlanta as one of the Vicepresidents. The President: The Chair recognizes Air. Dienst, Superintendent of Schools of Boise, Idaho. Mr. Charles F. Dienst: Idaho places in nomination the name of John C. Warner, Veteran Teacher of Trainor, Idaho, for Vicepresident of the National Education Association. Louisiana: Louisiana seconds the nomination of Air. Bond of Mississippi for Vice- president. The President: The Chair recognizes Mr. William B. Jack, State Director of Maine. Mr. Jack: Maine places in nomination the name of Florence M. Hale for Vice- president. The President : The Chair recognizes Air. E. AI. Hosman, Secretary of the Nebraska Teachers Association. Mr. Hosman: Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen of the Convention, Nebraska wishes to second the nmination of Mr. John E. Bryan from Alabama. The President : The Chair recognizes the Chairman of the New Jersey Delegation. New Jersey: Mr. President and Ladies and Gentlemen, Members of the Repre¬ sentative Assembly: New Jersey wishes to place in nomination for Vicepresident Dr. Ira T. Chapman, Superintendent of Schools, the city of Elizabeth. Dr. Chap¬ man has served as a Vicepresident and understands what is to be required of him and has served in several states of the union as an efficient educator. The President: The Chair recognizes Mr. Aloore of Raton, New Mexico. Mr. Moore: Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen, on behalf of the New Mexico Delegation it gives me great pleasure to second the nomination made by the Delega¬ tion from Georgia. The President: The Chair recognizes Mr. E. E. Lewis of New York City. Mr. Lewis: Ladies and Gentlemen, the New York Delegation wishes me to pre¬ sent for your consideration for the vicepresidency a favorite son, an able superin¬ tendent of schools, a man who has served this organization successfully as state director and whose interest in this organization has been continuous and enthusi¬ astic. The name of the candidate for Vicepresident whom I Avish to present is William H. Holmes, Superintendent of Schools, Mount Vernon, New York. The President : The Chair recognizes Airs. Minnie J. Nielson, formerly state superintendent of schools of North Dakota. 1050 National Education Association Mrs. Minnie J. Nielson: North Dakota wishes also to do two things: To second the nomination of Mrs. Jones of California, for so many of our California people come over into North Dakota to live; and also to place in nomination the name of an aggressive educator of our state who has done much to advance the cause of education and the National Education Association, Mr. L. A. White, Superintendent of Schools of Minot, North Dakota. The President: The Chair recognizes Mr. Howard, State Superintendent of Schools of Oregon. Mr. Howard: As friends of our neighboring state, the great state of California, and as a personal admirer of Eugenia Jones, I am happy to represent Oregon in seconding her nomination as Vicepresident of this Association. We wish to put in nomination another candidate for one of these eleven places, and we have selected an eminent Oregonian to nominate, Mr. E. H. Whitney, Assistant Superintendent, Portland, as Vicepresident of this organization. The President: The Chair recognizes Mr. James F. Noonan of Pennsylvania. Mr. Noonan: Pennsylvania seconds the nomination of Ira T. Chapman. The President: The Chair recognizes Francisco Vizcarrondo , Assistant Superin¬ tendent of Schools of Porto Rico. Mr. Vizcarrondo : Porto Rico has the honor to second the nomination of the Superintendent of Schools of Atlanta, Georgia, Willis H. Sutton. The President: The Chair recognizes Miss Ellingsworth, Memphis, Tennessee. Miss Ellingsworth: Mr. Chairman, I wish to nominate for Vicepresident a life member of the N. E. A., one active enough to bring in two life members at this time, an administrator of long standing, one of the most enthusiastic, alive members of the Association, and of the state of Tennessee, a man whose school has been one hundred percent in membership since it was organized, one who is President of the Memphis Educational Association. I nominate Mr. S. L. Ragsdale of Memphis, Tennessee. The President: The Chair has finally got Mr. Rogers to the platform. I recog¬ nize Mr. L. W. Rogers of Texas. Mr. Rogers: Texas will offer you an opportunity to vote for a real educator, a man who has rendered valuable service in the ranks and who is worthy of pro¬ motion to the place of Vicepresident of this organization. I present Mr. W. A. James, Principal of Ball High School, Galveston, Texas. The President: The Chair recognizes Miss Griswold, a delegate from Vermont. Miss Griswold: Mr. President, Members of the Representative Assembly: Ver¬ mont takes great pleasure in placing in nomination for Vicepresident one who has served our state and also the National Education Association for many years, in many capacities, with loyalty and efficiency. Vermont places in nomination for Vicepresident of the National Education Association Miss Caroline S. Woodruff , Principal of the State Normal School at Castleton, Vermont. The President: The Chair recognizes Miss Lucy Mason Holt of Norfolk, Virginia. Miss Holt: Virginia takes great pleasure in seconding the nomination of Dr Sutton of Atlanta. The President: The Chair recognizes Mr. Beach, Director from the State of Washington. Mr. Beach: Mr. President, Fellow Delegates: Washington takes pleasure in placing before you the name of Miss Jean Soules, a classroom teacher of Spokane, a junior past President of the Department of Classroom Teachers of the National Education Association, for Vicepresident. The President: The Secretary will list these names for the ballot. He will now call the roll of states for nominations for treasurer. The Chair recognizes Mr. Joseph H. Saunders of Virginia. Associational Records and Information 1051 Mr. Saunders: If it be in order may I suggest instead of going through the long roll call for the office of Treasurer that those having nominations to make be in¬ vited to the platform and save this roll call. The President: You hear Mr. Saunders’ suggestion. Unless there is some ob¬ jection to it, the Chair will act upon it, inviting those who have nominations for Treasurer to make to come to the platform and we will recognize you as you ask recognition and you can make your nominations. The Chair recognizes Mr. George IV. W annamaker of South Carolina. Mr. W annamaker : South Carolina would like to nominate the present Treasurer of the National Education Association for reelection. The President : The Chair recognizes Mr. L. A. Pittenger of Muncie, Indiana. Mr. L. A. Pittenger: Mr. Chairman, Members of this Association: I dislike to be pulled out to speak after I have come up here I wish to present H. L. Smith, Dean of the Education College of Indiana University, as the Treasurer of this Association. The President: Any other nominations? If not, I might call the attention of Diogenes to the fact that the National Education Association has at least one honest man who can handle its money. I don’t know how many more there are but we at least have one. (Dean Smith is renominated.) The Chair announces the following names have been handed to the Secretary for nomination for state director and I will ask the Secretary to read the states and the names of the persons nominated for state directors, and unless there is objec¬ tion these names will go on the ballots. Secretary Crabtree thereupon read the list of states and directors nominated as follows : Zebulon Judd, Ala. E. IV. Montgomery, Ariz. J. P. Womack, Ark. W. E. Givens, Calif. W. B. Mooney, Colo. Gordon C. Swift, Conn. H. V. Holloway, Del. Harry English, D. C. James S. Rickards, Fla. M. L. Duggan, Ga. Frank E. Howard , Hawaii Charles F. Dienst, Idaho A. L. W hittenhcrg , Ill. Charles F. Miller, Ind. Mary A. Lord, Iowa M. E. Pearson, Kans. R. E. Williams, Ky. Annie T. Bell, La. William B. Jack, Maine William Burdick, Md. Annie C. Woodward, Mass. Webster H. Pearce, Mich. Alice Sullivan, Minn. H. V. Cooper, Miss. Thomas J. Walker, Mo. R. J. Cunningham , Mont. M. C. Lefler, Nebr. Jennie A. Curieux, Nev. Perley J. Horne, N. H. Alexander J. Glennie, N. J. Mrs. H. F. Brock, N. M. Harry W. Langworthy , N. Y. T W. Andrews , N. C. Minnie J. Nielson, N. D. A. C. Eldredge, Ohio John G. Mitchell, Okla. F. J. Fitzpatrick , Ore. J. Herbert Kelley, Pa. Francisco Vizcarrondo , P. R. Mrs. Agnes M. Bacon, R. I. George W. W annamaker , S. C. N. E. Steele, S. D. P. L. Harned, Tenn. L. W. Rogers, Texas A. N. Thurman, Utah Caroline S. Woodruff, V t. Robert W. House, V a. Arthur E. Lindborg, Virgin Islands Arthur L. Marsh, Wash. Joseph Rosier, W. Va. E. G. Doudna, Wis. J. J. Early, Wyo. The President: The Chair will ask unanimous consent that the states not re¬ ported may report nominations of State Directors to the Secretary and those names 1052 National Education Association may be included upon the list of Directors to be voted upon Wednesday. If there is no objection the Chair will entertain a motion to adjourn. The motion is so made and seconded and the Chair declares it carried. Second Business Session, Tuesday, July 2, 1929 The second business session of the Representative Assembly opened with a musi¬ cal program by the Samuel M. Inman Orchestra of Atlanta, Georgia, on Tuesday, July 2, 1929, at 9 a. m., directed by Mrs. W. W. Woolf oik. The session was called to order by the President at 9:30 oclock a. m. The President: May I have your attention, please. Before the Invocation for the regular session this morning, I have the pleasure to present to you Mr. George W. W annamaker , State Director of South Carolina, who has an announcement to make. Mr. W annamaker (South Carolina): Mr. Chairman, Ladies, and Gentlemen: Representing the Palmetto State I come forward as Director for the purpose of presenting to our distinguished President a gift that is somewhat symbolic of the love that we have for him and for the National Education Association. Those of you who have had the opportunity of coming through our state and those who have had the opportunity of studying something of the history of our state know that cotton is one of our main industries. Within the last few years time we have much improved our cotton industry, and now we are proud to be numbered among the states producing the bonniest quality of long staple cotton, and we have decided, even though the President of the National Education Association is a long distance from home, he has a good many friends to assist him, with what might otherwise be a bulky present to him, back to the state of Missouri. I am going to ask you, Mr. President, if you will step forward, please, and accept at my hands this gift wThich South Carolina has for you. (And with that three truck loads of baled cotton were wheeled in, one behind the other.) We realize that we are in the presence of Georgia, and Georgia boasts of its cotton, but we say that we have the finest quality of cotton here that can be found anywhere. President Larnkin: I am sure that anyone would be overwhelmed at receiving these three bales of the finest cotton ever raised. Is it not the finest, Mr. IV anna¬ maker? Mr. W annamaker : Yes, the very finest. The President: Three fine bales of cotton from the state of South Carolina! (And with that, the three bales mounted on the trucks were turned around and found to consist of one side only and filled with young women.) South Carolina thereupon rendered a State Song. The President invited all members of the Inter-American Conference to come up on the platform, also all persons having reports to present. The President: The invocation this morning will be offered by the Rev. C. R. Stauffer, Pastor of the First Christian Church of Atlanta. The Rev. C. R. Stauffer. After the invocation the President proceeded: I am sure you all want to know who these distinguished people seated on the platform are. I am asking Dr. Glen Levin Sveiggett to introduce them to us and asking if one of them will not speak a few words in greeting to us this morning. Dr. Svuiggett. Dr. Swiggett: Mr. President, Officers, Members, and Friends of our great Na¬ tional Education Association: It is my personal pleasure to present to you by name the delegates, some of whom have come from a great distance to attend this First Inter-American Conference on Education. While our conference is small, our de¬ liberations are of great importance, and we are making history in these three days at Atlanta. The delegates will stand as I present them. Associatioxal Records and Information 1053 He then presented each one with ^ statement concerning his country and position. A few made short addresses. The President: I am sure I speak for the entire Association when I express out gratitude to these persons who have come here this morning representing these Central and South American countries. The mutual understandings which we may form will, I am sure, bind the Americas together more firmly than they could be bound together by bands of steel. Dr. Swiggett did not introduce one gentleman who is on the platform. He did not introduce him because he belongs to the Inter¬ national Education Association, but he is sitting with us in our deliberations and sitting with them in theirs, the Hon. Francisco Vizcarrondo, who is the Assistant Commissioner of Education of Porto Rico. I am glad to have had you here, Dr. Swiggett, and we wish you could stay the rest of the morning, but we understand you want to get to your work. Thank you very much. Now may I ask again the past Presidents of the Association to come upon the platform, and the Presidents of State Teachers Associations also to come to the platform so that they will be here when they are called upon and so other members of the Association can see you and so that you can see them. If there is no unfinished business to come before the Assembly, I will call for the first order of business, the report of the Legislative Commission. I introduce the Chairman of the Commission, Dr. William M. Davidson, Superintendent of Schools, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Dr. Davidson. Dr. Davidson (Chairman) : Mr. Chairman and Members of the Representative Assembly: Inquiries have come to the Chairman and other members of the Asso¬ ciation, particularly since the meeting of the Legislative Committee on Sunday evening, as to whether a report of the Legislative Commission had been committed to print for distribution to the delegates. May I call your attention to the fact that such a report has been committed to print and one is included in your official envelope. I am assuming that many of you since coming to the convention have found yourselves so full of many interests that you have been unable to read this report, but you will find in it a resume of events that have occurred since one year ago in Minneapolis. I commend the report to you for your careful consideration in order that you may be fully advised and informed of the progress of the cause which this Association has stood for so many years and to which it is committed. We meet upon this platform this morning and greet a group of distinguished educators from the sister republics of the Southern Continent. Soon the President of this Association and a large delegation from America will convene in the City of Geneva, Switzerland, in an education convention in which the interests of the world will be discussed and at which the children will sit at the center, in the midst of the entire group of some five or ten thousand people to be gathered to¬ gether there. It is a significant fact that not a single country represented bv the delegates that have just left this platform, and not a single country except the United States of America, will have to speak through a subordinate office at the World Conference at Geneva, if it desires to be represented by its highest office, educationally speaking. In other words, every great country, except the United States of America, now has its Secretary or its Minister of Education. What this Association has been pleading for is that the educational interests of the Republic shall be represented by an office of first importance, to which shall be accorded the prestige and dignity deserved by the eminent and distinguished men who have held the office of Commissioner of Education or by any man or woman who is likely to succeed to that position. Some progress was made in the last Congress, and I am convinced we are now on the eve of a great forward step in the Federal Government’s participation in education. Perhaps during all the lifetime of this movement there has never been 1054 National Education Association such an opportunity given to a group of educators as that which now challenges Secretary Wilbur’s confereace, in whose deliberations your Chairman eounts it a privilege to participate. Dr. Lamkin has accorded me but a very few minutes on this program. It is hardly necessary to “Carry coals to Newcastle.’’ This delegate body has committed itself, year after year, by resolution, to the endorsement of this outstanding pur¬ pose and objective in the program of this great Association, and therefore, it is not necessary to elaborate to any extent upon the needs of the situation. There are just one or two fundamental things I should like to point to, however; and they grow out of the fact that those in high places and those here, there, and everywhere who have a shade of view differing from ours are constantly giving expression to a thought which indicates that they misconstrue, or perhaps, to put it more tenderly, misunderstand our situation. I ask the question in your presence this morning: Are we in favor of the states controling their own educational affairs, and free, tax-supported public school systems ? Voices: Yes! Yes! Yes! Dr. Davidson (Continuing) : And the answer comes with one voice, speaking for you all, “Yes.” It is the business of this Nation, this Republic, to encourage the states to develop their state-organized, state-developed, free-tax type of supported public school sys¬ tems. That is fundamental in America. That means there is no such prospect in our minds, or words in our vocabulary, as the national centralization of the con¬ trol of state school systems at Washington. The bitterest foe of that principle would be this National Education Association of the United States of America, and yet there are those who fear a bureaucracy, who fear we are advancing and pro¬ moting that idea, who even fear that we may go so far as to reach back for a word from a vocabulary that is now dead and gone and attempt to “Prussianize” the American schools. These fundamental principles of state control and national encouragement are the things for which we plead. We believe the only way big-hearted Uncle Sam can do his job properly is to give the teaching public of America a voice at the Cabinet table, at which it will be possible for a representative of the schools to work out the destiny of the school children of America, just as the Department of Commerce, the Department of Labor, and the Department of Agriculture have func¬ tioned in a big way in their respective fields of endeavor. And so, Ladies and Gentlemen, without occupying more of your time this morn¬ ing, I commend to you the reading of this report. I commend to you the attitude which your Legislative Commission has taken in saying to Secretary Wilbur, “We are back of you in everything which looks to the expansion of the Bureau of Education.” You have a right to say to him: “You have raised the position of Commissioner of Education to the level, in terms of salary, of an Assistant Secre¬ tary now holding office within the Department of the Interior. You have also created the office of Assistant Commissioner of Education, to which it is your intention to appoint a woman representative from the teaching force of America. In every further way that you propose to expand the Bureau of Education, in every way you mean to increase its research and its survey powers, and to lift it into a larger usefulness in America, this National Education Association stands back of you one hundred percent. One thing, too, upon which we agree with you is your opposition to the interference with local selfgovernment; we likewise are opposed to such interference.” There is no difference, then, between the Department of the Interior, as headed by one of the gre-at college presidents of America, and this Association at the present time, so far as our faith and belief in fundamentals are concerned. The only thing Associational Records and Information 1055 we are hoping is that the Secretary of the Interior may be able, through his own advisory committee, to study out the relationship of the Nation to education in such a way that there will come a time, we hope now, but if not now, eventually, when this Government of the United States, through the Congress assembled at Wash¬ ington, will dignify education by lifting it to as high a position as any actually connected with the Federal Government at this time. With these remarks, I leave the report with you in the hope that the resolution, which we have asked the Resolutions Committee to present to you, will receive your hearty endorsement, because outlined therein are what we feel should be, at this time, the words spoken on the relation of the Federal Government to education in America. The President: The next report on this program is the report of the Committee headed by Dr. Edwin C. Broome, of Philadelphia, qn the matter of Propaganda in the Public Schools. You have a very wise regulation and that is no speech may be read except by the author and*no report delivered except by the author unless the President of the Association gives definite permission. Dr. Broome, who has been in an automobile accident, writes that he hoped to come to Atlanta, but that his physician told him he should not do so and that he has asked Mr. Crabtree to read part of his report. The report in full is printed and in your hands. I am going to ask Mr. Crabtree to use five minutes in giving us the high spots of the report. J. IV. Crabtree, Secretary of the Association. Mr. Crabtree: Mr. Chairman, I shall do it in four minutes. The organized public utilities, by their efforts to control the public mind, aroused apprehension. Immediately following the first revelations of the Federal Trade Commission concerning propaganda in the schools, the National Education Associa¬ tion wisely took action at the Minneapolis meeting to aid the schools in protecting themselves from exploitation. The appointment of a committee was authorized to investigate and to work out corrective measures. The Committee has made a care¬ ful investigation of the whole question and has prepared a valuable report. The report suggests principles and procedures to guide the state and local school officials in handling this problem. Its adoption will put the control of propaganda in the hands of the teacher and school authorities. Permit me, therefore, to urge the adoption of the report and that the Association express appreciation to Dr. Broome and the entire committee for this outstanding report. (This report is printed on p. 204.) The President: You have heard the report of the Committee. Mr. E. M. Carter (Missouri) : I move its adoption. Voice (Missouri) : Second the motion. The motion was thereupon put and carried. The President: I recognize Mr. Long of the Hawaiian Delegation. Mr. Long (Hawaii): In behalf of the Hawaiian Delegation I wish to thank President Lamkin for this opportunity to make an announcement and read a very brief resolution. The announcement is this: For three years Hawaii has been looking forward to having the Conference of World Federation of Education Associations in the City of Honolulu. We are extending an official invitation to the members and officers of the World Federation at the Geneva Conference. Hawaii is united in this invitation. It has the backing of the Government, the recent Territorial Legislature having passed a resolution pledging its support; likewise the Governor of the Territory, the various Chambers of Commerce, and all the education associations of the Territory. We are extending this invitation in confidence because of three reasons: First, is the accessibility of Honolulu, lying as it does at the crossways of the Pacific Ocean; steamship lines from Australia, New Zealand, and all the coun¬ tries of the Orient, liners going through the Panama Canal and from our own western ports stop there. 1056 National Education Association In the next place, Hawaii is extending the invitation because it believes in educa¬ tional gatherings. It has demonstrated this time and again by the size of the delegations which it has sent to the various N. E. A. conventions. And finally, we are extending this invitation in confidence because we believe that the teachers of North America, both of Canada and the United States, and particularly the United States, whose representatives you are, want a conference in Honolulu. We have every reason to think that is true. May I, therefore, read this brief resolution, after which I will make a motion if I am not out of order: “Whereas, The World Federation of Education Associations has not yet held a conference in a place easily accessible to the nations of the Pacific area; and “Whereas, the nations and provinces of the Pacific basin would profit greatly in a social, political, and educational way from a conference in some city so located that large delegations from both the Ea’st and the West could attend; and “Whereas, the territory of Hawaii is inviting'the President and Directors of the World Federation to select Honolulu as the next conference city for that organiza¬ tion ; now therefore be it “Resolved that the Representative Assembly of the National Education Associa¬ tion hereby approves of Honolulu as a conference city of the World Federation, that it believes the best interests of progressive education, of interracial under¬ standing, and of international goodwill would be furthered by a conference there, and that it commends the invitation of Hawaii to the President and Directors of the World Federation of Education Associations with the recommendation that it be favorably acted upon.” Now if it is not out of order, I wish some expression from the Representative Assembly to the effect that this resolution, as re-worded by our regular Committee on Resolutions, be accepted as representing the sentiment of this group, and that the American delegation to the Geneva Conference be instructed to work, so far as it is consistent with the best interest and objectives of the World Federation, in support of this invitation which Honolulu and the Territory of Hawaii is extending. The President: The Chair will rule that as they passed a similar motion to meet in America yesterday, he could not rule this motion out of order at this time if I hear a second. Voice: Second the motion. The President: The motion was made and seconded that we ask the World Federation to come to America, leaving it free to come to America or Chicago, whichever it was. Thereupon the motion on the resolution was put and carried. The President: It gives me pleasure to introduce a gentleman who will speak on “America’s Historical Opportunity,” Mr. Howard R. Driggs, of the School of Education, New York University, New York City. Mr. Driggs. (See p. 102.) The President: I now introduce to you Mr. Robert R. Moton, of Tuskegee, who will speak on “Progress in Negro Education in the South.” (See p. 106.) The President: The last speaker of the morning is Hon. John M. Robsion , member of Congress from Kentucky, who will speak on “The Republic of Tommorrow.” (See p. 111.) After announcements the meeting adjourned. Third Business Session, July 3, 1929 The state of Illinois put on a stunt song. The Third Business Session of the Representative Assembly was called to order by President Lamkin at 9 a. m., at the Atlanta auditorium. Association al Records and Information 1057 The President : On behalf of the Oregon Delegation the Chair wishes to recognize Mr. Whitney from Oregon. Mr. Whitney (Oregon): Oregon at this time wishes to remind you that in the near future we hope you may come to Oregon, and to Portland, “the City of Roses,” as our guests. We feel we have learned something of the manner in which guests should be treated while we have been sojourning in Atlanta. This has been an outstanding meeting in the history of the National Education Association, both for the reasons that I have mentioned and because of the “short time” quality of our President, who with such efficiency and fairness has expedited the business of this convention. I wish at this time on behalf of the delegates from Oregon to present President Larnkin with a testimonial of our regards; it is not only a testimonial but in a sense it is emblematic of the state of Oregon. In our country we have what is known as the “gentle mist” that comes down from the heavens and eventually might dampen your clothing; in other states, such as Missouri and Georgia, it is interpreted as rain. And because of that we wish to present to President Larnkin this morning one of the emblems of our great state, and if properly raised and carried at the right angle, it is sure to guarantee protection. (Mr. Whitney thereupon presented to President Larnkin an umbrella with a silver handle.) The President: I really didn't know the purpose of the Oregon demand, but I am so used to doing things a lady tells me to do at home that when Mrs. Bowlin told me she wanted recognition for Mr. Whitney this morning, I had to consent. I have heard a good deal about “mountain dew” — Mr. Blair said he didn’t think it was necessary to keep me dry. I appreciate, more than I can say, these testi¬ monials. I have just tried to do what I thought you wanted me to do. If in my administration I have had a measure of success, it is because of the hearty, unselfish cooperation of the approximately 200,000 teachers of America who are members of the N. E. A. I hope next year we may go further and carry out to a more com¬ plete degree that wish which was expressed yesterday by the United States Com¬ missioner of Education “leadership in education must remain with the National Education Association.” We must assume and maintain the responsibility for this leadership. Again I thank the Oregon delegation. The California delegation then put on a song stunt and distributed oranges among the delegates. The Chairman next recognized the Hawaiian delegation. Several native songs were sung in a most pleasing manner. Mr. Long, in charge of the group, stated that on behalf of the teachers of Hawaii he wished to express appreciation and thanks for the very efficient manner in which the work of the Association is being handled, and that he was bringing tokens of esteem and confidence to three whose work at the convention had been outstanding. He then asked Miss Chase to step forward and presented her with a beautiful silk lei, emblematic of the good wishes of the people he represented. Miss Chase bowed in appreciation and stated that she would wear it with much pride. Mr. Crabtree was then presented with a cane made of the finest timber from the forests of Hawaii. In response Mr. Crabtree said, “If I could sing, I would sing now and keep time with this beautiful cane. I would sing ‘Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean, Hawaii its most precious jewel.’ ” Mr. Long then presented the President, Mr. Larnkin , with a very unique desk set, made entirely of material from those far-away islands. In his remarks Mr. Larnkin said that Mrs. Larnkin usually tells him where, in the house, things will be placed, but that the desk set will not go in the home but wfill occupy a place on his office desk. 1058 National Education Association The Third Business Session will come to order. I am going to call on a gentle¬ man to offer the Invocation that can do it, a layman, a former President of a State University, a former moderator of the Presbyterian Church of the United States of America. I am going to ask Dr. Thompson of Ohio if he will lead this audience in prayer. (Dr. Thompson thereupon led in prayer.) The President: May I announce at the beginning of this business session that the polls for the election of officers are open. The ballot boxes are at the registra¬ tion booth. Delegates, who are not acquainted with the system of voting, will find a delegate card or slip which when signed, will secure a ballot. We hope every one of the one thousand and twenty-five delegates who registered will discharge the first duties of a citizen of this body, which is to vote. I think probably I should make one other statement about the election at this time. Yesterday, Miss Soules came to me and stated that she was embarrassed. We had appointed her on the Committee on Elections. We did not know, of course, that her name would be on the ballot. She asked to be relieved of the duties of that Committee. It was proper for her to do that, but I declined to relieve her. Surely it hasn’t come to the point when the members of this Association would not be willing to leave the candidates themselves to conduct an election in the counting of votes. I hope that time will never come. And just because she is a candidate for vicepresident, I saw no reason to relieve her from the duty to which she had been assigned earlier. I want to make one other announcement as to a ruling which I shall make later in the morning. 1 think you should have it now so that you can use your own judgment about it. Later in the morning, after you have a complete report of the Committee on the Appointment of Delegates and Kindred Questions, it will be submitted as a Committee Report, the Chair will rule that under the Constitution and Bylaws there is only one way by which that report can be adopted today and that is by unanimous consent. My guess is that we will not have unanimous con¬ sent for the adoption of the report. I will rule that the report can be amended and accepted but it must lay over for one year. But no matter what this Commission has made of that report, we have the rule that any member of this Association has the right to submit in writing at this session this morning any amendment which he wishes to submit to the bylaws of the National Education Association and that that amendment can lay over for one year and be voted upon next year just as the report of this Committee lays over and will be voted upon next year. My only suggestion is this, if you want to present amendments, which are not in conformity with what this Committee has reported, that you present them this morn¬ ing and submit them in writing so that they can lay over for next year. Let me again invite to the platform all who are to read reports, the presidents of state associations, the past presidents of this association, and persons whom I didn’t forget but whom I have not invited here before — the past vicepresidents of this Association — we may get you all up here before we are through. I hope all the vicepresidents will come. Come at once. 1 now want to introduce to you the fraternal delegate from the National Asso¬ ciation of Teachers in Colored Schools, Mr. Leo M. Favrot, of Louisiana. Mr. Favrot: Mr. Chairman and Members of the National Education Association: 1 have the honor to have been selected by the National Association of Teachers in Colored Schools to come before this body and bear its greetings to the National Education Association. « The scope of the National Association of Teachers in Colored Schools is national, as its name implies. Membership consists of members of both races, all of those who are interested in the education of negro children. The organization is pri¬ marily devoted to the interests of negro education in this country. Associational Records and Information 1059 Under its auspices several studies have been made during the past few years. The organization is interested, too, in the problem of school attendance as it is related to the negro school, the problem of training teachers adequately for these schools, the problem of teaching tenure, and many others. The organization through its appointments and its committees has interested itself in trying to promote the welfare of its high schools and colleges, in seeking recognition from the Southern Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools for those colleges and high schools that measure up to an acceptable standard. A Committee of the Southern Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools has been appointed to assist the high schools and colleges of the negro race in becoming graded properly and in meeting these standards. The National Association of Teachers in Colored Schools publishes a bulletin which comes out monthly eight months of the year, and it is founded at Tuskegee Institute in Alabama. Those who may be interested in its proceedings and in the articles by the colored teachers may secure this bulletin for the small price of one dollar a year. The National Education Association has appointed a Committee on affiliation with the National Association of Teachers in Colored Schools. Under the leader¬ ship of Mr. N. C. Newbold, of North Carolina, this Committee has rendered valu¬ able service in helping to get for the National Association of Teachers in Colored Schools the aid and help of this larger organization. We feel deeply grateful to President Lamkin for having placed on the program of this meeting Dr. Robert R. Moton, of Tuskegee Institute, and giving him the opportunity of presenting the progress of negro schools. We feel grateful also for this opportunity to bring to you the greetings of the National Association of Teachers in Colored Schools, which represents as you know the children of about one-tenth the total number of children in this country. The President: I am very sure the incoming President will be glad to appoint a fraternal delegate from this organization to visit the Convention of the Teachers of the National Association of Teachers in Colored Schools at its meeting next month. Now it gives me a great deal of pleasure, a peculiar pleasure, to present to you the President of the only other organization which the National Education Asso¬ ciation endorsed at its meeting in Minneapolis, Mrs. S. M. N. Marrs, of Texas, President of the National Congress of Parents and Teachers. Mrs. Marrs: Mr. President and members of this great convention: It is a very great honor to have the privilege of bringing greetings from the National Congress of Parents and Teachers, an organization composed of a million and a half inter¬ ested parents and teachers of America, to this Convention, and at this time as spokesman of this organization, I should like to express our appreciation for the vote of confidence which the National Education Association has for the past several years given our organization. I wish also to express the appreciation of the parent side of our organization to the teachers of America, for the splendid co¬ operation that is being given us on every hand in our efforts to prepare ourselves to meet the challenge that you are continually throwing out to us. You have said, in no uncertain terms, that the home is responsible for a large part of the educa¬ tion of the child. You have told us that the parents have a great responsibility in meeting the complex problems of the day. We have accepted that challenge; and we, with your assistance, are attempting to prepare ourselves, the parents of America and the homes of America, to meet the responsibilities that we realize are ours. We would like to have you know that as an organization we have no intention of interfering with school programs, school systems. We are here, a great organization, as a complement, if you please, to your ideas and your ideals as to what education is. We want you to know that we are standing back of you 1060 National Education Association and your efforts to build the sort of educational system that the boys and girls of today lack. We Avant your continued cooperation and we want to pledge you our continued cooperation in this great common problem that we are attempting to solve. The President : 1 don’t know what they want but Superintendent Collicott, of Columbus, said he wanted a minute or two on this program this morning. Of course, when Ohio says so — I think Ohio has a rather large membership, does it not, Mr. Crabtree, in this Association? Pennsylvania says Ohio has a large mem¬ bership, Mr. Crabtree also says “yes,” so it is probably true. Superintendent Collicott: Mr. Lamkin and members of the National Education Association: Ohio, the eldest daughter of the great historic Northwest, wishes to extend to you a most cordial invitation to hold your next meeting in her capital city. We do this because we appreciate what it would mean to our state, to our city, to have such a meeting as we are having here in Atlanta. I have the honor of presenting to you the one who will extend the invitation for Ohio, the first citizen of the state, a man who is known not only to his state but to his nation as one of the great outstanding educational and religious leaders. I have great pleasure in presenting to you Dr. William Oxley Thompson of Ohio. Dr. Thompson: Mr. President and fellow members of the Association: I could not be insensible to the very fine and delicate compliment you pay me in your tendency to rise when I am here. Thirty-five years ago I had the honor to become a member of this Association. Since that time I have appeared, of course, on the programs, but now for the first time I am here with a request, a request that the next meeting of this Association shall be held in Columbus, Ohio. I am supported in this invitation by the Ohio State Teachers Association. We have 43,000 teachers. We cannot be exact, so many of our ladies marry, and it is so difficult to check up as to whether they are going to wash dishes or teach school that we never attempt to have exact statistics in Ohio. However that may be, there are about 43,000 teachers in Ohio, and 40,000 or more of them belong to the Ohio State Teachers Association. This Association supports this invitation with high enthusiasm. I have the honor to present an invitation of the Governor of Ohio, the Hon. James Y. Cooper, the Mayor of the City of Columbus, the Hon. James A. Thomas, the privilege of presenting the names of the Chamber of Commerce and the Con¬ vention Bureau, and the honor to represent a great many public citizens, all of whom will cordially welcome this Association within the City of Columbus. I beg to say to you now — some of you may not be as well informed on this matter as we think you are — that Columbus is a very well located city. Some people have inquired where it was. Let me say it is in the geographical center of the state of Ohio and that being in the center of things, it has naturally been a great market, a great place for buying and selling. We approach this city from every direction and in every possible way. We are dedicating an airport a week from now — I also have the privilege of speaking there — and this is to bring people by the air route. The fly-by-nights, however, are not especially urged for this Convention next year. However that may be, this is one of the great methods of transportation in these days. All roads, railroads, and every other kind of road in Ohio, lead into Columbus, and I am happy to say just as many roads lead out so that nobody need stay in Columbus unless he wants to. But everybody always wants to stay as long as pos¬ sible. You will be interested in knowing we have about 48,000 pupils in our public schools, and our Superintendent just appeared to present me to make this invitation. He has been there a number of years and during that time he has built as many as fifteen million-dollar high schools. We have nine junior high schools. Associational Records and Information 1061 The Ohio State University happens to be located in Columbus now — originally located on a farm outside the town. Now the town has grown beyond the Uni¬ versity. We have a College of Education there, and for the second year we have been experimenting and demonstrating the Dalton Plan and that wrill be in opera¬ tion in another year. It is a very active experiment going on in the summer schools. There are a little over five thousand just now in attendance at the sum¬ mer school in the Ohio State University. Now, my friends, it is to this city we invite you. We are modest enough to say no citizen of Columbus would assert we could equal Atlanta in hospitality. We would take nothing of the glory of Atlanta by boasting we would equal or exceed its hospitality, but we will say we are a city of 300,000 inhabitants, centrally located, with hotel facilities which will accommodate seven thousand, and three or four of them are within the center of the city, an invitation for convenience. We have two long streets, High Street and Broad Street, I judge about ten miles long, spread at right angles. At the center, where the State Capitol is, we have hotel facilities, within two blocks of that place, for something like five thousand people. We are a convention city and because of that fact we have to have our streets straight. So many people come to Columbus for reasons that are not educational that we have to study their convenience. I may say this was done in the olden days before the Constitution became a matter subject to change. The President: I now recognize Mr. Clifton of California. Mr. Clifton: Mr. President and Ladies and Gentlemen: I have asked the floor for two reasons. In the first place, California is very happy to second the invita¬ tion to Columbus for next year. We are very humble when we tell the truth, since that great state of Ohio beat us out in the membership contest by the measley number of four. But they did it. The glory is theirs. But I want to say — look out. There is another year coming. We want to extend to you people an invitation that you have been asking for. Perhaps it isn’t necessary to extend it because you have said you are coming. We want you to come to California in 1931. The President: I have a challenge to read. Dade County, Miami, Florida, has seventy-nine teachers enroled in this Convention. Florida would like to know if there is any other county in the nation outside of Atlanta has that many teachers enroled. Here is also a call for help. Three carloads of peaches, and an entire carload of watermelons are in the tent between here and the exhibition hall. They want to serve you and are calling for help to eat them. I wonder if you can’t help them out. Monday morning there was to have been presented to this Association a plaque of the Near East Relief. It is here. It was not here at that time. I am turning it over to Mr. Crabtree for the National Education Association. It is a plaque made of cassia wood, the same wood out of which the Ark of the Covenant was made. We are glad to accept it. The next thing on the program is the report of the Committee on Tenure by Dr. Albert L. Rowland. He is not here. I am referring his report to the Com¬ mittee. Mr. Rowland wrote definitely stating that the Committee had no final report to make, and if there is no objection, the Committee will be continued and the new President will appoint a new Committee. If the Chair hears no objection the Committee will be continued. We shall next have a report of the Committee on the Economic Status of the Teacher. Dr. B. R. Buckingham, of Boston, Massachusetts, is chairman. Dr. Buckingham: If I were building a university I should first get a faculty and I should be quite sure all other things would be added unto me. If I were build¬ ing a public school — I mean building it not in the material sense of bricks and mortar but building it in the hearts of the people and in the service for the com- 1062 National Education Association munity — I should first get a highgrade teaching body. It is the things of this sort, if you will permit me, that the economic status of the teacher is adhering to, and in the brief moment I have this morning I should like to convey one idea. Sometimes a speaker advances the fact that he has two ideas. One is sufficient to justify a speech. I have heard a lot of speakers that didn’t have that many. I have one. I have this proposal to make, that in the study of the question of the status, economic or otherwise, of the teacher, the law of supply and demand is fundamental. We may exercise our ingenuity in the expression of our aspirations, we may formulate these in pious wishes, but, after all, it is the law of supply and demand that will ultimately determine what the general level of action of the teachers is, both as to salary and social significance. It is the purpose of this Committee, to look into the question of supply and de¬ mand for trained teachers throughout the country and it advances the hypothesis that the healthiest condition of the teaching body and therefore of the schools themselves, will be affected when there is substantial parity between supply and demand. If the supply, as is now true in many localities, materially exceeds the demand, salaries go down, tenure is insecure, and service is debauched. If, on the other hand, the demand greatly exceeds the supply of teachers then there is a tendency for salaries to go up, which if it were alone the result would give us no anxiety, but accompanied by that artificial inflation is the added fact that so mahy communities, as in the crisis in 1920, secure largely inferior teachers because they can get them for lower salaries. We do not have competent teachers in every classroom. In many classrooms persons merely go through the motions of teaching. One of the important things in the study of supply in relation to demand is the question of distribution. It is entirely possible that in given types of teaching service there may be an oversupply in one locality and an undersupply in another. This is true even within the same state. For example, graduates of the University of Michigan in the College of Education were said in a recent year to exceed the supply in respect to teachers of English in the high schools. That would exceed the supply so far as the region in and about Detroit was concerned, but the Upper Peninsula of Michigan was suffering for high-school teachers of English at the very moment. The question, therefore, of wise distribution of the supply of trained teachers in each and every type of teaching service is one of the supplementary questions gathering about the big problem of supply and demand. The exportation of teachers from one state to another is in itself an indication of the strength of teacher-training establishments in that state. If, in a given state, any graduates of normal schools and teachers colleges are being drawn off into other states, it is a sure indication that the teacher training establishment in that state is doing well. But you will notice that it is doing well at the cost to the state, for the state does not realize upon it in its own schools. And so the paradox comes upon us that if a state maintains a strong teacher-training establishment, it is likely to lose many graduates of that establishment. And as I have looked at the matter from that point of view, it seems to me this question of supply and demand in teacher training, and the subordinate question of the distribution of the supply of teachers is one of the biggest reasons for enter¬ taining a larger than a mere state view of education. Education looked at from this point of view becomes national in scope and should receive the benefit of national thinking. And that is why to my mind it is so important that this great national body of teachers should be busy about this whole question of the economic status of the teacher, and in particular, of the bearing upon it of the fundamental aspects of supply and demand in teacher personnel. The President: If there is no objection, the Committee will be continued under the orders of the Representative Assembly. I merely suggest to you that Dr. Buck¬ ingham is a good man to be on this Committee. I came out of the hotel the other Associational Records and Information 1063 night, didn't have a dime in my pocket, so I borrowed a dollar from him, because he knew the economic status of the teacher. I have got enough money from my wife to pay it back. Next is the report of the Committee on Appointment of Delegates and Kindred Questions. The Chair recognizes Mr. A. L. T hrelkeld, Superintendent of Schools of Denver, Colorado. Mr. Threlkeld (Colorado): Mr. President, Members of the Representative As¬ sembly: I feel I have nothing to report in addition to what was referred to Monday morning. It is understood, as the President has explained, no revision of the bylaws can be made at this meeting except by unanimous consent, and that is not to be expected. I don’t know any of these issues involved in this report that can be settled to the satisfaction of everyone. I want to state briefly what seems to the Committee to be issues involved in this report. I shall do that after presenting certain questions. In. the first place, is it desirable to abolish district representation in this body? If not, is it desirable to reduce the extent of duplicate representation in this body? If the answer to the first question is “yes,” then there seem to be three alternatives from wrhich to choose. Representation in this body can be based altogether upon local associations with the state associations left out of it altogether; it can be based upon state associations and local representation be left out altogether; or, there can be, for the third alternative, a combination of the two such as was pre¬ sented at Minneapolis, the principle of wrhich is embodied in the present report, — the allocation of representation to the local associations to the extent that they have memberships measuring up to the figures mentioned in the apportionment and leaving to the state association all members of the N. E. A. enroled into the state association not allocated to local association or, if allocated to it they have failed to elect a representative; with that combination of the two, however, it seems to me, that in some cases there will be no members of the N. E. A. left over from the local association for any state association to use as a basis for electing delegates to this body, and, therefore, there would be some state associations not privileged to elect representatives to this body. Taking that into account the Committee has suggested that a way out might be guaranteed to each state asso¬ ciation under the conditions printed in this report so that each would be assured a minimum of three delegates. Another question that this Committee and the previous one have been concerned with is: Should the size of the Representative Assembly be reduced, should it be left about as it is, or should it be enlarged? Coupled with that question is this one: What should be the minimum size of the local association entitled to a dele¬ gate in this body? Those questions, it seems to me, have to be settled more or less arbitrarily. We will always find a point beyond which we don't feel it is practicable to go. This Committee has made a proposition by which any local organization that has as many as fifty-one members would be entitled to a delegate in this body, and it' has so graduated the apportionment to delegates that the total size of the Assembly would be reduced. The arguments that came before the Committee on that were these, that perhaps it was desirable to make revision at this time which would reduce the size of the Representative Assembly; but inasmuch as the Association is continually growing, in the course of time the Representative Assembly would probably grow again to its present size or even larger. In con¬ sideration of that, this thought was presented to the Committee by members of it that represented various types of organizations, that there is no great injustice in cutting down the apportionment of delegates to large bodies, that is, any organi¬ zation having six delegates reporting to it from this body perhaps derived as much benefit as if eight or ten were to report. Therefore, the problem of keeping down 1064 National Education Association the size of the Assembly could be met by reducing the representation that comes from the larger organizations rather than by eliminating the smaller organizations. Is it desirable to abolish all ex-officio membership in this body? I shall not enter into the argument of that any further than to state that is simply a matter of opinion. Everybody is entitled to his own opinion. I know of no absolute rule to go by in answering that question. I have, as a rule, as far as I am personally concerned, rather agreed with the point of view presented by Miss Harden of Chicago here the other morning, and in the reorganization of one or two state associations with which I have been connected, but it always seemed to be neces¬ sary to admit some ex-officio membership at some point for practical reasons. This Committee is submitting the revision of Section 9 of the present bylaws, which provides for considerable ex-officio representation in this body, but it does reduce it some by leaving off state superintendents of schools. There was no desire on the part of the Committee to slight this group, but it was felt that they had abundant opportunity to be elected to this body by state associations or by local associations to which they might belong. That, I believe, summarizes the questions that were uppermost in the minds of the Committee as it dealt with the revision of the bylaws. Now, with regard to Part II, while you probably won’t mind — I am not saying as much about that as about Part I — yet I believe the Committee feels that is a more fundamental type of reorganization than is involved in Part I of this report. It has to do with organic changes in the structure of the N. E. A. ; it is a type of reorganization that ought not to be made hastily, that should be studied for a pe¬ riod of years, and any changes that are made, made very deliberately. Mr. President, I move the acceptance of this report, the revision of the bylaws to proceed in the regular order. The President: If my understanding is correct, there are two parts to this report, first, Part I. The Chairman of the Committee moves its adoption. Do I hear a second ? Voice: Second the motion. The President : Motion is made and seconded that Part I be accepted. I under¬ stand that the acceptance of this report will merely lay the report upon the table for a year at which time it can be voted upon. It will not prevent any individual delegates from submitting an amendment to the bylaws, which can be voted upon at the same time. The Chair recognizes Mr. JV. H. Holmes of New York. Mr. Holmes (New York) : Mr. President. The President: Before Mr. Holmes speaks may I suggest to you for your own protection and your information, that those of you who wish to make motions or present anything to this Delegate Assembly shall come to the platform. We will give you ample opportunity to be heard and you can be heard better from here than from there. Mr. Holmes, State Director of New York. Mr. Holmes (New York) : Fellow Delegates, I am sure we all recognize the excellent work our Committee has done, and we all recognize that the report this year is of great importance over the report of last year, but I feel there is still room for further improvement and further study. I feel also that they should give further consideration to very fundamental factors in this particular plan and that is having the units of representation still smaller, and I would like to have them give consideration to having the unit of primary representation fifty instead of one hundred. That would make it possible for a great many little cities and towns of four or five thousand inhabitants to be directly represented in this great assembly of delegates. I don’t know of anything that would add to the prestige of the Asso¬ ciation, anything that would better help to add renown to professional education than to have several hundred teacher delegates from these small cities and towns here every year; they would get a great thrill out of these meetings and would Association: al Records and Information 1065 carry many fine things back to their homes. Therefore, I suggest we have them study that particular phase of the matter. Furthermore, the N. E. A., as I see it, should never be — and I hope and fervently pray it may never be — just an asso¬ ciation of associations. It ought to be kept primarily an Association of individual teachers and individual educators. Unless it is kept an Association of individual teachers and educators, I believe that it will finally cease to be a useful organization. Therefore, Mr. President, I am suggesting this motion, that the Report on Appointment of Delegates and Kindred Questions, be referred again to the Com¬ mittee for further study, and this is the vital part, and that the Committee be in¬ structed to write each state and local affiliated association for suggestions, as to modification and amendment. I think that will accomplish a great deal if they will give these local affiliated associations and state associations a chance to suggest something that ought to be written into the bylaws. The President: The motion of Mr. Holmes is to recommit Part I to the Com¬ mittee for further study, in view of this resolution. The Chair recognizes the gentleman from New Jersey. Mr. Alexander J. Glennie (New Jersey ) : Mr. Chairman, New Jersey in seconding the motion of New York through Mr. Holmes, wishes to emphasize the points that he has made. So far as the present conditions are concerned there is nothing apparently inimical to the interests of the Association in leaving the Representative Assembly of the size that it is now until this can be determined very carefully. There are many excellent features of this report; but New Jersey feels with New York that there is enough interest in it to challenge further consideration of the question, and especially do we emphasize the point made by Mr. Holmes that the Committee communicate with the several states, the state associations and local associations, in order that they may be guided by the findings that such a survey will develop. I, therefore, second the motion of Mr. Holmes. The President: The motion is made on the amendment of the Report of the Committee. The effect will be the Committee will present its report in 1930 to be voted on finally in 1931. The debate of this motion must be limited to the question of recommitting the report to the Committee. Are you ready for the question? Mr. Threlkcld: Mr. President, I just want to call your attention to the fact that the apportionment presented in this report — I supose you have observed that — is just the same as the apportionment upon which this Delegate Assembly is now based as far as the Representative Assembly is concerned. The Bylaws provide a delegate may be elected upon one-hundred members or major fraction thereof. There is no change in the present bylaws on that. The question is whether we shall step back down to a membership of fifty as Mr. Holmes has suggested — a membership, yes I believe he said fifty — and I wonder if he means “or major fraction thereof.” The President: Yes. Mr. Threlkeld: If he does, that means an association of twenty-six would be entitled to a delegate to this Assembly and if he doesn’t mean the major fraction thereof, it means there would be a difference of only one member between the condition in this report and that which he suggests. I think that ought to be cleared up. Mr. Holmes (New York) : I mean fifty or the major fraction thereof. That would be twenty-six. And that means a city of four or five thousand could be represented here where now under the present arrangement a city of ten thousand is the smallest that can be represented directly. The President: I do not want to debate on this matter at all, but I must insist again the debate must be on whether or not this is to be recommitted to the Com- 1066 National Education Association mittee for further study and not go into the merits further than expressed in the motion. Are you ready for the question? Voices: Question. Question. Question. Thereupon the motion to accept Part I as amended was put and carried. The President : Section I of the report is recommitted to the Committee. While this is not to adopt Section II it would seem it is almost necessary to adopt Section II which required further study. The Chair recognizes Chairman Threlkeld, Chair¬ man of the Committee, to make a motion to adopt Section II. Mr. Threlkeld : I move to adopt Section II. Mr. Moore: Second the motion. The President : The motion is made and seconded that further study of Part II of the report by the Committee be made and adopted. The motion was thereupon put and carried. The President: The Chair recognizes Miss Frances Harden of Chicago. Miss Harden (Illinois) : I wish to present two amendments to the report as presented by the Committee on Revision of Bylaws. The first would strike out the first sentence of Section 9 in Article II. That sentence reads: “The officers of the National Education Association as named in the Charter, and the United States Commissioner of Education shall be ex-officio delegates to the Representative Assembly.” The second amendment is to Section II and my amendment is to substitute the words “the President and the twelve Vicepresidents” for the words “Officers of the National Education Association as named in the charter.” The first part of Section II would then read: “The Representative Assembly shall be composed of the President, the twelve Vicepresidents, the United States Commissioner of Education, and Delegates from the affiliated state and local associations, provided they are active members of this Association,” the remainder of the Section remaining as it is. Now in addition to these amendments I would like to suggest that the Committee work out some plan by which these people named in the Charter could be per¬ mitted to sit in the Representative Assembly, could be given the privilege of the floor, and the Representative Assembly could have the benefit of any knowledge and experience that they might have, would have it in an advisory capacity rather than that they should be an integral part of the Representative Assembly. That phase of it I would like the Committee to work out in some representative way. I have not had time to think it out myself, but I would like to recommend that that be done by the Committee as it works over these bylaws during the coming year. The President : The Chair holds there is no debate upon the proposed amend¬ ments submitted by an individual member of the Association. It will lay on the table; the officers will give notice of it, for voting next year. Are there any further amendments to be offered at this time? If not, I will introduce to this Association, not for the purposes of making a speech but just that you shall see him, one of the most distinguished friends of education that this country has had within a generation. As far back as 1892 this man was Secretary of the Interior in the Cabinet of the President of the United States, a former governor of this State, a former United States Senator, his name appears upon the great pieces of educational legislation such as the Smith-Hughes, the Smith-Lever, the Smith- Towner Bills. When this Association came to Atlanta he was appointed on the Committee to welcome you. He has been one of the most faithful attendants and one of the most interested persons in Atlanta. As I say, I regret we cannot ask him to speak to you, but I want him to rise at this time and let us see him — the Hon. Hoke Smith, former United States Senator from Georgia. We will have the Annual Report of the Secretary. Secretary Crabtree: The Annual Report of the Secretary was enclosed with other reports in the envelope which you received when you registered. I am not 1067 Associational Records and Information sure that all have read the report. Therefore, I feel safe in moving that the report be accepted and placed on file. The President : \ ou have heard the motion. Anybody second it? Everybody seconds it. All in favor signify by saying “aye.” Is there any discussion? Those opposed, “no.” The motion prevails. (The full report of Secretary Crabtree is printed in the Volume of Proceedings on p. 1152.) The President: We have another man whom fate tried to conceal by naming him Smith. I call upon Henry Lester Smith, the Treasurer of the Association, for his report. Mr. Smith: Mr. Chairman, the Treasurer’s report is a part of the Auditor’s report. ^ ou have it in printed form. I think it is not necessary for me to call your attention to the various items therein contained. The funds of this Associa¬ tion are of two kinds, the permanent fund and current fund. It is the current fund that the Treasurer is responsible for. I move the acceptance of this report and that it be placed on file. The President: You have heard the motion. Do I hear a second? Virginia: Second the motion. The President: The motion has been made and seconded that the Report of the Treasurer be received and filed. There being no discussion, the motion was put and carried. (The report is printed on p. 1121 of this volume.) The President : Is Mr. Siders here? I told him we would be ready for him by 11:30 oclock. We will postpone the Report of the Board of Trustees until that time. It looks like we are going to get through by 12 oclock today. We will have the Report of the Budget Committee from Mr. L. JV. Rogers of Texas, the Chairman. Mr. Rogers (Texas) : Mr. Chairman, Members of the Representative Assembly: The Report of the Committee in printed form is in your hands. I think it will be unnecessary for me to go into detailed explanation of it. I hope the report speaks for itself, and I will follow the example of these other committee chairmen and make my remarks as brief as theirs. You will find the provision under which this Committee wrnrked in the prepara¬ tion of this budget on page 67 of your Delegate’s Manual. Carrying out that provision the Committee made a very careful study of the financial needs of the Association. It interpreted that commission as meaning it should make an effort to take care of all legitimate needs of the Association, to recommend curtailment of expenses so far as possible, where they were not necessary. It is therefore, presenting to you a budget which is well within the revenues of the current year as shown by the first page of the report, and which provides for an increase in expenditures of only $10,000 above actual expenditures of last year. I move the adoption of the report. Mr. E. M. Carter (Missouri) : Second the motion. The President: The motion has been made and seconded that the Report of the Committee be adopted. Do you understand the procedure? The Board of Direc¬ tors must make the appropriations from current funds of the year the amount of money ordered by the Representative Assembly at the Annual Business Meetings of the same. Are you ready for the question? There being no further discussion, the motion was put and carried and the Report of the Budget Committee declared accepted as printed. (The complete report is printed in this volume — p. 1125.) The President: I now call on the Secretary of the Board of Directors to make a report to the Association. Secretary /. IV. Crabtree: Permit me to present requests for a Department of Special Education and a Department of Home Economics. These twro requests 1068 National Education Association come from active organizations that desire to work hereafter as Departments of this Association. Each one has presented petitions containing more than the re¬ quired 250 names, and each has held the required number of meetings. The Executive Committee and the Board of Directors have approved submitting these requests to the Representative Assembly for consideration at the next Annual Convention. There is a third request for a Department of Research. It comes from a strong organization, the American Education Research Association. All the requirements have been met in this case also. I, therefore, present them and give this notice which is required by the bylaws, no action being necessary'at this time. The President: This request will be laid on the table, the notice be given, and the matter will come before the Annual Meeting next year, when a two-thirds vote will be required of the Representative Assembly. Secretary Crabtree (continuing) : The Executive Committee and Board of Direc¬ tors, after giving a year’s careful consideration of designs for a life membership key, have decided to accept the same design as that used for the membership pin and have accepted a bid of L. G. Balfour of Attleboro, Massachusetts, to make the keys, so that they can be sold to life members in two sizes, already engraved for $3.50 and $4. The Board of Directors reports this action for confirmation. The life membership pin will be given to each life member as before and each member who desires to do so may purchase through the Association a key for himself. After the Association approves the plan, the announcement will be made in the October Journal, and the keys will be available after October 15. In order to save time, permit me to move the approval of this action. The President: The motion has been made and seconded that the action of the Board of Directors be approved. Are you ready for the question? There being no discussion, the motion was put and carried. Secretary Crabtree (Continuing) : I am requested to read this motion passed by the National Congress of Parents and Teachers Association. Since the National Congress of Parents and Teachers and the National Educa¬ tion Association are the two outstanding organizations primarily interested in the welfare of the children, in the home and school and community, and since they have many purposes and objects in common and can undoubtedly achieve child welfare more effectively by sharing in such efforts as are common to both; It is hereby moved that the President of the National Congress of Parents and Teachers be authorized to approach the President of the National Education As¬ sociation : First, to consider the possibility and feasibility of an advisory cooperative com¬ mittee, made up of representatives of both organizations, for the purpose of study¬ ing both organizations to determine what are common objectives and purposes and areas of action; and Second, recommend to their respective Associations appropriate activities based upon these studies, it being understood that such cooperative relationships may be terminated at the wish of either organization; that the activities of each be wholly independent and that no obligation rests upon either organization to carry out the cooperative activities recommended by said committee unless definite action on them be mutually agreed upon. The Board of Directors recommends that the Executive Committee be au¬ thorized to arrange for cooperation with the National Congress of Parents and Teachers through a joint committee. I move the adoption of this recommendation. Hawaii: Second the motion. Thereupon the motion was put and carried. Associational Records and Information 1069 The President: What is there further, Mr. Secretary, from the Report of the Board of Directors? Secretary Crabtree: That is all. The President: Under the head of “New Business” the Chair recognizes Superin¬ tendent J. M. Guinn, of the City of San Francisco, who desires to make a motion under the head of “New Business.” Mr. Guinn (California) : Mr. Chairman, Members of the Delegate Assembly: During this year on the 20th of October occurs the seventieth birthday of Professor John Dewey , the man who has interpreted for us as no other one has the aims, pur¬ poses, and methods of education. He is America’s, if not the world’s, greatest philosopher in the field of education. He has had a large part in the achieve¬ ments of this Association, and this Association will honor itself in honoring him by presenting to him a life membership. I, therefore, move that the Association present to Dr. John Dewey a life member¬ ship, and that the President appoint a Committee of five, with full power, to draft suitable expression of the indebtedness of this Association to him and to present this statement to him on his seventieth birthday, on October 20. Florida: Second the motion. There being no discussion, the motion was put and unanimously carried. The President: Is there any other new business to be presented to the Assembly? Let me remind you again before you go you ought to vote. It was reported a few minutes ago that over 400 delegates had already voted. That is fine; let us make it one hundred percent. Is there any further new business? If not, the Chair will recognize Miss Elizabeth McCormick of Wisconsin, Chairman of the Com¬ mittee on Resolutions, to present the Report of the Resolutions Committee. Miss McCormick (Chairman) : Mr. President and members of the Delegate Assembly: I wish to express my personal appreciation of the untiring service and splendid cooperation of the members of the Resolutions Committee. We are grate¬ ful to the Headquarters Staff of the N. E. A. for many courtesies they have shown us in the process of developing our report. The President (Interrupting) : The question has been raised as to whether or not you want these resolutions read as they are in your hands. Voices: No. We have them here. The President: You have them printed in your hands. Miss McCormick can read them if you wish. If there is no objection the resolutions will be submitted as read with the exception of the one about Atlanta. Miss McCormick: I am very grateful to the Delegate Assembly. I move the adoption of the report. The President: Miss McCormick moves the adoption of the resolutions and Superintendent Blair seconds the motion. I am going to ask you to vote on this last resolution, (expressing appreciation to Atlanta), then we will consider amend¬ ments to the other resolutions, but so far as the Atlanta resolution is concerned all in favor of adopting that resolution will signify by standing. (Everbody arose instantly with prolonged applause.) (The full report of the Resolutions Committee is printed on p. 1135 of this volume.) The President: The Chair will recognize Mr. George N. Taylor of New York, who proposes an amendment to the resolution on illiteracy. Before he moves the amendment I shall ask Miss McCormick to read the resolution on illiteracy. ( Miss McCormick read to the Assembly the resolution on illiteracy.) The President: The Chair recognizes Mr. Taylor of New York, who has an amendment he wishes to offer. Mr. Taylor: Mr. President, as a member of the Resolutions Committee, I realize that an explanation of this is in order. The amendment of the resolution which I 1070 National Education Association am about to move was presented by the Section on Adult Education. The first meeting of that section was on Monday afternoon, at the same time that the Com¬ mittee on Resolutions were holding their last meeting. Consequently their resolu¬ tion was not presented in time to be considered by the Committee. I think that is ample reason for considering it at this time. Let me say that this resolution has the approval of the Director of the United States Census and has the approval of the Secretary and Chairman as well as many of the members of the Resolutions Committee. That resolution, adopted by the Adult Education Section of the X. E. A. as submitted to the Resolutions Com¬ mittee, is as follows: “We urge upon the Census authorities the adoption of a schedule in the 1930 census that will reveal the number of persons 10 years of age and over, that cannot read English understandingly, meaning the number that have not com¬ pleted four years in an English speaking school or are unable to read the news¬ papers. “We pledge our support to the request of the Director of the Census to enlist the teaching force throughout the country to act as Enumerators for said purpose.” This to be effective must be done now. If not adopted now, nothing can be done for another ten years. I move, Mr. President, that this report of our Committee be amended by the insertion of this resolution at the end of the first sentence of the second paragraph of the resolution on illiteracy, which our Chairman, Miss McCormick, has just read. Miss McCormick: I second the motion to adopt the resolution offered by Mr. Taylor of New York. The President: Before putting that motion I am going to ask whether or not we may have the unanimous consent for the Chairman of the Resolutions Committee or the Resolutions Committee to arrange the wording so that it will make a con¬ tinuous whole? Mr. IV. H. Holmes (New York) : I make that motion. South Carolina: Second the motion. Thereupon the motion was put and carried that the rearranging of the wording of the resolution be left to the Resolutions Committee. The President: The motion recurs then on the motion of the gentleman from New York to amend the section on illiteracy by the insertion of this additional provision. There being no discussion, the motion was put and carried on the resolution as amended. (The amended resolution is printed on p. 1139.) Mr. George IV. IV annamaker (South Carolina) : Mr. Chairman, I would like to move that there be a special vote and that the resolutions be adopted with the exception that a special vote be taken on that particular resolution. The President: What Section is that? Mr. IV annamaker : The Education Section. The President : The Chair will hold that if any delegate wishes a separate vote on any of these resolutions it will be granted. If there is no objection we will consider the report on Education in the Federal Government and recognize Mr. IV annamaker for such motion as he cares to make. Mr. IV annamaker: Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen: It is with a great deal of timidity that I appear upon this program to voice my sentiments in regard to this particular Section. I have been a member of the National Education Associa¬ tion for quite a number of years and am tremendously interested in it, and I am a life member and I realize that one of the greatest, probably the greatest, thing about this organization is its willingness to give ear to one who voices the sentiments of a very, very small minority. I recall that in 1926 when I appeared on the floor of the Convention in Florida and cast the sole vote of opposition to the National Associational Records and Information' 1071 Education Association's endorsing this bill, that the very gracious President of the organization extended to me the same courtesy that might have been extended to me if I had been the chairman of the ninety and nine others who voted in its favor. I believe that our organization will go forward just to such extent as we continue to recognize the right of any official delegate who wishes a sound of opposition to the majority. I say with all the power I have in me, representing a state that I am very proud to represent, that my state in its meeting on Saturday by a majorin’ vote endorsed this proposition, but in that meeting, following the same plan which you in the National Education Association follow, gave to us of the minority an opportunity to cast our votes as we saw fit to cast them. I have read very carefully the reso¬ lution and I commend very sincerely the members of the Resolutions Committee, but I have not, after very careful study, been able to convince myself that I. as a life member of this organization, as one who is working for the interests of the Association, can stand here and cast a vote to say that I believe that the Congress of the United States should establish a separate Department of Education. And I wish, Mr. Chairman, as an official delegate from the State of South Carolina, simply to say that when we cast our votes we shall cast three votes in opposition to that particular section. It is with timidity that I offer that vote of opposition but I believe, my friends, that I will yield no place to any man or woman in this great organization when it comes to the point of loyalty’, when it comes to the standpoint of devotion to this Government. I might say, Mr. Chairman, without any attempted boasting at all, but simply the recitation of a record, that I donned the khaki uniform and went with those who went into a different country — I love the United States but I believe that we are a great nation, one of the greatest in the history of the world because we have left the matter of public education to the individual states and to the individual counties, and have the interests of the individual citizens in this great matter. I have never yet attended a national meeting of any kind, either of this organization, the American Legion, or any other national organization, when I have been able to hear anybody say that the United States Government, in any council had to yield first place to any nation. We get up and brag about what a wonderful nation we are, what a wonderful people we are, and then make a condemnation of our school system. I believe, Mr. Chairman, with all my soul that we are a great nation because we have seen fit to leave the matter of public education in the hands of the states and of the local com¬ munities, largely within those states, and I simply, Mr. Chairman, stand before you. very grateful of the courtesy of these people coming from different states and dif¬ ferent territories of our great nation, the courtesy that you are willing to extend to me to voice my opposition to that particular section of the resolution that calls upon the Congress of the United States for the establishment of a Secretary of Education. I do no violence to my delegation but I represent them as their Chairman when 1 say to you, sir, that of our nine votes, six of them are in favor of the proposition and three against. Thank you very much. The President: The Chair would entertain a motion by Mr. JT annamaker to strike out the resolution that asks for a Department of Education, but he says he does not care to make it. Mr. W annamaker: Mr. Chairman, I simply call, in order that this great delega¬ tion may go on record and voice its approval of this proposition or disapproval of it, as my friend here on my right has said, for a vote on that particular Section separate from the resolutions as offered by the Resolutions Committee. The President: You don’t want to strike it out? Mr. kV annamaker : I have no amendment. I move we have a vote on that par¬ ticular Section separate from the other resolutions. The President: Is there any’ further discussion? On demand from the delegates 1072 National Education Association of the state of South Carolina I will put this question: Shall the Section referring to the Federal Department of Education be adopted? This will involve the motion made by Mr. Holmes of New York a few minutes ago, giving the Committee authority to reword, so that if your vote is negative it will strike out Section 5 of the First Resolution, which refers to the Federal Department of Education. Thereupon a rising vote was taken upon the resolution in question referring to the establishment of a Department of Education and the Chair declared the report of the Committee, or the Resolution of the Committee so far as the Federal De¬ partment of Education was concerned, was adopted. The President: Are there any other sections on which you want a separate vote? The Chair will recognize any delegate in the Assembly. If not, I will then put the motion made by the Chairman of the Committee, Miss McCormick, for the adoption of the Resolutions as amended. There being no further discussion, the motion to adopt the resolutions offered by the Resolutions Committee, as amended, was put and carried. The President: The Chair recognizes again the Chairman of the Resolutions Committee, Miss McCormick. Miss McCormick: After the report of the Resolutions Committee went to the printer, a resolution was offered, or sent to me, by the Board of Directors of the X. E. A. I shall read that now. It was too late to have a copy in your hands. The Board of Directors believes that the entire country, members of the pro¬ fession and laymen alike, would take pride in honoring Horace Mann, a founder of the common school system as it has in honoring others who have made out¬ standing contributions to the welfare of the nation. The Board of Directors there¬ fore proposes the following resolutions and recommends that they be passed by the Representative Assembly at this session: Resolved that the National Education Association approves of the plan to hold a centennial Horace Mann Celebration in 1937, that it call the attention of all state and national educational and welfare associations to the importance and value of such a celebration, and that it join with these organizations in petitioning the President and Congress of the United States to appoint a commission which would begin at once the arrangements for a fitting celebration. Resolved that the Association recommends that state and national associations look ahead and arrange to build their programs in 1937 around the theme' “The Educational Achievements of a Century.” Resolved that the executive committee is hereby authorized to carry out the plans embodied in these resolutions. 1 move the adoption of these resolutions. Voice: Second the motion. The President: The motion was made and seconded that, looking forward to the celebration of Horace Mann’s one hundredth anniversary in 1937, it be adopted. There being no discussion, the motion was put and carried, and the resolutions as offered declared adopted. The President: The Chair will recognize the Chairman of the Board of Trustees, Mr. Walter R. Siders, for his report. Mr. Siders: You have before you the Report of the Auditors. Three or four years ago I made a suggestion which you adopted, that you have your Finance Report in one pamphlet, being the report of the Treasurer and Auditor combined, which would give you a history of all financial data. This Report shows on the first page a letter of transmittal from the Secretary with some pertinent comments connected therewith. The report, however, on that first page seems to indicate that no comment should be made on their report. I am sure it is the privilege of the National Education Association to comment but not incorporate any such statements in the body of their Association al Records and Information 1073 report and as you are fully aware any information has always been offered as an appendix. I am not reciting those appendices that were in the last report because they were completely stated- in this report. I can say all I have to sav about this in three minutes or less. As heretofore, you w'ill find three main sets of figures. You will find the state¬ ment of income and expenses, meaning the amount of money you have taken in during the year and the amount of money spent during the year. You will next rind a statement of the receipts and disbursements, which statement differs from the other in that it takes an account of moneys that were in our possession or due us from past transactions and accounts for all moneys spent during the vear and obligations that are outstanding, thus differing from the other which is merely cash taken in and paid out during the year. The other formal part of the report is devoted to assets and liabilities, showing all we owe and all who owe us. We have approached very close to the $500,000 mark in our transactions and we have also increased our permanent fund close to a half-million dollars. The other feature of the report that is worthy of your note is the statement of the permanent fund on page 8, and should there be any who do not know what we mean by that, I might say that all moneys that are invested for the purpose of making interest or income are known as our Permanent Fund and the other as Current Fund. This Permanent Fund now amounts to over $+90,000, the increase being very largely due to the sagacity of Secretary Crabtree in pushing life memberships. The other thing in the report is the statement of income and expenditures, fully exhibited on page 10. There is another matter that I wish to report about the building but inasmuch as that is a separate matter, I want to defer that to the call of the President if he wants it presented here. Mr. Chairman, I move the adoption of this report. Porto Rico: Second the motion. There being no discussion, the motion was put and carried and the Report of the Treasurer declared accepted as printed. (The report is printed on p. 1121 of this Volume.) The President: I shall ask the Chairman of the Board of Trustees to make an announcement about the building. He said it would take just a minute. The Board of Directors have authorized this, and I think an announcement of it should be made to the Representative Assembly. Mr. Siders: You should know what is going on at all times. It is now proposed by the Trustees and endorsed by your Board of Directors that there shall be a seven-story addition to the main building that stands at the corner of Sixteenth and M Streets, Washington, D. C. For purposes of this building we are buying thirty feet more ground. The two small buildings in the rear of the main building will be taken down. Our 194,000 memberships (and soon to exceed that) demand more working space. This has been very carefully planned out. Frank Irving Cooper, the school architect of Boston, has the work in charge. Every Depart¬ ment is planned for with room enough for future growth. The Journal will carry in an early issue the foundation and floor plans so that you may have complete data. The President: The Chair recognizes at this time Mr. E. M. Carter of Missouri. Mr. Carter is the best secretary of a state association that we have in Missouri. Air. Carter (Missouri): Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen: On behalf of the Missouri Delegation I want to express to the people of Atlanta, the state of Georgia, and to the delegates from all over the United States, our great appreciation for the many courtesies that have been extended to the distinguished President and to the members of our Delegation. It has been a wonderful opportunity for us. We have had a great time and we know that the people of Atlanta have done a wonder- 1074 National Education Association fill thing for us. We greatly appreciate it and we extend our thanks. Right now I want to introduce to the members of the Delegate Assembly Miss Ralls , a member of the delegation from Kansas City, who will give a Plantation Scene for the delegates assembled. Thank you very much. Miss Ralls. Miss Marie Ralls: Mr. Chairman: You know they .said it was a bad thing for any other than a Southerner, that is, “a down-South Southerner,” to try to give any¬ thing connected with the darky, but that is what I am going to attempt. (There¬ upon Miss Ralls gave a reading of a Southern mammy talking to her baby.) The Chair: I know of no more fitting person to have been Chairman of the Auditing Committee than Arthur Chamberlain, who has long been identified with the Thrift Commission in the United States. Mr. Chamberlain: Mr. President and Members of the Delegate Assembly: You will note that you have in your hands, or have had, the Report of the Auditing Committee carried on by Peat, Marwick, Mitchell & Co. of New \ork City. The Convention Committee is composed of three people, Miss Tall as Chairman, Dr. Matthews of Arizona, and the speaker. Unfortunately the Chairman is not here. I am reporting to you that immediately after arriving in this city I secured a copy of the report, thereby giving ample time to go over it. I commend to you the splendid way in which the Auditors have set forth their material, and I am reporting to you for the Committee, that insofar as we can ascertain, and we believe that we have ascertained, that the report is true and accurate in every particular and I move its acceptance. Georgia: Second the motion. There being no discussion, the Report of the Auditors as printed and submitted was voted upon and carried and the Report declared accepted. (The report may be found on p. 1107 of this Volume.) The President: I am sure if I got to talking about the ladies in Atlanta and the teachers in Atlanta I could keep talking all day; but I am sure none of us can fully appreciate the work Superintendent Sutton has done in making this visit so splendid and this Convention such a success. I want to express to him my gratitude. And then in the handling of a group of teachers, or any other group of Ameri¬ cans — and in passing, may I say no one could have asked for finer cooperation than there has been here; I noticed that night before last, and noticed it magnificently last night and I am sure all of the speakers appreciate it — but in handling this crowd, in handling you and in helping you, out in the city and helping me on the platform, I want to pay my particular respects to the Boy Scouts. I have never been with a finer group of boys than this group that has been helping us so efficiently, so well, so courteously in this city of Atlanta. Any section of the country that can produce that type of boys for its citizenship will be in safe hands. If there is nothing further, I will entertain a motion to adjourn. A motion to adjourn was thereupon put and carried, and the session closed. Fourth Business Session, Thursday, July 4, 1929 The meeting opened at 9:15 a. m. with a musical program rendered by the Technological High School Band of Atlanta, directed by P. S. Woodward. The business session of the meeting was formally opened at 9:30 a. m. at the Atlanta Auditorium by President Lamkin. The President: The meeting will please come to order. May I ask former presi¬ dents of state associations and former presidents of the National Association, and past vicepresidents to come to the platform. The invocation this morning is by the Reverend Warren A. Candler, Bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church South of Atlanta. ( Bishop Candler led in the de¬ votional exercises.) Associational Records and Information 1075 The President : There is a gentleman on the platform this morning whom I want to stand so that you may see him. He will probably have to stand in order that you may see him. We have had representatives from various parts of the United States. I discovered this morning one part of the United States from which no delegate seemed to have reported. I introduce Air. Lorado from the Philippine Islands. We are going to have to run this program rather arbitrarily this morning be¬ cause the nationwide hookup of the radio is between ten and eleven oclock, and we must give Secretary Hyde that hour. I am asking Alajor Cohen of the Atlanta Journal to introduce to you one of the most notable men in America. Alajor Cohen: Air. Lamkin, honored Visitors, Ladies and Gentlemen : The young man I am about to introduce is Georgia’s most famous Ambassador of Goodwill throughout the world, and Atlanta’s best beloved son. Nine major golf cham¬ pionships have been his portion in a brief span of years, to say nothing of in¬ numerable minor ones. I know he will not like it, but there is something I would like to say about this superb young citizen. At the age of twenty-seven he is the proud possessor of three degrees from three great universities, Mechanical Engineering at the Georgia School of Technology; English Literature at Harvard; and Law at Emory University. He is the husband of a charming girl, the father of two wonderful children. He is a member of the Georgia Bar, a member of the Bar of the United States, a member of a great law firm. Those of us who love him most and know him best know that by the appli¬ cation of selfdiscipline and concentration he has mastered the great game of golf and proved the proverb that “he who ruleth his own spirit is greater than he that taketh a city.” Ladies and gentlemen, here he is — Bobby Jones, himself. Bobby Jones: Ladies and Gentlemen: I have only one or two words to say. I am very happy to be here to add my part to Atlanta’s welcome to the members of this great Association. I was a little bit flabbergasted to come here and see so many people. I knew you had quite a large attendance but I didn’t know it was this large. Alajor Cohen promised he was not going to tell everything he knew about me this morning. He did pretty well because he even conferred upon me one degree which I was never able to add myself. I thank you. The President: There is another interesting citizen of the United States on the platform here whom I w’ant to present to you just for a word, the Honorable Charles T. Barrett, President of the Farmers’ Union. Air. Barrett: Your President said for me to say “How-do-you-do.” The President: Just for a minute Hawaii wants to say something to Bobby Jones. I wonder if they want to come up. Representative from Hawaii: I have longed for a chance to see this young man. I have read of his doings and I wanted to have a handshake with him this morn¬ ing. I brought my instrument here and asked Air. Lamkin to give me a chance to sing “Aloha” to Bobby Jones and to all of you here. (The representative from Hawaii thereupon sang “Aloha” to the pleasure of all present.) The President: We have about three or four minutes before the radio hookup. I am going to ask Superintendent Sutton if he won’t introduce — not to say anything but just to let you see them — two or three men who have been very active in making the arrangements for the entertainment of this convention. Superintendent Sutton of Atlanta. Superintendent Sutton: You people have been so wonderful in expressions of appreciation for the very, very little that we have done, I do want to express our appreciation for the cordiality with which you have received it. While I wish 1 could introduce all of the 1200 and more white teachers of this city who have con- 1076 National Education Association tributed as well as the 600 or 800 negroes who have made a wonderful contribu¬ tion to your success, I do want to say to you all that I am very glad to say that if you have not yet seen the exhibit that we have of the work of the negro schools in Atlanta, I hope you will see it. However, I have just one minute and I want to introduce to you Air. Jerry IV ells of the county school systems, who has been a wonderful contribution in himself to the success of this meeting. Air. Jerry Wells: We are delighted to have you with us and hope you will come back again. Superintendent Sutton: I know you will be delighted when I tell you he served that magnificent barbecue. Horace Thompson of the Coca Cola Company, with his Chief, Harrison Jones, have certainly done a great deal to make this convention a success. Mr. Horace Thompson: We thank all of you good people for accepting our hospitality. Superintendent Sutton: I am very sorry Colonel Paxton, who is Chairman of our Financial Committee, could not be wTith us. This little group I am introducing to you is just a little group of five or six of us who met almost daily for a long time. We had a committee, you will be interested to know, of over 600 and representing over 550 organizations of Atlanta and I wish I could present them all. I haven’t seen Alayor Ragsdale, who also made up a part of that group. The next man is Mr. George IV. Powell, president of the Board of Education. Mr . George IV. Powell: We are delighted to have you with us. We are loath to see you go. But we wish you a happy and safe return home. Superintendent Sutton: And Dr. Af. L. Duggan, wThom all of you, or practically all of you know, who did so much to help us secure this convention, and who is state superintendent. Dr. AI. L. Duggan: We have received from you far more than we have given. We will benefit through the years to come, and future generations will bless you for having come to us. The President: I am going to have to ask that the report of the Elections Com¬ mittee and the introduction of the President be deferred until after the address of the morning. Please remember the meeting of the Board of Directors in the Cham¬ ber of Commerce immediately after the adjournment of this session. I expect everybody who knows me understands my regard and admiration for the speaker of the morning. I recognize his ability for companionship, the qualities of a genial gentleman, and his outstanding service to our state in which he was born, and of which he was elected governor. As a friend of schools and of roads ; as a clear thinker, as a handler of eleemosynary institutions, as to reorganization and reform in the state government, the present Secretary of Agriculture has an enviable reputation as a state executive. He is another one of these men who doesn't know the right thing in politics, but outside of that he is all right. It gives me personal pleasure to introduce to you to speak upon one of the great issues of today the present Secretary of Agriculture, in the Cabinet of President Hoover, the Honorable Arthur M. Hyde of Missouri. Air. Hyde then delivered his address on “Equal Opportunity and Agriculture.” (See p. 167.) The President: I am wondering if we have the report of the Elections Committee. We want to introduce the new President at this time. Will you wait until we get through with the -business before you go home? Will you or will you not? If I can’t get a better response than that, we will take care of the other business first. Will all of you wait? Let us see your hands. Will you wait? (Apparently every hand went up.) I will call then for the report of the Committee on Elections by Air. Donald DuShane of Indiana. Mr. DuShane (Chairman): Mr. President, your Committee on Elections has can- Associational Records and Information 1077 vassed the vote last night, sealed the ballots, and turned the tabulation of votes over to the Chairman. So this is the first official or unofficial presentation of the votes cast in yesterday’s election. We hereby certify that the following is a correct statement of the votes cast for the nominees of the 1929 Delegate Assembly of the National Education Associa¬ tion: President: E. Ruth Pyrtle, Nebraska . • . 674 . Effie MacGregor, Minnesota . 211 Vicepresident: W . F. Bond, Mississippi . 438 John E. Bryan, Alabama . . 455 IV. S. Cavjthon, Florida . 329 Ira T. Chapman, New Jersey . 430 Florence M. Hale, Maine . 677 IV. H. Holmes, New York . 464 IV. A. James, Texas . 470 Elizabeth McCormick, Wisconsin . 506 Eugenia West Jones, California . 724 S. L. Ragsdale, Tennessee . . . 522 Jean L. Soules, Washington . 544 Willis A. Sutton, Georgia . 813 David A. Ward, Pennsylvania . 405 John C. Werner, Idaho . '. . 387 L. A. White, North Dakota . 380 E. H. Whitney, Oregon . 595 Caroline S. Woodruff, Vermont . .' 436 In the election for the Treasurer, there was but one candidate. Treasurer : Henry Lester Smith, Indiana . 623 We further certify that the fifty-one candidates for membership on the Board of Directors as printed on the official ballot were duly elected. Committee on Elections Donald DuSkane, Chairman Joseph F. Noonan Jean L. Soules The President: At her request, the Chair recognizes Miss MacGregor. Miss Effie MacGregor (Minnesota) : There are many reasons why such a large number of educators in the land become members of the National Education Asso¬ ciation. There are three outstanding reasons why I have always been an en¬ thusiastic supporter of the National Education Association. I have thoroughly appreciated its splendid spirit of cooperation. I have been greatly benefited by the splendid spirit of fellowship that is maintained among its membership. I have benefited more greatly by the high standard of professionalship which it furthers. These are three outstanding reasons which I am sure every member of the organiza¬ tion will join with me in wishing to further. It has been a great honor to have had the opportunity to have entered the race as a possible president for the National Education Association. It will be a great privilege to help further every ideal, every activity, every interest of the National Education Association through the leadership of its newly elected President. In our country we have the right of choice, as far as leadership is concerned. We believe that the majority vote shall decide our choice of leadership. When the 1078 National Education Association majority has once been decided, the choice made, we believe in extending one hundred percent loyalty and support to the winning leader. I, therefore, knowing that every member of the National Education Association joins with me in this belief, move, Mr. Chairman, that the election of Miss Ruth Pyrtle be made unanimous. I shall be glad to include the Vicepresidents. The President: Miss MacGregor, of course, means to move that the election of the President and eleven successful candidates for Vicepresidents be made unanimous. Kansas: Second the motion.' There being do discussion the motion was put and carried. The President: The Chair then declares that by your ballot you have elected Miss E. Ruth Pyrtle of Nebraska as President of the Association for the ensuing year, and the following Vicepresidents: Willis A. Sutton . Georgia Eugenia West Jones . California Florence M. Hale . Maine E. H. Whitney . Oregon Jean L. Soules . Washington Elizabeth McCormick . Wisconsin W. A. James . Texas W. H. Holmes . New York John E. Bryan . Alabama W. F. Bond . Mississippi S. L. Ragsdale . Tennessee And to the office of Treasurer Henry Lester Smith of Indiana. It now gives me great pleasure to introduce to you the new President, the Presi¬ dent-elect of this Association, Miss E. Ruth Pyrtle of Nebraska. (Miss Pyrtle came forward, and a very beautiful corsage bouquet was handed her by the Nebraska Delegation.) I have no gavel to turn over to Miss Pyrtle. The Georgia Delegation were kind enough to give me a gavel. I am taking that home. The Auditorium furnished a gavel ; somebody else took that home. We haven’t needed any gavel ; in fact, I believe that if every deliberative legislative body in the world was as unselfish as is this group of delegates to the National Education Association, you could throw all the gavels used in legislative halls into the Atlantic ocean and the business would be well transacted. I am very glad to turn this Assembly over to Miss E. Ruth Pyrtle of Nebraska for an inaugural address. Miss Pyrtle: Mr. President and Friends: I have noted that these southern people this morning being recognized and thanked for their hospitality were very much appreciated. I noticed that the remarks were exceedingly brief that they made in response. Let me follow that same practise. I scarcely find words to express my appreciation and I am voicing the feeling of the middle west where I live, particularly my own state. I do not command words to express the honor which you have conferred on me this morning. I thank all of you. I appreciate the fact that Miss MacGregor moved to make the vote unanimous. This morning I had the great happiness of being present at the Iowa Breakfast — “Iowa, where the tall corn grows.” I said to those fine people in their enthusiastic meeting this morning that out in Nebraska we have an expression about “taking to the tall grass,” if things are difficult, and I said to them that after this I am going to take “to the tall corn” instead for help. But the “tall corn” will be just a part of the emblem of the help which I know I am going to have — you said so this morning — in attempting to take the leadership as it is expressed in the president of this great national organization; I believe the greatest in the world. Your confidence I hope I shall not betray. I shall use every endeavor with your help, to do the things which you know and feel should be done to carry forward the torch, this torch which this able man from Missouri is throwing in my direction this morning. I know with the help that is promised from all of you, it will not be Associational Records and Information 1079 such a difficult task for me to achieve the ideals, the standards which you have in mind of progress for this great Association. May I express my personal appreciation to the teachers of Georgia for your wonderful hospitality. You have heard it over and over again. We are limited in words to say what we feel. I shall always be grateful that this great conven¬ tion came into the Southland. I shall always be grateful that it was in this South¬ land, at the time of the convention, that you allowed me to assume leadership. I am overwhelmed with this bride’s bouquet from the Nebraska delegation. I want to thank them, through you, for this beautiful tribute. Mr. Lamkin, I thank you Friends, I thank you. President Lamkin: Hawaii wants the platform again. We are very glad to intro¬ duce Miss McGregor from Hawaii. Miss McGregor (Hawaii) : I want to take this opportunity to thank the good people of Atlanta and a gain to extend to you an invitation to come to Hawaii. You have received us royally. We are taking our departure this afternoon, and before we leave I want to show you how we show our gratitude and love to the people of your land. I feel we cannot depart with joy unless we give you a lei. This is a fresh lei, made from your flowers, and this is to show you how you can learn to make leis too. These can’t be duplicated anywhere else. I take pleasure on behalf of the Hawaii Delegation and of the people of Hawaii in presenting Mr. Willis A. Sutton, who represents the teachers and parents and the city of Atlanta, this lei that I made this morning of the flowers from the garden of Miss Paxton, a school teacher. ( Miss McGregor put the fresh lei around Mr. Sutton’s neck.) Mr. Sutton: I want to express to the Hawaii Delegation our very, very great pleasure at having them in Atlanta. Everywhere we look for them, it is just these sweet, beautiful things that they know how to do. This morning I felt em- barassed when I was asked by Miss McGregor if I would come to the stage, and I said, “No.” “Well,” she said, “We want you because you represent all the chil¬ dren, schools, people, and parents.” I don’t feel that I do that; I am accepting this honor this morning, not in my own name, but in the name of those loyal teachers, of that splendid band of wonderful men and women who have given to us the finest support that we have ever had in trying to do any one thing. And I want to say to you all, you have done so much more for us than we have been able to do for you, that we feel under everlasting obligation. And I am going to take the floor just for one moment and ask you to join with me in expressing to Dr. Lamkin and his associates in making this program, and in those who have helped us with the program, and giving to them all — whether you were on it or not; I was on it and I am going to be standing up — so I want you to voice our thanks, especially to Dr. Lamkin, for this wonderful wreath from Hawaii, and to every delegation present, and to say we are so glad on this Fourth Day of July, 1929, that the heart of the American teachers, and the heart of the American parents, and the heart of Americans generally have one great aim and ideal, and that is the uplift of the coming generations. I want to move a vote of thanks, want to second it myself, and ask you to join with me, to Dr. Lamkin, and those who made this program a wonderful success. Stand up. (The Assembly arose with loud applause.) I want to say one other word. I have been presented with a beautiful radiola, or radio, made by one of the finest companies in the country, they tell me, and I have been privileged to give that radio to anybody to whom I pleased to give it, and I am going to give it to the better half of U el W. Lamkin. So I am going to present her, and have this Company present that radio because they have given it to me, to present to Mrs. U el W. Lamkin. 1080 Nation \l Education Association The President: I haven’t a chance in the world. I went to the Iowa Breakfast, too, this morning. They had roses for the ladies, flags for the men. My wife sat next to me. When she went out she had both the flag and the rose. They saw it. And then the president of the Iowa Teachers Association seeing the situation, pre¬ sented me with another very beautiful rose. As I walked out of the dining room, my wife said, “I will take that rose.” She did. Last night when I was in the wings of the auditorium here, Mr. Erlandson said they were going to give me a radio in the interest of the commercial exhibits here. Now I find out they gave it to Mr. Sutton , and he has given that to my wife. I don't know when I am going to get anything. She told me today that this beautiful desk set the Hawaiians gave me yesterday was to go in the house at home, not at the office. 1 expect she will want to go under my umbrella and wash the “mountain dew” off me. I don’t know of any further business. I wish I could say half I feel about the people of Atlanta, about the people of Georgia, about the people of the South. They are the people that made this convention go over with a bang. I think you brought some good programs here. I think we had some fine addresses. I think we had some constructive addresses. But the whole-hearted fellowship and hos¬ pitality’ and good humor and joy with which the Georgia and the southeast United States people have greeted us have made this convention what it is. My heart is full of gratitude to every one of them. And then for you members of the National Education Association who have stood loyally’ by the organization in the past year, I want to thank every one of you. If there is no further business appearing, I am going to say that after I have offered a pray er for forgiveness for everything which I should have done and which I have not done, and for everything which I should not have done and which I have done, that we will stand, and led byr Mrs. Lefler, the wife of the superin¬ tendent of schools of Lincoln, Nebraska, we will sing the Star Spangled Banner, after which the Sixty-seventh Convention of the National Education Association will stand adjourned. MINUTES OF THE MEETINGS. OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE Cleveland, Ohio, February 23-26, 1929 Saturday Morning. February 23, 1929 A meeting of the Executive Committee was called to order at 10 a. m., Saturday, February 23, 1929, in the President’s suite, Hollenden Hotel, Cleveland, Ohio, Mr. Uel W. Lamkin, President, in the chair. The following were present: Cornelia S. Adair, Walter R. Siders, Henry L. Smith, Frank E. Reynolds, the President, Uel W. Lamkin, and the Secretary’, J. W. Crabtree. The following members of the Board of Trustees were present on invitation: Kate V. JCofford and Joseph H. Saunders. (Later J. M. G^'inn entered.) The first item of business was that of considering bids on the publication of The Journal , the contract with Judd and Detweiler having expired recently’. Mr. Allan , business manager, presented bids from several companies pointing out that Judd and Detweiler of Washington, D. C., was the lowest bidder, and that the Lord Baltimore Press of Baltimore was the next lowest. After explanation and discussion a motion was made by’ Mr. Smith and seconded byr Miss Adair, authorizing the Secretary’ to accept the bid of Judd and Detweiler and, after securing the advice and approval of an attorney, to enter into a contract with this firm. Motion carried. Mr. Allan next presented bids on the Volume of Proceedings, for a three y’ears’ contract, from the National Capital Press, Washington, D. C. ; Judd and Detweiler, Associational Records and Information 1081 Washington, D. C. ; and the Lord Baltimore Press, Baltimore. The Judd and Detweiler bid being considered the best, Mr. Reynolds moved and Miss Adair sec¬ onded the motion to award the contract to Judd and Detweiler. Carried. It was the understanding that the Volume would not be increased in size. A motion was made by Mr. Siders and seconded by Mr. Smith, to adopt the minutes of the Minneapolis meetings of the Executive Committee as printed in the 1928 Volume of Proceedings . Motion carried. The report on salaries and the salary schedule for the headquarters’ staff was next considered. It included a list of names on the permanent roll, showing present salaries, the scheduled increases due June 1, and a list of the names on the temporary roll showing the salaries for the year. It included a list of names on the temporary roll recommended for the permanent roll, and another list of those who were recom¬ mended for increases beyond schedule allowances. After explanation and discussion, it was decided to first take up the question of schedule increases, then the matter of transferring from the temporary roll to the permanent roll, and last the matter of special increases in salary. Miss Adair moved to authorize the Secretary to grant the increases in salary as provided by the schedule adopted by the Board of Directors, the increases to begin June 1. Seconded by Mr. Smith. Carried. A motion was made by Mr. Siders to the effect that all schedule increases should begin on June 1, that those elected any time during the first six months of the associational year shall be entitled to the schedule increases on June 1 of the same year and those elected at any time during the second half of the year should receive their first schedule increase on June 1 of the following year. Seconded by Mr. Reynolds. Carried. A motion was made by Mr. Siders to adjust the salaries of Miss Beck and Miss Bliss to the new plan. Seconded by Miss Adair. Carried. It was decided that this plan would put Mr. Ashby’s salary at $2040 on June 1. His appointment was ratified. The Committee then took up the recommendations for transferring from the tem¬ porary roll to the permanent roll. It was agreed to accept the recommendation except in the case of those who were recommended for an extra increase and in these cases to leave their pay on the schedule basis — the additional increases to be considered at the Atlanta meeting. It was also decided that all requests for greater than schedule increases should be held over for the summer meeting. Miss Alltuckcr was allowed the increase for 1-A but the question of her classification was post¬ poned for later consideration. fV. G. Carr’s election at a salary of $4000 was rati¬ fied. Ethel Blake was transferred to the permanent roll at her present salary $1932. The others were transferred to the permanent roll each at a salary of $1200. The appointment of Elsie Lindsay at a salary of $1500 was ratified. The following were transferred from the temporary to the permanent roll: Betty Parker, Rachel Baker, Emily Trivett, Ethel Blake, Mattie Ferguson, Ethel Bonde, Helen Hodge, Jessie Eldredge, Mabel H oilman, and Anna Schauck. All of these are to be in class 3-B, salary $1200, except Ethel Blake class 3-A salary $1932, and Helen Hodge 3-B salary $1260. It was decided that the matter of additional in¬ creases for Miss Hodge, Miss Baker, Miss Alltucker, Miss Splawn, Miss Ogden, and Miss MacFatc would be considered at the next meeting. The Secretary was requested to have complete information on hand at that time. The President stated that he would request the Secretary to prepare a report* giving complete information concerning the work and status of the members of the staff on the temporary roll including the names of those to be retained for another year, and of those whose services end with the present year together with whatever recommendations he desires to make. He also stated that he would request that a report be made on the way in which the salary schedule works, together with sug¬ gestions as to necessary modifications. The Secretary thought the changes in classi¬ fication which should be made would settle the difficulties encountered at this meeting. 1082 National Education Association A motion was made by Mr. Reynolds to ratify by mail, the vote to appropriate $1000 out of the contingent fund for the use of the Joint Committee on Health. Seconded by Miss Adair. Carried. A motion was made by Miss Adair to ratify the action taken to pay the expenses of the State Secretaries, $3225.05, at the December meeting in Washington. Seconded by Mr. Smith. Carried. The mail vote taken later carried. Mr. Smith moved to instruct the Secretary to pay the bills incurred in printing and sending all material for the World Federation of Education Asso¬ ciations. Seconded by Mr. Reynolds. Carried. Mr. Siders moved that $200 be appropriated out of the contingent fund for the use of the Committee on Colored Schools. Seconded. Carried. A motion was then made by Mr. Siders to adjourn for lunch. Seconded. Carried. Saturday Afternoon, February 23, 1929 The Executive Committee returned after lunch to the room to attend the meeting of the board of trustees which wras called for 2 oclock. At four oclock in the after¬ noon, February 28, President Lamkin called the meeting of the Executive Committee to order stating that since the members of the board of trustees were present this would be considered a joint meeting of the Executive Committee and the Board of Trustees to listen to a matter to be presented by the officers of the Associated Exhibi- lurs. All members of both the Executive Committee and Board of Trustees were present. The officers of the Association of Exhibitors being present, the President, Mr. R. S. Erlandson, was first called upon. Mr. Erlandson explained the purpose of the Association of Exhibitors and pointed out the mutual advantages which would result from the National Education Association giving recognition to the association wrhich he represented. Recognition would aid in building up and strengthening his association and it would mean greater support from all business interests represented in the exhibits to the asso¬ ciation, in promoting its program, and in furthering the interests of education in the states and in the nation. Other members of the committee spoke on the question. The discussions covered a period of two hours. It was on a cordial plane and good natured throughout. The N. E. A. officials asked a number of questions and called attention to difficulties that might arise from the formal connection which wras advocated but showed that they were openminded in the whole matter. The president, Mr. Lamkin, thanked the officers of the Associated Exhibitors, promising that careful attention would be given to their proposals. He referred to the ad¬ vantages of sitting dowm and talking over matters of this kind frankly. Mr. Siders then moved to adjourn to meet Tuesday morning at 9 oclock in the same room. Seconded by Miss Adair. Carried. Later in the session the Secretary was instructed to wrrite a cordial letter to the Associated Exhibitors, expressing appreciation. Tuesday Forenoon, February 26, 1929 The meeting was a continuation of meetings on Saturday. All members of the Lxecutive Committee were present. All members of the Board of Trustees were present on invitation. On the explanation that the Institute of International Education of Columbia University, New York, had invited the Association to appoint a member on their advisory committee Mr. Smith moved that the matter be referred to the Board of Directors for a by-mail-vote recommending that the appointment be made. Seconded by Mr. Siders. Carried. A petition of 250 members for a department of special education was read. Members of the committee felt that the department should be created. The Secretary was authorized to present the petition to the Representative Assembly at the Atlanta Convention. Attention was called to the fact that a petition had also been made for a department of home economics. Associational Records and Information 1083 The question of designs for a membership key was presented. The children in art classes in the public schools had been requested to submit designs. A number had presented designs. These were passed around. While many showed remark¬ able skill for children none seemed to be satisfactory for the key. A motion was made by Mr. Siders and seconded by Mr. Reynolds to leave the matter of selecting a design for the life membership key for the first meeting of the Executive Com¬ mittee at the Atlanta convention. Carried. A motion was made by Mr. Smith and seconded by Mr. Siders to hold as a special fund at present the increments returned from the Insurance Company as members resign from the staff and that later if advisable it can be cared for in some other way. Carried. Mr. Siders moved that the Secretary be authorized to take whatever steps neces¬ sary to determine the motive for putting out Sanctified Squander and to do what¬ ever possible to counteract its influence. Seconded by Mr. Smith. Carried. A request had come from other meetings for the Association to provide material to superintendents and others for offsetting its influence. Mr. Allan asked the privilege of making a statement concerning the report made by a committee of exhibitors. After hearing his explanations the committee ex¬ pressed confidence in him and pride in the success of his exhibits. The salary matter was again discussed and again the question of extra increases was postponed for consideration at the Atlanta meeting. A motion was passed to allow Miss Alltucker an increase of $250 on June 1 but to leave the question of deciding on her classification in the schedule for the summer meeting. Superintendent Sutton explained preparations at Atlanta for the annual conven¬ tion. Mr. Gwinn then brought up the matter of a jewel for the retiring president. It wras agreed that the matter should be presented to the Board of Directors by Mr. Saunders. Later this was done. Favorable action was taken. On the request of Mr. Siders the question of how foreign education associations honor their dis¬ tinguished educators was postponed to the next meeting of the committee. A motion was then made by Mr. Siders to adjourn. Seconded by Mr. Reynolds. Carried. J. IF. Crabtree, Secretary, . ' U el IF. Lamkin, President. Washington, D. C., April 8, 1929 The Executive Committee met on the call of the chairman at 1 oclock, April 8, 1929, at the Association headquarters, Washington, D. C. A meeting of the Board of Trustees was held during the forenoon, the members of the Executive Committee being present on invitation. There were present when the committee was called to order: IF. R. Siders, H. L. Smith and U el W. Lamkin. Miss Adair was absent on account of a recent operation. Mr. Reynolds was detained at home on account of important business of the state association Mr. Saunders of the board of trustees was present on invitation. A letter was read from Miss Adair in which she recom¬ mended approval of the action taken by the department of classroom teachers to use $500 of the appropriation towards the expenses of Mrs. Joynes, the President, to attend the Geneva meeting of the World Federation of Education Associations. On the suggestion of Mr. Siders it was decided to see whether the local classroom teacher associations would not wish to raise the fund. A motion was made by Mr. Siders to call the attention of the Executive Committee of each of the departments having membership fees — the Department of Elementary School Principals, the Department of Secondary School Principals, and the Depart¬ ment of Superintendence — to the wisdom of sending their president and secretary to the Geneva meeting and paying part of the expense if necessary. 1084 National Education Association After discussion it was decided to elect an additional assistant in the Division of Publications. Mr. Belmont Farley , of the Western State Teachers College at Kala¬ mazoo, Michigan, was elected at an annual salary of $4250, to begin work June 1, or at such other time as arranged by the Secretary. The committee then took up the question of a press release on radio in the schools given to the Columbia Broad¬ casting System by Mr. Morgan. Protests had been made by Superintendent Randall Condon and others. The Secretary had written to the Columbia Broadcasting Com¬ pany protesting against the use made of Mr. Morgan’s statement. Mr. Morgan’s proposal to write the company withdrawing his cooperation with them for the present was approved. The question of the budget was taken up. There was a general discussion of the budget and budget plans. A motion was made to appropriate $+37.92 out of the contingent fund for the use of the Department of Adult Education. Carried. Meeting adjourned. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary, U el JV. Lam kin, President. Atlanta, Georgia, June 28-July 4, 1929 Friday Morning, June 28, 1929 This meeting of the Executive Committee was called to order at 8:30 a. m. in the President’s Suite, Hotel Ansley, Atlanta, Georgia, with the following members present: Henry L. Smith, Frank E. Reynolds, and LJ el W. Lamkin. The other mem¬ bers of the committee had not yet arrived. The minutes of the meetings of February 23 and 26 at Cleveland, Ohio, and of April 8, 1929, at Washington, D. C., were read by the Secretary. Moved by Mr.' Smith and seconded by Mr. Reynolds that the minutes be approved as read. Motion carried. The second item of business presented for the consideration of the Executive Committee was the following report of a committee on the matter of honoring Dr. John Dewey consisting of the following: Jesse H. Newlon, William H. Kilpatrick, and Harold O. Rugg. The report was presented by the Chairman, Mr. Newlon: f • May 22, 1929 Dr. J. W. Crabtree, National Education Association, Washington, D. C. Dear Dr. Crabtree: The committee which Mr. Lamkin appointed to report on a plan for commemora¬ tion by the N. E. A. of the seventieth birthday of Dr. John Dewey has conferred, and I have been asked to report its action. The committee makes the following recom¬ mendations : 1. That an appropriate resolution noting the seventieth birthday of John Dewey, and expressing appreciation for his great service to American education, be adopted by the Convention. The drafting of this resolution should be entrusted to a person especially qualified for the duty. Without consulting with Dr. Kilpatrick on this point, Dr. Rugg and I suggest that he would be the best person in the country to do it. 2. That Dr. Dewey be made a life member of the N. E. A. by action of the Representative Assembly. 3. That one issue of the N. E. A. Journal, preferably the November issue, be given over to a discussion of the contribution of Dr. Dewey to education and to the epoch- making movement in American education with which he has been identified. The committee suggests that the persons to prepare the articles for the Journal should Associational Records and Information 1085 be very carefullly chosen, and the committee offers to assist Mr. Morgan in the matter. Dr. Rugg has signified to me his willingness to contribute to this number. 4. That in the form of an N. E. A. bulletin a selected bibliography of Dr. Dowry's writings be made available to the profession. The committee realizes the seriousness of the proposal that one number of the Journal be devoted to the movement in education with which Dr. Dewey has been identified and of which he has been so largely the leader, but we believe the great¬ ness of his service not only warrants such a measure but would make it seem to the membership of the Association a peculiarly appropriate thing to do. In the opinion of the most critical minds among his contemporaries Dewey will be ranked with the great thinkers of all time in his fields. There is no gainsaying the tremendous influence that he has exerted on educational theory and practise. The progressive education movement, socalled, must be attributed largely to him. In view of the recommendations which we are making it is of course necessary for the committee to report now, and to save time I am sending a copy of the report to President Lamkin. President Lamkin' s name will be included on the committee which is preparing the Dewey celebration to be held in New York in the autumn, and in other ways it is hoped that the N. E. A. may be brought into cooperation with this movement. Sincerely yours, (Signed) Jesse IL. Newlon. After discussion a motion was made by Mr. Smith that the report of the special committee be presented to the Representative Assembly with the recommendation of the Executive Committee that the report be adopted and the committee continued in charge of the celebration. Seconded by Mr. Reynolds. Carried. The next question taken up was that of increasing the advertising rates for the Journal. The following recommendations w’ere made by the Business Manager and the Secretary of the Association: We recommend that the schedule of advertising rates for the Journal of the National Education Association be increased according to the plan outlined here¬ with : 1. That the increases be approximately twenty-five percent, providing for rates per insertion as follows: Amount of Space Current rate Recommended rate Per Column inch . $ 15.60 $ 19.50 Fourth page . 97.50 120.00 Third page . 125.00 155.00 Half page . 190.00 235.00 Two-thirds page . 245.00 305.00 2nd & 3rd cover . 450.00 540.00 4th cover . 500.00 620.00 Full page . 355.00 445.00 Agency Commission: 15 percent; cash discount: 2 percent; cash discount date: 10th of month of issue. 2. That the announcement of new rates be released on or about September 16, 1929, and that the new rates be effective November 12, 1929; providing, however, that as a protection to advertisers and agencies whose schedules are already planned and as an incentive for new business, orders be accepted for advertising in issues to and including that of June, 1930, at the old rate. Such orders, however, must be for specific space in specific issues and must reach us before the close of business 1086 National Education Association on November 11. No orders for space beyond that of June, 1930, will be accepted except at the new rate. No orders bled after November 11, 1929, for any issue, will be accepted except at the new rate. 3. That the plan of the socalled ‘‘flat rate” be continued: This provides that the rate shall be the same per issue regardless of whether the advertiser has one insertion or several during the year and does not permit differentials or discounts for term advertising contracts. 4. That we adhere to our present policy of restriction of advertising to that which has definite value to school workers as such, and that we continue our efforts to improve all our advertising standards. (While the question was under consideration, Miss Cornelia S. Adair joined the committee.) After a prolonged discussion it was moved by Mr. Reynolds and seconded by Mis * Adair that the recommendations of the Business Manager and Secretary be adopted except that the rate per column inch be made $20 instead of $19.50. Motion carried. The committee next considered a recommendation made by Mr. Joy E. Morgan to erect a tablet for the N. E. A. in Mammoth Cave in honor of Horace Mann. It was moved by Miss Adair and seconded by Mr. Smith that the matter be laid on the table until further information was available. The committee next took up a recommendation in the Secretary’ s report that steps be taken at the present time to hold a centennial celebration in 1937 commemorating the coming of Horace Mann to the secretaryship of the Massachusetts State Board of Education. Miss Adair moved that the Secretary be authorized to go ahead and make arrangements for calling the attention of the President and Congress of the United States to the wisdom of making this a national celebration. The motion was seconded by Mr. Reynolds. Carried. The President then instructed the Secretary to prepare a suitable resolution to be presented to the Representative Assembly at its business meeting on Wednesday. {IV alter R. Siders came in during the discussion.) The Secretary stated that he had been requested to get designs and bids for a life membership key. He called attention to the designs and read bids from three lead¬ ing companies. Miss Adair moved that the key with the design the same as the membership pin be recommended to the Board of Directors for adoption; that the two sizes presented be adopted; and the contract for making the key be awarded to the L. G. Balfour Company, Attleboro, Massachusetts, at the price stated in the bid, and further that these keys be available for sale to life members at $3.50 and $4 each. Seconded by Mr. Reynolds. Carried. It was understood that the Association would deliver them already engraved as purchased. The question of life membership for departments was discussed at length and different plans were considered. It was moved by Mr. Siders that the matter be postponed until a later meeting of the Executive Committee. Seconded by Mr. Reynolds. Carried. Meeting adjourned. Friday Morning, June 28, 1929 The Executive Committee was called in session by the President at 11 a. m. with all members present: JV alter R. Siders, Frank E. Reynolds, Cornelia S. Adair, Henry Lester Smith, and Uel JV. Lamkin, Chairman. Chairman Lamkin announced the appointment of delegates to the Inter-American Conference to consist of the following: JV alter R. Siders, Cornelia S. Adair, J. M. Gwinn, Frank E. Reynolds, Kate V. JVojford, Henry Lester Smith, Joseph H. Saun¬ ders, Francisco Vizcarrondo , United States Commissioner of Education JVilliam J. Cooper, John J. Tigert, P. P. Claxton, S, Rowe, Glenn L. Swiggett, J. JV. Crab¬ tree, and Uel JV, Lamkin, Chairman. Associational Records and Information 1087 A motion was made by Mr. Smith to confirm the appointment of these members as delegates to the Inter-American Conference. Seconded by Mr. Siders. Carried. After discussion of the Auditors’ Report a motion was made by Mr. Smith that the printing of the Auditors’ Report be left in the hands of Mr. Siders and Mr. Reynolds. Seconded by Miss Adair. Carried. President Larnkin called attention to a communication from Miss Baylor , Secretary of the National Council, concerning the appointment of members to fill vacancies. He referred the communication to Mr. Smith asking him to bring it before the Board of Directors at the next session. The Secretary, having been authorized to recommend changes for the personnel classification for the members of the headquarters staff, presented the following report and recommendation: L Let 1A become 1AA. 2. Add the number 1A for Associate Directors in Major Division; salary — basic, $4500; maximum — $7250; increase — $250. 3. Let 3A become 3AA. Change basic salary to $1400, and salary increase to $75. 4. Add a new number, 3A, for skilled clerks, stenographers, and technical assist¬ ants. Salary — basic, $1310; maximum — $1800; and annual increase — $70. 5. In 3B change salary maximum to $1720 and annual increase to $65. 6. If the proposed changes are adopted, all members of the staff shall retain their present classification except: a. The following in 3A will belong in class 3AA: Dorothy Cragg Florence Miller Ethel Blake Frank Bradley Elizabeth Hand Ilse Smith Louise Sease b. The following in 1A will belong in 1AA: Chari O. Williams « Joy E. Morgan John K. Norton S. D. Shankland T. D. Martin H. A. Allan c. The class lA is to meet the case of Margaret Alltucker d. The following now in 3B are recommended for 3A: Rachel Baker Mary Splavsn Helen MacFate Helen Hodge Frances Ogden 7. It is recommended that new schedule increases in salary become effective for members of the staff June 1. 1930, except in the following cases to begin as of June 1, 1929: Rachel Baker 1 year 3A Helen MacFate 3 year 3 A Mary Splaun 4 years 3A Helen Hodge 1 year 3A $1310. Basic Salary 1450. Basic Salary plus two ($70) increases 1380. Basic Salary plus one ($70) increase 1380. Basic Salary plus one ($70) increase 1088 National Education Association Personnel Classification (With the above suggested amendments) 1. Directors of Divisions A A. Directors of business, administrative, and creative divisions Basic . Per year $5000 Maximum . Per year $7500 Annual Increase . 250 A. Associate Directors in major divisions Basic . Per year $+500 Maximum . Per year $7250 Annual Increase . 250 B. Directors of other divisions Basic . Per year $2500 Maximum . Per year $4500 Annual Increase . 200 2. Head Division Assistants and Section Chiefs A. Assistants to Directors in 1AA and chiefs of major sections with adminis- tive responsibilities Basic . Per year $1800 Maximum . Per year $3000 Annual Increase . 120 B. Chief clerks and section heads with groups responsibility Basic . Per year $1250 Maximum . Per year $2250 Annual Increase . 100 3. Clerks, stenographers, technical assistants AA. Clerks, stenographers, technical assistants expert in their work Basic . Per year $1400 Maximum . Per year $2000 Annual Increase . 75 A. Clerks, stenographers, and technical assistants Basic . Per year $1310 Maximum . Per year $1800 Annual Increase . 70 B. Clerks, stenographers, and other assistants Basic . : . Per year $1200 Maximum . Per year $1720 Annual Increase . 65 4. Unclassified Service — Temporary roll A. Clerks, stenographers, typists, and other temporary help. Salary . Per week $15 and up. After explanations by the Secretary and after prolonged discussion, a motion was made by Mr. Siders that a vote on salary schedules and classification be taken at the next meeting of the Executive Committee. .Seconded by Mr. Reynolds. Carried. Associatioxal Records, and Information 1089 A motion was made by Miss Adair which referred the following plan for ad¬ ministrating educational research to the Board of Directors recommending its adoption : “The following plan for administering the Educational Research fund of the Department of Superintendence is submitted herewith by the department for the approval of the National Education Association: The Educational Research Fund of the Department of Superintendence shall be placed in charge of the Board of Trustees of the National Education Association to be invested and conserved in securities that are legal. The Board of Trustees of the National Education Asso¬ ciation shall be the Trustees of said Educational Research Fund. At each annual meeting of the Department the Trustees shall report in detail the condition of said Fund. The income annually shall be credited to the Department of Superintendence, to be expended for such educational research as the Department of Superintendence may direct. No part of the principal of said Fund shall be spent except after the unanimous written recommendation of the Executive Committee of the Department of Superintendence duly ratified by a two thirds vote of the members present at a stated annual meeting of the Department.” Motion seconded by Mr. Smith. Carried. Meeting adjourned to meet again on call of the Chairman. Friday Evening, June 28, 1929 The Executive Committee was called in session by the President at 10:30 p. in., with all members present: Walter R. Siders, Cornelia S. Adair , Henry L. Sm\th, Frank E. Reynolds and U el W. Lamkin, Chairman. Also J. M. G^inn and Kate V. Wofford of the Board of Trustees. President Lamkin called attention to a resolution of the National Congress of Parents and Teachers which provided for the appointment of an advisory cooperat¬ ing committee to be made up of representatives of the National Congress of Parents and Teachers and the National Education Association, the purpose being to de¬ termine the common objectives and purposes and to arrange for close cooperation. A motion was made by Miss Adair that the committee be appointed and that the Representative Assembly be requested to ratify the appointment. Seconded by Mr. Siders. Carried. The Secretary called attention to the petitions for new departments as follows: a Department of Special Education, a Department of Home Economics and a Department of Research. It was explained that while the vote could not be taken until next year it would be well to have the question presented to the Board of Directors for its approval beforehand. A motion was made by Mr. Smith to recom¬ mend to the Board of Directors and Representative Assembly that the petitions for these departments be accepted and that the question be voted upon at the next meeting as provided in the bylaws. Seconded by Mr. Siders. Carried. It was decided by the committee to postpone consideration of the question of life membership for departments until at the time of the meeting of the Department of Superintendence. A motion was made by Misf Adair that the newly elected President appoint a committee formed of members of the Executive Committee to make a study of life membership in the departments. Seconded by Mr. Siders. Carried. The matter of personnel classification of the headquarters staff was again taken up. A motion was made by Mr. Siders to change the wording in the Secretary's report to read “Associate Director in Division of Research at a maximum salary of $7000.” Seconded by Miss Adair. Carried. 1090 National Education Association A motion was made by Air. Smith that Nos. 1 and 2 of the proposed changes in personnel classification and salary be approved as submitted by the Secretary and as amended by the Executive Committee. Seconded by Mr. Siders. Carried. After considerable discussion of proposed changes a motion was made by Mr. Siders providing that in 3AA the basic salary be $1400, maximum $2000 and the annual increase $60. That in 3A the basic salary be $1300, maximum $1800, and the annual increase $50. In 3B the basic salary be $1200, maximum $1700, and the annual increase $50. The motion was seconded by Mr. Reynolds. Carried. Mr. Siders then moved that Section 3 be adopted as amended. Seconded by Mr. Reynolds. Carried. The Secretary again explained that Miss Frances Ogden’s name had been omitted from the printed list and that under the action of the committee her salary would be $1300. After further discussion a motion was made by Air. Siders to the effect that Sec¬ tion 7 be adopted as recommended by the Secretary and in conformity with Section 3 as amended and adopted. Seconded by Mr. Smith. Carried. Motion was made by Mr. Smith, seconded by Mr. Siders that the meeting adjourn subject to the call of Chairman. Meeting adjourned. U el IV . Lamkin, President, J. JV. Crabtree, Secretary. Thursday Afternoon, July 4, 1929 The meeting of the new Executive Committee was held in Air. Larrikin’s suite Hotel Ansley, at 3 p. m., with the following members present: Henry Lester Smith , Frank E. Reynolds, IValter R. Siders, E. Ruth Pyrtle, newly elected President and Chairman. Mr. Lamkin, Vicepresident, was absent at the opening of the meeting but entered later. It was moved by Mr. Siders that the Secretary be authorized to proceed along the line outlined in the Horace Mann resolution and passed by the Representative Assembly. Seconded by Air. Smith. Carried. The Secretary explained the new plan of sending out formal notices to those who had been elected to office or wrho had been elected to places on committees. The committee approved of the plan. Air. Reynolds moved that the Secretary arrange at his earliest convenience to determine whether arrangements at Columbus were satisfactory for the meeting in 1930 and that the usual procedure of the Secretary’ s office be followed in handling the matter. Seconded by Mr. Smith. Carried. Mr. Smith explained that the National Council would likely need at least $500 more than had been appropriated and wanted to know whether in case the emer¬ gency need should arise the Executive Committee would allow this additional amount. It was moved by Air. Siders that the work outlined by Mr. Smith, who is President of the National Council, be authorized and this expenditure be con¬ sidered as an emergency expenditure. Seconded by Air. Reynolds. Carried. A motion was made by Air. Siders that the Secretary and his staff, when they see fit to do so, be authorized to provide a Dupligraph machine for the office as soon as they think proper. Seconded by Air. Smith. Carried. It is moved by Air. Siders that the Secretary be instructed to take a by-mail vote on the action of the Executive Committee on the question of classification salary schedule of employees at headquarters. Seconded by Mr. Smith. Carried. A motion was made by Mr. Lamkin that the classification approved by the direc¬ tors on the recommendations made by the Secretary, as amended by the Executive Associational Records and Information 1091 Committee, he approved starting with the new year. Seconded by Mr. Smith. Carried. A motion was made by Mr. Reynolds to approve of the bill of $180 from the Minneapolis Chamber of Commerce for two microphones destroyed by the Asso¬ ciation at the Minneapolis meeting. Seconded by Mr. Lamkin. Carried. The Secretary called attention to the question of an increase in salary for Miss Stiffler but it was decided not to grant special increases at this time. It was moved by Mr. Lamkin that the increase be not allowed at this time. Seconded by Mr. Reynolds. Carried. The committee spent some time in discussing the plans of work for the Legislative Division of the Association for next year in view of the work undertaken by a commission appointed by the President and Secretary of the Department of the Interior. The matter was left in the hands of the Secretary without passing any. motion on the subject. There being no further business, the meeting adjourned. E. Ruth Pyrtle, President, J. IV. Crabtree, Secretarv. J J MINUTES OF THE MEETINGS OF BOARD OF TRUSTEES Cleveland, Ohio, Saturday, February 23, 1929 The meeting convened at 2:35 p. m. in the President’s suite, Hollenden Hotel, Mr. fValter R. Siders, Chairman of the Board of Trustees, presiding. The members of the Board in attendance were: W alter R. Siders, Chairman, Uel IV. Lamkin, President, J. M. Gwinn, Kate V. Wofford, and Joseph H. Saunders. Miss Cornelia S. Adair, Vicepresident, and Mr. Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer of the National Education Association were present. The question of the expiration of the Secretary’s term of office was discussed, and a motion was made by Mr. Saunders (seconded by Mr. Gwinn), that Mr. J. W. Crabtree be reappointed for the term of four years beginning September 1, 1929, and that his salary be increased to $12,000 per annum beginning June 1, 1929. Unanimously carried. Secretary Crabtree was summoned to the meeting and informed of the Board’s action. The next subject discussed was the erection of a new Association building in Washington. A motion was made by Mr. Gwinn (seconded by Miss Wofford) that the Chairman of the Board of Trustees, the President, and the Secretary of the Na¬ tional Education Association be authorized to secure the services of an architect for the purpose of drawing sketch plans and making an estimate of the cost of a new building to be erected on the land already available, and a second set of sketch plans and estimate of cost of a new building on the land available plus the additional thirty feet, and that the Secretary be requested to supply the architect with a program of accommodations required in these buildings. Unanimously carried. The meeting adjourned, to meet at 4 oclock Monday. Monday, February 25, 1929 The Board of Trustees of the N. E. A. convened at four o’clock, February 25, in the President’s suite, Hollenden Hotel, Cleveland, Ohio. Present were Walter R. Siders, Chairman, Uel W. Lamkin, President, J. M, Gwinn, Kate V. Wofford, Joseph H, Saunders. . 1092 National Education Association Miss Cornelia S. Adair , Vicepresident, Mr. Henry Lester Smith, Treasurer, Mr. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary, and Mr. H. A. Allan, Business Manager of the N. E. A.' were present. The question of the purchase of the additional footage adjoining the Associa¬ tion’s property was taken up and discussed, after which Mr. Gnvinn moved and Mr. Lamkin seconded the motion that the Secretary and Mr. Allan be authorized to open up negotiations for the purchase or lease of all or a part of lot 1602 and lot 1603. The motion was unanimously carried. Mr. Saunders then moved and the motion was seconded by Mr. Lamkin that the Board of Trustees ask the Executive Com¬ mittee of the N. E. A. to investigate the Association for Retrenchment in Public Ex¬ penditures, 110 Engineers Building, Cleveland, Ohio. After a full discussion the motion was unanimously carried. . Mr. Saunders further moved, the motion being seconded by Miss IV off or d, that the Board of Trustees ask the Executive Committee to consider sending out educa¬ tional news in the form of letters to be released to the newspapers. The motion was carried. Mr. Palmer representing Dr. S. P. Duggan of the Institute of International Edu¬ cation appeared in person to invite the National Education Association to re¬ nominate one of its members to representation on the Board of the Institute. After discussion it was decided because the invitation read to the Governing Board to present it to the Board of Directors at its meeting on February 25. There being no further business the Board of Trustees adjourned. Kate V. Wofford, Secretary. W. R. Siders, Chairman. Atlanta, Georgia, Friday Morning, June 28, 1929 A meeting of the Board of Trustees was held in the President’s suite, the Ansley Hotel at 10:45. The following members were present: Ucl W. Lamkin, President, Walter R. Siders, Chairman, J. H. Saunders, Kate V. Wofford, and J. M. Gwinn. By invitation the following members of the Executive Committee were also present: Henry L. Smith, Miss Cornelia S. Adair, and Frank E. Reynolds. Dr. Siders stated the business to be disposed of at the meeting to be threefold, namely, funds, investments, and the report of the Trust officers. Correspondence between the Association’s attorney and Air. Crabtree on questions relative to the duties of the Board of Trustees and other Boards of the Association was distributed, read, and discussed. The correspondence was received as information. The chair¬ man then called the attention of the Board of Trustees to the Auditor’s report cover¬ ing the records of the Secretary and the Board of Trustees calling particular atten¬ tion to the cash balance of $28,544.04 which the chair reported had been invested in state of Arkansas 5 percent bonds due serially 1931-1945. Dr. Siders also gave as a matter of information that the principal fund was $490,470.96. It was moved by Air. Saunders, seconded by Miss W offord, that the action of the chair in investing the money in the state of Arkansas bonds be approved. Motion carried. The question of the purchase of two lots adjoining the property of the Association under option of purchase was discussed. It was moved by Mr. Saunders , seconded by Miss Wofford that the Board of Trustees purchase the two lots under option of purchase and which adjoin the present building, on the basis of the offer made, or $40,000 or as much thereunder as the Committee could buy them for. Motion carried. It was moved by Mr. Lamkin, seconded by Mr. Saunders , that Mr. Cooper, the architect, be instructed to proceed with plans for a seven story building, each floor to be on the same floor level with the present building. Motion carried. Association al Records and Information 1003 The question of the report of the committee to buy a suitable jewel for the retir¬ ing President of the N. E. A. was discussed and Mr. Saunders, the chairman, was instructed to make his report to the Board of Directors. On motion of Mr. Lamkin, seconded by Mr. Saunders, the meeting adjourned to meet at the same place at the conclusion of the meeting of the Board of Directors. W. R. Siders, Chairman. Kate V. Wofford, Secretary. An adjourned meeting of the Board of Trustees was called to order by Chairman Siders at the President’s suite, Ansley Hotel at 5:30 p. in. following the conclusion of the meeting of the Board of Directors. Present were: U el W. Lamkin, J. W. Crabtree, Jfralter R. Siders, and Kate V. Wofford. The chair stated that the proposed building plans had been approved by the Board of Directors and the Board of Trustees could take final action and enter into a contract with the architect. It was moved by Mr. Lamkin, seconded by Miss W offord, that the Board of Trustees proceed with arriving at a contract with Mr. Cooper as architect for the new building. Motion was carried. After a discussion of the contract submitted clause by clause, it was moved by Mr. Lamkin, seconded by Miss Wofford, that the chairman of the Board of Trus¬ tees enter into a contract in conformity with the points raised and decided upon in the discussion, with Frank Irving Cooper Corporation for the erection of the new building. Motion carried. It was moved by Mr. Lamkin, seconded by Miss Wofford that the minutes of the Minneapolis and Cleveland meetings be approved. Motion carried. The meeting adjourned to meet following the conclusion of the last meeting of the Board of Directors. W . R. Siders, Chairman. Kate V. Wofford, Secretarv. An adjourned meeting of the Board of Trustees was held immediately after the meeting of the Board of Directors in the hall of the Chamber of Commerce, Atlanta, Georgia. Present were: Mr. Gnvinn, Mr. Saunders, Miss Jf offord, Mr. Crabtree and Miss Pyrtle. In the absence of the Chairman, Mr. Siders, Mr. Gnvinn pre¬ sided. Upon motion duly made and seconded Dr. Walter R. Siders was reelected chairman of the Board of Trustees and Miss Kate V. Wolford was reelected secre¬ tary. There being no further business the Board of Trustees of the N. E. A. adjourned. J. M. Gvsinn, Presiding. Kate V. Wofford, Secretary. Washington, D. C., September 7, 1929 The Board of Trustees of the N. E. A. met at the Association Headquarters, 1201 Sixteenth Street, N .W., at nine oclock with the following present: Jf . R. Siders, Mr. Saunders, Miss Wofford, and Mr. Crabtree. Mr. Cooper, architect for pro¬ posed new building, was also present and presented the blue prints, prepared to date. The following decisions were reached in regard to the blue prints and Mr. Cooper was asked to abide by them: Basement floor— All ground area to be utilized by extending the rear wall west¬ ward to the limit allowed in the building code. Two toilets. First floor — Remove all partitions possible on all floors. Clear hall of stairway, move elevators, making freight and passenger elevators near each other. Second floor — Move elevators as on first floor. Third floor — Remove partitions in Division of Publications. 1094 National Education Association Use linoleum on all floors throughout, including auditorium except the first floor corridor. Steel sash to be used in the rear. Materials to be used in the new build¬ ing to be similar to those in the present building. Conduits for telephone system. Automatic sprinkler in basement where there is a fire hazard. One Western Union clock for use in the main hall and system of gongs to be used on each floor. Further business included the following: Mr. Crabtree was asked to investigate possibility of broadcasting from the top floor of the proposed building and if arrangements can be made to instruct the architect to build a proper room. The Board authorized Mr. Allan to unite present lots of the Association into one lot for a plat. The following resolution was introduced by Mr. Saunders, seconded by Miss Wofford and unanimously adopted: That all resolutions for borrowing money be rescinded and that Walter R. Siders, Chairman Board of Trustees, and J. W. Crabtree, Secretary of the N. E. A., be authorized to borrow for uses and purposes of the said Association from the Continental Trust Company, Washington, D. C., the sum of $20,000 or as much thereof as may be needed, and execute and deliver to the Trust Company the note or notes of said National Education Association of the United States, and pledge as collateral security for the payment of aforementioned loans, all the income arising from the securities now held by said Continental Trust Company as part of the per¬ manent fund of the N. E. A. of the United States, this resolution to remain in full force and effect until revoked by proper order of this Board. It is further unanimously “Resolved,” that for value received the N. E. A. of the United States of America does hereby assign and set over unto the Conti¬ nental Trust Company of the District of Columbia, all its right, title, and interest in, and to the income arising from, the permanent fund now held by said Continental Trust Company as trustee, said income to be applied on account of the payment of principal and interest of such note or notes as may be given by said Association to said Trust Company in evidence of loans now owing or hereafter to be made, this resolution to remain in full force and effect until revoked by proper order of this Board.” A bill for professional services of Mr. White, Washington attorney for drawing up all papers and tracing the newly purchased lots of the Association was approved and ordered paid. Kate V. Wofford, Secretary. W. R. Siders, Chairman. MINUTES OF THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS MEETING Cleveland, Ohio, Tuesday Evening, February 26, 1929 The informal meeting of the Board of Directors convened at 8 p. m. The Presi¬ dent, Mr. Lamkin, being absent, the Secretary called the meeting to order. He called first on Mr. Allan to explain the work of the Business Division and then on Mr. Norton to explain the work of the Research Division. Each one answered questions. At this point President Lamkin entered and took charge of the con¬ ference. He called attention to the meeting to be held the next morning at which the officers of state associations and of the national association would meet jointly. He explained the action taken on Sanctified Squander. He called attention to the plans adopted by the Executive Committee to increase the staff in the Division of Associational Records and Information 1095 Publications in order to aid in giving greater publicity throughout the nation to the work of the public schools and to offset the unjust attacks being made by enemies of the schools on the costs of public school education. No business was transacted at this meeting. All wTere urged to attend the conference arranged for Wednesday morning. The meeting adjourned. Cleveland, Ohio, Wednesday Morning, February 27, 1929 Immediately following the conference of the officers of the state associations and the national association, President Lamkin called the Board of Directors to order at an informal session. Mr. Norton was called on to explain the Research activities and what had been done for the various states. Following this he answered ques¬ tions. Chairman Lamkin, after explaining further the relationships between the state associations and the national association, called Mr. Allan to outline the policies of the Business Division with reference to the work of state associations. Mr. Morgan was also called upon and spoke on the relation of the Division of Publications to the work of the state associations and answered questions that came from the audience. The proceedings were informational. Matters were explained and topics were discussed but no motions were passed on these particular questions. Director Thurston of Los Angeles moved that there be a committee to plan a program of work for integrating the state and national membership campaigns. Carried. Director Miller of Indianapolis moved that the President appoint the members of this committee. Carried. Mr. Siders explained the work going forward for a new headquarters building. Mr. Saunders of Virginia, after explaining the recommendation of the Executive Committee for the appointment of a committee to report on the question of present¬ ing a jewel to each retiring President of the National Education Association, asked to have charge of the meeting for a few moments and taking the chair he stated that he was ready to entertain a motion on the question which he presented. The sentiment was strongly in favor of the suggestion. Director Rosier of West Virginia made a motion to that effect which was sec¬ onded by Director Slade of Wyoming. Carried. President Lamkin again took the chair and after making announcements, a motion was made to adjourn. Carried. J. JV. Crabtree, Secretary, U el JV. Lamkin, President. Atlanta. Georgia, Friday Afternoon, June 28, 1929 The first meeting of the Board of Directors held in the Chamber of Commerce building, Atlanta, Georgia, Friday afternoon, June 28, 1929, at 2 oclock was called to order by the Secretary, J. Jfr. Crabtree, President Lamkin haying been detained a few minutes elsewhere. He called for nomination for temporary president, and Mr. R. E. JVilliams, Secretary of the Kentucky State Teachers Association, was nominated and elected and took charge of the meeting with the following directors in attendance : J. D. JVilliams, Ala. Herman E. Hendrix, Ariz. J. P. JVomack, Ark. Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford, Colo. JV. B. Mooney, Colo. Gordon C. Swift, Conn. David A. JVard, Del. Harry English, D. C. A. L. JVhittenberg, Ill. Mary A. Lord, Iowa. 1096 National Education Association M. E. Pearson, Kans. R. E. Williams, Ky. C. B. Turner, La. William B. Jack, Maine. William Burdick, Md. Webster H. Pearce, Mich. Effie MacGregor, Minn. U cl W. Lam kin, Mo. R. J. Cunningham, Mont. M. C. Lefler, Nebr. Alexander J. Glennie, N. J. Jesse II. Newton, N. Y. T. W. Andrews, N. C. Minnie J. Nielson, N. D. John G. Mitchell, Okla. Nettie Rankin Bolland, Ore. J. Herbert Kelley, Pa. Francisco Vizcarrondo, P. R. Mrs. Agnes M. Bacon, R. I. George W. W annamakcr, S. C. P. L. Harned, Tenn. L. W. Rogers, Texas Cornelia S. Adair, Va. Joseph Rosier, W. Va. Carroll G. Pearse, Wis. The first question taken up was that of increasing the advertising rates in the Journal. A recommendation of the Secretary and Business Division had been placed before the Executive Committee and with a few changes recommended to the Board of Directors for action. A motion was made by Mr. Holmes of New York and seconded by Mr. Rogers of Texas, that the advertising rates be increased as recommended by the Executive Committee. Carried. The Executive Committee recommended that the Association adopt the same design for a life membership key that is now used on the life membership pin. It also recommended that two sizes of membership key be made — one the size of the membership pin and the other slightly larger, the first to sell at $3.50 and the second at $4 with the name of the member engraved thereon. The Executive Com¬ mittee further recommended that the bid of the L. G. Balfour and Company, Attle¬ boro, Massachusetts, be accepted. Samples of different forms of keys were passed around and explanations were made. After discussion it was moved by Mr. Pearse that the recommendation of the Executive Committee be accepted. Seconded. Carried. It was explained that plans were underway for the new headquarters building and that Mr. Frank Irving Cooper had been chosen as the architect and that he had been requested to present tentative plans to the Board of Directors. Mr. Cooper then took the floor and gave a description of the proposed building using lantern slides showing the different floors and a picture of the seven story building. Many questions were asked by directors. Mr. W hitefoot, Mr. Ward, Mr. Beach, Mr. Williams , Mr. W annamakcr, Mr. W hittenberg, Mr. Pearse, and others participated in the discussion. At this point President Lamkin entered and took charge of the meeting. He indicated that while the Board of Trustees had taken action in favor of constructing the building, the board would not be willing to go ahead without favorable action taken by the Board of Directors. A motion was made by Mr. IT annamakcr that the Board of Directors express its appreciation to the Board of Trustees for presenting the plan, that it approve the idea of having the' new building and the tentative plans which had been presented, and that the Board of Trustees be instructed to go ahead and carry out these plans. Seconded by Mrs. Bradford. Mr. Saunders and other members took part in the discussion. All members were favorable to the erection of the building. The ques¬ tion was put and carried. Mr. Pearse of Wisconsin moved the adoption of the minutes as printed in the Volume of Proceedings. Seconded. Carried. The Secretary was called upon to make announcements concerning the life mein' bership dinner, the meeting of delegates by states, etc. He explained the plans for these meetings and also made suggestions concerning the meeting of the Com¬ mittee on Credentials, the Committee on Necrology, arid the Committee on Reso¬ lutions. He passed blanks to directors to be filled out after the meeting of delegates by states. Associational Records and Information 1097 Mr. Saunders , chairman of a committee appointed by the Board of Directors at its Cleveland meeting on the question of the President’s jewel, was called upon for a report. He explained that the committee had given careful attention to the matter and after investigation had decided upon a jewel which he exhibited, con¬ taining four diamonds, the cost being $125. After further explanation and dis¬ cussion Mr. Holmes of New \ ork moved that the Board of Directors approve the plan of giving past presidents a suitable jewel as recommended by the committee. Mrs . Bacon of Rhode Island seconded the motion. A member suggested that it be given to succeeding presidents also. Mr. Holmes accepted the amendment. The question was called for, put bv Mr. Saunders , and unanimously carried. f he chairman then called attention to the recommendation made by the Executive C ommittee to adopt a plan submitted by the Department of Superintendence for establishing a Research Fund as a part of the present permanent fund. The plan provided that this fund, raised by the Department of Superintendence, be accepted and made a part of the permanent fund of the Association, the income from which to be used by the Department for research work. Mrs. Bradford moved that the recommendation be adopted. Mr. Turner seconded the motion. Carried. A motion was made by Mr. Carter of Missouri to approve of a plan recom¬ mended by the Executive Committee for honoring Dr. John Dewey on his next birthday. (See complete report in minutes of Executive Committee, p. 1080.) The motion wras duly seconded. Carried. The chairman called attention to page 29 of the Secretary’s report recommending that the President and Congress of the United States be requested to appoint a com¬ mission on a centennial celebration for the year 1937 in honor of Horace Mann and his decade of achievements so fundamental to the continued advancement of the nation. It was explained that the Executive Committee had gone over the matter carefully and that it recommended favorable action on the part of the Board of Directors. A motion was made by Mr. Pearsc to approve of the recom¬ mendation of the Executive Committee and to present the matter to the Representa¬ tive Assembly with a recommendation from the Board of Directors. Seconded by Mr. Beach. Carried. At this point the chairman called attention to the vacancies to be filled in the National Council of Education. Henry L. Smith, president of the Council, was called upon to make the necessary explanations. A motion was then made by Miss Nielson of North Dakota, that the chairman appoint a committee of three of whom Mr. Smith should be chairman to nominate members to fill all vacancies in the National Council of Education. The motion wras seconded. After further explanation and discussion the suggestion was made that there be five members on this committee and Miss Nielson accepted the amendment. The motion was then put and carried. The roll call was made at this time, the result being as given in the first part of the report. A motion was made to accept the resignation of Director Dempsey of Vermont and to appoint Miss Woodruff in his place. Seconded and carried. A motion was made that the resignation of Mr. Marsh of Washington be accepted and that Mr. Beach be appointed in his place, also that the resignation of Mr. Walker of Missouri be accepted and Mr. Carter be appointed in his place. These motions were put and carried. The chairman then announced the following committee to nominate candidates for vacancies in the National Council of Education. Dean Smith, chairman, Mrs. Bacon of Rhode Island, Mr. Mitchell of Oklahoma, Miss Nielson of North Dakota and Mr. Beach of Washington. Mr. Rogers, chairman of the Budget Committee, was called upon for a report of the committee. After giving a general idea of the report and explaining how it had been worked out, he stated that he would like to be able to bring the report in printed form before them asking for its adoption. It was thereupon moved by 1098 National Education Association Mr. Kelley that the matter be postponed until the next meeting of the Board of Directors. Seconded by Mr. Carter. Carried. A motion was made by Mr. W annamaker that when the Board of Directors adjourned, the adjournment be to meet the next afternoon at 3 oclock. Motion seconded by Mr. Pearse. After discussion Mr. W annamaker changed his motion to read from 3 oclock to 4 oclock. The question was put. Carried. After the chairman had made announcements, a motion was made by Mr. Mitchell to adjourn to the hour set in the previous motion. Seconded by Mr. Carter. Carried. Atlanta, Georgia, Saturday Afternoon, June 29, 1929 The second meeting of the Board of Directors at the Atlanta convention was held in the Hall of the Chamber of Commerce Building, Atlanta, Georgia, Saturday, afternoon at 4 oclock, June 29, 1929. It was called to order by the chairman with the following members in attendance (some of these entered after the meeting began) : ./. D. Williams, Ala. Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford, Colo. IV. B. Mooney, Colo. David A. Ward, Del. Harry English, D. C. Charles F. Dienst, Idaho. Charles F. Miller, Ind. Mary A. Lord, Iowa. M. E. Pearson, Kans. William B. Jack, Maine. William Burdick, Md. Mary McSkimmon, Mass. W ebster H. Pearce, Mich. H. V. Cooper, Miss. E. M. Carter, Mo. R. J. Cunningham, Mont. M. C. Lefler, Nebr. Alexander J. Glennie, N. J. % Since the meeting had been called for considering the Budget, Mr. Pearse moved that the special order of business be deferred and that some other item be taken up first. Seconded by Mrs. Bradford. Carried. The Secretary stated that $10,000 should be made available at this time for the payment of expenses of delegates. It was moved by Mr. Holmes of New York and seconded by Mr. Doudna of Wisconsin that $10,000 be made available for the expenses of delegates. There being no discussion a motion was put and carried. Mr. Mooney of Colorado moved that $8500 be made available at once for the pay¬ ment of the expenses of members of the Board of Directors at this convention. Seconded by Mrs. Bradford. Carried. Attention was then called to the new departments for which petitions had been submitted. It was explained that the Executive Committee had recommended that the applications be put on file to be voted upon at the next annual convention. Moved by Mr. Ward of Delaware, seconded by Mr. Pearse of Wisconsin that the petitions for a Department of Special Education and for a Department of Home Economics and another for a Department of Research, be accepted and placed on file, be presented through the Representative Assembly with the rcommendation to the Board of Directors that the petitions be voted upon at the next annual con¬ vention. Carried. William H. Holmes, N. Y. Walter R. Siders, N. Y. T. W. Andrews, N. C. John C. Mitchell, Okla. P. P. Claxton, Okla. Nettie Rankin Bolland, Ore. Mrs. Agnes M. Bacon, R. I. George W. W annamaker , S. C. P. L. Harned, Tenn. L. W. Rogers, Texas. Caroline W oodruff, Vt. R. W. House, Va. Cornelia S. Adair, Va. Joseph Rosier, W. Va. E. G. Doudna, Wis. Carroll G. Pearse, Wis. A. A. Slade, Wyo. Associational Records and Information 1099 The report of the Budget Committee was then taken up. The following state¬ ment was read by Mr. Rogers, chairman: You will notice the report is made out in two sections. You will notice also that the signatures are on the first section, due to the fact that the copy of the second section went to the mimeographing department first, and the signatures were not available at the time it was sent; and so we signed the first section, which was mimeographed last, and I will ask you to consider those signatures as being attached to the entire report, for they certainly are. I shall read the report: Atlanta, Georgia, To the Board of Directors of June 28 1929 The National Education Association: We, your Finance and Budget Committee, beg leave to submit the following report: Section One In compliance with your instructions the committee met at Association head¬ quarters in Washington on April 10 of the current year, and within the limits of the time available made a thorough investigation into the financial needs of the Association as the basis of the budget for the ensuing fiscal year. The Secretary of the Association and each of the heads of the various headquarters divisions were invited to appear before the committee and present their budget needs. The response to this request on the part of the Headquarters staff was frank, cooperative, and informative. Each member of the staff cheerfully and frankly supplied the committee with detailed information as to the work in his or her division; and in this connection the committee wishes to express to you its appreciation of the splendid spirit of cooperation manifested by Secretary Crabtree and his entire staff. I will say, in that connection, Mr. Crabtree has been with us in practically all of our meetings, has known all that was being done, has recognized the necessity of the action of the Committee in reducing the requests for expenditures, and in no single instance has a more severe cut been made in the requests than was made in the item for the General Secretary’s office, and on Mr. Crabtree’s own motion. So when the cutting had to be done, Mr. Crabtree first submitted himself to the knife. At a subsequent meeting of the committee in Atlanta, on the 27th of this month, heads of the various departments and the chairmen of the special committees of the Association appeared before the committee for the purpose of presenting the financial needs of their respective departments and committees. In this, as in the other instance, your committee received a cordial and cooperative response to its efforts to ascertain the facts necessary to the preparation of the budget. Heads of the various divisions have also been given a hearing at this meeting. When told what was necessary to be done to bring the budget within the revenues they were again given an opportunity to appear before us, and did appear, and told us what was best to be done for their various divisions. The same was true of the department heads and the chairmen of committees. Preliminary to the budget for the ensuing fiscal year June 1, 1929, to May 31, 1930, we submit the following observations and recommendations which we would have you consider as the unanimous opinion of the committee, based on as thorough and comprehensive a study of the subject as it was possible for us to make within the limits of our time and opportunity. First , at the first meeting of the committee, requests for appropriations for the ensuing year aggregating $499,524.77 were presented to it; and at the same time the receipts for the current year were estimated at $491,562.26. In line with the settled policy of the Board of Directors, the committee decided that the total of the budget recommendations should not exceed the total revenues 1100 National Education Association of the preceding year, and began at once to study the problem of bringing the ex¬ penditures within the limit indicated. When, however, the report of the auditors was completed, it was found that the total receipts of the current year were only $477,495.96. That amount, $477,495.96, was therefore adopted by the committee as the maximum for the budget for the ensuing year, including whatever amounts should be decided upon as a contingent, or emergency fund. Second, information gathered from secretaries of state associations indicated that there is a general feeling that the services of the president of the National Education Association should be available to the states, particularly in connection with the meetings of state associations, free of charge, so far as expenses are concerned. The committee recommends, therefore, that the president’s contingent fund be placed at $1500 — at least $1000 of which shall be devoted to the payment of the expenses incurred by the president attending educational meetings held in the several states under the auspices of State Education Associations. Representatives of state associations are also of the opinion that the expenses of members of the headquarters’ staff, when attending state education meetings should be borne by the National Education Association. We recommend therefore that the Executive Secretary be authorized to permit such free educational service to state organizations as his staff can consistently give without injury to the work of their respective divisions. In the event the foregoing recommendation as to the president’s service is not adopted, we recommend that Section 4 of the Budget report be so amended as to make the president’s contingent fund $500, which is practically the amount expended this year. Third, based on our study of the finances of the Association we recommend that it be the policy of the Board of Directors to set aside each year 50 percent of the annual surplus as a special Revenue Fund until this fund, plus the income for advertising in The Journal approximates the budget for an entire fiscal year. It is the opinion of your committee that it is not safe policy for the National Education Association, a voluntary Association, to budget and expend funds in advance of their receipt, as it is now doing. F ourth, it is the opinion of this committee that efficiency and economy in expendi¬ tures can be effected in the headquarters’ staff by a persistent effort to reduce ad¬ ministrative costs and by the elimination of duplications in the divisions. For example, we believe that the Division of Accounts could be merged with the Busi¬ ness Division without any loss of efficiency and with considerable saving in ex¬ penditures, and we recommend that such a change in the organization be made when practicable. I will say in explanation of that point, the reason ihe committee said that such a change be made in the organization when practicable was that there are some special reasons due to personnel of long service, that the committee was not will¬ ing to make the recommendation that that be done outright, at once, but leave that to the good judgment of the Secretary and the Executive Committee to make that change at the earliest practicable moment. Fifth, the committee recommends that no further appropriations be made to special committees for the purpose of carrying on projects in the field of research. We believe that such work can be done more efficiently and economically by the Asso¬ ciation’s Division of Research. Special committees should, in our opinion, be ap¬ pointed to formulate plans for research and to supervise and direct the work to be done by the Division which has been set up by the Association for this specific purpose. Appropriations for committees should be limited to amounts required for meetings and conferences with the division staff. Sixth, we recommend that the respective total amounts budgeted for the several divisions of the headquarters’ staff and the departments and special committees of Associational Records and Information 1101 the Association be, in each case, the maximum amount to be expended, except as otherwise provided in this report, and that all contracts and commitments be held strictly within the limits of this budget. Seventh, we recommend that the budget include an Emergency Fund of $10,000 to provide for unforseen and emergency needs of the Association — a fund to be drawn upon only in a real emergency and to provide for a service which could not be postponed without serious loss to the Association. And it is further recom¬ mended that the Executive Secretary be instructed to make an itemized report to this body, at the next annual meeting of the Association, of all expenditures made out of the Emergency Fund. Respectfully submitted, (Signed) L. IV. Royers, Texas, Chairman IV. B. Mooney, Colorado Joseph Rosier, West Virginia Geo. JV. W annamaker , South Carolina A. L. W hittenberg , Illinois At this point the President asked the Secretary to check up on attendance, which was done. Then Mr. Rosier took the floor to make a motion that we accept the resignation of Mr. Heatwole of Virginia and appoint in his place Mr. R. fV. House, President of the Virginia Education Association as director for Virginia. Motion was seconded by Mr. JVannamaker. Carried. Mr. Rogers was then requested to continue his report. He then took it up item by item as printed in this Volume, page 1125. Section Two Budget Recommendations for 1929-1930 Having concluded his explanation of the report Mr. Rogers stated that it was the recommendation of the committee that the amount which was recommended for ap¬ propriation yesterday and any other items that come up of that kind be added to this as separate sections, Section 28, 29, and so on, instead of being put back into the original budget, because that will disturb the balance and so on. Although we had notice yesterday afternoon of the recommendation, we did not have the oppor¬ tunity to go back and put it into this budget, so we will ask that that be simply added to it as an extra item. Mr. Rogers then made the motion to adopt the report with the understanding that the committee will prepare the budget section in proper form for presentation to the Representative Assembly. Seconded by Mr. Carter. Mr. Pearse raised the question as to whether the idea of the committee was to appropriate for each special item under a division and it was carefully ex¬ plained by Mr. Rogers that in specifying items the committee did not refer to the sub-items under each heading. It was explained that in the field division where salaries and clerical services were $14,335, traveling expense, $1800, and so on, making a total of $16,985, that the appropriation would be made for that total and not for each of the parts. President Lamkin then raised the question as to the requirement that the Presi¬ dent's expenses should be paid by the Association for addresses before state and other associations. He raised questions concerning some other items but explained that he was not objecting to those provisions; he simply wanted the members to see both sides of the question. He called particular attention to the need of making larger appropriations for research. He called attention to the fact that the item of $385 would not pay the expenses of speakers for the present meeting. It was voted at the Minneapolis meeting, he said, to appropriate for this purpose not to exceed $5000. 1102 National Education Association Mr. Rogers and Mr. Rosier made further explanations. Among those who par¬ ticipated in the discussions on various items were: Mr. Holmes, New York, Mr. Cunningham , Montana, Mr. Mooney, Colorado, Mr. Wannamaker, South Carolina, Mr. Mitchell, Oklahoma, Mr. Saunders, Virginia., Mr. Doudna, Wisconsin, Mr. Mil¬ ler, Indiana, and Mr. Dienst, Idaho. A motion was made to amend the report by Mr. Holmes of New York by adding that we recommend that the President accept no honorariums from any state associ¬ ation. The President explained that he thought that was implied in the report itself. The motion was not seconded. After discussion Mr. Rogers then moved that in the second recommendation in Section 1 after “are concerned” these words “and time will permit,” be added, and that after the figure “$1500” a period be placed and the rest of the paragraph be stricken out. The motion was seconded. Mr. Holmes of New York moved to add to Mr. Rogers’ motion the words “with¬ out honorarium of any kind.” Mr. Doudna of Wisconsin seconded the motion. Discussion followed. Mr. Rogers then moved to table the amendment to the amend¬ ment but when informed by the chair that that motion would carry with it the whole question he withdrew his motion. Mr. W annamaker of South Carolina asked to present a substitute motion but was informed that the motion would be out of order. The chairman then asked for a vote on Mr. Holmes’ amendment but in order to facilitate matters he withdrew his motion. Mr. Rogers’ amendment to the report was then voted upon and passed. Mr. Holmes moved to substitute $3000 to cover the expense of speakers in place of $375 in budget item 16, and that the contingent fund be reduced by that amount Seconded by Mr. Ward of Delaware. Mr. Rogers moved to table the amendment offered by Air. Holmes. Seconded by Mr. Harned of Tennessee. The motion to taoie was lost. The suggestion was then made that it would be well to leave the matter with the budget committee to take the $3000 from any source it sees fit. The suggestion was accepted by Mr. Holmes. The motion made by Mr. Holmes was then passed. A motion was made by Mr. Andrews of North Carolina to reconsider the action taken yesterday in adopting a plan for presenting each past President with a jewel. The motion carried. Mr. Lefter of Nebraska moved to rescind the action to adopt the jewel and to re¬ fer the matter back to the original committee for further study and for a report on the question at the next annual convention. Seconded by Mr. Mooney. Mr. W an¬ namaker moved to table the motion. Seconded by Mrs. Bacon of Rhode Island. The motion to table was lost. Then the vote was taken on the main motion to re¬ commit and carried. The motion was then put to adopt the report of the Budget Committee as amended. Carried. The President declared that the action taken covered both sections 1 and 2. Mr. Pearse of Wisconsin moved to adjourn to meet on call of the President. Seconded by Airs. Bradford. Carried. J. W. Crabtree, Secretary U el W. Lamkin, President. Atlanta, Georgia, Thursday Forenoon, July 4, 1929 A meeting of the new Board of Directors held in the hall at the Chamber of Commerce, Thursday forenoon, July 4, 1929, was called to order at 11.30 oclock by President-elect E. Ruth Pyrtle with the following directors in attendance: Associational Records and Information 1103 Zebulon Judd, Ala. W. K. Keller, Alaska E. IV. Montgomery, Ariz. Willard E. Givens , Calif. W. R. Mooney, Colo. Mrs. Mary C. C. Bradford, Colo. H. V. Holloway, Del. Harry English, D. C. M. L. Duggan, Ga. C. F. Dienst, Idaho A. L. W hittenherg , Ill. Francis G. Blair, Ill. C. F. Miller, Ind. Mary A. Lord, Iowa M. E. Pearson, Kans. R. E. Williams, Ky. Annie T. Bell, La. William B. Jack, Maine. Annie C. Woodward, Mass. Mary McSkimmon, Mass. Webster H. Pearce, Mich. Alice F. Sullivan, Minn. Thomas J. Walker, Mo. L' el W. Lam kin, Mo. R. J. Cunningham, Mont. M. C. Lefler, Nebr. Mrs. Jennie A. Cuneux, Nev. Alexander J. Glennie, N. J. Mrs. H. F. Brock, N. M. T. W. Andrews, N. C. Minnie J. Nielson, N. D. A. C. Eldredge, Ohio. F. C. Fitzpatrick . Ore. J. Herbert Kelley, Pa. Francisco Vizcarrondo , P. R. Mrs. Agnes M. Bacon, R. I. George W. W annamaker , S. C. L. W. Rogers, Texas A. M. Thurman, Utah Cornelia S. Adair, Va. C. E. Beach, Wash. Mrs. Josephine Corliss Preston. Wash. Joseph Rosier, W. Va. E. G. Doudna, Wis. H. V. Cooper, Miss. Miss Pyrtle spoke in complimentary terms of the work of Mr. Lamkin and ex¬ pressed pride in the fact that she could profit from his help during the coming year. She then called upon Mr. Lamkin for a few words. Taking the floor Mr. Lamkin called attention to the need of knowledge and experience on the part of the Presi¬ dent of the Association. He firmly believed in the president’s first serving as vice- president. He expressed the feeling that state directors should show a more active interest in the affairs of the Association. He called attention to the absences of members at that session. He expressed the hope for a much closer relationship and cooperation with the state associations. If the states could look after the member¬ ship of the National Association, the N. E. A. could double its research and other service to. the states. As part of the plan of cooperation he favored calling the secretaries together at the expense of the Association sometime in December in Washington. In order to finance the meeting he suggested that the costs for the meeting might come out of the amount proposed by the Budget Committee for mem¬ bership drives- or out of the amount proposed for the Legislative Commission. He expressed the opinion that our Association would not need to press its program so hard while the commission appointed by the Government is making its investigation. He declared that he stands staunchly for the education bill but urged the best pos¬ sible cooperation with the Government in its investigation of the problem. He stated that the success of the Bureau in securing appropriations was due to the help of the Association and that we should not hesitate to claim a share of credit. The next order of business being to receive invitations from places desiring the 1930 meeting of the Association, a motion was made by Mr. Rogers to limit invita¬ tions to three minutes each. Seconded. Carried. Dr. Thompson, President Emeritus, Ohio University, extended the invitation for Columbus, Ohio; Miss McSkimmon extended the invitation for Boston, Massa¬ chusetts; Mr. Ewald of the Baltimore Chamber of Commerce extended the invita¬ tion for Baltimore. Mr. Rogers of Boston also spoke in favor of Boston. Mr. Dienst of Idaho moved to proceed to vote by ballot. Seconded by Mr. Rogers of Texas. Carried. Blanks were distributed and members asked to give on the blank first choice, second choice, and third choice. Mr. Lefler of Nebraska, chair- 1 104 National Education Association man of the Board of Tellers, was called upon to report a few minutes later and stated that: Your committee begs leave to report on the vote on the meeting place in 1930 as follows: First choice : Columbus 30 Boston 13 Baltimore 1 Second choice : Boston 17 Baltimore 15 Columbus 3 Third choice : Baltimore 11 Columbus 8 Boston 7 The chairman stated that the preferential vote was therefore for Columbus, Ohio, and if satisfactory arrangements are made the Executive Committee will select Columbus as the meeting place for 1930. Mr. Doudna of Wisconsin moved that the present Budget Committee be continued for the coming year. Seconded by Miss Woodward of Massachusetts. Carried. The following, therefore, are members for next year: L. W. Rogers, Chairman, W. B. Mooney, Joseph Rosier, George IV. W annamaker and A. L. Whittenbcrg. The next business being that of electing a member of the Excutive Committee, Miss McSkimmon of Massachusetts nominated Miss Caroline Woodruff of Vermont. Mrs. Bradford of Colorado seconded the nomination. A member nominated Edith B. Joynes of Virginia. There was a second for this nomination also. Mr. Kelley of Pennsylvania nominated Mr. Reynolds of Ohio the present incumbent. Mr. Elliott seconded this nomination. A ballot was taken which resulted in a tie vote between Miss Woodruff and Mr. Reynolds. After discussion and after several motions concerning the method of taking a vote had been made and withdrawn, the chairman announced that another vote would be taken. Later when the vote was announced Miss Woodruff 15, Mr. Reynolds 20 and Mrs. Joynes 9, it was declared that no one had a majority of the votes cast. After the withdrawal of Mrs. Joynes' name Miss Adair moved that the vote be taken on the two highest. Seconded. Carried. The vote was taken, Mr. Reynolds 24, and Miss W oodruff 19. .On motion made by Miss Woodruff, Mr. Reynolds was declared elected by a unanimous vote. The following report was made by the Committee on Vacancies in the National Council of Education: Madam President, Members of the Board of Directors of the National Education Association: — Your committee on nominations for membership in the National Council of Education begs leave to make the following recommendations: 1. Terms expiring in 1929 and recommended for reelection: (a) Emma A. Colbert, Dean of Teachers College, Indianapolis, Ind. (b) Emily Griffith, Opportunity School, Denver, Colo. (c) U el W. Lamkin, Pres., Northwest Missouri Teachers College, Mary¬ ville, Mo. (d) Mary McSkimmon, Prin., Pierce School, Brookline, Mass. (e) S. M. N. Marrs, Supt. of Public Instruction, Austin, Texas. (f) A. J. Matthews, Pres., State Normal School, Tempe, Ariz. (g) M. E. Pearson, Supt. of Schools, Kansas City, Kansas 2. Terms expiring in 1929: (a) L. A. White , City Supt. of Schools, Minot, N. D. (b) Florence M. Hale, State Department, Augusta, Maine (c) R. L. Jones, State Supt. of Schools, Cleveland, Ohio. Associatiokal Records and Information 1105 3. Terms expiring in 1930 : (a) C. E. Beach, Supt. of Schools, Auburn, Wash. (b) Charles A. Rice, Supt. of Schools, Portland, Ore. (c) R. E. Tidwell, State Superintendent, Montgomery, Ala. (d) John Dewey, Columbia University, New York City 1. Terms expiring in 1931: (a) Payson Smith, State Commissioner of Education, Boston, Mass. 5. Terms expiring in 1933: (a) Jf \ C. Bagley, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City (b) W. A. Jessup , Pres., Iowa State University, Iowa City, Iowa 6. Terms expiring in 1934- : (a) R. E. Gregory, Supt. of Schools, Louisville, Ky. (b) E. G. Doudna, State Dept, of Public Instruction, Madison, Wis. 7. Membership lapsed through death of David B. Johnson, Pres. Winthrop Col¬ lege, Rock Hill, S. C. (a' C. M. Snelling, Chancellor State University, Athens, Ga. S. Positions to be filled because of duplications: (a) Charles Carroll, Director, Dept. Vocational Education, R. I. (b) E. L. Thorndike, Columbia University, New York City (c) M. G. Seale, Dean, School of Education. University* of Missouri. Colum¬ bia, Mo. The report was signed by the Committee, Agnes M. Bacon, Minnie J. Nielson. C. E. Beach, and H. L. Smith, chairman. Mr. Smith moved that the report be adopted and the persons named be elected. Seconded. Carried. The next order of business being the election of a member of the Board of Trus¬ tees, Mr. Dienst of Idaho nominated Dr. Joseph Marr Gwinn, Superintendent of Schools in San Francisco, the present incumbent. Mr. W annamdker seconded the nomination. Mr. Mooney of Colorado then moved that the nominations be closed and that the Secretary cast the vote of the Board of Directors for Dr. Gwinn. Seconded, carried, and the vote was cast as directed. Mr. Blair of Illinois then asked the privilege of speaking concerning the place of the meeting of the Association in 1933. He stated that Superintendent Hogan planned to extend an invitation to the National Education Association to hold its meeting in Chicago in 1933 at the time when Chicago will celebrate the one hun¬ dredth anniversary of its founding. Superintendent Blair explained what this celebration would be to the state of Illinois and to the entire country. He also called attention to the fact that the World Federation of Education Associations would be invited to hold its meeting in Chicago in the same year. He stated that he was presenting the question now so that they would be the more ready to de¬ cide in 1932 when a location would be selected for the year 1933. Mr. Rogers, chairman of the Budget Committee explained the provision of the budget, the action which had been taken by the Board of Directors and the adop¬ tion of the report by the Representative Assembly. He moved that the total amount adopted by the Representative Assembly and as shown in the printed budget, which is $475,344.48, be appropriated as provided in the report. The motion was sec¬ onded. In answer to a question bv ^Miss If oodruff, Mr. Rogers explained that $j000 had been appropriated for convention speakers. On the advice of the President, Chair¬ man Rogers restated his motion as follows: I move we appropriate out of the available funds of the Association not otherwise appropriated the sum of $475,344.48 as approved in accordance with the report of the Budget Committee, approved by 1106 National Education Association the Board of Directors July 3, and approved by the Representative Assembly on the same date for the fiscal year 1929-30. Superintendent Blair asked whether the motion should not contain a statement like the following: to meet the items as budgeted by the committee. Mr. Rogers accepted the addition to his motion, stating that by item he meant the total item in each division. There being no further discussion, the motion was put and carried, and the chairman declared appropriations for the ensuing year duly made. A motion was made by Mr. Rogers that the Executive Committee be authorized to transfer from the appropriation for the Legislative Commission, the amount needed to take care of a meeting of the secretaries in case such a meeting is called. Mr. Rogers then stated that he had another resolution to introduce on the recom¬ mendation of the Budget Committee which he stated as follows: Therefore, be it resolved, that no expense money be paid to any Board member or to any delegate unless he attend all of the meetings of the Board or all official meetings of the Representative Assembly. The Board of Directors by majority vote may for cause excuse any member from attendance and allow payment of expenses. Any state delegation by majority vote may for cause excuse any delegate from attend¬ ance and allow said delegate to receive the allowance provided by the National Education Association. The motion was seconded by Mr. JVannamaker. Carried. A motion was made by Mr. JV annamaker instructing the Secretary of the Associ¬ ation to send to each member of the Board of Directors a copy of the resolutions pertaining to the payment of expenses immediately on reaching Washington. The motion was seconded. On learning that it is customary to send each member of the Board of Directors a complete set of the minutes, the motion was not put but it was understood that the Secretary would see that all members of the Board of Directors would receive the information. Mr. Clifton of California took the floor and asked members of the Board of Directors to keep in mind that Los Angeles, backed by all California’s cordiality, is going to invite the Association to meet in the city of Los Angeles in 1931. Mr. JVilliam A. Evans, Madisonville, Ohio, asked the privilege of the floor to present a subject which he considered of great importance. After speaking for a few minutes, the suggestion was made by Mr. Dienst of Idaho, that since the hour was growing late he recommended that the report be printed and sent each member of the Board of Directors. Mr. Evans approved of the plan. Mr. Dienst then moved that it be printed and sent to members. The motion was seconded and carried. Mr. Evans, however, suggested that he would be willing to send them at his own expense. Miss Caroline IV oodruff asked the privilege of tending her resignation as a member of the Board of Directors, electing State Superintendent Clarence H. Dempsey to the position. It was moved by Mr. Clifton of California, seconded by Mr. Blair that the resig¬ nation be accepted and Mr. Dempsey elected. The motion was carried. It was then moved by Mr. Clifton, seconded by Mr. Blair that the meeting adjourn. Motion carried. J. JV. Crabtree, Secretary. E. Ruth Pyrtle, President. Associational Records and Information 1107 REPORT OF THE AUDITORS Secretary1 s Letter of T ransmittal : We are printing the auditor’s report in full because : ( 1 ) It sets forth the transactions of the Association in complete form; and (2) the audit¬ ing company requires that any changes in the wording of reports, or any rearrangement of tables, or any explanations thrown into the text be submitted to it for approval. To put the report in a more simple form would require time. It might not even be possible to prepare a plan much better than that of the auditors. Will it not mean more to members to see the report exactly as prepared by experts ? In this letter of transmittal, let us, however, make these few comments: 1. The statement on income and expenses, page 1108-9, takes into ac¬ count unpaid bills, etc., as well as cash transactions. The $20,703.44, page 1109 in the surplus for the year, is the excess in income over expenses. 2. The statement of the Assets and Liabilities, page 1111, shows that the Association is doing more than a half million dollar business. 3. On page 1113 it will be observed that the permanent fund has in¬ creased during the year from $367,828.60 to $490,270.96. 4. Note that the treasurer’s report covers only cash transactions and that the cash balance of $75,053.47, page 1124, does not take into account unpaid vouchers. It must be remembered also that $71,436.69 was turned into the permanent fund, decreasing the cash balance to that extent. The auditors, while making suggestions for improvement in handling ac¬ counts, express satisfaction with the way in which the Association handles its business. The report presented herewith shows another year’s prosperity and growth in which members of the Association may well take honest pride. Very truly yours, J. W. Crabtree , Secretary. PEAT, MARWICK, MITCHELL & CO. Accountants and Auditors 40 Exchange Place New York, N. Y. June 15, 1929. L'el W. Lamkin, Esq., President, National Education Association of the United States, Washington, D. C. Dear Sir : In accordance with your instructions, we have made an examination of the accounts of the National Education Association of the United States for the year ended May 31, 1929, and now submit our report thereon. Our examination embraced the verification, as hereinafter described, of 1108 National Education Association .the assets and liabilities of the Association as at May 31, 1929, and a review of the income and expenses for the year then ended. In that con¬ nection and in order to satisfy ourselves regarding the general accuracy of the accounts, we made a series of tests relating to cash receipts and dis¬ bursements, and other matters of detail. Income and Expenses There was an excess of income over expenses of $20,703.44 for the year ended May 31, 1929. The following is a condensed comparative state¬ ment of the income and expenses for the two years ended May 31, 1929 and 1928: Condensed Comparative Statement of Income and Expenses Year ended May 31 Increase 1929 1928 Decrease Income: Membership from Secretary's Office . $175,898.83 $164,676.00 $11,222.83 N. E. A. Journal — Subscriptions and Advertising, etc . Sales of Proceedings . Sales of Special Reports . Commercial Exhibits . Research Bulletin . Honorariums . Rentals . Interest and Discount Earned . Cash Sales — Reports, Pamphlets, etc — Net Income from Permanent Fund Investments . Sundry Income . Sales of Dr. Harris’ Book . Sales of Pageant Leaflets . Expenses: Board of Trustees . Board of Directors . Executive Committee . General Secretary’s Office . General Headquarters Expenses . Institutional Expenses: Annual Conventions . Promotion and Maintenance of Memberships . N. E. A. Journal (Printing and Distribution) . Volume of Proceedings (Printing and Distribution) . Publications and Reports (Printing and Distribution) . Research Bulletins (Printing and Dis¬ tribution) . 245,182.21 591.03 3,004.77 23,468.89 8,700.59 2,327.32 2,070.00 1,555.95 820.20 235,574 79 960.82 3,713.86 26,810.53 7.095 26 3,108.27 2,272.50 396.58 892.32 9,607.42 369.79 709.09 3,341.64 1,605.33 780.95 202.50 1,159.37 72.12 13,308.81 563.14 4.22 15,641.37 345.32 64.73 36.73 2,332.56 217.82 60.51 36.73 $477,495.96 $461,589.08 $15,906.88 ; 613.69 S 7,821.49 3,753.08 26,361.71 34,002.06 419.83 $ 7,829.08 5,874.75 23,227.83 34,183.08 193.86 7.59 2,121.67 3,133.88 181.02 5,917.34 5,761.26 156.08 35,003.46 38,691.16 3,687.70 105,055.54 101,374.69 3,680.85 11,314.86 9,850.67 1,464.19 1,388.63 864.50 524.13 10,002.28 7.432.20 2,570.08 Associatioxal Records and Information 1109 Special Appropriations . Division of Accounts . Division of Field (Legislation) . Division of Business . Division of Publications . Division of Research . Division of Elementary' School Service. . Division of Administrative Service . Division of Records and Membership. . . Bad Debts Written Off . Year ended May 31 Increase 1929 1928 Decrease 42,533.82 39,264.66 3,269.16 8,108.76 7,822.72 286.04 18,138.66 17.823.82 314.84 16,606.35 14,805.73 1,800.62 31,660.20 27.386.40 4,273.80 48,533.30 38,073.80 10,459.50 7,523.75 7,155.10 368.65 8,124.42 6,760.35 1,364.07 33,492.67 31,388.43 2,104.24 836.45 226.76 609.69 $456,792 .52 $426,216.8 2 $30,575.70 Surplus for Year . $ 20,703.44 $ 35,372.26 S14,668.82 As in former years, prepaid subscriptions, memberships, etc., have been treated as income of the current year. Further particulars of the income and expenses for the year ended May 31, 1929, are submitted in Exhibit “A" appended hereto. The following is a transcript of the Surplus Account for the year ended May 31, 1929: Surplus as at May 31, 1928 . $117,617.88 Add: Surplus for Year ended May 31, 1929 as per income and expense Statement . 20,703.44 $138,321.32 Deduct: Amount transferred to the Permanent Fund . 71,436.69 Surplus as at May 31, 1929 . $ 66,884.63 It will be noted that during the year under review, while there was an increase in the income of $15,906.88, the expenses increased by $30,5 75. ;0. The expenses for the year just ended were approximately 96 percent of the income as compared with 92 percent for the preceding year. Receipts and Disbursements The following is a summary of the cash receipts and disbursements as per Treasurers Report for the year: Cash Balance as at May 31, 1928 . $96,754.23 Add Receipts . * - • 491,118.1/ 587,872.40 Deduct Disbursements . 512,818.93 Cash Balance as at May 31, 1929 . $75,053.4/ 1110 National Education Association Accounted for as follows: Revolving Fund . $30,000.00 Less Expenditures not reimbursed . 21,360.65 8,639.35 Regular Account — Continental Trust Co . 16,414.12 Certificate of Deposit — Continental Trust Co . 50,000.00 Total . $75,053.47 Continental Trust Co. — Special Account . $8,626.06 Petty Cash . 13.29 $8,639.35 The total income for the year may be reconciled with the cash receipts as follows: Income as per Income and Expense Statement . $477,495.96 Add: Excess of Receipts over Disbursements of Departments as follows: Superintendence . $7,430.14 Elementary School Principals . 6,244.26 Rural Education (Decrease) . 108.85 Lip Reading . 22.64 Adult Education . 7.56 Secondary School Principals (Decrease) . 284.00 :■ -- ■ : 13,311.75 Net decrease in Accounts Receivable, after taking into account Bad Debts Written Off . 628.66 Decrease in Notes Receivable . 46.80 491,483.17 Deduct: * Increase in Time Checks Receivable . 365.00 Cash Receipts for Year . $491,118.17 T he total expenses for the year may be reconciled with the cash disburse¬ ments as follows : Expenses as per Income and Expense Statement . $456,792.52 Deduct: Bad Debts Written Off . $836.45 Bills unpaid as at May 31, 1929 . 22,407.67 Depreciation — Office Furniture and Fixtures . 4,975.90 ■ ■■ ■■■: 28,220.02 428,572.50 Associational Records axd Information 1111 Add: Bills of Previous Year paid during Current Year . 7,554.90 Expenditures for Furniture and Fixtures . 4,932.97 Increase in Inventory of Stationery and Office Supplies. 321.87 Transferred to the Permanent Fund . 71,436.69 ^ ■- ■ S4, 246.43 Cash Disbursements for Year . . $512,818.93 In verification of the cash receipts we made an investigation of the methods of accounting for the income derived from memberships, subscrip¬ tions to the N. E. A. Journal, advertising and other income, and a series of tests to satisfy ourselves that all the income was properly accounted for. All vouchers supporting cash disbursements were examined and found in order with the exception of two recent vouchers aggregating $133.00, which have not yet been returned to the Secretary’s office. These can be inspected during the course of the next audit. Assets and Liabilities The following is a statement of the assets and liabilities as at May 31, 1929, as shown by the books: Assets Cash * Secretary’s Fund . $30,000.00 Less Expenditures not reimbused . 21,360.65 Balance in Bank . $8,626.06 On Hand . 13.29 =--- ^ $8,639.35 Regular Account . 16,414.12 Certificate of Deposit . 50,000.00 Permanent Fund — In Bank . 28,544.04 103,597.51 Accounts Receivable . 13,579.88 Less Reserve for Doubtful Accounts . 1,000.00 ===== 12,579.88 Time Checks Receivable . 1,280.25 Notes Receivable . 100.00 Notes Receivable, Life Members . 116,162.00 Stationery’, Supplies, Stamped Envelopes, etc . 1,39/. 98 Old Volumes of Proceedings and Other Publications . 500.00 Securities at Book Value (Schedule “l”) . 168,552.35 Real Estate: Purchase Price . 153,000.00 Improvements and Alterations . 24,012.5/ ; ■■ ■■■= 177,012.57 Office Furniture, Fixtures and Equipment . 54,692.01 Less Reserve for Depreciation . 25,872.36 ■ ^ -- 28,819.65 $6 10,002. 19 1112 National Education Association Liabilities Accounts Payable . $22,407.67 Department of Superintendence . 21,916.91 Department of Elementary School Principals . 7,540.07 Department of Adult Education . 475.00 Department of Rural Education . 361.82 Department of Lip Reading . 25.13 Department of Secondary School Principals . 120.00 Permanent Fund . 490,270.96 Surplus . 66,884.63 $610,002.19 We verified the Secretary’s Fund by obtaining a certificate from the Continental Trust Company and by counting the cash on hand. The Regu¬ lar Account and the Certificate of Deposit were verified by certificate from the same source. We also verified the cash balance in the Permanent Fund by a certified report of the Continental Trust Company, as Trustee. We examined the accounts receivable and found the same to be in agree¬ ment with the General Ledger control account. We analyzed the ac¬ counts as to age and condition, and from our discussion with the business manager, w^e are of the opinion that the reserve of $1,000.00, previously set up, is adequate. The notes receivable were examined by us and found in order. The life members’ notes are payable in installments, and at the date of our examina¬ tion, payments aggregating $3,194.00 were in arrear. Stationery, supplies, stamped envelopes, etc., on hand, are book figures supported by physical inventories which we inspected. The values are stated at cost and we obtained a certificate from the business manager as to the quantities and values. As in previous years, the old volumes of proceedings and other publica¬ tions are carried at a value of $500.00, which we believe is conservative. This asset now includes the following: Copies Volumes of Proceedings . 6,614 Health Education . 3,074 School House Planning . 3,920 Harris’ Book . 567 Miscellaneous Pamphlets . Uncounted We inspected vouchers for the major portion of the additions to the furniture, fixtures and equipment during the year, which amounted to $4,932.97, and found the same to be proper capital charges. In connection with our examination of the vouchers we found that bills pertaining to the month of May, 1929, aggregating approximately $1,800.00, were not entered until June 1, 1929, but that on the other hand there were cash receipts pertaining to May, aggregating approximately $3,400.00, which were not deposited and entered until June 1. We ob¬ tained a certificate from the -business manager that all known liabilities are shown on the books, except as noted above. Associational Records and Information 1113 The accounts of the Department of Elementary School Principals were examined by us and found to be correct. The balance of $21,916.91 stand¬ ing to the credit of the Department of Superintendence was compared with the books of the Department and found to be in agreement therewith. Permanent Fund The following is a comparative summary of the assets of the Fund as at May 31, 1929 and May 31, 1928: May 31, May 31, Increase 1929 1928 Decrease Cash . $28,544.04 $246.42 $28,297.62 Accrued Interest on Securities Purchased. . 126.25 126.25 Notes Receivable — Life Members . 116,162.00 94,961.00 21,201.00 Real Estate 6% Notes . 67,000.00 67,000.00 Bonds — Municipal . 97,333.60 26,266.30 71,067.30 Bonds — Other . 71,218.75 74,662.50 3,443.75 Real Estate — Net . 153,000.00 87,000.00 66,000.00 Improvements . 24,012.57 17,566.13 6,446.44 $490,270.96 $367,828.60 $122,442.36 We have audited the receipts and disbursements of the Permanent Fund and have inspected the securities in the custody of the Trustee, The Con¬ tinental Trust Company, Washington, D. C. A detailed list is attached hereto as Schedule “1”, showing their par and book values. Approximately 56 percent of the par value of the securities consists of tax-exempt municipal bonds and 44 percent consists of railroad bonds. During the year the Real Estate Notes amounting to $67,000.00 were sold. The mortgages pay¬ able, aggregating $66,000.00 on real estate located at 1201 16th Street and M Street were paid off. The expenditures for improvements during the year amounted to $6,446.44. Securities of the par value of $3,750.00 were redeemed during the year, and securities of the par value of $70,000.00 were purchased for a total consideration of $71,067.30, as shown in the following statement : Interest Rate Par Value Cost County of Aiken, S. C. Highway Bonds due 1939 . . . 4p2 $5,000.00 $5,064.38 County of Columbus, S. C. Highway Bonds due 1954 . 5 5,000.00 5,470.75 Borough of N. Arlington, N. J. Bonds due 1932 . 53^ 5,000.00 5,159.27 City of Monessen, Pa. Bonds due 1951 . 4^ 5,000.00 5,206.39 Newport News Library Bonds due 1929-48. . . . 43^ 45,000.00 45,000.00 State of Arkansas Bonds due 1950 . 5 5,000.00 5,166.51 $70,000.00 $71,067.30 1114 National Education Association The following statement shows the changes in the Permanent Fund during the year : Balance as at May 31, 1928 as per last report . $367,828.60 Added during year: Cash received from Life Members’ Fees . $29,085.20 Notes for Life Members’ Fees . 21,201.00 Amount transferred from Department of Elementary School Principals . 453.50 Amount transferred from Surplus Account . 71,436.69 Profit on securities called . 306.25 122,482.64 Less accrued interest on securities purchased . 40.28 - , 122,442.36 Balance as at May 31, 1929 . $490,270.96 The following is a summary of the income and expenses of the Perma¬ nent Fund for the year: Income: Income from Securities owned (Schedule “ 1 ”) . $4,409.58 Income from Securities called during year . . 142.50 Rent Charged to General Headquarters . 15,000.00 Interest from Real Estate notes sold during year . 1,034.22 $20,586.30 $1,680.00 4,495.57 265.69 836.23 7,277.49 Net Income transferred to the Association . $13,308.81 Expenses: Interest on mortgages paid off during year Repairs to Property, Etc . Insurance . Trustee’s Commission . The income was properly accounted for and vouchers were produced in support of all expenses. Yours truly, Peat, Marwick, Mitchell & Co. Associational Records and Information 1115 Exhibit “A” INCOME AND EXPENSES For the Year ended May 31, 1929 Income: Memberships from Secretary’s Office . $175,898.83 N. E. A. Journal: Subscriptions (Part of Membership Dues) . $160,802.00 Advertising . 84,227.37 Sales . 152.84 ^ r =-= 3 245,182.21 Sales of Proceedings . 591.03 Sales of Special Reports . 3,004.77 Commercial Exhibits . 23.468.89 Research Bulletin: Subscriptions . 4,675.00 Sales . 3,939.53 Special Investigations . 86.06 :■ ^ = 8,700.59 Honorariums . 2,327.32 Rentals . 2,070.00 Interest and Discount Earned . 1,555.95 Cash Sales, Reports, Pamphlets, Etc . 820.20 Net Income from Permanent Fund Investments . 13,308.81 Sundry Income . 563.14 Sales of Harris Book . 4.22 Expenses: Board of Trustees. . . Board of Directors . Executive Committee: President (Miss Adair) 1927-8 . $868.09 President (Mr. Lamkin) 1928-9 . 1,288.08 President’s Traveling and Clerical Services . 440.07 First Vice-President (Dr. Blair) 1927-8. 77.09 First Vice-President (Miss Adair) 1928-9 178.58 Treasurer (Dr. Smith) . 268.41 Chairman, Board of Trustees (Mr. Siders) . 429.26 Member by Election (Mr. Reynolds) . 203.50 General Secretary’s Office: Salary of Secretary . . $10,000.00 Clerical Services . 13,296.82 Traveling Expenses . 994.94 Stationery and Office Supplies . 423.84 Postage and Stamped Envelopes . 1,297.79 Telegrams . 191.66 General Expenses . 156.66 $477,495.96 $ 613.69 7,821.49 3,753.08 26,361.71 Carried Forward $38,549.97 $477,495.96 1116 National Education Association Total Income, Brought Forward. Expenses, Continued: Brought Forward . General Headquarters Expenses: General Expenses . Purchase of Books (General Use) . Refunds — Miscellaneous . Subscriptions to Journals . Express and Freight . Postage, Miscellaneous Reports and Pamphlets . Telephone and Telegrams . Repairs — Office Furniture and Fixtures. . Depreciation — Office Furniture and Fixtures . Interest and Discounts Allowed . Surety Bonds . Insurance . Audit Fee, Etc . Physical Plant Expenses: Rent . $15,000.00 Light and Power . 1,285.32 Heat . 607.67 Janitor Service . 2,688.32 Maintenance . 2,630.53 $325.40 18.00 26.37 6.00 1,008.30 347.91 2,183.23 341.30 4,975.90 1,345.89 226.12 169.48 816.32 $22,211.84 $38,549.97 $34,002.06 Institutional Expenses: Annual Conventions: Departmental Expenses . $192.04 Registration Bureau . 480.43 Stenographers and Typing . 533.23 Publicity . 244.52 Printing — Programs . 1,477.76 Printing — Miscellaneous . 435.72 Expenses and Freight . 570.26 Telephone and Telegrams . 104.48 General Expense . 407.21 Badges . 100.00 Representative Assembly Expense. . 1,371.69 $5,917.34 Promotion and Maintenance of Mem¬ bership . $35,003.46 N. E. A. Journal (Printing, Distribu¬ tion) . 105,055.54 Volume of Proceedings (Printing, Distribution) . 1 1,314.86 Publications and Reports (Printing, Distribution) . 1,388.63 Research Bulletin (Printing, Distri¬ bution) . 10,002.28 168,682.11 $477,495.96 Carried Forward $241,234.14 $477,495.96 Associational Records and Information 1117 Total Income, Brought Forward . Expenses, Continued: Brought Forward . . . Special Appropriations for the Year: Committee on Health Education . $642.76 Life Annuities and Insurance . 7,519.01 Legislative Commission . 3,938.73 National Council of Education . 119.62 Committee on Tenure . 214.94 Department of Classroom Teachers. . . 7,162.21 Financing of Delegates . 7,862.50 Kindergarten Education . 13.05 American Education Week . 197.11 Department of Elementary School Principals . 1,500.00 Membership, World Conference in Education . 1,000.00 Committee on Delegate Representa¬ tion and Kindred Questions . * 4,956.32 Membership, American Council in Education . 100.00 Committee on Retirement Allowances. 276.58 Committee on Behavior Problems of Children . 44.50 Committee on Professional Ethics. . . . 291.88 Committee on Visual Education . 91.66 Department of Adult Education . 1,000.00 Committee on Foreign Relations . 2.99 Committee on Illiteracy Crusade . 8.96 Committee on World Federation . 706.56 Committee on Investigation of Pro¬ paganda in Schools . 977.94 Conference of State Secretaries . 3,238.45 Economic Status of the Teacher . 668.05 Division of Accounts: Salaries and Clerical Services . $7,333.65 Traveling Expense . 264.14 Stationery and Office Supplies . 325.50 Postage and Stamped Envelopes . 180.00 Telegrams . 5.47 Division of Field: (Legislation) Salaries and Clerical Services . $14,625.69 Traveling Expense . 2,363.76 Stationery and Office Supplies . 183.81 Postage and Stamped Envelopes . 643.28 Telegrams . 226.41 General Expense . 95.71 $241,234.14 42,533.82 8,108.76 18,138.66 $477,495.96 0 Carried Forward $310,015.38 $477,495.96 1118 National Education Association Total Income, Brought Forward Expenses, Continued: Brought Forward . Division of Business: Salaries and Clerical Services . Traveling Expense . Stationery and Office Supplies . Postage and Stamped Envelopes . . . . Advertising . Telegrams . Typing Section . Mailing Section . Multigraph Section . Division of Publications: Salaries and Clerical Services . Traveling Expense . Stationery and Office Supplies . Postage and Stamped Envelopes Telegrams . General Expense . Reprints . Photographs and Prints . Division of Research: Salaries and Clerical Services . Traveling Expense . Stationery and Office Supplies . Postage and Stamped Envelopes .... Telegrams . General Expense . Books and Pamphlets . Division of Elementary School Service: Salaries and Clerical Services . Traveling Expense . Stationery and Office Supplies . Postage and Stamped Envelopes .... Telegrams . General Expense . Division of Administrative Service: Salaries and Clerical Services . Traveling Expense . Stationery and Office Supplies . Postage and Stamped Envelopes . General Expense . $310,015.38 $13,687.61 1,202.33 222.44 420.97 553.55 69.35 4.11 444.91 1.08 . 16,606.35 $26,829.62 1,602.09 510.86 1,274.68 143.78 260.13 584.28 454.76 ■ 31,660.20 $42,841.53 1,631.83 845.23 1,148.57 199.24 910.12 956.78 ^ ^ - 48,533.30 $6,930.86 361.67 85.31 129.52 7.98 8.41 7,523.75 $7,821.47 144.41 123.22 24.82 10.50 8,124.42 $477,495.96 Carried Forward $422,463.40 $477,495.96 Associational Records and Information 1119 Total Income, Brought Forward Expenses, Continued: Brought Forward . Division of Records and Membership: Salaries and Clerical Services . $31,136.72 Traveling Expense . 600,53 Postage and Stamped Envelopes . 269.05 Stationery and Office Supplies . 239.03 Telegrams . 5.19 Addressograph Section . 1,242.15 Bad Debts Written Off . $422,463.40 33,492.67 836.45 $477,495.96 $456,792.52 Total Expenses. . . . Surplus for the Year $20,703.44 1120 National Education Association Schedule ‘1” SECURITIES ON HAND Municipal Bonds: As at May Clearwater, Kansas, Water Works 5 Bonds due: 1930— No. 18 . 1931— Nos. 19-20 . 1932— Nos. 21 to 23 . Salt Lake City, Utah, Water Bonds, \y2% due 1934— Nos. 310 to 319 . Seattle, Washington, School Bonds, 4 y2% due 1931— Nos. 586 to 595 . County of Aiken, S. C. Highway Bonds \y2% due 1939— Nos. 346 to 350 . County of Columbus, S. C. Highway Bonds 534% due 1954 — Nos. 216 to 220 . Borough of N. Arlington, N. J. 534% Bonds due 1930 — Nos. 461 to 465 .... City of Monessen, Pa. 434% Bonds due 1951 — Nos. 66 to 70 . Newport News Library Bonds 4 34% due 1929-48 — Nos. 1 to 90 . State of Arkansas 5% Bonds due 1950 — Nos. 3714 to 3718 . Railroad Bonds: Atlantic Coast Line R. R. Co. 1st Cons. Mtge. Bonds 4% due 1952 — Nos. 5130, 6494, 11638, 11639, 14339, 14335, 17579, 24601, 37565 and 50251. Baltimore and Ohio R. R. Co. (Pitts¬ burgh, Lake Erie & West Virginia System) Ref. Gold Bonds 4% due 1941— Nos. 13496 to 13500 and 21236 to 21250 . Chicago, Indiana & Southern Ry. Co. 4% due 1956— Nos. 11386 to 11394 and 13786. . . Manhattan Railway Co., Cons. Mtge. 4% Gold Bonds, due 1990 — Nos. 2843, 6522, 16083 and 16087. . ....... Oregon Short Line R. R. Co., Ref. Gold Bonds, 4% due 1929 — Nos. 4013 to 4017, inch, 4025 to 4027, inch, 4976 and 13810. . . St. Louis & San Francisco R. R. Co., Prior Lien Mtge. Bonds, 4% due 1950, Nos. M 56051 to M 56055, inch, and Y 1527.... . Terminal R. R. Association of St. Louis Gen. Ref. S. F. Gold Bonds 4% due 1953, Nos. 16311 to 16325, incl . 31, 1929 Value Par $1,000.00 2,000.00 3,000.00 Book $1,000.00 2,000.00 3,000.00 Income Received $50.00 100.00 150.00 10,000.00 10,000.00 450.00 10,000.00 10,266.30 450.00 5,000.00 5,064.38 89.37 5,000.00 5,470.75 78.47 5,000.00 5,159.27 109.24 5,000.00 5,206.39 75.00 45,000.00 45,000.00 112.50 5,000.00 5,166.51 $96,000.00 $97,333.60 $1,439.58 $10,000.00 $9,600.00 $400.00 20,000.00 19,942.50 800.00 10,000.00 9,500.00 400,00 • 4,000=00 3,900=00 160,00 10,000.00 8,895.00 400.00 5,250.00 4,331.25 210.00 15,000.00 15,050.00 600.00 $74,250.00 $71,218.75 $2,970.00 $1 70,250.00 $168,552,35 $4,409.58 Associational Records and Information 1121 TREASURER’S REPORT From June 1, 1928 to May 31, 1929 Balance brought forward from Treasurer’s Report for the Year ended May 31, 1928 . $96,754.23 Receipts: For Account: Year Ended May 31, 1928 May 31, 1929 Department of Superintendence (Net) . $14,486.77 $21,916.91 Department of Elementary School Principals (Net) . 1,295.81 7,540.07 Department of Adult Education (Net). 467.44 475.00 Department of Rural Education (Net). 470.67 361.82 Department of Lip Reading (Net). . . 2.49 25.13 Department of Secondary School Prin¬ cipals (Net) . 404.00 120.00 $17,127.18 $30,438.93 $13,311.75 From Secretary’s Office during Year: Membership Fees . $175,898.83 Subscriptions to N. E. A. Journal . 160,802.00 Subscriptions to Research Bulletin . 4,675.00 Sale of Volumes of Proceedings . 591.03 Sale of Special Reports . 3,004.77 Sale of Research Bulletins . 3,939.53 Special Investigations (Research) . 86.06 Sale of N. E. A. Journals . \ . . . 152.84 Sale of Dr. Harris’ Book . 4.22 Sale of Pageant Leaflets . 18.72 Sale of Educational Posters . 46.25 Cash Sales of Reports and Pamphlets . 755.23 $349,974.48 From Income on Permanent Fund. . - - $13,308.81 From Commercial Exhibits (Net) ... 23,468.89 From Advertising — N. E. A. Journal 84,227.3/ From Interest and Discounts Earned 1,555.95 From Rentals Received . 2,070.00 From Honorariums (Field Work) 2,327.32 From Sundry Income — Exchange, Etc . 563.14 477,495.96 $490,807.71 1122 National Education Association Disbursements: Board of Trustees — Expenses . Board of Directors — Expenses . Executive Committee: President (Miss Adair) . S868.09 (Dr. Lamkin) . 1,288.08 President’s Traveling and Clerical Expenses . 440.07 First Vice-President (Miss Adair) . 178.58 (Dr. Blair) . 77.09 Treasurer (Dr. Smith) . 268.41 Chairman, Board of Trustees (Mr. Siders) . 429.26 Member by Election (Mr. Reynolds) . 203.50 Office of General Secretary: General Expense (Salaries, Stationery, Etc.) General Expense — Headquarters: General Expense . $375.77 Express, Freight and Parcel Post . 1,356.21 Telephone Service and Telegrams . 2,183.23 Repairs — Office Furniture and Fixtures . 341.30 Interest and Discounts Allowed . 1,345.89 Surety Bonds . 226.12 Insurance . 169.48 Auditing Accounts of Association . 816.32 Physical Plant — Rents, Light, Heat, Power and Janitor . 22,211.84 Institutional Expense: Annual Conventions: Department Expenses . $192.04 Registration Bureau .....' . 480.43 Stenograohic Service . 533.23 Publicity . 244.52 Printing: Programs . $1,477.76 Miscellaneous . 435.72 = ■ : : 1,913.48 Express and Freight . 570.26 Telephones and Telegrams . 104.48 Miscellaneous Expense (Speakers, Etc.) . 407.21 Representative Assembly Expense . 1 ,37 1 .6^ Badges . 100.00 $5,917.34 Promotion and Maintenance of Membership . 35,003.4t> Membership — World Conference in Education . 1,000.00 Membership — American Council on Education . 100.00 N. E. A. Journal (Printing and Distribution) . 105,055.54 $613.69 7,821.49 3,753.08 26,361.71 29,026.16 Carried Forward $147,076.34 $67,576.13 Associational Records and Information 1123 Disbursements, Continued : Brought Forward . Institutional Expense, Continued: Brought Forward . $147,076.34 Volume of Proceedings (1928) . 11,314.86 Research Bulletin (Printing and Distribution) . 10,002.28 Publications and Reports for General Sale . 1,388.63 Special Appropriations for the Year 1928-29: Illiteracy Crusade . $8.96 World Federation . : . 706.56 Committee on Health Education . 642.76 Life Annuities and Insurance . 7,519.01 Legislative Commission . 3,938.73 National Council of Education . 119.62 Committee on Economic Status of Teacher . 668.05 Committee on Tenure . ’ . 214.94 Department of Classroom Teachers . 7,162.21 Financing of Delegates . 7,862.50 Kindergarten Education . 13.05 American Education Week . 197.11 Department of Elementary School Principals . 1,500.00 Department of Adult Education . 1,000.00 Committee on Delegate Representation and Kindred Questions . 4,956.32 Committee on Retirement Allowances . 276.58 Committee on Behavior Problems — Child . 44.50 Committee on Professional Ethics . 291.88 Committee on Investigation of Propaganda in Schools . 977.94 Conference of State Secretaries . 3,238.45 Committee on Visual Education . 91.66 Committee on Foreign Relations . 2.99 Division of Accounts: (Salaries, Stationery, Etc.) . Division of Field (Legislative): (Salaries, Stationery, Etc.) . Division of Business: (Salaries, Stationery, Etc.) . . . Division of Publications: (Salaries, Stationery, Etc.) . Division of Research: (Salaries, Stationery, Etc.) . Division of Classroom Service: (Salaries, Stationery, Etc.) . Division of Administrative Service: (Salaries, Stationery, Etc.) . Division of Records and Membership: (Salaries, Stationery, etc.) . ' . Purchase of Office Stationery, Postage and Supplies Purchase of Office Furniture and Fixtures . $67,576.13 169,782.11 41,433.82 8,108.76 18.138.66 16,606.35 31,660.20 48,533.30 7,523.75 8,124.42 33.492.67 321.87 4,932.97 $456,235.01 1124 National Education Association Cash Summary Balance as per Treasurer’s Report, May 31, 1928 . $96,754.23 Receipts for the Year ended May 31, 1929: Total as per page 1 . $490,807.71 Deduct: Bad Debts Written Off . $836.45 Increase in Time Checks . 365.00 1,201.45 $489,606.26 Add: Decrease in Accounts Receivable . $1,465.11 Decrease in Notes Receivable . 46.80 1,511.91 Total Receipts . $491,118.17 $587,872.40 Disbursements for the Year: Total as per page 3 . $456,235.01 Transfer to Permanent Fund . 71,436.69 527,671.70 Deduct: Unpaid Vouchers at May 31, 1929 . 22,407.67 505,264.03 Add: Unpaid Vouchers at May 31. 1928 . 7,554.90 Total Disbursements . 512,818.93 Cash Balance as at May 31, 1929 . $75,053.47 Certificate of Auditors To the President of the National Education Association: We have audited the accounts of the National Education Association, and of the Secretary, for the year ended May 31, 1929, and certify that the foregoing state¬ ment of Receipts and Disbursements is correct and is in accordance with the books of the Association. Washington, D. C., June 15, 1929. PEAT, MARWICK, MITCHELL & CO. Associational Records and Information 1125 REPORT OF BUDGET COMMITTEE Appropriations The following is an excerpt from a resolution adopted by the Board of Directors in 1927 : Before making any appropriations for any fiscal year, the Board of Di¬ rectors shall have in hand and shall have considered all requests for appro¬ priations for the year, and shall also have in hand an estimate from the Sec¬ retary and the Board of Trustees of the probable income for the year. Appropriations shall not be made in excess of this estimate. The Limit of Appropriations In line with the policy stated above, the Budget Committee adopted the amount of the income of the last fiscal year as the maximum amount to be budgeted for the year, 1929-1930. This amount, as shown by the report of the Auditors, is $477,495.96. The amount recommended for the budget is $475,344.48, including an item of $7,500.00, to provide an Emergency Fund — a fund to be used only in a real emergency and to provide a service which could not be postponed without serious loss to the Association. 1126 National Education Association BUDGET RECOMMENDATIONS FOR 1929-1930 Approved by the Board of Directors, June 29, 1929 1. Board of Trustees: Actual expenses for last five years: 1924- 25 . 1925- 26 . 1926- 27 . 1927- 28 . 1928- 29 . Amount recommended for 1929-30 S602.64 768.79 412.53 419.83 613.69 . $750.00 2. Executive Committee: Actual expenses for last five years: 1924- 25 . 1925- 26 . 1926- 27 . 1927- 28 . 1928- 29 . Amount recommended for 1929-30 $3,276.82 3,904.91 4,635.81 4,356.78 3,313.01 . $3,250.00 3. Board of Directors: Actual expenses for last five years: 1924- 25 . S . 1925- 26 . 1926- 27 . 6,117.93 1927- 28 . 7,829.08 1928- 29 . 7,821.49 Amount recommended for 1929-30 $8,500.00 4. Contingent fund for President: Actual expenses for last five years: 1924- 25 . S . 1925- 26 . 1926- 27 . 1927- 28 . 1,517.97 1928- 29 . 440.47 Amount recommended for 1929-30 . $1,500.00 5. General Secretary’s Office: $21,349.63 19,845.15 23,513.29 23,227.83 26,361.71 Salaries and Clerical Services . Traveling Expense . Stationery and Office Supplies . Postage and Stamped Envelopes . Telegrams . Actual expenses for last five years: 1924- 25 . 1925- 26 . 1926- 27 . 1927- 28 . 1928- 29 . Amount recommended for 1929-30: $25,024.00 1,000.00 400.00 1,200.00 220.00 TOTAL $27,844.00 Associational Records and Information 1127 6. Division of Accounts: Actual expenses for last five years: 1924- 25 . 1925- 26 . 1926- 27 . 1927- 28 . 1928- 29 . Amount recommended for 1929-30: Salaries and Clerical Services Traveling Expense . Stationery and Office Supplies . . . Postage and Stamped Envelopes . TOTAL . $15,348.90 5,643.87 7,434.53 7,822.72 8,108.76 . $8,000.00 . 200.00 . 325.00 . 180.00 $8,705.00 7. Field Division (Legislative): $15,417.57 16,532.55 15,393.50 17,823.82 18,138.66 Salaries and Clerical Services . Traveling Expense . Stationery and Office Supplies . Postage and Stamped Envelopes . Telegrams . Actual expenses for last five years: 1924- 25 . 1925- 26 . 1926- 27 . 1927- 28 . 1928- 29 . Amount recommended for 1929-30: $14,335.00 1,800.00 200.00 500.00 150.00 TOTAL $16,985.00 8. Division of Business: Actual expenses for last five years: 1924- 25 . 1925- 26 . 1926- 27 . 1927- 28 . 1928- 29 . Amount recommended for 1929-30: .Salaries and Clerical Services Traveling Expense . Stationery and Office Supplies. . . Postage and Stamped Envelopes. Telegrams . Typing Section . Mailing Section . Multigraph Section . Advertising Service . $18,720.92 20,058.64 14,231.97 14,805.73 16,606.35 $14,544.00 1,200.00 300.00 425.00 75.00 20.00 700.00 75.00 500.00 TOTAL $17,839.00 9. Division of Publications: Actual expenses for last five years: 1924- 25 . 1925- 26 . 1926- 27 . 1927- 28 . 1928- 29 . $15,040.18 17,170.45 23,366.27 27,386.40 31,660.20 1128 National Education Association Amount recommended for 1929-30: Salaries and Clerical Service . $34,448.00 Traveling Expense . 2,000.00 Stationery and Office Supplies . 500.00 Postage and Stamped Envelopes . 900.00 Telegrams . 100.00 Reprints . 500.00 Photographs, Prints, Mats and Electros . 500.00 TOTAL . 10. Division of Classroom Service: Actual expenses for last five years: 1924- 25 . 1925- 26 . 1926- 27 . 1927- 28 . 1928- 29 . Amount recommended for 1929-30: $38,948.00 $6,168.73 6,088.77 6,495.36 7,155.10 7,523.75 $7,150.00 375.00 85.00 150.00 10.00 Salaries and Clerical Services . . . Traveling Expense . . Stationery and Office Supplies . . Postage and Stamped Envelopes Telegrams . TOTAL . 11. Division of Research: Actual expenses for last five years: 1924- 25 . 1925- 26 . 1926- 27 . 1927- 28 . 1928- 29 . Amount recommended for 1929-30: Salaries and Clerical Services Traveling Expense . Stationery and Office Supplies. . . Postage and Stamped Envelopes . Telegrams . Special Charts, Tables, etc . Books and Pamphlets (Library) $7,770.00 $15,900.43 22,454.53 29,476.60 38,073.80 48,533.30 . $49,400.00 . 1,350.00 . 750.00 . 1,150.00 . 200.00 900.00 750.00 TOTAL . 12. Division of Administrative Service; Actual expenses for last five years; 1924- 25 . 1925- 26 . 1926- 27 . 1927- 28 . 1928- 29 . Amount recommended for 1929-30: Salaries and Clerical Service . Traveling Expense . Stationery and Office Supplies. . . Postage and Stamped Envelopes . $54,500.00 $1,874.01 2,994.55 4,555.89 6,760.35 8,124.42 . $8,025.00 . 250.00 100.00 25.00 TOTAL $8,400.00 Associational Records and Information 1129 13. Division of Records and Membership Actual expenses for last five years: 1924- 25 . . . 1925- 26 . 1926- 27 . 1927- 28 . . . 1928- 29 . Amount recommended for 1929-30: Salaries and Clerical Services 20,519.06 31,311.87 31,388.43 33,492.67 Traveling Expense . Stationery and Office Supplies . Postage and Stamped Envelopes . Telegrams . Stock, Supplies and Machine Up-keep (Ad- dressograph Section) . $31,560.00 600.00 250.00 270.00 25.00 1,250.00 TOTAL $33,955.00 14. Physical Plant: Actual expenses for last five years: 1924- 25 . 1925- 26 . 1926- 27 . 1927- 28 . 1928- 29 . Amount recommended for 1929-30: Rent . Lights and Power . Heat . Janitor Service . Maintenance . $19,475.87 20,736.02 20,837.69 21,204.94 22,211.84 $15,000.00 1,200.00 650.00 2,311.00 2,125.00 TOTAL $21,286.00 15. General Office Expenses: Actual expenses for the last five years: 1924- 25 . 1925- 26 . 1926- 27 . 1927- 28 . 1928- 29 . $6,556.98 6.496.32 7,421.35 8,002.24 6.814.32 Amount recommended for 1929-30: Telephone Service . Repairs — Office Furniture and Equipment Insurance . General Expense . Refunds of Overpayments . Purchase of Back Volumes . Express and Freight . Interest and Discount Allowed . Surety Bonds . Auditing Accounts of Association . Mailing — Reports and Pamphlets . $2,175.00 300.00 482.88 200.00 50.00 20.00 900.00 1,075.00 230.00 800.00 350.00 TOTAL $6,582.88 1130 National Education Association $6,889.11 8,502.45 7,475.97 5,761.26 5,917.34 Department Expenses . Registration . Stenographers and Typing . Publicity . t . Printing . Express and Freight . General Expense (Program) . Badges . Representative Assembly Expense . 16. Annual Conventions: Actual expenses for the last five years: 1924- 25 . 1925- 26 . 1926- 27 . 1927- 28 . 1928- 29 . Amount recommended for 1929-30: $200.00 500.00 400.00 200.00 1,900.00 500.00 3,000.00 85.00 1,310.00 TOTAL 17. Promotion and Maintenance of Membership: Actual expenses for the last five years: 1924- 25 1925- 26 1926- 27 1927- 28 1928- 29 $28,185.04 25,921.42 37,832.95 38,691.16 35,003.46 Amount recommended for 1929-30 18. Journal of the National Education Association: Actual expenses for the last five years: 1924- 25 1925- 26 1926- 27 1927- 28 1928- 29 $86,719.67 92,687.66 96,769.44 101,374.69 105,055.54 Amount recommended for 1929-30 19. Research Bulletin: Actual expenses for the last five years: 1924- 25 . 1925- 26 . 1926- 27 . 1927- 28 . 1928- 29 . Amount recommended for 1929-30. . . $6,554.57 6,867.12 7,493.03 7,432.20 10,002.28 20. Volume of Proceedings: Actual expenses for the last five years: 1924- 25 . 1925- 26 . 1926- 27 . 1927- 28 . 1928- 29 . Amount recommended for 1929-30. . . $7,792.14 8,458.22 9,191.81 9,850.57 11,314.86 $8,095.00 $36,500.00 $103,965.00 $7,145.00 $10,500.00 Associational Records and Information 1131 21. Publications and Reports for General Sale: Actual expenses for the last five years: 1924- 25 . $ . 1925- 26 . 2,637.31 864.50 1,388.63 . $100.00 1926- 27 . 1927- 28 . 1928- 29 . Amount recommended for 1929-30 22. Financing Delegates: Actual expenses for the last five years: 1924- 25 . 1925- 26 . 1926- 27 . 1927- 28 . 1928- 29 . Amount recommended for 1929-30. . . $9,531.00 9,379.00 12,977.50 17,178.83 ' 7,862.50 $10,000.00 23. Special Committee Appropriations: Actual expenses for the last five years: 1924- 25 . $17,607.92 1925- 26 . 15,279.75 1926- 27 . 16,946.24 1927- 28 . 17,358.59 1928- 29 . 26,052.31 Amount recommended for 1929-30: Foreign Relations (Publicity) . Health Education . Legislative Commission . Tenure . Dept. Classroom Teachers . American Education Week . Dept. Elementary School Principals . One Hundred on Retirement Allowances . Professional Ethics . Visual Education Dept . Dept. Adult Education . Delegate Representation and Kindred Questions National Council of Education . Economic Status of Teachers . Study of Use of Propaganda in Schools . Joint Committee on Colored Schools . $300.00 1,000.00 4.000.00 200.00 8,150.00 200.00 1,000.00 100.00 50.00 50.00 1,000.00 500.00 500.00 1,700.00 250.00 250.00 TOTAL $19,250.00 24. Office Furniture and Fixtures: Actual expenses for last five years: 1924- 25 . 1925- 26 . 1926- 27 . 1927- 28 . 1928- 29 . Amount recommended for 1929-30 $1,083.72 3,614.07 9,465.82 5,568.26 4,932.97 . $4,500.00 1132 National Education Association 25. Association Membership Fees: Actual expenses for the last five years: 1924- 25 . 1925- 26 . . . 1926- 27 . 1927- 28 . 1928- 29 . Amount recommended for 1929-30. . . $1,250.00 1,100.00 1,100.00 1,100.00 1,100.00 $1,100.00 26. Retirement Annuities and Insurance : Actual expenses for the last five years: 1924- 25 . $ . 1925- 26 . 1926- 27 . 1927- 28 . 3,627.25 1928- 29 . . 7,519.01 Amount recommended for 1929-30 . . $9,874.60 27. Emergency Fund: Amount recommended for 1929-30 . $7,500.00 GRAND TOTAL . $475,344.48 Respectfully submitted, Budget Committee. THE BUDGET COMMITTEE L. W. Rogers, Chairman, First Assistant State Superintendent, Austin, Texas. W. B. Mooney, Secretary, Colorado Education Association, Denver, Colorado. Joseph Rosier, President, State Normal School, Fairmont, West Virginia. George W. Wannamaker, Superintendent of Schools, St. Matthews, South Carolina. A. L. Whittenberg, Secretary, State Examining Board, Springfield, Illinois. DISTRIBUTION OF BUDGET— 1929-1930 Section I — Division of Headquarters Associational Records and Information •0-3 C O go oh o o ■cf Ov CS 00 Tfl CO cs CS* (S> © o © o ■<* oo* o o io VO co* co O 00 o o r ■ 1 oooo NO cd ■u d cs’ d o 00 CO o r^. 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CS o © © H cs vo vo © vo O' v— ' >0 TH © CS_ tH W) ^ co* 00* *H* 00* vo* to* f~* d ©'O'* H N to © v""V tH vrH 4/> 2* c v-15 o o c/3 v* ■— g.g£ N SgO 0) j- sr a as he u o 03 § s 1 6 u o j-j 4) 5 Q. o. ° Q o o o o CN <& © o d o 40 O O o o t'- o o o o «» o o d o O' ©‘ t-H U1 £ o n-i J- .2 3 O «> ■ — u o fl J) ® E^ec £-o g i Si i 3 o 3 S 3 ’-3 fin. -t-> 45*^ co c ► .rt 3-> 45 S c c Sf o 3 0) 3 O *’0+3 © © © © © »© © O' 1/5 O' ~*»o' 4/5 © © © © 1/5 v©* to 40 © © © U5 U5 00 40 © © © © © bD © ooo © .s © vo vo o d © v© ^* © © £ °i Ov_rtio *C tH to* t"* ©* if} © V > aS © © © ©©© odd «© VO © cs v© © © © © © © © © U5 to 00* if} © © © © VO d to co © © VO O' T* 40 © © q to es t*H © © © © VO cs cs 40 TJ C 3 to >5 o c o &, • jC . CO J-t • - Q a s<3 _ o 02 s s.E’u 03 o o 3 45 - £c/3< E 05 kc ' o co „ „ 05 uoo,1' * 45 CO (i, — CO vJ <5 H O H rH M f<) >0 N 00 On O ^ *-H CN CN CN rr>ir> CN CN CN £ £ Ph >» O £ V 0/) o s w cs < H o H $475,344.48 Associational Records and Information 1135 REPORT OF RESOLUTIONS COMMITTEE ELIZABETH MCCORMICK, PRINCIPAL, TIMOTHY O. HOWE SCHOOL, SUPERIOR, WISCONSIN, CHAIRMAN Ideals and Purposes The National Education Association reaffirms its abiding faith in the schools and pledges its continued efforts on behalf of a fair start in life for every boy and girl. It adopts the following platform of ideals and purposes which have been established by repeated action of the Association : 1. A competent, well-trained teacher in every classroom. 2. Improved facilities for the education of teachers and such induce¬ ments to enter the teaching profession as will attract men and women of the highest character and ability. 3. Such an interpretation of education as will awaken the people to a realization of the importance of the schools, elevate the profession of teach¬ ing to a higher plane in public esteem, and insure just compensation, secure tenure, and provision for retirement on the basis of efficient service. 4. Continued and thorough research on educational problems as the basis for revised standards and procedures. 5. The establishment of a Department of Education with a Secretary in the President’s cabinet and the efficient integration of the educational activities of the federal government in this department. 6. The unification of the educational forces of the country in one all- inclusive organization devoted to the advance of the teaching profession, with every teacher an informed and participating member of local, state, and national associations. 7. Active assistance to state and local affiliated associations in promoting the interests of such associations. 8. Equal salaries for all teachers, both men and women, of equivalent training and experience. 9. Such participation by teachers in the determination of policy as will utilize the best fruits of classroom experience. 10. Cooperation with other organizations and with men and women of vision who recognize that only through education can be solved the major problems of our changing civilization. 11. The National Education Association is committed to a program of service — service to the teacher, service to the profession, and service to the nation. Its supreme purpose is the welfare of the childhood of America. The 1929 Resolutions In conformity with its platform of ideals and purposes and in addition thereto, the representative assembly of the National Education Association assembled in its 67th annual convention at Atlanta, Ga., in July, 1929, adopts the following statements of policy: 1136 National Education Association We have come together to pledge again our service in carrying out the high ideals set by the founders of our organization. We recognize and accept our responsibility for the adaptation of education to the challenge of the rapidly changing economic and social order. We commend Presi¬ dent Uel Lamkin for developing a program of “Education for a new world.” Appreciation of Public Support We record with pleasure our appreciation of the fine attitude of the public generally toward the schools, particularly as shown in the con¬ fidence placed in the educational leadership of the teaching profession, and in the readiness of the people to provide funds for the continued improvement of educational opportunities for the nation’s children. Educational Interpretation The National Education Association appreciates the cooperation of newspapers, magazines, press associations, radio, and other agencies in the interpretation of education ; and urges that further provision be made for the extension of cooperation with these agencies to the end that the public may fully understand the achievements, ideals, work, and needs of the schools. State Responsibility for Universal Education The American conception of education is founded on this fundamental principle: Equal opportunity for every child regardless of residence, ability, handicap, or disability; a high-school education within the reach of every boy and girl; well trained and adequately paid teachers for all schools; larger units of school administration; equalization of educational oppor¬ tunity. The cost of education in the future will necessarily increase as a result of the greater demands of the public upon our schools. The resources for education, from direct taxes, in many sections of the country, seem to be decreasing from year to year, due to increased demands from other tax-supported institutions and from the inefficiency of our tax systems. This condition suggests that research should be made to find the best sources of additional financial support for our schools before the condition becomes more acute. To this end we recommend that this subject be systematically studied by our national and state education associations, and that recommendations be made for suitable legislation. Centennial of Horace Mann’s Secretaryship Resolved that the National Education Association approves the plan to hold a centennial Horace Mann celebration in 1937; that it call the attention of all state and national educational and welfare associations to the importance and value of such a celebration and that it join with these organizations in petitioning the President and the Congress of the United Associational Records and Information 1137 States to appoint a commission which would begin at once the arrange¬ ments for a fitting celebration. Resolved that the Association recommends that state and national asso¬ ciations look ahead and arrange to build their programs in 1937 around the theme “The Educational Achievements of a Century.” Rebuilding the Public School Curriculum Because of the new conception as to the proper function of the public school, we recommend continuous study of the curriculum which deter¬ mines what boys and girls are taught in school. We recomrnend further that the curriculum can best be rebuilt by pooling the contributions of superintendents of schools, directors of research, curriculum specialists, supervisors, principals, classroom teachers, and interested laymen. Studies of Preschool Children The Association commends the studies of early childhood for their con¬ tribution to our understanding of child growTth and development. It urges that the wddest use be made of these findings in the improvement of home training and the establishment of child study classes. Child Guidance and Student Counseling That each pupil may have a well-rounded development, wTe recommend that in junior and senior high schools there be trained counselors respon¬ sible for the study of the abilities, needs, and interests of individual pupils, and for the handling of student personnel problems to the end that all agencies in school may focus on the best development of each pupil. Problems of Articulation Recognizing that the increasing complexity of the educational process and organization intensifies the problems of articulation among the units and subject divisions of the schools, we approve heartily of the work of the Commission on the Articulation of the Units of American Education as it appears in the Seventh Yearbook of the Department of Superintend¬ ence. We wish to stress the importance of the problem involved in im¬ proving articulation in the educational system, and to urge its general consideration. Rural Education In view of the serious inequalities wThich exist in the educational oppor¬ tunities offered the children in rural areas and in view of the pressing need for the revision of the rural school curriculum to meet the needs of rural life as it exists today, the Association urges that the Congress of the United States provide a suitable appropriation for a thorough study of rural education throughout the nation, as it has already provided for a study of secondary education. 1138 National Education Association Character Education and Law Observance The Association reaffirms its belief in the public school as a constructive agency in character development. It reemphasizes that conduct arises from what the child really loves and desires to be. Since training in right conduct is one of the chief objectives of the public school, it is recom¬ mended that extended investigations be made in the held of character development. The Association believes that the greatest force for law observance is character education within the home and the school and urges all teachers and parents to renew their efforts to inculcate a regard for law as the foundation of democratic liberty. Recruiting the Best Talent for Teaching We recommend that essential facts about teaching personnel be ob¬ tained ; that facts be gathered as to the supply and demand for teachers in each of the several states; and that these facts be made the basis of a broadly conceived, coordinated plan for recruiting the best talent for teaching. To this end the Association requests Congress to appropriate sufficient funds for the Bureau of Education to use in making a survey of all phases of teacher training in the United States. Careful predictions should be made five and ten years ahead as to the number of new teachers that may be needed. The Association recommends that requirements for beginning teachers be immediately increased in all states. Trained teachers are now available in sufficient numbers to offer an unusual opportunity for raising the stand¬ ards so as more nearly to approach the minimum goal of four years train¬ ing beyond the four year high school which the Association has repeatedly set as the ideal standard for all teachers. Teacher Participation The Association appreciates the growing practise of school authorities in making provision for organizations, officially recognized, through which the special knowledge of the classroom teacher may be utilized for the improvement of the schools. The Association believes that the best fruits of teacher participation are obtained and the sense of responsibility among teachers is best developed when this participation is provided for in groups small enough for delibera¬ tive discussion and composed entirely of classroom teachers. Summer School and Extension Courses for Teachers The Association appreciates the efforts of teachers to increase their training through extension and summer study. It urges the responsible authorities to make special provision for the needs of experienced teachers in order that they may have courses which will lead to degrees and which will directly enrich their lives and contribute to their effectiveness in the classroom. Associational Records and Information 1139 Retirement The National Education Association again endorses legislation providing for a fair and just retirement of teachers and believes that a sound plan for this purpose will contribute greatly to the growth and the stability of the teaching profession. Adult Education The National Education Association commends the agencies which are working in behalf of adult education and urges the generous support of these movements, especially the work of free public libraries. American Education Week The National Education Association urges the continued observance of American Education Week in the belief that every citizen should be kept informed upon the work and needs of the schools. The Association ap¬ preciates the cooperation of the American Legion and other organizations in the development of this permanent worldwide movement. International Understanding The National Education Association rejoices that, by solemn agreement among the nations of the world, war has been renounced as an instrument of policy in the settlement of international disputes, and that the more amicable methods of solving problems have been indorsed. Knowing that only through education can the requisite international understanding be brought about, we commend the activities of the World Federation of Education Associations in bringing together for an exchange of views the teachers and other educational workers of the various countries of the 0 world. We urge that teachers be encouraged to travel in foreign lands and that International Goodwill Day, May 18, the anniversary of the opening of The Hague Tribunal, be appropriately observed in all schools. Illiteracy The removal of adult illiteracy is an educational effort that has gone beyond the experimental stage and has become a reality in many com¬ munities. The momentous year of 1930 is almost upon us and if the work of the new census is to show a rapid advance in the reduction of illiteracy with the corresponding improvement of the language of the United States, it can only be done as a result of the combined efforts and enthusiastic interest of all educational and patriotic organizations. While the time is short the issue is too clearcut and the importance of its solution too significant for us to do anything but concentrate our best efforts in the time remaining so that a marked advance in the reduction of illiteracy shall be made. We urge upon the Census authorities the adoption of a schedule in the 1930 census that will reveal the number of persons ten years of age and over, that cannot read English understanding!}', meaning the number that 1140 National Education Association have not completed four years in an English speaking school or are unable to read the newspapers. We pledge our support to the request of the Director of the Census to enlist the teaching force throughout the country to act as enumerators for said purpose. We furthermore urge upon Congress and the President the adoption of a program involving adequate financial aid in carrying out a minimum five year campaign, in reducing illiteracy as revealed by the 1930 census. National Congress of Parents and Teachers The National Education Association extends greetings to the members of the National Congress of Parents and Teachers. We wish them to know that we appreciate the great assistance they are rendering in the solution of the educational problems of the country. We pledge to them our whole-hearted cooperation in their efforts to improve home, school, and community life. Education and the Federal Government At this first convention since one great educational leader has completed his service as United States Commissioner of Education and a new leader has taken up the challenge, we record our appreciation of these two men. Dr. John J. Tigert occupied the office of United States Commissioner of Education for a period of seven years. He enlarged the scope and strengthened the effectiveness of the Bureau of Education. In all his official relations to the educational interests of the nation he demonstrated a capacity for professional service. The nation and its teachers profited by his educational leadership. We wish to accord him our appreciation and esteem and to express our gratitude for his accomplishments. Dr. William John Cooper, a practical and experienced administrator in public school service, has been called to the office of United States Commissioner of Education. His training and experience eminently qualify him for the responsibilities which are entrusted to his hands. We welcome him to this service and pledge our hearty support and full co¬ operation. We extend our appreciation to President Hoover for having placed at the head of the Federal Department of the Interior, in which the Bureau of Education is administered, one of America’s distinguished university presidents, Dr. Ray Lyman Wilbur. We commend Secretary Wilbur’s action in endeavoring to give the Bureau of Education more prestige by raising the classification of the office of the Commissioner of Education and in making additional provision for extending and improving the service of the Bureau. We likewise approve his action in seeking to obtain full knowledge in order to coordinate properly the existing educational ac¬ tivities of the Federal Government in one department and to improve and clarify the relationship of the Federal Government to the field of public education. We pledge him full cooperation in these undertakings. Associational Records and Information 1141 We reaffirm the declaration, repeatedly expressed in the platform adopted by the National Education Association at its annual sessions, that education is primarily a function of the several states of the Union with delegated powers to every locality in the state in furtherance of. the idea of local self government. To this fundamental principle of state control and direction of education we accord a strict adherence. We further reaffirm our conviction of the imperative need of the as¬ sistance in education which the Federal Government alone is able to provide, without the slightest invasion of the rights and duties of the states or of local school administrative units and without in any way contraven¬ ing the wise and well settled policy of state control in education. We be¬ lieve that since education is recognized as a subject of paramount interest to every social and economic activity and problem of the nation, and that since, through state and local initiative and taxation, the American people are annually expending $2,500,000,000 for the support and maintenance of public education, provisions for scientific research should be made ade¬ quate to the needs of systems of education for the training of 30,000,000 children with all the problems involved in our modern, complex civiliza¬ tion. We further believe the needs of education are so vital and so press¬ ing that they cannot effectively be met if education is subordinated to any other interests. We record emphatically our conviction that a Depart¬ ment of Education is necessary in order that the Federal Government may conduct the research needed as a basis for developing an effective sys¬ tem of education. We therefore urge upon the Congress and the President the necessity of establishing a Federal Department of Education, with a Secretary in the Cabinet. The functions of this department shall be the administra¬ tion of existing educational activities of the Federal Government that might properly be transferred to such a department; the development of such research agencies as educational interests of the nation require; and performance of such other duties as the Congress may from time to time determine. To Atlanta Atlanta, you have taught us the real meaning of southern hospitality. As we leave you to return to our homes in many widely separated places we wish to assure you of our deep appreciation of your many courtesies. From the land of cotton we are carrying pleasant memories that will re¬ main with us always. In Dixie Land we have gathered ideas that will broaden our comprehension of the educational problems of our country. Atlanta, we are grateful to your citizens, to your civic organizations, to your school officials, to your teachers, to your children, and to the press of your city for the services they have so generously rendered in making successful the sixty-seventh annual convention of the N. E. A. 1142 National Education Association REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON NECROLOGY 1 FRANCIS G. BLAIR, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SPRINGFIELD, ILL. The following list is composed of names of members of the profession, reported by the committee member from each state, who have passed away during the year: Arizona Black, Mrs. Sarah McHenry, Stella Chesney, Laura Nixon, Mary Henderson, Hazel Purvine, Lawrence Holiday, Mrs. Summers, Sue Lathrop, Catherine Malinin, Mrs. Lena Hartsfield Wilson, Evan Florida Helseth, Emma O. Sumner, Glenn Hughes, Edna O. Wilbur, Prof. G. Elmer Iowa Bennett, Lewis G. Mac Kay, Dr. G. L. Berg, Ida Martin, Bertha Buechele, J. L. Messer, Mrs. Godfrey Caughlin, Meda P. McAfee, Dr. Lowell Mason Clay, Alma Neff, Dr. C. D. Crandell, Helen Cornelia Packer, Annie E. Crocker, Elizabeth Pals, Hajo Crusinberry, W. A. Pettibone, Mrs. Jennie Dawson, W. P. Samson, William J. DeCamp, Lester O. Sanford, Bernice Dingus, Dwight L. Solomon, Mrs. Nate Ellingson, Prof. Daniel J. Snyder, T. B. French, Mrs. A. N. Speaks, Stella M. George, Mary A. Stanton, Julia W. Hartson, Clarissa Starbuck, Mrs. Edwin D. Hearst, Mary Suesens, Mayme Henely, Eugene Sunderlin, Frank Howard Hewitt, Daniel J. Ellington Terrall, Ada Knight Hinitt, Dr. Frederick W. Tiffany, Albert Ray Hummell, William Townsley, Samuel S. King, Ida N. King, J. C. Wilson, Dr. J. Rogers Kansas Erb, F. M. Parry, W. T. Gaines, H. N. Roop, C. Y. Loevenguth, J. C. Stanley, E. Mallory, S. V. Todd, H. W. Louisiana Guardia, Mrs. Penelope A. Roehm, Perry D. 1 The brief address delivered by Mr. Blair in connection with the presentation of this lepoit may be found in the Minutes of the Representative Assembly, p. 1035 to 1037. Associational Records and Information 1143 Allen, Albert Anderson, Mrs. Mattie Arnold, William W. Babbitt, Mary A. Balch, Dr. E. A. Barkley, M. Orinda Bates, Frederick O. Beach, Margaret Benson, Arthur F. Betts, Mrs. Floyd E. Betts, Mrs. Hazel B. Betwee, Helen E. Bick, Mary Birdsall, Florence Bishop, Newbold Blake, Mrs. Flora R. Bowen, Wilber P. Braidwood, Christine Breyfogle, J. Warren Bristah, Etta Broemel, Agnes Brown, Frances Pelham Brown, Helen C. Burt, Frances Cansfield, Helen Cochran, Mrs. Vera Vinton Collins, Beatrice Collins, Nelle E. Cook, Albert Perry Coughlan, Emma Crispin, Elizabeth Cross, Arthur E. DeBoer, Christine DeYoung, Marian Dillon, Elizabeth F. Drum, Eotha Hoag DuCheney, Ethel M. Dunlop, Jeanette Eggert, Benjamin Fisher, Pearl Foster, Elizabeth B. Frye, Wealthy George, Ida K. Gibbs, Cora B. Godfrey, Mrs. Minnie M. Griffith, Prof. E. L. Griswold, Abbie M. Hackwell, Mrs. Jean B. Hannula, John Harlan, Ralph J. Hartung, Bessie LeMarle Hascall, Ruby Hasty, Isabelle Hathaway, Frederick R. Hicks, Herbert W. Michigan Hill, Vera M. Hopper, Kate Houseman, Helen A. Hoyt, Charles O. James, Edith P. Johnson, Oliver P. Judson, Daniel P. Kay, Olive M. Kelley, Magda Kingsford, Jean Landon, Mildred B. Lathrop, Antoinette Lathrop, Helen A. Masselink, Gerrit Mather, Edwin J. Mattoon, Cecil D. May, Ernest R. Maycock, Elizabeth P. Mechem, Floyd McDonald, Mrs. Viola McKone, William J. McTavish, Jennie B. Miller, Emma A. Milliman, Mrs. Hazel Niz, J. Henry Nutten, A. M. Nye, Leone Olds, William E. Oxner, Dorothy R. Palmerlee, Charles E. Plympton, Mrs. Clara G. Porter, Mrs. Merle B. Post, Loren M. Postles, Mary Frances Ransom, Clara B. Roberts, Prof. Dimon H. Rubens, Joseph Schneider, Francis L. Scriver, Lillian Shea, Julia A. Sheehan, Sarah Sherwood, William E. Simpson, Carrie Smith, Burton E. Smith, Elsie E. Smith, Nellie Tanner, Russell J. Trempe, Anne VanOstran, Helen C. Warner, Esther Mabel Wenley, Prof. R. M. Wilson, Lois Wimple, Alice Yuill, Marjorie Ziwet, Dr. Alexander 1144 National Education Association Mississippi Cathey, Mrs. Elmer G. McLarty, C. A. Cowan, D. D. Oats, Mrs. A. C. French, Eunice Waller, C. S. Gay, J. C. McCleskey, H. L. White, Mrs. Carrie S. Montana Abbott, Mrs. Ralph Lund, Mrs. Alice Moody Batterton, Sally Malone, B. Elizabeth Bell, Margaret Merialdo, Isabel Brainerd, Bessie Lee Murphy, Ida Brown, Virginia Pack, Eva Clancy, Nellie B. Railsback, Mrs. Lucy Deshler, Mrs. Maude E. Reid, Dorothy Eggenberger, Dorothy Rose, Henriette Gray, Mary B. Sikes, Erie B. Branstrand, Mrs. Mabel Smith, Beth Hazard, Ann Smith, Spencer Howey, Robert Supple, James H. Irvine, Mrs. Lottie T. Wright, Annie L. Kelley, Elizabeth Kirkwood, J. E. VanHorn, C. W. New Jersey Dutcher, Edward H. Richards, Edwin Smith Hamblin, William O. Secor, Wandell B. Mackey, Dr. James T. Weintrob, Joseph McClelland, Thomas K. Walker, Joseph F Morris, George Walton, Edward Voorhees New York Mills, Harriett Melissa May, Samuel T. Huston, Nettie Brewington, Mattie Jane Brown, Aileen Cameron, William Carruth, Elizabeth Hale Doke, Elsie Estes, E. L. Foster, H. L. Gordon, Seth R. Haley, Fredabelle Henderson, Edward North Dakota Stebbins, W. C. Ohio Oklahoma Masters, G. Troy McAnally, Eunice Modrall, Mrs. J. R. Morris, Theodore Pinkerton, Mrs. Ira Boyd Roberts, Naomi Swofford, Charles J. Vance, A. W. Wagnon, Ollie Associational Records and Information 1145 Alderson, W. C. Connolly, George H. Fletcher, W. T. Grout, Daniel A. McCabe, Carrie Oregon Porter, Lillian Redding, Caroline Townsend, Mary L. Van Tyne, Daniel T. Avcock, W. T. Carpenter, Jane Clarke, Sarah Collins, Mr. Ellerbe, Omega Fant, Prof. A. T. Fox, Alberta Hand, W. H. Hastings, Mrs. A. M. Huckabee, Mrs. J. G. Jacobs, Miss South Carolina Johnson, Dr. D. B. King, Mrs. Faye Knox, W. D. Love, Mary Lyon, Major F. J. Moore, Dr. A. C. Steele, Mrs. Janie Mae Steward, Mrs. Walker, Mrs. J. T. Watkins, J. B. Bloom, Julia Brewster, Zoe Norma Brown, Mrs. Jennie C. Corcoran, Mrs. Lydia A. Curran, Mrs. Olive Emerson Davie, Mrs. Olive Klinefelter, Mrs. Grace Leder, Mrs. Clara E. McMurray, Dr. Charles Lance, Walter Byron Adams, W. M. Bond, Mrs. W'alker Chandler, A. B. Cox, Ida Sharp Dickinson, M. B. Dougherty, Robert M. Fentress, J. T. Hagan, E. S. South Dakota Martin, E. Marjorie May, S. T. Paddock, Mrs. Nellie Schmidt, Mrs. Clayton Simpson, Harold W. Slocum, Hon. R. M. Stefenson, Anna Tutle, George F. Tennessee Vermont Virginia Hall, Dr. John Leslie Hite, H. D. Lee, Mary B. Leighton, Fay Lewis, Dr. Frank W. Linganfelter, Flora M. Neale, Eliza P. Washington Andrews, Ethel Dickson, J. F. Kellv, .lane Martin. Mrs. L.eotu Sunquist, Ida 1146 National Education Association West Virginia Akers, Mrs. Earl Ball, W. T. Banks, Abbie Barrier, Edgar W. Belcher, Mrs. Amanda Bethel, Mrs. Georgia S. Black, Lee Brady, Lena Burge, Emma Gertrude Chapman, Andrew Chapman, Maria Chase, John E. Chase, Vernie Clater, Mrs. Florence Myrtle Cochran, W. T. Core, Mattie Ramsay Corker, Alice Deitz, J. W. Demastes, Otto Dolan, Nellie Eppling. W. E. Faulconer, Alice Garrett, C. E. Gatti, Frank Delli Gordon, Elizabeth Grogan, Frances Hager, Beulah Huff, Mrs. Ara B. Irvin, Winifred O. Jennings, M. R. Kilroy, Anna Fleming Lacy, Mrs. Mary Halpin Anderson, Nellie Bellamy, Margaret F. Belovsky, Elizabeth Mary Bovee, Myrtle Breckey, Erick T. Carey, Nora Carroll, Sarah J. Chapman, Mrs. Bernice Compton, L. M. Coogan, Helen Cunningham, Ruth Darling, Margaret J. Desmond, Teresa O. Dierchsmeier, Mae L. Droster, Mrs. Mildred Dunham, Carrie A. Enockson, Mrs. Rachel C. Featherston, Katherine Faughender, Prof. M. H. Lillard, Nellie Lilly, George W. Loudin, N. W. Maddox, Earnest McCutcheon, W. S. McGranahan, Arabella Mick, Worth Morriston, Alonzo T. Musseter, R. B. O’Dell,' Major S. Ownby, R. W. Pinson, Maude Clay Potts, A. F. Renolds, Mrs. Gertrude Reynolds, Mrs. Gertrude M. Reynolds, Snowden Rine, J. M. Roberts, Lakin Robinson, Mavme Rollins, Faye Rollyson, Ersel Rose, C. D. Skinner, G. E. Simmons, J. M. Simpson, Ella J. Slater, Myrtle Strahn, Morgan B. Taylor, Vera M. Tuggle, Elias Yandevort, Virginia Young, Sylva Wisconsin Fossberg, Emma Gere, Mary Gillette, Ada M. Greene, Frank L. Griffith, George K. Herfurth, Elizabeth Hickey, D. Edward Horan, Phyllis Jacobson, Hannah Jones, Mabel Jorden, Mrs. Susie Katze-Miller, A. C. Kemmerer, Dr. G. I. Kuehne, Anna Lake, Hazel B. Langan, Mary Larkin, Irene Lawrence, Rose E. Logan, Dr. J. D. Associational Records and Information 1147 MacNair, Sarah Malone, Nellie A. Metcalf, Dr. F. W. Miller, Harry L. O’Connor, Alaida H. O’Hara, Margaret R. Tarbell, Ada Munson Ayau, Harriet K. Bell, Mrs. Emma K. R. Hee, Mrs. Mary Lee Vonbrasek, Agnes Waters, Nora C. Welch, Isabella Wolske, Elizabeth Wright, Helen Louise Zick, Lillie Hawaii Kapohakimohew, David Nakao, Ernest FIRST LIFE MEMBERSHIP DINNER On Saturday, June 29, in the Ballroom of the Ansley Hotel, the first life membership dinner of the National Education Association was held. There was no formal program, but President Lamkin called the roll of states, and brief extemporaneous reports were made by the delegates from each. Several persons were presented with life certificates and gold pins at this time by their friends. Twenty new life members were enroled during the convention week. During the course of the dinner Mr. Siders was called upon to tell of the plans for the new headquarters building, which is being made possible through receipts from life memberships. The architect’s drawing of this building appears on page four. The impetus furnished by the dinner is seen in the fact that two hundred new life memberships have been received since the Atlanta Convention up to September 10. Between courses the delegates from Hawaii furnished several musical numbers. The following life members were in attendance at this dinner P Alabama John W. Abercrombie J. E. Bryan Ora V. Cowan Harriett E. Dobbins Laura McGehee Merrie Lois MacKenzie Mrs. J. Alexander Moore J. Alexander Moore Lula B. Stubblefield R. E. Tidwell Mrs. N. B. Van Wagenen N. B. Van Wagenen J. D. Williams Arkansas Mrs. J. W. Ramsey J. W. Ramsey J. P. Womack 1 The list is incomplete because a number California Arthur H. Chamberlain A. R. Clifton Miriam D. Eisner Willard E. Givens Mrs. Percy F. Glover J. M. Gwinn Christine Jacobsen Daisy E. Kearne Mary Etta Keegan Hortense A. MacKeever Mrs. Alice R. Norton Georgia B. Parsons Albert M. Shaw F. L. Thurston Edwin B. Tilton Ida M. Waite failed to leave their names and addresses. 1148 National Education Association Colorado Mary C. C. Bradford Anna Laura Force Lucy Hunsaker Mae A. Plumb Margaret Mendenhall Smith Mrs. D. B. Steele Delaware Harry V. Holloway M. Channing Wagner District of Columbia H. A. Allan Lyle W. Ashby Harriett M. Chase William John Cooper J. W. Crabtree Harry English Belmont Farley Edith Louise Grosvenor Helen T. Hixson Frank W. Hubbard T. D. Martin Joy E. Morgan John K. Norton Laura B. Randall Sherwood D. Shankland Walter R. Siders J. A. Tennyson Mabel E. Wheelock Chari Williams H. B. Wilson Agnes Winn Florida C. C. Carson Ruby Barrett Carson Kenneth B. Hait R. J. Longstreet Jennings Rehwinkel Harold Rinalden Saunders B. O. Smith Georgia Beulah Adamson Kyle T. Alfriend J. I. Allman Mrs. Pearl Moss Allman M. L. Brittain C. K. Curry Mrs. W. P. Davis J. C. Dixon Katharine Dozier I. S. Ingram Walter P. Jone9 L. M. Lester Mrs. D. B. McCoy W. S. Nicholson J. W. Phagan Mary W. Postell Maude A. Rhodes Mrs. H. B. Ritchie H. B. Ritchie ' Mrs. Ellis D. Robb Gordon G. Singleton Willis A. Sutton Geo. Harris Webber Mrs. Jere A. Wells Jere A. Wells Hawaii Lily K. Auld Louise V. Boyum Mrs. Flora Beecher Brown Alice A. Carter Maude K. Farden Mary Ruth Ferreira Charles N. P. Henry Ernest L. Hood Mrs. V. H. Johnson V. H. Johnson Leinani Kamai Doris M. Keppeler Mrs. O. E. Long Oren E. Long Edwin K. Lindsey Mrs. D. P. McGregor Dorothea Morita Edith S. Patrick H. Alton Rogers Mrs. Emma K. Sharpe Ernest de Silya Samuel K. Toomey Mrs. Thomas B. Vance Thomas B. Vance Mrs. Sarah B. West Mrs. C. C. Wise C. C. Wise James Heen Wong Idaho Myrtle Ramey Davis Charles F. Dienst Illinois J. C. Gamback Charles J. Lunak N. M. Mason Charlotte Russell John W. Thalman David E. Walker Associational Records and Information 1149 Indiana J. C. Black O. H. Greist Charles F. Miller H. L. Smith Iowa Edna Gibbs Agnes Helbig Esther Helbig May A. Hills Regina Hurley Mary A. Lord Lucile March Agnes Samuelson Loretta Van Ness Myra G. Willis Kansas Mayme E. McCoy Louisiana Annie T. Bell Amy H. Hinrichs Alice Louise Smith Maine Augustus O. Thomas Massachusetts Florence Barnard Elizabeth Bosworth Mrs. B. R. Buckingham B. R. Buckingham Annie Drew Dunham S. Monroe Graves Mabel A. Rhoades Julia A. Sheehan Annie C. Woodward Michigan Jessie M. Fink Webster H. Pearce Minnesota Effie MacGregor Helen B. Shove Mrs. Genevive Stone Mississippi E. E. Bass • Missouri Uel W. Lamkin W. H. Martin M. G. Neale Minnie A. Shaffer Kathryn E. Spangler Nebraska Jennie B. Adams Annie M. T. Cogil Arnott L. Folsom E. Ruth Pyrtle Clara M. Slade New Jersey Florence M. Dickinson Mrs. I. Newton Earle I. N. Earle Mary E. Evaul Mary A. Fenimore Henry P. Miller Elizabeth C. Saunders New Mexico Mrs. H. F. Brock New York Thomas E. Finegan Charles Holzmarth James F. Hosic George D. Taylor North Carolina T. Wingate Andrews H. A. Carroll Mrs. H. T. Hunter H. T. Hunter Elizabeth C. Morriss N. C. Newbold Mrs. John S. Seymour John S. Seymour North Dakota Minnie Jean Nielson L. A. White Ohio Georgia W. Aiken Clara Danman L. C. Dick J. O. Engleman Blanche E. K. Evans Helen Frisbie Kate M. Offerman F. E. Reynolds J. W. Whitmer C. E. Wigton Oklahoma P. P. Claxton John G. Mitchell Oregon Mrs. Nettie Rankin Bolland Frank C. Fitzpatrick 1150 National Education Association Gertrude Fitzpatrick Ada C. McLaughlin Mrs. E. D. Towler E. D. Towler Porto Rico Nistor I. Vincenty Francisco Vizcarrondo Pennsylvania William M. Davidson C. R. Foster Ray L. Huff J. Herbert Kelley Mary S. McDonough Joseph F. Noonan A. D. Thomas Maud J. Walker David A. Ward S. E. Weber Harold C. Whiteside South Carolina J. P. Coates Myrtle C. Venable George W. Wannamaker Kate V. Wofford T ennessee Samuel L. Ragsdale K. W. Warden T exas Mamie S. Bastian Mary Dibrell Carlisle Mrs. George R. Felter Mrs. Edna James William Alonzo James Eva G. Pinkston L. W. Rogers Utah Deta P. Neeley N. Glen Neeley Matilda Peterson V ermont Caroline S. Woodruff Virginia Cornelia S. Adair Lucy Mason Holt Flossie Jackson Edith B. Joynes Antoinette Pool Mary Price Joseph H. Saunders JVashington Josephine Corliss Preston Jean L. Soules West Virginia Mrs. W. H. S. White W. H. S. White Wisconsin Edgar G. Doudna B. E. McCormick Carroll G. Pearse Who’s Who In The Profession The list of life members includes the names of many of the most outstand¬ ing teachers and leaders in education in the nation. It does not include all whose names merit a place in “Who’s Who in the Profession" but it in¬ cludes 2700 names, and within a few years it will be still more representa¬ tive of the leaders in all teaching groups: the classroom teachers, professors, supervisors, principals, superintendents, and college presidents. A list of life members will be published in pamphlet form each year for the annual convention. The list of new life members is printed each month in The Journal. Those listed in this “Who’s Who" have been chosen with great care. They have been recommended by the officers of state organizations, by superintendents, and by life members. No commercial agency, in the preparation of its “Who’s Who,’’ has a basis of selection comparable to this plan. There is an increasing number who are presented life memberships by faculties, associations, and communities as a mark of appreciation for out- Associatioxal Records and Information 1151 standing service in the schools and in education. A history of the educa¬ tion, the experience, and the achievements of each life member is on file in the headquarters office. A few of the states have started the practise of having life membership dinners and programs at meetings of the state as¬ sociations and at other times. President Lamkin arranged for the first dinner for life members at the Atlanta convention. These dinners will doubtless be featured hereafter in the plans for annual meetings of state and national associations. They will bring together on important occasions the builders of our profession. Membership of the National Education Association OFFICIAL COUNT Made January 1 of Each Year for the Year Preceding 1908 Alabama . 55 Arizona . 20 Arkansas . 17 California . 249 Colorado . 75 Connecticut. .- . 58 Delaware . 9 District of Columbia. 47 Florida . 16 Georgia . . . 50 Idaho . 21 Illinois . 420 Indiana . 128 Iowa . 93 Kansas . 84 Kentucky . 60 Louisiana . 42 Maine . 32 Maryland . 55 Massachusetts . 332 Michigan . 139 Minnesota . 145 Mississippi . 16 Missouri . 216 Montana . 21 Nebraska . 71 Nevada . 4 New Hampshire . 30 New Jersey . 198 New Mexico . 13 New York . 948 North Carolina . 23 North Dakota . 42 Ohio . 349 Oklahoma . 23 Oregon . 19 Pennsylvania ...... 325 Rhode Island . 32 South Carolina . 22 South Dakota . 40 Tennessee . 31 Texas . 48 Utah . JO Vermont . 30 Virginia . 40 Washington . 68 West Virginia . 24 Wisconsin . 160 Wyoming . 12 Alaska . Canal Zone . Hawaii . . Porto Rico . Philippine Islands . Virgin Islands . Foreign . . 4,982 1918 1922 1923 64 562 708 37 922 1,107 33 128 327 432 7,429 9,592 140 3,173 3,820 102 665 1,319 13 342 343 % 476 595 33 169 320 74 193 231 48 438 497 783 8,333 7,475 207 2,517 3,137 185 5,552 5,944 195 1,047 1,399 85 363 431 64 835 932 51 1,504 2,105 94 447 529 366 2,049 10,656 251 5,599 7,466 103 1,759 2,281 38 135 156 512 3,029 3,234 60 389 337 114 2,278 2,651 19 347 310 38 321 625 280 2,944 3,407 33 340 384 1,230 3,575 10,031 62 286 323 83 418 497 584 7,193 8,383 95 793 1.252 154 605 1,041 535 4,213 6,279 47 99 215 31 63 89 51 563 785 60 508 615 138 862 1,089 66 2,761 2,879 40 224 398 88 942 1,082 144 2,857 3,413 114 473 736 277 4,227 3,316 22 814 1,271 89 92 2 3 664 1,168 187 27 487 519 1 10 205 123 140 8,557 87,414 118,032 1924 1925 1926 824 1,016 1,052 1,477 1,669 2,015 380 442 641 14,490 15,213 15,006 4,222 4,284 4,430 1,527 1,770 1,798 511 752 838 745 1,949 1,702 440 1,051 1,410 362 459 545 564 621 973 9,332 8,961 9,166 3,393 4,437 8,553 5,501 3,536 3,625 1,646 1,890 2,478 487 543 1,138 989 1,026 926 2,087 1,867 2,059 858 1,567 1,714 10,540 6,197 5,855 8,234 8,977 9,890 2,802 2,704 3,267 167 273 407 3,403 3,176 3,213 258 333 369 2,877 2,721 2,735 485 562 638 619 557 522 3,715 4,269 5,150 293 319 313 11,194 9,973 8,930 337 430 531 620 584 566 9,271 9,881 12,790 1,611 1,477 1,568 1.589 2.288 2,962 7.259 10,423 14,033 254 322 351 120 484 639 874 1 .066 1,206 746 869 1,161 1,593 2,049 2,943 1,651 1,678 1,784 374 432 364 1,286 1,480 1,557 3,297 3,334 3,878 1,129 1,810 2,840 3,442 3,428 3,832 1,363 1,198 1,126 112 105 107 3 2 2 1,461 1,827 1,927 54 67 62 432 221 205 108 123 137 156 164 171 133,565 138,856 158,103 1927 1928 1929 1,142 1,150 1,331 2,095 2,196 2,262 765 810 857 17,924 18,497 19,486 4,450 4,582 4,663 1,986 1,997 2,051 802 756 721 1,449 1,432 1,370 2,225 2,819 2,651 671 645 1,909 950 1,049 1,050 9,303 11,253 11,197 6,439 5,315 5,902 3,313 3,342 3,342 2,696 2,789 3,020 1,244 t 1,321 1,362 906 770 636 1,782 1,643 1,769 1,371 952 882 5,415 5,646 6,340 10,311 11,256 12,230 3,800 5,773 7,518 312 274 361 3,186 2,975 3,219 313 612 886 2,602 2,376 2,313 684 778 753 460 431 454 6,488 7,173 7,678 286 354 430 9,278 8,666 10,315 634 716 854 508 517 588 14,587 16.785 19,490 1,565 1,801 1,781 2,877 2,316 2,794 17,650 18,459 19,316 474 319 371 614 633 - 635 1,188 1,198 1,288 1.126 1,115 1,457 3,726 4.997 3,469 2,093 2,562 2.842 330 417 450 1,717 1,794 2,015 5,465 6,899 5,625 2,729 2,603 2,513 3,826 4,062 4,228 1,133 1,206 1,146 163 161 161 95 107 65 2,506 2,593 2,624 64 79 86 59 83 110 108 105 56 168 203 223 170,053 181,350 193,145 The next official count will be made January 1, 1930. Will it be 210,000? We can reach that goal by a little extra effort. Let every school, every city, every county and state see that it maintains its enrolment of last year. Let everv school and college not already 100 percent show as large gains as possible. 1152 National Education Association THE SECRETARY’S REPORT I. Education for a New World The theme, education for a new world, brings one face to face with the place of education in civilization itself. There is need for a new definition of civilization. In the minds of too many thinkers it is static and material. They are inclined to meas- A NEW DEFINITION ure it in terms of parthenons, coliseums, cathedrals, OF CIVILIZATION 0r great factories. Other students of civilization think of it in terms of governments or empires and consider that age greatest when empires have been vast, powerful, and domi¬ nating. Yet others think of civilization in terms of great literatures or beautiful art or noble music. But deeper than these things lies the force that makes them possible and that force is in the skill, the health, the intelligence, and the purpose of the masses of the people. These factors are more abiding than government. They accumulate bit by bit through the long sweep HUMAN VALUES ARE of time. They move ahead now slowly, now fast, THE REAL VALUES but throughout the centuries whatever may have happened to the material things or to the govern¬ ments of the world, the human race has pushed steadily forward and up¬ ward. The real gains of civilization are found in the improvement of man himself. The real makers of history are the teachers. The real values are the human values. The eternal resources are right ideals. Leaders like Horace Mann and Henry Barnard have a significance far beyond the recog¬ nition that has been given them. Their quickening influence is imperish¬ able. Who can measure the value to America and to the world of Horace Mann’s abiding and eloquent faith in the unprovability of the race ? Who can estimate the fruits of that faith as it has reached out in the growth of a public school system with free opportunity from the elementary school to the college — with a mighty army of four million fine young people in the high schools alone? No one who understands the force of education need be pessimistic about the days that are ahead. The rapid changes now taking place in education and industry have created a situation like that which faced the pioneers who conquered the wilderness. As we ride on the A NEW PERIOD OF current ourselves we cannot realize the speed of im- PIONEERING portant lines of progress. Neither can we realize the challenge which this progress brings to the new race of young people that is coming on. If the pressure of early day needs and opportunities developed the initiative and vision which gave us the first leaders who outlined broad policies on which to build our system of education for democracy, are we not justified in forecasting that present Associational Records and Information 1153 opportunities are developing an even larger number of educational thinkers and doers? Everywhere among us leadership of the first quality is rising to meet the challenge for pioneer work. All about us in education we have men and women with the ideals of Horace Mann and Henry Barnard — with vision, with earnest purpose, and with effective habits of work. These are the men and women who will multiply our great reservoir of human wealth. This human wealth with its skill, its intelligence, its health, and its purpose is the field of education. And what may education not accom¬ plish during the century that lies ahead? Looking back to the year 1829 we find the United States a small nation with a population of less than 12,000,000 — an infant in the family of nations, an agricultural people liv¬ ing in isolated communities, Boston and Albany not yet connected by rail¬ roads, most of our labor saving devices still in the future. Today air travel is further developed than the railroads were in 1829, radio is further developed than the distribution of books and newspapers was in 1829, and there looms on the eastern horizon the dawn of a new day which will see such a widening of outlook and opportunity for the average man and woman as lies beyond our utmost dreams. Humanity faces its battles against ignorance, poverty, prejudice, and vice with a powerful accumulation of forces. It is the task of education to lay hold of these forces and to use them in the betterment of human life. A century ago men thought of education as a means of preserving the past — they now think of EDUCATION TO IM- education as a means of improving the future. Our PROVE THE FUTURE schools arouse among an increasing number of peo¬ ple the desire for excellence and for happiness. In proportion as we are able to multiply the number of people who really desire excellence and hap¬ piness to the point where they are willing to sacrifice, and to work and think and plan for these ends, we are truly a civilized people. Such rapid changes as civilization now faces constitute a challenge to education. The very existence of a family, or a community, or a nation, or a race depends on the soundness of its educational ideas. America needs as it faces the new world a philosophy of education. It needs understanding of the values of human life. PHILOSOPHY OF It needs dedication to the higher values. It needs EDUCATION NEEDED determination to build its life around these higher values. It needs to emphasize the constructive phase of life rather than the pathological phase. The fundamental values are not new. They are as old as the race itself. Whatever form our governments may take, what¬ ever form the material aspects of our civilization may assume, the under¬ lying challenge of civilization is for conquest of self, for beauty, for power, for freedom from the things that keep man down — for excellence and happiness of life. Perhaps during the century ahead we may see the resources that have hitherto been squandered in countless wars turned into constructive chan- 1154 National Education Association EDUCATION FOR WORLD COOPERA¬ TION SCHOOLS MUST MEET INCREASING DEMANDS nels. Perhaps we shall come to realize that it pays in the end to spend money, huge sums of money, in the education of nations to work together before the disaster of war comes. Perhaps we shall be able to encourage travel among teachers, to de¬ velop appreciation of the gifts of the various races, to create commissions to study the major problems of the race which know no national boundaries and which will be with us until they are solved in the spirit of sympathetic cooperation. If education is to serve the new world, if the schools and the school people are to rise to the challenge to take their place as the makers of history, the profession itself must build upon the foundations that have been laid. The second section of this report analyses certain lines of educational advance and forecasts progress during the next ten years. II. Forecasting Educational Progress for the Next Ten Years The increasing importance of the school as a social institution — Society’s demands on the school are greater than ever before. One problem after another of modern civilization is laid on the doorsteps of the schools — character development, right civic ideals, law ob¬ servance, reverence, health, worthy home life, vo¬ cational efficiency, thrift, fire prevention, interna¬ tional understanding, and temperance. What is the meaning of this fact? There are many conjectures, but this is a certainty — the schools must progress in certain definite direc¬ tions if they are to keep up with, to say nothing of guiding future develop¬ ment. What are the lines in which progress will be made by the schools in the next decade? The following are among those that stand out: Profes¬ sional spirit, qualifications of teachers, removal of illiteracy, changes in courses of study and methods of instruction, training for the use of leisure, public school finance, adult education, growth of the National Education Association, greater efficiency in professional organization, school enrolment and extensions of the principle of equality of educational opportunity. I. 7 'he next ten years and improved professional spirit — Professional spirit is an attitude of mind which places social wellbeing ahead of per¬ sonal profit. The professional, in contrast to the tradesman, asks himself first how his energy is going to result in the largest social contribution — in a contribution to the upbuilding of the good life. The professional spirit of teachers will grow for two reasons. The science of education has developed rapidly in the last two decades. In the next ten years, it will continue to develop, with the result that the amount of exact knowledge that can be brought to bear on the problem of educat¬ ing children will be greatly increased. As knowledge increases, teachers will work more intelligently. To illustrate: From the application of the knowledge of individual differences will come a more alert and professional teacher — one who Associational Records and Information 1155 BROADER UNDER¬ STANDING FOSTERS PROFESSIONAL SPIRIT realizes that each pupil is an individual, whose abilities, interests, and needs must be discovered, and that the teacher must become an expert ed¬ ucational diagnostician. From the study of the im¬ portance of the early primary years, and the more intensive study of pupils at all levels, will come the realization of education as a unit process and the necessity for close articulation of the work of one school year with another, and the work of the school with life. As a corollary to this better articulation will come the teacher who will see the importance of the particular administrative school unit in which he is working, but who will see it as a part of the whole educational process. As he sees the relation of his particular subject, grade, or unit to the whole, he will have greater respect for his own work and the important relation which other phases of educational work have to his. In other words, teachers will have a greater professional spirit as each one sees that his work is a part of a complete educational system, i. e., as he. takes a vertical view of education rather than a view of a single grade or administrative unit. The next ten years will bring teachers to the place where, along with their present enthusiasm and social purpose, they will have the necessary knowledge and skill, which will go much further in realizing individual and social values. Their good intentions will be more scientifically and wisely directed. They will not be less enthusiastic, but more intelligent, for their understanding of how children learn and of the place of education in modern life will be broadened and deepened. Let us always remember that true professional spirit can be created only in a profession that thinks primarily of the service which it should render to society. One of the outcomes of teachers’ increased professional spirit will be the public’s greater respect for the teaching profession. Respect is the outgrowth of the realization, on the part of the public in general, that a group of workers is making an important and skilled contribution to progress. II. What the next ten years will bring in the qualifications of teachers — The growth of the science of education inevitably calls for its counter¬ part — people in possession of this knowledge who understand its signifi¬ cance for social progress. This has been true of everv profession. To illustrate from the field of medicine — along with the rapid increase of exact knowledge in this field has gone a corresponding lifting of the standards and length of training re¬ quired of those entering the medical profession. Likewise in nursing, which formerly was one of the lowliest of occupations, along with the increase in the amount of exact knowledge which can be used effectively in this field have come much higher training requirements. The principle that growth of exact knowledge in an important field implies carefully PROFESSIONAL SPIRIT RESULTS IN PUBLIC APPRECIATION HIGHER TRAINING REQUIREMENTS NECESSARY 1156 National Education Association CANDIDATES FOR TEACHER TRAINING TO BE CAREFULLY SELECTED prepared, professional people to apply this knowledge is applicable to education. Its implications for teacher-training institutions are clear. In the future, they must do a better job. What are some of the directions in which teacher-training institutions will improve their work? 1. Teacher-training institutions wall select with greater care those who are candidates for the important work of teaching the nation’s chil¬ dren. Back-door admission to teaching through examination is still possible in some communities; within the next decade, it will be completely closed. Within ten years, none but high-school graduates will be admitted to any teacher-training institution. This standard has already been reached in the better established in¬ stitutions. More careful consideration will be given to each candidate’s innate qualifications for teaching. Such matters as intelligence, cultural background, personal appearance, health, and social acceptability will be considered. Progress will be made in ability to meas¬ ure the qualities which promise success in teaching. 2. Teacher-training institutions will give much more attention to the guidance of those admitted. Ten years from now professional schools for teachers will be in possession of the facts as to the total number of teachers required, and the number needed for par- EVENING UP SUPPLY ticular lines of work, such as elementary, secondary, AND DEMAND and collegiate, and the number needed in special subject fields. The result will be that the sharpness of the periods of oversupply and undersupply of teachers will be decreased. What will be gained ? Such a procedure will be far more economical. Students will not spend years preparing for teaching and then be forced to enter other lines of work, or be obliged to accept teaching positions for which they have not been trained and in which they will not function effectively. A reasonable balance between teacher supply and demand will be worked out. To train many more teachers than there are avail¬ able positions is waste. 3. Better courses and better coordination of courses will be worked out by teacher-training institutions. A proper balance of general and profes¬ sional education will be worked out in our teacher-training institutions. Emphasis on methods will not outweigh the em¬ phasis on subjectmatter, and vice versa. Teachers need a thorough grounding in the subjects which they are to teach as well as professional training in educational theory and methods. Both of these types of training are fundamental for every teacher. 4. The length of preservice training will increase. However well teacher-training institutions may do their work in the future, it cannot be done in one, two, or three years beyond high-school graduation. We COORDINATION AND BALANCE IN TRAINING 1157 Associational Records and Information should soon reach the time when the equivalent of four years of training above the high school will be required of all elementary teachers, and five years for junior and senior high-school teachers. Within the next ten years, the state will take over CERTIFICATION BY exclusive authority in the certification of teachers. THE STATE Certification will be on the basis of training and personal qualification, rather than on the basis of examinations. Within each of the forty-eight state departments of education there will be an office which centralizes and coordinates all information concerning certifica¬ tion and placement within that state. III. What the next ten years will accomplish in the removal of illit¬ eracy — During the next ten years, a new definition of literacy will be de¬ veloped and accepted. The Census Bureau in 1920 classified as illiterate any person ten years of age or over who was unable to write in any lan¬ guage, not necessarily English, regardless of ability to read. According to the 1920 census reports the illiterate population should be understood as representing only those persons who had had no schooling whatever. The figures for illiteracy from 1870 to 1920, according to the Bureau of the Census, were as follows: Year Total number of illiterates Percent of population illiterate 1870 5,658,144 20.0 1880 6,239,958 17.0 1890 6,324,702 13.3 1900 6,180,069 10.7 1910 5,516,163 7.7 1920 4,931,905 6.0 In 1920 illiteracy was nearly four times as prevalent in rural as in urban communities; in the cities, 1.82 per cent of the native-born were illiterate, while the percentage in the rural districts was 7.01. Only a small responsibility for illiteracy can be placed upon immigra¬ tion. Of the five million illiterates enumerated at the last census, over three million, or sixty-two per cent, were native-born. Of these 1,109,875 were native white of native white parentage. If we accept the literacy definition of the 1920 census, but a small fraction of our illiterate population have been lifted into the literate class. A large part of the first job of giving our entire citizenry enough educa¬ tion to enable it to read is done, or will be completed ten years from now. Within the next decade, however, a new definition of illiteracy will be developed. In place of the minimum definition of 1920, one more suited to the present demands of our country will be employed. A person will not be considered literate until he can HIGHER STANDARDS read a newspaper or magazine with reasonable speed 0F LITERACY and comprehension and is able to write letters with moderate speed and legibility. The need for a new definition of literacy was strikingly brought out during the war. Illiteracy in the draft meant 1158 National Education Association WILL CREATE NEW TASK OF ERADICA¬ TION a lack of the “ability to read and understand newspapers and write letters home. Applying this test, 24.9 percent of the men examined in the draft were illiterate. The. EE S. Bureau of the Census has already wisely recognized the need for a redefinition of literacy. A new test of literacy is being planned which proposes that a literate person be able “to read English understand¬ ing^,” with the interpretation that “understand- inglv” means the completion of at least the fourth grade. If this definition can be applied in the 1930 census — certainly it will be in 1940 — the result will be a new objective as far as literacy is con¬ cerned. It is not too much to hope that in the near future a citizen will not be considered literate until he possesses reading and writing ability equal to that ordinarily possessed by a sixth-grade pupil. When the new, twentieth century definition of literacy has been accepted, a whole new task of eradicating illiteracy will be created. At the present time, accord¬ ing to the new definition, it is probable that twenty-five to thirty per¬ cent of our population is illiterate. While, for the immediate future, the eradication of illiteracy may be regarded as one aspect of the program of adult education, ultimately the eradication of illiteracy— particularly according to the new definition pro¬ posed here — will come through the development of ADEQUATE SCHOOL our reSu^ar schools. The effort to make the nation OPPORTUNITY WILL literate by teaching its illiterate adults to read and write is commendable, but the ultimate solution of this problem will depend on the extension ot ade¬ quate educational opportunities to all boys and girls. This will involve the improvement of our rural schools. As rural schools are more adequately financed, as school attendance laws become more comprehensive, as child labor laws become more effective, and as schools better meet the needs of individual children, illiteracy will be con¬ fined more and more to that unfortunate group of mental defectives who are incapable of learning to read. IV. The next ten years and better courses of study and methods of in¬ struction — The building of better courses of study is one of the funda¬ mental movements in American education. The archaic curriculum should be little more than vestigial in ten years. The old INCREASING EM- will give place to adaptations necessary to adjust PHASIS ON GROWTH the school to changing social needs. The new cur- THROUGH PRACTISE rjculurn now developing will not be a static product, but a changing, flexible instrument. Education moves toward the attempt to equip a man with that as¬ sortment of abilities, habits, skills, and powers of judgment involved in actual daily living. It no longer aims to make a walking encyclopedia. Associational Records and Information 1159 “LIBERAL” EDUCA¬ TION KEEPS PACE WITH LIFE The end is to make a man competent in his affairs, not to stuff his mem¬ ory, whether by good methods or bad, with things little related to those affairs. The end is power to live — not cold-storage information and non¬ functioning skills. The way to acquire power is to live. There is no other formula. Pupils acquire abilities, habits, attitudes, and powers of judgment involved in living the community life of today and tomorrow by so living today that they are called upon to exercise these abilities and powers of judgment. Knowledge is involved — much of it; but as some¬ thing to be used, not a decoration. Courses of study will deal more with the student’s present need and less with problems of the past which have little connection with life today; and they will also look to the futuie and attempt to train youth for a changing civilization. Ten years from now, courses of study will be “liberal” in the original sense. Greek education trained for life of that day. Because it was suc¬ cessful, we have taken it over and applied it to the twentieth century. What we should have adopted was the Greek prin¬ ciple of training, application to life, rather than its content. The best wTay to train pupils for life ten years from now is to have them participate in the highest form of presentday living, adapted to their level of growth and individual capacities. The fact that the curriculum ten years from now will be a changing curriculum means that it will be less efficient, and at the same time more efficient. It will be less efficient than a traditional, formalized curriculum in that a considerable part of the subjectmatter content, pupil activities, and methods of instruction will be experimental and tentative, and will lack the refinement which a more static curriculum possesses as a result of having been reworked and refined many times. One of the inevitable accompaniments of a developing organization is a measure of chaos. A business concern, such as the Ford factory, does not hesitate to scrap its organization and machinery and remake itself. Dur¬ ing this reorganization period, there is more or less chaos; and the old factory with its old machinery would have functioned more effectively during this interim. However, the new organization, if properly de¬ veloped, is eventually proficient in its procedure, and the new product excels that produced in the past. The school of 1880 did excellent work in training a small and select percent of our population, using a traditional curriculum. The rank and file of the population picked up outside of the school most of the training essential for more or less success- CHANGE DIFFICULT ful living in the relatively simple life of that day. BUT NECESSARY TO Such a conception of education will not do for 1929, IMPROVEMENT and it will be even less acceptable in 1939. We must boldly scrap many of our former conceptions of education and much of the material with which it was carried on. We must think of 1160 National Education Association education in universal terms, as training 100 percent of our young people, and helping each individual to find the niche in our complex civilization into which he can fit with the greatest efficiency and happiness. We must not be dismayed if a measure of chaos accompanies the process of develop¬ ment. Our curriculum and courses of study of the future: (1) Will be con¬ stantly changing; (2) will train for life; (3) will taken account of: (a) the facts of child growth, (b) psychological arrangement, (c) adapta¬ tions, to individual differences, (d) the vocations, and (e) the larger objectives. We are going to be less concerned with the sanctity of subjects, the logic and order of their arrangement — we will have less reverence for subject- matter simply because it has been used a long time. We will be less con¬ cerned with knowledge as an end in itself, and more concerned with knowledge in action. Let us now focus the above principles on a particular field, health edu¬ cation, and illustrate the changes which their application will bring about in that field. 1. What does a changing curriculum imply in HOW THE NEW health education? It means that pupils must be CURRICULUM WILL taught not merely to apply presentday knowledge; IMPROVE HEALTH but they must also understand the evolution of facts and theories, and the truth that each year brings us new knowledge, wffiich must be applied in daily living, if man is going to have as complete a control over his physical life as possible. 2. What does a curriculum which trains for life imply in health educa¬ tion? The lengthening of the span of human life is one of the expected outcomes of such teaching. Health education, along with sanitary meas¬ ures, has already undoubtedly had a large share in lengthening the average span of human life which in 1900 was 49 years, in 1910, 51 years, in 1920, 55 years, and in 1921, 58 years. After passing the first few years when the hazards are great, the child who has reached his fifth birthdav has an average chance of living to be sixty-two years old. The application of health knowledge to life is also rapidly reducing infant mortality. According to the U. S. Bureau of the Census, in 1915 in urban communities there were 103 deaths of infants under one year of age per 1000 live births; for rural communities, the number was 94. In 1927 this number had been reduced to 65 for urban communities and to 64 for rural. Infant mortality has been reduced approximately one-third in the past twelve years. The value of parent education in the scientific care of children cannot be entirely measured by lower death rates. Children are not only kept alive hut are in better physical condition as a result of better care: but Associatioxal Records and Information 1161 no statistical comparison of these gains is possible. What does a curriculum less concerned "with logical arrangement of subjectmatter mean in terms of health education ? It means that instead of having a child learn the names of all the hones in the bodv HEALTH HABITS _ and chart the nervous system, he will be encouraged THE PRIMARY AIM to practise health habits twenty-four hours each day. V. The school and wiser use of leisure during the next ten years — Leis¬ ure is defined as that part of the day not closely tied up with vocational pursuits. It is obvious that the proportion of one’s life which is neces¬ sary to devote to vocational activities is decreasing. It is not new to say that the school must take some account of this fact. All indications at present suggest that the proportion of life available for avocational pursuits will still further increase in the next decade. By the same sign, we may expect the responsibility of the school in training for the nonvocational side of life to increase rather than decrease. Along what lines will the school come to a better fulfilment of its responsibility in training for leis- a BROADER SCHOOL ure time? PROGRAM First, the “extra” in extracurriculum activities will tend to vanish. These activities will become an integral part of the school system. Second, the school will seek to develop in every child a range of inter¬ ests and certain initial avocational skills rather than try to complete the individual’s education. Both by material and method used, the school will recognize, in practise as well as in theory, that the period of formal school attendance is a beginning rather than an ending of the pupil’s education. The results of recent research in adult education have effectively dis¬ pelled any illusions that may have existed that the period of formal school attendance is the only, or even the most effective period of learning. We know with reasonable certainty that most individuals do not reach the most effective age for learning until after they have left school ; and that the loss in ability to learn is insignificant until one reaches a relatively ad¬ vanced age. In the past our attitude often has been that all a child was going to get in the way of an education had to be secured while in fulltime school attendance; now we are beginning to look upon schooling as a taste which will create a lifelong appetite for learning. This changed viewpoint will radically modify methods of teaching. In our classes in literature in the future, we will be far less interested in guiding the pupil to dissect passages and to make logical analyses of the world’s literary masterpieces, READING WILL BE and far more interested in offering him an oppor- MADE A PLEASURE tunitv to read under conditions relatively undisturbed by adult viewpoints. Instead of dissecting a few poems and essays, large numbers of acceptable pieces of literature will be read, in which the 1162 National Education Association element of interest to the particular pupil is high. Children voluntary repeat those activities which give them pleasure and, as a result, habits are formed. The habit of reading for sheer enjoyment as well as for the purpose of securing information should he developed during the formal school period. In the field of music during the next decade, we will be far less interested in forcing the technics of a professional musician upon the unwilling child, and far more interested in offering children the opportunity to hear good music under conditions which increase appreciation. MUSIC APPRECIA- Too often the memory of wonderfully fine concerts TION EMPHASIZED [s made distasteful to pupils, because after each concert they are forced to write about it or discuss it from an adult, rather than from their own, point of view. Those school systems which provide instruction on musical instruments are catering largely to avocational rather than vocational interests, and rightly so. The amount of such instruction should greatly increase during the next ten years, as should also the number of courses offered in music appreciation. Depending upon the tastes cultivated in the schools, the radio will bring into the home symphony orchestra or jazz. More attention will be given to developing an appreciation of art. A trip abroad is no longer the only means by which one can become ac¬ quainted first-hand with the finest interpretations of life through line and mass and color. Within the next ten years there EMPHASIS ON ART will not only be more public art galleries but they APPRECIATION will be used more. Some of the school time formerly devoted to “drawing” will be spent in art galleries. In the fields of literature, of music, and of art, the school’s function is not to turn out writers, musicians, and artists. It may offer a prevoca- tional training for some, but for the great majority, the thought should be future avocational pursuits. Indelibly and securely, public education should weave permanent and desirable recreational interests into the fabric of American youth by the end of the secondary school period. Enrichment of life will come through the right use of leisure. Edu¬ cation, both in the lower schools and in adult education, will more and more endeavor to equip for the wise use of leisure, the pursuit of activi¬ ties which energize rather than enervate the people. VI. TVhat the next ten years will bring in adult education — Both labor and capital predict a five-day working week within ten years. Along with this will come the clearer realization that the period LIFELONG LEARN- of school attendance is the beginning, not the com- ING THE AIM pletion, of an education. The fallacy that there can¬ not be education save within four walls, over the door of which is the word “school,” will disappear. The work done in the schools will be the focal center, where skills in the tool subjects, Associational Records and Information 1163 habits of study, a wide variety of interests, a spirit of inquiry, and powers of analysis and judgment will be sufficiently developed so that learning will continue throughout life. We are only at the beginning of the adult education movement in America. The “schools of the air,” made possible by radio, will in time reach every man, woman, and child. The service of public libraries will continue to multiply. Lyceums, lectures, instructional films, periodical literature, and the public press will all play important roles in the adult education movement. This movement means a new concept of education, and through it we shall find the solution of many of our difficult social problems. Parent education as a phase of adult education is an undeveloped field, rich in possibility for better born and better nurtured children. It will bring children to our schools who can be taught to better advantage. It will mean greatly increased satisfaction for parents in their family life. Adults will attend classes where the subjects of discussion will be as varied as the interests of society; their attendance will be voluntary be¬ cause of the happiness they get from living a bigger life. A heavy responsibility is placed upon the educators of America to so plan adult education that the needs and interests of America will be served — that the “thirst for knowledge” will become more and more acute — that finer living may be the heritage of each generation. VII. The next ten years in school finance — Progress in the field of school finance between 1929 and 1939 will be along roads already well- defined. In one direction we will progress in rebuilding the foundation for the financial support of schools. The local property tax will continue to be one basis of school LARGER UNITS OF support, but it will be supplemented, and in some TAXATION states largely replaced, by taxes collected by larger units of government, county, state, and national, which rest with the greatest possible equity upon all, rather than upon that portion of wealth represented by tangible property. In another direction, we will continue the notable advance of the last ten years toward discovering and putting into effect methods of distributing state school funds to local communities which make it financially practical for every local community to provide reasonable educational facilities for its children and at the same time to preserve its educational autonomy, individuality, and initiative. I am not unaware of the blatant and illfounded criticisms which are being made concerning school costs. During the last decade we have periodically been warned that school costs cannot be further increased without bringing the nation to NATIONAL INCOME bankruptcy' The fact is that the nation in 1928 INCREASING FASTER paid the largest school bill in its history, and ended THAN SCHOOL COST the year in a stronger economic position than in any previous year. We have also been told that school costs have increased out of all proportion and beyond all justification. Actually the amount 1164 National Education Association of money expended per child in school has increased less rapidly than the nation’s per capita income. Between 1922 and 1926, to select years representative of the postwar period, the cost of providing a child a year’s schooling increased twelve percent. During the same period real income per capita increased seventeen per cent. In 1922 the percent of the nation’s income expended for public elementary and secondary schools was 2.49, while the corresponding percent was 2.41 in 1926. Preliminary figures for 1928 indicate that the corresponding figure for that year was still lower. It has also been said that the school is not getting results. The fact is that they are getting results, not only in spiritual returns but in increased economic efficiency as well. Herbert Hoover in recently listing the five factors which are responsible for the nation’s paramount economic position, named education first, and concluded that “instruction has become much better in quality and especially more practical and more conducive to thinking power and to productive capacity.” It is true that the total amount expended for education has increased. But this fact in itself does not mean that expenditures have been extrava¬ gant or that larger sums may not be needed. The amount which the nation expended for passenger automobile transporta- PEOPLE CAN AFFORD ^on increased from about a billion and a half a WHAT THEY BELIEVE year before the war to twelve billions at the present VALUABLE time. Before the war we expended approximately one billion dollars a year for building construc¬ tion ; now we spend seven billions annually. The value of electrical equip¬ ment and material produced before the war was about $350,000,000 a year; now it is more than a billion and a half. Life insurance policies in force before the war amounted to twenty billions, and now amount to eighty billions. Why have we increased since 1914 our expenditures for automobiles eightfold, building construction sevenfold, electrical equipment fivefold, life insurance fourfold? We have done this because we believe money expended for these things constitutes wise spending. The automo¬ bile, the building or home, electrical labor saving devices, and life insurance are considered important to our happiness and general wellbeing. Is the development of the automobile industry, the building industry, the elec¬ trical appliance business, or the life insurance business any more important than the development of better schools? Yet we have increased expendi¬ tures for all of these industries more rapidly than for education. The next ten years will see further increases in school expenditures. This will be necessary for a number of reasons. First, because attendance will continue to increase even though not as rap- HOW EXPENDITURES idly as in the last decade. Second, because it is neces- WILL INCREASE sary to increase the quality of educational work. This can partly be brought about by increasing the efficiency of the school, but it will also involve some increase in the amount expended per child in attendance. Rather than alarm us, this prediction Associational Records and Information 1165 should assure us. Education is civilization's most vital investment and best form of insurance. The greater the percent of income that we can spend for good schools, the greater will be the returns, both in present welfare and security for the future. \ III. The growth of the National Education Association in the next ten years — Until 1918, the membership of the Association was less than 10,000; on January 1, 1929, it was 193,145. The gain by years has been as follows: 1908— 4,982 1918— 8,557 1922— 87,414 1923— 118,032 1924— 133,565 1925— 138,856 1926— 158,103 1927— 170,053 1928— 181,350 1929— 193,145 RAPID GROWTH IN ENROLMENT, LIFE MEMBERS, AND HUNDRED PERCENT SCHOOLS Remarkable progress has been made in 100 percent enrolments. In 1922 there were 500 schools with a 100 percent enrolment of their teachers in the National Education Association; in May, 1929, there were approxi¬ mately 6000. During the past five years permanency of inter¬ est and effort has been given to the Association through growth in life memberships. The fee of $100 for this membership goes directly into the permanent fund. There are now approximately 2500 life members. When payments for these mem¬ berships have been made in full, the permanent fund will have been in¬ creased by a quarter of a million dollars. No less remarkable has been the growth in state education associations. On January 1, 1929, the total membership of all the state associations was 664,779, or 72 percent of the estimated total number of teachers in the United States. Professional organizations, such as the state and national education associations, occupy an important position in our national life, and have an invaluable contribution to make to the development of good schools. Each state association should enrol 100 percent of the teachers in the state. The National Education Association should enrol in its mem¬ bership practically every teacher in America, including teachers in colleges and universities. To do this, it must maintain the highest ideals of service, and should choose for its leadership men and women who are outstanding leaders. The National Education Association will become so representa¬ tive of all interests that its program will attract in large numbers mem¬ bers of the profession on all levels, from the kindergarten through the university. True professional spirit can be created only in a profession that thinks 1166 National Education Association primarily of the service it renders society. I have already pointed out that during the next ten years, the professional spirit of our teaching body will be deepened and broadened. My faith in the SERVICE COMES teachers of America leads me to believe that out of FIRST their own ranks will come such high leadership and service that within the next ten years the National Education Association will have an active membership of 500,000 and a life membership of 10,000. IX. The next ten years and the effect of increased efficiency in profes¬ sional organization and service — The services which a teachers’ association renders the profession are of two types — indirect and direct. Under' the first head may be listed such essential work as the DIRECT AND soliciting of membership, the keeping of records and INDIRECT SERVICES accounts, and the management of business affairs and physical plant. Under the second head may be included such professional activities as the editing of educational jour¬ nals and other publications, the conduct of research and investigations, the support of sound school legislation and other types of professional leader¬ ship. Both indirect and direct services must be maintained if an education association is to achieve its purposes. You cannot run a machine until it is built, nor run it after it is built unless it is kept oiled and in good repair. Neither is there any point to constructing a machine unless it is to be put to work. The analogy is apt in considering the growth of teachers’ pro¬ fessional associations. A decade ago the National Education Association and most of the state associations had ahead of them the task of building their organizations. The profession realized the need of strong state and national associations. It went to work with a will. Both the state and national associations have grown by leaps and bounds. They are now being put to work. These associations are not all at the same stage of development. Some are only just now coming into existence, and are necessarily devoting a large percent of income to the support of indirect service. Others are well established and are rendering direct service of incalculable value to the held of education. As teachers associations develop, they will increase the percent of their resources which goes into direct service and decrease the percent ex¬ pended for indirect service. The ultimate purpose of a teachers’ organiza¬ tion is to render direct service to the teachers. The other activities are means to this end. This does not mean that our associations should make the mistake of practising false economy in supporting the indirect service activities. It is always poor economy in operating a machine to try to save money by Associational Records and Information 1167 failing to make proper replacements or by neglecting proper lubrication. Penuriousness in providing funds for the solicitation of membership, and in¬ adequate facilities for keeping records and accounts are shortsighted policies. Neither should the prin- HIGHEST EFFI- ciple of efficiency be applied with any less rigor to CIENCY THE AIM the direct than to the indirect service activities. It should be the purpose of a teacher’s association to set an example of efficiency in all of its work. No more money should be expended for any service, direct or indirect, than is essential for its effective operation, and the aim should be to secure the maximum return to the profession for every dollar expended, no matter what the activity may be. Once a teachers’ organization is on its feet, rich opportunities for direct service to education open on all sides. Then the organization really comes into its own and achieves the purposes for which it is created. It is such a philosophy which has guided the development of the Na¬ tional Education Association. Ten years ago practically the only direct service which the Association rendered was the organization of annual conventions, and the issuance of a Volume of Pro¬ ceedings and a general bulletin. During the past THE JOURNAL GOES decade the Association has been rebuilt and put to TO EVERY- MEMBER work. The Journal of the National Education Association has been established and developed to the point where it has taken its place among the leading educational periodicals of the nation. Its service to the profession is increasing each year. The inspiration fur¬ nished by this publication is the one direct and tangible contact which is felt by every individual member of the Association. In the continued improvement of this publication lies one of the important means of direct service to the profession. The Research Division has been established and a carefully planned program of work developed. The Research Bulletin has a circulation of approximately 20,000 copies per issue, or nearly 100,000 annually. The in¬ vestigations on a wide range of topics which have appeared in this publication are distinguished by a VITAL RESEARCH their scientific and practical value. PROGRAM A number of important committees and commis¬ sions of the National Education Association and its departments have issued reports of an epoch-making character. The effectiveness with which the National Education Association’s committees and commissions have worked has been greatly increased by the assistance rendered them by the Research Division. The staff and organization of this division are such that it can offer both competent professional and skilled clerical assistance to the Association’s re- AID TO COMMITTEE search committees. Under the leadership of the WORK Commission on the Curriculum of the Department of Superintendence, school systems throughout the country have given con¬ sideration to many phases of the curriculum problem. Here is a truly 1168 National Education Association professional activity — one which is inspired primarily by the desire to do a better job of educating the nation’s children. No less significant is the work of the Articulation Commission. While only one report has been issued, this commission has already taken its place among the great com¬ missions which have significantly influenced the evolution of American education. The National Education Association’s influence in school finance de¬ serves special mention. Its work in this field has constituted one of the principal forces toward modernizing the obsolete machinery of school support which existed in most states until recently, FINANCE and st^ exists in many. PERSONNEL, AND Perhaps no line of investigation sponsored by the OTHER PROBLEMS National Education Association is of greater sig¬ nificance than that bearing upon the personnel of the profession. Modern curriculums and all the other essentials of a progressive school are of little use without firstrate teachers, principals, and school executives. The Association has, therefore, given attention to such problems as: (1) The development of salary schedules suitable for professional workers, (2) the inauguration of financially sound re¬ tirement systems, similar to those found in progressive private and public organizations, and (3) the development of proper standards for tenure of teachers during efficient service. The new Committee of the National Education Association on the Economic Status of Teachers has just drafted a program of investigation which promises to be of great significance. These investigations will not only deal with the problem of securing proper A BROAD AND SIG- professional incomes for all teachers, but will also NIFICANT PROGRAM provide information needed by teachers in wisely budgeting their incomes. The breadth of the National Education Association’s professional pro¬ gram is of particular significance. It is neither narrow nor selfish. During the next ten years our objective should be to increase both in quality and quantity the professional activities sponsored and supported by the Asso¬ ciation. The greatest opportunity for service which a voluntary and national professional organization has lies in such THE ASSOCIATION activities. A national education association, all in- MUST SERVE ALL elusive in membership, representing all fields of educational endeavor, occupies a peculiarly strategic position. Its funds come from the members of the teaching profession and, therefore, it is answerable to no other group. The profession stands on no political platform ; it favors no economic class ; it sponsors no par¬ ticular creed ; nor does it offer special treatment for any particular race. Its major purpose is to discover the means whereby the children of all economic classes, political parties, creeds, and races may receive the maxi¬ mum benefit from school attendance. At the Association’s call the leaders Associational Records and Information 1169 VOLUNTARY AGENCIES LEAD THE WAY in all lines of educational work respond and give their time and best thought to committee discussion and study of important professional prob¬ lems. This backing provides opportunity for the National Education Association to lead in the professional study of major educational issues. Due to our highly decentralized form of school organization in the United States, the development of this function is of peculiar significance. In most countries this work is done by a central agency under government auspices, the decisions of which are final. In this country educational leadership is exercised through voluntary agencies, whose decisions are not manda¬ tor}", but which rest upon the persuasive influence resulting from a recognition of their innate value. Through the work of its committees and commissions of the last decade, it may truly be said that the National Education Association has come to hold a high position of professional leadership. Its headquarters’ staff now offers the facilities whereby committees can accomplish significant pieces of work at relatively small expenditures. In carrying forward this work the Association is realizing its ultimate purpose. The next decade will see this type of work more than doubled. X. School enrolment and equality of educational opportunity — School enrolment in the United States has increased continuously and at a rela¬ tively rapid rate from as far back as we have reliable figures. During the last two or three years the growth has not been so rapid. If present tendencies continue we will rapid INCREASE IN shortly reach a plateau in school enrolment. This is particularly true of public elementary school enrolment. Between 1924 and 1926 the number of pupils in elementary schools increased less than 100,000. This increase was considerably less than half that typical for two-year periods preceding 1924. Complete figures are not yet available for 1928, but those already assembled seem to indicate that elementary school enrolment in that year was little if any larger than in 1926. Enrolment in the first grade has been decreasing for ten years. It was 358,000 less in 1926 than in 1918. Part of this decrease is due to the increasing efficiency of the schools in taking account of individual differ¬ ences. The old lock step has been broken. It is no longer considered ac¬ ceptable educational procedure to fail from a fouith to a half of the children in the first grade. We now recognize that it is the school which fails when such a condition exists. However, this factor does not wholly account for the smaller first grade enrolment. Of prepotent significance is the decreasing birth-rate. The birth-rate of the United States in the area for which we have figures dropped from 25.1 to 20.4 per thousand persons between 1915 and 1927 and is approaching the 19.0 rate which results in a static population in France. Restriction of immigration has also prob- ablv tended to reduce the number of children. These influences are SCHOOL ENROL¬ MENT 1170 National Education Association somewhat offset by the encouraging decrease in infant mortality cited elsewhere in this report. The figures for high-school enrolment continue to increase. The ex¬ tension of secondary school opportunities which has taken place in recent decades in the United States is not equaled by any similar development in the whole history of education. Public high-school GREAT GROWTH OF enrolment doubled in each decade from 1890 on, HIGH SCHOOLS except between 1900 and 1910 and the increase was 76.23 percent in this period. If the rate of increase shown between 1920 and 1926 continues, high-school enrolment will again double in the 1920-30 decade. There are unmistakable indications, how¬ ever, that there was a deceleration in the rate of increase between 1926-28. It is probable that the lower rate of increase in the elementary school is being felt in the high school. There are factors affecting high-school enrolment which probably main¬ tain growth in this school for some time, even though the number of children to be educated increases but little. High-school enrolment is still much farther below the saturation point than is SATURATION POINT that of the lower school. The further moderniza- NOT YET REACHED tion of the secondary-school curriculum and the in¬ creasing educational demands of modern life should continue to increase the percent of children who seek secondary schooling. Under the most favorable circumstances, and assuming the traditional 8-4 organization, high-school enrolment would approach 33.3 per cent of ele¬ mentary-school enrolment. It is still less than half that figure. The period 1920 to 1926 also saw a continuance of the rapid growTth in collegiate registration. The increases in college registration in the six-year period 1920 to 1926, both in numbers and percent, were greatei than for any previous ten-year period. Again, however, there are definite indications that the increase in enrolment is slowing up in the colleges. Walters’1 recent survey of registrations in 216 colleges and universities shows but a two percent increase from 1927 to 1928, a much lower rate than was typical of the years just preceding 1927. This indication needs to be discounted somewhat, because of increased junior college enrolment, but since the enrolment in these institutions is but 36,510 as compared with a total collegiate enrolment of approximately a million, this factor is not of major significance. The portion of collegiate enrolment represented by students in teacher¬ training institutions is of particular interest to members of the teaching profession. Enrolment increase in normal schools RAPID GROWTH OF an<^ teacher-training institutions between 1920 and TEACHER TRAINING 1926 was at an even more rapid rate than that of SCHOOLS high schools. There were almost exactly twice as many students in professional schools for teachers in 1926 as in 1920. This increase has remedied the serious shortage of 1 Walters, Raymond W. “Statistics of Registration in American Universities and Colleges,’’ 1928. School and Society, December 15, 1928, p. 737. Association al Records and Information 1171 recruits for teaching which obtained during, and just after the war, and has also brought new problems to teacher-training institutions. It appears from incomplete 1928 enrolment figures for teacher-training institutions, that the increase in enrolment in these institutions between 1926 and 1928 was at a lower rate than between 1920 and 1926. THE TREND OF INCREASES IN SCHOOL ENROLMENT, 1890 TO 1926 Decade Increase in public elementary school enrolment Increase in public high school enrolment Increase in college and university en¬ rolment (public and private)1 Increase in normal schools and teachers colleges Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1890 to 1900 1900 to 1910 1910 to 1920 1920 to 1926 2,464,241 1,914,932 2,480,136 1,605,075 19.68 12.78 14.68 8.28 316,288 395,810 1,284,328 1,558,077 155.84 76.23 140.32 70.84 50,593 108,412 189,058 301,141 29.13 48.34 56.83 57.72 3,667 19,000 46,857 134,788 5.57 27.32 52.91 99.54 Read table as follows: In the decade from 1890 to 1900 there was an increase in the num¬ ber of children enroled in elementary schools of 2,464,241. This was a 19.68 percent increase. Sim¬ ilarly read figures for other decades and schools. 1 Includes students enroled in preparatory departments in colleges and universities. In 1926 the total number enroled in colleges and universities was 822,895. Of this number 55,632 are enroled in preparatory departments. The figures for the next few years and of the 1930 census are necessary before we can predict with any assurance of accuracy the trend of enrol¬ ment during the next decade. From present indications, however, it ap¬ pears that the increase in enrolment in practically all types of schools will be less rapid than has NEW BASIS IN been true in recent years. This does not mean that 1930 CENSUS we may expect a recession, or that there will not be some growth. We may take satisfaction from the fact that school enrolment is ap¬ proaching the saturation point in many states. The next decade should bring us to the point when all children of school age will be in school. The battle to extend the democratic principle of equality of educational opportunity will continue during the next decade and with further victories for those who support this principle. These victories will not be easily won. There are not only those outside the teaching profession, but also some within the ranks, who are demanding that we substitute an aristocratic for the democratic conception of education which is at once the peculiar characteristic and greatest virtue of our system of education. They are proposing a system of education which would be even more aristocratic than that found in Germany before the DEMOCRATIC PRINCIPLES MUST PREVAIL war. 1172 National Education Association Prewar Europe divided the school population into two groups and edu¬ cated them in schools of distinctly different types. Under this dual sys¬ tem one school was for the classes and the other for the masses. One school was attended by those of social, economic, or intellectual position, those who were to be the leaders, the other by the remainder, those who were to be followers. Such a dual or class system of education is abhorrent to believers in the democratic system of schools developed in this nation. Rut at least the European class system of education had one merit — it provided an edu¬ cational opportunity for every child and one which, in the light of the prevailing social philosophy, was suited to his needs. The classes were given a schooling to fit them for leadership, and the masses were trained for followership. If one accepted the ends in view, this dual system of education was admirable. Each child, whether of the classes or of the masses, was offered a carefully thought out, carefully administered, and complete system of training designed to fit him for the future which society decreed for him. But even this virtue of the artistocratic school system of prewar Europe would be lacking under the plan which some educational aristocrats are proposing for the United States. They would not set up two systems of education — one for the elite and the other for the HOW ARISTOCRATS herd. Rather they would provide only the for- WOULD LIMIT mer — that is, a single system of schools fashioned OPPORTUNITY to neecfs 0f those who possess certain aptitudes which it is assumed makes them potential leaders. To the others for whom this particular type of education may not be suited, they would offer no alternative, but would ruthlessly drive them from the schools at an early age and offer them no further opportunity for an education other than that picked up incidentally on the street or in the shop. That the foregoing does not exaggerate the viewpoint of certain edu¬ cational aristocrats will not be denied by those who have read their writ¬ ings. A typical quotation is given below, selected from an article which points out that our schools are everywhere taxed to capacity, that certain evils grow out of this situation, and then states: One solution is, of course, the creation of many more schools and colleges. An¬ other solution is a careful selection of those who are fitted by natural talents to receive an education in high school and college, which is growing yearly more expensive. This selective process is already in progress in most of our private schools and colleges and will, I believe, be carried much further in the future, as fair tests are devised for determining the aptitude of children. Our democracy is pledged to equal opportunity for all who are fitted for education, but it cannot be pledged to bestow equal natural endowments upon all candidates. We shall eventually have to do what business does, and what education does in other coun- Associational Records and Information 1173 tries; drive out the lame ducks from classrooms and throw them back in the pool where they belong and where they will be happy, reserving the greater privileges for those who are deserving and who will profit by them. If this process could be carried out fairly and justly at the present time, there would be plenty of schools and colleges to educate those who remain. THE AMERICAN PRINCIPLE OF EDUCATION The National Education Association should always stand foursquare against such a conception of education. The democratic system of edu¬ cation peculiar to this country should be developed to its complete fulfil¬ ment on all school levels. The American conception of education is founded on this fundamental prin¬ ciple : Every child shall be offered an opportunity to have whatever talents he may possess brought to the fullest possible development using the par¬ ticular educational methods best suited to his particular endowment. This principle is based on the fundamental human fact that we are all im¬ provable through the right kind of education no matter how meager our talents may be, and that the best means of bringing about that improve¬ ment is to provide for each child an educational opportunity shaped to his needs. We should never accept the doctrine that a child shall have an opportunity to obtain an education only to the extent that he possesses talents which can be developed by the type of education considered proper for an aristocratic class. Up to the present the school system of the United States has been built upon the democratic principle. The battle has been clearly won in our elementary schools. To be sure these schools are still working to perfect the means whereby this principle may be put into most effective practise. But we now seldom hear it suggested that only one type of schooling should be offered in the elementary school, and that only those who can profit from it should be allowed to attend. Everybody is guaranteed elementary schooling, the lame, the halt, and the blind. Our elementary schools recognize that however little a child may start with, he will be worth more both to himself and to society if he is offered the particular type of education which is best for him. The elementary school no longer accepts the proposal that we “drive out the lame ducks from the classroom and throw them back into the pool.” During the next ten years, the elementary school will make further progress in the practical development of the democratic principle of education. The elementary school in 1939, to an even greater extent than today, will offer to every child no matter what his innate, mental, physical, moral, or emotional talents may be, the particular educational opportunity which promises most in developing those talents. We have also won the battle for democracy in education on the sec¬ ondary school level. The high school has not gone as far as the ele- DEMOCRATIC PRIN¬ CIPLE MUST BE APPLIED TO ALL 1174 National Education Association THE DEVELOPMENT OF DEMOCRATIC HIGH SCHOOLS GREATEST PROGRESS ON COLLEGE LEVEL mentary, but notable progress has already been made. The high school which now offers only the single, traditional curriculum of a generation ago is no longer acceptable. This narrow, classical curriculum was well suited to the small and highly selected portion of the population which formerly attended the high school. Today, however, the modern high school is in the midst of discovering the variety of courses which are suited to the different needs of chil¬ dren of varying types. This is an extremely difficult task. It re¬ quires much experimentation and some trial and error procedure, but those in touch with trends of secondary school development cannot doubt that the next ten years will see further progress in developing a truly democratic school for children of the adolescent period, one in which every youth may find an opportunity to realize upon whatever capacity he may possess. It is upon the college level, however, that we may expect the greatest progress between 1929 and 1939 in realizing the democratic principle of education. We may expect such progress for two reasons. First, the college has the farthest to go to become demo¬ cratic and, second, an increasing percent of col¬ lege executives and faculties are becoming alert to the problem. There is growing evidence that we are becoming increasingly dissatisfied with the situation whereby education on the post-adolescent level is largely a class proposition. We are unwilling to admit that only certain preferred intel¬ lectual, social, or economic classes are educable on the post-adolescent level, and are demanding that appropriate educational facilities for all shall be available on this level. One break after another is being made with tra¬ ditional practise by the more progressive institutions. Less and less are they willing to accept the aristocratic solution of the problem of in¬ creased enrolment, namely, “drive out the lame ducks from the classrooms and throw them back into the pool where they belong.” Administrative procedures are being adopted and differentiated curriculums are being de¬ veloped on the collegiate level which offer opportunity to all, both those of great and meager talent. The decade 1929 to 1939 will witness acceler¬ ated progress in this direction. The task is a difficult one, but it can be accomplished on the collegiate as well as upon the elementary and sec¬ ondary school level. There are some who assume that the democratizing of education on the collegiate level will inevitably result in the lowering of the standards of thoroughness which should characterize education NO LOWERING OF on this level. This false assumption is due to the STANDARDS inability of many to think of college education in other than traditional terms. College education in the past has been thought of in terms of a curriculum suitable to a highly selected class of students. Therefore, college education in the Associational Records and Information 1175 future must be thought of in terms of a similar, narrow curriculum. Such is the reasoning. What will happen to the beloved subjectmatter which the patient college specialists have worked out, formalized, and packed away into neatly tagged compartments, if it is opened to the ^discrimi¬ nating and poorly endowed hordes which make up the lower three-fourths of the population? It is pointed out that none but the intellectually elite can profit from the courses based on this material and therefore such courses should be open only to those who can profit from them. These alarms are based upon a totally false idea as to what democratic education involves. Democracy in education does not mean that we should attempt to whip students of widely differing backgrounds and ca¬ pacities through the traditional college curriculum. Rather it means that a great variety of courses GREATER VARIETY should be developed suited to the needs of students OF OPPORTUNITY of varying backgrounds, capacities, and interests. It means the development of adequate student personnel, or guidance facili¬ ties, so that each learner may find, with the least amount of waste effort, the courses which are best suited to his capacity and future needs. Differ¬ entiation of curriculum, student guidance — these are the keystones of a democratic school system on any level, elementary, secondary, or collegiate. In such a situation the curriculum now found in most colleges, which is suited to the needs of a highly selected class, would continue. It would be applied, however, only to those whose background, capacity, and future needs are such that they might profit from this curriculum. Standards of work would not be lowered, rather they would be raised since instructors would be dealing with relatively homogeneous groups of students. In short, the acceptance of the democratic principle of education on the post high-school level should not mean the abolition or adulteration of the care¬ fully formulated collegiate courses of the past; rather it should mean de¬ velopment with equal care of parallel courses suited to the needs of all types of students. Just what the working out of these principles on the collegiate level will involve as to details no one can predict with certainty at the present time. It may require the creation of a variety of institutions radically differing from the traditional colleges. The junior college movement may be the first step in this direction. It may involve the creation of a number of instruments of education differing radically from the school or college as it ordinarily exists today. But whatever the means, the signs of the time indicate that the decade 1929 to 1939 will see great progress toward the democratization of education intended for those of post-adolescent age. The colleges can hinder or can greatly aid this development. If they take the attitude that the only kind of education which is possible beyond the secondary school is that which has existed in the past, and attempt to 1176 National Education Association form all post high-school educational facilities in the mold of past practise, their influence will be negative. If on the other hand they will offer a sympathetic hand, they may lead the way toward COLLEGES MAY the democratization of that great field of educa- LEAD THE WAY tion which begins at the end of the secondary school. III. General Information The Association continues to grow in membership and service. The official count of January 1, 1929, showed a gain of over 11,000 for the year 1928. It showed a total enrolment of 193,145. Due largely to the normal turnover in the profession, about 35,000 drop out A SATISFACTORY of the Association each year. This means that YEAR 35,000 new members must be secured before a mem¬ bership gain is made for the year. The Associa¬ tion added several thousand dollars to its budget in 1928 and 1929 for research and educational interpretation. It recently turned the accumu¬ lated balances for a few years, about $71,000, into the permanent fund. About $80,000 in cash and notes has been turned into the permanent fund from the enlistment of 800 new life members during the year. This has been another good year for the Association. Nearly every department has gained in membership and improved in efficiency of organization. The state associations have made gains in membership and in service. The relationship between the national and state associations has been improved. The foundations have been laid for great progress in 1929-30. The growth in life membership continues. There were 1700 life mem¬ bers last year. There are now about 2500. The list includes many out¬ standing teachers and leaders in education in the nation. Life members have been chosen with care. They have been rec- LIFE MEMBERSHIP ommended by officers of state and local associa¬ tions, by superintendents and by life members. The list stands as a reliable Who’s Who in the profession. No commercial agency in the preparation of its Who’s Who, has a basis of selection comparable with this plan. Life membership gives prestige in the profes¬ sion as the higher college degree gives standing in the field of scholarship. It is considered as a mark of distinction by teachers and by the public. A history of each life member together with his achievements is on file at the headquarters office. A few of the departments have considered the question of making their members who are life members of the association, also life members of the department. But to do that they would decrease DEPARTMENT LIFE their own income in proportion to the number of MEMBERS such life members. On the other hand these life members would add to the permanency of member¬ ship in the department. It would also mean much to the Association as a whole for each department to have a large membership on a permanent basis. Associational Records and Information 1177 t would provide a trained body of permanent workers in the department and association. In order to encourage the department in making provision for life membeiship, it is recommended that the Association arrange to appro¬ priate $2 annually to each department for each of its members who is a life member of the Association and who has paid $ 50 or more on life membership dues, or $1 annually for each one who has paid $10 or more. The income from the full fee would bear the expenses of the publications and department allowance. ^1 he income from the lesser amount would not fully cover costs for the first few years. It is recommended that the Association make the appropriation whether the department adopts a life membership plan or not. This action on the part of the Association would be appreciated by the departments. It is estimated that it would mean 1000 more life members for 1929-30 than for 1928-29. The following plan for administering the Educational Research fund of the Department of Superintendence is submitted herewith by the depart¬ ment for the approval of the National Education Association: The Edu¬ cational Research Fund of the Department of Su¬ perintendence shall be placed in charge of the Board DEPARTMENT of Trustees of the National Education Association RESEARCH FUND to be invested and conserved in securities that are legal. The Board of Trustees of the National Education Association shall be the Trustees of said Educational Research Fund. At each annual meeting of the Department the Trustees shall report in detail the condi¬ tion of said Fund. The income annually shall be credited to the Depart¬ ment of Superintendence, to be expended for such educational research as the Department of Superintendence may direct. No part of the princi¬ pal of said Fund shall be spent except after the unanimous written recom¬ mendation of the Executive Committee of the Department of Superin¬ tendence duly ratified by a two-thirds vote of the members present at a stated annual meeting of the Department. The organized public utilities, by their efforts to control the public mind, aroused apprehension. Immediately following the first revelations of the Federal Trade Commission concerning propaganda in the schools, the National Education Association wisely took ac¬ tion at the Minneapolis meeting to aid the schools COMMITTEE ON in protecting themselves from exploitation. The ap- PROPAGANDA pointment of a committee was authorized to investi¬ gate the whole problem of propaganda in the schools and to suggest cor¬ rective measures. The Association’s committee has made a careful investi¬ gation of this whole question and has prepared a valuable report. The report suggests principles and procedures to guide state and local school officials in handling this problem. Under the American system responsibility for education rests with the states. The state superintendents are the leaders of the American educa- 1178 National Education Association tional advance. This office is less than a century old. It has the inspiration of a great beginning in Horace Mann who became the first state school officer, when he became secretary of the Massachu- THE STATE setts State Board of Education in 1837. Our state SUPERINTENDENT superintendents are doing a great work. They have large responsibility. Over and over again they have risen to the defense of the schools. They have led in movements for improvement. They have inspired communities to a higher appreciation of education. Under the conditions of the new day they have an even heavier responsibility. The equalization of education demands that the state shall assume a larger and larger share of the load. People move easily from town to town and extensive changes take place over night. This throws back upon the state itself the responsibility that every child shall have a fair start whether the community in which he happens to be born is rich or poor. This places an added responsibility upon the chief state school officer. There is no greater service the organized profession can render than to aid in holding up the arms of the state superintendent and in following his leadership. Let us magnify our own work by magni¬ fying his position of leadership. It is most encouraging to note the fact that the new Secretary of the Department of the Interior advocates the enlargement of the Bureau of Education. It is high time that the government opens its eyes to its re¬ sponsibility in the matter of education. That is ENLARGED BUREAU an advanced step for the Department of the Interior OF EDUCATION to take. Other secretaries have allowed the Bureau to run along for a half century with its duties lim¬ ited and its opportunities restricted. The work for a Department of Edu¬ cation has undoubtedly helped to awaken this new interest. As long as the friends of education were satisfied with a Bureau and as long as they limited their efforts to its improvement, very little gain was made. But when they decided on the Department of Education as an ideal and united to reach that goal, the Bureau began to take on A DEPARTMENT THE new importance. Whatever the new Secretary gets ULTIMATE GOAL for the Bureau will be due to the feeling developed throughout the Uffited States that the government owes as much attention to Education as to Commerce, Labor, or Agricul¬ ture. Were we to let up in our efforts for a Department, that soon would the desire ease up for enlarging the Bureau. The most effective help, there¬ fore, that can be given for the enlarged Bureau is to increase the efforts for a Department of Education. Let us aid in every way possible the enlargement of the Bureau of Education, but at the same time increase our efforts for a department. Ninety-two years ago today Horace Mann was serving his first month as secretary of the IMassachusetts State Board of Education and was giving Associational Records and Information 1179 attention as we are today to the thought of “Education for a New World.” To appreciate the contribution which Horace Mann made to American life it is necessary merely to recall the part which edu¬ cation has played in the development of the nation. HORACE MANN’S America has gone farther in the provision for free CONTRIBUTION education opportunity than any other nation in history. Our schools have been opened to the masses ; the school term has been steadily lengthened ; the period for schooling has been gradually ex¬ tended upward ; required attendance has made schooling universal. Horace Mann was the first American statesman to see clearly and to interpret to the people in a large way the importance of education in the formation of individual and national character. As secretary of the Mas¬ sachusetts State Board of Education from 1837 to 1848 he dedicated his life to the interpretation of HORACE MANN education as the primary need of a democratic coun- THE FOUNDER try. He laid the foundation for the devotion of our people to the free public school, America’s greatest contribution to civilization. Why not, therefore, honor this founder of the common school system as we honor others who have contributed to the welfare of the na¬ tion. Why not as a fitting celebration of a century of educational achieve¬ ments let the centennial of his coming to the secretaryship of the Massachu¬ setts State Board of Education be observed as a national event in the year 1937? HORACE MANN CENTENNIAL CELEBRATION If arrangements were to be made for a centennial celebration in 1937 when should the movement be started? Who should formulate plans? Here is a suggestion: Let the National Education Association at the At¬ lanta meeting authorize the secretary to call the attention of all state and national educational and welfare organizations to the value of beginning at once the arrangements for the celebration, and to propose that all these organizations join in petition¬ ing the President and the Congress of the United States to appoint a com¬ mission on the Centennial Celebration for the year 1937 in honor of Horace Mann and in recognition of his decade of achievements so fundamental to the continued advancement of the nation. This commission could function appropriately through the Department of the Interior and Bureau of Edu¬ cation. We recommend that the Association itself and all state associations build their programs in 1937 around the theme, “The Educational Achieve¬ ments of a Century,” and in order to make the results of the greatest public value, appoint committees in advance for investigation and study. We be¬ lieve that both the President and Congress will welcome the suggestion. 1180 National Education Association THE NINTH REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY Delegates who attended the Sixty-seventh annual meeting of the National Education Association in Atlanta, Georgia, June 26-July 4, 1929. The classification of positions in¬ cludes (1) directors and supervisors, (2) superintendents, (3) principals, (4) classroom teachers, (5) college and normal presidents, (6) educational editors and secretaries, and (7) ex-officio members. ALABAMA Abercrombie, John W. (Assistant State Su¬ perintendent), Department of Education, Montgomery; Alabama Education Asso¬ ciation. Burnett, J. M. (Superintendent of Schools), Tuscaloosa; Alabama Education Associa¬ tion. Duvall, Rufus (Principal), North Birming¬ ham School, Birmingham; Birmingham Teachers Association. Erwin, Eugene Brown (County Superintend¬ ent), Imperial Hotel, Birmingham; Ala¬ bama Education Association. Farris, J. J. (Teacher), Sidney Lanier High School, Montgomery; Alabama Education Association. Going. C. J. (Principal), 1117 Montgomery Street, Birmingham; Birmingham Teach¬ ers Association. Harrison, W. T. (Superintendent of Schools), Shawmut; Alabama Education Association. Jones, Grace (Teacher), 1210 Tuscaloosa Avenue, W. E.. Birmingham; Birmingham Teachers Association. Knapp, Bradford (President), Alabama Poly¬ technic Institute, Auburn; Alabama Edu¬ cation Association. Norton, H. B. (Principal), Robinson School, Birmingham; Birmingham Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Price, N. H. (Principal), Hemphill School, Birmingham; Birmingham Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Shapard, Anne (County Supervisor), Depart- ment of Education, Wetumpka; Alabama Education Association. Smith, E. E. (Principal), Ensley High School. Birmingham; Birmingham Teach¬ ers Association. Sturdivant, J. O. (Principal), 1730 Arlington Avenue, Bessemer; Bessemer Education Association. Tidwell, R. E. (Ex-officio), State Superin¬ tendent of Education, Montgomery. Williams, J. D. (Ex-officio), Principal, Avondale School, Birmingham. ARIZONA Case, C. O. (Ex-officio), State Superintend¬ ent of Public Instruction, Phoenix. Goodin, Frances (Teacher), 947 East First Street, Tucson; Tucson Teachers Associa¬ tion. G.rau, Miriam S. (County Superintendent), Phoenix; Arizona Education Association. Hendrix, Herman E. (Ex-officio), Super¬ intendent of Schools, Mesa. Jantzen, Dan (Superintendent of Schools), Peoria; Arizona Education Association. Loper, J. D. (Superintendent of Schools), Phoenix; Arizona Education Association. Machan, W. T. (Principal), Creighton School, Phoenix; Arizona Education As¬ sociation. Montgomery, E. W. (Principal), 537 East Moreland Street, Phoenix; Arizona Educa¬ tion Association. Pournelle, Mrs. Sue J. (Teacher), 331 North First Avenue, Phoenix; Phoenix Teachers Association. Reiterman, Carl (Superintendent of Schools), Superior; Arizona Education Association. ARKANSAS Burns, A. L. (Teacher), Magnolia; Arkansas Education Association. Evans, Bessie (Supervisor), 1005 McGowan Street, Little Rock; The Woman Teach¬ ers Association. Faucette, Margaret (Teacher), 2100 Broad¬ way, Little Rock; The Woman Teachers Association. Griffey, Annie G. (Supervisor), Little Rock; Arkansas Education Association. Haley, Harvey H. (Teacher), Hot Springs; Arkansas Education Association. Lambert, H. L. (Secretary), Arkansas Edu¬ cation Association, Little Rock; Arkansas Education Association. Ramsey, J. W. (Superintendent of Schools), Fort Smith; Arkansas Education Associa¬ tion. Root, Frank S. (Superintendent of Schools), Fayetteville; Arkansas Education Asso¬ ciation. Womack, J. P. (Ex-officio), State Superin¬ tendent of Public Instruction, Little Rock. CALIFORNIA Adams, Lewis E. (Superintendent of Schools), Burlingame; California Teach¬ ers Association. Armes, Edith (Teacher), 2737 Garber Street, Berkeley; Oakland Teachers Association. Ashfield, Nora (Assistant Superintendent), Richmond; California Teachers Associa¬ tion. Auten, Mrs. Frances M. (Teacher), 5951 Stafford Avenue, Huntington Park; Cali¬ fornia Teachers Association. Banta, Edythe (Teacher), 935 Sutter Street, San Francisco; Oakland Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Baxter, Bernice (Principal), 2558 Pleasant Street, Oakland; Oakland Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Bell, Jessica (Teacher), 402 Grand Avenue, Oakland; Oakland Teachers Association. Bent, Genevieve (Teacher), 524 25th Street, Oakland; Oakland Teachers Association. Bond, Chester L. (Teacher), Belvedere Junior High School, Los Angeles; High School Teachers Association of Los An¬ geles City. Bonham, Aurelia A. (Teacher), 1127 Wel¬ lington Street, Oakland; California Teach¬ ers Association. Borneman, Katherine (Teacher), Route 1, 244 A, Hayward; California Teachers As¬ sociation. Bowman, R. C. (Director), Beulah Place, Oakland; Oakland Teachers Association. Brewer, Alice (Teacher), 101 H Street. San Rafael; California Teachers Association. Brown, Guy E. (Principal), Livermore; Alameda County Educational Association. Brownfield, Rosemarie (Teacher), 1417 North San Joaquin Street, Stockton; Stockton Elementary Teachers Associa¬ tion. Associational Records and Information 1181 Burgis, Florence (Vice-Principal), 87 Do¬ lores Street, San Francisco; San Fran¬ cisco Classroom Teachers Association. Cauch, F. R. (Principal), 2316 Valdez Street, Oakland; Oakland Teachers Association. Cave, Elmer (Superintendent of Schools), Vallejo; California Teachers Association. Chamberlain, A. H., 1024 Phelan Building. San Francisco; California Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Chase, Robert (Principal), 2426 26th Ave¬ nue, San Francisco; California Teachers Association. Clifton, A. R. (Ex-officio), Superintendent of Schools, Monrovia. Cloud, Roy W. (Secretary), California Teachers Association, 508 Sheldon Build¬ ing, San Francisco; California Teachers Association. Cormick, H. H. (Superintendent of Schools), Davis; California Teachers Association. Cotrel. Lucy (Principal), 3240 Clay Street. San Francisco; San Francisco Principals Association. Coward. Beulah B. (Assistant Supervisor). 607 Mound Avenue, South Pasadena; Pasadena Teachers Association. Craig, Ethel (Teacher), McKinley Junior High School, Los Angeles; High School Teachers Association of Los Angeles City. Cunningham, Arlie M. (Teacher), 2619 N. Street, Sacramento; Women’s Teachers Association. Dahringer, Celia (Teacher), Fremont School. . Sacramento; California Teachers Associa¬ tion. Derr, Lucile E. (Teacher), 820 North Ave¬ nue 54, Los Angeles; High School Teach¬ ers Association of Los Angeles City. Dickey, Mary Ruth (Teacher), James A. Garfield High School, Los Angeles; High School Teachers Association of Los An¬ geles City. Dittemore. Mrs. Kathrina (Teacher), Oak¬ dale; Stanislaus County Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Duggan, Janie Prichard (Supervisor), 720 South Westlake Avenue. Los Angeles; Council of Directors and Supervisors of the Los Angeles City Schools. Eisner, Miriam D. (Teacher), 3098 Cali¬ fornia Street. San Francisco; San Fran¬ cisco Classroom Teachers Association. Ellis. Mabel (Vice-Principal), 404 12th Ave¬ nue, San Francisco; California Teachers Association. Ericsson, Olga (Teacher), 347 Fifth Ave¬ nue, San Francisco; San Francisco Class¬ room Teachers Association. Farr, Jessie V. (Teacher), 405 West Adams Street, Los Angeles; California Teachers Association. Farrell, Mildred I. (Teacher), Petaluma: California Teachers Association, Ferrell. Sarah C. (Teacher), 470 Chetwood Street, Oakland; Oakland Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Foote. Stanley S. (Department Head), 1240 Valley Boulevard. Rosemead; High School Teachers Association of Los An¬ geles City. Forbes, Grace M. (Teacher), Mt. Vernon Junior High School, Los Angeles; High School Teachers Association of Los An¬ geles City. Fraser, J. E. (Teacher), Box 1544, Stanford University; California Teachers Associa¬ tion. Gauer, M. A. (Superintendent), District Superintendent of Schools, Anaheim; Prin¬ cipals and Teachers Association of Orange County. Geer, C. L. (Superintendent), District Su¬ perintendent of Schools, Coalinga; Cali¬ fornia Teachers Association. Givens, Willard E. (Superintendent of Schools). Oakland; Alameda County Edu¬ cation Association. Glenn, I. Maude (Teacher), 55 North Mere¬ dith, Pasadena; Pasadena Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Gloyd, Mabel (Teacher). 4481 North Ave¬ nue, San Diego; San Diego Teachers As¬ sociation. Greer, Vallie Margaret (Teacher), 2641 Pros¬ pect Avenue, Wilma; Los Angeles City Teachers Club. Gridley, Earl G. (Department Head), 95 Federal Telegraph Building. Oakland; Bay Section, California Teachers Association. Growney. Kathleene (Teacher). 530 San¬ chez Street, San Francisco; California Teachers Association. Gustafson, Paul E. (Department Head), North Hollywood High School, North Hollywood; High School Teachers Asso¬ ciation of Los Angeles City. Gwinn, J. M. (Ex-officio), Superintendent of Schools, San Francisco. Hampton, Mrs. Florence K. (Director), 1210 Granada Avenue, San Marino; Los An¬ geles Kindergarten Club. Hart, Adelaide (Teacher), Fairfax High School, Los Angeles; High School Teach¬ ers Association of Los Angeles City. Hart, Marion (Teacher), Jefferson High School, Los Angeles; High School Teach¬ ers Association of Los Angeles City. Haskins, Ruth (Teacher), 135 West Portal Avenue, San Francisco; San Francisco Classroom Teachers Association. Haubrich, Lucille (Teacher), 235 South El Molino Street, Pasadena; Pasadena Teach¬ ers Association. Hawkins, Vera (Teacher), 4134 Stephens Street. San Diego; San Diego Teachers Association. Heacock. Arnol B. (Principal). 709 East Windsor Road. Glendale; Elementary Principals Club of Los Angeles. Heisser. Della B. (Superintendent of Schools), Turlock; Stanislaus County Teachers Association. Hill. Earl W. (Teacher). Sentons Evening High School, Los Angeles: Los Angeles Evening High School Teachers Associa¬ tion. Hood, Lola (Teacher), 2027 20th Street. Bakersfield; Bakersfield Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Hunn, Dorothy (Principal), 2213 Roosevelt Avenue, Richmond; Richmond Teachers Association. Hurley, Morris E. (Principal-!, 1729 Blake Street. Berkeley; Oakland Teachers Aso- sociation. Jacobs, M. J- (Teacher), 1246 12th Ave¬ nue, San Francisco; San Francisco High School Teachers Association. Jacobsen, Christine A. (Teacher). 1320 West 41st Place, Los Angeles; Los Angeles City Teachers Club. Johnson, Mrs. Lolis (Teacher), 415 East 16th Street, Pacific Grove; California Teachers Association. Jones, Mrs. Eugenia West (Teacher), 318 South Benton Way, Los Angeles; Cali¬ fornia Teachers Association. Judy, Gilbert (Principal), Grossmont Union High School. La Mesa: Southern Section. California Teachers Association. Kearne, Daisy E. (Teacher). 1010 East Wilson Street. Glendale; Glendale City Teachers Club. 1182 National Education Association Keegan, Mary E. (Teacher), 512 Van Ness Avenue, San Francisco; San Francisco Classroom Teachers Association. Ketcham, Marion (Assistant Secretary), Re¬ tirement Board, Box 615, Sacramento; California Teachers Association. Knight, Agnes M. (Director), 2892 West Seventh Street, Los Angeles; Los An¬ geles Kindergarten Club. Linn, Louis P. (Principal). Route 6, Box 100, Fresno; California Teachers Asso¬ ciation. MacKeever, Hortense (Teacher), 530 South Kenmore Street, Los Angeles; Los An¬ geles City Teachers Club. McCausland, Robert J.. (Principal), Holly¬ wood High School, Hollywood; Los An¬ geles Evening High School Teachers As¬ sociation. McConnell, Sam W. (Teacher), Box 461, Newman; Stanislaus County Teachers As¬ sociation. McMillan, Elizabeth (Teacher), 454 Fair¬ mont Avenue, Oakland; Oakland Teach¬ ers Association. Massenge. Victor (Vice-Principal), 2337 Lamona Avenue, Fresno; Fresno City Council of Education. Mitchell, Robert C. (Department Head), Santa Monica; Santa Monica Classroom Teachers Association. Moore, Margaret (Teacher), Sacramento High School, Sacramento; California Teachers Association. Moorhead, Mrs. Lulu (Teacher), 906 15th Street, Modesto; California Teachers As¬ sociation. Mueller, Alex J. (Teacher), 262 17th Street, San Pedro; Los Angeles City Teachers Club. Muller, Edgar E. (Principal), 3909 Linwood Avenue, Oakland; California Teachers Association. Nicholson, Genevieve (Teacher), 1141 Fil¬ bert Street. San Francisco; California Teachers Association. Norton, Mrs. Alice R. (Principal), 378 Golden Gate Avenue, San Francisco; Cali¬ fornia Kindergarten Primary Association. O’Bannon, Anna (Teacher), 137 Ardmore Road, Berkeley; Berkeley Teachers Asso¬ ciation.^ O’Bannon, Mary B. (Principal), 137 Ard¬ more Road, Berkeley; Berkeley Teachers Association. Olsson, Ella (Nurse), 3671 Derby Street, Berkeley; Oakland Teachers Association. Onyon, Anna (Teacher), 2536 Franklin Street, San Francisco; San Francisco Classroom Teachers Association. Onyon, Emma (Teacher), 2536 Franklin Street, San Francisco; San Francisco Classroom Teachers Association. Painter, Margaret (Teacher), 130 Eye Street, Modesto; Stanislaus County Teachers Association. Parsons, Georgia B. (Teacher), 1832 North Van Ness Avenue, Los Angeles; Los An¬ geles City Teachers Club. Paul, Linda (Teacher), 2015 North Main Street, Santa Ana; California Teachers Association. Pollard, Genia (Teacher), John Muir Junior High School, Los Angeles; High School Teachers Association of Los Angeles City. Powell, Annette M. (Teacher), 2510 25th Avenue, Oakland, California Teachers As¬ sociation. Reed, Burt Warren (Principal), Hollen¬ beck Junior High School, Los Angeles; Los Angeles High School Principals Asso¬ ciation. Richardson, N. D. (Teacher), 2811 Pied¬ mont Avenue, Berkeley; Oakland Teach¬ ers Association. Romer, A. R. (Principal), 4386 Montgomery Street, Oakland; Oakland Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Rowe. Maud M. (Teacher), 655 Powell Street, San Francisco; Oakland Teachers Association. Sanderson, Perle (County Superintendent), Colusa; California Teachers Association. Sanford, Russell M. (Teacher), 355 63rd Street, Oakland; Oakland Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Settles, Irma R. (Teacher), R. F. D. No. 3, Box 1259, Oakland; Oakland Teachers Association. Shattuck, Mrs. Ethel L. (Teacher), 1054 Santa Ynez Way, Sacramento; Sacra¬ mento City Teachers Association. Shaw, Albert M. (Teacher), 2833 Estara Avenue, Los Angeles; High School Teach¬ ers Association of Los Angeles City. Smith, J. Roberta (Teacher), 2525 Durant Avenue, Berkeley; Berkeley Teachers As¬ sociation. Stevens, Kathleen (Teacher), 145 Loma Drive, Los Angeles; Los Angeles City Teachers Club. Thompson, Mrs. Helen Grant (Teacher), 814 Brent Avenue, South Pasadena; Cali¬ fornia Teachers Association. Thompson, Robert A. (Principal), 814 Brent Avenue, South Pasadena; California Teachers Association. Thurston. F. L. (Secretary), 732 Van Nuys Building, Los Angeles; California Teach¬ ers Association. Tilton, Edwin B. (Assistant Superintendent), San Diego; California Teachers Associa¬ tion. Van Patten, Seth (Principal). Van Nuys High School, Van Nuys; High School Teachers Association of Los Angeles City. Vineyard, Marguerite (Teacher), 2721 Park Boulevard, Oakland; Alameda County Education Association. Waite, Ida M. (Teacher), 1003 East Orange Grove, Glendale; Glendale City Teachers Club. Walker, Mary M. (Teacher), 122 Vince Street. Ventura; California Teachers As¬ sociation. Walter, Arthur (Superintendent), 209 Cali¬ fornia Street, Salinas; California Teach¬ ers Association. Walton, T. A. (Principal), 2526 Pamo Ave¬ nue, San Diego; San Diego Teachers As¬ sociation. Ward, Stanley A. (Principal). Central High School, Oakland; California Teachers As¬ sociation. Ward, Violet Richardson (Supervisor), Cor¬ ner Stratford and Beverly Road. Berkeley; Berkeley Teachers Association. Wasson, Clara E. (Principal), Turlock; California Teachers Association. Welday. Samuel O. (Principal), 2117 Chapala Street, Santa Barbara; Santa Barbara City Teachers Club. White, Robert J. (Assistant Superintend¬ ent), Martinez; California Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Wilhelmy, George M. (Principal), Law¬ rence; Santa Clara County Teachers As¬ sociation. Associational Records and Information 1183 Woodruff, J. A. (Teacher), 725 South In¬ diana Street, Los Angeles; High School Teachers Association of Los Angeles City. Woods, Margaret L. (Teacher), 3909 Lin- wood Avenue, Oakland: Oakland Teach¬ ers Association. COLORADO Bradford, Mrs. Mary C. C. (Ex-officio), 1481 South Grant Street, Denver. Bush, Norris F. (Superintendent of Schools), Mancos; Colorado Education Association. Cordova, Ysabell (Teacher), Trinidad; Col¬ orado Education Association. Craig. Katherine L. (Ex-officio), State Su¬ perintendent of Public Instruction, Den¬ ver. Detmayer, Mary S. (Teacher), 1425 East 13th Avenue, Denver; Denver Classroom Teachers Association. Erb, Edith M. (Teacher), 2870 Raleigh Street, Denver; Denver Classroom Teach¬ ers Association. Feldwisch, Bertha (Teacher), 1055 Lincoln Street, Denver; Denver Classroom Teach¬ ers Association. Ferguson, Elizabeth (Teacher), 1383 South University Boulevard, Denver; Denver Classroom Teachers Association. Fisher, Mrs. Zoe (Teacher), 320 Madison Street, Pueblo; Colorado Education As¬ sociation. Force, Anna Laura (Principal), 2254 Lowel Boulevard, Denver; Denver Principals and Directors Association. Goodier, Florence (Teacher), 2341 Bellaire Street, Denver; Denver Classroom Teach¬ ers Association. Hedbloom, E. E. (Teacher), 108 West Cheyenne Road, Colorado Springs; Colo¬ rado Education Association. Hellesen, Ellen (Teacher), 45 Bannock Street, Denver; Denver Classroom Teach¬ ers Association. Hobson, Ralph S. (Principal), 2080 Holly Street, Denver; Denver Teachers Club. Holm, Peter C. (Principal), 1167 Logan Street, Denver; Denver Teachers Club. Holmes, G. A. (Teacher), 2226 South Grant Street, Denver; Denver Classroom Teach¬ ers Association. Hunsaker, Lucy (Teacher), Fort Morgan; Colorado Education Association. Kenehan, Katherine (Teacher), 5700 Mont- view Boulevard. Denver; Denver Class¬ room Teachers Association. Lewis, Wilma (Teacher), 127 West Pitkin, Pueblo; Pueblo Educational Association. District Number One. Lort, Martha (Teacher), 1165 South Wil¬ liams Street, Denver; Denver Classroom Teachers Association. Loughran, Loretto (Teacher), 3450 Decatur Street, Denver; Denver Classroom Teach¬ ers Association. McBreen, Barbara (Teacher), 3915 King Street, Denver; Colorado Classroom Teachers Association. McFarland, A. J. (County Superintendent), Rocky Ford; Colorado Education Asso¬ ciation. McFarland, Blanche B. (Principal), Rocky Ford; Rocky Ford Community Education Association. Mitchell, Nellie (Teacher), Denver; Denver Classroom Teachers Association. Mooney, W. B. (Ex-officio), Secretary, Colo¬ rado Education Association, 530 Common¬ wealth Building, Denver. O’Brien, Mary Rose (Teacher), 1465 Steele Street, Denver; Denver Classroom Teach¬ ers Association. Plumb, Mae Antoinette (Principal), 909 Third Avenue, Longmont; Longmont Com¬ munity Association. Read, Faye (Teacher), 1425 Vernon Avenue, Pueblo Classroom Teachers Association. Ryals, Mrs. Wilma (Teacher), 819 Mil¬ waukee Street, Denver; Colorado Educa¬ tion Association. Smith. Margaret Mendenhall (Principal), 1522 Lafayette Street, Denver; National Council of Administrative Women in Ed¬ ucation. Threlkeld, A. L. (Superintendent of Schools), Denver; Colorado Education Association. Tuggy, Harriet E. (Teacher), Toovey Hotel, 30 East 20th Avenue, Denver; Denver Classroom Teachers Association. Vance, Mrs. Una Hardin (Teacher), 2223 East Routt Street, Pueblo; Pueblo Class¬ room Teachers Association. White, Mrs. Edna (Teacher), Sterling; Sterling Federated Teachers Club. Whitman, Bertha H. (Teacher), 1626 11th Avenue, Greeley; Greeley Classroom Teachers Association. Youngquist, Mrs. Anne (Teacher), Sterling; Colorado Education Association. CONNECTICUT Carberry, Thomas (Vice-Principal), Brown School, Hartford; Connecticut State Teachers Association. Chittenden, H. E. (Superintendent of Schools), Naugatuck; Connecticut State Teachers Association. Clancy, Nora (Teacher), Thompsonville ; Connecticut State Teachers Association. Clark. Viola E. (Teacher), Federal Hill School, Bristol; Hartford County Teach¬ ers Association. Collins, Helen (Teacher), 41 Fifth Street, New Haven; New Haven Teachers League. Curran, Minnie R. (Teacher), South Glas¬ tonbury; Connecticut State Teachers As¬ sociation. Donning, Ruth K. (Teacher), 1601 West Broad Street, Stratford; Connecticut State Teachers Association. Esten, R. Stewart (Superintendent of Schools), Litchfield; Connecticut State Teachers Association. Hughes, Margaret L. (Teacher), 100 Wash¬ ington Terrace, Bridgeport; Bridgeport Teachers Association. Keigwin, Ida M. (Teacher), 175 Lincoln Street, Middletown; The Middletown Teachers Club. Littlehales, Loila M. (Teacher), 66 Lenox Place, New Britain; Connecticut State Teachers Association. Lord. Daisy (Teacher), 1027 West Main Street, Waterbury; Waterbury Teachers Association. McLoughlin, Margaret (Teacher), 240 Clin¬ ton Avenue, New Haven; Connecticut State Teachers Association. Mendel, Augusta (Teacher), 1208 Park Ave¬ nue, Bridgeport; Bridgeport Teachers As¬ sociation. Seeley, Lila (Teacher), 14 Morse Avenue. Groton; Connecticut State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Sternchuss, Ella (Teacher), 723 Elm Street, New Haven; New Haven Teachers League. Swift, Gordon C. (Ex-officio), Superintend¬ ent of Schools, Watertown. 1184 National Education Association Tryon, Mrs. Lucy (Teacher), 57 Magnolia Street, Hartford; Hartford Grade Teach¬ ers Club. Wyrtzen, Henrietta (Teacher), 21 Miller Street, Bridgeport; Connecticut State Teachers Association. DELAWARE Brinser, Ira S. (Superintendent of Schools), Newark; Delaware State Education Asso¬ ciation. Burnett, Marguerite H. (Director), Adult Education, 2 East 9th Street, Wilming¬ ton; Wilmington Teachers Association. Holloway, H. V. (Ex-officio), State Super¬ intendent of Public Instruction, Dover. Robinson, Winifred J. (Dean), Women’s College, University of Delaware, Newark; Delaware Education Association. Wagner, M. Channing (Principal), Wil¬ mington High School, Wilmington; Dela¬ ware State Education Association. Ward, David A. (Ex-officio), Superintendent of Schools, Chester, Pennsylvania. Wilson, Etta J. (Secretary), Parent Teach¬ ers Association, M-207 Delaware Trust Building, Wilmington; Delaware Educa¬ tion Association. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA Baylor, Adelaide Steele (Director), 200 New Jersey Avenue, N. W., Washington; Na¬ tional Council of Administrative Women in Education. Crabtree, J. W. (Ex-officio), Secretary, Na¬ tional Education Association, 1201 16th Street, N. W., Washington. Dean, Minnie F. (Teacher) 2900 Connecticut Avenue, Washington; High School Teach¬ ers Association. English, Harry (Ex-officio), State Director, Franklin School Building, Washington. Grosvenor, Edith Louise (Teacher), The Iowa Apartments, Washington; Education Association of the District of Columbia. Sams, Moyhin M. (Teacher), 3300 Ross Place, N. W., Washington; High School Teachers Association. Siders, Walter R. (Ex-officio), 1201 16th Street N. W., Washington. Tennyson, J. Anna (Teacher), 1938 Biltmore Street, N. W., Washington; Education Association of the District of Columbia. Williams, Chari O. (Ex-officio), 1201 16th Street N. W., Washington. Winn, Agnes (Director), 1201 16th Street N. W., Washington; National Council of Administrative Women in Education. FLORIDA Cawthon, W. S. (Ex-officio), State Super¬ intendent of Public Instruction, Talla¬ hassee. Goette, W. L. (Supervising Principal), Co¬ lumbia High School, Lake City, Florida Education Association. Hartsfield, F. S. (County Superintendent), Leon County Schools, Tallahassee; Florida Education Association. Isaac, Albert L. (Supervising Principal), 3793 Irvington Avenue, Coconut Grove; Florida Education Association. King, Mrs. Dabney (Teacher), 7009 Central Avenue, Tampa; Tampa Teachers Club. King, Mrs. Ethel A. (Teacher), Box 1793, West Palm Beach; Florida Education As¬ sociation. Lynch, George M. (County Superintendent), 235 21st Avenue, S. E., St. Petersburg; Florida Education Association. Posey, Mrs. Florine D. (Teacher), 207 South Packwood Avenue, Tampa; Florida Edu¬ cation Association. Rutherford, R. B. (County Superintendent), 717 Laura Street, Jacksonville; Florida Education Association. Stanley, Cora (Teacher), Panama City; Florida Education Association. Tigert, John J. (Ex-officio), President, Uni¬ versity of Florida; Gainesville. Watkins, Mrs. H. L. (Teacher), Fort Myers; Florida Education Association. GEORGIA Barron, J. P. (Supervisor), 973 Los Angeles Avenue, Atlanta; Atlanta-Fulton County Unit, Georgia Education Association. Brown, Mrs. Kate (County Superintendent), McDonough; Georgia Education Associa¬ tion. Clift, T. W. (Principal), 372 Ninth Street, N. E., Atlanta; Atlanta-Fulton County Unit, Georgia Education Association. Coker, Mrs. Guy (Teacher), 1121 Briarcliff Place, Atlanta; Atlanta-Fulton County Unit, Georgia Education Association. Davis, Mrs. W. P. (Principal), 185 West¬ minister Drive, Atlanta; Atlanta-Fulton County Unit, Georgia Education Associa¬ tion. Duggan, M. L. (Ex-officio), State Super¬ intendent of Schools, Atlanta. Garrett, T. Harry (Principal), 815 Russell Street, Augusta; Richmond County Edu¬ cation Association. Lowe, Jessie (Teacher), 1095 Briarcliff Place, Atlanta; Atlanta-Fulton County Unit, Georgia Education Association. Jeter, Carolyn (Assistant Principal), 1568 Brine Street, S. W., Atlanta; Atlanta- Fulton County Unit, Georgia Education Association. Moore, Mrs. Arthur (Principal), Imperial Hotel, Atlanta; Atlanta-Fulton Unit, Georgia Education Association. Muse, Jessie (Principal), Ponce de Leon Apartments, Atlanta; Atlanta-Fulton County Unit, Georgia Education Associa¬ tion. Purks, J. E. (Superintendent of Schools), Cedartown; Georgia Education Associa¬ tion. Ramsey, R. L. (County Supervisor), 521 Court House Building, Atlanta; Atlanta- Fulton County Unit, Georgia Education Association. Reid, C. W. (Principal), 122 Cambridge Avenue, College Park; Atlanta-Fulton County Unit, Georgia Education Associa¬ tion. Rhodes, Maude (Principal), 185 West¬ minster Drive, Atlanta; Atlanta-Fulton County Unit, Georgia Education Associa¬ tion. Ritchie, H. B. (Dean), 226 King Avenue, Athens; Georgia Education Association. Snelling, Charles M. (Chancellor), Univer¬ sity of Georgia, Athens; Georgia Educa¬ tion Association. Sutton, Willis A. (Superintendent of Schools), Atlanta; Georgia Education As¬ sociation. Wells, Jere A. (County Superintendent), 521 Courthouse, Atlanta; Georgia Education Association. Associational Records and Information 1185 HAWAII Auld, Lily K. (Principal), Naalehu; Kona- Kau Teachers Association. Boyum, Mrs. Louise V. (Principal), Pu- unene School, Maui; Hawaii Education Association. Brown, Mrs. Flora B. (Teacher), McKinley . High School, Honolulu; Oahu Teachers Association. Carter, Mrs. Alice (Principal), Waipahu School, Waipahu, Oahu; Oahu Teachers Association. de Silva, Ernest (Supervisor), Hilo; Hilo Teachers Union. Farden, Maude K. (Teacher), Box 14, Lahaina, Maui; Hawaii Education Asso¬ ciation. Ferreira, Mary Ruth (Teacher), Aliiolani School, Honolulu; Oahu Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Henry, Charles (Principal), Pepeekeo; Hilo Teachers Union. Hood, Earnest (Teacher), McKinley High School, Honolulu; Oahu Teachers Asso¬ ciation Association. Johnson, Mrs. V. H. (Teacher), Kekaha, Kauai; Kauai Educational Association. Johnson, V. H. (Principal), Kekaha, Kauai; Kauai Educational Association. Kamai, Leinani (Teacher), Box 33, Kauna- kakai, Molokai; Hawaii Education Asso¬ ciation. Keppler, Mrs. Dorris M. (Teacher), McKin¬ ley High School, Honolulu; Oahu Teach¬ ers Association. Lawson, Mrs. Edna B. (Teacher), Terri¬ torial Normal School, Honolulu; Oahu Teachers Association. Lemmon, Frances A. (Teacher), Kame- hameha Girls School, Honolulu; Teachers Council of the Territory of Hawaii. Lindsey, Edwin (Principal), Kohala; Kohala Teachers Association. Long, Mrs. O. E. (Teacher), 2054 Makiki Street, Honolulu; Hawaii Education As¬ sociation. Long, O. E. (Deputy Superintendent), De¬ partment of Public Instruction, Honolulu; Oahu Teachers Association. McGregor, Mrs. Louise Aoe (Teacher), Kauluwela School, Honolulu; Oahu Teachers Association. Morita, Dorothea (Teacher), Kalakaua Jun¬ ior High School, Honolulu; Oahu Teach¬ ers Association. Patrick, Edith (Principal), Hamakuapoko, Maui; Maui Teachers Association. Rogers, H. Alton (Principal), Lahaina, Maui; Maui Teachers Association. Sharpe, Mrs. Emma K. (Teacher), Lahaina, Maui; Hawaii Education Association. Toomey, Samuel (Principal), Honolulu; Oahu Teachers Association. Vance, Mrs. Thomas B. (Teacher), 1063 D Lunalilo Street, Honolulu; Hawaii Ed¬ ucation Association. Vance, Thomas B. (Principal), 1063 D Lu¬ nalilo Street, Honolulu; Hawaii Educa¬ tion Association. West, Mrs. Sarah B. (Supervising Princi¬ pal), Hilo; Hilo Teachers Union. Wise, Mrs. C. C. (Teacher), Wahiawa School. Honolulu; Oahu Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Wise, C. C. (Principal), Wahiawa School, Honolulu; Oahu Teachers Association. Wong, James Heen (Principal), Kukuihoele ; Hilo Teachers Union. Young, G. A. (Principal), Honolulu; Hawaii Education Association. IDAHO Bird, Annie Laurie (Teacher), R. F. D. £1, Nampa; Idaho Education Association. Davis, Mrs. Myrtle R. (Ex-officio), State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Boise. Dienst, Charles F. (Ex-officio), Superin¬ tendent of Schools, Boise. Werner, John C. (President), State Normal School, Albion; Idaho Education Associa¬ tion. Witteman, Minta (Teacher), R. F. D. £4, Caldwell; Idaho Education Association. ILLINOIS Abbe, Mary M. (Teacher), 6619 LaFayette Avenue, Chicago; Chicago Division, Illi¬ nois State Teachers Association. Anderson, O. C. (Superintendent of Schools), Clay City; Southeastern Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Armbruster, Bertha S. (Principal), 214 Gale Avenue, River Forest; Illinois State Teachers Association. Baird, Catherine L. (Teacher), 3206 Ainslee Street, Chicago; Chicago Division, Illi¬ nois State Teachers Association. Balter, Clara (Teacher), 5000 West End Avenue, Chicago; Chicago Division, Illi¬ nois State Teachers Association. Benson, Agnes (Teacher), 3819 Pine Grove Avenue, Chicago; Chicago Division, Illi¬ nois State Teachers Association. Black, H. B. (Superintendent of Schools), Mattoon; Illinois State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Blair, Francis G. (Ex-officio), State Super¬ intendent of Public Instruction, Abraham Lincoln Hotel, Springfield. Bogan, William J. (Superintendent), 460 South State Street, Chicago; Chicago Di¬ vision, Illinois State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Bowyer, Emma (Professor), Carbondale; Il¬ linois State Teachers Association. Brass, Agnes A. (Principal), 313 South Capitol Street, Pekin; Pekin Teachers Club. Brothers, C. A. (Superintendent of Schools), Dwight; Livingston County Teachers As¬ sociation. Buxton, Edith J. (Teacher), 5717 Race Ave- enue, Chicago; Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Byrne, C. J. (Superintendent of Schools), Ottawa; Illinois State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Chandler, Robert (Teacher), 544 West Tay¬ lor Avenue, Oak Park; Lake Shore Divi¬ sion, Illinois State Teachers Association. Clinton, Catherine M. (Teacher), 6111 Eber- hart Avenue, Chicago; Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Clinton, Etta (Teacher), 6111 Eberhart Ave¬ nue, Chicago; Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Cooke, John D. (County Superintendent), Aledo; Black Hawk Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Coolidge, W. F. (Principal), Granite City; Illinois State Teachers Association. Coombs, Cecile C. (Assistant Superintend¬ ent), 545 Washington Place, East St. Louis; East St. Louis Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Deaver, Arthur G. (Teacher), 7355 South Jeffrey Avenue, Chicago; Chicago Divi¬ sion, Illinois State Teachers Association. 1186 National Education Association Deneen, Florence (Assistant Principal), 457 West 61st Place, Chicago; Chicago Teach¬ ers League. Downey, Lucinda W. (Teacher), 5360 Wash¬ ington Boulevard, Chicago; Chicago Di¬ vision, Illinois State Teachers Associa¬ tion- Duncan, Fanny (Teacher), 1520 East 67th Place, Chicago; Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers Association, Edward, C. L. (Superintendent of Schools), Salem; Illinois State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Felts, W. T. (Professor), Carbondale; Illi¬ nois State Teachers Association. Fenton, F. C. (Superintendent of Schools), Bensenville; Illinois State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Finnegan, Margaret L. (Teacher) 4829 Lipps Avenue, Chicago; Chicago Division, Illi¬ nois State Teachers Association. Gilligan, L. Belle (Teacher), 5311 North St. Louis Avenue, Chicago; Chicago Divi¬ sion, Illinois State Teachers Association. Gran, Amelia (Teacher), 412 North East Street, Cambridge; Black Hawk Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Grose, H. D. (Teacher), 104 Hillsdale Road, Joliet; Joliet Township High School Teachers Association. Grove, Alice (Teacher), 4519 North Ash¬ land Avenue, Chicago; Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Grove, Grace (Teacher), 4519 North Ash¬ land Avenue. Chicago; Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Grove, P. F. (County Superintendent), 603 East Ridge Street, Mt. Carroll; Illinois State Teachers Association. Hagarty, Louise (Teacher), 2027 North 21st Street, East St. Louis; Grade Teachers Fellowship Society. Hansen, Herbert C. (Principal), 1045 North Lockwood Avenue, Chicago; Chicago Di¬ vision, Illinois State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Harden, Frances E. (Teacher), 1543 Sher- win Avenue, Chicago; Illinois State Teachers Association. Hayes, John A. (County Superintendent), Peoria; Illinois State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Hayes, M. C. (Professor), Northern Illinois State Teachers College, De Kalb; Illinois State Teachers Association. Hellyer, P. H. (County Superintendent), 377 West Euclid Avenue, Lewiston; Illinois State Teachers Association. Hickman, Gertrude (Supervisor), 1407 17th Street, Rock Island; Black Hawk Divi¬ sion, Illinois State Teachers Association. Hodgson, Mrs. Florence (Teacher), 705 West Waggoner Street, Decatur; Decatur Pub¬ lic School Teachers Association. Hughes, Belle (Teacher), 707 County Street, Waukegan; Lake Shore Division, Illi¬ nois State Teachers Association. Hughes, Jennie (Teacher), 11536 Eggles¬ ton Avenue, Chicago; Chicago Teachers League, Kalar, Anne (Teacher), 4933 West Adams Street, Chicago; Illinois State Teachers Association. Lawson, Edith W. (Teacher), 727 South Third Street, Rockford; Rockford Teach¬ ers Club. Lukenbill, E. H. (County Superintendent), Lincoln; Illinois State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Lyons, Anna I. (Teacher), 6823 Lafayette Avenue, Chicago; Chicago Division, Illi¬ nois State Teachers Association. McCasland, Grace (Teacher), 3244 Audubon Street, East St. Louis; Grade Teachers Fellowship Society. McEnerny, Geraldine D. (Teacher), 137 North Mason Avenue, Chicago; Chicago Public School Kindergarten Primary As¬ sociation. .McVey, W. E. (Principal), 108 155th Street, Harvey; Lake Shore Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Mahin, Helen (Teacher), 110 South Kenil¬ worth Avenue, Oak Park; Chicago Divi¬ sion, Illinois State Teachers Association. Martin, Amy M. (Teacher), 308 North Humphrey Avenue, Oak Park; Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Mason, N. M. (Superintendent of Schools), Oglesby; Illinois State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Matheny, A. R. (Superintendent of Schools), Bismarck; Illinois State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Merrill, Louise (Assistant Principal), 10123 South Wood Street, Chicago; Chicago Association of Assistant Principals. Middleton, Anthony (Principal), 221 Arthur Avenue, Peoria; Illinois State Teachers Association. Miller, L. W. (Superintendent), 1510 3rd Street, Dixon; Rock River Division, Illi¬ nois State Teachers Association. Moore, Robert C. (Ex-officio), Secretary, Illinois State Teachers Association, Car- linville. Nelson, J. B. (Teacher), 69 South Jackson Street, Batavia; Northeastern Division. Illinois State Teachers Association. Nelson, W. E. (Principal), 341 South 12th Street, Quincy; Western Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Nickols, D. F. (Superintendent of Schools), Lincoln; Central Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Nowlan, Eleanor L. (Teacher), 4713 North Hermitage Avenue, Chicago; Illinois State Teachers Association. Obye, Katharine H. (Teacher), 619 Lafayette Avenue, Rockford; Rockford Teachers Club. O’Leary, D. J. (Teacher), 1818 South 58th Court, Cicero; Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. O’Rourke, Catherine (Teacher), 3057 Jack- son Boulevard, Chicago; Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Page, William J. (Teacher), 4345 Adams Street, Chicago; Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Phelan, Catherine M. (Teacher), 748 Belden Avenue, Chicago; Chicago Division, Illi¬ nois State Teachers Association. Pierce, Mrs. Theresa (Teacher), 8137 Mary¬ land Avenue, Chicago; Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Plapp, F. W. (Teacher), 4140 North Keeler Avenue, Chicago; Chicago Division, Illi¬ nois State Teachers Association. Powell, Margaret (Teacher), 941 Galt Ave¬ nue, Chicago; Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Preble, F. Blanche (Teacher), 10855 Vernon Avenue, Chicago; Illinois State Teachers Association. Ritow, Herman (Principal), Fort Sheridan; Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Roach, Mary Margaret (Principal), 439 West Wood Street, Decatur; Illinois State Teachers Association. Associational Records and Information 1187 Rohm. Harley W. (Superintendent of Schools), Cambridge: Illinois State Teach¬ ers Association. Root. C. H. (County Superintendent). 733 Fremont Avenue, Morris: Illinois Valley Division, Illinois State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Russell, Charlotte (Teacher), 448 West 62nd Street. Chicago; Chicago Teachers League. Schwebel, George A. (Superintendent of Schools). Cicero; Lake Shore Division. Illinois State Teachers Association. Scully, Susan (Teacher), 7159 University Avenue. Chicago; Chicago Division, Illi¬ nois State Teachers Association. Shiel, Katie A. (Teacher). 2010 Raymond Street. Chicago; Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Shinn. Anna Lois (Superintendent of Schools). River Forest; Lake Shore Di¬ vision. Illinois State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Simon, Maurice H. (Teacher). 4356 Gladys Avenue, Chicago; Chicago Division. Illi¬ nois State Teachers Association. Simpson. T. Arthur (County Superintend¬ ent). Waukegan; Illinois State Teachers Association. Slattery, Anise (Teacher), 1325 Arthur Ave¬ nue. Chicago; Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Smedley. Eva A. (Teacher), 3730 Ellis Ave¬ nue. Chicago: Evanston Teachers Club. Smith. R. R. (Teacher), 5719 S. Francisco • Avenue. Chicago; Chicago Division, Illi¬ nois State Teachers Association. Stevens. C. A. (Teacher), 715 Woodland Avenue. Springfield; South Central Di¬ vision, Illinois State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Thalman, John W. (Superintendent of Schools), Waukegan; Waukegan Town¬ ship, Secondary Schools. Todd. M. N. (Superintendent of Schools). Lawrenceville ; Illinois State Teachers As¬ sociation. Toole. Helen (Teacher), 4901 Jackson Boule¬ vard. Chicago: Chicago Division, Illinois State Teachers Association. Tucker. William W. (County Superintend¬ ent), Cambridge; Illinois State Teachers Association. Waggoner. E, C. (Department Head). 140 South Pater Street, Elgin; Elgin Council of Education. Waldo. K. D. (Superintendent of Schools). Aurora: Illinois State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Walker. D. E. (Assistant Superintendent). 1030 Oakton Street. Evanston: Lake Shore Division. Illinois State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Walsh. Julia ('reacher), 841 2nd Street. La Salle; Illinois State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Welin, Hilma L. (Teacher). 8010 Blackstone Avenue. Chicago; Chicago Division. Illi¬ nois State Teachers Association. Wham. George D. (Dean). Normal Univer¬ sity. Carbondale; Illinois State Teachers Association. Whittenberg. A. L. (Ex-officio). State Ex- aming Board for Teachers Certificates. Springfield. Wilkins. Bessie G. (Teacher). 2300 South Michigan Avenue. Chicago: Chicago Di¬ vision. Illinois State Teachers Association. Wolaver. Florence E. (Principal), 1734 Or- rington Street, Evanston: Evanston Teach¬ ers Club. Zmrhal, J. J. (Teacher), 2819 West 21st Place. Chicago; Chicago Division. Illinois State Teachers Association. INDIANA Abbett, Merle J. (Superintendent of Schools). Bedford; Indiana State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Archibald. W. W. (Teacher), 614 South 5th Street, Terre Haute; Terre Haute Teach¬ ers Federation. Bishop. Maude E. (Teacher), 1707 South 9th Street. Terre Haute; Terre Haute Teachers Federation. Brier, Adelia M. (Teacher), 3621 Salem Street. Indianapolis; Grade Teachers As¬ sociation. Campbell. Wilbur E. (Teacher), 1222 South Rush Street, South Bend; South Bend Teachers Association. Clements, Flora E. (Teacher), 6 Cambridge Street, Evansville; Evansville Teachers Federation. DuShane, Donald (Superintendent of Schools), Columbus; Indiana State Teach¬ ers Association. Foreman. J. W. (Superintendent of Schools). Goshen; Indiana State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Gladden. Fred (Assistant Superintendent). 131 South Emerson Avenue, Indianapolis; Indiana State Teachers Association. Hayward, O. B. (Principal), 216 Standard Avenue. Hammond; Hammond City Teach¬ ers Association. Heck. Harriet E. (Teacher), 606 West La Salle Avenue, South Bend; South Bend City Teachers Association. Kuhn, C. L. (Principal), 217 East Ewing Avenue, South Bend; South Bend City Teachers Association. Lewallen. Harry (County Superintendent). Warsaw; Indiana State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Llewelyn. Edgar Julius (Superintendent of Schools), Newcastle; Newcastle City Schools. Lloyd, Anna H. (Principal), 2840 North Delaware Street. Indianapolis; The Fed¬ eration of Indianapolis Public School Teachers. Miesel. Sophia (Teacher), 610 South First Street, Evansville; Evansville Teachers Federation. Miller. Charles F. (Ex-officio), Superintend¬ ent of Schools. Indianapolis. Montgomery, A. D. (Teacher), 310 South Washington Street. Crawfordsville ; Indi¬ ana State Teachers Association. Nessler. Augusta (Teacher), 1034 North Tacoma Avenue. Indianapolis; Grade Teachers Association. Pace. Ona A. (Teacher), 1704 West Pennsyl¬ vania Street. Evansville; Evansville Teachers Federation. Peters. Frieda (Teacher). 409 Adams Ave¬ nue. Evansville; Evansville Teachers Federation. Pittinger, Lemuel A. (President), Ball State Teachers College. Muncie; Association of Ball State Teachers College. Plumley. Lola (Teacher). 737 Warren Street. Huntington; Huntington City Teachers Association. Reid, Henry J. (County Superintendent). Monticello; Indiana State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Ross. Mrs. Dorvall (Teacher), South Whit¬ ley; Indiana State Teachers Association. 1188 National Education Association Roudebush, Roy R. (Assistant State Super¬ intendent), Indianapolis; Indiana State Teachers Association. Royster, Sallibelle (Teacher), 726 Blackford Avenue, Evansville; Evansville Teachers Federation. Sanders, Della M. (Supervisor), 907 East Boone Street, Frankfort; Indiana State Teachers Association. Sanders, Laura (Supervisor), 1704 West Pennsylvania Street, Evansville; Evans¬ ville Teachers Federation. Smith, Henry Lester (Ex-officio), Dean, School of Education, Indiana University, Bloomington. Tirey, Ralph N. (Superintendent of Schools), Bloomington; Indiana State Teachers As¬ sociation. Unger, Wood (Supervisor), 150 North Meri¬ dian Street, Indianapolis; Indiana State Teachers Association. White, Nellie L. (Teacher), Trafalgar; In¬ diana State Teachers Association. Williams, A. R. (Principal). Winchester High School, Winchester; Indiana State Teachers Association. Williams, Charles O. (Executive Secretary), Indiana State Teachers Association, In¬ dianapolis; Indiana State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Wisehart, Roy P. (Ex-officio), State Super¬ intendent of Public Instruction, Indian¬ apolis. IOWA Bracewell, Ray H. (Principal), 150 Clay Street, Burlington; Iowa State Teachers Association. Brainard, Grace E. (Teacher), 3 16th Street, Sioux City; Sioux City Teachers Club. Deamer, Arthur (Superintendent of Schools), Cedar Rapids; Iowa State Teachers As¬ sociation. Eells, H. L. (Professor), 414 West 24th Street, Cedar Falls; Faculty of Iowa State Teachers College. Foley, Vera Jean (Teacher). 3334 Dearborn Street, Sioux City; Sioux City Teachers Club. Gibbs, Edna (County Superintendent), Greenfield; Iowa State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Helbig, Ester (Teacher), 1033 Melrose Ter¬ race, Dubuque; Iowa State Teachers As¬ sociation. Hills, May (County Superintendent), Adel: Iowa State Teachers Association. Houghton, Jane (Teacher), 319 North 33rd Street, Cedar Rapids; Cedar Rapids Teach¬ ers Association. Hurley, Regina (Teacher), 1312 Douglas Street, Sioux City; Sioux City Teachers Club. Jones, Chester (Teacher), East High School. Des Moines; Iowa State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Lord, Mary A. (Ex-officio). Woodrow Wil¬ son Junior High School, Sioux City. March, Lucile (Teacher), Noltze Apartment J, Sioux City; Iowa State Teachers As¬ sociation. Moyers, Edison (Superintendent of Schools), Sidney; Iowa State Teachers Association. O’Donnell, Maye (Principal), 528 Tama Street, Boone; Iowa State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Olson, Ruth (Teacher), 920 Virginia Street, Sioux City; Sioux City Teachers Club. Rae, James J. (Principal), Box 719, Mason City; Iowa State Teachers Association. Samuelson, Agnes (Ex-officio), State Su¬ perintendent of Public Instruction, Des Moines. Smith, Calla (Teacher), 1125 Paxton Street, Sioux City; Sioux City Teachers Club. Taylor, L. R. (Superintendent of Schools), Corning; Iowa State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Van Ness, Loretta (Teacher), 4515 4th Avenue, Sioux City; Iowa State Teacher's Association. Williams, R. C. (Superintendent of Schools), Jesup; Iowa State Teachers Association. Willis, Myra G. (Teacher), 1540 D Avenue East, Cedar Rapids; Cedar Rapids Teach¬ ers Association. Wills, Mrs. Jennie W. (Teacher), 1111 Brody Street, Davenport; Scott County Teachers Association. Wood, Mrs, Emma (Teacher), 312 Fulton Street, Keokuk; Elementary Teachers Club of Keokuk. KANSAS Allen, George* A., Jr. (Ex-officio), State Su¬ perintendent of Public Instruction, To¬ peka. Bertsch, Wilhelmina F. (Teacher), 628 Lin- denwood Avenue, Topeka; Topeka Class¬ room Teachers Association. Brown, Virginia (Teacher), 516 Osage Street, Augusta; Kansas State Teachers A ecnpi Clark, Ruth A. (Teacher), 1507 “A” Ben¬ ton, Kansas City; Kansas City, Kansas Grade Teachers Club. Codding, George T. (Principal), Silver Lake; Kansas State Teachers Association. Gregory, Abagail (Teacher), Pratt; Kansas City, Kansas Grade Teachers Club. Heartburg, Ellen M. (Teacher), Apartment 3, The Devon, Topeka; Kansas State Teachers Association. Hemphill, John G. (Teacher), 315 North Grant Street, Chanute; Kansas State Teachers Association. Kemp, Rae (Teacher), 3621 Virginia Street. Kansas City; Kansas City, Kansas Grade Teachers Club. Kenton, Margaret (Teacher), Roosevelt School, Kansas City; Kansas State Teach¬ ers Association. Kittell, Mrs. Martha (Supervisor), 1902 West Street, Topeka; Kansas State Teach¬ ers Association. McRill, Hazel (Teacher), Chanute; Chanute Teachers Association. Pearson, M. E. (Ex-officio), Superintendent of Schools, Kansas City. Schlagle, F. L, (Assistant Superintendent), 1931 Elizabeth Street, Kansas City; Kan¬ sas State Teachers Association. Stout, A. J. (Superintendent of Schools), Topeka; Kansas State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Yoder, J, J. (Superintendent of Schools), Marysville; Kansas State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. KENTUCKY Barret, Mary S, (Teacher), 404 West Ninth Street, Owensboro; Owensboro Teachers Association. Dudley, C. E. (Superintendent of Schools), Henderson; Kentucky Education Associa¬ tion. Harvey, Elizabeth (Teacher), 501 North Main Street, Somerset; Kentucky Educa¬ tion Association. Jetton, Walter C. (Principal), Paducah; Kentucky Education Association. Associatioxal Records and Information 1189 Knighton, Hadley B. (Teacher), 1335 South Floyd Street, Louisville; Louisville Class¬ room Teachers. Mackey, E. T. (Superintendent of Schools), Williamsburg; Kentucky Education Asso¬ ciation. Ruth, Leona (Teacher), 650 South 39th Street, Louisville; Louisville Classroom Teachers. Taylor, L. N. (Supervisor), 1111 Slashes Road, Lexington; Kentucky Education As¬ sociation. Williams, R. E. (Ex-officio), Secretary, Kentucky Education Association, Louis¬ ville. Wright, Arkley (Superintendent of Schools), Hopkinsville; Kentucky Education Asso¬ ciation. LOUISIANA Bell, Annie T. (Professor), University Sta¬ tion, Baton Rouge; Louisiana Teachers Association. Britsch, Anna A. (Teacher), 4123 General Pershing Street, New Orleans; New Or¬ leans Public School Teachers Associa¬ tion. Fick, Iona (Teacher), 1033 Montegut Street. New Orleans; New Orleans Public School Teachers Association. Hamner, B. S. (Principal), High School. Bastrop; Louisiana Teachers Association. Hinrichs, Amy H. (Teacher), 7336 Hurst Street, New Orleans; Louisiana Teachers Association. Markey, Ruth (Teacher), 119 South Murst Street, New Orleans; New Orleans Pub¬ lic School Teachers Association. Miller, W. H. (County Supervisor), Thibo- daux; Louisiana Teachers Association. Moake, Aimee (Teacher), 1119 Delachaise Street, New Orleans; Louisiana Teachers Association. Morse, Mildred (Teacher), 329 Vallette Street, New Orleans; New Orleans Public School Teachers Association. Turner, C. B. (Ex-officio), Superintendent of Schools, Baton Rouge. MAINE Bussell, Mrs. Mallian (Teacher), 100 School Street, Gardiner; Kennebec County Teachers Association. Corson, D. H. (Superintendent of Schools), Hodgdon; Maine Teachers Association. DeBeck, Leona . (Teacher), Guilford; Pis¬ cataquis County Teachers Association. Hale, Florence M. (Ex-officio), State Agent for Rural Education, 15 Melville Street, Augusta. Hooper, John L. (Principal), 11 Hillcrest Street, Auburn; Androscoggin County Teachers Association. Houston. H. R. (Superintendent of Schools), Brewer; Penobscot Teachers Association. Jack, William B. (Ex-officio), Superinten¬ dent of Schools, Portland. Lord, Norris S. (Principal), Bridge Acad¬ emy, Dresden Mills; Maine Teachers As¬ sociation. Mushroe, Lea (Principal), Calais Academy, Calais; Washington County Teachers As¬ sociation. McKenney, Marjorie E. (Teacher), 2 Cliff Avenue, South Portland; Cumberland County Teachers Association. Ouellette. Catherine (Superintendent of Schools), Fort Kent; Aroostook County Teachers Association. Smith, Charlotte T. (Teacher), 216 Vaughn Street, Portland; Cumberland County Teachers Association. Stevens, Carl T. (President), Portland Teachers Association, 76 Main Street, Gorham; Portland Teachers Association. Taylor, Fay M. (Teacher), Dead River; Somerset County Teachers Association. Thomas, Augustus O. (Ex-officio), State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Augusta. Waltz, Maynard C. (Principal), South Paris; Oxford County Teachers Associa¬ tion. Wilson, Clinton D. (Superintendent of Schools), Bath; Maine Teachers Associa¬ tion. Wilson, Ruth B. (Teacher), 785 High Street, Bath; Sagadahoc-Lincoln County Teachers Association. Woodward, Louis B. (Principal). State Normal School, Gorham; Maine Teachers Association. Woodworth, A. A. (Superintendent of Schools), Washburn; Aroostook County Teachers Association. MARYLAND Burdick, William (Ex-officio), State Di¬ rector, 7 East Mulberry Street, Baltimore. MASSACHUSETTS Abbott, Ardelle (President), Somerville Teachers Club, 71 Craigie Street, Somer¬ ville; Somerville Teachers Club. Allen, Grace (Teacher), 11 Linden Place. Brookline; Brookline Teachers Club. Barnard, Florence (Teacher), 1674 Beacon Street, Brookline; Massachusetts Teach¬ ers Federation. Batson, Bertha R. (Teacher), 11 Wales Avenue. Brockton; Massachusetts Teach¬ ers Federation. Bosworth. Elizabeth B. (Teacher), 39 Har¬ vard Street, Whitman; Massachusetts Teachers Federation. Clark, Marion (Teacher), 75 Monroe Street. Somerville; Cambridge Teachers Club. Clarke. Edward R. (Superintendent of Schools), Winthrop; Massachusetts Teach¬ ers Federation. Dunham, Annie (Teacher), 20 Saunders Terrace, Wellesley Hills; Massachusetts Teachers Federation. Fellows. Mary Stuart (Principal), Everett; Middlesex County Teachers Association. Gould, Susan B. (Teacher), 42 Norwood Street, Everett; Everett Teachers Club. Graves, S. Monroe (Superintendent of Schools). Wellesley; Massachusetts School Superintendents Association. Howes, L, Gertrude (Teacher), 96 Winthrop Street. Boston; Boston Teachers Club. McSkimmon, Mary (Ex-officio), Principal. Pierce School, Brookline. Mugan. Mary A. S. (Assistant Superin¬ tendent). School Department, Fall River; Massachusetts Teachers Federation. Nichols, Adelle F. (Teacher), 11 Wales Avenue. Brockton; Brockton Grade Teachers Association. Prario, Henry T. (Master), Quincy Point Junior High School, Quincy; Norfolk County Teachers Association. Putnam. Walter (Principal), 28 Atis Street, Watertown; Watertown Teachers Asso¬ ciation. 1190 National Education Association Rhoades, Mabel A. (Teacher), 201 Wash¬ ington Street, Wellesley Hills; Massa¬ chusetts Teachers Federation. Robinson, John F. (Professor), Burdett Col¬ lege, Stuart Street, Boston; Eastern Com¬ mercial Teachers Association. Sanders, William J. (Teacher), 80 Chestnut Street, Haverhill; Massachusetts Teach¬ ers Federation. Sheehan. Julia A. (Principal), Hunnewell School, Wellesley; Massachusetts Ele¬ mentary Principals Association. Sherburne, Alice E. (Teacher), 3 Cedar Street, Haverhill; Massachusetts Teach¬ ers Federation. Stuart, Flora (Teacher), Normal School, Bridgewater; Massachusetts Teachers Federation. Sullivan, Julia (Teacher), 9 Marion Street, Charlestown; Massachusetts Teachers Federation. Woodward, Annie C. (Ex-officio), 144 School Street, Somerville. MICHIGAN Boer, Helen (Teacher), Jefferson School, Grand Rapids; Michigan Education As¬ sociation. Brazier, Marion (Teacher), 1093 Clark Avenue, Detroit; Detroit Teachers Asso¬ ciation. . Cameron, E. T. (Executive Secretary), Michigan Education Association, 935 North Washington Avenue, Lansing, Michigan Education Association. Campbell, Charlotte (Teacher), 6465 Ster¬ ling Street, Detroit; Detroit Teachers As¬ sociation. Cody, Frank (Superintendent of Schools), Detroit; Michigan Education Association. Dow, Ethel (Teacher), The Elks, 520 Bing¬ ham Avenue, Sault Ste. Marie; Michi¬ gan Education Association. Dow, Vera (Teacher), Bad Axe; Michigan Education Association. Fink, Mrs. Jessie M. (Principal), 161 Pros¬ pect Avenue, North, Grand Rapids; Na¬ tional Council of Administrative Women in Education. Harris, Elisabeth (Teacher), 1476 Montclair Avenue, Detroit; Detroit Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Hartgerink, Bert G. (Teacher), 64 Green- bush Street, Manistee; Michigan Educa¬ tion Association. Haviland, Edith M. (Teacher), Holloway; Adrian Teachers Club. Mann, Blanche (Teacher), 1217 Calvin Ave¬ nue, S. E., Grand Rapids; Grand Rapids Teachers Club. Mather, Mabel (Teacher). 518 Division Street, Sault Ste. Marie; Sault Ste. Marie Chapter of the N. E. A. Metz, Maud (Teacher), 25 Rochester Court, Grand Rapids; Michigan Education Asso¬ ciation. Miller, Eunice (Teacher), 756 Lewerenz Street, Detroit; Detroit Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Noble, Ruth (Teacher), Jefferson School, Grand Rapids; Michigan Education As¬ sociation. Pearce, Webster H. (Ex-officio), State Sup¬ erintendent of Public Instruction, Lans¬ ing. Rice, Arthur (Managing Editor), Michigan Education Association, Lansing; Michi¬ gan Education Association. Riggs, Cora (Principal), 25 Rochester Courts, S. E., Grand Rapids; Michigan Education Association. Ross, Meta M. (Principal), 5440 Cass Ave¬ nue, Detroit; Michigan Education Associ¬ ation. Slaght, Mrs. Elizabeth (Teacher), 514 Ethel Avenue, S. E., Grand Rapids; Grand Rapids Teachers Club. Smallidge, Olive E. (Supervisor), Oak Grove Club, Flint; Flint Teachers Club. Smith, Anna F. (Principal), 814 Washing¬ ton Avenue, Monroe; Michigan Education Association. Smith, May K. (Teacher), 814 Washing¬ ton Avenue, Monroe; Michigan Educa¬ tion Association. Strahan, Margaret (Principal), Lexington School, Grand Rapids; Michigan Educa¬ tion Association. Strong, Homer (Teacher), Western High School, Detroit; Michigan Education As¬ sociation. Yost, E. W. (County School commissioner), 1715 Barium Tower, Detroit; Michigan Education Association. MINNESOTA Adams, Margaret (Teacher), Denfeld High School, Duluth; Duluth Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Anderson, Elsie M. (Teacher), 2326 Fill¬ more Street, N. E., Minneapolis; Grade Teachers Section of the Minneapolis Teachers League. Barrett, Laura (Teacher), 4825 Lyndale Avenue, S., Minneapolis; Junior High School Section of the Minneapolis Teach¬ ers League. Bretthauer, Mathilde (Teacher), 506^4 East 4th Street, Apartment F, Duluth; Duluth Teachers Association. Carroll, Catherine A. (Teacher), 413-20th Avenue, S. Minneapolis; Minneapolis Classroom Teachers Association. Carroll, Teresa R. (Teacher), 413-20th Ave¬ nue, S., Minneapolis; Minneapolis Class¬ room Teachers Association. Curran, Mrs. Clarice H. (Teacher), 4134 Nicollet Avenue, Minneapolis; Grade Teachers Section of the Minneapolis Teachers League. Davenport, Florence (Teacher), Marshall Junior High School, St. Paul; Minnesota Education Association. Glaser, Lydia (Teacher), 211 Eighth Avenue, N. W., Rochester; Rochester Education Association. Gloor, Arnold (Superintendent of Schools), Crookston ; Minnesota Education Associa¬ tion. Harris, Mary (Teacher), 3242 Girard Ave¬ nue, S., Minneapolis; Minneapolis Divi¬ sion of the Minnesota Education Associa¬ tion. Hatch, Agnes F. (Supervisor), O’Neil Ho¬ tel, Chisholm; Minnesota Education As¬ sociation. Herr, O. W. (Superintendent of Schools), Northfield; Minnesota Education Associa¬ tion. Hooper, Myrtle (Teacher), 4038 Linden Hills Boulevard, Minneapolis; Minne¬ apolis Division of the Minnesota Educa¬ tion Association. Keating, Anna (Teacher), 2020 Fremont Ave¬ nue, N., Minneapolis; Minneapolis Divi¬ sion of the Minnesota Education Asso¬ ciation. Associational Records and Information 1191 Kilgore, Mrs. Harry (Board Member), Board of Education, Minneapolis; Min¬ nesota Education Association. Kohler, Katherine (Supervisor), Board of Education, Minneapolis; Minneapolis Di¬ vision of the Minnesota Education Asso¬ ciation. Larkin, Anne (Teacher), Franklin Junior High School, Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division of the Minnesota Education As¬ sociation. MacGregor, Effie (Ex-officio), Principal, John Burroughs School, Minneapolis. Maxson, Francis E. (Principal), 200 West 58th Street, Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division of the Minnesota Education As¬ sociation. Montank, Mrs. Laura J. (Teacher), 500 Delaware Street, S. E., Minneapolis; Minneapolis Classroom Teachers Associa¬ tion. Morrison, Mrs. Katherine (Teacher), 2801 Park Avenue, Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division of the Minnesota Education As¬ sociation. Murphy, Edna (Supervisor), Box 597, Grand Rapids; Minnesota Education As¬ sociation. Murphy, Mary V. (Teacher), 4440 Upton Avenue, S., Minneapolis; Grade Teachers Section of the Minneapolis Teachers League. Newell, Esther (Teacher), 3341 Portland Avenue, Minneapolis; Grade Teachers Section of the Minneapolis Teachers League. Olund, Anna (Teacher), 308^4 North 3rd Avenue, Virginia; Virginia Teachers As¬ sociation. O’Neil, Evelyn (Teacher), 308^4 North 3rd Avenue, Virginia; Virginia Education As¬ sociation. Painter, J. E. (Supervisor), 3416 Pillsbury Avenue, Minneapolis; Minnesota Educa¬ tion Association. Pribble, Evaline (Teacher), State Teachers College, St. Cloud; Minnesota Education Association. Schulz, C. G. (Secretary), 162 West Col¬ lege Avenue, St. Paul; Minnesota Educa¬ tion Association. Scoffield, Harriet (Teacher), Whittier High School, Minneapolis; Minneapolis Divi¬ sion of the Minnesota Education Asso¬ ciation. Shove, Helen (Principal), 3116 Clinton Ave¬ nue, Minneapolis; Minneapolis Principals Forum. Sorenson R. R. (Superintendent of Schools), Tracy; Minnesota Education Association. Stone, Mrs. Genevieve L. (Principal), Whittier School, Minneapolis; Minne¬ apolis Division of the Minnesota Educa¬ tion Association. Sullivan, Alice F. (Teacher), Washington Junior High School, Duluth; Minnesota Education Association. Tosseland, N. T. (Superintendent of Schools), Milaca; Minnesota Education Association. Westcott, Blanche A. (Teacher), 4725 Aid- rich Avenue, S., Minneapolis; Minne¬ apolis Classroom Teachers Association. Whiting, Jennie F. (Teacher) 1210 West 32nd Street, Minneapolis; Grade Teachers Section of the Minneapolis Teachers League. Wiberg, Louise (Assistant County Superin¬ tendent), Mankato; Minnesota Education Association. Wilson, John (Principal), Jordan Junior High School, Minneapolis; Minneapolis Division of the Minnesota Education As¬ sociation. Young, Kathrine G. (Principal), Marcy School, Minneapolis; Minnesota Educa¬ tion Association. MISSISSIPPI Bass, E. E. (Superintendent of Schools), Greenville; Mississippi Education Asso¬ ciation. Cooper, H. V. (Ex-officio), Superintendent of Schools, Kosciusko. Neill, M. L. (Superintendent of Schools), Louisville; Mississippi Education Asso¬ ciation. Neill, Mrs. M. L. (Teacher), Woodward Hotel, Louisville; Mississippi Education Association. Patterson, D. R. (Superintendent of Schools), Ruleville; Mississippi Educa¬ tion Association. MISSOURI Banks, Charles (Superintendent of Schools), University City; Southeast Missouri Teachers Association. Bell, Leslie H. (Superintendent of Schools), Lexington; Central Missouri Teachers Association. Bruce, Lena (Teacher), 716 Linwood Street Kansas City; Missouri State Teachers Association. Carter, E. M. (Secretary), Missouri State Teachers Association, Columbia; St. Louis District of the Missouri State Teachers Association. Dillon, W. G. (Supervisor), Box 310, Jef¬ ferson City; Missouri State Teachers Association. Douglas, T. G. (County Superintendent), Kennett; Southeast Missouri Teachers As¬ sociation. Elsea, A. F. (Secretary-Treasurer), North¬ east Missouri Teachers Association, Kirksville; Northeast Missouri Teachers Association. Emberson, R. H. (Supervisor), Columbia; Missouri State Teachers Association. Finnell, Maud (Principal), 1419 East 7th Street, Sedalia; Sedalia Community Teachers Association. Gallagher, Edith (Teacher), 124 Massachu¬ setts Avenue, St. Joseph; St. Joseph Di¬ vision of the Missouri State Teachers Association. Green, G. H. (Principal), 6198 Kingsbury Street, St. Louis; St. Louis District of the Missouri State Teachers Association. Hendricks, E. L. (President), Central Mis¬ souri State Teachers College, Warrens- burg; Missouri State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Hulett, Vertie (Teacher), 2761 East 27th Street, Kansas City; Kansas City Teach¬ ers Club. Lain, Nell E. (Teacher), 4518 Montgall Street, Kansas City; Kansas City Teach¬ ers Club. Lamkin, Uel W. (Ex-officio), President. Northwest Missouri State Teachers Col¬ lege. Maryville. Lee, Charles A. (Ex-officio), State Super¬ intendent of Public Schools, Jefferson City. McDonald, D. R. (Superintendent of Schools), Webb City; Southwest Mis¬ souri Teachers Association. 1192 National Education Association Martin, W. H. (Assistant Superintendent), Kansas City; Missouri State Teachers Association. Moore, W. E. (Superintendent of Schools), Shelbina; Northeast Missouri Teachers Association. Morris, Cora E. (Supervisor) R. F. D. No. 1, Bois D’Arc; Missouri State Teachers Association. Neale, M. G. (Dean), School of Education, University of Missouri, Columbia; Mis¬ souri State Teachers Association. O’Brien, Irene (Supervisor), Gallatin; Northwest Missouri Teachers Associa¬ tion. Pinckney, L. A. (Teacher), 340 South Lawn Street, Kansas City; Missouri State Teachers Association. Ralls, Mary C. (Teacher) 6529 Jefferson Street, Kansas City; Kansas City Teach¬ ers Club. Reid, Angie (Teacher), 2802 Independence Avenue, Kansas City; Kansas City Teach¬ ers Club. Riddle, Anne E. (Teacher), 219)4 North 12th Street, St. Joseph; St. Joseph Divi¬ sion of the Missouri State Teachers As¬ sociation. Scarborough, J. R. (Supervisor), 415 East Capitol Street, Jefferson City; Central Missouri Teachers Association. Sherman. Ruth (Teacher), 600 East Jeffer¬ son Street, Clinton; Missouri State Teachers Association. Smith, C. A. (Teacher), 703 Atlanta Street, Webster Groves; St. Louis District of the Missouri State Teachers Association. Spangler, Kathryn E. (County Superinten¬ dent), 221 North Washington Street, Clin¬ ton; Missouri State Teachers Association. Taylor, J. F. (Superintendent of Schools), Kennett; Southeast Missouri Teachers Association. Weyer, Aimee H. (Teacher), 1615 East 33rd Street Kansas City; Kansas City Teachers Club. Weyer, Leonora A. (Teacher), 1615 East 33rd Street, Kansas City; Kansas City Teachers Club. MONTANA Cunningham, R. T. (Ex-officio), Secretary, Montana Education Association, Box 217, Helena. Fogler, Fannie T. (Teacher), Browning; Montana Education Association. Mitchell, Frank N. (Superintendent of Schools), Poplar; Montana Education As¬ sociation. Rothrock Mrs. Eva (Associate Principal), Deer Lodge; Montana Education Associa¬ tion. Rothrock, Earl F. (Principal), Junior High School, Deer Lodge; Montana Education Association. Squire, Cora M. (Teacher), Bryant Build¬ ing, Helena; Montana Education Associa¬ tion. NEBRASKA Adams, Jennie B. (Secretary), 1407 O Street, Lincoln; Nebraska Womans Edu¬ cational Club. Baumgardner, Erdice (Teacher), 3218 Web¬ ster Street; Omaha; Omaha School Forum. Bracken, Angeline (Principal), 4913 Chi¬ cago Street, Omaha; Omaha School Forum. Cogil, Annie M. T. (Principal), 1642 M Street, Apartment 3, Lincoln; Lincoln Teachers Association. Cox, Visla (Teacher), Central Grade School, Omaha; Nebraska State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Dickey, O. J. (Teacher), 5110 Lafayette Street, Omaha; Omaha School Forum. Elliott, Robert I. (President), Chadron; Nebraska State Teachers Association. Elson, S. R. (Teacher), 305 City Hall, Omaha; Nebraska State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Genau, Elizabeth H. (Teacher), 3514 North 45th Street, Omaha; Omaha School Forum. Hosman, Everett M. (Secretary), Nebraska State Teachers Association, Lincoln; Ne¬ braska State Teachers Association. . Lefler, M. C. (Ex-officio), Superintendent of Schools, Lincoln. Long, Elizabeth (Teacher), 2302 South 33rd Street Omaha; Omaha School Forum. Mann, Anna P. (Teacher), Flatiron Hotel, Omaha; Omaha School Forum. Miller, Louise (Teacher), 658 South 17th Street, Lincoln; Lincoln Teachers Associ¬ ation. Moore, Eugenia M. (Teacher), Benson Central School, Omaha; Nebraska State Teachers Association. Porter, D. E. (Principal), 2715 North 47th Avenue, Omaha; Omaha School Forum. Pyrtle, E. Ruth (Principal) Bancroft School, Lincoln; Lincoln Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Rokahr, Elsie (Teacher), 1743 South 24th Street, Lincoln; Lincoln Teachers Associ- tion. Slade, Clara (Teacher), 1208 S Street, Lin¬ coln; Nebraska State Teachers Associa¬ tion Ward, Evelyn (Teacher), Benson Central School, Omaha; Nebraska State Teach¬ ers Association. NEVADA Gleason, Mrs. Martha F. (Principal), Car- son City; Nevada State Educational As¬ sociation. Luke, Mrs. C. H. (Ex-officio), Deputy State Superintendent of Schools, Carson City. NEW HAMPSHIRE Jordan, Dana S. (President), New Hamp¬ shire State Teachers Association, Lisbon; New Hampshire State Teachers Associa¬ tion. May, Walter M. (Deputy State Commis¬ sioner), Concord; New Hampshire State Teachers Association. NEW JERSEY Booz, Mary C. (General Supervisor), 128 West State Street, Trenton; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Chapman, Ira T. (Superintendent of Schools), Elizabeth; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Cosad, Lillian E. (Teacher), High School, Atlantic City; New Jersey State Teach¬ ers Association. Cox, Adele (Teacher), 15 Virginia Avenue, Jersey City; New Jersey State Teach¬ ers Association. Cummins, Addie , M. L. (Teacher), 27 Monmouth Avenue, Dover; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Associational Records and Information 1193 Derr, B. Franklin (Teacher), 124 Hadley Avenue, Clifton; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Dickinson, Florence M. (Teacher), 249 Windsor Avenue, Haddonfield; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Driscoll, Mary L. (Vice-Principal), 400 Broadway, Paterson; Paterson Teachers Association. Dyke, Charles B. (Secretary), New Jersey State Teachers Association, Trenton; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Earle, I. Newton (Principal), Cranbury; New Brunswick Teachers Association. Gerard, G. R. (Superintendent of Schools), Belleville; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Glennie. Alexander J. (Ex-officio), Princi¬ pal. Miller Street School, Newark. Goodfellow, Raymond C. (Director), 115 South Kingman Road, South Orange; Newark Teachers Association. Green, Mary A. (Principal), Dayton; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Gurley, Raymond B. (Principal). Cleveland Junior High School, Newark; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Hill, Mattie S. (Teacher), 507 State Street, Camden; Camden Teachers Association. Hoagland, Ada May (Teacher), Milling¬ ton; Morris County Teachers Association. Horgan, Elizabeth N. (Supervisor), 317 Central Avenue, Orange; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Hulse, Henry S., Jr. (Principal), 650 Parker Street, Newark; New Jersey State Teach¬ ers Association. Jackson, Beatrix P. (Teacher), 220 Arling¬ ton Avenue, Jersey City; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Leiter, Nora C. (Teacher) 173 Euclid Ave¬ nue, Hackensack; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Miles, Anna L. (Teacher), 606 West Maple Avenue, Merchantville ; Camden Teachers Miller, Henry P. (Principal), High School, Atlantic City; New Jersey State Teach¬ ers Association. Nelson, Mabel (Teacher), 2227 North 19th Street, Philadelphia; Camden Teachers Association. Quinn, Katharine E. (Teacher), 33 Silver Street, Newark; High School Women Teachers Association. Roberts, Mary E. (Principal), 6103 Cedar Avenue, Merchantville; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Roe, Warren S. (Principal), Belmont Ave¬ nue School, Newark; Newark Teachers Association. Smith. Arthur O. (Superintendent of Schools), Union City; New Jersey State Teachers Association. Sturdevant. Grace (Teacher), State Street School, Hackensack; Hackensack Teach¬ ers Association. Thomas, Ruth H. (Teacher), 357 Lake Street, Newark; Passaic Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Wagner, Elmer (Supervising-Principal), Pennington; New Jersey State Teachers A. ssociation Ward. William R. (Director), 97 Hillcrest Avenue, Trenton; Trenton Teachers Club. NEW MEXICO Brook. Mrs. H. F. (Ex-officio), Superin¬ tendent, McKinley County Schools, Gal¬ lup. Milne, John (Superintendent, of Schools), Albuquerque; New Mexico Educational Association. Moore, Oscar D. (County Superintendent), Raton; New Mexico Educational Associa¬ tion. Thomas, Mrs. A. E. (County Superinten¬ dent), Alamogordo; New Mexico State Teachers Association. NEW YORK Alexander, Jessie F. (Teacher), 234 West¬ minster Avenue, Syracuse; New York State Teachers Association. Armitage Edith E. (Teacher), 28 Howard Street, Auburn; New York State Teach¬ ers Association. Barnum, Helen C. (Teacher), 17 Bigelow Street, Binghamton; Binghamton Teach¬ ers Association. Barrett, Ruth C. (Teacher), 517 9th Street. College Point; Teachers Association of the Borough of Queens. Bates', Delphine C. (Teacher), 263 Furman Street, Syracuse; New York State Teach¬ ers Association. Burks, Gertrude (Teacher), 400 Graves Street. Syracuse; Syracuse Teachers Association. Butts, Edna M. (Teacher), 163 Radford Street, Yonkers; Yonkers Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Carruthers, Charles B. (Principal), High School, Katonah; Westchester County Teachers Association. Davis, Grace M. (Teacher), 42 Park Ave¬ nue, Mt. Vernon; Mt. Vernon Teachers Association. Davison, George Millard (Principal), 1429 Union Street, Brooklyn; Teachers of Junior High School, Number 109. Fahey, Sara H. (Teacher), 191 Lincoln Place, Brooklyn; New York City High School Teachers Association. Gilbert, Mrs. Georgia (Teacher), 60 South Third Avenue, Mt. Vernon; Mt. Vernon Teachers Association. Hendrie, William E. (Principal), P. O. Box 26, Greenlawn; Teachers Association of the Borough of Queens. Holmes, William H. (Ex-officio), Superin¬ tendent of Schools, Mt. Vernon. Holzworth, Charles (Principal), 43 Elm- dorf Avenue, Rochester; Rochester Teach¬ ers Association. Hosic James F. (Professor), Teachers Col¬ lege, Columbia University, New York; New York State Teachers Association. Kilpatrick, Van Evrie (Director), 121 East 51st Street, New York; School Garden Association of New York City. Lewis, Ernest D. (Teacher), Evander Childs High School, New York; New York City High School Teachers As¬ sociation. Mendelsohn, Henry (Principal), Public School Number 167, Brooklyn; Brooklyn Teachers Association. Newlon, Jesse H. (Ex-officio), Lincoln School, Teachers College, Columbia Uni¬ versity, New York. Rockwell, Rena (Teacher), 364 West Clin¬ ton Street, Elmira; The Teachers Wel¬ fare League of the State of New York. Ross, Burgess B. (Teacher), 37 Otsego Ave¬ nue, New Rochelle; New Rochelle Teachers Club. Schroder, Edna L. (Teacher), 1 Garden Walk New Rochelle; New Rochelle Teachers Club. 1194 National Education Association Taylor, George D. (Principal), 392 Augus¬ tine Street, Rochester; Rochester Teach¬ ers Association. Vail, Burr D. (Principal), 367 Belle Vue Avenue, Yonkers; Yonkers Teachers As¬ sociation. Van Ingen, Bessie (Teacher), 9 Werner Parkway, Rochester; .Rochester Teachers Association. Van Ingen, Fanny L. (Teacher), 9 Werner Parkway, Rochester; Rochester Kinder¬ garten Association. Wiggins R. O. (Department Head), 6 Smith Street, Gloversville ; Gloversville Teachers Association. NORTH CAROLINA Allen, A. T. (Ex-officio), State Superintend¬ ent of Public Instruction, Raleigh. Andrews, T. W. (Ex-officio), Superintend¬ ent of Schools, High Point. Boyington, Gladys (Teacher), Greensboro; North Carolina Education Association. Carroll, H. A. (Superintendent of Schools). Kernersville ; North Carolina Education Association. Hasty, S. G. (County Superintendent), Lex¬ ington; North Carolina Education Asso¬ ciation. Henkel, Celeste (County Superintendent), Statesville; North Carolina Education As¬ sociation. Rankin, Jennie (Supervisor), Charlotte; North Carolina Education Association. Young, W. A. (Superintendent of Schools). Graham; North Carolina Education Asso¬ ciation. NORTH DAKOTA Crain, E. P. (Supervisor), State Depart¬ ment of Education, Bismarck; North Da¬ kota Education Association. Dakin, Dorothy (Teacher) University of North Dakota, Grand Forks; North Da¬ kota Education Association. Nielson, Minnie J. (Ex-officio), 901 5th Avenue, Valley City. White, L. A. (Superintendent of Schools), Minot; North Dakota Education Associa¬ tion. OHIO Aiken, Georgia (Teacher), 3000 Reading Road, Cincinnati; Cincinnati Teachers Association. Ammon, Lucy P. (Teacher), 1265 Parkwood Drive Cleveland; Ohio Education Asso¬ ciation. Andrews, Bess (Teacher), 824 Norwood Avenue, Toledo; Toledo Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Arganbright, C. A. (County Superintend¬ ent), Kenton; Ohio Education Associa¬ tion. Barhyte, Mary E. (Teacher), 3710 Palmers¬ ton Road, Cleveland; Ohio Education As¬ sociation. Bricker, D. A. (Teacher), 748 West High Street, Lima; Lima Teachers Associa¬ tion. Bridgman, Bertha (Principal), Box 208, Athens; Ohio Education Association. Bruning, Otto (Teacher), Pemberville; Wood County Teachers Association. Calhoun, Marguerite (Teacher), 827 High Avenue, N. W., Canton; Ohio Education Association. Cantrell, John D. (Teacher), 1301 West 108th Street, Cleveland; Lakewood Teach¬ ers Association. Carr, Mary (Teacher), 1304 Palmwood Ave¬ nue, Toledo; Toledo Teachers Associa¬ tion. Collicott, J. G. (Superintendent of Schools), Columbus; Ohio Education Association. Connell, Laura J. (Teacher) 365 South Parkview Avenue, Bexley, Columbus; Co¬ lumbus Teachers Federation. Crafts, Neal (Superintendent of Schools), Pemberville; Wood County Teachers As¬ sociation. Creager, Harriet (Teacher), 2344 East High Street, Springfield; Springfield Teachers Association. Crow, R. E. (Superintendent of Schools), Strongsville; Cuyahoga County Teachers Institute. Dauman, Clara (Teacher), 3532 Edwards Road, Cincinnati; Ohio Education Asso¬ ciation. Davis, George H. (Principal), 4627 Glen- shade Avenue, Cincinnati; Cincinnati Schoolmasters Club. Dehner, Angela (Teacher), 861 Lincoln Avenue, Cincinnati; Cincinnati Teachers. Association. Deputy, Mary L. (Teacher), 123^4 South Elizabeth Street, Lima; Lima Teachers Association. Dever, Mary (Teacher), 3535 Euclid Ave¬ nue, Cleveland; Cleveland Teachers Fed¬ eration. Dick, L. C. (County Superintendent), Lon¬ don; Ohio Education Association. Dieterich, H. C. (Superintendent), Bexley High School, Columbus; Ohio Education Association. Drummond, Glenn (County Superintendent) Bellefontaine ; Logan County Teachers Association. Duvall, Estella (Teacher), Arcade Hotel, Springfield; Springfield Teachers Associa¬ tion. Eldredge, A. C. (Ex-officio), Assistant Sup¬ erintendent of Schools, Cleveland. Engleman, J. O. (President), State Normal College, Kent; Ohio Education Associa¬ tion. Evans, William A. (Assistant Principal), Walnut Hills High School, Cincinnati; Ohio Education Association. Felt, Edna El (Assistant County Superin¬ tendent) 200 Old Court House, Cleve¬ land; Ohio Education Association. Flinchpaugh, Anderson E. (Assistant Principal), 303 Junietta Avenue, Cincin¬ nati; Cincinnati Teachers Association. Freeborn, Della E. (Principal), 2025 East 100th Street, East Cleveland; Ohio Edu¬ cation Association. Frisbie, Helen (Teacher), Wayne; Wood County Teachers Association. Gardner, Marie S. (Teacher), 458 Park Place, Springfield; Ohio Education As¬ sociation. Gibbs, H. W. (Principal), 408 North Mad- river Street, Bellefontaine; Bellefon¬ taine Teachers Association. Gilbert Alice (Teacher), 116 North Cedar Avenue, Niles; Niles Teachers Associa¬ tion. Graf, Amelia (Teacher), 1512 East 118th Street, Cleveland; Cleveland Teachers Federation. Gregg, Erma (Teacher), 125 East Brooklyn Street, Youngstown; Youngstown Educa¬ tion Association. Hanselman, C. F. (Principal), 37 Tudor Court, Clifton, Cincinnati;. Ohio Educa¬ tion Association. Associational Records and Information 1195 Hazel, Harry R. (Teacher), 319 Bonniewood Drive, Cleveland; Cleveland Teachers Federation. Hier, Ruth (Teacher), 949 Paxton Road. Cleveland; Ohio Education Association. Hirst, Alice H. (Teacher), 2640 Kemper Lane, Cincinnati; Cincinnati Teachers Association. Hodson, H. W. (Superintendent of Schools), Wilmington; Ohio Education Associa¬ tion. Howser, Elma (Principal), 325 Franklin Street, Marion; Marion City Teachers Association. Insley, J. W. (County Superintendent), Findlay; Ohio Education Association. Jennings, Bessie (Teacher), 209 Homewood Avenue, Warren; Warren City Teachers Association. Kanagy, Celia (Teacher). 571 Patterson Avenue, Akron; Akron Teachers Associa¬ tion. Kean, Lura B. (Principal), 507 North Buck¬ eye Street, Wooster; Ohio Education As¬ sociation. Kehm. Charlotte E. (Teacher) Norwood High School, Norwood; Ohio Education Association. Klag, Dora (Teacher), 551 Palmwood Ave¬ nue, Toledo; Toledo Teachers Associa¬ tion. Leeper, Maude (Principal), Mingo Junc¬ tion; Ohio Education Association. Lemert, Helen O. (Teacher), 33 Wilson Avenue, Columbus; Ohio Education As¬ sociation. Lewis, Ethel (Teacher), 296 Jefferson Ave¬ nue, Sharon; Youngstown Education As¬ sociation. Light, U. L. (Superintendent of Schools), Barberton; Ohio Education Association. McCreery, Susie (Principal), Thoreau Park School. Parma; Cuyahoga County Teach¬ ers Institute. McKelvey, Augusta (Teacher), 571 Patter¬ son Avenue, Akron; Akron Teachers As¬ sociation. Madley. Violet E. (Principal), 36 Wash¬ ington Avenue, Niles; Ohio Education Association. Matlehner, Edith (Principal) 419 West High Street, Lima; Lima Teachers As¬ sociation. Marble, Margaret M. (Teacher), 2209 Ful¬ ton Avenue, Cincinnati; Cincinnati Teach¬ ers Association. M ase. S. O. (Superintendent of Schools), Dover; Ohio Education Association. Matteson, I. F. (Superintendent of Schools), Findlay; Ohio Education Association. Mears, Florence (Teacher), 1328 Detroit Avenue. Toledo; Toledo Teachers Associ¬ ation. Melvin, Edna (Teacher), 803 Thurman Ave¬ nue. Columbus; Columbus Teachers Fed¬ eration. Mills, Glendora (Teacher), 919 Maole Ave¬ nue, Findlay; Findlay City Teachers Association. Morningstar Charlotte. (Teacher), 1275 Franklin Avenue, Columbus; Columbus Teachers Federation. Morris, Hattie (Teacher), 25 Garfield Place, Toledo; Toledo Teachers Association. Offenhauer, R. E. (Superintendent of Schools), Lima; Ohio Education Associa¬ tion. Offerman. Kate M. (Assistant County Su¬ perintendent). Pemberville; Ohio Educa¬ tion Association. Phillips, H. W. (Principal), 115 South Port¬ land Street, Youngstown; Youngstown Education Association. Pierce, C. C. (Superintendent of Schools), Painesville; Ohio Education Association. Pinckney, Mary (Teacher), The Hattersly Number 9, Toledo; Toledo Teachers As¬ sociation. Reynolds, Frank E. (Secretary-Treasurer), Ohio Education Association, Columbus; Ohio Education Association. Riggle, C. B. (Superintendent of Schools), Perrysburg; Wood County Teachers As¬ sociation. Root, Alex (Principal), 63 Stimson Avenue. Athens; Ohio Education Association. Roudebush, G. E. (Assistant Superintend¬ ent), Columbus; Ohio Education Associa¬ tion. Ryder, H. E. (County Superintendent), Fre¬ mont; Ohio Education Association. Scheig Carl F. (Supervisor), 201 Home- wood Avenue, Warren; Warren City Teachers Association. Schwertzler, Anna (Teacher), 1304 Palm- wood Avenue, Toledo; Toledo Teachers Association. Sebert, Marvel (Teacher), Bay Village; Cuyahoga County Teachers Institute. Shelton, F. M. (Superintendent of Schools). Springfield; Ohio Education Association. Sprague, Ralph M. (Teacher), 1240 Gordon Street, Toledo; Toledo Teachers Associa¬ tion. Stanton, B. F. (Superintendent of Schools), Alliance; Ohio Education Association. Stewart, Fern M. (Teacher), 707 Hamilton Avenue, Lorain; Ohio Education Associa¬ tion. Stopher, Emmet C. (Professor), State Nor¬ mal College, Kent; Ohio Education Asso¬ ciation. Strong, George M. (Teacher), 75 Glenmont Avenue, Columbus; Columbus Teachers Federation. Turnbull, Lilian (Principal), 1609 3rd Street, N. W., Canton; Ohio Education Association. Van Gorder, R. C. (Principal), 504 Arden Place, Toledo; Toledo Teachers Associa¬ tion. Vickerman, John W. (Teacher), 3295 Dale- ford Road, Shaker Heights; Cleveland Teachers Federation. Wager, W. W. (Principal), Worthington; Columbus Teachers Federation. Walton, Annabel (Teacher), 1470 West 116th Street, Cleveland; Lakewood Teach¬ ers Association. Wheeler, Ruth (Teacher), 418 Palmyra Road, Warren; Ohio Education Associa- tion. Whitmer, J. W. (County Superintendent), Toledo; Ohio Education Association. Wigton, Charles E. (Principal), 136 Wood¬ land Avenue, Oberlin; Ohio Education Association. Witthoeft, Dorothy (Teacher), 92 East York Street, Akron; Akron Teachers Associa¬ tion. OKLAHOMA Baldwin, Ona Belle (Teacher), Muskogee; Muskogee Teachers Association. Butts, Mrs. R. B. (Teacher), Muskogee; Muskogee Teachers Association. Claxton, P. P. (Ex-officio), Superintendent of Schools, Tulsa. Clay, J. D. (Principal), 325 North F Street, Muskogee; Oklahoma Education Associa¬ tion. 1196 National Education Association Evatts, Hassie (Teacher), Muskogee; Ok¬ lahoma Education Association. Homberger, E. H. (Superintendent of Schools), Woodward; Oklahoma Educa¬ tion Association. Howell, C. M. (Secretary), Oklahoma Edu¬ cation Association, Oklahoma City; Okla¬ homa Education Association. Kerr, Clay W. (Assistant State Superin¬ tendent), Oklahoma City; Oklahoma Edu¬ cation Association. Mitchell, John G. (Ex-officio), President. Central Teachers College, Edmond. Ray, L. B. (Professor), Edmond; Oklahoma Education Association. Robinett, Celestia (County Superintendent), Tecumseh; Oklahoma Education Associa¬ tion. Seymour, F. O. (Professor), Box 451. Ed¬ mond; Oklahoma Education Association. Wantland, C. W. (Professor), 230 East Sec¬ ond Street, Oklahoma City; Oklahoma Education Association. OREGON Athey, O. W. (Teacher), 336 East Lombard Street, Portland; Portland High School Teachers Association. Bexell, J. A. (Dean), Department of Com¬ merce, Oregon State College, Corvallis; Oregon State Teachers Association. Bolland, Nettie Rankin (Ex-officio), 374 East 39th Street, N., Portland. Carleton, E. F. (Secretary-Treasurer), Oregon State Teachers Association, Port¬ land; Oregon State Teachers Association. Churchill, Alma (Teacher), 1072 East Sal¬ mon Street, Portland; Portland Grade Teachers Association. Corrucinni, Mrs. Katherine (Teacher). Ar- denwalk, Milwaukee Branch, Portland; Portland Grade Teachers Association. Darnall, Mrs. Maud K. (Teacher), 5309 92nd Street, S. E., Portland; Portland Grade Teachers Association. Doughton, Lois Cheadle (Teacher), Dallas; Oregon State Teachers Association. Doughton, Preston (Principal), Dallas; Ore¬ gon State Teachers Association. Falb, Marie (Teacher), 672 East 60th Street. N., Portland; Portland Grade Teachers Association. Fitzpatrick, Mrs. F. C. (Teacher), Echo; Oregon State Teachers Association. Fitzpatrick, F. C. (Superintendent of Schools), Echo; Oregon State Teachers Association. Howard, C. A. (Ex-officio), State Superin¬ tendent of Public Instruction, Salem. Landers, J. S. (President), Oregon Normal School, Monmouth; Oregon State Teach¬ ers Association. McCabe, Margaret (Teacher), 645 Corona Avenue, Portland; Portland Grade Teach¬ ers Association. McLaughlin, Ada (Teacher), Box 176, Route 12, Milwaukee Branch, Portland; Portland Grade Teachers Association. Read, Mrs. Anna (Teacher), Portland Hotel, Portland; Portland Grade Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Towler, Mrs. E. D. (Teacher), Box 913, La Grande; La Grande Department of Classroom Teachers. Towler, E. D. (Principal), Box 913, La Grande; Oregon State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Walker, Mrs. Mary G. (Teacher), Rieth; Oregon State Teachers Association. Whitney, E. H. (Assistant Superintendent), Portland; Oregon State Teachers Associa¬ tion. PENNSYLVANIA Akeley, A. P. (County Superintendent), Coudersport; Pennsylvania State Educa¬ tion Association. Andes, P. B. (Assistant Superintendent), Media; Delaware County Teachers Insti¬ tute. App, I. D. (County Superintendent), Tele¬ graph Building, Harrisburg; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Baird, Arthur C. (Vice-Principal), 920 East End Avenue, Pittsburgh; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Becker, Harvey J. (Principal), 542 West Broadway, Red Lion; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Bentz, M. S. (County Superintendent), Ebensburg; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Blewitt, Angela G. (Director of Art), 316 Phelps Street, Scranton; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Boyer, Martha E. (Teacher), 6420 North 12th Street, Philadelphia; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Bryan, George A. (Director of Music), 317 East Main Street, Carnegie; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Davis, T. S. (County Superintendent), Holli- daysburg; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Derby, Charles H. (Teacher), 209 East 28th Street, Erie; Pennsylvania State Educa¬ tion Association. Douthett, Walter R. (Superintendent of Schools), Darby; Pennsylvania State Edu¬ cation Association. Emrey, Miles L. (Supervising Principal), 6131 Columbia Avenue, Philadelphia; Penn¬ sylvania State Education Association. Ernst, Ursula A. (Teacher), 1417 Monroe Street, York; York City Teachers Associa¬ tion. Foster, Charles R. (Ex-officio), President, State Teachers College, Indiana. Foust, Clement E. (Professor), 7741 Union Avenue, Elkins Park; Philadelphia Teach¬ ers Association. Garwood, C. H. (Superintendent of Schools), Harrisburg; Harrisburg Teachers Insti¬ tute. „ „ Goodenough, Martha (Teacher). 806 North 11th Street, Reading; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Gray, Jessie (Teacher), 1210 Fillmore Street, Philadelphia; Philadelphia Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Green, C. C. (Superintendent of School?), New Castle; Pennsylvania State Educa¬ tion Association. Hart, John S. (Supervising Principal), 310 5th Street, Glassport; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Heiges, A. Katharine (Teacher), 246 East Philadelphia Street, York; York City Teachers Association. Hoover, C. W. (Supervising Principal), 315 Market Street, Lemoyne; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Horner, M. B. (Principal), 35 Penn Street, Washington; Pennsylvania State Educa¬ tion Association. Keith, John A. H. (Ex-officio), State Su¬ perintendent of Public Instruction, Harris¬ burg. Associations. Records and Information 1197 Kelley, J. Herbert (Ex-officio), Executive Secretary, Pennsylvania State Education Association, Harrisburg. Lewis, Victor E. (Supervising Principal), 185 Green Street, Edwardsville ; Pennsyl¬ vania State Education Association, McDonough, Mary S. (Teacher), 439 Phelps Street, Scranton; Pennsylvania State Edu¬ cation Association. MacLaren, Roland T. (Teacher), 685 Fourth Avenue, Williamsport; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Mallory, Elmer G. (Supervising Principal), Masontown; Pennsylvania State Educa¬ tion Association. Manwiller, Evan H. (Teacher), Stony Creek Mills, Reading; Berks County Teachers Association. Miller, Helen L. (Teacher), 115 South Queen Street, York; York City Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Noonan, Joseph F. (Superintendent of Schools), Mahanoy City; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Northrup, Robert M. (Assistant Superin¬ tendent), Court House, Scranton; Penn¬ sylvania State Education Association. Olsen, Anne C. (Teacher), 310 East 27th Street, Erie; Erie Teachers Association. Palmer, U. G. (Supervising Principal), 701 Center Avenue, Verona; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Parkinson, H. G. (Professor), Pennsylvania State College, State College; Pennsyl¬ vania State Education Association. Passmore, Emma L. (Teacher), 314 West Union Street, West Chester; Delaware County Teachers Institute. Puderbaugh, J. F. (District Superintendent), 40 West Main Street, Lock Haven; Penn¬ sylvania State Education Association. Riffle, Ira N. (Superintendent of Schools), McClellandtown ; Pennsylvania State Edu¬ cation Association. Sheetz, Kate A. (Teacher), 435 Franklin Street, Palmerton; Palmerton Educational Association. Schillinger, Florence (Teacher), 360 West 21st Street, Erie; Erie Teachers Associa¬ tion. Studebaker, Mabel (Teacher), 426 East 10th Street, Erie; Erie Teachers Associa¬ tion. Taylor, F. H. (County Superintendent), Montrose; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Thomas, A. D. (Superintendent of Schools), Hazleton; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Walker, Maud J. (Teacher), 610 A Forbes Street, Pittsburgh; Pennsylvania State Education Association. Wallace, S. C. (Assistant Superintendent), 428 Oakland Avenue, Greensburg; Penn¬ sylvania State Education Association. Webb, E. J. (Supervising Principal), Pine- grove; Pennsylvania State Education As¬ sociation. PORTO RICO Selles-Sola, G. (President), Porto Rico Teachers Association, Box 1166, San Juan; Porto Rico Teachers Association. Vincenty, Nestor I. (Director), Division of Research of Porto Rico, San Juan; Society for the Study of Education. Vizcarrondo, Francisco (Ex-officio), Assist¬ ant Commissioner of Education, San Juan. RHODE ISLAND Bacon, Mrs. Agnes M. (Ex-officio), Super¬ visor of Americanization, State House, Providence. Round, Eda M. (President), High School Womens Association, Providence; Rhode Island Institute of Instruction. SOUTH CAROLINA Coates, J. P. (Ex-officio), Secretary, South Carolina Teachers Association, Columbia. Copeland, Mrs. H. A. (Teacher), Clinton; Laurens County Teachers Association. Hope, James H. (Ex-officio), State Superin¬ tendent of Public Instruction, Columbia. McMaster, Agnes (Teacher), 1429 Laurel Avenue, Columbia; South Carolina Teach¬ ers Association. Sumerel, Mrs. Belle (Teacher), Laurens; South Carolina Teachers Association. Thomson, J. W. (Professor), Winthrop Col¬ lege, Rock Hill; South Carolina Teachers Association. Wannamaker, George W. (Ex-officio), Su¬ perintendent of Schools, St. Matthews. Wardlow, Patterson (Dean), School of Edu¬ cation, University of South Carolina, Co¬ lumbia; South Carolina Teachers Associa¬ tion. Wofford, Kate (Ex-officio), County Superin¬ tendent of Schools, Laurens. Wright, C. K. (Superintendent of Schools), Laurens; Laurens County Teachers Asso¬ ciation. SOUTH DAKOTA Bain, Mary (County Superintendent), Hot Springs; South Dakota Education Asso¬ ciation. Beard, Mrs. W. P. (Teacher), Pierre; South Dakota Education Association. Davidson, Ruby (Teacher), Pringle; South Dakota Education Association. Giffen, E. C. (Ex-officio), State Superintend¬ ent of Public Instruction, Pierre. Mills, D. C. (Secretary), Young Citizens League, Pierre; South Dakota Education Association. Mills, Mrs. D. C. (Teacher), Pierre; South Dakota Education Association. Titmarsh, Mrs. Bertha (Teacher), 516 West 12th Street, Sioux Falls; Sioux Falls Pub¬ lic School Teachers Association. TENNESSEE Allensworth, Jennie (Teacher), 1102 Linden Avenue, Memphis; Memphis Education As¬ sociation. Browning, L. B. (Teacher), 11 Lindsey Ave¬ nue, Nashville; Davidson County Teach¬ ers Association. Cash, Laurie (Principal), 1678 Forrest Ave¬ nue, Memphis; Shelby County Teachers A cc Afi pfi on Conyers, Mrs. K. B. (Teacher), 1005 Pea¬ body Street, Memphis; Tennessee State Teachers Association. Gillentine, Mrs. Flora (Teacher), 2117 High¬ land Avenue, Nashville; Tennessee State Teachers Association. Harned, P. L. (Ex-officio), State Commis¬ sioner of Education, Nashville. Jones, R. L. (Superintendent of Schools), Memphis; Tennessee State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Maybry, W. L. (Principal), 375 North Wat¬ kins Street, Memphis; Shelby County Teachers Association. 1 108 National Education Association Powers, Sue (County Superintendent), Mem¬ phis; Shelby County Teachers Association. Ragsdale, S. L. (Principal), Homes High School, Memphis; Memphis Education Association. Rogers, C. E. (Superintendent of Schools). Johnson City; Tennessee State Teachers Association. Shepherd, H. P. (Superintendent of Schools), Knoxville; Tennessee State Teachers As¬ sociation. Smith, S, L. (Director), Commercial Club Building, Nashville; Tennessee State Teachers Association. Spence, Mrs. Eleanor B. (Teacher), Humes High School, Memphis; Memphis Educa¬ tion Association. Willis, Ida (Teacher), R. F. D. No. 5, Box 311, Memphis; Memphis Education Asso¬ ciation. Woods, Alice (Teacher), Central High School, Memphis; Memphis Education Association. TEXAS Maetze, Pauline (Teacher), 515 Drexel Ave¬ nue. San Antonio; San Antonio Teachers Council. Martin, Mrs. Cora (Professor), University of Texas, Austin; Texas State Teachers Association. Miller, B. H. (Superintendent of Schools), Eagle Pass; Texas State Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Mock, Lula (Teacher), 1921 Park Avenue, Dallas ; Dallas Grade Teachers Council. Riggs, Charlotte (Teacher), 2107 North HaskeH Street, Dallas; Dallas Grade Teachers Council. Rogers L. W. (Ex-officio), State Depart¬ ment of Education, Austin. Taylor, Annie Kate (Teacher), 914 Mar¬ tinique Street, Dallas; Dallas Grade teachers Council. Wilson, Josephine S. (Teacher), 3321 Bev¬ erly Drive, Dallas; Dallas Grade Teach¬ ers Council. Winkleman, Alice (Teacher), 5203 Worth Street, Dallas; Dallas Grade Teachers Council. Andrews, Roy M. (Superintendent of Schools), Mexia; Texas State Teachers Association. Bastian, Mamie (Principal), 812 Bell Ave¬ nue, Houston; Houston Teachers Associa¬ tion. Bryan, Hazel V. (Teacher), 2011 Mac¬ Gregor Street, Houston; Houston Teach¬ ers Association. Buck, J. P. (Superintendent of Schools), Sourlake; Texas State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Caldwell, Rush M. (Teacher), 2527 Ross Avenue, Dallas; Dallas High School Teachers Association. Carlisle, Mary (Teacher), 1906 San Antonio Street, Austin; Texas State Teachers Association. Crisman, Julia (Teacher), 2801 Vickery Boulevard, Fort Worth; Texas State Teachers Association. Dawson, Sadie L. (Teacher), 706 East Bluff Street, Fort Worth; Fort Worth Grade Teachers Council. Dulaney, Ollie (Teacher), 802 Pacific Street, Houston; Houston Teachers As¬ sociation. Dunlavy, Lena (Teacher), 3432 Meadow- brook Drive, Fort Worth; Texas State Teachers Association. Ellis, R. T. (Executive Secretary), Texas State Teachers Association, Fort Worth; Texas State Teachers Association. Finch, Helen (Teacher), 1010 North Lake Street, Fort Worth; Texas State Teachers Association. Frank, Cynthia (Teacher), 3610 Reiger Ave¬ nue, Dallas; Dallas High School Teachers Association. Grigsley, Sarah (Teacher), 2508 McKinney Avenue, Dallas; Dallas Grade Teachers Council. Howard, Gussie (Teacher), 609 Webster Avenue, Houston; Houston Teachers As¬ sociation. James, Mrs. Edna (Teacher), 1527 Ashland Street, Houston; Houston Teachers Asso¬ ciation. James, W. A. (Principal), 2327 Avenue M., Galveston; Texas State Teachers Associa¬ tion. Laa.s- O. J. (Principal), High School, Plain- vine, Texas State Teachers Association. UTAH Allred, Miss Clay (Teacher), 514 Richmond Apartments, Salt Lake City; Utah Edu¬ cation Association. Ballard, O. D. (Principal), Sandy; Utah Education Association. Bracken, Ida (Teacher), 87 Kimball Apart¬ ments, Salt Lake City; Utah Education Association. Brown, Belva (Teacher), Farr West; Weber County Teachers Association. Evans, C. Ray (Principal), Coalville; Utah Education Association. Evatt, Estella (Teacher), Hotel Roberts, Salt Lake City; Salt Lake City Teachers Association. Fowler, B. A. (Ex-officio), Superintendent, Weber County Schools, Ogden. Fowler, George E. (Principal), Hooper; Utah Education Association. Garrett, A. O. (Teacher), 791 Ninth Avenue, Salt Lake City; Salt Lake City Teachers Association. Hinckley, Ellen R. (Teacher), Box Elder High School, Brigham City; Box Elder Teachers Association. Hinckley, F. A. (Principal), Box Elder High School, Brigham City; Utah Educa¬ tion Association. Neeley, Mrs. Deta P. (Supervisor), Delta; Utah Education Association. Patterson, A. C. (Teacher), Grammar School, Hooper; Davis County Teachers Associa¬ tion. Peterson, Matilda (Supervisor), 223 State Capitol, Salt Lake City; Utah Education Association. Smith, C. C. (Principal), Garland; Box Elder Teachers Association. Stewart, Mrs. Jennie (Teacher), R. F. D., Farmington; Utah Education Association. Thurman, Arch M. (Teacher), 1042 Ramona Avenue, Salt Lake City; Utah Education Association. VERMONT Griswold, Caroline (Vice-Principal), 2 Mather Terrace, Montpelier; Vermont State Teachers Association. Woodruff, Caroline S. (Ex-officio), Princi¬ pal, State Normal Training School, Castleton. Educational Records and Information 1199 VIRGINIA Adair, Cornelia S. (Ex-officio), 2121 Park Avenue, Richmond. Anthony, Kate V. (Teacher), 1903 Hanover Avenue, Richmond; Virginia Education Association. Barron, Mrs. Ted (Teacher), Amelia; Vir¬ ginia Education Association. Burgess, Louise (Teacher), 2412 Grove Ave¬ nue, Richmond; League of Richmond Teachers. Forbes, Mrs. A. P. (Teacher), 1726 Hanover Avenue, Richmond; League of Richmond Teachers. Fox, Leslie (Teacher), Front Royal; Vir¬ ginia Education Association. Goode, Isabel P. (Teacher), Aldie; Virginia Education Association. Holt, Lucy Mason (Principal), Willoughby; Norfolk Teachers Association. House, Robert W. (Superintendent of Schools), Prospect; Virginia Education Association. Jackson, Flossie (Teacher), Thornton Apart¬ ment, Norfolk; Norfolk Teachers Associa¬ tion. Joynes, Mrs. Edith (Department Head), 410 West 14th Street, Norfolk; Eastern Commercial Teachers Association. Meredith, Kate (Teacher), 903 North 35th Street, Richmond; League of Richmond Teachers. Newton, Robert M. (County Superintend¬ ent), Hampton; Virginia Education Asso¬ ciation. Parker, Anne V. (Teacher), 2215 Oak Ave¬ nue, Newport News; Newport News Teachers Association. Poole, Antoinette (Teacher), Thornton Apartment, Norfolk; Norfolk Teachers Association. Price, Mary E. (Teacher), 430 Virginia Avenue, Norfolk; Norfolk Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Reese, Matylda (Teacher), 118 North Boule¬ vard, Richmond; Virginia Education As¬ sociation. Saunders, Joseph H. (Ex-officio), Superin¬ tendent of Schools, Newport News. Saunders, Lois (Teacher), Box 165, Bed¬ ford; Virginia Education Association. Waddell, Mrs. Elma Meredith (Teacher), 901 North 35th Street, Richmond; League of Richmond Teachers. WASHINGTON Beach, C. E. (Ex-officio), Superintendent of Schools, Auburn. Bennett, Elizabeth (Teacher), Snoqualmie; Washington Education Education Asso¬ ciation. Benthien, Emma A. (Teacher), 2514 Grant Street, Bellingham; Bellingham Class¬ room Teachers League. Bouser, A. T. (Teacher), High School, Spok¬ ane; Spokane High School Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Brewer, Minnie A. (Teacher), 1736 Belmont Avenue, Seattle; Seattle Grade Teachers Club. Campbell, J. M. (Principal), Sedro:Wooley ; Washington Education Association. Donough, Helen (Teacher), 1736 Belmont Street, Seattle; Seattle Grade Teachers Club. Driskell, Charlotte (Teacher), South Bend; Washington Education Association. Ekorn, Ida (Teacher), 1514 Bellevue Street, Seattle; Seattle Grade Teachers Club. Forsythe, Mell (Teacher), Sands Hotel, Tacoma; Tacoma Grade Teachers Asso¬ ciation. Lindaas, Anna (Teacher), 1624 South L Street, Tacoma; Intermediate Teachers Association of Tacoma. McKenzie, Belle (Teacher), 3706 34th Ave¬ nue, S. W., Seattle; Seattle High School Teachers League. Mason, Binna (Teacher), South 1309 Ber¬ nard Street, Spokane; Spokane Grade Teachers Association. Ogden, Mary E. (Teacher), 284 North Yakima Avenue, Tacoma; Tacoma Grade Teachers Association. Pinkham, Elsa (Teacher), North Central High School, Spokane; Spokane High School Teachers Association. Prentice, Florence (Teacher), Wintonia Hotel, Seattle; Seattle Grade Teachers Association. Preston, Mrs. Josephine C. (Ex-officio), Bur¬ ton, Vashon Island, King County. Randall, May (Teacher), 804 Summit Ave¬ nue, Seattle; Washington Education Asso¬ ciation. Reed, Emily S. (Teacher), 1502 North 41st Street, Seattle; Seattle Grade Teachers Association. Shannon, M. Louise (Teacher), Wintonia Hotel, Seattle; Seattle Grade Teachers Association. Smith, Martha (Teacher), Kelso; Washing¬ ton Education Association. Soules, Jean L. (Teacher), South 109 Wall Street, Spokane; Spokane Grade Teachers Association. Stainbrook, Jessie Lou (Teacher), 1606 Biglow Street, Seattle; Seattle Grade Teachers Club. Thomas, Margaret J. (Teacher), 2036 23rd Street, North, Seattle; Seattle Grade Teachers Club. Vaughn, Nannie (Teacher), West 508 Cleve¬ land Avenue, Spokane; Spokane Grade Teachers Association. Warren, G. Martin (Superintendent of Schools), Wenatchee; Washington Edu¬ cation Association. Zubli, Mrs. May (Teacher), Bremerton; Washington Education Association. WEST VIRGINIA Burns, L. W. (Superintendent of Schools), Martinsburg; West Virginia State Edu¬ cation Association. Crump, James M. (Teacher), Beech Hill; West Virginia State Education Associa¬ tion. Davis, Mrs. Myrtle (Teacher), Pax; West Virginia State Education Association. Ferguson, Mrs. Roy (Teacher), Oak Hill; New River Valley Round Table. Gwinn, A. C. (Teacher), Hill Top; West Virginia State Education Association. Hickman, J. H. (Secretary), West Virginia State Education Association, Charleston; West Virginia State Education Associa¬ tion. Kincaid, Sythia (Teacher), Page; West Vir¬ ginia State Education Association. Martin, Lillian (Teacher), Fayetteville; New River Valley Round Table. Rosier, Joseph (Ex-officio), President, State Normal School, Fairmont. Rust, Mattie A. (Teacher). 308 Lowell Street, Charleston; West Virginia State Education Association. Shrout, Roy B. (District Superintendent), Welch; West Virginia State Education > Association. 1200 National Education Association Van Camp, Mrs. H. L. (Teacher), Glen Jean; New River Valley Round Table. Van Camp, H. L. (District Superintendent), Glen Jean; West Virginia State Educa¬ tion Association. Watkeys, Elizabeth (Teacher), Minden; West Virginia State Education Associa¬ tion. Watkeys, Grace (Teacher), Minden; New River Valley Round Table. Williamson. Mary Ann (Teacher), Twin Branch; West Virginia State Education Association. WISCONSIN Bassford. George (Principal), 723 8th Ave¬ nue, West, Ashland; Wisconsin Teachers Association. Christiansen, Louise (Teacher), Vocational School, Sheboygan; Wisconsin Teachers Association. Collar, Arthur L. (Supervisor), Hortonville; Wisconsin Supervising Teachers Associa¬ tion. Doudna, E. G. (Ex-officio), 2017 Monroe Street, Madison. Fowler, Lotta B. (Teacher), 733 47th Street, Milwaukee; Milwaukee Teachers Associa¬ tion. Gardner, Ethel (Vice-Principal), 356 16th Avenue, Milwaukee; Wisconsin Teachers Association. Gnatzig, Helen (Teacher), Whitewater; Wisconsin Teachers Association. Kilburn, H. C. (Principal), 1914 Prospect Street, Racine: Racine Teachers Council. Loomis, G. F. (Superintendent of Schools), Kenosha; Wisconsin Teachers Associa¬ tion. McCormick, B. E. (Secretary), Wisconsin Teachers Association, Madison; Wiscon¬ sin Teachers Association. McCormick, Elizabeth R. (Ex-officio), T. O. Howe School, Superior. Palmer, Merle C. (President), Wisconsin Teachers Association, Columbus; Wis¬ consin Teachers Association. Pearse, Carroll G. (Ex-officio), 4315 Lisbon Avenue, Milwaukee. Peasley, Florence (Teacher), 1628 31st Street, Kenosha; Kenosha Teachers Club. Potter, Frances (Teacher), 344 Lincoln Avenue, Eau Claire; Wisconsin Teachers Association. Pile, Alona (Teacher), Dodgeville; Wiscon¬ sin Teachers Association. Semrau, Agnes (Teacher), 209 West 4th Street, Marshfield; Wisconsin Teachers A ccnr i atinti Simmons, William F. (Principal), 583 Stowell Avenue, Milwaukee; Milwaukee Principals Association. Stebbins, Vella (County Superintendent), Black River Falls; Wisconsin Teachers Association. Wiechers, Alma M. (Teacher), 612 La Fayette Avenue, Racine; Racine Teachers Council. WYOMING Brehmer, Louise (Teacher), Sheridan; Wy¬ oming State Teachers Association. Gordon, Jane (Teacher), Sheridan; Wyo¬ ming State Teachers Association. Huffman, Helen (Teacher), Sheridan, Wy¬ oming State Teachers Association. McAdams, Minnie (Teacher), Sheridan; Wyoming State Teachers Association. Megown, Rebecca (Teacher), Sheridan; Wyoming State Teachers Association. Norelius, Elsie (Teacher), Sheridan; Wyoming State Teachers Association. Associational Records and Information 1201 TABLE OF PUBLICATIONS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCA¬ TION ASSOCIATION 1928-1929 When published JOURNAL of the National Education Associa¬ tion . Oct., JOURNAL of the National Education Associa¬ tion . Nov., JOURNAL of the National Education Associa¬ tion . Dec., JOURNAL of the National Education Associa¬ tion . Jan., JOURNAL of the National Education Associa¬ tion . Feb., JOURNAL of the National Education Associa¬ tion . Mar., JOURNAL of the National Education Associa¬ tion . Apr., JOURNAL of the National Education Associa¬ tion . May, JOURNAL of the National Education Associa¬ tion . June, Clipsheet of JOURNAL . Monthly Preprints and Reprints of JOURNAL . Volume of Proceedings . Sept., Reprint, Proceedings . Apr., Reprint, Proceedings, Charters and Bylaws . Nov., Fourth Yearbook, Department of Classroom Teachers . May, Reprint, Department of Classroom Teachers Yearbook . June, Information Leaflet, Department of Classroom Teachers . Sept., Classroom Teacher Folder . Oct., News Bulletin, Department of Classroom Teachers . News Bulletin, Department of Classroom Teachers . News Bulletin, Department of Classroom Teachers . Eighth Yearbook, Department of Elementary School Principals . Apr., October Bulletin, Department of Elementary School Principals . Oct., January Bulletin, Department of Elementary School Principals . Jan., July Bulletin, Department of Elementary School Principals . May, Reprint, January Bulletin Department of Ele¬ mentary School Principals . Dec., Department of Elementary School Principals Leaflet . Nov., Research Bulletin, Vol. 6, No. 4 . Sept., Research Bulletin, Vol. 6, No. 5 . Nov., Research Bulletin, Vol. 7, No. 1 . Jan., Research Bulletin, Vol. 7, No. 2 . Feb., Research Bulletin, Vol. 7, No. 3 . Apr., Reprint, Research Bulletin, Vol. 6, No. 3, “Funda¬ mental Principles of a Teacher Retirement System” . Nov., 1928 Reprint, Research Bulletin, Vol. 6, No. 3, “Why A Sound Teacher Retirement System Increases School Efficiency” . Nov., 1928 Leaflet, “Conference of Secretaries of State Educational Associations Concerning State Educational Legislation” . . . . Feb., Sept., Jan., Apr., Educational Research Service Circular No. 8. Educational Research Service Circular No. 9. . . . Educational Research Service Circular No. 10. . . Educational Research Service Circular No. 11... Educational Research Service Circular No. 12. . . Educational Research Service Circular No. 1 _ Educational Research Service Circular No. 2. . . . Educational Research Service Circular No. 3.. . . Educational Research Service Circular No. 4 - Educational Research Service Circular, No. 5. . . Educational Research Service Circular No. 6. . . . Program, Cleveland Convention . . . Preprint, Department of Superintendence Pro¬ gram . Oct., Nov., Dec., Dec., Dec. Jan., Feb., Mar., Apr., May, June, Feb., 1928 1928 1928 1929 1929 1929 1929 1929 1929 1929 1929 1928 1929 1929 1928 1928 1928 1929 1929 1929 1928 1929 1929 1928 1928 1928 1928 1929 1929 1929 1929 1928 1928 1928 1928 1928 1929 1929 1929 1929 1929 1929 1929 Feb., 1929 Number of copies printed 190,000 190,000 190,000 200,000 165,000 165,000 165,000 165,000 175,000 5,800 . 7,250 21,000 500 1,500 50 5,000 5,000 1.500 3,000 5,000 75,000 7,000 65,000 5.500 500 1.500 20,000 17,000 20,000 20,000 18,000 1,000 1,000 500 400 500 800 350 1,000 700 400 500 400 800 400 15,000 5,000 Number of pages in each 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 9 i205 ' 2 18 227 2 4 4 4 4 4 400 64 64 64 18 8 50 36 44 58 68 8 16 3 16 13 9 26 15 4 14 16 14 64 32 Total 1 number of pages 12,160,000 12,160,000 12,160,000 12,800,000 10,560,000 10,560,000 10,560,000 10,560,000 11,200,000 52 , 200 201,600 8,736,250 42,000 9,000 340,500 100 20,000 20,000 6,000 12,000 20,000 30,000,000 448,000 416,000 352,000 9,000 120,000 1,000,000 612,000 880,000 1,160,000 1,224,000 4,000 4,000 4,000 6,400 1,500 12,800 4,550 9,000 18,200 6,000 2,000 5,600 12,800 5,600 960,000 160,000 1202 National Education Association TABLE OF PUBLICATIONS — Continued When Number of copies Number of pages Total number of published printed in each pages Official Report, Department of Superintendence . Mar., 1929 4,700 300 1,410,000 Seventh Yearbook, Department of Superin¬ tendence . Dec., 1928 11,000 616 6,776,000 Department of Superintendence Leaflet . Sept., 1928 10,000 8 80,000 Leaflet, “Two Notable Yearbooks” . Sept., 1928 15,000 4 60,000 Preprint of Presidential Address of F. D. Boynton. 10,000 8 80,000 Reprint, Cleveland Address of Edward C. Elliott. Mar., 1929 200 8 1,600 Reprint, Yearbook of Educational Press Asso¬ ciation of America . Apr., 1929 5,000 24 120,000 Reprint, Secretary’s Report, Minneapolis . Oct., 1928 7,000 48 336,000 Program, Atlanta Convention . July, 1929 10,000 64 640,000 Secretary’s Report, Atlanta . June, 1929 5,000 48 240 , 000 Reprint, Secretary’s Report, Atlanta . July, 1929 1,500 48 72,000 Reprint, Report of Legislative Commission . Sept., 1928 5,000 16 80,000 Report of Legislative Commission . June, 1929 2,000 16 32,000 Report of Committee on Ethics . May, 1929 3,500 28 98,000 Report of Committee on Propaganda . June, 1929 3,000 48 144,000 Report of Committee on Retirement Allowances. June, 1929 2,500 26 65,000 Function of National Council of Education . Apr., 1929 500 8 4,000 Auditors’ Report . June, 1929 1,600 24 38,400 Report of Budget Committee . July, 1929 1,600 16 25,600 Official Manual . June, 1929 2,000 104 208,000 List of Life Members . July, 1929 2,700 36 97,200 Reprint, Life Members . July, 1929 2,500 36 90,000 Yearbook, American Association Teachers Col¬ leges . Apr., 1929 850 150 127,500 Reprint, “The Need for a Department of Educa¬ tion as seen by a Business Man” . Oct., 1928 10,000 4 40,000 Reprint, “A Department of Education Should Be Created” . Oct., 1928 10,000 2 20,000 Reprint, “Why You Should Support The Educa¬ tion BUI” . Oct., 1928 10,000 12 120,000 Education Bill Clippings . Sept., 1928 4,000 1 4,000 Reprint, “Education Has Claim to the Next Cabinet Seat” . Dec., 1928 10,000 8 80,000 Reprint, “How Shall We Secure a Department of Education?” . Feb., 1929 5,000 4 20,000 Reprint, “The Bill to Create a Department of Education” . Mar., 1929 10,000 12 120,000 Reprint, “How Shall We Secure a Department of Education?” . June, 1929 10,000 4 40,000 Reprint, “Catechism on New Education Bill”. . . 200 , 000 Reprint, List of Publications . 241,000 Reprint, Life Enlistments . 480,000 Booklet of Information . . 120,000 Reprint, “Teamwork” . Oct., 1928 50,000 1 50,000 Reprint, “A Study of the Problems of the Pro¬ fession”..! . Oct., 1928 50,000 2 100,00 0 “Department Enlistment” . Oct., 1928 65,000 2 130,000 Reprint, “Building a Temple” . 145,000 1 145,000 Reprint, “Health Education” . Jan., 1929 4,000 172 688,000 Reprint, “Are Schools Costing Too Much?” . Apr., 1929 4,300 1 4,300 Reprint, “A Decade of Achievement” . Aug., 1929 125,000 1 125,000 Booklet, “New Styles in Epitaphs” . Apr., 1929 10,000 12 120,000 Leaflet on Salary Tabulations . Apr., 1929 3,000 4 12,000 Membership Leaflet . July, 1929 2,500 16 40,000 Bulletin, Department of Rural Education . Feb., 1929 1,000 16 16,000 163,357,700 Total Index 1203 INDEX Abercrombie, John W. A state education program, 264 Activities, best conducted in community cen¬ ters, 305; teacher growth through creative, 511. Activity curriculum, at work, 428; classroom procedures which promote desirable physi¬ cal development, knowledge, habits, etc., 437; setting for, 434; unity and continuity of educational experience, 442; See also, Curriculums,# Activity Activity curriculum at work, An (H. F. Srygley), 428 Address (Martha M. Berry), 337 Address of welcome on behalf of the state of Georgia (L. G. Hardman), 17; on behalf of the southeast (M. L. Duggan), 19; on behalf of the city of Atlanta (I. N. Rags¬ dale), 20; on behalf of the board of edu¬ cation (George W. Powell), 21; (Clara Tagg Brewer), 645 Address on being introduced to the Depart¬ ment of Superintendence (Uel W. Dam- kin), 775; (William John Cooper), 776; (Frank Cody), 779 Adjustment, of education to the needs of farm-dwelling people — abstract (Norman Frost), 481; to rural industrial change with special reference to mountain areas — ab¬ stract (Olive D. Campbell), 484 Administration, public school, adult education, organization and publicity for, 296; a county wide plan of supervision, 517; con¬ flicting ideals of, 62; how provide training in service, 621; of activities in a rural com¬ munity, 309; relation of in teachers colleges to other units of public education in 1950, 922; research, value of university, to, 728; suggestions for improvement in rural schools, 501; teacher participation, 350; county, see, County administration. Administrative activities in a rural Com¬ munity School program — abstract. Some (Mrs. J. M. Day), 309 Adventurous America — abstract (L. S. Rugg), 419 Advisory control of schools — abstract (Frank D. Boynton), 581 Adult education, activities in community cen¬ ters, 305; as a means of vitalizing and enriching American rural life — abstract (Olive D. Campbell), 301; Department of, 277; elementary in the southern states — abstract (Elizabeth C. Morriss), 279; “getting” the adult immigrant, 311; “hold¬ ing” the immigrant in school, 310; prob¬ lems for study and research in rural, 304; secondary in the southern states — abstract (R. E. Tidwell), 281; success of, 31 ;. sup¬ port of community activities, 307; training for citizenship, 313 Aggressive program in itinerant teacher train¬ ing, An — abstract (H. G. Kenestrick), 956 Agricultural education, a view of the program of vocational education in, 965; adjustment of education to needs of people, 481; in¬ fluence of upon standards and methods of general education, 955; new aspects of farmer training, 949; place of Future Farmers of America in training farmers of tomorrow, 952; program of itinerant teacher training for, 956; supervision in as compared to supervision in other sub¬ jects, 954 Agriculture, equal opportunity and, 167 Aiken, Georgia W. Teacher participation through curriculum revision — abstract, 345 Aims and purposes of the department of supervisors and directors of instruction (Mary A. S. Mugan), 805 Alabama, education program, 267 American Association of Teachers Colleges, list of institutions accredited by, 836; mem¬ bership list, 934; department of, 827 America’s historical opportunity (Howard R. Driggs), 102; part in bringing about world peace (Josephus Daniels), 36 Amount and type of differentiation desirable in the preparation of rural teachers, The (Mabel Carney), 530 Anderson, John A. College entrance credits in commercial subjects — abstract, 332 Anderson, Logan M. The apprentice school of the Lakeside Press — abstract, 595 Apportionment of school funds, suggestions for improving the support of rural schools, 502; with regard to rural schools, 466 Apprentice school of the Lakeside Press, The — abstract (Logan M. Anderson), 959 Aristocratic ideal of education, 52 Articulation, colleges and universities, 683 ; general principles of educational, 674; grad¬ uate schools as cause of poor, 681; leader¬ ship and vision essential to, 685; of schools with business, 690; problem of concerned general philosophy of education, 61; work of the commission on, 667 Art, appreciation and interpretation of, 386; beauty in American life, 159 Art of interviewing. The (Mabel C. Lytton), 371 Arts colleges, as teacher-training institutions, 54 Athletics, in the teachers college in 1950, 887; and forensics — their type, scope, purpose, value, and administration in 1950 (R. B. Cousins), 887 Attendance, adult education, 296, 312 Aughinbaugh, B. A. Visual communication — abstract, 939 Bacon, Agnes M. How are we “getting” the adult immigrant? — abstract, 311 Bagley, William C. Some handicaps of character education in the United States, 763 Bailey, Henry Turner. God’s country for all our children — -abstract, 386 Bain, Winifred E. Classroom, procedures which promote desirable physical develop¬ ment, knowledge, habits, attitudes, and skills, 437 Baker, W. B. How the university may help in training the nature teacher — abstract, 573 Balanced program in supervision, A (James F. Hosic), 815 Baldwin, Robert Dodge. Future needs in the preparation of rural teachers — abstract, 539 Ball, C. C. Social studies in the San Antonio junior high schools — abstract, 638 Batman, Nancy Miles. Modern tendencies in relation to the social studies — abstract, 636 Baylor, Adelaide S. New problems in home¬ making education, 947 ; how can home economics education in the United States serve democracy ? — abstract, 964 Beauty in American life (Lorado Taft). 159 Beck, Cameron. The necessity of coordinating educational activities with public affairs, 690 Belser, Danylu. Problems in supervision — abstract, 807 Bennett, O. H. Fewer and larger village and rural high schools — abstract, 523 Bernd, Florence, Training for citizenship through early European history — abstract, 640 Berry, Martha M. Address, 337. Berry Schools, 337 1 All addresses in this volume are listed by titles and by authors’ names. The book is also indexed by subject headings, which, together with authors’ names, are set in bold face. 1204 National Education Association Berry Schools, a graduate of. My life story, 399 Best type of governing body for a teachers college in 1950: official, faculty and stu¬ dent, or alumni, The (Ralph Noyer), 914 Birmingham, plan of teaching character edu¬ cation, 413; character education in school of, 628 Bixler, Harold H. Problems of supervisors from the point of view of the director of research — abstract, 806 Blanchard, Ora A. The Girls’ Trades and Technical High School of Milwaukee — abstract, 961 Bolland, Nettie Rankin, Teacher participation through social contacts — abstract, 352 Bogan, William J. Public cooperation in school policies, 148 Book lists, of science books for youth, 561 Books that meet instincts (Hanor A. Webb) 561 Boyington, Gladys. The newspaper as a force in the changing world — abstract, 639 Boynton, Frank D. Advisory control of schools — abstract, 481; Education: what program? what price?, 647. Brewer, Clara Tagg. Address of welcome, 645 Brim, Orville G. Teacher growth through creative activity — abstract, 511 Brogdon, Nettie E. A countywide plan of supervision — abstract, 517 Bryant, Alice G. Lip reading shall not fail — abstract, 456 Broome, Edwin C. Report of the committee on propaganda — abstract, 204 Brown, Charles A. Character education, 628 Browne, T. E. A state program in vocational education — abstract, 953 Brueckner, Leo J. Descriptions of instruc¬ tional practises in the earlier surveys of schools and presentation of the second year¬ book — abstract, 820 Buildings, public school, chief concerns with future building program, 654; three ways of paying for school buildings, 659 Building surveys, building mistakes of the past, 658 Burdick, Anna Lalor. The future of partime education — abstract, 950 Bureau of Education, U. S., projects of in 1928, 256 Burnett, Marguerite H. Problems for study and research in adult rural education — 1929-30, 304 Burke, Gertrude. Teacher participation in administration — abstract, 350 Burton, A. C. The professional county super¬ intendent — abstract, 513 Burton, W. H. The type, the kind, the amount of supervision which elementary principals should know and be able to give, 400 Business education, Department of, 317; See also. Commercial education Butterworth, Julian E. What the rural school has a right to expect of an institution train¬ ing teachers for rural schools, 746 By laws, 996 Calendar of meetings' of the Association, 1007 Campbell, Olive D. Adult education as a means of vitalizing and enriching American rural life — abstract, 301; adjustment to rural industrial change with special ref¬ erence to mountain areas — abstract, 484 Carney, Mabel. The amount and type of differentiation desirable in the preparation of rural teachers, 530 Cass Technical High School of Detroit, The — abstract (Benjamin F. Comfort), 958 Castellani, Maria. What Mussolini has done for modern Italy, 88 Castle, Drew W. The manual arts program in the Joliet Township High School and Junior College — abstract, 968 Certification, teacher participation through de¬ termination of standards, 348 Challenge, The (Augustus O. Thomas), 96 Chapman, Luella. The problems of the super¬ visor of handwriting — abstract, 810 Character education, from standpoint of philosophy of education — abstract (John J. Tigert), 769; hints from scientific investi¬ gation, 757; in Birmingham schools — ab¬ stract (Charles A. Brown f, 628; modern tendencies in teaching of, 413; some handi¬ caps of, 763 Characteristics, of present civilization, 55, 56; of present generation, 25, 26, 27 Charters, W. W. Functions of the junior college, 603 Chase, Harry W. Larger contacts and world outlook — abstract, 488 Cherry, Annie M. The supervision of rural elementary schools in the southern states — abstract, 468. Children, training of teachers for, 127 Christensen, Etta O. Modifications in prac¬ tise teaching in typical teachers college cur- riculums for meeting the needs of pros¬ pective rural teachers — abstract, 536 Citizenship education, “getting” the adult immigrant, 311; “holding” the immigrant in school, 310; relation of education to citizenship, 783; through early European history, 640 ; training of adult immigrants for, 313 Civilization, characteristics of present, 55, 56 Clark, Robert. The professional phase of the teachers college curriculum in 1950, 861 Class-size, effect of on college instruction, 70 Classroom teachers, Department of, 335; re¬ port of the president, 354; report of the vicepresident, 357; report of the secretary, 358; report of western section executive committee member, 360; report of middle section executive committee member, 361 ; report of eastern section executive com¬ mittee member, 362 Classroom settings for an activity curric¬ ulum: equipment, its selection, construc¬ tion, and arrangement (Anne' Holdford), 434 Classroom procedures which promote desir¬ able physical development, knowledge, habits, attitudes, and skills (Winifred E. Bain), 437 Clark, Marion S. Lip reading in our public school — abstract, 454 Clement, Bess. The library as an integral part of elementary school— abstract, 410 Clements, D. M. The place of the Future Farmers of America in training' farmers of tomorrow — abstract. 952 Clifton, John L. Ohio’s educational pro¬ gram, 780 Cooking, Walter D. The necessity of the secondary school curriculum giving added emphasis to the Pacific world — abstract, 609 Cody, Frank. Address on being introduced to the department of superintendence, 779 College entrance credits in commercial sub¬ jects — abstract (John A. Anderson), 332 College teaching, effect of class-size on, 70; function of junior college in improving, 698; improvement of, 68; teachers college efforts to improve, 71; technic of improye- ment of, 72-76; university efforts to im¬ prove, 69 Colleges and universities, articulation, 683; last to readjust curriculums, 60 Index 1205 College faculty in 1950 — its type, prepara¬ tion, background, relations, and duties, The (Sheldon E. Davis), 838 Coleman, Mary Channing. Health and Phys¬ ical education needs in the south — ab¬ stract, 555 f Comfort, Benjamin F. The Cass Technical High School of Detroit — abstract, 958 Commercial education, college entrance credits in commercial subjects, 332; functions of the junior college in, 319; junior college, 319; new technics in bookkeeping and ac¬ counting, 328; new technics in shorthand, 330; place in secondary education, 319; relative newness in junior colleges, 319; secretary in modern business, 322; tech¬ nic of junior business training, 327; whither business education?, 324 Committees of the N. E. A., list of members of, 1928-29, 1020-33 Committees, Reports of: appointment of dele¬ gates and kindred questions, 195; auditing (.Dept, of superintendence), 800; budget, 1122; economic status of the teacher, 1061; Ethics, 179; executive committee, minutes of the meetings of, 1080; international re¬ lations, 1042; necrology, 1035; lay rela¬ tions (Dept, of superintendence), 798; Leg¬ islative, 190; million dollar research fund (Dept, of superintendence), 800; propa¬ ganda, 204; Resolutions, 1135; retirement allowances, 217; standards and surveys (Dept, of teachers colleges), 901; tenure, ^ 1061 Community activities, support of, 307 Community and school, education of child and community through health education, 547 Community centers, activities best conducted in, 305 Consolidation of schools, advantages of, 528; countywide plan of consolidation and or¬ ganization, 520; fewer and larger rural high schools, 523; in the south, 478; North Carolina state law for countywide plan of, 521; reference to Ohio school laws, 524-25; Wayne county, N. C., plan of, 522 Control, advisory control of schools, 581 Convincing the public — abstract (Willie Lawson), 297 Cooley, Robert L. The Milwaukee Voca¬ tional School — abstract, 963 Cooper, William John. Education for a new America, 24; Who shall say what the na¬ tion may expect of American schools?, 250: Some suggestions for improving rural school administration and support, 501; Address on being introduced to the de¬ partment of superintendence, 776 Cooperation of a teachers college with its graduates and its responsibility for their success in 1950, The (L. O. McAfee), 882 Contributions of a conservative province to a progressive nation — abstract (Edwin Mims), 480 Contribution of the south to rural education, The — abstract (Chari Ormond Williams), 477 Correlation of school subjects, integrated idea of education, 443 ; demonstrated _ in school organization and teacher training, 444 Cost and expenditures, education, what price? 647 ; how finance education in view of in¬ creasing costs, 661; how secure an ade¬ quate budget for teachers colleges in 1950, 928; increasing, 652; in school building programs, 659; junior colleges cheapest form of higher education, 605; various plans for financing building programs, 659 Counts, George S. Selection as a function of American secondary education, 596 County administration, a countywide plan of supervision, 517; countywide plan of con¬ solidation and organization of schools, 520; county survey, 525 County superintendent, a county survey, 525; requirements of a professional county su¬ perintendent, 513 County survey, The (Kate Wofford), 525 County unit plan, 478 Countywide plan of consolidation and or¬ ganization of schools — abstract (J. T. Jerome), 520; of supervision, A — abstract (Nettie E. Brogdon), 517 Cousins, R. B. Athletics and forensics: their type, scope, purpose, value, and ad¬ ministration in 1950, 887 Craigo, R. T. The William Hood Dunwoodv Industrial Institute of Minneapolis— ab¬ stract, 960 Creative activities, criteria of teacher guid¬ ance in creative use of play materials, 441 Creative education, 59 Critic teachers, state university, who nomi¬ nates them, 627; who hires them, 627; who pays them, 627 Culture and cultural values, poverty in cul¬ tural resortrces of North Carolina moun¬ taineers, 485 Curriculums, activity, 427; an activity cur¬ riculum at work, 428; classroom setting for activity, 434; criticisms, 650; demand for new subjectmatter, 59; five stages of development of public school, 60; growth of since 1775, 649; how high schools may determine college entrance requirements, 613; in high-school science, The— abstract (Francis D. Curtis), 561; making in the field, 623; necessity of secondary school giving added emphasis to the Pacific world, 609; of teachers colleges in the future, 859; place of safety education in, 557; predicted changes in teachers college by 1950, 867; professional phase of teach¬ ers college in 1950, 861; project, 59; re¬ vision of through teacher participation, 345; teacher participation in construction of, 824; thought to be settled, 58; world peace, 236 Curtis, Francis D. The curriculum in high- school science — abstract, 561 Cutright, Prudence. Teacher participation in curriculum construction— abstract, 824 Daniels, Josephus. America’s part in bring¬ ing about world peace, 36 Davidson, William M. Report of legislative commission — abstract, 190 Davis, Sheldon E. The college faculty in 1950 — its type, preparation, background, relations, and duties, 838 Day, Mrs. J. M. Some administrative ac¬ tivities in a rural community school pro¬ gram — abstract, 309 Deafness. See. Hard of hearing, lip reading Deans of women, art of interviewing, 371; a study of backgrounds of students in state teachers colleges, 379; a study of personal backgrounds of students, 379; Department of, 369; what the dean lives by, 378 Defects in educational system, 31-35 DeGalen, Frederick S. The philosophy of fees — abstract, 287 Deming, Robert C. Federal aspects of and responsibilities in the reduction of illiter¬ acy and training for citizenship — abstract, 284; How are we “training” adult immi¬ grants for intelligent citizenship? — abstract, 313 Democracy in education — abstract (George Morris), 528 Democratic ideal of education, 52 1206 National Education Association Departmental plan, zero hour of head of de¬ partment, 616; opportunity for head of de¬ partment to supervise, 618 Department of education, federal, address on, 111; necessity for, 117; objections to, 118 Departments of education, state, progress in supervision of rural schools, 504; research functions of, 723 Department of supervisors and directors of instruction, aims and purposes, 805 Departments, Reports of meetings of: adult education, 314; classroom teachers, 364; deans of women, 388; elementary school principals, 422; lip reading, 461; rural edu¬ cation, 540; school health and physical education, 558; science instruction, 577; social studies, 641; superintendence, 791; supervisors and directors of instruction, 825 Descriptions of instructional practises in the earlier surveys of schools and presenta¬ tion of the second yearbook — abstract (Leo J. Brueckner), 820 Dewey, John. General principles of educa¬ tional articulation, 674 Discipline, school, old idea of, 57 Dowling, Thomas I. Special experience in teaching nature — abstract, 568 Dozier, Katherine. The esthetic value of physical education — abstract, 550; Support of community activities — abstract, 307 Driggs, Howard R. America’s historical op¬ portunity, 102 Duggan, M. L. Address of welcome on be¬ half of the southeast, 19 Dunkle, John L. Standards in 1950 for selec¬ tion and graduation of students in the teachers colleges and for the success and professional growth of the graduates who are to continue teaching, 892 Dunn, Fannie W. Retardation and promotion — abstract, 528 Edmonson, J. B. The principal’s program for training pupils in habits of study — abstract, 585 Education, American, major objectives of, 253; creative, 59; in Italy, 91-93 ; pro¬ fessional, of educators, 244; progress of negro education in the south, 107; the aristocratic and democratic ideals of, 52 Educational experiments, measuring outcomes of, 30 Educational interpretation, and the printed word — abstract (Joy Elmer Morgan), 259 Educational program, formulation of, 29 Educational progress in 1928 — abstract (John J. Tigert), 254 Educational system, defects in, 31-35 Education, and the higher human values (Francis J. McConnell), 154; as an invest¬ ment (George A. Selke), 504; Bill, The, address on, 111, question of and how to settle, 65, 66, 67; for a new America (William John Cooper), 24; for a new world: the best beginning with young chil¬ dren, 427; for leisure — abstract (James E. Rogers), 545; for world friendship and understanding — abstract (Henry Lester Smith), 231; of the child and community through health education — abstract (Willis A. Sutton), 547; what program? what price? (Frank D. Boynton), 647 Eisner, Miriam D. Report of western sec¬ tion committee member (Dept, of classroom teachers), 360 Eldredge, A. C. The improvement of prac¬ tise in the junior high schools — abstract, 619 Elementary education, difficulties faced by, 30; see also elementary school Elementary school, first problem of principal of, 400; first to readjust curriculum, 60; library as an integral part of, 410; looks forward, The (Effie MacGregor), 140; museum, 403; opportunities of the prin¬ cipal of, 407; part principal must play in realizing purpose of, 405; place of garden in nature education of, 566; principal as a person, 397; principal of as supervisor, 415, 420; supervision of fural, 468 Elementary school principals, Department of, 391; as a supervisor, The — abstract (Lois Coffey Mossman), 415 Elliott, Edward C. The problems of articula¬ tion as seen by the colleges and professional schools, 683 Elson, S. R. Organization and attendance — abstract, 295 Entrance requirements, credits in commercial subjects, 332; how high schools may de¬ termine college, 613 Equalization, educational, 663-6; basis for federal appropriation, 253 Equal opportunity and agriculture (Arthur M. Hyde), 167 Esperanto, used at Geneva, 977 Esthetic value of physical education, The — - abstract (Katherine Dozier), 550 European schools, “externa” and “interna” of, 66 Evenden, E. S. Predicted changes in the curriculums of teachers colleges by 1950 as shown by the experiences of the com¬ mittee on standards and surveys, 867 Examples of scientific procedure in super¬ vision — abstract (Charles H. Judd), 583 Experimental schools, teachers colleges as centers of, 875 Experimentation in rural schools under uni¬ versity supervision (C. C. McCracken), 498 “Externa” of European schools, 66 Facts and fancies in secondary education. Some (M. R. Trabue), 612 Fahey, Sarah H. Report of eastern section executive committee member (Dept, of classroom teachers), 362 Fair, Eugene. Student and alumni participa¬ tion in the organization and administration of teachers colleges in 1950, 898 Favrot, Leo M. Negro education in the south — abstract, 472 Federal aspects of and responsibilities in the reduction of illiteracy and training for citizenship — abstract (Robert C. Deming), 284 Federal government, relation of to education, 111, 252 Fetterolf, H. C. The supervision in agricul¬ tural education as compared to the super¬ vision in general education — abstract, 954 Fewer and larger village and rural high schools — abstract (O. H. Bennett), 523 Finance, public school, of rural schools, 465; three plans for financing building pro¬ grams, 659; see also, costs and expendi¬ tures Financial support of public education, with special reference to rural areas, The- — ab¬ stract (R. E. Tidwell), 465 Finding the hard of hearing child — abstract (Knibloe P. Royce), 459 Finney, Ross L. The professional education of educators — abstract, 244 Folk school, John C. Campbell, 484 Foreign education, progress of in 1928, 254 Forensics, in the teachers college in 1950, 887 Frost, Norman. Adjustment of education to the needs of farm-dwelling people — ab¬ stract, 481 Function, of the junior college, 320, and (W. W. Charters) 603; and value of a public school research bureau (W. W. Theisen), 716; of the National Council of Education, 237 Index 1207 Functional organization and research (M. R. Keyworth), 696 Future need in the preparation of rural teachers — abstract (Robert Dodge Bald¬ win), 539 Future of partime education, The — abstract (Anna Lalor Burdick), 950 Future vocational education for preparing children for the duties and obligations of the world ahead of them (J. C. Wright), 77 Gage, Lucy. The south’s interest in kinder¬ garten-primary education, 121 General Education Board, 473; and negro education, 108 General principles of educational articula¬ tion (John Dewey), 674 Geneva conference of the World Federation of Education Associations, The (W. Car- son Ryan, Jr.), 977 Girls’ Trades and Technical High School of Milwaukee, The — abstract (Ora A. Blan¬ chard), 961 Gist, Arthur S. Next steps in supervision — from the standpoint of the elementary school principal — abstract, 814 God’s country for all our children — abstract (Henry Turner Bailey), 386 Goodrich, Bessie Bacon. The principal as a person — abstract, 397 Grades, scholarship, no definite meaning, 615 Graduate schools, as a cause of bad articula¬ tion, 681 Graves, Frank Pierrepont. What a teacher should expect from the school engaging his services, 753 Gregory, George. The manual arts program in Duluth — abstract, 969 Group versus grade class organization (Helen Heffeman), 491 Guidance function, and commercial education in the junior college, 321 Guiding the deafened child vocationally — ab¬ stract (Estelle E. Samuelson), 452 Gwinn, Joseph Marr. Our chief concern with the future school building program, 654 Haggerty, M. E. Whither the teachers col¬ leges in the academic world?, 849 Hahn, Julia Letheld. Next steps in super¬ vision — from the standpoint of the elemen¬ tary supervisor — abstract, 813 Hale, Florence. The participation of the rural school teacher in determining the rural school curriculum — abstract, 353 Hamack, Frank H. The secretary in modern business, 322 Handicaps of character education in the United States, Some (William C. Bag- ley), 763 Handwriting, problems of supervisor of, 810 Hardman, L. G. Address of welcome on be¬ half of the state of Georgia, 17 Hard of hearing, finding the hard of hearing child, 459; guiding the deafened child vo¬ cationally, 452; lip reading in our public schools, 454; lip reading opens a new world to, 457; lip reading shall not fail 456; needs of, 451 Harman, J. L. Whither business education? — abstract, 324 Harris, Ben E. New problems in trade and industrial education programs — abstract, 948 Hartwell, Ernest C. What a superintendent has a right to expect of an institution training teachers for the elementary schools, 735 Health education, advantages of health stand¬ ards, 554; and physical education needs in the south— abstract (Mary Channing Cole¬ man), 555; problems in school, 553 Health trends — abstract (Ethel Perrin), 552 Heffernan, Helen. Group versus grade class organizations, 491 Heyl, Helen Hay. Initiating projects in rural supervision from standpoint of state supervisor of rural schools — abstract, 508 Higbie, E. C. Post-graduation responsibilities of a teachers college — abstract, 496 High schools, fewer and larger rural, 523; progress of in 1928, 255; science in cur¬ riculum of, 561; see also. Secondary edu¬ cation Higher education, spread by junior college, 604 Hints from scientific investigations as to character training, Some (William F. Rus¬ sell), 757 History, America’s historical opportunity, 102; new interest in teaching of Hispanic American, 635; see also. Social studies. Holdford, Anne. Classroom setting for an activity curriculum; equipment, its selec¬ tion, construction, and arrangement, 434 Hollinger, John A. The use of stereographs and stereopticon slides in classroom teach¬ ing — abstract, 940 Home economics education, how can it serve democracy?, 964; new problems in home¬ making education, 947 Hoover, Herbert. Quoted, 26, 28, 120, 174 Horton, Sarah M. Ore part the principal must play in any realization of the pur¬ pose of the school — abstract, 405 Hosic, James F. A balanced program in su¬ pervision, 815; The technic of democratic leadership — abstract, 393 How an educational museum will help the principal and his school — abstract (Amelia Meissner), 403 How are we “getting” the adult immigrant? — abstract (Agnes M. Bacon), 311 How are we “holding” the adult immigrant? — — abstract (Caroline A. Whipple), 310 How are we “training” adult immigrants for intelligent citizenship? — abstract (Robert C. Deming), 313 How can home economics education in the United States serve democracy? — abstract (Adelaide S. Baylor), 964 How is education to be financed in view of the increasing cost? (George D. Strayer), 661 How much money is a board of education justified in spending on adult education? — And what types of work may a board of education justifiably undertake ?— ^ab¬ stract (George E. Smith), 289 How provide creative teachers? — abstract (A. G. Yawberg), 516 How shall a scientific and adequate budget for a teachers college be determined and secured in 1950? (Rainey T. Wells), 928 How the university may help in training the nature teacher — abstract (W. B. Baker), 573 Hubert, Maude Douglas. Lip reading opens a new world to the hard of hearing adult — abstract, 457 Hunter, Eula F. Report of middle section executive committee member (Dept, of classroom teachers), 361; Response on be¬ half of the teachers of America, 22 Hyde, Arthur M. Equal opportunity and agriculture, 167 Illiteracy, in the south, 479; of negroes in the south, 476 Immigrants, “getting” the adult, 311; “hold¬ ing” the adult immigrant in school, 310; training for citizenship, 313 Important elements in training teachers of young children, Some (M. R. Trabue), 127 Improvement of college teaching. The (Shel¬ ton Phelps), 68 1208 National Education Association Improvement of practise in the junior high schools — abstract (A. C. Eldredge), 619 Income and receipts, public schools, Alabama, 268 Individual instruction, in secondary education. < 594; individual instruction (Mary D. Pierce), 494 Industrial education, apprentice school of Lakeside Press, 959; Cass Technical High School of Detroit, 958; new features in programs of, 948; William Hood Dun- woody Industrial Institute of Minneapolis, 960 Industry and education, parallel growth of, 598-601 Influence of agricultural education upon standards and methods of general educa¬ tion — abstract (W. H. Lancelot), 955 Initiating projects in rural supervision from standpoint of state supervisor of rural schools — abstract (Helen Hay Heyl), 508 Integration of studies. See, correlation of school subjects. Inter-American Conference on Education, 973 “Interna” of European schools, 66 Interpretation, educational, and the printed word, 259; qualifications of specialist in, 261-2; social significance of, 261 Interpretative study of the personal back¬ ground of students in state teachers colleges as a basis for determining factors for in¬ stitutional life, An (M. Ledge Moffett), 379 # Interviewing, the art of, 371 Italian education, 91-93 Jeanes fund, 473 Jerome, J. T. Countywide plan of consolida¬ tion and organization of schools — abstract, 520 Jones, Lloyd L. The technic of junior busi¬ ness training — abstract, 327 Joynes, Edith B. Annual report of the presi¬ dent (Dept, of classroom teachers), 354 Judd, Charles H. Examples of scientific pro¬ cedure in supervision — abstract, 583; teach¬ ers colleges as centers of progressive edu¬ cation, 875 Junior High Schools, improvement of practise in, 619 Junior college, as means of spreading col¬ legiate education, 604; business education — abstract (Harold G. Shields), 319; cheapest form of higher education, 605; commercial education in, 319; cultural function, 607; curriculum research function of, 608; func¬ tion in improving college teaching, 608; function of in improving scholarship of private women’s colleges, 604; function in providing terminal education, 606; func¬ tions of, 603; functions of, 320; guidance function for business education, 321; municipal, 605; popularizing function of, 320; preparatory function for business edu¬ cation, 321; preparatory function of, 603 Kenestrick, H. G. An aggressive program in itinerant teacher training — abstract, 956 Keyworth, M. R. Functional organization and research, 696 Killius, James. Some selected manual arts programs — the Johnstown program — abstract, ,.966 Kindergarten-primary education. Department of, 425; in Mississippi, 125; the south’s interest in, 121 Lamkin, Uel W. Address on being intro¬ duced to the department of superintendence, 775 Lancelot, W. H. Influence of agricultural education upon standards and methods of general education — abstract, 955 Language, as an instrument of selection, 593 Larger contacts and world outlook — abstract (Harry W. Chase), 488 Latham, O. R. The training school faculty in 1950 — its type, preparation, background, relations, and duties, 841 Lawson, Willie. Convincing the public — ab¬ stract, 297 Legislation, teacher retirement, affecting cities, 226; in certain states, 222; in certain territories, 227 Legislatures, state, function of in dealing with propaganda, 212 Leisure, physical education for, 545 Library, as an integral part of elementary school (Bess Clement), 410; facilities for teacher-training institutions (George W. Rosenlof), 908; list of science books for j^outh, 561; service and adult education in the south — abstract (Charlotte Templeton), 282; traveling, 404. Lip reading, Department of, 448; in our public schools — abstract (Marion S. Clark), 454; opens a new world to the hard of hearing adult — abstract (Maude Douglas Hubert), 457; shall not fail — abstract (Alice G. Bryant), 456. See also, Hard of hearing Lord, Daisy. Teacher participation — abstract, 348 Lunak, C. J. Publicity for community serv¬ ice — abstract, 293 Lytton, Mabel C. The art of interviewing, 371 MacGregor, Effie. The elementary school looks forward, 140 MacVay, Anna P. Vergil, prophet of a new world, 78 Manual arts program in Cleveland, The — ab¬ stract (William E. Roberts), 971; in Duluth, The — abstract (George Gregory), 969; in Indianapolis— abstract (Harry E. Wood), 970; in . Johnstown, Pa., 966; in the Joliet Township High School and Junior College — abstract (Drew W. Castle), 968 McAfee, L. O. The cooperation of a teachers college with its graduates and its responsi¬ bility for their success in 1950, 882 McConnell, Francis J. Education and the higher human values, 154 McCracken, C. C. Experimentation in rural schools under university supervision, 498 McKenny, Charles. Predicted changes in faculty standards by 1950 as shown by the experience of the committee on accrediting and classification, 844 McNutt, Paul V. The relation of education to citizenship, 783 Meek, Charles S. What a superintendent has a right to expect of an institution training teachers for secondary schools, 740 Meissner, Amelia. How an educational museum will help the principal and his school — abstract, 403 Membership of the N. E. A., 1151 Milwaukee Vocational School, The — abstract (Robert L. Cooley), 973 Meredith, Albert Barrett. The relation which the administration of the teachers college shall have to the administration of other units of public education and to the whole administration of public education in 1950, 922 Miller, Henry P. The zero hour of the head of department, 616 Mims, Edwin. Contributions of a conservative province to a progressive nation — abstract, 480 Mission boards, and negro education, 107 Mississippi, kindergarten education in, 125 Mock, Lulu. Teacher participation through contacts — abstract, 346 Modern tendencies in relation to the social studies — abstract (Nancy Miles Batman), 646; in the teaching of character education. Some — abstract (N. H. Price), 413 Index 1209 Modifications in practise teaching in typical teachers college curriculums for meeting the needs, of prospective rural teachers — ab¬ stract (Etta O. Christensen), 536; of pro¬ spective rural teachers in the courses offered — abstract (Thomas J. Smart), 533 Moffett. M. Ledge. An interpretative study of the personal background of students in state teachers colleges as a basis for de¬ termining factors for institutional life, 379 Montgomery, J. H. What activities are best conducted in community centers? — abstract, 305 Morgan, Joy Elmer. Educational interpreta¬ tion and the printed word — abstract, 259 Morgan, W. P. Teacher training for a new world, 42 Morris, George. Democracy in education — abstract, 528 Morrison, J. Cayce. The research function of state education departments, 723 Morriss, Elizabeth C. Adult elementary edu¬ cation in the southern states — abstract, 279 Mossman, Lois Coffey. The elementary princi¬ pal as a supervisor — abstract, 405; Teacher particination — abstract, 343 Moton, Robert R. Progress in negro educa¬ tion in the south, 107 Mountain schools, adjustment to rural in¬ dustrial changes, 484; economic poverty of, 484 Mugan, Mary A. S. Aims and purposes of the department of supervisors and directors of instruction, 805 Muir, Sarah T. Final report of the com¬ mittee on ethics of the profession — ab¬ stract, 179 Museums, educational, 403 Music supervisors, problems of, 812 Mussolini, what he has done for modern Italy, 88 My life story (Graduate of the Rerry schools), 339 National Council of Education, The, 229; func¬ tion of, 237 Nature education in Kentucky — abstract (Emilie Yunker), 572 Nature study, How the university may help in training the teacher of, 573; in Ken¬ tucky, 572; in Parker, S. C., school district, 568; place of school garden in, 566; “Reasonover” camp for teachers of, 569; requirements of the successful teacher of, 573; special experience in teaching, 568 Necessity of coordinating educational activities with public affairs, The (Cameron Beck), 690; of the secondary school curriculum giving added emphasis to the Pacific world — abstract (Walter D. Cocking), 609 Need of improving integration of certain basic ideals and practises in American life and education, The (John W. Withers), 52 Needs of the hard of hearing, The — abstract (Hugh Grant Rowell), 451 Negro education, assisted by Rosenwald fund, 109; assistance rendered by General Edu¬ cation Board in, 108, 473; in the south — abstract (Leo M. Favrot), 472; Jeanes fund, 473; part of mission boards in, 107; progress of the south in, 107; Rosenwald fund, 474; Slater fund, 473 New aspects of farmer training — abstract (John T. Wheeler), 949 New features in trade and industrial edu¬ cation programs — abstract (B. E. Harris), 948 New interest in the teaching and study of Hispanic-American history — abstract (A. Curtis Wilgus), 635 New problems in homemaking education — ab¬ stract (Adelaide S. Baylor), 949 New technics in bookkeeping and accounting — abstract (C. M. Yoder), 328 New technics in shorthand — abstract (Addie Steinheimer), 330 New world for the hard of hearing, A (Hugh Grant Rowell), 135 Newspaper as a force in the changing world, The — abstract (Gladys Boyington), 639 Next steps in supervision — from the stand¬ point of the elementary school principal — abstract (Arthur S. Gist), 814; from the standpoint of the elementary supervisor — abstract (Julia Letheld Hahn), 813; from the standpoint of the supervisor of rural schools — abstract (I. Jewell Simpson), 814 Normal schools and teachers colleges. See Teachers colleges Norton, John K. The function of the Na¬ tional Council of Education of the N. E. A., 237 Noyer, Ralph. The best type of governing body for a teachers college in 1950: official, faculty and student, or alumni, 914 Officers, 1928-29. 1009; 1929-30, 1014 Ohio’s educational program (JohnL- Clifton), 780 One part the principal must play in any realization of the purpose of the school — abstract (Sarah M. Horton), 405 Opportunities of the elementary principal as supervisor in forwarding education today from the superintendent’s point of view, The — -abstract, 407 Organization and attendance — abstract (S. R. Elson), 295 Organization of schools. See, Administration; county administration Our chief concerns with the future school building program (Joseph Marr Gwinn), 654 Organizing a rural community school based on nine years’ experience in Buncombe county, North Carolina — abstract (Maud Worley), 298 Outline, of Parker District nature study course, 570 Par nt-Teacher Association as a medium of adult education in the rural community, The abstract (Etta J. Wilson), 299 Parker, Beryl. Unity and continuity of edu¬ cational experience— home, nursery school, kindergarten, and elementary grades, 442. Parkinson, B. L. The preparation of junior and senior high-school teachers of history and the other social studies in Alabama — ab¬ stract, 636 Parrott, Hattie S. Problems of supervisors as seen by the county supervisor of rural schools — abstract, 809 Participation of the rural school teacher in determining the rural school curriculum, The — abstract (Florence Hale), 353 Partime education, the future of, 950 Peace, America’s part in bringing about world peace, 36; teachers’ part in, 101-2; inter¬ national, and education, See, world peace and education Pensions and retirement systems, now in effect, 220 Perrin, Ethel. Health trends — abstract, 552 Personality, individual, to need better develop¬ ment of in school of tomorrow, 34; of the elementary school principal, 397 Phelps, Shelton. The improvement of college teaching, 68 Philosophy, of character education, 769; of fees, in adult education — abstract (Frederick S. DeGalan), 287 Physical education, education for leisure, 545; education of child and community through, 547; esthetic value of, 550; health trends, 552; needs in the south, 555; place of • 1210 National Education Association safety education in, 557; See also, Health education Pierce, Mary D. Individual instruction, 494 Place of safety education in the program of physical education in the schools, The — abstract (Herbert J. Stack), 557; of the Future Farmers of America in training farmers of tomorrow, The — abstract (D. M. Clements) 952; of the garden in nature education, The— abstract (David A. Ward), 566 Play, supervised, criteria of teacher guidance in creative use of play materials, 441 Post-graduation responsibilities of a teach¬ ers college — abstract (E. C. Higbie), 496 Potter, Mary Ross. What the dean lives by, 378 Powell, George W. Address of welcome on be¬ half of the board of education, 21 Practise schools, faculty of in 1950, 841; who controls them in state universities, 626 Practise teaching, modifications in teachers college curriculums for rural teachers, 536; state universities, number of hours in uni¬ versity courses, 625; where it is done in 42 universities, 625; to whom is the di¬ rector of practise teaching responsible? 626; who directs it, 626 Preble, F. Blanche. Teacher participation through determination of standards of certifi¬ cation — abstract, 348 Predicted changes in the curriculums of teach¬ ers colleges by 1950 as shown by the ex¬ periences of the committee on standards and surveys (E. S. Evenden), 867; in faculty standards by 1950 as shown by the ex¬ periences of the committee on accrediting and classification (Charles McKenny), 844 Preparation of rural teachers, The — abstract (O. G. Sanford), 506 Price, N. H. Some modern tendencies in the teaching of character education — ab¬ stract, 413 Primary education, interest of the south in, 121 Principal, elementary, as a person, The — ab¬ stract (Bessie Bacon Goodrich), 397; of elementary school as supervisor, 415, 420; opportunities of elementary school princi¬ pal as a supervisor, 407; part principal must play in realizing purpose of elemen¬ tary school, 405 Principals, high school, most important func¬ tion, 617; program for training pupils in habits of study — abstract (J. B. Edmonson), 585 Printing, apprentice school of Lakeside Press, 959 Problems in supervision — abstract (Danylu Belser), 807; in school health education — abstract (Elma Rood), 552; for study and research in adult rural education (Mar¬ guerite H. Burnett), 304; of articulation as seen by the colleges and professional schools, The (Edward C. Elliott), 683; of the music supervisor, The — abstract (W. P. Twaddell), 812; of supervisors as seen by the county supervisor of rural schools — abstract (Hattie S. Parrott), 809; of super¬ visors from the point of view of the di¬ rector of research — abstract (Harold H. Bixler), 806; of the supervisor of hand¬ writing, The — abstract (Luella Chapman), 810 Procedures for formulating an educational program, 29 Professional county superintendent, The — abstract (A. C. Burton), 513 Professional education of educators, The — abstract (Ross L. Finney), 244 Professional growth, the professional county superintendent, 513 Professional phase of the teachers college curriculum in 1950, The (Robert Clark), 861 Professional preparation of junior and senior high-school teachers of history and the other social studies in Alabama, The- - abstract (B. L. Parkinson), 636 F rofessional training, differentiated phases of for rural teachers, 530 Programs of studies, education, what pro- ( gram ?, _ 647 p Progress in negro education in the south (Robert R. Moton), 107 Project curriculums, 59 Public schools. _ See, other headings relating to. as Administration, etc. i“m j.° BogtS" 1% S°h001 P°'icies (Wil' PU(c!C ^ LuLk)“29Tni'y PyJ^’ E- R“th\ The teacher’s responsibility and opportun^y, 144. report of the com'_ mittee on retirement allowances, 217 Rahalfa nf ..Add^ess. °f welcome on be- half of the city of Atlanta, 20 -Strac ""mo' TeacherS and w°rld Rankin, Paul T. The technic of the large scale experiment — abstract, 823 Recreation, school garden as a form of, 568 Ke'?tl°” of education to citizenship. The (Paul 'V 783; which the administration ot the teachers colleges shall have to the administration of other units of public edu- cation and to the whole administration of public education in 1950, The (Albert Barrett Meredith), 922 Reports of committees. See, Committees, re¬ ports of Representative Assembly, Minutes of the Ninth, 1034 Republic of tomorrow, The (John M Robsion), 111 Research, educational, costs and expenditures, 727; function and value of a public school research bureau, 716; function of state education departments, The (J. Cayce Morrison), 723; public schools, how re¬ search bureaus may be improved, 721; in industry, 708; problems for study and re¬ search in adult rural education, 304; re¬ cency of organized, 727 ; supervision in, 726; technic of the large scale experiment, 823; types of service bureau should render, 718; value to public school administration, 728 Resolutions of the department of superin¬ tendence, 794; of the N. E. A., 1135; of the W. F. E. A., 985 Response on behalf of the teachers of Amer¬ ica (Eula F. Hunter), 22 Retardation and promotion — abstract (Fannie W. Dunn), 528 Retirement systems. See Pensions and re¬ tirement systems Roberts, William E. The manual arts pro¬ gram in Cleveland — abstract, 971 Robsion, John M. The republic of tomorrow, 111 Rogers, James E. Education for leisure — abstract, 545 Rood, Elma. Problems in school health edu¬ cation — abstract, 553 Rosenlof, George W. Library facilities for teacher-training institutions, 908 Rosenwald fund, 474; and negro education, 109 Rowell, Hugh Grant. A new world for the hard of hearing, 135; the needs of the hard of hearing, 451 Royce, Knibloe P. Finding the hard of hear¬ ing child — abstract, 459 1211 Index Kugg, L. S. Adventurous America — abstract, 419 Rural education, adjustment to industrial changes with reference to mountain areas, 484; adjustment of to needs of farmer. 481; Berry Schools, 337; Department of, 463; financial support of, 465; group versus grade class organization, 491; problems lor study and research in adult, 304 Rural schools, a county survey of, 525; ad¬ ministration of activities in, 309; advantages of consolidation, 528; county-wide plan of supervision for, 517; differentiation in the preparation of teachers for, 530; experimen¬ tation in university supervision of, 498; fewer and larger rural high schools, 523; four imperative reforms for, 752; future need in preparation of teachers for, 539; how provide creative teachers for, 516; individual instruction in, 494; initiating projects in supervision of from standpoint of state supervisor, 508; lack of child accounting in, 492; modification of teachers college curriculum for teachers of, 533; modification in practise teaching for teachers of, 536; need for improved supervision, 503; participation of teachers of in de¬ termining curriculum, 353; preparation of teachers for, 506; retardation and promo¬ tion in, 528; suggestions for improving administration and support of, 501; super¬ vision of, 468; teacher training, 746; teacher training for, 502 Russell, William F. School administration and conflicting American ideals, _ 62; Some hints from scientific investigations as to character training, 757 Ryan, W. Carson, Jr. Selection as a function of American secondary education — abstract, 592; The Geneva conference of the World Federation of Education Associations, 977 Safety education, place of in physical educa¬ tion program, 557 Samuelson, Estelle E. Guiding the deafened child vocationally — abstract, 452 Sanford, O. G. The preparation of rural teachers — abstract, 506 School administration and conflicting American ideals (William F. Russell), 62 School health and physical education, Depart¬ ment of, 543 Science, books on for youth, 561; how the university may help in training the _ nature teacher, 573; in high-school curriculum, 561; nature education in Kentucky, 572; place of garden in nature education, 566; special experience in teaching nature, 568; what teachers should know, 565 Science instruction, Department of, 559 Scott, Charles E. Report of the secretary (Dept, of classroom teachers), 358 Secondary school principals, Department of, 579 . , Secondary education, examples of scientific supervision in, 583; individualizing, 594; junior college as terminus of, 606; necessity of curriculum of giving added emphasis to Pacific world, 609; principal’s program for training pupils in habits of study, 585; selection as a function of, 592, 596; some facts and fancies in, 612; unsatisfactory to college officials, 30; value compared with elementary education, 612 Secretary in modern business, The (Frank PI. Hamack), 322 Selection, as a function of American secondary education — abstract (George S. Counts), 586; — abstract (W. Carson Ryan), 592; language as an instrument of, 593; of teachers, 622 Selected manual arts programs, Some — the J?.lY?s*°wn program — abstract (James , Kilhus), 966 Selke, George A. Education as an invest¬ ment, 504 Seven cardinal principles, high school teachers not obtaining results in harmony with, 614 Seventeen departments of the Association, The, 275 Shields, Harold G. Junior business college education — abstract, 319 Simpson, I. Jewell. Next steps in supervision — from the standpoint of the supervisor of rural schools — abstract, 814 Slater fund, 473 Smart, Thomas J. Modifications in typical teachers college curriculums for meeting the needs of prospective rural teachers in the courses offered— abstract, 533 Smith, George E. How much money is a board of education justified in spending on adult education? — And what types of work may a board of education justifiably undertake? — abstract, 289 Smith, Henry Lester. Education for world friendship and understanding — abstract, 231 Smith, R. Ross. Report of the vice-president (Dept, of classroom teachers), 357 Social sciences. America’s historical oppor¬ tunity, 102; citizenship training through early European history, 640; in the San Antonio junior high schools — abstract (C. C. Ball), 638; modern tendencies in relation to, 636; new interest in teaching Hispanic American history, 635; preparation of teachers for in Alabama, 636 Social studies, Department of, 633; See, Social sciences South, the, contributions of to a progressive nation, 480; contribution of to rural edu¬ cation, 477; health needs in, 555; interest of in kindergarten-primary education (Lucy Gage), 121; negro education in, 472; what it must do to take a larger place in the world, 488 Special experience in teaching nature — abstract (Thomas I. Dowling), 568 Srygley, H. F. An activity curriculum at work, 428 Stack, Herbert J. Place of safety education in the program of physical education in the schools — abstract, 557 Standards for accrediting teachers colleges, 829; in 1950 for selection and graduation of students in the teachers colleges and for success and professional growth of the graduates who are to continue teaching (John L. Dunkle), 892 State department of education, ways to help in propaganda problem, 212 State education program, A (John W. Aber¬ crombie), 264 State program in vocational education, A — abstract (T. E. Browne), 953 State, the, and education, progress of in 1928, 256 Steinheimer, Addie. New technics in short¬ hand — abstract, 330 Stewart, W. F. A view of the program of vocational education in agriculture — ab¬ stract, 965 Strayer, George D. How is education to be financed in view of the increasing cost? 661 Student and alumni participation in the organization and administration of teachers colleges in 1950 (Eugene Fair), 898 Study, Michigan study helps quoted from, 587; of administrative procedures for im¬ proving college teaching, 68; principal’s program for training pupils in habits of, 585 Subjectmatter, demand for new, 59 1212 National Education Association Suggestions for improving rural school ad¬ ministration and support, Some (William John Cooper), 501 Superintendence, Department of, 643 Supervision, a balanced program in, 815; aims of department of supervisors and directors of instruction, 805; countywide plan of for rural schools, 517; examples of scientific procedure in in secondary schools, 583; in agricultural education as compared to the supervision in general education, The — abstract (H. C. Fetterolf), 954; in Mary¬ land, Alabama, and North Carolina, 470; in research, 726; initiating projects in rural supervision from standpoint of state super¬ visor, 508; need for improvement in rural schools, 503; next steps in from standpoint — of elementary principal, 814; of ele¬ mentary supervisor, 813; of rural school supervisor, 814; of rural elementary schools in the southern states, The — abstract (Annie M. Cherry), 468; of rural schools in the south, 469; problems in, 807; strategic position for of head of depart¬ ment, 618; type, kind, and amount ele¬ mentary school principal should be able to give, 400; teachers’ difficulties as a basis for, 821; technic of the large scale experi¬ ment, 823; university experimentation in rural schools, 498 Supervisors, elementary school principal as, 415, 420; problems of from point of view of research director, 806; problems of music, 812; problems of in handwriting, 810; op¬ portunities of elementary school principal as supervisor, 407; problems of as seen by the county supervisor of schools, 809 Supervisors and directors of instruction, De¬ partment of, 803 Support of community activities — abstract (Katherine Dozier), 307 Support of education, suggestions for im¬ proving support of rural schools, 501; local support insufficient, 663; see also, Equaliza¬ tion, educational; finance Sutton, Willis A. Education of the child and community through health education — abstract, 547 ; The opportunities of the ele¬ mentary principal as supervisor in forward¬ ing education today from the superintend¬ ent’s point of view — abstract, 407 Taft, Lorado. Beauty in American life, 159 Taxation for education, with reference to rural areas, 467. See also, Income and re¬ ceipts Teacher participation — abstract (Daisy Lord), 348; — abtract (Lois Coffey Mossman), 343; in administration — abstract (G e r trude Burke), 350; in curriculum construction- abstract (Prudence Cutright), 824; in legislative problems — abstract (John W. Vickerman), 351; through determination of standards of certification — abstract (F. Blanche Preble), 348; through civic con¬ tacts — abstract (Lulu Mock), 346; through curriculum revision — abstract (Georgia W. Aiken), 345; through social contacts — ab¬ stract (Nettie Rankin Bolland), 352 Teacher training, of junior and senior high school teachers of social studies in Ala¬ bama, 636; as related to classroom pro¬ cedure (Gladstone H. Yeuell), 624; at¬ tendance at college does not qualify for teaching, 615; by arts colleges, 54; cur- riculums, 48; differentiation in the prepa¬ ration of rural teachers, 530; faculties, 45; standards for faculty, 45 ; federal ap¬ propriation for investigation of, 51; for a new world (W. P. Morgan), 42; for rural schools, 502; future need of preparation of rural teachers, 539; how provide creative teachers, 516; how provide in service training, 621; how the university may help in training the nature teacher, 573; in service, 753; library facilities for, 44; modifications in practise teaching for rural teachers, 536; modification of cur- riculums for rural teachers, 533; post¬ graduation responsibilities of the teachers college — a questionnaire study of what is being done, 496; preparation of rural teach¬ ers, 506; program in itinerant, 956; stu¬ dent selection for, 49; the growth of, 42; the physical plant, 43 ; what a superin¬ tendent expects of institutions training ele¬ mentary school teachers, 735; what a super¬ intendent expects of institutions training teachers for secondary schools, 740; what a teacher may expect from school engaging his services, 753; what science teachers should know, 565; what the rural school expects of institutions training its teachers, 746 Teachers and world peace — abstract (Jean¬ nette Rankin), 340; difficulties as a basis for supervision — abstract (Douglas Waples), 821; experiences necessary for complete examination of question of articulation, 677; growth through creative activity — ab¬ stract (Orville G. Brim), 511; how pro¬ vide creative, 516; suggested plan for se¬ curing comprehensive list of teacher traits, 50; selection, 50; responsibility and oppor¬ tunity, The (E. Ruth Pyrtle), 144; what science teachers should know, 565 Teachers, selection and appointment, changing conditions of teacher employment, 850 Teachers colleges, Department of, 827; and the new world, 855; as centers of pro¬ gressive education (Charles H. Judd), 875; changes in faculty standards by 1950, 844; cooperation with graduates and responsi¬ bility for their success, 882; efforts to im¬ prove teaching in, 71; governing body of in 1950, 914; how secure a budget for in 1950, 928; library facilities for, 908; pre¬ dicted changes in curriculum of by 1950, 867 ; professional phase of curriculum in 1950, 861; relation of administration of to other units of education in 1950, 922; scope, purpose, and administration of athletics and forensics in 1950, 887; stand¬ ards in 1950 for selection and graduation of students of, 892; standards for ac¬ crediting, 829; student and almuni par¬ ticipation in organization of in 1950, 898; type, preparation, and background in 1950, 838; whither in the academic world?, 849 Teaching, improvement of college, 68; influ¬ ence of agricultural education on methods of general, 955; of character education, 413; of geography for a new world, 407 Technic, in bookkeeping and accounting, 328; in shorthand, 330; of democratic leadership, The — abstract (James F. Hosic), 393; of improving college teaching, see College teaching; of junior business training, The — abstract (Lloyd L. Jones), 327; of the large scale experiment, The — abstract (Paul T. Rankin), 823 Templeton, Charlotte. Library service and adult education in the south-abstract, 282 Terminal education, function of junior college to provide, 606-7 Theisen, W. W. The function and value of a public school research bureau, 716 Thomas, Augustus O. The challenge, 96 Threlkeld, A. L. Report of committee on appointment of delegates and kindred questions, 195 Thrift education, school garden as an aid to, 568 Index 1213 Tidwell, R. E. Adult secondary education in the southern states — abstract, 281; The financial support of public education, with special reference to rural areas — abstract, 465 Tigert, John J. Character education from the standpoint of the philosophy of educa¬ tion, 769; Educational progress in 1928 — abstract, 254 Tomorrow, schools of, 36 Trabue, M. R. Some facts and fancies in secondary education, 612; Some important elements in training teachers of young chil¬ dren, 127; University research and its value to public school administration, 728 Training for citizenship through early Euro¬ pean history — abstract (Florence *Bernd), 640 Training school faculty in 1950 — its type, preparation, background, relations, 'and duties, the (O. R, Latham), 841 Training schools. See , Practise schools Twaddell, W. P. The problems of the music supervisor — abtract, 812 Type, the kind, the amount of supervision which elementary principals should know and be able to give, The (W. H. Burton), . 4°0 Unity and continuity of education experi¬ ence — home, nursery school, kindergarten, and elementary grades (Beryl Parker), 442 University research and its value to public school administration (M. R. Trabue), 728 Use of stereographs and stereopticon slides in classroom teaching, The — abstract (John A. Hollinger), 940 Value of an education, 504 Vergil, prophet of a new world (Anna P. MacVay), 78 Vickerman, John W. Teacher participation in legislative problems — abstract, 351 View of the program of vocational education in agriculture, A — abstract (W. F. Stewart), 965 Visual communication — abstract (B. A. Aughinbaugh), 939 Visual instruction, Department of, 937 Visual education, use of stereopticon slides in classroom teaching, 940; visual com¬ munication, 939 Vocational education, Department of, 945; ap¬ prentice school of Lakeside Press, 959; a state program in, 953; a view of program of in agriculture, 965; Cass Technical High School of Detroit, 958; Girls’ Trades and Technical High School of Milwaukee, 961 ; guiding the deafened child voca¬ tionally, 452; how can home economics serve democracy?, 964; influence of agri¬ culture education upon standards and methods of general education, 955; in North Carolina, 953; itinerant teacher training in vocational agriculture, 956; Milwaukee Vocational School, 963; new aspects of farmer training, 949; new fea¬ tures in trade and industrial education pro¬ grams, 948; new problems in homemaking education, 947; of the future, 77-78; place of Future Farmers of America in training farmers of tomorrow, 952; supervision in agricultural education as compared to super¬ vision in other subjects, 954; the future of partime education, 950; the Johnstown, Pa., program in manual arts, 966. See also. Manual arts, industrial education Waples, Douglas. Teachers’ difficulties as a basis for supervision — abstract, 821 Ward, David A. The place of the garden in nature education, 566 ^ Watkins, Ralph K. What should teachers know in order to teach science in a modern democracy? — abstract, 565 Webb, Hanor A. Books that meet instincts, 561 Weet, Herbert S. The work of the articula¬ tion commission, 667 Wells, Rainey T. How shall a scientific and adequate budget for a teachers college be determined and secured in 1950?. 928 What activities are best conducted in com¬ munity centers? — abstract (J. H. Mont¬ gomery), 305 What a superintendent has a right to expect of an institution training teachers for the elementary schools (Ernest C. Hartwell), 735 What a superintendent has a right to expect of an institution training teachers for sec¬ ondary schools (Charles S. Meek), 740 What a teacher should expect from the school engaging his services (Frank Pierrepont Graves), 753 What Mussolini has done for modern Italy (Maria Castellani), 88 Wrhat should teachers know in order to teach science in a modern democracy? — abstract (Ralph K. Watkins), 565 What the dean lives by (Mary Ross Pdtter), 378 What the rural school has a right to expect of an institution training teachers for rural schools (Julian E. Butterworth), 746 Wheeler, John T. New aspects of farmer training — abstract, 949 Whipple, Caroline A. How are we “holding” the adult immigrant? — abstract, 310 Whither business education? — abstract (J. L. Harman), 324 Whither the teachers colleges in the academic world? (M. E. Haggerty), 849 Who shall say what the nation may expect of American schools (William John Cooper), 250 Wilgus, A. Curtis. New interest in the teach¬ ing and study of Hispanic American his¬ tory — abstract, 635 W’illiam Hood Dunwoody Industrial Institute of Minneapolis, The — abstract (R. T. Craigo), 960 Williams, Chari Ormond. The contribution of the south to rural education — abstract, 477 Wilson, Etta J. The Parent-Teacher Asso¬ ciation as a medium of adult education in the rural community — abstract, 299 Withers. John W. The need of improved in¬ tegration of certain basic ideals and prac¬ tises in American life and education, 52 Wofford, Kate. The county survey, 525 Wood, Harry E. Manual arts in Minneap¬ olis — abstract, 970 Work of the articulation commission, The (Herbert S. Weet), 667 World Federation of Education Associations, 96-102; 231; 975; section meetings, 979; resolutions of, 985 World peace and education, 340 Worley, Maud. Organizing a rural com¬ munity school based on nine years’ experi¬ ence in Buncombe county, North Caro¬ lina — abstract, 298 Wright, J. C. Future vocational education for preparing children for the duties and obligations of the world ahead of them, 77 Yawberg, A. G. How provide creative teach¬ ers? — abstract, 516 Yeuell, Gladstone H. Teacher training as related to classroom procedure, 624 Yoder, C. M. New technics in bookkeeping and accounting — abstract, 328 Yunker, Emilie. Nature education in Ken¬ tucky — abstract, 572 Zero hour of the head of department. The (Henry P. Miller), 616 Do You Know hat procedure the United States Commissioner of Educa¬ tion suggests for making the schools a more vital force ? What the last year’s President of the Department of Teachers Colleges thinks are the chief problems in teacher training? What Josephus Daniels considers the teachers’ part in bringing about world peace ? What studies are being made looking toward the improvement of college teaching? What significant and pioneering work is being done by the World Federation of Education Associations? What is being done in negro education in the South? What is being done in kindergarten-primary education in the South? What the two candidates for the Presidency of the National Edu¬ cation Association for 1929-30, both of whom are elementary school principals, say about the elementary school? What the N. E. A. Committee on Propaganda reported at Atlanta concerning the use of outside materials in the schools? That the N. E. A. has adopted the Code of Ethics of the Profes¬ sion as reported at the Atlanta meeting? What progress is being made in teacher retirement legislation throughout the country as reported by the Committee on Retire¬ ment ? These are a few of the questions that are answered au¬ thoritatively in this Volume of Proceedings. Every progres¬ sive, professionally minded teacher in the United States will wish to know the answers to them. [1214] Suggestions For Using This Book For Individual and Group Study First, note how the book is planned as explained on page five. Second, every person engaged in the field of education will be interested in the addresses before the general ssesions, pp. 17 to 164. Third, for those who wish to study more thoroughly in their own par¬ ticular field of work, the sections devoted to the seventeen departments of the Association are rich in practical, uptodate information from the leaders in their respective fields of endeavor. Fourth, reference to earlier volumes of Proceedings as printed in the his¬ torical note, which appears at the beginning of each section, will be valu¬ able to the research worker. Presidents and Deans of teachers colleges — Will wish to discuss this book in faculty meetings. Make assignments from it for class reports. If a member of the faculty has an address in the volume, that will add interest. Urge departments of the college to use especially the departmental ma¬ terial in which they are interested. There should be copies not only in the library but in many of the class¬ rooms. Superintendents and Principals — Use this book in your faculty meetings as a basis for discussion of the general trends of education as set forth in the general session addresses. Appoint a committee from the elementary, the junior, and the senior high schools to make a survey of the volume to determine which sections and addresses should be studied in the faculty meetings of these groups. Have enough copies available so that teachers of the various departments have easy access to one in making use of the departmental material. Normal training classes will find excellent material in the section devoted to the Department of Kindergarten-Primary Education. Let this book be the professional guide for your teachers. Encourage them to use it. If they do not get it through membership of their own, order a few extra copies through the book fund. The dividends will be large. [1215] v * . i" ■ 1 : . -• - * b